AN EXAMINATION OF INTERNET SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING

IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty

of

California State University, Stanislaus

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

of Doctor of Education

By

Adrenna B. Alkhas

May 2011

CERTIFICATION OF APPROVAL

AN EXAMINATION OF INTERNET SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING

IN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS

by

Adrenna B. Alkhas

__________________________________________ ________________________

Dr. Jim Riggs Date

Professor of Advanced Studies in Education

__________________________________________ ________________________

Dr. Dennis Sayers Date

Professor of Advanced Studies in Education

__________________________________________ ________________________

Dr. Peter DeCaro Date

Professor of Communications Studies

Signed Certification of Approval

Page is On File with the University

Library.

© 2011

Adrenna B. Alkhas

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

iv

DEDICATION

This is dedicated to my children, Izabelle and Izaiah, who have endured

countless days of mom being away at the library or trying to be quiet in order for me

to finish this dissertation. Izaiah was with me for nine months, attending classes,

listening to lectures, and helping me with homework while pregnant with him. This

is also dedicated to my husband for his patience. I would not have been able to finish

without my husband, Peter‘s, support and encouragement. This is also dedicated to

my parents, who have shown me courage and have always taught me to never give

up. Their love and support growing up has made me who I am. To my brothers,

Ammo and Adam, who are my endless joy and love. To my one and only sister,

Mariam, without her I don‘t know what life would be like.

v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to acknowledge Dr. Riggs for his countless hours and dedication

in helping me shape my dissertation. His patience and willingness to help will never

be forgotten. I would also like to acknowledge my dissertation committee for their

support. Dr. DeCaro, who has years of marketing experience, shed a light to this

dissertation. Dr. Sayers, thank you for your qualitative expertise in this research

study. I would also like to acknowledge my colleagues in this program; we have all

endured three years of countless essay writings, group projects, homework, but most

of all we endured it together. I will never forget get the laughter, the babies born in

our cohort, the agony of getting through our dissertation, and hours of talking about

SPSS. Thank you to all for making this so special for me!

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE

Dedication ............................................................................................................ iv

Acknowledgments................................................................................................ v

List of Tables ....................................................................................................... ix

List of Figures ...................................................................................................... x

Abstract ................................................................................................................ xi

CHAPTER

I. Introduction .......................................................................................... 1

Social Media Sites........................................................................ 6

Facebook .......................................................................... 6 Twitter .............................................................................. 6 MySpace .......................................................................... 7

Flickr ................................................................................ 8 YouTube .......................................................................... 8

Purpose of the Study .................................................................... 9

Theoretical Framework ................................................................ 11

Operational Definitions ................................................................ 15 Assumptions ................................................................................. 17

Limitations ................................................................................... 18 Delimitations ................................................................................ 19 The Significance of the Study ...................................................... 19

Summary ...................................................................................... 21

II. Review of Literature............................................................................ 23

Social Media ................................................................................ 24

Agenda Setting Theory ................................................................ 27 Chaos Theory ............................................................................... 29

Paradigm Shift ............................................................................. 30 Mass Media Impact and Influence ............................................... 31 Technology .................................................................................. 32 Generational Characteristics of Higher Education Students ........ 34 Integrated Marketing Communications Departments in

Higher Education ......................................................................... 35

vii

Branding ....................................................................................... 36 Methodology ................................................................................ 38 Summary ...................................................................................... 39

III. Methodology ...................................................................................... 41

Methodological Overview ........................................................... 41 Phase 1 ............................................................................. 42 Phase 2 ............................................................................. 43 Phase 3 ............................................................................. 44

Guiding Framework ..................................................................... 45

Agenda-setting theory ...................................................... 46

Site and Participant Selection ...................................................... 46

Data Sources and Collection ........................................................ 47 Data Analysis ............................................................................... 48

Quantitative method ......................................................... 48

Qualitative method ........................................................... 48 Ethical Obligation ........................................................................ 50

Trustworthiness ............................................................................ 51 Summary ...................................................................................... 52

IV. Results................................................................................................ 54

Selection of Participants .............................................................. 55

Descriptive Characteristics .......................................................... 57 Data Collection ............................................................................ 57

Interviews ......................................................................... 58 Surveys ............................................................................. 60

Content data collection .................................................... 61 Demographics .............................................................................. 62

Interviews ......................................................................... 62 Survey respondents .......................................................... 63

Results and Findings .................................................................... 64 Interviews ......................................................................... 64 Interrater reliability .......................................................... 64

Theme 1: Informative ...................................................... 66

Theme 2: Engaging .......................................................... 66

Theme 3: Budget .............................................................. 67 Theme 4: Strategies.......................................................... 68 Theme 5: Policy and guidelines ....................................... 69 Survey data....................................................................... 70 Document analysis ........................................................... 80

viii

Intended audience for the guidelines and organization

of guidelines ..................................................................... 80 Principles and processes for the use of social media. ...... 82 Evidence of quality .......................................................... 86

Summary ...................................................................................... 88

V. Results and Recommendations ........................................................... 91

Summary and Discussion of Findings ......................................... 92 Interpretations of the Findings ..................................................... 102

Conclusions .................................................................................. 104

Limitations of the Study............................................................... 105

Recommendations for Policy and Practice .................................. 105

Recommendations for Future Studies .......................................... 112 Summary ...................................................................................... 113

References ............................................................................................................ 115

APPENDIX .......................................................................................................... 125

A. Draft Interview Questions ................................................................... 126

B. Pilot Test Instrument for the Interview Questions .............................. 127

C. Survey Draft Questions ....................................................................... 129

D. Pilot Test Instrument for the Survey Questions .................................. 130

E. Request Letter for Interviews and Survey Participant Consent

Form ......................................................................................................... 132

F. Survey Questions Administered to the Csu Campuses........................ 134

ix

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE PAGE

1. Agenda Setting For Public Relations Profession ..................................... 13

2. Survey Respondent Demographics .......................................................... 63

3. Interview Themes..................................................................................... 65

4. Length of Time CSU Campuses Have Been Using Social Media ........... 71

5. Social Media Sites Used at the CSU Campuses ...................................... 72

6. Social Media as a Marketing Tool ........................................................... 74

7. Social Media‘s Frequent Use in Higher Education .................................. 75

8. Social Media Satisfaction at each CSU Campus ..................................... 76

9. Frequency of Use of Social Media by CSU Campuses ........................... 77

10. Campus Goals for Social Media .............................................................. 78

11. Barriers of Adopting Social Media Within the IMC Department............ 79

12. Does the IMC Have Social Media Guidelines for the Institution? .......... 79

13. Agenda Setting for the Public Relations Profession ................................ 102

x

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE

1. Theoretical framework: Internet social media network functions of

uses by public relations personnel in higher education institutions. ........ 15

2. Summary of mixed methods sequential study. ........................................ 43

3. Internet social media network purpose of use for higher education

institutions. ............................................................................................... 45

4. Data collection procedure. ....................................................................... 46

5. Internet social media network functions of uses by public-relations

personnel in higher education institutions. .............................................. 56

6. Example illustration of chaos theory through butterfly effect at a

higher education institution...................................................................... 95

7. Agenda setting in the past and present: Illustration of who is

controlling media messages. .................................................................... 98

8. Model of return on investment through social media. ............................. 110

9. Fresno State‘s Facebook page. ................................................................. 111

10. Example of listening and participating on Facebook from CSU

Fresno‘s IMC department. ....................................................................... 111

xi

ABSTRACT

This study observes the social media network, a new phenomenon of marketing, as it

transcends into a new tool for integrated marketing communications personnel and a

way to reach target audiences (alumni, parents, recruiting purposes, current students,

internal administration, faculty, and the community). The main purpose of this study

was to explore how integrated marketing communications professionals at higher

education institutions are using social media as a marketing, communications, and

branding tool. The research design for this study was a three-part mixed methods

design, an approach increasingly used in social science research. This study first

examined the use of social media by using qualitative research methods. Interviews

were conducted with representatives from three different institutions of higher

education and their integrated marketing communications professional. The second

part of the study used qualitative methods, including an examination of how

integrated marketing communications (IMC) professionals at all of the California

State University campuses use social media through administered surveys. The third

part of the study examined the content analysis and any guidelines outlined by the

integrated marketing communications professionals about social media. By

combining interviews and surveys, this study obtained critical data that may

dramatically influence the formation of uniform standards and guidelines for higher

institutions‘ use of social media. The data results also indicated the need for social

media marketing at higher education marketing departments.

1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

With higher education becoming a competitive industry, universities are

challenged with recruiting the best and brightest students, faculty, and administrators.

A college or university must always build and maintain a public presence in order

attract and maintain students at the institution. In order to help in the institutions

image and to maintain a strong partnership with the community, it is vital that the

university create a powerful and consistent identity that sets it apart from its

competitors (University of Tennessee, 2008).

Higher education institutions are having to migrate to Web 2.0, characterized

by mobile computing devices, two-way communication, information sharing,

collaboration and interoperability. Social networking sites such as MySpace,

Facebook and Twitter are getting a closer look by educators curious to see whether

and where they fit into the instructional landscape (Bradley, 2009). Studies have also

shown, according to Bradley (2009), that the more students are engaged in their

college experience, the more apt they are to succeed academically. Social networking

sites can be a tool in boosting engagement. Bradley (2009) states that many faculty

and administrators have become reluctant to use these types of social media networks

within their institutional settings or classroom because they are afraid of the

repercussions. The generational gap has a huge effect on why higher education

2

institutions are wary of this technology. Most faculty or administrators are between

40-60 years of age and don‘t understand social media (Bradley, 2009).

That is not to say that colleges have turned their back on social networking. Some

faculty use Facebook groups to foster peer-to-peer learning and to conduct group

projects. Blackboard, which is in use at hundreds of colleges around the country,

plans to soon add a Twitter-like messaging tool to its course management system

(Bradley, 2009). During the last decade, social and digital media have moved from

being purely the domain of tech-savvy types into a mainstream phenomenon. Twitter

was mentioned on television nearly 20,000 times in 2009, according to

SnapStream.com. As a result, companies are investing in it and – slowly – seeing

results (Oshiro, 2010).

Moreover, brand marketing in higher education has also taken a new form

with social media becoming part of the culture and as a means of connecting or

networking with people around the world. Colleges and universities are embracing

social media networks and realizing the value and power for using them as a

component of marketing and branding themselves with the outside world (Reuben,

2008). "College access marketing" efforts aimed at increasing attendance and success

have been slow to incorporate new techniques such as buzz marketing, viral

marketing, product seeding and guerrilla marketing. Yet, for a "connected

generation" of potential college students, these kinds of strategies could be crucial in

changing behaviors (Gastwirth, 2007).

3

Many students prefer to read blogs when choosing what college they will

attend. In 2007, more than 60 percent of high school seniors said they preferred

reading student and faculty blogs to other marketing information, according to the

National Research Center for College and University Admission (Gastwirth, 2007).

More than 80 percent of high school students indicated that they would consider

reading or responding to an instant message from a college representative.

Meanwhile, 57 percent of online teens have used the Internet to access information

about postsecondary education. While individual colleges and universities have

discovered that personalized web recruiting, interactive websites, and chat sessions

can contribute to growth in applications, improved quality of applicants and reduced

recruitment-related costs, organizations focused more broadly on increasing college

access and success seem to be missing this opportunity (Gastwirth, 2007).

It is vital that higher education institutions use social media marketing for

recruiting purposes as well as staying connected with current students and still

maintain integrating their traditional marketing efforts through different media

outlets. In order to have a strategic marketing plan for social media usage at a higher

education institution, it is important to understand the definition of social media and

the purpose of use for marketing professionals in higher education. For the purposes

of this study, the researcher will refer to any marketing, public relations, or

communications department as Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC)

departments or professionals. Social media comprises of activities that involve

socializing and networking online through words, pictures, and videos. Social media

4

is redefining how many people can relate to each other and how people can relate to

the organizations that serve their communities. ―It is about dialog – two way

discussions bringing people together to discover and share information‖ (Solis, 2008

p. 4). Social media needs to be a trusted forum for customers to share comments and

have discussions; it is not just about advertising.

Nonetheless, during these trying times with higher education institutions being

challenged with budget cuts, it becomes crucial that the colleges and universities have

the same consistent messaging that goes out to the public in order to maintain that

brand image, which can also be managed through social media as a marketing tool.

Branding a university is not just about logos, taglines, or a glossy brochure, but it

extends to the employees, students, the media and the general public. In order to

confirm the credibility of the university, branding is defined as a sum total of

everything that a university has to offer over time. It is also the space the university

occupies in the hearts and minds of those who matter the most (Solis, 2008). While it

cannot be controlled, the brand can be guided and shaped.

In order to thrive in today‘s market, many institutions are having to set

themselves apart from their competitors. Yet, as good as colleges and universities

have become at building brands, the game is shifting to social media, where there is

perpetual motion of technology and little control of the message that needs to be

conveyed (Lipka, 2009). Marketing research completed at the University of

Massachusetts at Dartmouth showed that as of fall 2008, 61 percent of admissions

offices at universities were using social networking sites and 41 percent had blogs, up

5

from 29 percent and 33 percent from 2007 (Lipka, 2009 a). Therefore, online social

media marketing is another form of branding that will help act as a guidepost for

business decisions and growth opportunities for fundraising efforts and recruitment of

students. A brand will capture the essence of the university so it can clearly

communicate with the people who really matter, such as alumni and donors since,

these are part of the community who donates much of the funding for the school.

Brand equity can become a significant contributor to market capitalization over time.

Tamar Weinberg described social media marketing (SMM) in her book, The

New Community Rules: Marketing on the Social Web. Weinberg (2009) stated:

Social media marketing is a process that empowers individuals to promote

their websites, products, or services through online social channels and to

communicate with and tap into a much larger community that may not have

been available via traditional advertising channels. (p. 3)

She also noted that social media marketing focuses on the concept of collective rather

than the individual (p. 3). The idea is to listen to multiple communities online via

social media and to interpret what they are saying about a specific product, service, or

brand. Social media marketing is a way of making a connection between a business or

organization and its audience. Five main goals of social media marketing are to (a)

increase traffic to the brand's website, (b) drive relevant links to the website, which

could be by partnering with another businesses website, (c) raise the number of

people who follow the brand, (d) expand brand awareness to other audiences and (e)

drive and trigger conversations (Weinberg. 2009).

There are many types of social media outlets. One type of social medium is

social networking where individuals are in communities that share ideas, interests, or

6

are looking to meet people with similar ideas and interests (Reuben, 2008). Social

networks such as Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, Flickr, and YouTube have been

popular sites for higher education marketing tools. According to an article in the

Community College Week called Whither Twitter, 75 percent of 18-24 year old

Americans have a profile on social media networking websites, which is the highest

for all demographics examined (Bradley, 2009). Fifty seven percent of 25-34 year

old adults had Twitter; and 30 percent for 35-44 year old adults.

Social Media Sites

Facebook. With over 500 million users, Facebook is a social utility that

connects people with friends, business partners, and the rest of the world (Reuben,

2008). Facebook is a social utility that connects people with family, friends,

coworkers, classmates, and other people they find interesting. It builds communities

from individuals, and gives its users a place to share information, ideas, and concerns.

Facebook is made up of six primary components: personal profiles, status updates,

networks, groups, applications, and fan pages. When Facebook launched the fan

pages concept in November 2007, many universities jumped at the opportunity to

create an official Facebook presence for their university. As of January 2008 there

were 420 colleges and universities using Facebook as a marketing tool (Cheater,

2008).

Twitter. According to Twitter.com, Twitter started as a side project in March

2006 and has now grown into a real-time short messaging service that works over

multiple networks and devices. Twitter is a cross between instant messaging and

7

blogging that allows users to send short (140 character) updates (Reuben, 2008).

Users can also follow the updates of friends they ―follow,‖ send them direct

messages, reply publicly to friends, or just post questions or comments as their

current status (Consortium 2007).

Twitter is a free social networking and microblogging service that enables

users to stay connected to one another in real time. Users can send and read other

users‘ updates known as ―tweets.‖ Tweets are text-based posts of up to 140 characters

in length, which are displayed on the user‘s profile page and delivered to other users

who have subscribed to them, known as ―followers.‖ The service is free to use over

the Internet, and users can stay connected to one another in real time (Bradley, 2009).

Since its creation in 2006, Twitter has gained popularity rapidly worldwide,

and currently is estimated to have more than 19 million users, making it the Internet‘s

second- largest social networking site, behind only Facebook (Bradley, 2009).

Businesses use Twitter to inform the public about their activities. Large corporations

use Twitter to provide updates, talk about new product launches, and relay

information about service problems (Bradley, 2009).

MySpace. MySpace empowers its global community to experience the

Internet through a social lens by integrating personal profiles, photos, videos, mobile,

messaging, games, and the world‘s largest music community, according to

MySpace.com. MySpace lets you meet your friends‘ friends, share photos, journals

and interests. It launched in January 2004 and has more than 100 million active

members on a monthly basis, with nearly 65 million United States users

8

(MySpace.com, 2009). Yet, since the launch of Facebook, MySpace‘s image has

declined because of privacy issues. The numbers also support the attractiveness; 85%

of students at 4-year universities have Facebook profiles and Facebook user

demographics in areas like higher education and discretionary income are typically

higher than those of MySpace (Qualman, 2007).

Flickr. Is an online photo site where users upload photos that can be

organized in sets and collections. Public photos may be viewed and commented on by

others (Reuben, 2008). Universities have found Flickr to be a great tool to easily

share photos with students, alumni, faculty and staff.

YouTube. Much like Flickr, YouTube organizes images and is the leader in

online video, and the premier destination to watch and share original videos

worldwide through the Web. It allows people to easily upload and share video clips

across the Internet through Web sites, mobile devices, blogs, and e-mail.

