An Approach to Buddhist Social Philosophy, by Ven. Pategama Gnanarama

I FOR REFERENCE (INLY

4 &Q \bVen. Pategarna Gnanarama Ph.D.

TI-SARANA BUDDHIST ASSOCIATION 90, DUKU ROAD. SINGAPORE 429254

TEL: 345-6741 .

First published in Singapore, 1996 Published by Ti-Sarana Buddhist Association

ISBN 981-00-8183-9

Ti-SARANA BUDDHIST ASSOCIATION 90 Duku Road Singapore 429254

Q Pategama Gnanarama 1996

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Printed in Singapore

An Approuch to Buddhist Social Philosophy

Deserving Service

Preface

Introductory

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 . T h e Social Dimension of Early Buddhism 1 9

................... . 2 . T h e Basis of the Buddhist Social Outlook . . . 10 28

j . T h e Mechanism of Socialisation ................................................ 29 . 43

............................... 4 . Buddhism on Crimes Without Victims 44 . 47

................. . 5 . The Evolution of Society. State and Kingship 48 62 .............................. Monarchies and Confederacies in Ancient India 63 - 69

1 . The Buddhist Attitude to Social Stratification ................................................................................. Based on Caste 70 - 83

............................................... 7 . War. Peace and Social H a m y 84 - 97

i ( . Values: Religious and Social .................... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 . 103

1 . Crime and Punishment i n ............. . ..... ....... Buddhist Perspective ................ .......................... 104 125

10 . T h e Buddhist Attitude to Poverty, Wealth and Economic Resources . . . .................. .............. 126 . 140

. . . . I I The Buddhist Approach to the Ecological Crisis 141 152

I . ' T h e Place of Social Norms i n .............................................................. Ijuddhist Manasticism 153- 171

.......................................................................................... flihliography 172- 173

DESERVING SERVICE

"Monks, these four persons are found existing in the world. What four?

a) He who works neither for his own welfare nor for the welfare of others.

b) He who works for the welfare of others, but not for his own welfare.

C) He who works for his own welfare, but not for the welfare of others.

d) He who works for the welfare of both himself and others

Just as, monks, a firebrand from a funeral pyre, blazing at both ends and in the middle smeared with dung, serves no purpose as fuel in a village or as timber in a forest, using such a figure do I speak of this person who works neither for his own welfare nor for another's welfare.

Monks, this person who works for the welfare of others but not for his own welfare is more excellent and exalted out of the two persons.

Monks, this person who works for his own welfare but not for the welfare of others is most excellent and exalted out of the three persons

Monks, he who works for the welfare of both himself and others is chief and best, topmost, highest and supreme. Just as, monks, from the cow comes milk, from milk comes cream, from cream-butter, from butter-ghee, from ghee-the skimmings of ghee, and that is reckoned the best-even so this person, who works for his own welfare as well as for the welfare of others, is among these four persons, chief and best, topmost, highest and supreme.

These four persons, monks, are found existing in the world."

Anguttara Nikaya ii, 94

PREFACE

was very happy to read Ven. Dr. Pategama Gnanarama's "An Approach to Buddhist Social Philosophy." Ven. Dr. Gnanarama was at the University of Ceylon as a colleague of mine. Even at that time, he evinced an insatiable liking to read philosophy and religion. He has kept that interest burning even long after this period of an undergraduate at the university.

The blossoming of his interest in the Buddha Dhamma is seen by anyone who is able to peruse the beautiful essays included in this volume.

Ven. ~nani rama, although an erudite Buddhist monk, views his data quite critically unlike many a traditional Buddhist monk who looks a t the words of the Buddha merely from a BHAKTI point of view. The author has been able to gather the fruits of both oriental and occidental learning, and he abundantly makes use of both experiences. Being a Buddhaputra, he has not forgotten the Enlightened One's advice to the Kalamas, beseeching them to analyse whatever is placed before them, find reasons for such things and accept them thereafter. The writer has included this advice to the Kalamas in his book following it very carefully and finding space for it to be utilised under the scientific method where such advice correctly belongs.

The collection of essays cover various aspects of the Buddhist social philosophy, beginning with social dimensions in Buddhist philosophy. The essays include varied topics such as victimless crimes, war and peace and social harmony, social norms and values, social stratification and social'ization as well as the Buddhist attitude towards povert. The beauty of the essays lies in the varied subject areas round which they are woven, the authority of the data patiently collected and the simple manner and style in which the essays are presented. I believe that, a scholar as well as a simple layman without much education would easily read and derive both pleasure and knowledge from Ven. Dr. Gnanarama's essays.

In the first essay itself, the author has dealt with one of the very popular misconceptions about Buddhism particularly found in the west. This is

woven round the belief that Buddhism is highly individualistic. The author cites Max Weber as the person who initially created this misinterpretation. It is sad to find such misinterpretations even in works of Indian authors such as T.R.V. Muni who states that the ideal of an arahat smacks of selfishness.

One cannot reach enlightenment without one's own effort. No god or creator could help an individual to gain enlightenment. The purpose of a Buddhist life is to gain enlightenment and help others. That is what the Bodhisattas as Sumedha did. The fulfilling of the Paramitas is nothing but the gradual fruition of this social service ideal. The author under the sub- title ' Maturity through perfection' lucidly explains this situation.

The misinterpretations of Buddhism and Buddhist practice wilfully done and engaged upon due to ignorance undoubtedly does immense harm not only to Buddhism but also to those individuals who read such misinterpretations and begin to believe in them. Writers, both in the east and the west including Indologists, Sociologists, Linguists and Anthropologists are guilty of these errors. It is timely that scholars of the type of Dr. Gnanarama have taken this up and thought of such misinterpretations and considered it useful to refute such ill-conceived assertions by various academics.

His essay on "The Basis of Buddhist Social Outlook," particularly the section about Buddha's advice to the Kalamas and the sections following would be of use to those interested in learning about the manner in which the scientific method was understood in Buddhism. 'The assurance given to free enquiry on Buddhism is indeed unique. One cannot think of anyone outside helping us to free ourselves however great and powerful such a saviour is. Even the Buddha's teaching is comparable to a raft used only in crossing; but not for retaining it thereafter. The freedom of expression underscored in Buddhism infused with tolerance embraces all human beings, and one may say that it embraces all living things'.

The right to dissent and the emphasis on free-will and one's own responsibility for one's own actions explained in the Buddhist context by the author fill the hiatus found in our so-called modern democratic way of lik. Thc extent to which a Buddhist thinks contributes to the safeguarding

t I! free-will and one's own responsibility also at the same time, making room ILr the right to dissent. This is explained in this book with appropriate ~luotations and illustrations.

Those interested in political theory would be surprised to find how one L ould weave a very vibrant theory of politics and society from Buddha's varied teachings. Very often Buddha is accused of not saying anything Important bearing on the state and statecraft. Although it was not the primary aim or objective of the Buddha to preach on politics or statecraft, scferences are there sufficient to reconstruct a Buddhist political theory if Ilccessary. Ven. Dr. Gnanarama has collected such references in a masterly way, thus laying the basic foundation for any future scholar to further this vcry valuable piece of research. It must be remembered how Buddhist rcholars (even a few) such as the Late Prof. K.N. Jayatilleke contributed ~uuch in this direction.

The author's grasp of Indian history and the Indian background is evident in many an essay. The essay on "Monarchies and Confederations in India" is a refreshing contribution to Indian history in the Buddhist context. One is able to understand the historical development on Buddhism, its relationship to other religions as well as political developments by carefully :~djusting one's focus along correct directions with the help of such historical material.

Those who seek to understand how the Buddha looked at various forms of social stratification such as caste, colour, wealth etc, could benefit much I1y reading the essay on the same subject. The Buddhist attitude becomes clear when it is presented in the context of Indian development prior to xnd at the same time as the Buddha. It shows the difference between how the Buddha perceived social stratification and how traditional Indian I hought viewed such social phenomena as caste, colour etc.

How much could Buddhism contribute to peace and social harmony which would be of great importance to all those living in the present world;

for those of us living in Theravada and Mahayana countries. Various strategies for social harmony and peace are pursued relentlessly Ihy academics, policy-makers, thinkers etc. In this context, it could be

interesting to read what the Buddha has to say in this vital area. A living example of translating such strategies to action is exemplified in the reign of the great king Asoka in India. No one can thus state that the Buddhist strategies in this area are only confined to theory and not related to the practical order of life.

'In Buddhist countries, the values taught by the Buddha are gradually disappearing, not solely due to social change, but more due to the ignorance both of the Buddhist clergy a well a the laity about their importance. Ven. Dr. Gnanarama suggests the importance of these values and indicates how such values could even become useful in a non-Buddhist society.

Very often, people; particularly scholars emphasise the ' other worldly character' of Buddhism and go on to declare that the Buddha had nothing to say on mundane matters - particularly economic matters. Tnis again has been belied by a number of scholars; particularly by Schumacher who in his book "Small is Beautiful" wrote a chapter on Buddhist economics. In my book "Buddhist Sociology," the same theme is developed and the outlines of a Buddhist economics theory is laid down. Ven. Dr. Gnanarama gives a bird's eye view of the Buddhist economic theory, clearly explaining its fundamental principles.

As a criminologist I am delighted to read of a Buddhist monk looking at crime from the Buddha's point of view. In an earlier essay, a reference to crime without victims was referred to. I have elsewhere repeatedly pointed out the importance of incorporating the Buddhist view of crime and punishment into our modem criminal justice system. Ven. Dr. Gnanarama I am happy to note, reiterates this view while explaining the Buddha's teachings carefully in a given context. His grasp of the sociological approach to crime is to be appreciated, and this coming from a Buddhist monk augurs well for future development of this area in Buddhist academic studies.

In the world today, to be more precise in the third world, the problem of poverty and the solutions to deal with it take precedence in any agenda on development. It is because of this importance attached to poverty that Ven. Dr. Gnanarama's incisive analysis of the Buddhist attitude on poverty becomes meaningful.

I hope Ven. Pategama Gnanarama's book would reach academics as well as general readers both in the east and the west. May it dispel many doubts and misrepresentations made earlier by those writing in western languages. I hope the learned Thero will be engaged in further research on Ruddhist social philosophy and widen our horizons of knowledge and cxperience in the future. He undoubtedly possesses the remarkable insight, dedication and commitment for such a noble purpose.

Nandasena Ratnapala Professor of Sociology &Anthropology

University of Sri Jayawardenepura, Nugegoda, Sri Lanka

INTRODUCTORY

he present work is a co l lec t ion of some of my lectures given to the Diploma-in- Buddhism class at the Buddhist and Pali College of Singapore. It was Prof. Nandasena Ratnapala's two works "Crime and Punishment in Buddhist Tradition" and "Buddhist Sociology" which I read recently that prompted me to compile the work for the

sake of general readers who are interested in knowing the early Buddhist approach to social issues. This by no means is an in-depth or exhaustive study of the subject : Buddhist Social Philosophy.

As an introduction to the Buddhist approach in each chapter that follows I have attempted to state the present context of the particular problem in order to show how and why the Buddhist approach has a relevance to that problem. Sometimes certain doctrinal points might have been repeated but they have to be considered as integral parts of these individual discussions.

Another work, "Fundamentals of Buddhist Polity", authored by Prof. Oliver Abenayaka and published by Tisarana Buddhist Association also deals with some of the issues discussed in the present work.

It is with a deep sense of gratitude I thank Prof. S.G.M. Weerasinghe, my teacher who went through the manuscript and wrote the blurb appearing on the back page of the cover and Prof. Nandasena Ratnapala who was kind enough to write a comprehensive preface by way of introducing the work.

I am grateful to Venerable Welipitiye Ratanasiri, the resident monk, for the keen interest shown in bringing out the book in print and to the T~sarana Buddhist Association and its members who devoted their time to computerise the script and took the responsibility of publishing the work.

Pategama Gnanarama

Tisarana Buddhist Association 90 Duku Road Singapore 429254 15/03/96

l. THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF EARLY BUDDHISM

arly Buddhist thought has been represented by some scholars as a teaching emphasising personal salvation alone without any regard for social welfare. It is asserted that the attainment of Arahathood is self-centric and individualistic, encouraging the individual to mind his own salvation alone leaving aside the rest of suffering

Iiumanity. Thus early Buddhist thought according to them has ignored service to the needy in any measure, hence is devoid of any sc~cial dimension whatsoever.

Further, the ideal in Pali canonical works is considered to be I he Arahant Ideal in contrast to the Bodhisatva Ideal, stressed in Mahayana, which embraces a wider range of social activity emphasing social welfare work. When compared with the so-called selfish motive underlying the Arahant Ideal, the concept of hecoming a Bodhisatva and rendering service for the weal and welfare of society is therefore asserted to be far more altruistic and commendable.

This is a gross misinterpretation of facts, which goes against the Pali canon as well as the living ~ract ices in Theravada Buddhist <, . i,)ulltrles. Apparently, this i j an assumption based on the historical ~ l ~ ~ . ~ s ~ u n of BudJhls~n into Therd\.a;la and hlahayana rc.hlch ~raduallv crystallised within a few centuries after the demise of the~uddh;. The derogatoty term Hinayana or Lower Vehicle had been applied to denote Theravada in contradistinction to Mahayana or the Great Vehicle. However, the representatives of the Buddhist world who

THE SOCIAL DIMENSION OF EARLY BUDDHISM

met in Sri Lanka in 1950, unanimously agreed to use the old term 'Theravada' thereafter, by which the Elders of yore preferred to introduce themselves. Nevertheless, justice is yet to be done to the early Buddhist standpoint by unravelling the heterodoxy of the dogmatic upholders of misconceptions.

It seems that in our times it is Max Weber who is responsible for the popularisation of this misinterpretation of early Buddhism. In his "Religions of India" Weber says, in relation to early Buddhism:

"Salvation is an absolutely personal performance of the self-reliant indiuidual. No one and particularly no social community

can help him. The specific asocial character of genuine mysticism is here canied to its maximum" (l ) .

To quote one of the Indian authors, T.R.V.Murti, in his "The Central Conception of Buddhism" says:

"Again, the Arahant rests satisfied with achieuing his own private saluation. He is not necessarily and actively interested in

the welfare of others. The ideal of the arahant smacks ofselfshness; and there is even a lurkingfear that the world would take hold of

him if he tamied here too long" (2).

It is true that an outsider is not capable of granting liberation to any one, for it is purely a personal one. Nevertheless, it is by serving society that one accrues merit and attains maturity required for Perfection. Evidently, Buddhist ethics becomes meaningful only in the context of a society of individuals. The asocial and mystic character attributed to early Buddhism is therefore a wrong notion conceived as a consequence of looking at personal exertion alone, which is visible, as a characteristic of the person striving for emancipation. Certainly, it is stated categorically in the Pali Canon that the doctrine and the realisation thereof, are personal and to be attained individually.