Higher education institutions have been making videos for more than 20 years

to aid in recruitment efforts (Reuben, 2008). YouTube has given institutions a

platform to easily distribute these videos to a much wider audience, and without the

costs of burning to CDs or DVDs and postage to mail to a narrow audience. (Reuben,

2008).

Moreover, the shift in controlled marketing to more of a dialogue,

multidirectional, and not as controlled, has created a revolutionary change in the way

IMC administrators at higher education institutions market their schools. Little is

known on the effects social media has on the institutions brand or image, and not

9

much research has presented any real evidence on the use of social media by

marketing and IMC professionals in higher education.

Purpose of the Study

The main purpose of this study was to explore how integrated marketing

communications (IMC) professionals at higher education institutions are using social

media as a marketing, communications, and branding tool. In order to explore the use

of social media by higher education marketing professionals, this study first examined

the use of social media from three different institutions of higher education and their

IMC professionals, all of which all are located in the Central Valley of California. A

community college, public university, and a private university marketing directors

were selected to be interviewed for this part of the study in order to provide a wide

examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher

education. However, because of their market-driven and for-profit business

orientation for profit, proprietary higher education institutions have been excluded

from this study. This part of the study examined higher education institutions‘ IMC

departments‘ use of the social media networks and what type of messages they send

out to the public about the institutions. The second part of the study included an

examination of the use of social media by all the California State University (CSU)

campuses‘ IMC departments. Surveys were administered to the 23 CSU campuses

and questions were asked about how social media has changed the way they market

their institution and how their message is reaching out to students or the public. The

CSU campuses were chosen by the researcher to represent a statewide system of

10

public universities. The third part of the study examined the content analysis and any

guidelines outlined by the IMC department about social media.

Another purpose for this study was to demonstrate how this new phenomena

of social media networking is a new marketing tool for their marketing strategies or

tactics. Social media is used by students and younger faculty; therefore, higher

education should remain in the forefront of branding tools. A more compelling

reason for this study was to examine any procedures or guidelines that the institutions

have put together for social media.

In order to guide this study, the following research questions were addressed.

1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education

institution and how has it changed the public relations (PR) profession in

higher education?

2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to

shape the university brand and other communication functions?

3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for

social media?

The sample that was used for this study is a representative sample

representing higher education institutions social media usage: The IMC department

personnel interviews from a community college,a public university and a private

university, as well as a survey the 23 CSU campuses.

11

Theoretical Framework

As stated by Creswell (2004), a researcher must start a project with certain

assumptions about how the data and phenomenon associated with the study will be

understood and viewed; therefore, a theoretical framework or paradigm was presented

in the research. In order to examine perception and the influence of social media

networks, a theoretical framework was constructed using aspects of Agenda Setting

Theory (McCombs & Protess, 1991), Paradigm Shift (Kuhn, 1962), and Chaos

Theory by Edward Lorenz. The theoretical framework was used as a guide and

inform the exploration of the research questions (Creswell, 1994). Agenda setting

theory, will observe the important messaging that the IMC department sends. Agenda

setting theory also examines why certain messages are more important than others.

In order to observe how certain applications are used for these theories, it is

important to ask the question: what is knowledge? Why are we always at a quest to

know? Emily Robertson discusses the phenomenon of knowledge through an article

in the book titled Key Questions for Educators. Robertson (2007) stated that

knowledge is ―knowing is a relationship between a knower and what is known‖ (pp.

9-10). Therefore, many theories come into play about the public‘s right to be

informed and be knowledgeable about issues in the media, yet Agenda Setting Theory

is a key source for this study. Since a large number of beliefs are accepted on the

testimony of relevant experts, it would seem that many would know very little had

they thoroughly understood the evidence for each of their beliefs (Robertson, 2007).

Many people look at the news media as a wealth of knowledge and rely on the

12

media‘s expertise to deliver the news fair and accurately. Yet, in today‘s world,

many people are getting their information through Twitter or Facebook and other

forms of social media outlets. Nonetheless, how fair and accurate are these social

media outlets? Where are imbedded biases? How do higher education politics play

into the delivery of the messages being sent? This is where the issue of Agenda

Setting Theory takes fruition.

The public relations profession has a premeditated setting and agenda, and

ultimately controls the message that is being sent for the receiver. A rising

application of control that is currently taking shape is the emerging paradigm of

social media networks. Agenda Setting Theory has primarily been focused on the

examination of print media and television news media. Yet, with the emergence of

social media, Agenda Setting Theory helps in understanding how to prioritize a

message through what the public feels is important. With this multiple, rapid and

expansive use of social media, it is creating an increasingly complex environment for

the public relations business, and prioritizing key messages helps in organization.

This form of ―anarchy‖ has no centralized controls, which creates chaos, and can be

best understood through the lens of Chaos Theory. The name ―Chaos Theory‖ comes

from the perception that the systems are apparently disordered, but chaos theory is

really about finding the underlying order in apparently random data.

The change in the profession has turned a portion of public relations and mass

communication business upside-down and this new phenomenon questions the entire

profession of public relations. Table 1 illustrates how the public relations profession

13

has shifted and changed, which in turn exemplifies a paradigm shift in the profession.

This paradigm shift has become revolutionary in the public relations profession and

this study will examine how higher education institutions have adjusted to the new

concepts. In 1962, Thomas Kuhn wrote The Structure of Scientific Revolution, and

introduced, defined and popularized the concept of ―paradigm shift.‖

Table 1

Agenda Setting For Public Relations Profession

The emerging paradigm Old paradigm (5 to 10 years ago)

Public creates newsworthy stories. Media

scrutinizes messages and uses blogs as

trustworthy sources.

Press releases were sent to the

media through email or fax.

The public can control the message. Public relations controlled what

messages they were sending to the

media.

Businesses are compelled to hire a social

media specialist to brand their businesses

through social media.

Businesses only hired PR personnel

who had a bachelor‘s degree in PR

and experience writing press

releases.

Writers have to research several social media

network sites for exchanged information

about businesses or institutions. Must be

proactive in gathering information before

the media captures the story.

The only information to search was

publicity tracking.

News is spread in 15 minutes News was spread in 2 hours.

Kuhn argued that scientific advancement is not evolutionary, but rather is a

―series of peaceful interludes punctuated by intellectually violent revolutions,‖ and in

those revolutions ―one conceptual world view is replaced by another‖ (p.4). Social

14

media is like a paradigm shift: It is a revolution, a transformation, a sort of

metamorphosis. It just does not happen, but rather it is driven by agents of change.

The concept of social media networks is a transformation in the age of technology

and how people socialize with each other; therefore, this new paradigm shift is one

that will revolutionize how communication is established in higher education.

However, what is the public relations purpose for using social media networks

in higher education? Six categories of usage were identified as seen in Figure 1 to

explain the intention behind the agenda of IMC departments:

1. Branding: A marketing term for a use of media helps construct an image

or perception of the product.

2. Receiving information: A method of gaining information through

different sources using social media outlets. Students, alumni, faculty, or

the community can post comments about the institution.

3. Sales or marketing share: A tool to help with recruiting efforts and

increase student attendance records; also a good source to increase

revenue through grants, sponsorship dollars, or scholarships.

4. Community development: Students need a sense of belonging and that

they are making a difference at the campus.

5. Feedback forum: A medium to increase interaction from customers or

students as well as for personnel internal communication, social media is a

great tool for increasing student engagement.

15

6. Emergency notifications: Messages that can be administered through

social media outlets to quickly contact students and the public, who can

then spread the word to their personal networks. An important and

effective mechanism with so many students using social media through

their Blackberries, iPhones‘, or personal computers.

Figure 1. Theoretical framework: Internet social media network functions of uses by

public relations personnel in higher education institutions.

A more detailed discussion of the conceptual framework is provided within

Chapter 2 and the focal points of the study. The overview of the framework provided

about the study illustrates the context in which the research fits.

Operational Definitions

The following is a list of key terms and definitions used in this study.

16

Brand: A perception, image, name, term, sign, symbol or design, or a

combination of all that is intended to identify the goods and services of a product or

business that differentiate them from those of the competition (American Marketing

Association, Bennett, & NetLibrary Inc., 1995).

Brand identity: Is what the business wants to communicate to its target

audience. The identity is a unique set of brand associations that is strategically places

to aspires creation and maintain visibility. These associations represent what the

brand stands for and imply a promise to customers from the organizations members

(Aaker, 1996).

Brand image: It is how certain groups perceive a brand based on how the

groups decode all of the signals that originated from the products, services, and

communication that are encompassed by the brand (Kapferer, 2004).

Facebook Wall: Friends and family can write on someone‘s Facebook profile

page. Consumers, friends, family may write on a business or personal Wall to

communicate. A personal or business post on the Wall is a great way to correspond

with others. Businesses use this Wall to promote their business and update

consumers on their products or other business related topics that might interest their

fans.

Fan Page: A business Facebook page. Facebook does not allow businesses to

have a regular Facebook page to promote their services. A business must open a fan

page in order to accumulate fans to ―like‖ their page.

17

Public Relations: The systematized function that evaluates public attitudes and

behaviors, identifies the policies and procedures of an individual or organization,

keeping in mind the public interest, and executes a program of action to earn public

understanding and acceptance (Center & Jackson, 1995).

Social media: Relates to the sharing of information, experience, and

perspectives throughout community oriented websites (Weinberg, 2009).

Tweeting: Sending a message through a Twitter account.

Assumptions

Little is known about the effects of marketing through social media networks

in higher education institutions. Some information may be based on trying to convey

a key message through social media; the key message may not be perceived the same

by all consumers. Studies have shown that each consumer perceives messages

differently; therefore, it is important to examine how each higher education institution

chosen for this study strategically constructs their message via social media to help

shape their brand or using it for other communication purposes. Many would also

assume that because social media is a new phenomenon many higher education

institutions do not have a procedural guideline to follow within their own department.

Another assumption is that everyone has access to new media; this may not be true,

especially if a student comes from a lower socioeconomic background.

When posting a message through social media, assuming that everyone has

access and ability to work with web-based technology can create a poor marketing

strategy. Developing a greater understanding of how social media has changed the

18

public relations profession will help support some of these assumptions. Once

establishing a social media site, training and correct usage of the site could help

departments and faculty members. It should not be assumed that all faculty and

administration know how to use social media sites. Lack of familiarity with social

media among instructors is common since the average faculty age is over 40 years old

(Bradley, 2009).

Limitations

One of the limitations to this study includes a focus on the 23 CSU campuses

marketing personnel‘s perception of social media networks. Although the methods

used to analyze the key message sent through social media as well as interviewing

marketing personnel at the three selected higher education institutions may prove

useful as a framework for future research, the findings from this study may not be

widely generalized. Additionally, the 23 CSU campuses that were surveyed are not a

complete representation of all higher education campuses. Social media is a growing

and rapidly changing phenomenon and the findings from this study will be limited to

a specific time in early evolution and adoption of this medium.

The major effect of social media marketing is not to ―hard sell‖ a product or

institution. Social media usage is meant to interact with customers or students and to

make them feel as if they make a difference in the institution by creating a voice for

them through the social media platform. An additional limitation to this study is a

clear process for how higher education institutions can measure the success of the key

19

messages sent through social media sites. There is a lack of means by which to

measure social media.

Public relations professionals want to present their institution positively and

may avoid disclosing shortcomings about their institutions. Another limitation for

this study is the difficulty in retrieving statistical information related to statistical

marketing metrics for social media.

Delimitations

There are three delimitations. The first delimitation is that the interview part of

this study is limited to three institutions in Central California. Interview participants

were limited to IMC administrators from one CSU university, one private university,

and one community college. The second delimitation is that the respondents to the

survey from each of the 23 CSUs are limited to the IMC departments within each

institution and, therefore, may not be representation of campuses used on social

media. The third delimitation is that the results of the survey were exclusive to the

CSU campuses.

The Significance of the Study

This study examined the integration of the evolving social media networks

and their power to market higher education institutions. The researcher observed this

new phenomenon of marketing as it transcends into a new tool for public relations

personnel and a way to reach target audiences (alumni, parents, recruiting purposes,

current students, internal administration, faculty, and the community). Higher

20

education institutions must reach out to the new generation of students who have

constant access to the internet and social media networks. Higher education

institutions interested in examining what other institutions are doing through social

media and also interested in reaching out to a diverse pool of prospective students

may benefit from the findings of this research. This study demonstrates how

marketing directors from the selected campuses are utilizing social media and how

the IMC departments in higher education have adjusted to the paradigm shift in the

public relations field through interviews and surveys.

Higher education institutions seeking to educate students raised in a consumer

society have a responsibility to engage prospective students with sincere and honest

messages at a time when students are forming their college going aspirations. Not

only are prospective students a target audience, but so are alumni, the community,

partners within the institution, as well as potential sponsor donors. The need to

generate revenue from a variety of sources has intensified competitive market

behavior among colleges and universities and has influenced admission office

definitions of target audiences. Institutions that are able to develop a clear sense of

purpose and articulate it sincerely and honestly, using methods that resonate with

prospective students, will be more likely to succeed in their efforts to educate students

through social media. The role of social media is to not only communicate and brand

the institution, but to create knowledge and serve the community while remaining

financially solvent.

21

Summary

Social media technologies help businesses and other organizations

communicate and promote their brand identities using many different channels of

communication. Social media marketing is also known as social media optimization,

a term first used by Rohit Bhargava. In a 2006 post to his blog, Influential Marketing,

Bhargava described the concept behind social media optimization (SMO): to

"implement changes to optimize a site so that it is more easily linked to.‖ This

concept can also be related to how the public relations profession is changing.

Research question one was used as a guide to explore how higher education

institutions IMC departments have shifted in their operation as well as in their

strategic planning with the growth of social media networks. The problem addressed

in this study is not only a paradigm shift in the public relations profession, but also

how social media is being used to brand the higher education institutions as well as

used for communication.

The following chapters further examine the phenomena of social media

networks. Chapter Two reviews the literature related to internet social media.

Agenda Setting Theory will also be further discussed in Chapter Two. Since an

understanding of technology is apparent in this study, chapter two will also discuss

the use of the integration of technology in marketing. Lastly, since social media is

driven in large part through popular culture, a review of generational characteristics

will be discussed. Chapter Three focuses on the methodology used to conduct this

study, which discusses the methods used to gather data, participant selection,

22

conducting in-depth interviews, coding of data and analysis, and interpretation of the

data. Chapter Four shares the findings of the data in the form of the individual

interview analysis and the surveys. Chapter Five then gives an overview of the study

and provides recommendations for social media integrations in higher education and

future research in relation to social media in higher education.

23

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In a crowded and competitive market, producers adopt marketing strategies

such as branding to differentiate their products and services, especially in the new era

of social media networks. Newman, Couturier, and Scurry (2004) suggested that

higher education is in the midst of a major transformation, characterized by increased

market orientation and fierce competition between institutions for students, faculty,

grants, rankings, and prestige, which puts the public purpose of higher education at

risk. Based on their analysis, the long-term commitment to broad-based access, which

has been a cornerstone of American higher education, is particularly vulnerable in a

market-driven environment. With the emerging phenomenon of social media

networks, public relations and marketing professionals have had to integrate this

marketing tool into their strategic planning.

Chapter 2 of this study focuses on several topics. First, I discuss social

media‘s history and development over time. Then, I explain agenda setting theory,

chaos theory, paradigm shifts, and branding as they apply to social media and this

study‘s theoretical framework. For societal context, I also discuss the history, trends,

and current influences of mass media and technology. For context from the education

sector, I present information on the demographic makeup and IMC departments of

higher education institutions and how these two factors affect student use of social

media. Finally, I provide a brief overview of the methodology of the study.

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Social Media

In the new age of information superhighway and new technologies, the old

way of branding and marketing a product is unconventional and is outdated. Before

the Web, good advertising and branding were well versed in the tools and techniques

of reaching broad markets with ―lowest-common-denominator messages‖ (Scott,

2007 p.7). Traditional, nontargeted advertising via newspapers, magazines, radio,

television, and direct mail were the only means of marketing a product (Scott, 2007).

This type of advertising may still work for some organizations and products with a

target audience; for example, beer commercials when men are watching football; or

women makeup products in a high fashion magazine. The messages in advertising

are ―product-focused-one-way‖ and are now forced to compete with new marketing

on the Web that is centered on interaction, information, education, and choice (Scott,

2007). ―The Web is different…Instead of one-way interruption, Web marketing is

about delivering useful content at just the precise moment that a buyer needs it‖ (p.7).

The feedback from customers has also become vital for businesses because customers

are not able to share opinions on the web where other customers can also see this

feedback.

Social media are tools that many higher education institutions are using to

reach millions of people about the institution. The roots of social media are rooted in

the competition between bloggers to achieve greater influence for their personal

points of view, attached to their names and their identities (Gillin, 2007). Bloggers

25

are an evolution of discussion groups, the early online conversational tools that were

a hit with a small group of computer enthusiasts (Gillin, 2007).

As technology evolves, colleges feel pressure to be present in every possible

way. A suite of student blogs, now common, probably falls short of contextual depth

(Lipka, 2009). Many college or university Web sites feature a stream of students'

Twitter-style one-liners, constantly refreshed. To display dynamic images, the

University of New Mexico, for example, maintains a Flickr pool, fed by photos from

users' linked accounts. Dozens of colleges have started dispatching updates on

Twitter, and by last month two-thirds of institutions had official Facebook pages,

according to Brad J. Ward, co-founder of the Web-based-marketing firm BlueFuego

(Lipka, 2009).

Staying current is not the only challenge. With social media, anyone can

chime in. Colleges once occupied with staying on message are warily opening up to

the e-masses and trying to get used to it because "You don't own the conversation

anymore‖ (Lipka, 2009 p. 3). An example of ―not owning the conversation

anymore,‖ comes from Ohio State University, when students protested the school for

removing contents from its Facebook page about the president's relationship with an

energy company criticized by environmentalists (Lipka, 2009). The lesson for Ohio

State was that there is no censorship, unless something is threatening or obscene.

Another article by Lipka (2009) entitled ―Social Media in Admissions: No

Longer a Choice,‖ it states that college-admissions offices overwhelmingly consider

social media important for recruiting students, and more institutions are creating

26

blogs and online profiles, new studies show. About 33 percent of admissions offices

kept blogs in 2007, and 29 percent maintained social networking profiles, according

to a report released by the National Association for College Admission Counseling

(NACAC).

A survey of 536 colleges in 2008 found that 41 percent of admissions offices

kept blogs and 61 percent maintained social-networking profiles (Lipka, 2009). The

NACAC report raises some concerns about colleges‘ use of social media, primarily

which they don‘t sufficiently promote, evaluate, or keep dynamic various online

ventures. The report offers bullet-point advice, telling colleges to focus their blogs but

to line up several contributors, including students, with only minor supervision. It

also recommends starting blogs in languages other than English to recruit

international students. The NACAC report also found that some colleges not only use

social media as information sharing but to also gather information for themselves. In

2007, 26 percent of colleges examined some applicants with Web searches, and 21

percent examined on social networks (Lipka, 2009).

According to Dawley (2009), in the past five years networking sites have

rocketed to involve tens of millions of internet users, and are gaining prominence

with both adult and teen users:

About 55 percent of teens and 82 percent of undergraduates use social

networking;

More than 28 percent of teens have blogs;

27

About 28 percent of internet users have tagged or categorized content

online such as photos, news stories, or blog posts;

48 percent of internet users have been to video sharing sites such as

YouTube.

The statistics illustrate the magnitude of influence that the internet may have on

young adults. It is important to understand these trends as they relate to incoming

university students, and the exposure they have had with social networking as a

communication mechanism. Younger students are learning through technology itself

that they have a role to play in the development of knowledge (Dawley, 2009). With

technology in social media evolving higher education institutions need to stay current

with marketing efforts to reach all types of students.

Agenda Setting Theory

With the social media up rise, many students are receiving their information

through this type of media platform. In the world of news media, each network

makes judgment about news coverage which are portrayed to the audience, and now

social media networks are becoming similar. The media (mainly the TV news media)

aren‘t always successful at telling us what to think, but they are quite successful at

telling us what to think about. According to McCombs and Protess (1991), the idea

of agenda-setting has been articulated for well over a half century. Yet, it was only in

1968 that McCombs and Shaw first put this idea to empirical test (McCombs &

Protess, 1991). In 1972, McCombs, Shaw and Weaver introduced the idea that the

28

mass media could tell the public which issues are of major importance in the world by

the amount of coverage the news agencies give on each issue.

This influence of the news media on the perceived salience of key political

issues is called the agenda-setting role of mass communication (McCombs & Protess,

1991). The creation of these perceived salience‘s in the minds of the mass

communication audience is a by-product of journalistic practice, shaped by the need

to select and highlight a small number of topics each day (McCombs & Protess,

1991). What journalists consider as ―newsworthy‖ provides efficient cues about the

relative importance of the welter of issue in our time (McCombs & Protess, 1991).

The concept of agenda-setting is an assertion that the audience learns what

issues are important from the priorities set by the news media and incorporates a

similar set of weights in their own personal agendas (McCombs & Protess, 1991).

Colleges and universities also have their own agendas that need reinforcement and

use key messages to send to the public. McCombs and Protess (1991) said that

agenda-setting is a relational concept specifying a positive connection between

emphases of the news media and the perceived importance of these topics to the news

media. Agenda-setting directs our attention to an earlier state in the public opinion

process, the state at which an issue emerges (McCombs & Protess, 1991). Therefore,

social media outlets also influence what messages are important and which are not.

This study will examine the agenda for each campus participating in this research,

how social media is used to shape the university brand, and how marketing

professional in higher education use social media for other communication functions.

29

When a college or university Tweets or writes a message about a school game or an

instructor receiving funding for a grant, those are messages that are taking precedence

over other university news. Once the message is sent, the receiver weighs that

information in their own personal agenda.

Chaos Theory

Not only is part of Agenda Setting Theory used as aspects of the theoretical

framework, but Chaos Theory is another relevant aspect to the evolving social media.

The first true explorer of Chaos Theory was meteorologist Edward Lorenz.

According to Snell (2009), Chaos Theory is often associated with post modernism:

Chaos theory is associated with a definition of a theory dealing with variables

(butterflies) that are not directly related to a phenomenon and yet play

secondary but forceful stimuli to the emergence of these phenomena. It is

post-modern because it suggests that the traditional scientific method of

discovery needs improvement and that interpretation of results may be flawed.

To understand postmodernism, one must first know what came before it.

However, the standard definition is social patterns characteristic to

postindustrial societies.‖ (Snell, 2009, p. 274).

With the multiple, rapid, and expansive use of social media networks, creating a very

chaotic environment for the public relations business, and prioritizing key messages

helps in organization. This form of ―anarchy‖ has no centralized control, which

creates chaos, and can be best understood through the lens of Chaos Theory. The

name ―Chaos Theory‖ comes from the perception that the systems that the theory

describes are apparently disordered, but Chaos Theory is really about finding the

underlying order in apparently random data. Higher education institutions are finding

30

themselves in a competitive environment and the IMC departments could seem

disordered if there is no strategic plan set.

Paradigm Shift

Chaos Theory describes disorder when a new phenomenon is developing,

such as social media. With Chaos Theory comes a shift in the norm, which is

discussed through Paradigm Shift. A Paradigm Shift is like a revolution, a

transformation, or much like a metamorphosis. An example of how Paradigm Shift

with in higher education institutions is through crisis communication. Every moment

is critical and sensitive part in a crisis involving students and in the case of the

Virginia Tech Shooting, technology played a vital role in emergency notifications.

Virginia Tech did not demonstrate a proactive crisis communication plan, because

after the first initial shooting that occurred in the dorm room, administrators spent two

hours in an internal meeting before sending out an advisory email that didn‘t warn

students but told them to be the eyes and ears of security campus (Barnett, 2007).

The failure to create a field test, time sensitive communication plan specifying

immediate action was a disaster that could have been prevented and possibly save the

lives of many students trapped in the classrooms. Another misguided act was using

email to communicate to students instead of a loud speaker, text messaging students,

or using social media sites (MySpace and Facebook were popular at that time). This

should have been thought out in the initial meetings previous to any disaster (Barnett,

2007).

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The key to social media‘s revolutionary phenomenon is time management and

the sensitivity of how quickly information can disseminate and filter through on a

daily basis. Today a two-week turnaround time is obsolete. Brand monitoring is at

least a daily—if not hourly—process if the goal is to eliminate dominos-style

catastrophes. More important, to respond to these types of crises in higher education,

having a system to identify the new brand influencers, the issues and topics they will

respond to, and an internal action plan from which to operate is significant (Paine,

2009). Figure 1 in chapter 1 illustrates the uses of Internet social media by public

relations personnel in higher education institutions and reveals how paradigm shifts

have created a change in the marketing field in higher education.

Mass Media Impact and Influence

In order to understand the agenda and background of social media, we must

look at the mass media impact and how it influences our daily lives. Americans today

are virtually bombarded with news about public affairs as well as other issues, such as

celebrity and gossip news. This bombardment influences how the society make sense

of politics, social issues, and values (framing), how society decides what is important

(agenda setting), and how society evaluates the policies and authorities as well as

social issues put forth in front of them (priming)—or so at least it is claimed (Kinder,

2007). Television, radio, films, newspapers, magazines, and the Internet—life

without these mediated forms of communication has become virtually unimaginable

for many individuals in the world today (Duran, Yousman, Walsh, & Longshore,

2008). Children are exposed to television soon after their birth, and it remains a

32

staple of their cultural diet throughout their lives. Programs are now being produced

that are specifically geared toward capturing the attention of infants.

The pervasiveness of mass media in our lives has resulted in an environment

where the media have emerged as perhaps the most powerful of socializing

institutions (Duran et al., 2008). The public‘s right to be informed has changed over

the years to better suit the media companies‘ interest and ever-growing business. In

journalistic and scientific discourse, the increases in sensationalism have generally

been attributed to the mechanisms of market-driven journalism (Vettehen, Nuijten, &

Peeters, 2008). According to this line of thought, competition in the news market

increasingly poses problems to news producers in how to attract the audiences that

are needed for journalistic and economic purposes. Increasing the amount of

sensationalism in the news is considered a convenient means to this end (Vettehen et

al., 2008).

It is important to understand mass media influence and how shaping a

message to target the audience can help shape the institutions brand image. With the

rise of social media networks, this personal and evasive type of mass media influence

targets students directly in colleges or universities.

Technology

The discussions of Chaos Theory, Paradigm Shift, and mass media impact

have generated an understanding of how social media has become apparent for our

higher education institutions. Yet, it is also important that this study examines the

history and trends of technology. The NSSE survey conducted in 2006 suggests that

33

student engagement had a ―compensatory effect‖ on grades and students‘ likelihood

of returning for a second year of college, particularly among underserved minority

students. The data indicated that activities such as collaboration with peers on

projects inside and outside the classroom helped students overcome previous

educational disadvantages (Wasley, 2006). In a study conducted by Umbach and

Wawrzynski (2005) the authors suggested that students report higher levels of

engagement and learning at institutions where faculty or administrative members use

active and collaborative learning techniques, engage students in experiences,

emphasize higher-order cognitive activities in the classroom, interact with students,

challenge students academically, and value enriching educational experiences.

Social media can engage students in their college experience by providing a

platform to make suggestions and be part of a change. As seen in Figure 1 in Chapter

1, the use of this framework is to also help in student engagement and community

development. Technology is vastly growing with computers, internet, email,

Blackberry, Blackboard, iPods, social media networks, cell phones, iPhones, online

classes, it is essential that colleges and universities make a considerable effort to use

their financial resources on technology in order to engage students in the classroom.

In a study by Laird and Kuh, students‘ responses to the technology items suggested

that many students use information technology regularly for personal and academic

uses and to communicate with other students as well as instructors. Seventy-three

percent of first-year students spent more than five hours a week online and 80 percent

of the first-year students used the internet to obtain information for their classroom.

34

Generational Characteristics of Higher Education Students

Students have been heavily influenced by technology, and in today‘s society a

―new‖ student may be one that communicates through texting or instant messaging

(millennial generation or E Generation). Another ―new‖ student could be a 27-year-

old whose idea of customer service is different from past generations (―Generation

X‖), such as taking longer to answer voicemail messages than social media or email

questions from customers. Or the ―new‖ student could be a 60-year old woman

(―Baby-Boomer‖) trying to complete her degree so she may try to balance work and

children at the same time (Oblinger, 2003).

In an article written by Mark Edmundson called Dwelling in Possibilities,

discusses how his college students at University of Virginia have evolved in the past

30 years of his teaching career. Students of today:

Have a spectacular hunger for life and more life. They want to study, travel,

make friends, make more friends, read everything (superfast), take in all the

movies, listen to every hot band, keep up with everyone they've ever known.

And there's something else, too, that distinguishes them: They live to multiply

possibilities. They're enemies of closure. For as much as they want to do and

actually manage to do, they always strive to keep their options open, never to

shut possibilities down before they have to. (p. 1)

Edmundson made a point by characterizing his students and making his readers aware

that his students have had internet technology in their hands since they were seven to

eight years old. Since Netscape browser became available to everyone in 1995,

students who are now in college have a vast knowledge of technology than their

faculty or administrators in college.

35

It is important to understand the generational characteristics of students

because in a world of trying to brand a higher education institution, the colleges or

universities need to be able to know and understand their target audience: The ―New‖

Student. Studying student‘s psychographics, demographics, and their likes or dislikes

is an important part of the IMC departments‘ role in higher education.

Integrated Marketing Communications Departments in Higher Education

The role of the IMC department in higher education can at times seem vague

to most departments within a university or college. Defining public relations in

higher education is as complicated as the number of names it is used to describe it.

For example some universities or colleges use ―public affairs,‖ ―institutional

relations,‖ ―information services,‖ ―marketing,‖ ―external relations,‖ or

―communication and marketing department.‖

The IMC department has many functions under its umbrella that all lead to

working internally with the university departments and colleges, yet there is a lack of

understanding this role throughout the institutions for promotion purposes.

Moreover, because of the complexity of numerous functions the IMC department

performs; administrators within higher education are at times perplexed at the actual

functions. According to M. Fredric Volkman, ―Defining Public Relations‖ in the

book titled, Excellence in Advancement, a typical public relations officer in higher

education has the following functions to perform:

Media relations and crisis management

Publications and the use the Internet to recruit students or raise gift dollars

36

Advertising (radio, newspapers, magazines, or television)

Internal communication for the staff, administrators, governing board, and

students

Market research to develop better strategies for donors, recruiting

students, and marketing a specialized program at the university, such as

the nursing program.

Major events and speakers

Sports information

Brand management

Direct mail programs

Volkman brings forth a number of functions that a public relations

administrator must perform. Yet with today‘s ―Paradigm Shift,‖ IMC department

should include social media tactics within their strategic plan.

Branding

With higher education institutions in competition with each other, they must

differentiate themselves from one another. In marketing and advertising, nothings

beats a good brand. Brands enjoy instant credibility and sudden recognition (Anctil,

2008, a). Brands speak to more than just their product: they bring with them a

known presence and an invisible privilege over other products like them (Anctil,

2008, a). Branding has a power to transcend trends and change the market, in other

words brands have the power to dominate. Therefore, it is important to understand

37

branding when examining social media networks and how organizations are using

branding to shape perception. Higher education institutions are focusing their

marketing strategies similar to corporate organizations and are trying to stay

connected with the new generation through technology.

In order for a brand to work, it takes the entire company to create the

paradigm shift for the world to see the difference. With brands comes market

differentiation, which is simply standing out of the crowd (Anctil, 2008 b).

According to Antcil (2008 b), the goal is not to look different but to look more

appealing than the other competitor so that the consumer is likely to take action on

the product. Differentiation in the higher education marketplace is challenging, but it

can occur. The challenge, according to Temple (2006), is that the higher education

institutions need to sell itself in the marketplace, yet it is there to search for

knowledge and help students achieve their academic goals.

There are two types of challenges in branding a college or university: (1)

Among the greatest challenges to successfully marketing higher education is the

inherently intangible nature of it (Anctil, 2008, a). Education is a vague product that

largely depends on a diploma as the only tangible evidence of the lived experience

and learning that occurred (Anctil, 2008, c). Branding does not suggest, though, that

there aren‘t any solid characteristics of a college or university. Yet finding and

marketing them requires more creativity than marketing a new product that a

company just produced (Anctil, 2008 c). (2) The challenges with branding and

market differentiation are that when highlighting class size, housing advantages,

38

social life distinctions, or quality of faculty, everyone suddenly looks the same. Some

may say that market differentiation in higher education is more about perceptions of

difference than true difference (Anctil, 2008 a).

The primary marketing goal for colleges and universities is twofold: make

the intangible tangible, and find areas of market differentiation (Anctil, 2008 b).

Anctil (2008 b) describes three general areas that enable higher education to highlight

the solid characteristics of an institution even if they are intangible: (a) perceived

academic quality, (b) perceived social life and campus amenities, and (c) a successful

and visible athletic program.

Methodology

The research design for this study is a three-part sequential mixed research

methods design, an approach increasingly used in social science research. A

sequential exploratory strategy was used for this research.

In order to understand the research problems, both the qualitative and

quantitative aspects of this study were merged together at the conclusion. The

qualitative phase of the study consisted of interviewing marketing personnel from a

community college, public university, and a private university in order to provide a

wide examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher

education. The qualitative phase examined the content analysis and any guidelines

outlined by the IMC department about social media. The quantitative method

consisted of surveying the marketing professionals at all 23 CSU.

39

The qualitative method was used to explore and research an issue where the

variables are unknown, and are based on the premise that knowledge about life

experiences is not possible without describing the experience as it is lived and defined

by the individuals themselves (Flick, 2006). Interviewing the three marketing

personnel from the three selected higher education institutions gave a better

description of how they utilize social media. The interview responses helped guide

the development of the survey questions and gave the researcher a better look into the

social media world. According to Flick, ―Qualitative research is a way to conduct

fieldwork without the constraints of a clear identification and isolation of variables‖

(p. 97). It provides a freedom to the researcher that is not found in an experimental,

cause and effect design. Objects in qualitative research are not reduced to single

variables, but represented in their everyday context (Flick, 2006).

Summary

Chapter Two of this study focused on the important components within this

research and further discussed the topics of social media, which examined the history

of and how this medium has taken shape. The chapter also discussed aspects of

Agenda Setting Theory and how it is used in this study. Nonetheless, Chaos Theory

is another aspect that the researcher and gave further insight through literature review

as well as Paradigm Shift. Mass media impact and influence giving readers an

understanding on how mass media has impacted society was another component in

Chapter Two as well as Technology. The generational characteristics for higher

education students were discussed. Integrated marketing communications

40

departments in higher education and branding were among the topics related to social

media that were in Chapter Two, which gave an in-depth definition with examples. A

review of the methodology was later assessed.

41

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

The main purpose of this study was to examine the usage of internet social

media networks by marketing professionals to shape the perception and branding of

the public universities in California. This chapter discusses the research methods of

this study. First, the researcher provided an overview of the methodology for the

study, in the ―Methodological Overview.‖ The second section, ―Research Questions,‖

describes each research question in detail and how they pertain to the study. The third

section, ―Site and Participant Selection,‖ describes the rationale for the selection of

the setting of the study and the criteria for selection of the study participants. The

fourth section, ―Data Sources and Collection,‖ addresses the sources and methods of

data collection. The fifth section, ―Data Analysis,‖ details the specific procedures that

were utilized for analyzing the data collected during the course of this study. The

final sections discuss ―Ethical Obligations‖ and ―Trustworthiness,‖ which describe

the strategies that were utilized to ensure the trustworthiness of the research.