Early Buddhism is not a form of prayer and worship, for the truth


is to be realised individually by the wise. The teaching of the Buddha evolved into a religion with followers of different mental capacities even during the life time of the Buddha. All were admonished to realise the truth by themselves. However, social and political dimensions found in many places of the Pali canon bear evidence to the fact that early Buddhism held social service in high esteem. While undermining the Brahmanic concept of the divine connection of kings, the ten kingly duties as prescribed by the Buddha stress that kingship is a means of serving society.

Theravada tradition as practised today has evolved its unique and distinctive characteristics based on the fundamental teachings of the Buddha which speak unequivocally on the feasibility of service rendered to society for the betterment of the entire human race. Although according to Buddhism liberation from the cycle of existence is a personal and an individual responsibility, it does not mean that Buddhism is an asocial mysticism in any way whatsoever. Generally speaking, one will not be able to speak of "salvation" without the relative concepts of a "saviour" and a "saved". This train of thought is the dominant theme of Judeo-Christian religions. Therefore the Buddhist ideal of Arahantship achieved through one's own exertion without the helping hand of a creator who is said to be the almighty, is truly inconceivable to those who were brought up with such an ideological background. Both old and new Testaments are specific about the issue and emphasise this monotheistic train of thought.

God asserts himself : "Tell ye, and bring them nem; yea, let them take counsel

together: who huth declared this from ancient time? who huth told it from that time?

Hawe not I the Lord? and there is no God else beside me; a jwt God and a Sauiour; there is none beside me".

"Look unto me, and be ye sawed, all the ends of the earth: for I am God, and there is none elsen(3).


I t was he who created, formed and made man out of dust of the ground, and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, where-upon man became a living soul. So man's salvation, too, utterly depends upon him. Buddhism on the contrary accepts neither a Saviour nor a Salvation in the sense portrayed above.

According to the Buddhist approach, Perfection is to be achieved by private and individual exertion and the Perfected One lives in the world and serves the world, without being smeared by the taints of the world. He achieves Perfection by culturing the mind both in relation to society and to his own moral development.

Social service indeed, is an attempt to serve society and to improve its quality in whatever measure at one's disposal. Assistance accorded to the needy is generally motivated by compassion or karuna, one of the two characteristics found in the Buddha. If we were to quote modem sociological terminology, whether it is a primitive community or a modem association, it is a social unit made up of individuals. Consequently, by serving society, individuals benefit. Therefore when taken as a whole, society is the medium in which Buddhist ethics truly becomes useful as well as meaningful.

Negative and Positive Aspects of Buddhist Ethics Let us turn back to the Arahant Ideal. Conceding that

Arahantship is the main attainment that Theravada Buddhism emphasises, it can be shown that even the Arahant Ideal cannot be realised without serving society in various ways. For one to become an Arahant one has to follow a course of ethical action of altruistic motivation. Even those who attained Arahantship then and there by listening to the Buddha himself must have had fulfilled the virtues endorsed in the teaching and have had acquired the appropriate maturity required for Perfection.

It is better to pinpoint a very important fact which has been sadly


clistorted in almost all the discussions on Buddhist ethics. Buddhist th~hics has two aspects. They can be quite safely called negative and ~ ~ ~ i t i v e aspects. The negative aspect is generally well known. When wc examine the Pancasila or the Five Precepts, it is quite clear that I 11cy are some sort of resolution taken upon oneself in order to abstain From actions harmful to society and the individual, but, on the positive bide, the person is exhorted to cultivate certain virtues simultaneously {or the well and good of society. For example, a person abstains from killing while laying aside all the weapons of destruction (nihita dando, nihita sattho). But on the positive side, he being compassionate (dayapanno) becomes merciful towards all l iving beings. (sabbapanabhutahitanukampi). Similarly, a person, while professing to abstain from stealing, on the positive side satisfies himself with ollly what is given (dinnada~i) and enjoys what is given (dinnapatikamkhi)(+). In this way these precepts also lead one to clcvelop one's own character in relation to society. Hence these Five I'recepts characterise the most fundamental socialisation process in Ihddhism.

How to Serve Society ?

Now, let us turn to another facet of serving society. As long as we live in Samsara we are instructed to accrue merits for the purpose of obtaining a better life in a better plane of future existence. The concept of future reward induces an individual to give in charity. I {ow does one accrue merits? Resorting to meritorious acts one :~ccumulates merits, the impact of which is to be realised not only in the next life but in this life as well (5). Let us take the three basic 111eritorious deeds, namely 1. Liberality (Dana), (2) Morality (Sila), ;tnd (3) Concentration (Bhavana) or the three bases of meritorious (lceds called:

1. Absence of Craving (alobha), 2. Absence of Hatred (adosa), 3. Absence of Ignorance (amoha) (6).


The social implication of these concepts is quite clear because other than concentration or mind culture, all the other concepts rest on some kind of social relationship. Even some of the topics such as Loving Kindness (metta) and Compassion (karma) recommended for concentration, would not be practicable without living beings other than oneself. Also it is impossible to think of Liberality in a situation where there are no beings.

In this context the Ten Meritorious Acts (dasapunnakiriyani) found in our texts can be taken into consideration(7).They are 1.Liberality (dana) 2. Morality (sila) 3. Concentration (bhavana) 4. Transference of merit (patti) 5. Rejoicing in receiving merits (pattanumodana) 6. Rendering service to those whom it is due (veyyavacca) 7. Paying reverence to the deserving (apacayana) 8. Instructive preaching (desana) 9. Listening to instructive preaching (suti) 10. Correction of view (ditthiju).

Almost all these topics have varying degrees of social implications. Here it is not necessary to repeat what was discussed earlier. The two concepts, rendering service to those whom it is due and paying reverence to the deserving are noteworthy, for they directly come under the purview of social service. At a later stage, perhaps, had the Bodhisatta Ideal not been developed on these teachings of the Buddha they may have at least prompted the two major schools in the elaboration of the Bodhisatta concept. How relevant are they to modem programming of welfare activities within any social unit? Instructive preaching too includes a wider and more comprehensive range of activity, covering the entire social-ethical behaviour of the individual. It is not merely preaching Dhamma but a form of counselling for the achievement of human goals as well.

In fact once the Buddha himself exemplified this by rendering his services to an ailing monk. A skin-eruption broke out on a certain monk called Putigatta Tssa and his whole body was covered with sores. The resident fellow monks living in the monastery being unable


10 look after him, abandoned him. When the Buddha discovered I 1115, he went there, boiled some water and washed Xssa with his I iwn hands and cleaned and dried his robes (8). Attendance on the 91ck was encouraged on another occasion when the Buddha said that IO do so was like attending on the Buddha himself (9). Following 111e word of the Buddha, Emperor Asoka carried out a policy of Iiroviding medical facilities and hospitals, even for animals, I hroughout his Empire.

Out of a large number of Buddhist concepts covering the Buddhist attitude to social service, the Four Behavioral Patterns of Kindliness (Catu Sangaha Vatthu) enunciated in a number of places in the canon form an important aspect of our discussion. The four are as Iollows (10) :

1. Liberality (dana) 2. Use of pleasant words in communication with others

(piya vacana) 3. Resorting to beneficent actions (atthacariya) 4. Equality (samanattata)

A n analysis of these Behavioral Pattern will show to what extent Theravada Buddhists maintain social relations in order to bring about harmony and concord among the members of a society. Besides, Buddhism in advocating these modes of behaviour, has recognised the reciprocity of rendering services.

Maturity through Perfection

How society can benefit from the of Paramitas or Petfections is also one of the important points to be noted. Both Theravada and Mahayana speak of the value of Paramitas for the attainment of ultimate Perfection. When a Bodhisatta, according to Maha~ana, completes the Bhumis, he is expected to have fulfilled the Paramitas at each stage of these Bhumis at the same time. However, for the practice of Paramitas, society is taken as a reality and according to the Theravada standpoint it is mostly by serving


society t h a t Bodhisattas achieve maturity culminating i n enlightenment, though this is not mentioned in the Suttas of the Pali Canon.

"For the good of the many, for the happiness of the many" is a Buddhist concept found for the first time in the religious history of the world which in fact points to the social consciousness of the founder, the Buddha(l1). The Buddha, who paved the path for intellectual awakening expounded the value of benevolence and social service with equally emphatic terms. For example it is said in the Samyutta Nikaya ;

"Those who grow gardens and forests and make cawe- ways and dig ponds and wells and provide shelter

will accumulate mm'ts day and night forever(J2)."

The points so far adduced will clearly establish that Theravada Buddhism is replete with discourses on the significance of social service disproving the twisted arguments to the contrary. The Buddha was always very particular about social harmony as well as social welfare. So in the often quoted Sigalovada Sutta , he suggested various measures to safeguard the bilateral relations between diverse social units in society.

The Buddha's approach can be truly appreciated when we think of the Indian background at the time. Anguttara Nikaya differentiates four kinds of persons in relation to one's own welfare and the welfare of others:

a) He who works neither for his own welfare nor for the welfare of others

b) He who works for the welfare ofothers, but not for his own welfare

C) He who works for his own welfare, but not for the welfare ofothers.

d) He who works for the welfare of both of himself and others (1 3)


The Buddhapraised the fourth as the cream, followed by the third ;111d not the second as one would expect. The Buddhist standpoint with regard to serving others has been clearly stated by emphasising I he feasibility of one's moral character. It is stated in the Dhammapada:

"One should first establish oneself in what is proper; then insnucc others. Such a wise one will not

become stained ( 1 4 )

This amounts to saying that if the personal life of the person c.oncemed is immoral and questionable, he is not fit to serve society. llefore going out into the world, he must try to cultivate humane qualities such as kindness, benevolence, and forebearence among others. Then only is he qualified to be a social worker.

Foot Notes

01. Max Weber - Religions of India, New York 1958,p.213 02. Murty T.R.V. - Central Philosophy of Buddhism. London 1960, p. 263 03. Holy Bible, Isaiah 45: 21,22 04. D N i , 64,66 05. DN iii, 218; ANiv , 241 06. A N i , 135, 195,203 07. DN111, 119;SNi, 1 1 4 ; A N i , 154 08. Dhammapada Atthakatha i, 3 19 ff 09. Vin i, 302 10. The standard set of eight things suirabk for gifts is enumerated. Viz: l .

food 2. water 3. clothes 4 . vehicle 5 . garlands 6 . scented ointments 7. conveyances for lying down and dwekng 8. lighting facilities. SeeDNiii,152, 232. ANi i , 32, 248

1 1. "Bahujanahitaya Bahujanasukhaya" 12. S N i , 32 13. AN - (Catukka Nipata) ii, 94 14. Dhp. 158

2. THE BASIS OF THE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUTLOOK

he sociologist, Reece McGee, has identified a certain conceptualorder in each world religion in respect of its fundamental characteristics. According to him, there are four types of world religions in relation to basic teachings found in them. (1)

1 . Supernaturalism which speaks of supematuraI forces influencing human events for better or worse.

2. Animism, the beliefofactive animate spirits operatingin the world 3. Theism which speaks of God or gods interested in human affairs 4. Transcendental Idealism which emphasises good conduct and self-

culture directed to realise an ideal supernatural state

Therefore broadly speaking, a religion proper always has a twofold duty to perform. One is to delineate the moral path of life based on its world view, for the sake of its followers. The other is to point out the value of arriving at the supernatural, transcendental goal for real and permanent happiness conceived in terms of its world view. So Buddhism as Reece MacGee also has shown comes within the sphere of the fourth type of religion. Durkheim, one of the pioneer researchers in the field, approached the subject in a different way and viewed religion from a sociological perspective showing how cohesion is maintained by religion. As elaborated by successive sociologists, religion's social role is fourfold:

THE BASIS OFTHE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUTLOOK

1. Maintenance of social solidarity 2. Providing answers to problems of life by means of theodicy 3. Inculcation of values and norms for society 4. Providing psychological support to followers

When we confine ourself to the social role of Buddhism, it can be (lefined as an ethical, spiritual and pragmatic training aiming at Iiroducing a person of vision and discipline.

According t o the Pali Canon, the Buddha in search of linlightenment gave up all forms of austere ascetic practices that he Ilad been following over a period of six long years and thought out by Ilimself a technique, a method by which he could achieve his objective

Enlightenment. The Path was reasoned out by himself, and tventually the Buddha attained Enlightenment at the foot of the Bodhi- Tree. (2)

Attaining self-mastery in this way, the Buddha showed the world how one should be rid of dogmatic beliefs and worthless age-old I raditions which have no relative importance whatsoever, either for \uccessful living in this life or for gaining a better life hereafter. It was ;I time when people were given to various types of disputations of controversial philosophical or religious issues on the one hand, and superstitious beliefs abounding with rites and rituals on the other. Many kinds of teachers professed divergent views on religion and philosophy. The situation was such that the majority of people could not cliscriminate or single out what was right since the views were propounded with equal emphasis and eloquence. There were preachers of high reputation and some of them hailed from respectable families. The philosophical propositions forwarded by some of them, though 1,ontradictory to one another, were logically sound and theoretically well-founded. One of the discourses in the canon furnishes us with a record of no less than sixty two such philosophical views found at the lime of the Buddha.(3)

THEBASIS OF THE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUnOOK

Once the Buddha visited Kesaputta, a township in North India, inhabited by a clan called Kalama. They came to the Buddha and said that their township was a place of religious disputation and many religious disputants who visited the township, with the purpose of conversion in view, used to proclaim their views seemingly on a logical and rational basis. So, the Kalamas of Kesaputta being bewildered as to which was true among the divergent views that had been proclaimed before them, voiced their utter dissatisfaction before the Buddha and asked him as to what measure they should adopt in order to find out the plausibility of those different views.

Scientific Attitude

In this regard the Buddha, addressing the Kalamas, announced what is called by some scholars the 'Magna Carta' of Buddhism, for it guaranteed some fundamental rights and privileges for the seeker after truth. It was remarkable a great event in the field of analytical investigation, freedom of thought and value of dissent. For the first time in human history, the Buddha paved the way to think freely, without being bound by unverifiable propositions, solely on the ground that they had come down from generation to generation for some reason or other. He admonished them to use their critical faculcy in defining what is good and wholesome. Here we see a teacher who gave precedence to reason over emotions.