Methodological Overview

The research design for this study was a three-part, sequential, mixed methods

design, an approach increasingly used in social science research. Creswell (2004)

described a sequential exploratory strategy as a research design where there is an

―initial phase of qualitative data collection and analysis, which is followed by a

42

phase of quantitative data collection and analysis,‖ and ―the findings of the two

phases are then integrated during the interpretation phase‖ (p. 215). A sequential

exploratory strategy was used for this research.

To understand the research problems, both the qualitative and quantitative

aspects of this study were merged together at the end for one overall interpretation.

The qualitative phase of the study consisted of interviewing marketing personnel

from a community college, public university, and a private university to provide a

wide examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher

education. The qualitative portion also examined the content of the interview

responses and any guidelines outlined by the IMC department about social media.

The quantitative method consisted of surveying the marketing professionals at all 23

CSU campuses. Because of the complex nature of social media and how it is used to

shape the perceptions of its readers, this mixed methods, three-phase, sequential

research project involved conducting in-depth interviews with IMC professionals at

three different higher education institutions and then surveying the CSU public

universities.

Phase 1. For an in-depth understanding at how the IMC departments use

social media and how they shape the messages being sent, the researcher first

interviewed marketing administrators from three different institutions of higher

education. A private university; a CSU campus; and a community college were

selected for this study. The qualitative research design was intended to develop a

broad understanding of how social media is used in higher education by marketing

43

professionals. This qualitative research extracted rich and thick descriptive data from

the three individuals involved in the interview process at different hierarchical levels

within the organization in creating, implementing, and managing the social media

aspect of the IMC department at the institution.

Phase 2. After analysis and reduction of the interview data, survey research

was used to inventory information between different institution marketing efforts.

The data from the interview helped shape and guide the development of the survey

questions for the CSU surveys. Creswell (2004) described a quantitative approach as

―one in which the investigator primarily uses positivist claims for developing

knowledge, employs strategies of inquiry such as experiments and surveys, and

collects data on predetermined instruments that yield statistical data‖ (p. 18). To

obtain an overview of how universities use social media networks, a survey was

administered to all of the 23 CSU IMC department personnel. By utilizing the guiding

framework in Figure 2, the study examined the frequency of use, focus, purpose, and

methods of how these institutions use social media messages to shape the agenda that

address various aspects of Figure 2 of the framework. Many of these institutions are

using Facebook and Twitter to send messages as well as YouTube to download

videos that capture the essence of the institution.

Figure 2. Summary of mixed methods sequential study.

44

Phase 3. After the interviews and surveys were completed, content analysis

was performed. Content, such as social media guidelines from the 23 CSU campuses,

was examined.

Quantitative research is an important part of research. According to Vogt

(2007), research questions, design, measurement, and analysis are the pillars on

which a research investigation is built. Each supports different aspects of the research

enterprise, and it is important to link concepts and the empirical world (Vogt, 2007).

Nonetheless, it is imperative that the researcher gather the survey results and directly

apply them to the study at hand. The process of measurement is central to

quantitative research because it provides the fundamental connection between

observed and statistical data of quantitative relationships. It is best when conducting a

survey to use a Likert-type scale as well as open-ended questions.

The study was also exploratory because it examined an emerging

phenomenon. The objective for an exploratory study is to formulate precise questions

that may be able to answer future research (Flick, 2006).

The three research questions addressed in the study focused on the use of

social media networks as a tactical plan to shape the institutions brand. The first

question qualitatively evaluated the IMC department‘s personnel. The second

question examined other possible variables through a qualitative survey administered

to public universities. The third question explored documents or strategic plans that

the IMC departments had established. The exact questions were as follows.

45

1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education

institution and how has it changed the PR profession in higher education?

2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to

shape the university brand and other communication functions?

3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for

social media?

Guiding Framework

To answer the research questions, a theoretical framework was created to

explore and view the subject of the study (Figure 3) and how each segment of the

social media framework integrated the use of social media in the higher education

departments. Interviewing marketing administrators was another concrete way to

explore the framework. In addition, I explored how vital social media is to branding,

marketing share, and crisis communication and surveyed the 23 CSU campuses.

Figure 3. Internet social media network purpose of use for higher education

institutions.

46

Agenda-setting theory. As discussed in Chapter 1, McCombs and Protess

(1991) had the idea of agenda-setting, which has been articulated for well over a half

century. In 1972, McCombs, Shaw, and David Weaver introduced the idea that

themass media could tell the public which issues are of major importance in the world

by the amount of coverage they give to each issue.

Site and Participant Selection

The participants consisted of three higher education institutions. The

researcher emailed the constituents for an interview appointment and interviewed

each participant at his or her institution or via phone. A community college, public

university, and a private university were selected for this part of the study to provide a

wide examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher

education. Moreover, because of their market driven and business orientation for

profit, proprietary higher education institutions were excluded from this study. This

part of the study examineed their IMC department use of the social media networks

and what type of messages they send out to the public about the institutions. These

data helped to provide a greater understanding of the relationships in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Data collection procedure.

47

The second part of the study included an examination of the use of social

media by all of the CSU campuses‘ IMC departments. Surveys were administered to

the 23 CSU campuses, and questions were asked on how social media has changed

the way they market their institutions and how they are reaching out to students or the

public. The CSU campuses were chosen by the researcher to represent a state-wide

system of public universities. The third part of the study reviewed the social media

guidelines provided by the 23 CSU campuses.

Data Sources and Collection

The data sources for examining the research questions were collected from (a)

interviews of marketing professionals from a private university, a public university,

and a community college; (b) surveys administered to the 23 CSU campuses; and (c)

a content analysis of available social media guidelines.

The original, drafted interview questions are listed in Appendix A. The

interview questions were evaluated by CSU, Stanislaus personnel not related to this

study with a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria Rogers (Appendix D). A

pilot test of the survey was administered to selected educators at CSU, Stanislaus to

provide feedback on whether the survey‘s wording and clarity were apparent to all

respondents and whether the questions meant the same thing to all respondents. Their

responses were not included in the analysis but were used to shape the survey tool.

48

Data Analysis

Quantitative method. According to Vogt (2007), a purposive sample is

gathered deliberately with a reason in mind. Purposive sampling aims to select groups

that display variation on the phenomena under investigation. The quantitative

component sample for this study was comprised of a 5-item Likert-scale survey as

well as open-ended questions. Frequencies were conducted to determine how often

IMC departments strategize the use of key messages being sent through the social

media networks. The survey led to a variety of data-collection opportunities and other

statistical analyses.

Qualitative method. Marshall and Rossman (2006) defined data analysis as

―the process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to the mass of collected

data‖ (p. 154). They identified seven phases that typically define qualitative analytic

procedures: (a) organizing the data, (b) immersion in the data, (c) generating

categories and themes, (d) coding the data, (e) offering interpretations through

analytic memos, (f) searching for alternative explanations, and (g) writing the report

(p. 156). The web-based educational software, Dedoose, was utilized to determine

significant differences and relationships among variables. Qualified faculty provided

guidance on instructions in using Dedoose. The interviews were transcribed and

reduced into clusters of themes and analyzed.

Standard methods of qualitative research to determine codings, categories, and

themes that appeared across interviews are presented. To analyze the data, the

researcher used Dedoose and the line-by-line coding procedures described by

49

Charmaz, (2000). Action codes were generated, reviewed, and modified by utilizing

the constant comparative methodology described by Charmaz (2000) for comparing

different participant‘s views, situations, actions, accounts, and experiences. The

software was utilized to assist the researcher in managing the large number of data-

related documents of this research to address Research Question 3.

Because the study was a sequential examination of both qualitative and

quantitative research, the qualitative component (interviewing the marketing

personnel) helped develop the quantitative component (the questions for the surveys

administered to the 23 CSU campuses). Both the qualitative and quantitative data

were analyzed to further explain how social media is used in higher education.

To create a reliable coding system and clean the data analysis techniques,

intercoder and interrater reliability were measured using Cohen‘s kappa statistics.

When using content analysis it is best to use intercoder reliability when applying

codes to the text. The quality of recording and documenting data becomes a central

basis for assessing reliability and that of succeeding interpretations (Flick, 2006).

Identifying the same codes or themes within the qualitative research, it is important to

use interrater reliability.

Therefore, to establish the reliability and trustworthiness of the coding process

for this study, the researcher took the following steps. First, the researcher identified

two individuals who were knowledgeable of internet social media marketing

techniques but were not part of the study. Second, with the help of two research

assistants, the researcher coded two or three interviews separately. Third, comparing

50

the codes and themes that each person identified and came to an agreement on

appropriate codes and themes was conducted. Fourth, each person shared his or her

rationale for the codes and themes they chose. In cases when the sample coding

between each of the raters was less than 80 percent, the researcher reexamined the

codes and themes that were used and defined new ones.

Ethical Obligation

Consistent with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) policy, the researcher

provided all participants with an informed consent form for signature as seen in

Appendix E. The form explained the purpose of the study, expected duration of

participation, intended use of the data, benefits and risks of participation, and their

right to confidentiality.

To further protect the subjects, a coding system was utilized to store and

locate participants‘ information instead of personal names. The data were securely

stored in both paper and electronic format by the researcher, and no one else had

access to them except the college personnel guiding her with the research. The data

were stored in a locked cabinet. Electronic data were stored in a password protected

computer file. All the data will be destroyed after 1 year of study conclusion.

Guaranteeing the participants in the qualitative portion of this research

complete anonymity and confidentiality was impractical because interviews were

conducted with individuals who held specific positions within the university‘s

organizational hierarchy. With the permission of the participants, each of the

interviews was recorded with a digital voice recorder. The voice data files were then

51

transferred from the recording device to a laptop computer and a backup storage

device. These files remained in the researcher‘s possession throughout the research

process. The transcripts were proofread by the researcher and stored in a computer

and a backup storage device. The complete transcripts were then sent to the

interviewees electronically for member checking purposes. Through the member

checking process, the interviewees had the opportunity to clarify points that they

made during the interview sessions. Some interviewees provided written

clarifications.

All publications, public distribution, or presentations of the findings from this

study including but not limited to the researcher‘s dissertation maintained the

anonymity of all of the participating students, faculty, administrators, and other

individuals involved in this study. In addition, the identies of the three institutions

being interviewed as well as the institutions surveyed will also be protected. A

pseudonym will be assigned as the name of the three institutions used and to anyone

who is mentioned in the study. All research protocols involving human subjects will

be reviewed and approved by the CSU Stanislaus University Institutional Review

Board to assure compliance with all University regulations and applicable laws before

any data collection will occur for this research project.

Trustworthiness

As an assessment of the content validity the researcher was administering the

survey to CSU, Stanislaus personnel not related to this study to provide feedback.

The researcher used a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria Rogers as listed in

52

Appendix D. According to Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2006), pretesting the

questionnaire provides information about deficiencies and suggestions for

improvement. They suggest having three to four individuals read the cover letter and

complete the questionnaire to identify problems (2006).

Flick (2006) suggests that trustworthiness and credibility as a criteria for

qualitative research. The researcher maintained trustworthiness in the qualitative

research by recording the interviews and saving all email communication documents.

Other activities suggested by Flick to increase the likelihood of credible results are

―persistent observation‖ and ―prolonged engagement‖ (p. 376). Flick also suggested

peer debriefing, which involves having regular meetings with other people who are

not part of the research ―to disclose one‘s own blind spot‖ (p. 376).

Summary

This three-part sequential mixed-method study was designed to examine

social media marketing efforts in higher education. This research addressed the

following research questions.

1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education

institution and how has it changed the IMC profession in higher

education?

2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to

shape the university brand and other communication functions?

3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for

social media?

53

The first research question was explored using both quantitative and

qualitative techniques. Marketing individuals were purposefully selected for the

interviews so that the study included different types of higher education institutions.

Marketing content was also reviewed. After the interviews, the researcher gathered

the responses from the interviews, used those responses to shape the survey questions,

and sent the surveys to the 23 CSU campuses. The second research question was also

addressed using both quantitative and qualitative techniques. The third research

question was examined with a content analysis of social media messages and

guidelines that the institutions had developed for social media marketing. After the

data were reviewed, the researcher merged the qualitative and quantitative data for

further discussion and a summary of conclusions.

54

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

The purpose of this research study was to examine internet social media

marketing in higher education. The literature shows that there is a need to integrate

social media in all marketing efforts as a means of survival in today‘s Internet

lifestyle (Weinberg, 2010). It is clear that traditional marketing tactics are not as

effective as they once were because consumers trust in these media forms has

declined (Weinberg, 2010). Today, information about any higher education

institution is more accessible online and is effortless to find. With budgets cuts

occurring across the country in the higher education systems, institutions must be in

the ―survival of the fittest‖ mode to compete with one another.

This chapter describes the demographics, data-collection preparation, and an

analysis of the data collection. This chapter also presents the findings from

interviews conducted with marketing directors from three different higher education

institutions, surveys that were administered to public-relations directors in the CSU

system, and review of social media guidelines from various CSU campuses. This

study sought to answer the following research questions.

1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education

institution and how has it changed the PR profession in higher education?

2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to

shape the university brand and other communication functions?

55

3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for social

media?

Selection of Participants

The research design for this study was a three-part, sequential mixed-methods

design, an approach increasingly used in social-science research. To understand the

research problems, both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of this study were

merged at the end for an overall interpretation of the results. The data collection

process was as follows (see Figure 2 for a visual representation).

1. The qualitative phase of the study consisted of interviewing the marketing

directors from a community college, a public university, and a private

university from the same California region. This phase was intended to

develop a broad understanding of how social media is used in higher

education by marketing professionals. This qualitative research extracted

rich and thick descriptive data from the three individuals involved in the

interview process.

2. After analyzing and reducing the interview data in to themes, survey

research was used to collect and inventory information about institutions‘

social media marketing efforts. The data from the interviews helped shape

and guide the development of the survey questions. To obtain an

overview of how universities use social media networks, surveys were

sent to public-relations managers at all of the 23 CSU campuses.

56

3. After interviews and surveys were completed, the researcher reviewed

social media guidelines from six CSU campuses that were made available

by the marketing directors.

The data from all three phases were merged to explore social media as a new

marketing tool that is fast growing and often a chaotic phenomenon facing higher

education IMC departments. To further explore the research questions, the

theoretical framework was used as a guide to inform the exploration of the research

questions (Creswell, 2004).

To further explore the research questions, the theoretical framework was used

as a guide to inform the exploration of the research questions (Creswell, 2004).

Figure 5 illustrates how each segment of the social media framework integrates the

use of social media through the higher education IMC departments.

Figure 5. Internet social-media-network functions of uses by public relations

personnel in higher education institutions.

57

Descriptive Characteristics

The CSU system started as individual California State Colleges were brought

together as a system by the Donahoe Higher Education Act of 1960. In 1972 the

system became The CSU and Colleges and in 1982 the system became The CSU

(About CSU, 2011). Today the campuses of the CSU include comprehensive and

polytechnic universities and, since July 1995, the California Maritime Academy, a

specialized campus (About CSU, 2011). Today there are 23 campuses across

California.

California‘s Central Valley consists of a private university; four community

colleges; a University of California campus and a CSU campus. The first phase of

this study consisted of interviewing the media relations director from University of

the Pacific (Pacific), which is a private university in Stockton with a student

population of 6,251. The assistant vice president of communication and public affairs

is from CSU Stanislaus campus in Turlock with over 8,300 students enrolled in Fall

2010. The public information officer from Modesto Junior College (MJC) was also

interviewed. MJC, according the Yosemite Community College District fact sheet,

MJC had over 19,500 students enrolled during the fall of 2010.

Data Collection

The data collection and analysis presented in this chapter begin with a brief

overview of the research population and broad demographics of the research sample.

Next, the data collection procedures used is discussed. Each research question is

58

introduced and followed by the presented data (see Figure 4 for a visual

representation of the data collection sequence and procedure).

Interviews. Consistent with the Institutional Review Board (IRB) policy, the

researcher provided all interview participants with an informed consent form for

signature (see Appendix E). The form explained the purpose of the study, expected

duration of participation, intended use of the data, benefits and risks of participation,

and participants right to confidentiality.

As an assessment of the content validity the researcher administered a pilot

test of the interview questions to CSU, Stanislaus personnel not involved in this study

in order to provide feedback. The researcher used a checklist of questions suggested

by Gloria Rogers as listed in Appendix B. As a result of the pilot testing and

feedback, selected interview questions were adjusted and rewritten.

The first step in conducting the interviews was emailing the three marketing

directors to schedule a time to meet or to conduct a phone interview. The researcher

also included the consent letter for them to sign and fax or email back as well as

information regarding the interview topic in the email. The first person to respond

was Kristen Olsen from CSU Stanislaus, Assistant Vice President for

Communications and Public Affairs, and she requested a face-to-face interview for

December 30, 2010. The second person to respond was Linda Hoile, Public

Information Officer for MJC and she requested for a phone interview, which was

scheduled for December 30, 2010. Patrick Giblin, media relations director for

59

Pacific, emailed in early January to schedule a phone interview on January 4, 2011.

The following questions were asked in the same order for all the participants:

1. Do you have a social media site?

2. How often do you use your social media site?

3. Do you think it is important in today‘s world to have a social media site?

4. Do you strategically target your social media messages?

5. What type of messages do you like to send out?

6. How often do you send out messages through social media? Daily, twice

a day, monthly, weekly?

7. Have you had to hire a social media specialist?

8. With today‘s budget cuts, student enrollment being slashed, do you still

feel it is necessary to market to incoming students?

9. How often have you had to train faculty or administration on social media

practices and your department?

10. Do you feel that social media will grow and be an important tool in the

next five years for higher education institutions?

11. Do you have any social media guidelines that you have presented to the

institutions?

12. Do other departments in your institutions have a social media sites and

how often do you monitor the sites?

The phone interviews lasted 30 minutes each. Typed notes were taken during

each phone interview and were on speaker while a recorder was on to ensure

60

accuracy. Each interview was summarized while the participant was on the phone.

The consent letters were faxed back to the researcher. Member checks were

completed giving the interviewees an opportunity to review their responses. The face-

to-face interview with Olsen was conducted in her office at CSU Stanislaus. She also

gave the researcher the consent letter that she signed. The interview lasted 40

minutes and the researcher had handwritten notes during the interview that were later

typed and later transcribed by the researcher Olsen also provided a draft of CSU

Stanislaus social media guidelines that had not been approved for implementation.

During the interviews, a topic guideline was followed and handwritten and

typed notes were taken. Post-interview, the handwritten notes were typed and

member checks were conducted to ensure accuracy by emailing the participants

copies of the notes. Analysis of the qualitative data began with reading and

reviewing the typed data for relevant content. The interview topics provided a broad

framework for organizing the data and initial coding.

Surveys. The researcher used a checklist of questions suggested by Gloria

Rogers as listed in Appendix D to pilot test the survey questions. As an assessment

of the content validity the researcher administered the pilot test questions using CSU,

Stanislaus personnel not related to this study in order to provide feedback. The

results of the pilot test concluded with the majority in favor of the questions.

The survey sent to the 23 CSU campuses was a web-based survey through

surveymonkey.com. Before the survey was administered the researcher had made an

excel spreadsheet of all marketing administrators at each CSU campus, which

61

included names, emails, titles, and phone numbers. The emails within the spreadsheet

were used to collect and send a mass email of a link to the survey. The email

consisted of the consent letter as an attachment as well as within the body of the

email, an explanation of the study, a deadline, and a link to the survey on

surveymonkey.com. The IMC departments at twelve CSU campuses responded to

the survey. Several attempts were made by calling each marketing director for follow

ups, and several emails were sent requesting the other marketing directors to

complete the survey. Emails were sent to the campuses that gave consent to contact

them for their social media guidelines.

Survey security was ensured using the save referring uniform resource locator

(URL) and save Internet protocol (IP) address features in surveymonkey.com. The

save referring URL and IP features ensured that participants could not make duplicate

entries and that all survey attempts were from the hyperlink posted within

surveymonkey.com. This made it easier for participants to engage in the research,

ensured that each participant could only participate once, and shifted the

responsibility to the researcher to check the list of URLs for valid referring URL

entries. There were no duplicate entries. After the survey was deactivated, all survey

data was exported into an Excel spreadsheet and the survey database was deleted

from the website. In addition, each question of the survey had a comment field for

each participant to include a brief detail of their answer.

Content data collection. Social media guidelines and policies were reviewed

for this study to answer research question three. Six of the 12 survey participants

62

provided copies of their social media guidelines. All six social media guidelines had

been completed within the last year. The social media guidelines are written as a

guide for constituents within the institution to follow and therefore were considered

internal working documents rather than public documents.

Demographics

Interviews. Linda Hoile has been the marketing and public information

officer at MJC for 11 years and has a Bachelors of Arts degree in communications

from University of Redlands. She worked at Modesto Convention and Visitors

Bureau for over 14 years.

Patrick Giblin has been the media relations manager at Pacific for over five

years. Patrick was a double major at CSU Chico and graduated with his Bachelors of

Arts in communications and international studies. He is currently pursuing his

Masters of Arts degree at Pacific. Giblin worked at the The Modesto Bee newspaper

for 16 years.

Kristen Olsen, the former Assistant Vice President of Communications and

Public Affairs at CSU Stanislaus, managed the Office of Communications & Public

Affairs, including government relations, media relations, and visual branding (graphic

design, Web design, photography, and publications). She holds a Bachelor of Arts

degree from Westmont College. Olsen was in this position for over two years, but

left the position in December of 2010 to pursue her career as California Assembly

member, 25th district.

63

Survey respondents. The demographics of the CSU campuses that responded

to the survey are listed in Table 2 with names of marketing directors as well as Fall

2010 enrollment numbers. The demographics provide a broader look at the

participants in this research as well as their role at their campuses.

Table 2

Survey Respondent Demographics

Campus Marketing Director

Institutions enrollment

for Fall 2010a

Provided

social media

guidelines

Cal Poly Pomona Uyen Mai 18,706

Cal Poly, San Luis

Obispo

Mary McNally 17,332

CSU Bakersfield Karen Langston 6,550

CSU Channel

Islands

Nancy Gill 3,593 Yes

CSU East Bay Kimberly Legocki 10,064 Yes

CSU Fresno Katie Johnson 17,876 Yes

CSU Monterey

Bay

Scott Faust 4,395

CSU San

Bernardino

Sid Robinson 13,680 Yes

CSU San Diego Greg Block 24,590 Yes

CSU San Marcos Dave Woods 8,841

CSU Sonoma Jessica Anderson 7,390

CSU Stanislaus Denise Nordell 6,921 Yes

a Enrollment data from Calstate.edu enrollment reports.

64

Results and Findings

The data reported in this section are presented in order of the three-part sequential

mixed research method.

Interviews. The first research question was used to explore how IMC

departments at higher education institutions used social media and how social media

has changed the public relations field. Because of the focus nature of this study, the

interview themes will be presented first then the evidence from the interviews will

follow.

After coding the interviews themes that were developed included:

Informative, engaging, budget, strategies, policy or guidelines. As the data were

reviewed, each code had a number of subcodes that were included within the coding

system. The data were reviewed and annotated until no additional codes were

deemed necessary.

Interrater reliability. In order to establish reliability and trustworthiness of

the coding process for this study, inter-coder and inter-rater reliability techniques

were employed by using Cohen‘s kappa statistics. The researcher read the

transcribed interviews and developed common themes and codes and, collectively

with the researchers‘ dissertation advisor, reviewed and refined the codes. Some

codes were eliminated and other were combined into one theme. To further establish

reliability and trustworthiness of the codes, the researcher provided a copy of one

transcribed interview to a marketing colleague. The researcher asked the colleague to

read the interviews and develop codes from the interview. Together, the colleague

65

and the researcher discussed the emerging codes. The colleague generated codes that

were consistent with the researcher.

These codes were entered into Dedoose, an internet based program that targets

analysis of data of mixed-methods studies. Each typed interview was uploaded into

the software application as a text file. Subsequent reviews of the data using queries

resulted in the linkage of some codes, and the elimination of some codes. Table 3

identifies five primary themes that were identified by the researcher.

Table 3

Interview Themes

Themes Subthemes

1. Informative 1a. Emergency communication

1b. Promote events

1c. Recruiting

2. Engaging 2a. Listen to students

2b. Interact

2c. Help students be successful

3. Budget 3a. Saving money due to budget cuts

3b. No man power to oversee sites

3c. Social Media is FREE

3d. Great advertising source

4. Strategies 4a. Marketing strategies the same, but incorporate

social media

4b. Business like

4c. Consistent messaging

4d. Instantaneous

4f. No Measurement of recruitment purposes

5. Policy/guidelines 5a. No guidelines for social media

5b. Do not oversee other sites within the institution

5c. No training for admin or faculty

66

Theme 1: Informative. Informative is defined as reaching out to students and

becoming the source for information to the community about events that are

occurring at the institutions. There were many uses for social media that emerged

from the interviews, including emergency notifications, promoting events, or for

recruiting purposes. Hoile said ―we haven‘t been in a crisis situation, but it we were,

social media is a good tool to use to notify people.‖ Hoile indicated that she also uses

social media to promote events at MJC.

Olsen said ―many times we will use social media to let students know of

different activities around the campus or various scholarship opportunities available

to them.‖ All three interviewees indicated that they use social media to respond to

students who are asking questions about admission, therefore, the direct recruitment

was indicated lies with the admission office.

Theme 2: Engaging. Engagement is defined as a way to create a culture of

involvement for the students at the institution. Giblin stated that when a student asks

a question on Facebook, he immediately answers their questions. Hoile explained

that interacting with the students through social media is a good engagement tool

because the ―students then have a sense of ownership.‖ One of the questions in the

interview was, How often do you use your social media sites? Giblin provided a

very in depth response into this question including:

I check it five to six times during the day and sometimes in the middle of the

night if I‘m on the computer at home. It is the continuous monitoring of the

messages you send out and what people are saying about you. Our Facebook

account is the most successful with over 6,000 followers.

67

Giblin states that it is because of Pacific‘s IMC department ―openness‖ to interact

with guests on their social media pages that has increased their numbers over the last

year. Giblin went on state:

Never take down negative comments… A lot of people don‘t understand, is

that with the negative comments, if you respond back, our students respond

back…. Diffuse by explaining.

―Diffuse by explaining,‖ has been the motto for Giblin as well as Olsen and

Hoile. They both understand that commenting to a negative post could be a positive

turnaround for the person who posted the negative comment. Yet, Olsen and Hoile

also suggest that their departments do not respond to some negative comments

because other guests will comment back and it becomes a debate between social

media users that does not need any interference from the institutions IMC department.

All three interviewees indicated that they want to help students be successful

at the institution. The key messages that each marketing director indicated they send

out is to promote events, press release information, or conversational topics that will

generate feedback. Posting photos, sharing information about student happenings,

and faculty news, are good ways to engage students through social media.

Theme 3: Budget. With budget cuts throughout the state of California, fiscal

constraints were raised in the interviews. Hoile commented that MJC lacks time,

staff, and expertise to maintain their social media sites; they are saving money due to

budget cuts. She is focused not only on her duties as the public information officer,

but also becoming the social media specialist for their department. Giblin faces the

same issues at Pacific with lack of time and staff, ―I am the media relations manager,

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but I also manage our social media sites since we can‘t afford to hire someone full

time.‖ Olsen also faces these issues since her staff is limited, but she has a designated

staff member that focuses on updating their social media sites. Yet all three

interviewees indicated that social media is a free advertising tool that needs to be

taken advantage of.

Theme 4: Strategies. Having a social media strategy is defined as a

systematic plan for future use of this marketing tool. Social media is not a tool to sell

a product, but to build relationships (Weinberg, 2010) When participants were asked

if they strategically target their social media messages, Olsen replied: ―They are not

strategic because with social media you have to be spontaneous. It doesn‘t work if it

is too strategic.‖ Olsen indicated that her marketing strategies are the same, but she

has added social media as one of her strategies.

Hoile replied: ―The Facebook page has alumni, faculty and students, we must

always keep that in mind…Different departments coordinate certain messages with

our department to get a message out, for example, ‗graduation is cancelled due to

rain.‘‖ Hoile indicated this is the type of instantaneous messaging that occurs.

Other types of instantaneous messaging as stated by Olsen is by posting

―Sometimes fun stuff like ‗I‘m standing in line at the book store and it seems to be

moving along fast,‘ is a good way to give insider information without really trying to

sell the institution.‖

Giblin stated that ―Yes I am strategic on major events coming up. But, not

always strategic on social media.‖ He also indicated that ―We must remind people

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that there is a human behind the curtain,‖ by inserting the staff members name when

providing feedback on a comment. Giblin also indicated that institutions are

becoming more business like because of the competitive nature.

Theme 5: Policy and guidelines. Guidelines and policies are implemented

within the institution to develop best practice among the constituents at the

institutions. Each participant was also asked if they had any social media guidelines

and if they would be willing to share them. Olsen gave the researcher a draft copy

and asked that the researcher include standard verbiage in this dissertation that stated

that the guidelines have not yet been implemented.

Giblin, however, said that Pacific does not have social media guidelines:

No we don‘t have a guideline and we should. This has been a huge debate at

our institution because most believe they don‘t need one because that as an

academic business we already have detailed freedom of speech policies. As

long as faculty members make it clear they don‘t speak on behalf of the

university then they have freedom of speech. Administrators can‘t contact

media. Students can say whatever they want, they are our customers.

Yet Giblin‘s indicated that ―There needs to be additional rules and guidelines, on who

can create that account, who is responsible, and then tie it to branding guidelines.‖

Giblin also stated that Facebook ―messed thing up on FAN and Group pages,‖ which

created a mish mash on group pages and fan pages, so one cannot unify these pages.

As Giblin states, ―it‘s a mess, and people have no rules or objectives. They are

creating pages that are dormant.‖ Hoile also indicated that she has not had the

opportunity to create a social media guideline or policy for MJC, but will in the

future.

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One issue that each interviewee indicated that has been on the rise is the lack

of control of social media sites created by other departments with their institutions.

These include, faculty creating fan pages, financial-aid department creating a Twitter

account, and the history department having a MySpace account. Giblin states, ―I

don‘t have control over comments or other accounts being created and it could create

a huge public relations crisis if we are not aware at all times of the messages being

sent.‖ Giblin monitors all social media accounts created within Pacific.

However, Olsen‘s draft of the social media guidelines states that ―departments

or university units should contact the Office of Marketing and Communications to

ensure all institutional social media sites coordinate with other CSU Stanislaus sites

and their content…‖ Hoile from MJC states that ―Other departments have Fan Pages

on Facebook or Twitter accounts, but I do not oversee them, I only know they exist.‖

All three interviewees indicated that there is no training available for administration

or faculty on social media. However, Giblin will be starting training sessions on

campus in the near future.

The interview data in this study were then used to shape the survey data

questions that were sent to the 23 CSU campuses.

Survey data. The survey instrument was scored to determine the overall

frequency of social media use, types of social media, satisfaction of social media

sites, social media as an effective tool, and barriers of social media in the IMC

departments. Based on this research study about social media in higher education,

half of the 12 respondents indicated they have been using social media between one

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to two years, while five indicated they have been using social media for more than

two years. Only one of the respondents has used social media less than one year (see

Table 4).

Table 4

Length of Time CSU Campuses Have Been Using Social Media

Time Frequency

Less than 1 year 1

1-2 years 6

2-3 years 5

Total 12

Marketing directors were asked which social media sites their institutions‘

IMC departments used. Respondents were asked to identify the social media sites

they use (see Table 5). Based on the data collected from the 12 CSU Campuses, all

12 campuses used Facebook; 11 campuses used Twitter; nine campuses used

YouTube; eight campuses used LinkedIn; four indicated they used Flikr; three

indicated they used Foursquare, and one campus also used MySpace. Bebo,

Friendster, Blogger.com, and Xing were listed as options in the survey, but the

marketing directors did not indicated use of these sites. Four campuses specified that

they used ―other‖ forms of social media, including Picasa, RSS Word Press, and Dig

& Delicious.

Table 5

Social Media Sites Used at the CSU Campuses

Campus Facebook Twitter LinkedIn YouTube Flikr Foursquare MySpace Other

Cal Poly Pomona X X X X

Cal Poly, San Luis Obispo X X X X X X

CSU Bakersfield X X X RS word Press

CSU Channel Islands X X

CSU East Bay X X X X Digg & Delicious

CSU Fresno X X X X X X

CSU Monterey Bay X X X X X

CSU San Bernardino X X X X

CSU San Diego X X X X X Word press, Picasa

CSU San Marcos X X

CSU Sonoma X X X X

CSU Stanislaus X X X

Total 12 11 8 9 4 3 1 4 72

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When asked if social media is an effective marketing tool, most marketing

directors indicated that they agreed that it is effective. Respondents were asked to

rate each statement with a 5-point likert scale ranging with 1= (strongly agree) to 5=

(as strongly disagree). Scales 1 and 2 were placed in the agree category and 4 and 5

were placed in the disagree category. Having several social media sites was an

important element to the marketing directors with 75% agreeing to the statement.

They also believe that social media is an important branding tool with 75% also

agreeing to the statement. However, five of the marketing directors disagreed that

social media is an effective tool to increase enrollment for nontraditional age

students. Yet, two thirds of the marketing directors did indicate that social media is

an effective tool to gain community support (see Table 6).

The survey asked several questions about the IMC departments‘ use of social

media. Respondents were asked to rate each statement on a 5-point Likert scale

ranging from 1 = (very frequently) to 5 = (very infrequently). Scales 1 and 2 were

placed in the frequently category and 4 and 5 were placed in the infrequently

category. The marketing directors identified that 11 of 12 frequently are strategic

about targeting their social media messages. Whereas 50% reported that faculty or

administration infrequently help the IMC department generate social media messages,

50% answered that they infrequently received help from administration or faculty in

answering questions sent through social media. This is also why one marketing

director indicated offering social media training to administration and faculty. It is

interesting that 75% infrequently target messages to incoming students (see Table 7).

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Table 6

Social Media as a Marketing Tool

Statement Agree Neutral Disagree Total

I believe it is important to have

several social media sites at our

institution.

9

(75%)

2

(16.7%)

1

(8.3%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an important

branding tool at our institution.

9

(75%)

1

(8.3%)

2

(16.7%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an important tool

for crisis communication at our

institution.

6

(50%)

4

(33.3%)

2

(16.7%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an effective tool to

gain community support at our

institution.

8

(66.7%)

3

(25%)

1

(8.3%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an effective tool to

increase enrollment for

traditional age students.

5

(41.7%)

5

(41.7%)

2

(16.6%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an effective tool to

increase enrollment for

nontraditional age students (25

and older).

3

(25%)

4

(33.3%)

5

(41.7%)

12

(100%)

Social media is an effective tool to

gain external resources.

6

(50%)

4

(33.3%)

2

(16.7%)

12

(100%)

It is important to send out daily

social media messages to our

followers.

7

(58.4%)

2

(16.6%)

3

(25%)

12

(100)

75

Table 7

Social Media‘s Frequent use in Higher Education

Statement Frequently Neutral Infrequently Total

We use social media at

our institution.

10

(83.4%)

2

(16.6%)

0 12

(100%)

Our department

strategically targets our

social media messages.

11

(91.7)

1

(8.3)

0 12

(100%)

Our department sends out

key messages to various

constituents within our

institution.

7

(58.3%)

3

(25%)

2

(16.7%)

12

(100%)

Faculty and administration

help our department

generate social media

messages.