The address to the Kalamas could be considered "very bold and daring" in the context of the social and religious situation in which the Buddha preached. It was indeed a proclamation, ahead of its time. Nevertheless, it was out of unlimited compassion and wisdom that the Buddha persuaded the Kalamas to get out of the diametrically opposite views and irrational faiths and encouraged them to cultivate a rational way of thinking which is called 'scientific' in modern phraseology.

The Buddha's approach is however, different from the empiricist

THE BASIS OF THE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUTLOOK

;~ctitude found in scientific research, because Buddhism, not being a kind of physical science, deals with a different dimension of life. In Ihddhism, life is considered sacred. Science on the other hand bases its arguments on a methodology which deals entirely with the examination of phenomena based on quantifiable data. Hence i~ccording to science, what is measured by meters and measurements involving mathematical calculations is acknowledged as legitimate and valid. O n the contrary, Buddhism focuses its attention on the ~neaning of human life and speaks of moral behaviours. As the focal point of concentration is the material world and its examination rests on a quantitative base, the standpoint of the field of science differs ~.ategoricall~ from that of Buddhism. The soteriological objective of the empiricism of the Buddhist approach is, hence, quite different lrom the intents and purposes of science. Buddhism as a religion :~dvocates a system of moral behaviour involved fundamentally in the meaning of human life, which cannot be measured by any instrument of modem science.

The Address to the Kalamas

The religious disputants who visited the township of the Kalamas professed divergent religious and philosophical views and preached I hem so convincingly, that the Kalamas were perplexed as to their validity. Then the Buddha told them that their perplexity is legitimate in such instances and proclaimed ten propositions to the Kalamas. The discourse sheds light on the basic norms of Buddhist social philosophy according to which a view is not to be accepted by:

1 . Revelation (ma anussawena) 2. Tradition (ma paramparaya) 3. Hearsay (ma itikiraya) 4. The Authority of Sacred Texts (ma pitakasampadanena) 5. Basic Logical format (ma takka hetu) 6. Merely on the view that s e e m rational (ma naya hetu) 7. Reflecting on mere appearance (ma akaraparivitakkena)


8 . Apeement with a considered view (ma ditthi nijjhanakkhantiya)

9. Considering the competence of a person (ma bhabbarupataya) 10. Consdering that the reclwe is our teacher (mu samano no guru)

Further on questioning, when the Kalamas affirmed that greed, hatred and delusion are not conducive to one's happiness, the Buddha continued:

"On reflection, when you know for certain, 0 Kalamas; for yourself, that any view is contributory to the

arising of greed, hatred and delusion, you may then abandon that view as unwholesome. O n reflection,

when you k n w for certain, 0 Kalamas; for yourself, that any view is contributory to appeasement of greed,

hatred and delusion you may then accept that view as wholesome."

By analysing these ten propositions and the criterion that followed, with which the validity of a view is to be measured, we are led to arrive at some negative and positive conclusions which could be considered very remarkable in the religious history of the world. They reveal the underlying characteristics of Buddhist thought as the founder himself reasoned out as it should have been.

i. Propositions 1 , 2 and 3 unequivocally deal with the authority of revelation transmitted in any form whatsoever, thereby rejecting the concept of an omnipotent, omniscient and all-compassionate creator.

ii. No. 4 refers to textual citations and stresses the fact that being written down in the s m e d texts alone is not suficient to justib the feasibility of a view.

iii. Nos 5 and 6 point out the insuficiency of a mere format of a hypothesis to conclude that it is pragmatic.

iv. Nos 7 and 8 , assert the frailty of beingemotional andsentimental

THE BASIS OF ME BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUTLOOK

in accepting a view.

v. No 9 emphasises that one should not to be convinced by mere superficial affinity of a hypothesis to ow's own point of view.

vi. No 10 accentuates that one should not be misguided by the reputation and the sense of honour towards a preacher and believe in, on that account alone, what he says.

O n closer observation, we will be able to discover from the discourse in question, some of the important premises relevant to modern concepts of freedom and civil rights. Therefore positively speaking, these ten propositions would seem to have been founded on some fundamental principles found in the teachings of the I3uddha. Had there not been a positive way to approach problems involving man's potential ability to model his own destiny, presumably the Buddha would never have delivered the discourse popularly known as the Kalama Sutta. Hence, it must be stated that this epoch making announcement of the Buddha is based on some of the positive doctrinal issues that distinguish Buddhism from contemporary Indian religious thought.

They can be summarised in this way:

I. The Assurance of Free Inquiry 11. Salvation without a Saviour 111. The Freedom of Expression IV. The Autonomy of Moral Judgement V. The Right to Dissent VI. Free will and Responsibility

I. The Assurance of Free Inquiry

Throughout his missionary career of forty- five years, the Buddha's innate proclivity to address reason, making the listener wise and rational in ethical and spiritual matters is vividly manifested in the canonical dialogues ofthe Buddha. Here is a teacher par excellence,

THE BASIS OF THE BUDDHIST SOCIAL 0UTL.OOK

who saw the potential of each and every individual irrespective of his clan, caste, creed or social status and devoted a considerable part of his discourses to instil an awareness of the bare facts of life.

Once Upali, the Jain householder, visited the Buddha with the hope of defeating him, by refuting the Buddha's standpoint. But ultimately, at the end of the religious controversy, he was so thoroughly impressed that he apologised to the Buddha and announced that he would thenceforth take the Buddha as his refuge and be a follower. Thereupon, the Buddha asked him thrice over, not to be emotional and sentimental. "Analytical reasoning is better for persons of your status. You are a person of good fame." ( thumhadisanam natamanussanam anuviccakaro sadhu hoti.) (5)

In one of the discourses, the Buddha asked his disciples to examine by themselves whether the professed Enlightenment of the Buddha was factual and real (6). This attitude of the Buddha is nicely summarised in a stanza found in a Buddhist Sanskrit text. It reads :

"Jwt as the quality of gold is determined by heating, cutting and rubbing on a whetstone by a wise one,

even so, 0 monk; my word has to be accepted after examination and not out of honour to me".

"Tapat chedat ca nikashat Suwamamiwa panditaih

Pariksa bhiksavo grahyah Madwaco na tu gaurawat (7)"

11. Salvation without a Saviour

Buddhism speaks of salvation without a personal saviour. The Buddha always stated emphatically that he was only a person showing the way. "Things have to be performed by yourselves, the Tathagatas are only showing the way (to emancipation)" is the key note of his message. (8). "Be an island unto yourselves! Be a refuge unto


Do not depend upon others (for your emancipation)!" w ; ~ s his advice to monks at the last days of his mortal existence.

The Buddha discouraged his followers from creating a personality 1 tilt around him, a fact evident in the teaching as handed down to 11s. He always encouraged the faithful, who expressed their willingness I I I be saved, to go by the doctrine that he has preached. When a 111onk called Vakkali who was in the habit of looking from a certain distance at the face of the Buddha in admiration, the Buddha ~icrsuaded him to look for the doctrine instead and to master it. The I\i~ddha said : "What good does it bring to you, Vakkali; by looking ; ~ t this physical body of filth? He who sees the doctrine sees me. He who sees me, sees the doctrine". (10) Each and every individual has 1 1 1 strive individually for his own well being here and after.

In this connection, attention could be drawn to the creation of I he Buddha image. Until Kanishka, who reigned in India in the 1st century B.C., no images had been carved to represent the Buddha. Archaeologists as well as historians believe that the sculptors abstained from carving images of the Buddha, out of the inborn fear that they were not capable enough to carve all the delicate and intricate features found in the Buddha's physique. However, one ',an argue against this view by bringing in a considerable amount of hubstantial proof pertaining to what the Buddha said in regard to himself. Although there was a process of accumulating docetic elements around the human person of the Buddha in the subsequent ages, as revealed in the texts, the Buddha totally rejected any divine connection. Therefore, it is plausible to think that the Buddhists in that contemporary society must have discouraged statuary lest the Buddha be taken as just one more god of the Hindu pantheon. This actually happened in a later stage of Indian religious history by representing the Buddha as one of the ten incarnations of Vishnu, the god ofprotection in Hindu mythology. The Buddha insuucted the diiiples to go by the doctrine and discipline that he taught and to regard the


doctrine and discipline as teacher after his demise (11).

Nor was the doctrine to be dogmatised and worshipped. The pragmatic value of the teaching is stressed throughout. What the Buddha taught is not to be taken as a magical formula, the utterance of which requires many ritualistic performances and ceremonies. The doctrine is, therefore, to be mastered and practised. This utilitarian nature of the doctrine is brought forth in the parable of the raft where the Buddha says:

"0, Monks, I will teach you the parable of the raft. The doctrine, comparable to a raft, is for crossing over,

not for retaining. You monks, by understanding the parable of the raft, should even get rid of the

doctrine (dharnma), all the more of the wrong doctrine (adhammu)." ( l 2 )

Once the purpose is served, there is no need to hang on to it. But, that objective is to be achieved through contemplative reasoning and analysis. In other words, the responsibility lies upon the individual himself. As there is no external agency acting as a saviour, prayer, sacrifice, worship and supplication are of no avail. The Dhammapada puts it thus :

"Oneself, indeed is one's saviour, for what other saviour would there be ? With oneself well-controlled,

one obtains a saviour dificult to find. "

Attahi attano - ko hi natho paro siya Attana va sudantena - natham labhati dullabham (13)

It is reiterated :

"By oneself indeed, is evil done, by oneself is one defiled. By oneself is evil left undone, by oneself indeed,

is one purified. Purity and impurity depend upon oneself. N o one purifies another."

THE BASIS OFTHE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUTLWK

("Attana ua katam papam - attana samkilissati Attam akatam papam - attanuva visujjhati Suddhi asuddhi paccattam . nanno annam uisodhaye") (14)

111. The Freedom of Expression The freedom of expression is considered as an essential phenomenon

of personal liberty. To say that one is enjoying the freedom of expression amounts to a public announcement of one's own independent personal thoughts or views, without any external constraints or domination whatsoever.

Of course, the exercise of the freedom to express is to be carried out within certain limits of legal binding. Today, in principle, this has been recognised as a civil right of each and every individual human being living on the globe. But very often than not, obviously in some countries, freedom of expression is denied by adopting very vulgar methods of extermination. Suppression of opposing views is usually carried out under the banner of authorised censorship.

The address to the Kalamas clearly shows that the Buddha had accepted the right of others to express their own views. But having been listened to, they are to be scmtinised and digested. What is considered essential is critical evaluation. The Buddha's discourse amounts to saying : "Let recluses from all directions come to Kesaputta and proclaim their views, but by cultivating awareness one must exercise one's freedom of rational choice". Devadatta during the Buddha's time publicly voiced his disagreement with the Buddha and the community of monks. He had once been allowed to submit four rules of strict discipline underlying austere asceticism. The Buddha rejected them on the grounds of freedom of choice. In that particular instance, the Buddha gave the monks the latitude to deviate if they so wish, from compulsory ascetic conduct. Even though the Buddha could, he would not seek the royal assistance to suppress the freedom enjoyed by Devadatta. Instead, he resorted to the democratic means


of public proclamation. Ananda was asked to announce in a public place that thenceforth Devadatta was not a member of the community of monks, and that the Buddha or the monks were not in any way responsible for his behaviour thereafter.

IV. The Autonomy of Moral Judgement One of the salient features distinguishable in the discourse is the

autonomy ascribed to moral evaluation. Morality being the sum total of Buddhist behaviour, an action or a proposition is to be judged in accordance with the moral implications implicit in that particular action or proposition. This is exclusively the Buddhist approach to be followed, for the betterment of the individual and society as a whole. Neither the end justifies the means nor the means justifies the end, but both the end and the means have to be critically examined and evaluated in relation to their moral application.

The autonomy of moral judgement recommended to the inquisitive Kalamas is basically a value judgement, because herein the criterion is formulated on the premises of moral value and fact. Factually speaking; greed, hatred and delusion are defilements or evils. They are detrimental to one's welfare, which is an empirically observabfe fact; an actuality that could be experienced in our daily life. If that is so, any theory that leads one to greed, hate and delusion, that theory would not be conducive to one's happiness. Therefore, as it is not capable of leading one to the ultimate spiritual goal, it must be discarded altogether.

As discussed in another context in the canon, the autonomy of moral judgement could be based on three alternative standpoints:

a. On one's conscience (attadhipateyyd b. O n the world opinion (lokadhipateyya) c. On the doctrinal point of view (dhammadhipateyya)


Firstly, a person may judge the validity of a given proposition on one's own conscience. That is, to evaluate anything on one's consciousness of right and wrong. Conscience is a product of human civilisation, provided that one who has presence of mind is naturally believed to also have the ability to differentiate good from evil. As a consequence of resorting to a wrong or evil assumption or action, wilfully against his own conscience, he is reminded that his conscience would be reproached by that very conscience. (attapi attanam upavadati)

The second alternative has been recommended in making a value judgement, viewing it through the angle of public opinion. Reaction of the public is to be taken into consideration, as a criterion of judgement. Disregarding the opinion of the wise, would especially result in evil consequences. When the act is blamable in the eyes of the wise, it will tend to create a bad image of the person concerned. (anuvicca vinnu garaheyyum)

The application of the doctrinal standpoint is stated as the third alternative. Contemplation on the doctrine would lead one to reason out the welfare of this life and the hereafter and to reflect as to whether his action is in conformity with the doctrine. The adherence to an evil action would result in rebirth in a woeful state. (parammarana duggatim patikamkha) ( 16)

In all the three instances, the autonomy of judging the moral value of an act rests upon the individual himself. While he is given the freedom of choice, his capacity to reason in terms of good and evil is taken for granted.

V. The Right to Dissent

The right to dissent highlighted in the discourse to the Kalamas is also a significant event in the history of Buddhist thought. The propounders of different religions were not obstructed from coming


to Kesaputta for their missionary activities. As we understand from the Sutta, the Kalamas were encouraged to listen to the moral feasibility of those views.

From very early times, India as a whole, seems to have had developed a sympathetic attitude towards diverse religious and philosophical views. Most of the towns in North India provided a kind of assembly halls called "Halls for Religious Controversies" (Samayappavadaka sala) where different preachers could deliver lectures on their respective religious and philosophical systems (1 7). There they could freely initiate debates to defend their own views or denounce another's views. It was a public platform where anyone could announce his theories without any obligation to anybody. Religious tolerance seems to have been practised to the very letter where divergent religious groups could meet one another in a very friendly atmosphere.

As found in the Buddhist canonical records, the religious leaders were in the habit of visiting one another from time to time. The Buddha too visited the monasteries of other religionists and had dialogues with them on doctrinal issues. They, too, used to visit the Buddha, with the intension of learning the Buddha's approach to problems related to their philosophical systems. In fact some of the important dialogues found in the Buddhist scriptures are discussions between the Buddha and the recluses professing different faiths, who approached the Buddha to get their doubts clarified.

Religious tolerance in this way is a concept not alien to ancient India. Asoka, the Buddhist emperor, in the 3rd century B.C. following the spirit of the Buddha's attitude to other religions inscribed in the rock Edict in Gimar: "He who disparages another's religion, virtually disparages his own religion" (18).

The free exchange of conflicting ideas clears the path to reality. Deliberation conducted in diverse perspectives within a real


democratic framework broadens the horizon of vision. An attitudinal change towards the exercise of the right to dissent would therefore lead not only to encouraging friendship but also to deepening the understanding between them.

As we know from the 13th to the 19th century, the Inquisition in Europe played a gruesome role in European religious history. Scientific discoveries were denounced on religious authority by the Inquisition and the scientists were harassed, tortured and made to reprobate their own scientific findings that had been achieved by life long research for the good of the entire human race.

Buddhism considers that the right to dissent is the prerogative of everyone. Wherever Buddhism went it embarked on a mission of awakening people to reality. In Buddhist history we do not come across proselytising campaigns in numerous guises just as we find in some of the religious histories of the world. Very often it is pointed out that never a drop of blood was shed for the cause of the spread of Buddhism. It is because of the right to dissent, more and more scientific discoveries were made possible in numerous fields. As new theories, more effective than the existing ones, came to be formulated, the old ones became obsolete.

After the demise of the Buddha, dissentient views resulted in different doctrinal interpretations. Consequently, many Buddhist sects came into existence, speeding up the diversification and the expansion of Buddhist thought.

Even within the monasteries themselves, nobody was obstructed from free discussion. In religious and philosophical discussions, the participants could enjoy the right to withhold assent actively opposing other views. Free and independent views were anticipated and no objections were raised for holding or declaring a contrary opinion. Later in the 5th century onwards, when Buddhist Universities such as Nalanda, V'ikramasila, Jagaddala etc. were started in India, the spirit of


free inquiry and right to dissent prevailing in the Buddhist Universities at that time atttacted academicians as well as students from many Asian countries for study and research. The vast amount of commentarial literature found in Pali reveals to what extent freedom has been enjoyed by the elders in ancient Sri Lanka who conceptualised their different interpretations known as "acariya vada".

VI. Free Will and Responsibility

In philosophy, free will and responsibility are interpreted in a very liberal, but abstract way. The ambiguity of the concept has rendered it - . impossible to interpret it within the scope of the meaning that the words individually denote. The ambiguity apparently has led philosophers to argue and develop two different trains of thought related to some of the world religions. Some maintain that Christianity envisages free will and responsibility, yet others say it does not, all on the same Biblical authority.

In this discussion we confine ourselves to the meaning they denote, not to what they connote, in order to compare and contrast the Buddhist standpoint with these denotations. From this point of view, two important concepts of Buddhism are seen to emerge from the discourse to the Kalamas. They are nothing but the attitude to free will and responsibility in Buddhism.

Buddhism does not resort to detenniniim, either theistic or kammic, to solve the problems of man and his destiny. It neither advocates indeterminism nor strict causal determinism. Buddhism assetts that while nanscendental reality is beyond causality or conditionality, the phenomenal world is causally conditioned, and the individual has the power of exercising his free will and the responsibility in selecting and following a moral behaviour, amicable to m c e n d i n g the causal nexus that keeps him in bondage. In other words, ~uddhism deals with a doctrine of emancipation from the vicious circle of causal conditionality dominating the phenomenal world.

THE BASIS OFTHE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUnOOK

When we stand aloof from all the subtle arguments brought against or brought in favour of free will and responsibility, we understand that the concept of the supremacy of man is an essential constituent of Buddhist thought. Man is entrusted with the responsibility of choosing what is wholesome from alternative courses of action. As the freedom to will and the responsibility of subsequent actions rest upon the individual himself, he is the moulder of his own fate. Hence the concepts of free will and responsibility are so central to Buddhist philosophy, without which Emancipation or Moral Perfection as expounded in Buddhism would be meaningless. If free will and responsibility are not guaranteed, man is helpless and he has to be ever in the cycle of existence under the tyranny of causality. The Buddha reiterated that in the causally conditioned world, man has the freedom, power and the responsibility of rising above the causal conditionality. As Tachibana puts it: "Buddhism emphasises the freedom of the will, and that its morality is autonomy par excellence. Autonomy is a paramount characteristic of this religion"(l9). In the context of supremacy ascribed to the individual, the assertion that "not only the so-called free will is not free but even the very idea of free will is not free from conditions" has to be understood as a meaning extended and appended to Buddhist theory of causality, implying that even the freedom of action and choice are - . - traceable back to some kind of causal genesis (20).

' Man is tradition-bound and he follows what is handed down from generation to generation without questioning the relative value of adhering to it. Some of the religious beliefs found at the time of Buddha were detrimental to the spiritual growth of man, therefore in his dialogues the Buddha insisted that the interlocutors be immunized from views which were morally unwholesome. In the discourse, the Kalamas were "awakened" as it were, from their bewildering confusion by the Buddha appealing to their reason.

As to how a person would exercise his freedom of will and take the responsibility upon himself are clearly depicted in the scriptures.


When a person comes to know from others about the Buddha and the doctrine, he develops a liking to see the Buddha and listen to what he says. So he inclines towards faith and confidence and goes to the Buddha. Now, twelve successive stages in the process of evaluation leading to realisation of truth have been shown relying on the exercise of the freedom of willing and the corresponding responsibility of the person concerned. Addressing the monks the Buddha said:

"As to this monks;

i. He who has faith draws close (idha bhikkhave saddhajato upasamkamati)

ii. Drawing close he sits down near by (upasamkamitva payirupasati)

iii. Sitting down near by he lends his ear (payirupasanto sotam odahati)

iv. Lending his ear he hears the doctrine (odahita soto dhammam sunati)

v. Having heard the doctrine he remembers it (sutva dhammam dhareti)

. He then tests the meaning of things he has borne in mind (dhatanam dhmnmanam attham upaparikkhati)

v . While testing the meaning the things are approved of (attham upaparikkhanto dhamma nijjhanam khamanti)

viii. There being approval of the things, desire is born (dhamma nij-jhanakkhantiya sati chando jayati)

ix. With desire born he makes an effort (chandajato ussahati) X . Hawing made an effort he weighs it up (ussahanto tuleti)

xi. Having weighed it up he strives (tulayanto vayamati) xii. Finally being self-resolute he realises with his person the

Highest Truth (padahitatto samano kayena paramam saccam sacchi karoti) (21)

Further, the Buddha points out that there are four expositions pertaining to the disciple who has thus followed the instructions faithfully and lives in unison with it.

THE BASIS OF THE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUnOOK

l . He begins to realise : the Teacher is the Lord; a disciple am I ; the Lord knows, I do not know.

2 . He comprehends that the Teacher's instruction is a furthering in growth and a giving of strength.

3. He puts his shoulder W the wheel and thinks: "Gladly would I be reduced to skin and sinews and bone and let my body's flesh and blood dry up if there come to be a vortex of energy so that which is not yet won might be won by human strength, by human energy, by human striving. "

4. One of two fruits is to be expected by the disciQk who adhpres W

the Teacher's insauction and lives in unison with it. Profound knowledge here and now, and if there is any basis for rebirth remaining, the state of no-return.

It is because of free will and responsibility guaranteed in Buddhism that one is asked to repose confidence even in the Buddha only after thoughfully reflecting on what he preaches.

Foot Notes

1 . See Sociology by Ian Roberrson 2 . MhJ I (Anyapanyesend 167 3. DN 1 (Brahmajala) .i.f 4. AN1188 5 . MNI ( Upali) 137ff 6. MN I (Vimansaka) 3 l 7 7. Gnamarasamuccaya 30 8. "Tumhehi kiccam atapam akkhataro tathagatan- Dhp, verse 276 9 . "Attadipa viharatha attasarana ananmaram" - DN ii 1 19 10. "Kim te vakkali imina putikayena ditthena, yo dhammam pass&

so mam passati" 1 l . Yo kho Ananda maya dhammo ca vinayo ca pannatto so vo

mamaccayena sattha - DN ii, 135

THE BASIS OFTHE BUDDHIST SOCIAL OUnOOK

12. KuUupamam bhikkhawe dhammam desissami nittharanatthaya no gahanatthaya - MN i, 135

13. Dhp 160 14. Dhp 165 15. Vinaya11184 16. AN i, 17. DN1 178, 11254 18. Asoka Edicrs: Girnar 7 19. Tachibana-Ehics of Buddhism p.92 20. Rahula, W. - What the Buddha Taught p.54 MN i (Kitagiri) 477 ff 21. MN i (Kitagiri) 477 ff

3. THE MECHANISM OF SOCIALIS ATION

he elements that make up society are manifold. Husband and wife taken together are considered to be the most fundamental social unit having reciprocal relations. Likewise, parents and children, teachers and pupils, friends and companions, laity and priesthood, employers

and employees form other social units. So according to the Buddha, every social unit necessarily requires bilateral commitments of reciprocal interest.

Without individuals, a society does not exist. Hence, the individual must be conscious of the duties that he has to perform for the smooth functioning of social relations. Therefore, the entire human society has been broadly classified in terms of relations within each social unit. In this way, by classifying the entire civilised society into six units, the social obligations of every individual have been taken into consideration. Each unit, having reciprocal relations, are represented as personifying the six directions: East, South, West, North, Zenith and Nadir.( l ) The six social units are :

East : ParentslChildren South : TeacherslPupils West : WiveslHusbands North : FnendslCompanions

THE MECHANISM OF SOCIALISATION

Zenith: ClergyILaity Nadir: EmployerslEmployees

Social ethics set out in terms of these units profoundly reflect the attitude that should be cultivated for the betterment of human society as a whole.

Now with regard to these social units their reciprocal duties have been discussed at length in the Sigalovada Sutta.

A child towards parents The child should think and act in this manner:

1. Once supported by them, I will now be their support 2. I will perform duties incumbent on them 3 . I wiU keep up the lineage and tradition 4. I will make myself worthy of my heritage 5. I will transfer merits in due time

Parents toward children Parents have the duty to:

1 . Restrain them from vice 2. Exhort them to virtue 3. Train them for a profession 4. Contract suitable marriages for them 5. Hand over their inheritance in due time

Pupils toward teachers Pupils should show their respect by:

I . Rising from their seats in salutation 2. Waiting upon them 3 . Showing eagerness to learn 4. Personal service 5. Attentive learning


Teachers toward pupils Teachers care for their pupils by:

l . Training them well 2. Making them master that which they themselves have

learnt well 3 . Instructing them in the lore of every art 4. Speaking well of them among their friends and

companions 5. Providing for their safety in every way

Husband towards his wife A husband takes care of his wife by:

1. Showing her respect 2. Being courteous towards her 3. Being faithful to her 4. Handing over authority of household management 5. Providing her with adornments

Wife towards her husband A wife fulfills her obligations towards her husband 5y:

1 . Performing her duties 2. Showing hospitality to relatives of both sides 3 . Being faithful to him 4. Watching over the goods he brings home 5. Discharging all her duties with skill and indusay

Clansman towards his friends He should treat his friends with:

l . Generosity 2. Courtesy 3 . Consideration 4. Equality, wing his own wishes as a guide 5. Truthfulness

THE MECHANISM OF SOClALlSAnON

Friends toward clansman They should help him by:

1. Providing protection when he is off his guard 2. Guarding his property when he is heedless 3 . Becoming a refuge when he is afraid 4. Not forsaking him when he is in trozlble 5. Showing consideration for his family

Employers toward employees They should treat them properly by:

1 . Assigning them work according to their strength 2. Supplying them with food and wages 3 . Tending them in sickness 4 . Sharing special treats with them (acchariyanam rasanad 5. Granting leave from time to time

Employees toward employers They should discharge their duties to their employers by:

l . Rising before them 2. Lying down to rest after them 3. Being content with what is given 4. Doing their job well 5. Caring about their good name

Laity towards the community of monks The laity should minister to them by:

1. Treating them with affection in act 2. Treating them with affection in speech 3. Treating them with affection in mind 4. Keeping their houses open to them 5. Supplying their temporal needs


The community of monks towards laity They have the obligation to care for the laity by:

1 . Restraining them from evil 2. Exhorting them to do good 3. Loving them with kindly thoughts 4. Teaching them what they hawe not heard before 5 . Cowecting and purifying what they have heard already 6 . Revealing to them the way to a heawenly state

Herein, the structure of the entire human society has been analysed into twelve constituents. When taken singly, they are independent and occupy a prominent individual position in social relations. It is to be emphasised that the individual health of each unit contributes to the health of society as a whole. A healthy society in turn results in individual health. In other words, the whole discussion is based on the premise that the individual's welfare and society's welfare are interdependent and problems arising within these social units; among parents and children, teachers and pupils, husbands and wives etc. are intended to be solved through mutual trust and love. Genuine trust is not only respect and honour shown but also an encouragement to the growth of one's individuality.

Parenting in the Buddhist Way Parental care envisaged in this discussion is worthy of

consideration. By following the duties prescribed for parents, they will surely be looked after by their sons and daughters in their old age. Had those bilateral duties been fulfilled there would have been a human habitat without orphanages and homes for the aged. It is to be understood that the relationship between parents and children is by no means devoid of mutual understanding and affection. On the part of the parents it is not a domineering attitude abound with 'dos' and 'don'ts', but a form of counselling needed in the formative period of the child's life.

TIG MECHANISM OF SOCIALISATION

Thus the parent - child relationship endorsed in Buddhism is neither domineering nor puritanical. Indeed, parenting according to layman's ethics in Buddhism is not based on the puritanical notion of 'spare the rod, spoil the child'. Children look to their parents and teachers for inspiration and often they imitate them. Therefore affection and exhortation of virtue are considered integral in parenting.

On the other hand, children have the responsibility of looking after their parents in their old age. Afterwards, while carrying out the duties incumbent on them as adults, they are to uphold family traditions and prestige. Also, by fulfilling the wishes of the parents, they are expected to transfer merits to their parents when they are dead and departed.

The duty of arranging a suitable spouse was considered a right as well as a duty of the parents. Lest the child, the son or daughter, fall into an impetuous sentimental matrimonial alliance, which unfortunately might lead to the ruination of all expectations, eroding the path to satisfaction longed for, parents were entrusted with the responsibility of finding an eligible spouse for the child at a marriageable age. Dowry not being anticipated in whatever form, the handing over of the inheritance at the proper time, probably after marriage, has been considered as a duty of the parents.