1

(8.3%)

5

(41.7%)

6

(50%)

12

(100%)

Faculty and administration

help our department

answer comments from

our social media sites.

1

(8.3%)

5

(41.7%)

6

(50%)

12

(100%)

Most of our social media

messages target

incoming students.

0 3

(25%)

9

(75%)

12

(100%)

Our department offers

training sessions for

faculty & administration

on social media.

1

(8.3%)

2

(16.7%)

9

(75%)

12

(100%)

Faculty and administration

take advantage of our

training sessions.

1

(8.3%)

4

(33.4%)

7

(58.3%)

12

(100%)

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The marketing directors have to monitor their social media sites on an hourly

basis; therefore, support is important. Each respondent was asked to rate each

statement ranging from 1=(very satisfied) to 5=(very dissatisfied). Scales 1 and 2

were placed in the satisfied category and 4 and 5 were placed in the dissatisfied

category. The vast majority of marketing directors in this study 83% are satisfied

with their social media sites and satisfied 58% with the response rate they receive

through social media, while two thirds of the respondents are also satisfied with the

level of support they receive from senior management about social media (see Table

8). A comment left by Kimberly Legocki from CSU East Bay said that their ―Social

media is based upon a measurable strategy with a metrics reports generated for

CSUEB leadership on a monthly basis.‖ Measuring social media has been something

that most companies using social media are investigating further.

Table 8

Social Media Satisfaction at each CSU Campus

Statement Satisfied

Neither

satisfied or

dissatisfied Dissatisfied

How satisfied are you with the

social media sites that your IMC

department is using?

10

(83.3%)

2

(16.7%)

0

How satisfied are you with the

response rate you receive through

your IMC departments social

media sites?

7

(58.3%)

5

(41.7%)

0

How satisfied are you with the level

of support your IMC department

has received from senior

management about social media?

8

(66.6%)

2

(16.7%)

2

(16.7%)

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The marketing directors were also asked how frequently they used social

media within the IMC department. While 10 out of 12 use it daily or one to three

times a week, one uses social media one to three times a month and one person

indicated that they use social media less than once per month. Legocki from CSU

East Bay also comments, ―We push new programs for our department of continued

education.‖ The frequency of use by the campuses can be seen in Table 9.

Table 9

Frequency of Use of Social Media by CSU Campuses

Frequency # of campuses

Daily 5

1-3 times a week 5

1-3 times a month 1

Monthly 0

Less than once a month 1

Total 12

Social media goals are important to identify for branding purposes and to

identify the strategies for the year. The marketing directors for this study were asked

to identify their goals for social media and five out of 12 identified that all of the

listed choices were part of their goals. Three out of 12 identified ―other‖ as their

goals, they did not elaborate in the comment section provided after the question (see

Table 10).

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Table 10

Campus Goals for Social Media

Goal # of campuses

Understand student concerns and

perspectives on university related issues

0

Increase sponsors and/or grants 0

Seeking growth in enrollment 0

Recognize the institutional brand 2

Promote events 2

All of the above 5

None of the above 0

Other 3

Total 12

Eight out of 12 of the marketing directors identified that lack of time was a

barrier to adopting social media within the IMC department, while a third identified

―other‖ as a barrier (see Table 11). Some of the ―other‖ barriers identified by the

marketing directors came from Greg Block from San Diego State University who

commented that ―financial resources [are a barrier] to use more advanced methods,‖

and Nancy Gill from CSU Channel Islands commented that ―lack of resources to

support staff is a barrier.‖ Also, Mary McNally from Cal Poly San Luis Obispo listed

―lack of equipment and training for more advanced productions.‖Budget issues in

hiring new staff members to manage the social media sites seem to be a barrier.

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Table 11

Barriers of Adopting Social Media Within the IMC Department

Barrier # of campuses

Lack of time 8

Lack of assessment measures 0

Lack of support from senior institutional leaders 0

Lack of adequate tech support 0

Resistance from other IMC staff members 0

Other 4

Total 12

The marketing directors were also asked if they had social media guidelines

established at their institutions, eight indicated ―yes‖ while four indicated they did not

have guidelines (see Table 12). Those that answered ―yes‖ were asked to provide the

guidelines and if the researcher may contact them for further questions about the

guidelines. Six of the marketing directors provided their social media guidelines to

the researcher.

Table 12

Does the IMC Department Have Social Media Guidelines for The Institution?

Response # of campuses %

Yes 8 66.7

No 4 33.3

Total 12 100.0

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The survey data was collected to answer research question number two and

the overall frequency of use for social media at each CSU campus.

Document analysis. The survey participants were asked if the IMC

departments‘ social media guidelines could be made available to the researcher.

Those that answered ―Yes,‖ were emailed and thanked for answering the survey

questions and if they would be willing to share their social media policies. The

researcher received a total of six guidelines that were either a draft or already

implemented within the institution. The third research question was used to explore if

higher education institutions are using social media guidelines.

According to Flick (2006), there are essential features when analyzing textual

material. One of the features is the use of categories, which are often derived from

theoretical models. The other feature is to define the material and ―what one actually

wants to interpret out of them‖ (p. 312). Another feature is defining what the largest

element in the text is, which falls under ―analytic unit.‖ After defining the largest

elements, summarizing or paraphrasing the analytical content for higher level of

abstraction. Because of the focus nature of this study, the two major ―analytic units‖

were 1. Intended audience for the guidelines and organization of guidelines; 2.

Principles or processes for the use of social media.

Intended audience for the guidelines and organization of guidelines.

Social media has become a powerful communication tool that has significant impact

on institution‘s reputation. The six social media guidelines reviewed had the same

audience. The recommendations applied primarily to employees and contractors

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communicating on behalf of the institution through the use of blogs, Twitter,

Facebook, LinkedIn, wikis, social networks, virtual worlds, and other social media

community.

Fresno State‘s guidelines address their audience by stating, ―We expect all

who participate in social media on behalf of Fresno State to understand the

technology they are utilizing and to follow these recommendations.‖ CSU Stanislaus

guidelines state:

Both in professional and institutional roles, employees need to follow the

same behavioral standards as they would in real life. The same laws,

professional expectations, and guidelines for interacting with students,

parents, alumni, Donors, media, and other university constituents apply online

as in the real world. Employees are liable for anything they post to social

media sites.

CSU East Bay guidelines rule out faculty members who use social media for

instruction, ―These guidelines and standards do not cover faculty use of social media

for instructional purposes nor academic department use of social media within

internally facing (intranet) systems, such as Blackboard or other NEtIDbased

systems.‖ The targeted audience in each social media guideline is specified and made

clear that the guidelines are only recommendations not a policy.

CSU San Bernardino defines its audience and three types of social media

participants: ―A university operated social media site; Sites in which you participate

as a recognized official or member of our University: Personal sites in which your

participation is unrelated to the university. The policy does not apply to personal

social media.‖ Each of these institutions made it clear who the target audience was in

the introduction of the guidelines.

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The organization of the six social media guidelines consisted of an

introduction to and definition of social media. The guidelines shared a common

organization style in addressing anticipated questions from the audience that would

be beneficial. What should the reader take away after reading the guidelines? One of

the common themes that emerged from the organization style is the idea that the

social media guidelines should focus on the things that employees can rather do than

what they can’t do.

Once a clear definition of social media is introduced the guidelines created are

very simple to follow with clear and understandable language. Each guideline

defines the main points with bullet points or a sequenced outline. For example the

guidelines from CSU Stanislaus are separated in three different sections. Section one

of the guidelines discusses ―policies for all social media sites, including personal

site.‖ The rest of the guidelines follow this type of organization but do not state the

section numbers. The guidelines discuss principles/policies first, and then best

practice. CSU Stanislaus was the best model for a distinct and structured guideline.

The first section discussed policies; second section was best practices; and section

three discussed institutional social media. All six guidelines also included

bibliography sections.

Principles and processes for the use of social media. Principles are essential

in keeping order with university standards and to help clarify how best to enhance and

protect personal and professional reputations when participating in social media.

Principles applied to those posting on behalf of an official university unit. Social

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media is a necessary channel for sharing with constituents‘ information about the

institution. CSU East Bay guidelines have clear principles that are clearly stated in

the beginning of their social media guidelines:

Don‘t engage without a clear plan, strategy, goals, and line of

responsibility

Be responsible for continuous monitoring, maintenance, and timely

response

Be transparent, and avoid misrepresentation

Both CSU Channel Islands and CSU Fresno guidelines mirror in principles by

suggesting to be ―respectful of proprietary information and content by not

copyrighting photos or copy without properly crediting the source or gaining

permission from the source prior to use.‖ San Diego State University guidelines state

that anyone using social media must ―avoid posting any content derogatory or in

defamation of SDSU, its services, employees, students, constituents or competitors.

All six sets of guidelines mention that being transparent is a key component to the

principles. Being honest or dishonest will quickly be noticed in the social media

environment. CSU Fresno guidelines state:

If you are blogging about your work at Fresno State, use your real name,

identify that you work for Fresno State, and be clear about your role. If you

have a vested interest in something your are discussing you should be the first

to point it out.‖

Part of being transparent is also having professionalism in social media. CSU

Stanislaus indicates that ―there can be a fine line between healthy debate and

incendiary reaction. You do not need to respond to every criticism or barb.‖ CSU

84

East Bay guidelines also adhere to standards of professional conduct at all times

―when engaging online on behalf of the University understand that perception is

reality.‖ These suggested principles should can become helpful for an employee who

doesn‘t understand social media. Respecting copyrights and fair use were clearly

defined in all six guidelines. For example, CSU Stanislaus guidelines state ―always

give people proper credit for their work, and make sure you have the right to use

something with attribution before you publish.‖ CSU Fresno guidelines go on further

to state, ―University representatives using social media should consult the following

policies before designing a community.‖ The guidelines for Fresno State include a

list of acceptable use; data classification; Family Education Rights and Privacy Act

(FERPA); policy on addressing harassment; standards for graphics and

communications; and web policy. Each of these components had a description

including a link to the website.

In order to help provide guidance on how best to enhance and protect personal

and professional reputations when participating in social media, all six institutions

had thorough discussion of best practices incorporated in their social media

guidelines. The organization style in the social media guidelines discuss principles

when using social media as a way to help build stronger, more successful

relationships. The principles discussed in the beginning of the guidelines are to

contribute to advancing the universities reputation and interests if used properly.

The majority of each social media guideline consists of best practice,

including strategic; judicious; listening; and reviewing content. The guidelines also

85

discussed how to make important contribution to the community and to the public

dialogue on broad range of issues.

CSU Channel Islands guidelines recommend developing a strategy for social

media, ―determine the goals and outcome of your community and how much time

realistically you will have to devote to social media.‖ CSU Fresno guidelines add

that ―in some cases social media presence is not ideal and your needs might be better

served by collaborating with other social media communities to get the word out.‖

Asking permission to publish or report on a conversation is another best practice in

the guidelines. The guidelines at CSU Fresno state that ―all statements must be true

and not misleading and all claims must be substantiated and approved. Please never

comment on anything related to legal matters, litigation, or any parties we are in

litigation without the appropriate approval.‖ CSU Stanislaus guidelines recommend

that anyone using social media ―to get the facts straight before posting them on social

media.‖ This language is used throughout the other guidelines.

Judicious in the guidelines recommends participants to listen. The guidelines

at CSU East Bay suggest that ―methodical monitoring and assessment, together with

active management, is a requirement for engaging social media successfully and

productively on behalf of CSUEB.‖ Some of the guidelines suggest either checking

the sites several times during the day; set up automated feeds using search tool such

as Google alerts to notify of new activity; ―know your community.‖ Guidelines at

CSU Fresno state ―listen before you engage,‖ which suggests using monitoring tools,

such as Google analytics or Facebook measuring tools. Listening increases student

86

engagement through the social media as well as gain trust from the members that

follow the social media sites.

The six social media guides reviewed for this study suggested that content be

reviewed before posting. CSU Fresno guidelines suggest ―writing the post first in

word processor before posting to help detect spelling and grammar errors.‖ Another

best practice tool theme that emerged from the six social media guidelines was

exercising good judgment by refrain from comments that can be interpreted as slurs,

demeaning, inflammatory.

In summary, the six social media guidelines provided for this study were

created to further emphasize any anticipated behavior before it arises. All social

media guidelines use cautionary tone because of the ease of use and volatile nature of

social media. The consequences for mistakes or misssteps can be very costly in terms

of image, brand, and liability. The nature of social media can be volatile because of

the increase in popularity with usage, there is not control of messaging and who is in

control.

Evidence of quality. Because social media use in higher education is a

quickly evolving and growing phenomenon multiple data was collected and used for

this study. This sequential explorative study followed a mixed methods approach of

inquiry. The researcher has chose to use both qualitative and quantitative measures

because of the exploratory nature of the study and the research questions. Using both

measures created a triangulation, which allows for a means to seek ―convergence

across qualitative and quantitative methods‖ (Cresswell, 2004, p. 15). This study

87

utilized several means of ensuring accuracy of data. First and foremost, the three

interviews were done either face-to-face or on the phone and were recorded.

Research questions were open questions and theory driven to reduce biases and to

prompt individual responses. In order to establish reliability and trustworthiness of

the coding process for this study, inter-coder and inter-rater reliability techniques

were used. The researcher read the transcribed interviews and developed common

themes and codes and, collectively with the researchers‘ dissertation advisor,

reviewed and refined the codes. The researcher self-transcribed each interview.

Once the transcription was completed, they were uploaded to a computer program

and were coded, analyzed, and extracted into themes.

The researcher maintained trustworthiness in the qualitative research by

recording the interviews and saving all email communication documents. Survey

security was ensured using the save referring uniform resource locator (URL) and

save Internet protocol (IP) address features in surveymonkey.com. When analyzing

content analysis it is best to use inter-coder reliability to apply codes to the text,

which was done for this research.

In addition, the researcher kept a personal journal to reflect epiphanies,

thoughts, and reflections. Different data sources including articles, news, social

media sites and biographies were explored and dissertation chair were utilized to help

narrow down important data and themes.

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Summary

To summarize, the research design for this study was a three-part, sequential

mixed-methods design, an approach increasingly used in social-science research. The

first phase of the study consisted of interviewing marketing directors from a

community college, public university, and a private university to provide a wide

examination of the use of social media within the three major areas of higher

education. The second phase was surveying the 23 CSU marketing directors from

each campus. The third phase of the study was reviewing six social media guidelines

that were provided from the marketing directors at the CSU campuses. The

qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analyzed to answer the three

primary research questions. The interviews consisted of three marketing directors

from Modesto Junior College, University of the Pacific, and CSU Stanislaus. The

marketing director surveys included responses of the marketing directors from the 12

CSU campuses and six social media guidelines.

Based on analysis of the interview data, the marketing directors acknowledged

that social media guidelines are necessary for future implementation at any higher

education institution. The marketing directors also recognized that it is vital to have

social media as a marketing tool to keep students informed; for branding purposes;

have the community involved; for emergency notifications; as well as an engagement

tool. The themes that emerged from the interview data support the guiding

framework as seen in Figure 5.

89

The survey instrument was scored to determine the overall frequency of social

media use, types of social media, satisfaction of social media sites, social media as an

effective tool, and barriers of social media in the IMC departments. The majority

survey respondents agreed that social media is an effective branding tool for the

institution. Furthermore, the marketing directors indicated that they use social media

frequently and sometimes are strategic in their key messaging. The barriers that were

indicated by the marketing directors in the survey for using social media were lack of

resources and time. Some of the other barriers indicated in the survey were lack of

support from faculty or administration for generating newsworthy items. Yet, the

majority indicated that they were highly satisfied with level of support from senior

management. Half of the marketing directors from the CSU campuses who

responded to the survey shared their social media guidelines with the research.

The evaluation of the guidelines also indicated that the social media

guidelines are documents that provide direction for official use and apply to

employees or contractors who communicate on behalf of the institution. The

guidelines also provide principles and best practice procedures for the use of social

media platforms.

In this chapter, the data collection activities focus for the study was

summarized, demographics of participants in the study were reviewed, and the results

and findings of each data collection point were reported. In the following chapter, the

researcher will provide an analysis and interpretation of the findings, connect the

90

findings to the literature referenced in Chapter 2, and provide recommendations for

actions and further study.

91

CHAPTER V

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This mixed-methods exploratory study examined Internet social media

marketing in higher education institutions. This chapter first provides an overview of

the study and a summary of the findings from each data collection point.

Interpretations of the findings, organized by each research question are then

reviewed. Next, the research objectives and limitations of the study are discussed.

Chapter 5 concludes with recommendations for policy and practice as well as further

study.

This study explored how IMC departments and PR professionals at higher

education institutions use social media as marketing, communications, and branding

tools. The research design for this study was a three-part sequential research methods

design, an approach increasingly used in social-science research.

This study sought to answer the following research questions.

1. How is social media used by the IMC department at each higher education

institution and how has social media changed the PR profession in higher

education?

2. How are the IMC departments in the CSU campuses using social media to

shape the university brand and other communication functions?

3. Are the higher education institutions using a procedures guideline for social

media?

92

Data were collected as described above to answer these research questions.

The results are analyzed below through the lens of a theoretical framework that

includes elements of agenda setting theory, paradigm shift, and chaos theory. Each of

these theories is relevant to the study topic and design, individually and collectively.

Agenda setting theory relates to the large influence of news media on readers,

viewers, and listeners through their prioritization of which stories to tell and how

much to tell about each. In the case of the present research, the messages the

universities want to get out to their audiences are ―newsworthy.‖

Agenda setting theory also looks at the amount of control over the agenda,

which has changed with social media‘s significant shift in greater control by the

audience. The data collected will be considered in light of the effects that university

social media marketing has on audiences through the content it chooses to publish

and how much space or time is dedicated to each segment of content. Although this

study essentially investigated a social phenomenon, quantifiable data were collected

and analyzed. The researcher also applies the butterfly effect to Chaos theory in

social media marketing. That is, a major element of chaos theory is the idea that a

small change can have a major impact, and in social media marketing, small and often

unpredictable snippets of media can ―go viral,‖ circulating rapidly among a large

audience.

Summary and Discussion of Findings

Social media marketing is more than just a part of popular culture; it is a way

of shaping life. Whereas the Internet of the past was more about ―me, myself, and I,‖

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the past few years have brought about substantial change: Online interactions are now

more social (Weinberg, 2009). Social media marketing is a process that empowers

individuals to promote their web sites, products, or services through online social

channels and to communicate with and tap into a much larger community that may

not be available via traditional advertising channels.

Creating brand awareness, especially in higher education, can have long-term

effects on consumers. Specifically, consumers who become aware of the university

brand now are likely to remember the institution and seek it out when applying to

college or shopping for university products. Today, information is more easily

accessible online, and, more significantly, that information is easier to find

(Weinberg, 2009). Social media is about the conversations that are formed online to

gain the trust of the audience. Younger generations which make up the population of

traditional age college students are becoming more digital savvy and are becoming

aware when a company is trying to sell a product rather than gaining their trust. If a

student is seeking information about an institution, that student will not research

through newspapers or the library. Instead, students are more likely use a computer

and look for reviews and endorsements from other individuals just like them.

Social media marketers, especially those in higher education, need to

understand the rules of engagement, participate in social media forums on a regular

basis, and capitalize on emerging trends. Integrating social media into the marketing

strategy at any institution is a cost-effective tool versus advertising in newspapers or

magazines. With budget cuts, this low cost of advertising is a positive investment for

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the long term. As higher education institutions embrace Web 2.0 and other

technologies, leveraging social media is not so very different from conventional

marketing and networking: Success is dependent first on establishing trust and then

cultivating the relationship (Brink, 2010).

This no-cost form of marketing is becoming a trend in the business sector, but

many companies are having a difficult time understanding how to use it and how to

monitor their social media sites. In an interview with Patrick Giblin from the

University of the Pacific, he referred to social media sites as being a ―mess.‖ Giblin

explained that the freedom that departments have to post on their own Facebook or

Twitter accounts is not only hard to manage but could become a liability for the

university if monitoring is lacking. He also stated that people think they know how to

market through social media, but not everyone understands the ramifications if it is

done incorrectly. The ―mess‖ that Giblin refers to can be viewed through the lens of

chaos theory.

The multiple, rapid, and expansive use of social media networks has created a

frenzied environment for the PR industry, forcing it to work even harder on key

messages to maintain the good face of organizations. This form of ―anarchy‖ has no

centralized control, which creates a disorganized, unregulated environment. Despite

the imagery of disorder that the name chaos theory conjures up, the theory‘s focus is

actually about finding the underlying order in apparently random data (Snell, 2009).

Figure 6 illustrates chaos theory through the butterfly effect. In particular, the figure

provides an example of how quickly the mass of information expands through social

Figure 6. Example illustration of chaos theory through butterfly effect at a higher education institution.

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media sites for just one student, alumni, media contact, or member of the community

at a given moment. Once a guest is on the institution‘s web site, the home page has a

section for current news that directs readers to the institution‘s IMC department.

Another example of the butterfly effect is seen when visiting, for example, the

admission department‘s home page with links to its Facebook and Twitter accounts.

Annie Infinite (2011), a social media expert, explains in her blog that social

media can cause a butterfly effect when one small action (like the flap of a butterfly‘s

wings or a small comment) can create a dynamic and increasing change in any

system. For instance, when someone adds a post to a Facebook or Twitter page, a

chain reaction can begin with many other people adding comments in response. The

topic could then become a trend picked up by search engines, which might mark

certain keywords in the post as highly important. Very soon the initial post could be

ranking high in the major search engines.

The first set of data, derived from the in-person interviews with university

staff and students, presented five themes of university social media marketing. The

marketing directors from the three institutions that participated in the study reported

using social media for disseminating information in an emergency, to promote an

event, or for recruitment purposes; engaging students; listening to student concerns;

and strategically placing key messages. The marketing directors noted that some

elements of conventional marketing strategies still apply today, that new strategies are

needed in the age of social media, and that the marketing field lacks clear, universal

guidelines for how social media should be utilized.

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These findings directly speak to the research question, how is social media used by

the IMC department at institutions of higher learning? The fact that these institutions

use social media for disseminating information, together with reports of budget

restraints as a major motivation for using social media, show that the university

administrators are working with at least a subconscious awareness of chaos theory. In

other words, the leaders of these institutions want to spread certain messages, or at

least have a presence in what is becoming the central arena for marketing to the

college-student–age generation. They realize the potential of having a message go

viral via social media, or to have a butterfly effect, for free. Integrated marketing

communications departments at institutions of higher education are using social

media to disseminate information for free in a forum that has the potential to spread

the information with unparalleled speed and to audiences of unprecedented size.

Higher education institutions are using social media to engage students

because they understand that users are living in an age where news is interesting if it

is ―all about me‖ (Weinberg, 2009). A quick glance at any Facebook wall will show

hundreds if not thousands of recent posts of people talking about themselves. Agenda

setting theory considers the effects of media on audiences according to which

messages are spread and how much is spread about each message—in the new

paradigm of the generation of social media and ―me news,‖ social media marketers

have to adjust their messages to be worthy of reading in the eyes of the audience, and

that means writing about them. In the present study, university marketing directors

reported that one of their primary uses for social media is engaging audiences, such as

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by providing helpful information for students and asking students for their opinions

and feedback. Successful social media marketers have realized that the agenda

setting for how media influence is determined has been reversed. For example, the

people who traditionally distributed the messages can no longer count on influencing

audiences through decisions about what content to publish and how much. The

audience is now putting out its own messages and, to regain any sort of influence,

social media marketers have to compete with those bottom-up messages by adjusting

their own content to what the audience demands and dictates (see Figure 7)

Figure 7. Agenda setting in the past and present: Illustration of who is controlling

media messages.

In the data derived from the surveys, 11 out of 12 participants reported using

social media marketing for more than a year—social media marketing was only new

to 1 of the 12 university representatives. All 12 participants use Facebook, and 11

use Twitter. LinkedIn and YouTube were the next most popular, followed by Flickr,

Foursquare, MySpace, WordPress, Picasa, Digg, and Delicious. The marketing

directors in this survey indicated that social media is an important branding tool.

They also indicated that it is important to have a social media strategy.

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These findings relate to the research question, how are the IMC

departments in the CSU campuses using social media to shape the university brand

and other communication functions? To succeed in a PR role at one of these

institutions today, one must have a good command of all of these platforms. These

institutions have been using social media as a marketing outlet for some time, and

therefore a competitive candidate cannot afford a learning curve. These platforms are

part of a new skill set in the world of PR for academic institutions and essentially any

other institution or organization.

In the survey, participants also reported, on average, that they strongly

believed that social media is an important branding tool for their institutions and that

it is important for them to have a presence on multiple platforms. Although this does

not directly answer the question of how IMC departments are using social media to

brand, it does show that IMC departments consider social media to be critical in

branding efforts—so much so that they market on as many networks as possible. Ten

of the 12 respondents also reported actively using social media marketing at least

once a week, further supporting the significance of social network marketing in

today‘s PR campaigns regardless of what institution they may be promoting.

Most participants reported being satisfied with their social media messages,

whereas fewer were satisfied with the response from the audience. Most respondents

did not believe that their social media marketing efforts affected their enrollment

numbers. This might indicate that goals other than direct ―selling‖ (or, in this study,

attracting applicants) exist for social media marketing. For example, universities put

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a stronger emphasis on more abstract selling, such as branding and building a certain

image, rather than achieving more concrete indicators of success (Weinberg, 2009).

Social media marketing efforts at the universities are managed by an IMC

department with little if any participation by faculty or administration (Weinberg,

2009). In other words, universities have compartmentalized the relatively new and

undefined tool of social media marketing as a PR responsibility. This is interesting

because a major aim of university social network marketing is to engage past, present,

and future students, and the professors, academic advisers, and other university

personnel who have more interaction with students are not part of the marketing

process. The very fact that university administrators have designated social network

marketing as a PR and marketing tool shows that a conventional perspective is being

applied to a new phenomenon. The old school of thought was that marketing or

dissemination of information, including news, is top down, as reflected in agenda

setting theory. Of course, social networks are anything but top down. Social network

information does not exactly flow from the bottom up; rather, it flows in all directions

all at once. There is no hierarchy because all members have equal and open

opportunity to post and view information.

Despite being put in charge of the social media marketing efforts, the

respondents in this study‘s survey indicated that the IMC departments were not

provided with training in this area. Six out of 12 of the respondents indicated that

university administration did not help the IMC department generate key messages to

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send through social media. Interviewees at a third of the institutions reported that

they did not have guidelines for social media marketing.

In the third phase of the study, the researcher reviewed social media

guidelines. In the existing guidelines, two major themes were noted: (a) intended

audience for the guidelines and organization of guidelines and principles and (b)

processes for the use of social media. Some of the principles that the participants

indicated were to avoid engagement without a clear plan; to be responsible for

continuous monitoring, maintenance, and timely responses; and to recognize that

social media behavior can impact an organization‘s image in a nearly unprecedented

way. Another principle was that people expect constant, immediate access to

information and feel entitled to continuous personal attention. The third principle

was to be transparent and avoid misrepresentation. In the early years, the Internet

was a place to hide behind a username and reinvent oneself. Today, the Internet is

about transparency and indicating a presence on the web.

The fact that this paradigm shift is well under ay is indicated in the guidelines

for the relatively new social media marketing of higher education institutions, where

transparency is prioritized as a core and seemingly established norm or expectation.

In review of the study data, one of the most prominent and unique features of the

social media guidelines was the focus on the things that employees can do rather than

what they can’t do.

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Interpretations of the Findings

Social networks are becoming a primary source of information for increasing

numbers of college-age people. Members of this generation spend more time

engaging with social networks than reading newspapers or otherwise taking in

information that they cannot interact with in real time.

The paradigm shift to real time is of great theoretical significance here.

Society is in an age where a 2-week turnaround time is obsolete for PR (see Table

13). Social networks are ubiquitous and have set new standards across the board for

what qualifies as timely. Because social media usage is integrated not only through

Table 13

Agenda Setting for the Public Relations Profession

The emerging paradigm Old paradigm (5 to 10 years ago)

Public creates newsworthy stories. Media

scrutinizes messages and uses blogs as

trustworthy sources.

Press releases were sent to the media

through email or fax.

The public can control the message. Public relations controlled what messages

they were sending to the media.

Businesses are compelled to hire a social

media specialist to brand their businesses

through social media.

Businesses only hired PR personnel who

had a bachelor‘s degree in PR and

experience writing press releases.

Writers have to research several social

media network sites for exchanged

information about businesses or

institutions. Must be proactive in

gathering information before the media

captures the story.

The only information to search was

publicity tracking.

News is spread in 15 minutes News was spread in 2 hours.

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computers but also through mobile applications, information is available anytime,

anywhere. ―Old‖ notions of PR must be modified or rethought with both of the

following concepts in mind for higher education marketing. First, the way to increase

an audience is to listen to the audience as well as engaging in a conversation. Second,

the old strategy sessions of sitting in boardrooms or designing printable marketing

material are over, and the only way to successfully participate in today‘s market is

through quick, almost spontaneous strategy.

It is important to note that going viral is a major conceptual change. It used to

be that the way to connect to users was through making the product look its best—

high quality and affordable. These days, to sell a product or to sell an institution, the

seller must convince the audience that everyone else is buying it. Targeted audiences

are seeking advice from their social networks, and this is a key to universities

learning to use the networks to their advantage. For example, a school is far more

likely to increase application numbers by having current or past students connect with

potential students than by the school itself reaching out. The most popular social

network, Facebook, is set up so that users essentially only connect with their

―friends.‖ Spamming is extremely limited and access to information is highly

protected. This means that for a school to be seen by a Facebook member, the school

has to send its message through people in that member‘s network. Although the word

viral sounds negative, it is actually the ultimate success for any social network

marketing campaign. It is assumed that a school whose positive image goes viral is

sure to see more applicants, raising general popularity and increasing its donors.

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As shown in the results of the present data, institutions of higher learning have

recognized the importance of becoming involved with social networks, although they

have not quite grasped how to make the best use of the opportunity. The data in this

research indicate that the first step for succeeding in this realm is to leave ineffective

marketing concepts about marketing behind and accept the new social media

platform. The data also suggest that the core aspects of the new communication

paradigm are (a) deciding who will publish and how much, (b) keeping up with the

real-time speed of interactions, and (c) achieving the ultimate goal of going viral.

Conclusions

Studies on social media marketing are vital to defining the roles that social

networks are playing today and teaching professionals how to use them. A major

practical implication of this research is using social media effectively. According to

Weinberg (2009), social media marketing is about real, personal relationships.

Jumping into the game without being aware of the surroundings can result in

disastrous consequences. Social networks are no longer a novel phenomenon; rather,

they have become a basic factor of personal and most professional lives.

Marketing directors using social media sites have to study what works and

what does not, empirically, and devise standard guidelines for their institutions.

Additionally, IMC departments should consider involving people or groups who are

outside of the IMC department. Social media is about connecting and engaging, and

a potential student is far more likely to read a blog with the opinions of a professor

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who might teach him or her in the future than a PR representative, who is essentially

irrelevant to the student‘s life.

Limitations of the Study

This study is bound by the population of IMC directors who were interviewed

and surveyed. Consequently, the results of this study cannot be generalized to all

populations of marketing directors and social media in the country or even the state of

California. However, this study does provide the groundwork for further study on

social media‘s impacts on students‘ perceptions of higher institutions.

Because this study was explorative in nature, the researcher did not have any

definite, preconceived notions. The researcher decided to study social media because

of the plethora of anecdotal evidence but the lack of scholarly studies focused on the

topic.

Social media use by university IMC departments is understood and received

well by students. This study has attempted to contribute to the field‘s understanding

of the specific and potential uses for social media in the realm of higher education

marketing as the impact of social media continues to increase.

Recommendations for Policy and Practice

Based on the conclusions reached through the analysis of the research

questions, the researcher has four recommendations for policy and practice. First

universities should establish criteria for recruiting and hiring a social media specialist

or online coordinator. Requirements should include an instinctive knowledge of

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certain buzz words, an active personal blog, an account on each of the major social

networks if not the more minor networks as well, and a comprehensive understanding

of their functionality. Being responsible for monitoring the social media sites could

easily be a full-time job. As seen in the data from this study, many IMC departments

are struggling to keep up with their social media sites. The interviewee from the

University of the Pacific, Patrick Giblin, reported that ―monitoring social media sites

is a 24-hour job and I am responsible for monitoring the sites at Pacific.‖ Giblin also

mentioned that social media sites are a ―mess,‖ and this is where the need for

organization is crucial. CSU East Bay has one of the best examples for organizing

the several social media sites that are a representation of the institution, and this

system requires the daily attention of an online specialist and coordinator. The IMC

department‘s web site at this school has a page dedicated to all of the social media

sites in use, with corresponding links

(http://www20.csueastbay.edu/ua/communications/social-media-directory.html).

Additionally, all departments and faculty members must register their site through

CSU East Bay as indicated in CSU Stanislaus social media guidelines.

The second recommendation is that it is imperative that each institution create

guidelines for the use of social media to avoid chaos and to further understand the

social media process. The social media guidelines will help control and reduce the

disorganization and provide some functional order in the information-dissemination

efforts of higher education institutions. The social media policy at any higher

education institution will impact most of the university or college internally because

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faculty and administration that are using social media will have to refocus their own

social-media strategies. Various constituents who use social media at the university

or college must be trained and have a clear understanding of the university‘s stance

on social media use. According to Kaewsurin (2008), to build and deliver a strong

corporate brand through social media, internal stakeholders, including students,

faculty, and administrators, will play important roles.

According to a study by Henkel (1997), universities are being transformed

into corporate enterprises. This movement tends to emphasize direct control over

employees (Henkel, 1997). One issue that surfaces frequently is, ―How will the

faculty adhere to this new policy?‖ The first and foremost important step is training

through the IMC department. The second step is monitoring and providing assistance

for the social media sites being developed. Third, the IMC department should develop

standard templates to use for social media efforts throughout the institution.

The third recommendation is that institutions should implement a formal

social media policy across and throughout the institution to insure conformity and

appropriate standards of use. As discussed earlier and cited in the various social

media guidelines that were reviewed for this study, the effective use of social media

can be challenging and can create significant level of vulnerability of the institution.

According to Fowler (2009), implementation is the stage of the policy process in

which a policy is formally adopted and is put into practice. The major actors in the

implementation arena are the implementers. One of the most important parts of the

implementation process is gathering resources to mobilize for policy implementation.

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Fowler discusses several problems that arise from implementation, including time and

energy, money, arranging staff development, ongoing communication, limitations of

facilities, and resistance to the policy. As the plan is being implemented monitoring

the policy‘s implementation is critical in order to institutionalize the policy.

The fourth recommendation is that university staff members should have a

clear understanding of the evaluation of social media is necessary to provide a proper

policy evaluation. Fowler (2009) refers to policy evaluation as a ―type of applied

research in which the practices and rigorous standards of all research are used in a

specific setting for a practical purpose: determining to what extent a policy is

reaching its goals‖ (p. 311). Policies are often first put into effect through projects

(Fowler, 2009). A number of stakeholders, both individuals and groups, may be

involved in or affected by a program evaluation. With a social media policy, the

stakeholders involved are faculty, students, administrators, the president‘s council,

board members, and support staff.