In many instances, the affectionate relationship between parents and children have been discussed in Buddhism. Children are considered to be the wealth of the parents (putta vatthu manussanam). Usually three types of children are differentiated.

1. Atijata putta -One who treads a virtuous path better than his parents. He while resorting to Three Refuges observes the Five Precepts of good moral conduct.

2. Anujata putta -Whose life is similar to the life of his parents. 3. Avajata putta -A base born who does not live up to the standard

set by his parents.(3)


Attendance on Parents

The Buddha once referring to the attendance on parents, said :

"Monks, one can never repay two persons, I declare. What two? Mother and father."

And continuing said : "They do much for their children, they bring them up, they nourish them,

introduce them to this world."

"Moreover monks, whosoever rouses his unbeliewingparents, settles and establishes them in the faith, whosoever incites

his immoral parents settles and establishes them in morality, whosoever incites his stingy parents settles and establishes

them in liberality, whosoever incites his foolish parents settles and establishes them in wisdom, such a one in

so doing does repay, does mme than repay what is due to his parents." (3)

In the Vhaya, monks are allowed to look after their poor old parents and provide them with food and other requisites (4), because the parents are called the first teachers (pubbacariya) and the '~uddha' in one's household.

In the Mangala Sutta, attendance on parents has been named an auspicious event. In the same emphatic tone it is said in the Parabhava Sutta that the son who is competent enough yet does not attend on his parents who are old and advanced in years would cause his own downfall by his negligence. In the same way, giving an ethical twist to the word 'vasala', Buddha said that such a negligent person is to be known as a vasala, a low-caste.

Family Bonds

Husband and wife form the nucleus social unit. One is not subordinate to the other. Their relationship is a union brought about

THE MECHANISM OF SOClALISATlON

by love, understanding and mutual trust and not by cheap amorous or romantic love. Both are independent as well as interdependent, a fact to be noted as a deviation from the patriarchal family concept which dominated ancient Indian society. Each has his or her own rights and duties through which their lives become meaningful, enabling them to face the vicissitudes of life with understanding. Although the Sigalovada is a discourse of more than two thousand five hundred years old, it is applicable in toto to modem society where women's liberation is a burning topic of discussion.

Four Kinds of Matrimonies The Buddha, comparing wives to corpses and goddesses and

husbands to corpses and gods, differentiates four kinds of marriage.

1. A corpse-like man (chavo) lives with a corpse-like wife(chava).

2. A corpse.like man (chavo)lives with a goddess-like wife(devi).

3. A god-like man (devo)lives with a corpse-like wife (chava).

4. A god-like man (devo) lives with a goddess-like wife (devi).

If the husband or the wife is in the nature of killing, stealing, indulging in wrongful sensual conduct, given to harsh speech and idle talk, covetous, malevolent in heart, perverted in view, wicked, doing evil, stingy and reviling recluses and Brahmins that person is compared to a corpse. Those who have cultivated good qualities opposite to these are recognised as gods and goddesses. (5).

Seven Kinds of Wives O n another occasion, the Buddha enumerated seven kinds of

wives. It is interesting to note that the Buddha enumerated these

M E MECHANISM OF SOCIALISATION

seven kinds of wives to Sujata, the daughter-in-law of the treasurer, Anathapindika, who once complained to the Buddha that Sujata paid no heed to her mother-in-law nor to her father-in-law nor to her husband and neither did she venerate and honour the Exalted One. Then the Buddha, describing the seven kinds of wives, asked Sujata whether she could identify herself with any one of these seven characters.

1. Slayer-like wife (vadhaka bhariya) who is pitiless, currupt in mind, contemptuous of her husband, unamiable, passionate towards other men, able to be bought by money and bent on murder.

2. Robber-like wife (cora bhariya) who longs to steal what her husband has earned by the sweat of his brow.

3. Mistress-like wife (ayya bhariya) who is slothful, gluttonous, bent on doing nothing, harsh in speech, violent, who gossips and exercises power over her husband.

4. Mother-like wife (matu bhariya) who is sympathetic and looks after her husband as a mother her only son. She safeguards the family and their property.

5. Younger sister-like wife (bhagini bhariya) who looks after her husband and considers him as an elder brother. Being meek and attentive, she serves her husband properly.

6. Companion-like wife (sakhi bhariya) who rejoices in the company of her husband as if meeting him after a long time. She is gracious, gentle and faithful to her husband.

7. Servant maid-like wife (dasi bhariya) who is calm, patient, pure in heart, obedient, humble and who listens attentively to her husband's words.

After the enumeration of seven kinds of wives with their character traits Sujata is said to have told the Buddha that she is of the seventh kind. The background that prompted the Buddha to define these seven types of wives show that the Buddha was conscious of preaching to the laity in order to alleviate the tension of conflicts found in lay life.


There was a well-matched old couple called Nakula Mata and Nakula Pita during the time of the Buddha, who recollecting their happy and contented married life aspired to become husband and wife in the future birth too. When their aspiration was intimated, the Buddha told them that if they were equal in faith (saddha), morality (sila), generosity(caga) and wisdom (panna) their wish would be fulfilled. (6)

%ere is yet another instance in the scriptures revealing the Buddhist attitude to familial relationship leading to harmonious living. Viakha, the daughter of a millionaire called Dhananjaya, came of age and was about to marry. O n the day of her marriage, her father gave her ten admonitions to observe as a dutiful wife. They were:

1. Do not carry indoor fire outside 2. Do not carry outdoor fire inside 3. Give only to those that give 4. Do not give to those who do not give 5. Give both to those who gives and do not give 6. Sit happily 7. Eat happily 8. Sleep happily 9. Tend the fire 10. Honour the household divinities

These admonitions, having some implied meaning, were explained to Visakha by her father:

a. Herein fire signifies slandering. The wife should not speak ill of her husband nor of her parents - in-law to o h s . Neither should their short- cumings nor household quarrels be reported elsewhere.

b. The wife should not listen to the gossip of other families. c. Things should be lent only to those who rerum them. d . Noduing should be lent to those who do not return them. e. Poor relatives and fnends should be helped even if they do

not repay.

THE MECHANISM OF SC€IALlSATlON

f . The wife should s t a n d and not remain seated on seeing herparents-in-law. (This deals wib&ty W be nuiintained)

g. Before taking her meal, the wife should first see W the needs of herparents-in-law and husband. She should see that the servants are well-cared for.

h. Before skeping, the wife should see that all doors are locked, he servants hawe p e r f m d their duties and that her parents-in-law and husband have gone to bed.

i . Her parents-in-laeu and husband should be regarded as fire, to be dealt with carefully as one deals with fire.

j. Her parents-in-law and husband are W be regarded as divinities in the household and must be respected.(7)

Friends in Need

Nobody can live in society without friends. In many instances the Buddha advised people to be friendly with those of good moral character. Friendship among friends is cemented by generosity, courtesy, benevolence, co-operation, empathy and timely intervention when in need. Beside these appreciative moral qualities, a friend looks after his companion when he is off his guard. Certainly a friend in need is a friend indeed.

In this connection, the Sigalovada Sutta enumerates four foes in the guise of friends and four friends who should be reckoned as sincere and sound of heart.

Foes in the Guise of Friends

1 . A rapacious person (annadatthuhara) a. He takes away what he can get b. He gives littk and asks much c. He does his duty out offear d. He pursws his own interest

2 . A man of words not deeds (wmiparama)


a. He expresses friendly wards as regards the past b. He expresses friendly words as regards the future c. He tries to gain favour by empty words d . W h e n an opportunity arises, he confesses his inability

3. A flatterer (anuppiyabhani) a. He gives his consent to do wrong b. He dissents from doing right c. He praises his friend in front of him d . He speaks ill of him in his absmce

4. A fellow waster (apaya snhaya) a. He accompanies his friend for vices such as drinking b. He accompanies him to wander in rhe streets at untimely hours c. He accompanies him to frequent shows d. He accompanies him for gambling

Friends who are Sound of Heart

5. A helper (upakaraka) a . He guards his friend when he is off his guard b. He guards the property of his friend when he is off his guard c . He becomes a refuge to his friend when he is afraid d. When some business is to be done, he provides him with doubk

the amount (he needs)

6 . A friend who is rhe same i n both happiness and adversity (samana sukhadukkha)

a. He tells his secrets b. He keeps the secrets of his friend c. He does not forsake his friend when in troubk d . He would even lay down his life for his friend

7 . A friend of good counsel (atthakkhayi) a . He restrains his b e n d from doing wrong b. He enjoins his friend to do right c. He informs his friend what he has not heard before


d . He reveals to his friend the way to a heavenly state

8. A friend with a sympathetic heart (anukampaka) a. He does not rejoice over his fnend's misfortune b. He rejoices over his fried's prosperity c. He restrains anyone who speaks ill of his friend d . He commends anyone who praises his friend

Friendship with the sound of heart, obviously exerts a greater influence upon our social dealings as well as our personal welfare.

Once Ananda is said to have told the Buddha that half of the Noble Life (Brahmacariya) depended upon the friendship, association and intimacy with good friends. Thereupon the Buddha said that it was not just the half of it but the whole.(8)

In the same vein, the Buddha once said: "Monks, I do not know any other single condition that is helpful to the arising of what is wholesome that has not yet arisen and the elimination of what is unwholesome that has already arisen as friendship with the good."(9)

Labour Rights Indian society at the time of the Buddha was mainly agricultural.

As revealed in the Jataka tales, there was a wealthy merchant class who had transactions with various parts of India. Slavery was in existence, but Buddhism was against it just as much as it opposed discrimination based on caste. It is in this light that we have to view the master-servant relationship depicted in the discourse to Sigala. According to the discourse, work has to be allotted in keeping with the physical strength of the servant. The employer has to be reasonable in his dealings. The servant's right to have meals has been accepted along with occasional delicacies, and an equitable wage to be paid for the servant's labour. Authorised absence from duty called leave and provisions for medical facilities have also been pronounced in the discourse as labour rights. What is most significant is that the


labour rights won by trade unions by long arduous struggles after the ~ndusirial Revolution in Europe, have been proclaimed by the Buddha two and a half millenniums ago.

On the part of the employee, he is advised to be honest, active and punctual and to be of service to the master who is sympathetic towards him.

Education as an Obligation of the Clergy

The relationship between the community of monks and the laity is also reciprocal. While the lay followers furnish the temporal needs of the monks, they in turn fulfil the spiritual needs of the laity. Morever, they are entrusted with the task of educating them in order to widen their mental outlook.

Mrs. Rhys Davids, who is also a pioneer in introducing Pali Buddhism to the West, writes in her preface to the English translation of the discourse that therein all in all the Buddha's doctrine of love and goodwill between man and man has been set forth in domestic and social ethic with more comprehensive detail than anywhere else. And further on she says: "In a canon compiled by members of a religious order and largely concerned with the mental experiences and ideals of recluses; and their outlook on the world, it is of great interest to find in it a Sutta( a discourse) entirely devoted to the outlook and relation of the layman on and to his surroundings".

'-so sane and wide is the wisdom that envisages them, that the utterances are as fresh and practically as binding to-day and here as they were then at Rajagaha. Happy would have been the village or the clan on the banks of the Ganges, where the people were full of the kindly spirit of fellow-feeling, the noble spirit of justice which breathes through these naive and simple sayings" (10).

Here, in this social ethics of the Buddha, Mrs Rhys Davids sees a


note of motherly affection. Winding up her discussion she says: "The child under loving compassionate protection feels safe and confident as does the believing worshipper. And ideally, such child-like security and confidence is the attitude of student to teacher, husband to wife, friend to friend, servant to master".

Obviously, all aspects of social life at the time of Buddha have been discussed in the discourse in respect of the twelve social units which can be considered as a very comprehensive classification of social order in the 6th century B. C.

Foot Notes

1 . DN iii, 180-1 86 2. "Wise men desire a son superior-bum or like-both, wish not for a son

base-born, one who will be a burden to the clan. But sons like these, who m the world become lay-followers, with faith and virtue blest, pleasant to speak to, void of stinginess, just like the moon released from a mass of c l o d such would be shining lights of companies " - Itivuttaka, 64

3. A N i , 6 1 4. V I N i , 147 5 . A N i i , 5 8 6 . AN ii, 61; AN iv, 92-93 7. See The Dhammapada by Ven K Sri Dhammananda p . 139

(DphA on verse 53) 8 . DN iii, l80 f f 9 . AN i , 14 10. Introduction to Sigalovada Sutta - Dialogues of the

Buddha ii .

4. BUDDHISM ON CRIMES WITHOUT VICTIMS

he types of crimes that sociologists call "crimes without victims" are discussed at large in Buddhist social ethics. Evidently, the victims of these crimes are the offenders themselves. Gambling, vagrancy, drug addiction, alchoholism, and prostitution are considered to be the

crimes in this category. Although these crimes have no direct bearing on an individual other than oneself, ultimately these crimes are instrumental in causing social unrest and chaos. It is estimated that one third of the arrests each year in the US are offences of this category. A vast number are arrested annually for vagrancy, public drunkenness, loitering, prostitution, gambling and drug abuse. In most industrialised countries crimes without victims are on the increase.

However, Buddhism approaches the problem from a different perspective and analyses the potential dangers inherent in those 'crimes'. Discussing their social implications in detail, Buddhism shows their contribution to an individual's downfall. The Buddhist stand is therefore to prevent people from committing these crimes by educating them before they become hardened criminals.

The Sigalovada Sutta deals with a graphic description of these 'crimes'. The layman must be well disciplined in his personal and

BUDDHISM ON CRIMES WITHOUT VICTIMS

social dealings. He must be energetic and not be extravagant in regard to what he has earned bv the sweat of his brow. Therefore six common means of dissipating wealth are given along with an analysis of the potential dangers inherent in them. The analysis however is just as applicable to our society, where people seek excuses for procrastination or postponement of work to be done. Moreover, the idle person whiles away hi time and energy just brooding over what he could not achieve. (1)

The Six Channels of Dissipating Wealth

1 . Addiction to liquor (and drugs) 2. Loitering in the streets at unseemly hours 3. Frequenting theatrical shows 4. Indulgence in g~mbling 5. Association with evil companions 6. The habit of idleness

The perils or the disadvantages of each channel are analysed. The analysis consists of :

The Six Dangers of Being Addicted to Liquor (and Drugs)

1 . Actual loss of wealth 2. Increase in quarrels 3. Susceptibiliy to disease 4. Loss of good character 5. Indecent exposure 6. Impaired intelligence

The Six Perils of Loitering in the Streets at Unseemly Hours

I . He himself is wihout guard or protection. 2. His wife and children are without guard or protection. 3. His property is without guard or protection. 4. He is easily suspected of wrong deeds. 5 . He becomes the object of false rumours. 6 . Many are the troubles that befall him.


The Six Perils of Frequenting Theatrical Shows

1 . ( H e is ever thinking) Where is there dancing ? 2. Where is there singing ? 3. Where is there music ?

4. Where is there recitation ? 5. Where are hese cymbals being played ? 6 . Where are these drums being played ?

The Six Perils of Resorting to Gambling

I . As a winner he begets hatred. 2. W h e n beaten he mourns his lost wealth. 3. He is visibly being drained of his resources. 4. His word has no weight in a court of law. 5 . He is despised by friends and officials. 6. He is not sought after by hose who give or take in

marriage.

The Six Perils of Associating with Evil Companions

1 . Any gambler 2 . Any licentious person 3. Any drunkard 4. Any cheat 5. Any swindler (con-man) 6 . Any man of violence m y be his friend and companion.

Buddhism advises a sane person who desires to live decently to avoid association with these six types of evil companions who can be rightly considered as sources of crime. A perverted companion may direct a group to violence and vandalism. It has been pointed out that most people who are murdered have had acquaintance with the attacker, which means the gang choses a person who is known to the one to be killed as he would trust an acquaintance.


The Six Perils of the Habit of Idleness

l . He says that it is too hot and so does not work. 2. He says that it is too cold and so does not work. 3 . He says that it is too early and so does not work. 4. He says that it is too late and so does not work. 5. He says that he is hungry and so does not work. 6 . He says that he is too full and so does not work.

Hardly any comment is needed to understand the importance of the approach to the evils discussed in the discourse. Indeed the Buddha encouraged laymen to be energetic and face the hard facts of life bravely in order to lead a better life here and here after.

In the Parabhava Sutta, these topics have been discussed to delineate how they cause an individual's downfall. The vicious are dear to him and he seeks no delight in the virtuous. He is fond of sleeping, indolent and gets angry easily. Although he is rich he does not support his father and mother. He is addicted to intoxicants, women and gambling. He squanders whatever he earns. The Sutta says at the end that by knowing well all these causes of downfall, one then cultivates insight and thus becomes capable of leading a happy life. (2 )

Foot Notes

5 . THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY, STATE AND KINGSHIP

s adjuncts to the main thesis of revealing the nature of life, man's present predicament and liberation, some of the discourses of the Buddha provide us with detailed accounts of the evolution of human society, the state and kingship. It is evident however that the Buddhist -

approach is different from the prevailing brahmanic tradition in India. Brahmins verv often than not intemreted these institutions with a theistic bias. 'Buddhism, on the other hand, not relying on an all powerful creator, traces the evolution of human society along with state and kingship without any reference to the intervention of a creator-god. The Agganna, Cakkavatti Sihanada and Kutadanta Suttas of the Digha Nikaya of the Pali canon are of special importance in this connection.

The Agganna traces the history of human society in relating a legend as to how the Earth became inhabited by beings of the World of Radiance (Abhassara Devaloka). Those beings who died there were reborn on the Earth which had been re-evolved after a considerable length of time.

Those who came to life on Earth as humans were made of mind, fed on rapture, self-luminous, traversed the air, and were glorious.

THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY, STATE AND KINGSHIP

There was pitch darkness all over the Earth. Neither sun nor moon nor stars were to be seen. Neither day nor night. After sometime, the surface of the Earth appeared to them as a scum of boiled milky rice with an enchanting colour and odour. Some of greedy disposition tasted this delicious scum with their fingers. Then craving entered into the hearts of these beings, which resulted in the fading away of their luminance. The sun and the moon appeared. In this way, successively, following the delicious earth-scum(rasapapatika), mushrooms(ahicattaka), creeping plants (badalata) and rice ripening in open spaces (akatthapaka sali) appeared and they continued to feed on them. Due to taking solid food, their bodies too became more and more solid. They also became divergent in complexion, some dark, some fair.

As time went on, due to some socio-economic and environmental factors, the physical features as well as the mental qualities of these early settlers on Earth began to change. The discourse then relates how they evolved themselves from one stage to another by building up a civilisation on Earth. They gradually moved from the food gathering stage a am sayam sayamasaya aharanti am pat0 patarasaya aharanti) to the stage of food production by partitioning and cultivating lands (mayam salim vibhajeyyama). They, in claiming private ownership of lands, put up boundaries across that which had been common property earlier (maryadam thapesum). Organising themselves as husbands and wives, shelters were put up to enable them to lead private lives (agaram upakkamimsu katum). Thus the nucleus social unit came into existence on the newly inhabited Earth.

According to the discourse, the concepts of private property and family life were rooted in greed which prompted them to accumulate as well as privatise their common property. Some people, not content with their own share, stole from others. Due to this act of stealin~, many more vices connected with it came into being : scolding, lying, resorting to force in retaliating and such other vices were rampant.


Morality began to deteriorate resulting in the disturbance of peaceful CO-existence. Evil acts were visible everywhere and the culprits could not be corrected just by severe warning or by mere nominal punishment.

The people then got together, discussed among themselves and finally decided to appoint aperson "who should be wrathful when indignation is right, who should censure that which rightly is to be censured and should banish he who deserves to be banished" in order to curb this escalation of crime.

So they went to one among them, "who was the handsomest, the best looking, the most pleasant and capable" and asked him to accept the office of punishing the wrong-doers in return for a share of rice. The person thus elected by the consent of the people was called Mahasammata or the Great Elect, because he was elected by the people (mahajana sammato'ti mahasammato).

This legendary account however does not say that he was a king or a legislator, but rather a sort of executive who looked after the law and order among the community. Being impartial, he punished those who transgressed the customs and traditions of the community. In this sense he could be considered an authority of law and justice. Thus as the discourse reveals, a rudimentary social organisation appeared among human beings in this way.

What is most significant here is that the institution of the Great Elect is not a creation of Brahma, the creator-god of the Hindu pantheon, but an institution created "of the people, by the people, for the people". He was not yet called a king. Nevertheless, as Theodore de Bary puts it: " This is probably one of the world's oldest versions of the contractual theory of state". (1) The procedure adopted to elect the Great Elect and the appreciation of it would naturally lead one to come to the conclusion that the Buddha favoured democracv.


Later on, the scope of the institution expanded and the Great Elect was then called Khattiya or lord of the fields. Obviously the term indicates that his power of authority was gradually extended beyond the original assignment. The institution evolved further and h e was c a l l e d ~ a j a orking, because he delighted the people by upholding law and justice (dhammena janam ranjeti'ti raja).

Certainly, he was called Raja or king because he ruled the country in accordance with Dhamma, which is law and justice as well as righteousness. The discourse, however, defines the names of the four castes : Ksatriya (Pali-Khattiya) Brahmana, Vaisya (Pali-Vessa), and Sudra (Pali-Sudda) more or less on an occupational basis. Herein, a Brahmana is defined as a person who has shunned evil deeds such as stealing, scolding, lying etc., while those who resorted to meditation were known as Jhayakas. Those who gave up meditation and engaged themselves in composing books and teaching from them were known as Ajjhayakas Vessas or the tradesfolk were known by that name because they practiced various (Vissa) trades. Suddas were supposed to be the people who lived by hunting and such other lowly pursuits.

Indeed, the Buddhist concept of the evolution of kingship is totally different from the Hindu concept which maintains that a king is truly a divine figure. According to Shantiparva of Mahabharata the first king was an asexual creation of Brahmadeva. He had been appointed to rule mankind and to maintain religion and society. (2) Prof. A.L.Basham, observing the marked difference between the two traditions of Buddhism and Hinduism, says: "The king is here the servant of god rather than the servant of men." Again stressing this difference he says: "At the other extreme we have the Buddhist legend of the Mahasammata in the Digha Nikaya. The Great Elect was chosen at an enormous gathering of the people at a time when private property and the family were no longer respected." (3)

Therefore in this regard, Prof. Rhys Davids aptly remarks : "The argument is that there was no tribal difference, no difference of blood


between them and all the rest. They were selected, set apart for the performance of certain duties and they were so selected, not arbitrarily, but according to their real fitness for the post. Each of them fulfilled the ideal of a noble, which included no t only righteousness but also other things. As will be seen there was also an ideal standard, a norm, for each of the other groups." (4)

What is evident from this discourse is that the source of political authority with all its evolutionary aspects primarily rested on the collective wish of the people. The Great Elect who was entrusted with the power of executing law and order, was later given the power of administering landed property. Therefore he was named the 'Lord of the Fields' or Khattiya (Khettanam adhipati). By tKe third phase his authoritarian power had been expanded further and he was called king. As described in the discourse, the evolution of the concept of kingship is indeed very clear. However, V.P.Varma says that the Buddhist concept is not an exact formulation of the consensual theory of political authority, and further asserts that attempts to deduce such a theory from the discourse in question would be reading too much into the text. (5) But obviously according to the Buddhist concept found in the discourse, the concept of social contract, voluntary mutual agreement of the ruler and the ruled, suffrage of the subjects have played prominent roles in appointing a person as their ruler. Obviously the Buddhist texts do not trace the history of royal dynasties either to the sunor to the moon. O n the other hand, Vedic tradition maintained that there were two mutually related dynasties from the very beginning of the human race, which were founded by Manu and Pururavas. Manu founded the Solar Dynasty while Pururavas, the grand-son of the moon and Manu's daughter, founded the Lunar dynasty. As it seems, Buddhism is not interested in tracing the history of various dynasties to divine origin. The Buddhist concept is highlighted in the Cakkavattisihanada Sutta where the monarch who renounced the kingdom to become an ascetic advises his son who was the newly anointed king to be righteous and not to consider


kingship as an inherited right, a legacy inherited from the father. The Agganna Sutta categorically states that it was the people that gave him power and authority. All the three discourses Agganna, Cakkavattisihanada and Kutadanta in the Digha Nikaya reiterate the fact that political authority is valid only on the basis of two factors:

1. The common consent of the people 2. The adherence to righteousness

The story of the Cakkavattisihanada runs thus : Long ago, there was a Universal Monarch called Dalhanemi, a king ruling in righteousness, the lord of the four quarters of the Earth, a conqueror, the protector of the people, the possessor of seven treasures,(wheel, elephant, horse, gem, woman, householder and counsellor). He had more than a thousand sons who were heros of heroic stature, conquerors of hostile armies. He lived in supremacy over the Earth as far as its ocean boundaries having conquered it, not by causing affliction but by righteousness. After sometime the Universal Monarch, Dalhanemi, having installed his eldest son on the throne, shaved off his hair and beard, donned a yellow robe and went forth from the household life into homelessness. Seven days after the royal sage had gone forth, the sacred wheel-treasure which was the symbol of political authority of the monarch, vanished. So the king went to his father, the royal recluse, and reported that the wheel had disappeared. Then, saying to the son that the wheel-treasure was not an inheritance from him, asked the son to be an aryan (nob1e)wheel-turner. So it is to be understood that the wheel, being the symbol of righteousness, disappears when the king turns unrighteous. Then follows a moral instruction :

"Yourself depending on the Dhamma, honouring it, revelling in it , cherishing it, doing homage to it

and venerating it, having Dhamma as your badge and banner, acknowledging Dhamma as your muster,

THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY, SATE AND KINGSHIP

you should establish guard, ward and protection according to Dhmma, for your own household, your troops,

your nobks and vassals, for Brahmins and householders, town and country folk, ascetics and Brahmins,

for beasts and birds. Let not crime prevail in your kingdom and to those who are in need, give property."

Continuing thus he advises the son to be virtuous and rule the kingdom righteously.

The discourse in question advocates setting up a good government, beneficial to both the ruler and the ruled, with a high standard of morality.

The Buddhist attitude to statecraft is nicely expounded in these passages which undoubtedly stands in contrast to all available ancient treatises on politics either in the East or in the West. Arthasastra written by Kautilya in the 3rd century B.C. in India deals with master plans to acquire power and to establish supremacy at any cost, where mere lip-sewice is paid to morality and religion in order to camouflage and distort the real issue in view. The Italian political theorist, Machiavelli, in the 15th century in his work called The Prince argued that all means are permissible in the realisation of a stable state. To him as well as to those like him, politically desirable ends justify opportunist or even amoral means. Although the work is neither moral nor immoral it is considered to be the first objective study of the subject in the west where the method of obtaining political power and its maintenance have been discussed. Machiavelli's approach is unsc~pulous, where nobody should hesitate on ethical considerations when seeking political power. The Buddhist concept, on the contrary, does not advocate any policy perpetrated to achieve the desired end at the cost of ethical or moral values.

In the Cakkavattisihanada Sutta the Buddha analyses the causes leading to crises in society. When poverty is rampant the people

THE EVOLUnON OF SOCIETY, STATE AND KINGSHIP

resort to vices of numerous kinds. The king, according to Buddhism, is obliged to take precautionary steps by analysing the root causes of crime and to make the life of his citizens secure, safe and prosperous.

"Wealth not being given to the destitute, poverty became rife, from the growth of poverty, taking of what was not given increased, from the increase of theft, the use of weapons increased, from the increased use of weapons, the taking of life increased, from the increase in the taking of life, lying increased, from the increase in lying, back- biting increased, from the increase of back-biting, sexual misconduct increased" (6) . Similarly a host of other vices also gradually began to appear: lack of respect for mother and father, for ascetics and Brahmins, and for the head of the clan.

The Buddha then explains how these successive events give rise to a complete holocaust.

"Among such humans there would be no mother or mother's sister or mother's sister-in-law or teacher'swife

or father's sister-in-law. The world would fall into promiscuity, like goats and sheep, fowls and swine,

dogs and jackals."

"Among such humans keen mutual enmity will become the rule, keen ill will, keen animosity, passionate thoughts even of

killing - mother against child and child against mother, father against child and child against father, brother against brother,

brother against sister just as the hunter feels hatred for the beast."

Then the Sutta tells us how they are motiwated by animal consciousness (migasannam) for their own destruction.

"Among such humans there will arise a period of seven days during which they will look on each other as wild beasts, sharp swords will

appear ready in their hands. Thinking, "this is but a wild beast", they will with their swords deprive each other of life."


The importance attached to the observance of ten principles by the Universal Monarch in ruling the country is emphasised in the discourse throughout.

When the wheel symbol of authority disappeared in the reign of another monarch, he did not pay much attention to it and continued to reign as he wished. Thereupon the prosperity in the country disappeared. Then the councillors, ministers, soldiers, gate keepers and learned men all got together and reminded the king to follow the noble principles of a Universal Monarch. By following those principles the country again prospered.