There are many ways to evaluate if a social media policy is taking hold, yet

one of the most effective is measuring the Return on Investment (ROI) of social

media. According to Weinberg (2009) five separate metrics can help estimate ROI

for social media: reach, frequency and traffic, influence, conversions and transactions,

and sustainability. Wienberg also noted that ―the problem with trying to determine

ROI for social media is you are trying to put numeric quantities around human

interactions and conversations, which are not quantifiable‖ (p. 8). The researched

formed a model to illustrate these five metrics and how they can convert to an ROI

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for higher education institutions. The model also explains how to measure the new

phenomenon of social media (see Figure 8).

The ROI in Figure 8 does not have to include dollar figures, as the most

important metrics for universities are engaging and retaining students. Once the

marketing directors know how far the message is traveling, they can strategize their

messages more effectively. Google Analytics, a tool for measuring the traffic and

other patterns of web sites and social media, is a detailed and effective way to

measure visits to and impressions of sites. Facebook has also integrated a similar tool

with its ―fan‖ pages and offers tools for businesses to track impressions per status

update, reach, click throughs, and increases in fans per week.

A critical component needed in social media guidelines is a clear evaluation

process. Figure 9 is an example of the ROI model in monitoring student discussion.

To engage students, having a conversation with them rather than selling to them will

influence their decision making. This strategy can create a trusting relationship with

guests and helps build a brand. Especially in higher education, trust is necessary (see

Figure 9 for a sample Facebook page from CSU Fresno).

As seen in Figure 9, the potential student is indecisive about CSU Fresno or

CSU Sacramento and may have made her decision in favor of CSU Fresno or

―converted‖ when the IMC department at CSU Fresno answered her right away.

Social media sites must also ―listen,‖ participate, and engage, three best practices that

the study participants clearly emphasized in the content-analysis data for the social

media guidelines (see Figure 10 for an example from CSU Fresno).

Figure 8. Model of return on investment through social media.

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Figure 9. Fresno State‘s Facebook page.

Figure 10. Example of listening and participating on Facebook from CSU Fresno‘s

IMC department.

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Recommendations for Future Studies

To further understand the ways in which higher learning institutions are using

social networks for marketing and other purposes, additional studies in this area need

to include a greater number of participants from a larger and more diverse set of

colleges and universities. A supplementary study would, similar to this study‘s

interview and survey, surveying students to understand what they have to say about

their motivation for engaging with university social network marketing. This

feedback would be invaluable for all schools running social network marketing

campaigns. In surveying students and involving them in focus groups, studies could

examine how social media messages sent by the IMC department are perceived by

students and other key constituent groups for the purpose of engagement.

By combining interviews and surveys, this study obtained critical data that can

dramatically influence the formation of uniform standards and guidelines for higher

institutions‘ use of social media. Such standards and guidelines can go a long way in

helping institutions maximize the use of social media, both in the instructional area

and in marketing. Social media marketing can take a substantial amount of staff time,

but because social networks are quickly becoming the most vital hub of human

interaction, they are essential to institutions wishing to remain relevant in the next

generation. Finally, a study is needed to better understand the congruency between

what IMC departments intend to convey in their social media messages and how

students actually perceive those messages. This comparison would help pinpoint

misinterpretations of key messages or student disengagement.

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Summary

Chapter 5 presented an interpretation of the findings of the study.

Additionally, program objectives were re-iterated and recommendations for further

action and study were outlined. Based on the findings from the study, were derived

from interviews with three marketing directors, a survey with marketing directors at

CSU campuses, and review of social media guidelines, the researcher made important

recommendations for marketing directors at higher education institutions.

Recommendations were also outlined for further research that both directly and

indirectly connected to the issue of social media marketing in higher education.

This dissertation was presented in five chapters. The mixed-methods

exploratory study began by examining social media marketing in higher education

institutions. Data were collected through qualitative and quantitative methods and

interpreted according to relevant theoretical frameworks. Theoretical and practical

implications were drawn and recommendations made. Chapter One presented an

overview of the study, including a statement of the problem and the significance of a

study focusing on academic entitlement beliefs, behaviors, and actions. Chapter Two

provided a review of available literature on the history of community colleges, basic

skills, academic entitlement, and research methodology. Chapter Three focused on

the design of the study, and Chapter Four discussed the findings of the data.

This mixed method exploratory study has answered many questions, but also

created many more. Social media marketers, especially those in higher education,

need to understand the written and unwritten rules of using social media sites,

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participate in communities on a regular basis, and capitalize on emerging trends.

Integrating social media marketing at any institution is a cost-effective tool versus

advertising in newspapers or magazines. Given the growing budget cuts affecting so

many universities, this cost-free form of advertising is a positive investment for the

long-term financial health of higher education institutions.

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APPENDICES

126

APPENDIX A

DRAFT INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Do you have a social media site?

2. How often do you use your social media site?

3. Do you think it is important in today‘s world to have a social media site?

4. Do you strategically target your social media messages?

5. What type of messages do you like to send out?

6. How often do you send out messages through social media? Daily, twice a

day, monthly, weekly?

7. Have you had to hire a social media specialist?

8. With today‘s budget cuts, student enrollment being slashed, do you still feel it

is necessary to market to incoming students?

9. How often have you had to train faculty or administration on social media

practices and your department?

10. Do you feel that social media will grow and be an important tool in the next

five years for higher education institutions?

11. Do you have any Social Media guidelines that you have presented to the

institutions?

12. Do other departments in your institutions have a Social Media site and how

often do you monitor the sites?

127

APPENDIX B

PILOT TEST INSTRUMENT FOR THE INTERVIEW QUESTIONS

Protocol for Pilot Testing of Marketing Professionals Interview Questions*

Time Required: Approximately 1 hour

Subjects: 4-6 persons

Purpose: As part of a research project to fulfill a doctoral dissertation, I am

developing several interview questions designed to asses marketing professional

beliefs, behaviors, and actions about social media. I appreciate your willingness to

help pilot test the interview questions and provide me some feedback on your

understanding and perception of the interview questions. Your individual responses

in the pilot test phase are not going to be recorded or reported to anyone except those

who are designing the interview questions.

Process:

1. The researcher will make copies of the interview questions.

2. Please note how much time is required to answer all items.

3. Once you have completed the survey, please respond to each survey item in

four ways.

a. Understandable: Was the item ―understandable.‖ This is, did you

have to read the item more than once to understand what it was

asking? Was the meaning of the question clear and straightforward?

b. Only one response: Was the item written in such a way that you

could have answered it more than one way? (e.g., could you have said

BOTH ―very little‖ and ―very much‖?).

c. Loaded: In your opinion, was the item written in such a way that

there was ONLY one OBVIOUS answer to you? In other words, the

way the item is worded, it is highly unlikely that respondents,

regardless of cohort group, would be able to respond using more than

one response choice.

4. Please circle yes/no for each item.

5. If you circled ―no,‖ please explain why in the comment box.

128

Interview Question Understandable?

Only one

response? Loaded? Comments

Do you have a social media

site?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

How often do you use your

social media site?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Do you think it is important in

today‘s world to have a social

media site?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Do you strategically target your

social media messages?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

What type of messages do you

like to send out?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

How often do you send out

messages through social

media? Daily, twice a day,

monthly, weekly?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Have you had to hire a social

media specialist?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

With today‘s budget cuts,

student enrollment being

slashed, do you still feel it is

necessary to market to

incoming students?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

How often have you had to

train faculty or administration

on social media practices and

your department?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Do you feel that social media

will grow and be an important

tool in the next five years for

higher education institutions?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Do you have any Social Media

guidelines that you have

presented to the institutions?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

Do other departments in your

institutions have a Social

Media site and how often do

you monitor the sites?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

*Format adopted from Sample Protocol for Pilot Testing Survey Items by Gloria Rogers, ABET, Inc.

These are sample interview questions. The final interview questions will be piloted in the same

manner as outlined above.

129

APPENDIX C

SURVEY DRAFT QUESTIONS

1. It is important to have a social media site for our institution.

2. We use social media at our institution daily.

3. Social media is an important branding tool for higher education.

4. Our institution strategically targets our social media messages.

5. Our institution sends out key messages to various constituents within our

institution.

6. It is important to send out social media messages daily.

7. Faculty and administration help us gather social media messages.

8. We only target incoming students

9. Our marketing office trains faculty and administration on social media on a

regular basis.

10. Our institution feels that social media will grow rapidly in the next five years.

130

APPENDIX D

PILOT TEST INSTRUMENT FOR THE SURVEY QUESTIONS

Protocol for Pilot Testing of all 23 CSU Campuses Survey Questions*

Time Required: Approximately 1 hour

Subjects: 4-6 persons

Purpose: As part of a research project to fulfill a doctoral dissertation, I am

developing a survey designed to asses marketing professional beliefs, behaviors, and

actions about social media. I appreciate your willingness to help pilot test the survey

questions and provide me some feedback on your understanding and perception of the

survey questions. Your individual responses in the pilot test phase are not going to be

recorded or reported to anyone except those who are designing the interview

questions.

Process:

1. The researcher will make copies of the interview questions.

2. Please note how much time is required to answer all items.

3. Once you have completed the survey, please respond to each survey item in

four ways.

a. Understandable: Was the item ―understandable.‖ This is, did you

have to read the item more than once to understand what it was

asking? Was the meaning of the question clear and straightforward?

b. Scale Adequate: Was the scale adequate? That is, do you feel the

scale provided you with an appropriate way to respond?

c. Only one response: Was the item written in such a way that you

could have answered it more than one way? (E.g., could you have said

BOTH ―very little‖ and ―very much‖?).

d. Loaded: In your opinion, was the item written in such a way that

there was ONLY one OBVIOUS answer to you? In other words, the

way the item is worded, it is highly unlikely that respondents,

regardless of cohort group, would be able to respond using more than

one response choice.

4. Please circle yes/no for each item.

5. If you circled ―no,‖ please explain why in the comment box.

131

Survey Questions Understandable?

Scale

Adequate?

Only one

response? Loaded? Comments

It is important to have a social

media site for our institution?

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

We use social media at our

institution daily.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Social media is an important

branding tool for higher

education.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Our institution strategically

targets our social media

messages.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Our institution sends out key

messages to various

constituents within our

institution.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

It is important to send out

social media messages daily.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Faculty and administration

help us gather social media

messages.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

We only target incoming

students

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Our marketing office trains

faculty and administration on

social media on a regular

basis.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

Our institution feels that

social media will grow

rapidly in the next five years.

Yes No YES

NO

YES

NO

YES

NO

132

APPENDIX E

REQUEST LETTER FOR INTERVIEWS AND

SURVEY PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM

Letter Request for Interviews

Dear_______________

You are being asked to participate in a research project that is being done to fulfill

requirements for a Doctoral degree in Educational Leadership at CSU Stanislaus.

We are examining internet social media in higher education. If you decide to

volunteer in this study, you will be asked to answer questions regarding social

media at your institution. These questions will be asked of you during a recorded

interview with the researcher. The interview should take about one hour long and

will be schedule at a time and location that works best for you. A total of three

people will be interviewed from various levels of higher education institutions.

There are no known risks to you for your participation in this study.

It is possible that you will not benefit directly by participating in this study. The

information collected will be protected from all inappropriate disclosure under the

law. All data will be maintained for a period of one year from the completion of

the study and will be destroyed. Only the researcher and transcriber will have

access to the data which can be linked to individual subjects. The researcher will

provide each participant and institution with a pseudonym for any actual written

papers in relations to this study.

There is no cost to you beyond the time and effort required to complete the

procedure(s) described above. Your participation is voluntary. Refusal to

participate in this study will involve no penalty or loss benefits. You may

withdraw at any time without penalty or loss of benefits.

If you agree to participate, please indicate this decision by signing below. If you

have any questions about this research project, please contact me, Adrenna

Alkhas, at 209-484-2683 or my faculty sponsor, Dr. Jim Riggs at 209-664-6789.

If you have any questions regarding your rights and participation as a research

project, please contact the Campus Compliance Department, California State

University, Stanislaus at 209-667-3747.

Only people 18 years of age or older will be allowed to participate in the study.

Signature: _____________________________ Date:________________________

133

Consent Form for Survey Participants

Dear_______________

You are being asked to participate in a research project that is being done to fulfill

requirements for a Doctoral degree in Educational Leadership at CSU Stanislaus.

We are examining internet social media in higher education. If you decide to

volunteer in this study, you will be asked to answer questions regarding social

media at your institution. These questions will be asked of you through a survey

questionnaire. The survey should take about 20 minutes long. A total of 23 CSU

campuses from the institutions professional marketing department will be

partaking in this survey: There are no known risks to you for your participation in

this study.

It is possible that you will not benefit directly by participating in this study. The

information collected will be protected from all inappropriate disclosure under the

law. All data will be maintained for a period of one year from the completion of

the study and will be destroyed. Only the researcher and transcriber will have

access to the data which can be linked to individual subjects. The researcher will

provide each participant and institution with a pseudonym for any actual written

papers in relations to this study.

There is no cost to you beyond the time and effort required to complete the

procedure(s) described above. Your participation is voluntary. Refusal to

participate in this study will involve no penalty or loss benefits. You may

withdraw at any time without penalty or loss of benefits.

If you agree to participate, please indicate this decision by signing below. If you

have any questions about this research project, please contact me, Adrenna

Alkhas, at 209-484-2683 or my faculty sponsor, Dr. Jim Riggs at 209-664-6789.

If you have any questions regarding your rights and participation as a research

project, please contact the Campus Compliance Department, California State

University, Stanislaus at 209-667-3747.

Only people 18 years of age or older will be allowed to participate in the study.

Signature: _____________________________ Date:______________________

134

APPENDIX F

SURVEY QUESTIONS ADMINISTERED TO THE CSU CAMPUSES

Survey:

This questionnaire is a part of the research for a doctoral dissertation at CSU

Stanislaus Educational Leadership Program. The results of this survey will be used

for academic purposes only. The survey is anonymous and does not require any

personal details to be submitted.

Estimated time for this questionnaire completion is 8-10 minutes. Aggregated

research data will be available for you upon survey completion. By completing this

survey you are agreeing to participate.

The research team greatly appreciates your help and support with this research and

thanks you for your valuable contribution!

Social Media Definition: Social media comprises of activities that involve socializing

and networking online through words, pictures and videos. Social media is redefining

how many people can relate to each other and how people can relate to the

organizations that serve their communities.

1. Demographic information

a. Name

b. Institution

c. Email address

d. Phone number

2. How long has your PR/Marketing department been using social media

networking sites?

a. Less than 1 year

b. 1-2 years

c. 2-3 y ears

d. Our PR/Marketing Department does not use social media networking

sites

3. Click on the following social media sites you use for your institution.

a. Facebook

b. Twitter

135

c. MySpace

d. LinkedIn

e. YouTube

f. Flikr

g. Blogger.com

h. Foursquare

i. Friendster

j. Bebo

k. Xing

l. Other

4. To what level do you agree with the following statements: (5-point likert

scale, 5 being Strongly Agree to 1 being Strongly Disagree).

a. I believe it is important to have several social media sites at our

institution

b. Social Media is an important branding tool at our institution.

c. Social media is an important tool for crisis communication at our

institution.

d. Social media is an effective tool to gain community support at our

institution.

e. Social media is an effective tool to increase enrollment for traditional

age students.

f. Social media is an effective tool to increase enrollment for

nontraditional age students (25 and older).

g. Social media is an effective tool to gain external resources.

h. It is important to send out daily social media messages to our

followers.

5. Please answer the following statements (5 point likert scale, Very frequently

being 5 to very infrequently being 1)

a. We use social media at our institution

b. Our department strategically targets our social media messages

c. Our department sends out key messages to various constituents within

our institution.

d. Faculty and administration help our department generate social media

messages.

e. Faculty and administration help our department answer comments

from our social media sites.

f. Most of our social media messages target incoming students.

g. Our department offers training sessions for faculty and administration

on social media.

136

h. Faculty and administration take advantage of our training sessions.

6. How satisfied are you with the social media sites that your PR/Marketing

Department is using? (Likert-scale)

a. Very Satisfied

b. Satisfied

c. Neither satisfied or dissatisfied

d. Dissatisfied

e. Very Dissatisfied

Comment_________________________________________

7. How satisfied are you with the response rate you receive through your

PR/Marketing Departments social media sites? (Likert-scale)

a. Very Satisfied

b. Satisfied

c. Neither satisfied or dissatisfied

d. Dissatisfied

e. Very Dissatisfied

Comment_________________________________________

8. How often does your PR/Marketing department use social media networking

sites for marketing purposes?

a. Daily

b. 1-3 times a week

c. 1-3 times a month

d. Monthly

e. Less than once a month

f. Never

Comment _________________________________________

9. What are your PR/Marketing Department‘s primary goals for the use of social

media?

a. Understand student concerns/perspectives on university related issues

b. Increase sponsors and/or grants

c. Seeking growth in enrollment

d. Recognize the institutional brand

e. Promote events

137

f. All of the above

g. None of the above

h. Other

Comment _________________________________________

10. What are the most significant barriers to adopting social media within your

PR/Marketing department?

a. Lack of time

b. Lack of assessment measures

c. Lack of support from senior institutional leaders

d. Lack of adequate tech support

e. Resistance from other PR/Marketing staff members

f. Other

Comment _________________________________________

11. How satisfied are you with the level of support your PR/Marketing

department has received from senior management about social media? (5-

Point Likert Scale)

a. Very Satisfied

b. Satisfied

c. Neither satisfied or dissatisfied

d. Dissatisfied

e. Very Dissatisfied

Comment_________________________________________

12. Does your PR/Marketing department have any social media guidelines,

policies, or procedures for the institution?

a. Yes

b. No

13. If Yes, would you be willing to make these guidelines available to the

researcher?

a. Yes

b. No

138

14. Do they have specific staffing within the PR department assigned to social

media?

a. Yes

b. No

15. If yes, what are the expectations of the percent of time used on social media?

a. 0-25%

b. 26%-50%

c. 51%-75%

d. 75%-100%

Comment_________________________________________

16. May the researcher contact you?

a. Yes

b. No

17. Plaese provide any additional comments or information that may be helpful.