The principles to be followed by a Universal Monarch are striking because they reflect the concept of a welfare state covering not only all human inhabitants, but beasts and birds as well.

The Ten Principles of a Universal Monarch are : providing protection for

l . One's own folk 2. Nobks 3. Anny 4. Vassals 5. Brahmins and howeholders 6. Town and country dwellers 7. Religiow men 8. Birds and beasts 9. As well as keeping the country free from mime

10. And giwing wealth to the poor

Prof. Rhys Davids was thoroughly convinced by the moral tone running through the discourse, saying that the entire passage in the Sutta which dealt with these principles is a striking outburst of the superiority of right over might of the ideal empire as held by early Buddhists.(7)


The Ten Principles of the Universal Monarch can be compared with the Ten Duties of a King enunciated by the Buddha in a different context. They are:

1. Dana-Giving, which includes charity and practising generosity. Kings are supposed to be liberal, free from attachment to wealth and property. Revenue must be used for the purpose of implementing welfare works in their kingdoms.

2. Sila-Moral integrity. A king must be morally sound and must be exemplary in his day-to-day dealings. The lapses of virtuous conduct on the part of a king would naturally influence the people themselves to resort to vices of various kinds, thereby causing moral degradation in the entire kingdom.

3. Pariccaga-Philanthropy. A king should be ready to give up his personal pleasure and comfort for the sake of his citizens and cultivate a liberal attitude of the mind by providing public facilities and initiating welfare works.

4. Ajjava-Uprightness. He must be free from deception, false promises and pretensions. He must be sincere and must act on his own words. He should promise only what he is able to do. Then only will people repose faith in him.

5. Maddava-Gentleness. Readiness to listen. He must be conscious that he is a servant of the people and therefore be kind, approachable and sympathetic towards his subjects.

6. Tapa-Self-control. He must practise restraint in sensual enjoyment. He should not indulge in a life of luxury and must be moderate and considerate in his life-style.

7. Akkodha-Absence of anger. He must be free from anger, hatred and ill will and must bear no grudge leading to revenge. Tempted by anger, he should never take hasty decisions in respect of the kingdom or the people. Cultivation of sobriety is always conducive to healthy administration in view of the welfare of both the king and his subjects.


8. Avihimsa-Non-violence. He must take steps to prevent the destruction of life and must take steps to promote peace within his territory. He should not harass people for personal gain by wielding the royal power at his disposal.

9. Khanti-Patience. Being of good temperament he must not over- ride the bounds of propriety. Not being irritated by adverse circumstances, he must cultivate qualities such as forebearence, tolerance and understanding.

10. Avirodhata-Absence of obstruction. He should not obstruct the will of the people. The measures to be taken for the welfare of the people must be sanctioned forthwith. In other words, the country must be ruled, not by opposing progress, but by giving approval to those steps which are beneficial to his people.(8)

The modem concept of the welfare state is to be seen in the Ten Principles of a Universal Monarch and the Ten Duties of a King. A state that assumes primary responsibility for the individual and social welfare of its citizens is considered to be a welfare state which especially sees to the well-being of the most vulnerable segment of society: the young, the old, the unemployed and the sick. In order to make the concept a reality, a system of social security has been introduced by some countries providing financial aid to alleviate the deprivation and poverty of these less fortunate citizens.

The Principles of a Universal Monarch set out in the discourse, except the eighth, embrace virtually every segment of society. The eighth certainly covers a wider range, beyond the modern laws pertaining to cruelty to animals and protection of endangered species. In the list of the Ten Duties of a King, the first, Dana and the second Pariccaga, directly deal with the welfare works that a king should actively participate in. Many of the problems in our society today, being the product of modem civilization, are not specifically stated in these lists, but the fact that the concept of the welfare state is deducible from both of the lists is obvious.

THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIETY, STATE AND KlNGSHlP

Indeed these duties of a king are different from what the Hindu works on politics have said. Four ways of ruling a country is often mentioned in them:

1 . Maintaining peace (samn) 2. Giving (dana) 3. Causing conflicts (bheda) 4. Punishments ( d a d 4

Buddhism, in advocating a moral criterion on statecraft, totally rejects the policy of 'divide and rule' (divide et empera). The Buddhist standpoint is predominantly moral and ethical, contrary to the amoral policy to be followed in statecraft as advocated by Hindu works and Machiavelli in The Prince.

The discourse Kutadanta also gives a graphic description in regard to statecraft. Desirous of performing asacrifice for hi weal and welfare, a brahmin called Kutadanta caused a hundred bulls, a hundred steers, a hundred heifers, a hundred goats, a hundred rams to be brought to the post of the sacrifice. At the same time the brahmin, coming to know that the Buddha had visited anearby village called Khanumata, thinks that he should go and consult the Buddha on the three modes of sacrifice along with the necessary sixteen kinds of accessories in order to make the sacrifice a success.

The Buddha when questioned by Kutadanta, relates the story of King Mahavijita who sought the advice of his advisor for the successful performance of the sacrifice. The royal advisor who happened to be the Bodhisatta in a previous birth, replied:

"Your Majesty's kingdom is beset by thieves. It is ravaged, tillages and towns are being destroyed, the countryside is infested with Dassukhila. I f Your Majesty were to tax this region, that would be the wrong thing to do. Suppose Your Majesty were to think, I will get rid of the Dassukhila by execution and imprisonment or confiscation, threat and banishment, the Dassukhila would not be properly dealth with. Those who survived would later harm Your Majesty's realm ."

THE EVOWTION OF SOCIETY, STATE ANDKINGSHIP

"However, with the followingplan you can eliminate the Dassukhila. To hose in the kingdom who engage in cultivating crops and raising cattk, let Your Majesty distribute grain and fodder; to those in wade, give capital; to those in government service, assign proper living wages. Then those people intent on their own occupations will not harm the kingdom. Your Majesty's revenue will be great, the land will be tranquil not being beset by thieves, and the people with joy in their hearts will play with their children and will dwell in open houses." (9)

Here the compound Dassukhila has been rendered into English in different ways. Buddhaghosa, the famous commentator took it to mean cora khila; obstruction by thieves. Following Buddhaghosa P.T.S. Dictionary gives the meaning "robber plague". While Rhys Davids take it to mean "scoundrels' game", some others give the meaning "bandits" or "brigands". Prof. K. Ariyasena suggests 'the strength of the poor or the oppressed'. (10)

'Dasa' literally means a slave. Dassu being a variant reading may mean the same(compare with skt. dasa and dasyu). The latter has been used in Rig Veda to denote the original inhabitants of North India who were conquered and made slaves by the Aryan invaders. They were poor and enslaved. Therefore they are the oppressed. Khila is a strong post. Hence the compound may mean the "opposition" or the "uprising of the oppressed", which seems a more appropriate meaning in the context it appears. What is most striking in this connection is the royal advisor's advice to the king to form an organisation (samvidhana) to work out a comprehensive policy to alleviate the grievances of his citizens. The discourse in this way traces the social crises to the maldistribution of wealth. The king's attention has been drawn back to the root cause of the people's uprising. The royal advisor exhorts the king to give up the idea of performing a sacrifice by levying taxes on the poor who are already in distress and economically handicapped. The intended sacrifice is a sheer wanton destruction of resources. The advisor convinces the king


that additional taxes would be a burden to the people who are already oppressed. Oppression ultimately leads to hatred, violence and ~cvolution. The recent history of many nations bear evidence to this cffect. The king should have hi revenue collected by righteous means , - ;her than by exorbitant taxes. As recorded in the Agganna, the Great lilect was promised a share of their produce by the people in return for I he duties discharged by him. Thii share later evolved into taxes, direct :~nd indirect, with the development of administrative machinery. The king must always be moderate in imposing them. People surely must be happy to be ruled by such an administrative set-up.

As we have seen from the foregoing discussion, the Buddhist concept of kingship is devoid of divinity as ascribed to kings in Rrahmanic tradition. It is said in the Manusmrti, one of the Hindu Law books, that one should not look at a king directly face to face as he is a descendent of heaven. But as we have noticed, according to the Buddhist point of view, a king is selected by the people from their own folk, on mutual agreement, to be the source of law and order. He must be moral and endowed with virtue. The stability of a state depends upon the economic stability of its citizens. Many social evils can be eliminated by implementing a comprehensive economic plan embracing all strata of society.

As A. K. Warder says : "In fact the well-being of society depends on this sound economic basis. According to the Buddhist system, it is economic prosperity and expansion which conciliates the subjects of the Great Realm (Mahavijita). It is the only effective means of ending their revolt and at the same time it enriches the king himself."

Although the descriptions found in these suttas are considered legendary, the appreciation of those materials by early Buddhists invites our attention to the fact that they were recognised as actual representations of a human habitat on newly evolved Earth. Therefore all the details found in these discourses are considered to be the

THEEVOLUTION OF SOCIETY, STATE ANDKNGSHlP

genuine facts and events related to the evolution of human society, kingsh'lp and other institutions in society, but not an origin, a genesis as such, of the world.

Foot notes

l . Theodore de Bary-Sources of Indian Tradition p. 126 2. Shantiparva-Mahabharata Ch.58 3 . A.L. Basham-Aspects of Ancient lndian Culture p. 16 4. Dialogues of the Buddha Vol. iii, p.89 (Foot Note) 5 . V. P. Varma-Studies in the Hindu Political Thought and its

Metaphysical Foundation p. 188 6. "Adhananam dhane anuppadiyamane daliddiyam wepullam

agamasi, daliddiyam vepullam gate adinnadanam wepullam agamasi, adinnadanam vepukm gate sattham vepukxm agamasi, satthe uepuhm gate panatipato wepullam agamasi, padpate wepullam gate musawado wepullam agamasi, mwawade uepullam gate pisunawaca wepullam agamasi, pisunawacaya vepullam gate kamesu micchacara wepullam agamasi"

7. Dialogues of the B& iii, p.62 8. The Ten Virtures of a King-lataka i ,260 ; 399, ii,400 9. DNi , 135 10. Ven K.Ariyasena-An Introduction to the Buddhist Philosophy

of State I l . A. K . Warder - Indian Buddhism p. l75

MONARCHIES AND CONFEDERACIES IN ANCIENT INDIA

A n overview of the political set-up in the 6th century B. C. as found in the canonical references would provide us with a glimpse of historical facts on the Buddhist attitude to monarchies and confederacies at the time. Bimbisara, the king of Magadha, and Pasendi Kosala, the king of Kosala, were ardent supporters of the Buddha. Ajatasattu possibly could not be considered a benefactor of the Buddhist dispensation. As suggested by Rhys Davids, because of the fact that the Buddha was a noble ksatriya, he might have asked for a portion of the Buddha's relics after the cremation for that reason.(l) Certainly, the Buddha never approved of his ambitious programmes, yet neither did he go to the extent of meddling in his political affairs.

A list of sixteen provinces also have been often mentioned. Rhys Davids seems to have thought that these provinces were names and not provinces (janapades) as such, just as one might say Italians and Turks. (2)

The list runs thus :

1. Anga 2. Magadha 3. Kasi 4. Kosala 5. Vajji 6. Malla 7. Ceti 8. Vamsa 9. KUN 10. Pancala 11. Maccha 12. Surasena 13. Assaka 14. Avanti 15. Gandhara 16. Kamboja

Other than these kingdoms and provinces, the Buddhist Canon speaks of ten clans, each having their republican form of administration. They conducted their administrative business at Mote Halls or Santhagara salas essentially built for the purpose. Among these republics, the Vaj jian confederacy has been praised by the Buddha for their efficient administration, The Buddha visited almost all of them and there were Buddhist followers there at the time of the Buddha.

The ten clans were : 1 . The Sakiyans of Kapilavatthu


2. The Bhaggas of Surnsumara Hill 3. The Bulis of AUakappa 4. The Kalamas of Kesaputta 5. The Koliyas of Ramagama 6 . The Mallas of Kusinara 7 . The Mallas of Pava 8 . The Moriyas of Pipphalivana 9 . The V i d e h of Mihila 10. The Licchavis or Vajjis of Vesali

The Seven Conditions of Welfare

The seven conditions of welfare preached by the Buddha to the Vajjians to be followed is important in evaluating the Buddhist approach to statecraft. When once the Buddha was dwelling in Rajagaha, on the hill called 'Vultures Peak' Ajatasattu, the king of Magadha, desirous of attacking the Vajjians, sent his chief minister, Vassakara, to visit the Buddha and tell him that he (the king) was going to attack the Vajjians. Vassakara thereupon went to the Buddha and exchanged greetings and delivered the message just as the king had commanded him. Ananda was standing behind the Buddha and fanning him. When Vassakara was explaining the king's message, the Buddha in the course of the conversation, inquired of Ananda whether the Vajjians were living up to the Seven Conditions of Welfare (Satta aparihaniya dhamma). Ananda answered in the affirmative. They were :

l . They hold full and frequent public assemblies. 2. They meet together in concord, rise in concord and cany out

their undertakings in concord. 3 . They enact nothing not already established, abrogate nothing

rhathas already being enacted, and act in accordance with the ancient institutions of the Vajjians as established in former days.

4. They honour, revere and support the Vajjian elders and hold it a


point of duty to listen to their words. 5. They do not take away by force or abduct women or girls

belonging to their clan and detain them. 6 . They honour, esteem, rewere and support the Vajjian shrines

whether in town or counay, and do not allow them to fall into disuse.

7. They fully prowide rightful protection, defence and support for the arahants among them; so that arahants from far away may enter the realm and therein live in peace (3) .

The commentator discusses the seven conditions at length. In accordance with the first, the members share the responsibility to be present when the assembly is convened to discuss the day-to-day events of the confederacy. While annotating the second, he says that whenever there is an issue of an uprising in any part of their territory, whether in a village or in a frontier province, all agree to go there to punish the culprits. In this way all are united and help each other in times of need.

While discussing the third condition, the commentator gives a long description of their judicial system which can be compared with any system of judicature found in any democracy in the world today. Firstly, accused is tried by the chief minister of justice or by a panel of two or three judges. Then if he is found not guilty, he is discharged forthwith and if he is found guilty, he is handed over to the voharikas - .

without any comment on their part. The voharikas are said to be a kind of judge appointed to try cases of a particular nature. The voharikas in turn acquit the guiltless, but if he is found guilty, he is to be tried by another court of law occupied by sutradharas well versed in legal enactments pertaining to the past, present and future. If they are convinced of the accused's innocence they discharge him. - The guilty is again tried by yet another court of law consisting of atthakulikas hailing from families attached to legal professions. They


;ue considered to be the experts in law and regarded as impartial in the application of justice without prejudice, anger, fear and ignorance. They are mature in age and altogether eight in number.

Then again if the person is found guilty, he is tried in the court marshal under the supervision of the army commander, who in turn hands over the culprit to the viceroy and he too having tried the accused forward him to be tried by the king, when found guilty.

Finally, the king tries the accused and studies the case very attentively. When found guilty, he punishes him in accordance with the legal measures found in the Pavenipotthaka or the Traditional Penal Code, which is read and explained to him.

In this way the Vajjian judicial system consists of seven successive stages. Legal procedure is carried out, for example, levying the death penalty, by the following levels of judiciary:

1. Chief minister of justice 2. Voharikas-judges appointed to try cases of a particular nature 3. Sutradharas-well versed in past, present and future legal

enactments 4. Atthakulikas-members of families in the legal profession 5. Army commander 6. Viceroy 7. King

In the end the offender is convinced of his own responsibility for the offence committed by him. The commentary further explains how this legal procedure ensured the gowth of the Vajjian kingdom: (4)

With regard to the fourth condition of welfare, it is to be emphasised that even though born as royalty, those who disregard the law, the king and the elders, are doomed to failure and decline. If they do not associate with the elders because of their stubbornness,


they would not get an opportunity to learn the traditional wisdom in regard to statecraft and the people's welfare.

The violation of the fifth is also grave . As revealed in many a Jataka story, kings were notorious in wielding their power to take away girls from their parents' custody and also wives by putting their husbands to death under false charges. The abduction and retaining of women and girls by force would naturally lead to chaos and those affected families would eventually flee to frontier villages and would rebel against the state.

With reference to the sixth, the commentary says that gods do not protect those who neglect the long standing rites and rituals not showing respect for them. Consequently, although they are incapable of making people sick, they are capable of prolonging their ailments. When those deities are honoured and propitiated, they in turn look after those devotees properly and see to their early recovery from their sicknesses. They also assist them to be victorious in war.

According to the commentarial elucidation, it is clear that deities are not capable of making people either unhappy or happy, but they do have the ability to be instrumental in lessening both suffering and happiness influencing a man's life. At the same time it is to be borne in mind that, of retributive actions done in their previous lives, some results are sometimes extremely happy and vice versa even if they have resorted to evil.

With regard to the last condition, the commentary explains the implications of "rightful protection, defence and support" in detail. Trees must not be felled in the vicinity of monasteries. Abstention from hunting and using hunting dogs and not allowing fishermen to fish in the ponds and lakes in the monastic surroundings are considered to be rightful protection, defence and support.

These seven conditions of welfare have been enunciated by the


Buddha himself in a previous occasion when the Buddha was at Sarandada Cetiya in Vesali, to be followed for the well-being of the republic.(S) Some scholars opine that thk Buddha modelled the Sangha on the conventions found in the Vijjian confederacy The Buddha also hailed from a republic, but it was of a different kind and under the king of Kosala. Pasenadi Kosala often refers to himself and the Buddha as Khattiyas, Kosalans and octogenarians.(6) The heads of the republics were sometimes referred to by their clan names, such as Sakiya, Malla etc. but in some instances as raja (the king). However, the statement in the Sutta Nipata which mentions that the ocean is the head of all rivers and the king is the head of the people,cannot be taken to mean that the Buddha favoured the monarchical system.(7) It could be taken as a general observation. The list of the Ten Duties of a King is the charter to be adhered to by kings. The Universal Monarch is the proto-type to be imitated for the sake of good government. Neither favouring nor disparaging either system, monarchical or re~ublican. the Buddha advised the heads of states to be virtuous and rule their kingdoms righteously by maintaining law and order.

Foot Notes

1 . Rhys Dawids-Buddhist India pp. 12-1 6 2. Ibid 22-23 3. D N i , 74 4. See the Commentary for further details. 5. Ekamidaham brahmana samayam wesaliyam wiharami s a r a d

cetiye. Tatraham wajjinam ime satta- aparihaniya desissam-DN ii, 75 In a different context it is found in the AN W , 16

6. Bhagawapi khattiyo, ahampi khattiyo, bhagawapi kosalako ahampi kosalako, bhagawapi asitiko ahampi asitiko-MN ii, 124

7. Raja mukho manussanam-nadinam sagaro mukho-Sela Sutta,Sn 568

6. THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

BASED ON CASTE

uddhism, totally rejecting the theory of social stratification based on caste, speaks of the unity, the oneness of humankind. While numerous arguments have been adduced to disprove the conceptual basis of caste propounded by Brahmins, an example has been set by

the Buddha himself by opening up the doors of monkhood to all, despite the caste or ethnic differences of the persons concerned.

It is argued that the caste system originated on the basis of race prejudice conceived in the minds of the early Aryans who invaded North India. The migrant Aryan invaders had to deal with a kind of people different in appearance and having a totally different culture. These original inhabitants of India were named 'dasyu' and introduced as 'dark skinned' (kala vamah), 'noseless' (anasah), 'revilers of Vedic gods' (deva piyu), 'devoid of Vedic rituals' (akarman), 'non- worshippers of Vedic gods' (adevayu), 'non-sacrificers' (ayajvan), 'phallus worshippers' (sisna devah), 'non-adherers to Vedic practices' (avrata), 'who lack devotion' (abrahman) and 'followers of a different religious ordinance' (anyavrata).

The Vedic hymn continues: "We are surrounded on all sides by dasyu tribes. They do not perform sacrifices. They do not believe in

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BASED ON CASTE

:mything. They are not men. 0 Destroyer of Foes ! Kill them!" (1)

It was a scholar called Risley who pointed out for the first time the racial origin of the Indian caste system, which according to him originated in conjunction with the racial prejudice exerted against the conquered aboriginal race. T h e word "varna" meaning "complexion or colour" (Pa1i:vanna) used for the caste system is also suggestive of the fact that the concept is rooted in the colour distinction of the conquerors and the conquered. (The same policy of racial segregation practised by Indo-Aryans was practised by Euro- Aryans against the 'blacks' centuries afterwards, "apartheid" ).

There had been inter-marriages in the earlier Vedic epoch but with the introduction of caste hierarchy, four stereotyped castes came into existence. In time to come different sub-castes evolved within the four castes themselves.

According to Rig Veda, Brahma created Viratpurusha from whose mouthBrahmin was born, Ksatriya from his arm, Vaisya from his thigh and Sudra from his feet. (2)

Brahmins, occupying the highest position in society, enjoyed the privileges of conducting sacrifices and instructing the kings. While Ksatriyas consisted of kings and warriors, Vaisyas engaged in commerce and farming. Sudras being denied any freedom were destined to work as slaves and labourers to the three upper castes.

The Brahmins continued to assert their supremacy even when the Krishna cult gained grounds in later times. In the Bhagavad Gita Sri Krishna says that it was he who created the four vamas in respect of qualities and deeds. (Caturvanam maya srstam-gunakarma vibhagasah)

The hierarchy of caste imposed by the Brahmins on society divided humans into mutually exclusive units as if genetically determined.

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO SOCIAL SIT\AllFICATION BASED ON CASTE

Inter-marriages between any two castes were taboo and heavy penalties were imposed on both partners. Exploitation and discrimination against the 'lower' castes therefore resulted in denying them elementary human rights in many ways :

1. The denial of political opportunities 2. The denial of economic opportunities 3. The denial of social opportunities 4. The denial of educational opportunities 5 . The denial of religious freedom 6. The denial of justice and equality before the law (3)

Sudras, being considered as the lowest social group, were denied many of the privileges enjoyed by so, called 'higher castes'. A person born to a particular caste had to live within the limits imposed on that caste by the Brahmin lawgivers. Hindu lawgivers such as Manu have given the distinct duties of castes and the punishments to be inflicted on the offenders of the respective castes.

"If a Sudra mentions the name of a Brahmin arrogantly, a red hot iron nail ten fingers long should be thrwt into his mouth. I f he proudly tries to advise a Brahmin, the king should order hot oil to be poured into his mouth and ears. A Sudra can be expelledat will from service. Whether bought or unbought he may be cumpelled to do servile work. He is a slave of Brahmins by birth. Even if he were to be released from servitude by his master, he can not be released because he is a slave by birth. No Brahmin can instruct him".

" I f he listens to a hymn being sung, hot lead must be powed into his ears. He is not allowed to enter religiow premises or participate in religious services. Both in civil and criminal procedures Sudras have to face severe treatment."

Even for minor crimes they were to have their limbs amputated whereas the higher castes were given lighter punishments. Capital punishment had been recommended even for theft done by a Sudra. (4)


A number of other castes have been mentioned in the canonical texts : Chandalas, Pukkusas or scavengers, Venas or rush-weavers Nesadas or bird catchers, Rathakaras or cart-makers forming the fifth 'lower' stratum of the caste structure.(5)

The Buddha appeared in India when this discrimination and exploitation of the 'lower castes' had ripened into a social evil. The Buddha went from house to house without any regard for caste in his begging rounds and left the door of the Sasana open for all four castes, saying that just as the waters of rivers from various directions flow down to the ocean and are known by the name 'sea water' those who entered the Sasana from whatever caste would be known as 'recluses, the sons of the Sakya' (Samana sakyaputtiya).

The arguments adduced in Buddhism against the caste system can be viewed from Biological (or Genetical), Sociological, Historical, Ethical and Religious perspectives.

These arguments are found interwoven in numerous dialogues. The suttas, Ambattha and Sonadanda of the Digha Nikaya; Madhura, Kannakatthala, Assalayana, Vasettha and Esukari in the Majjhima Nikaya and Vasala in the Sutta Nipata deal with the question of caste, where the Buddhist standpoint on the question is explicitly discussed.(6) The arguments that Buddhism brings forth against caste are so forceful and valid they can equally be applied against the racial and tribal claims of superiority in toto in the context of the modem world.

Biological Arguments The brahmin claim of superiority is represented in many a dialogue

in the same phraseology :

" O n l y Brahmins form the best caste, all other castes are hu, only Brahmins form the fair caste, all other castes are black. O n l y Brahmim are

pure, not non-Brahmins. Brahmins are the only sum of Brahma, burn


of his mouth, burn of Brahma, f m d by Brahma, heirs of Brahma."

(Brahmana'va settho vanno, hino anno vanno brahmana'va sukko vanno, kanho anno vanno brahmana'va sujjhanti, no abrahmana, brahmanava brahmuno putta, orasa mukhato jata brahmaja brahma nimmita brahmadayada).

i. In the Assalayana Sutta the Buddha asks Assalayana as Brahmin women are known to have periods, conceive, give birth and breast- feed their infants and are seen as such by everybody, Brahmins are being born like everybody else, how can they claim that they are the only sons of Brahma, born of his mouth, born of Brahma, formed by Brahma and heirs of Brahma ?

ii. The Assalayana Sutta deals with another argument of biological importance. A son born to a Ksaniya youth and a Brahmin girl would be like his father or mother and be called a Ksatiya or a Brahmin. Likewise a son born to a Brahmin youth and a Ksacriya girl would be called a Brahmin or Ksatiya. The Buddha continues and questions Assalayana when a mare mated with an ass gives birth to a foal(young one) would it be like the m o t h or like the father and therefore should it be called an ass or a horse ? Assalayana replies that because of crossed birth it is called a mule. The argument establishes the fact that the children of inter- caste maniages are not a cross-bred species like mules.

iii. Perhaps the Vasettha Sutta establishes the unity of humankind on a very sound footing, where the Buddha convinces the brahmin youth, Vasettha, of a fact recognised by modern biology: "Anthropedae are represented by the single genus and species uzlled man". However, the accident of colour is an insignificant factor and the division among human species is a matter of prejudice and custom. The Sutta says that with regard to different kinds of grasses, trees, beetles, moths, ants, four-footed creatures big and small, reptiles, snakes, long-backed animals, fishes and birds,


differences are seen. They are ofdifjerent kinds within their groups possessing different identities of their own. But with regard to men, the Sutta emphasises that no such difference is seen in relation to their hair or head or ear or eyes or mouth or lips or brows or throat or hips or belly or back or rump or sex organs or breast or hands or feet or fingers or nails or legs or thighs or colour or woice. N o variant unique marks are found on the bodies of men to claim dissimilarity. Therefore all humans are biologically the same.

Sociological Arguments i. In the dialogue between V e n Kaccana and Awantiputta, the king

of Madhura, the question of caste has also been discussed, where V e n Kaccana stresses the fact that the superiority claimed by the Brahmins is 'just only a n empty sound'(ghoso) , by pointing out that a wealthy Ksamiya can employ a Brahmin or a Vaisya or a Sudra as his serwant. In the same way a wealthy Brahmin or a Ksatriya or Vaisya or a Sudra can get one of the other three castes employed as his serwant. Therefore, in reality, wealth is the decidingfactor ofstatus high and low in society. The Brahmin claim to superiority by birth holds no water in actual social relations.

The king, Avantiputta,admits that there is no difference between the castes in that respect.

ii. In the Kannakatthala and the Assalayana Suttas the question has been attacked from different sociological angles. The fire produced by dry teak or sal or salulu or sandal wood has no difference in heat or brilliance whatsoewer. Similarly, there is no difference in the quality of striving and the proper effort of the so-called four castes. Hence all are equal.

iii. The B& points art to Assalayana that in Yona, Kamboja (7) and adjacent districts there are only two castes, the master

THE BUDDHIST ATIITUDE TO SOCIAL STRATFlCAnON BASED ON CASTE

and the slave. Having been a master, one may become a slave, and having been a sfawe, one may become a master. The case being such, on what strength and authority do Brahmins claim their purity and superiority?

iv. When the Brahmin, Esukari, engaged in conversation deals with wealth in the form of services allotted to the four castes, the Buddha asks Esukari whether he thinks that all have agreed upon the services as such, laid out by Brahmins for the four castes. Esukari's reply is negative. Then the Buddha says that it is something like forcing a morsel of food down the throat of a man who does not want to eat.

Historical Arguments

i. The historical analysis of the evolution of the castes is found in the legendary account in the Agganna Sutta of the Digha Nikaya. Historically according to Buddhism, castes evolved on an occupational basis. (8)

When the evolution of the world began, beings were at first immaterial, fed on joy. They emanated light from their bodies and passed through the air. Because of eating solid food, their bodies became more coarse and material and differences of complexion appeared among them. Some being proud, despised others on the ground of their finer complexion. Gradually life became very complex, and in order to keep their households going and to maintain their wives, they started occupations. Some abandoned their homes and became the first recluses.

Thereafter people divided themselves according to their occupation and were known by names denoting that occupation.

Mahasammata The Great Ekct Khattiya - Lord of the Fields

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDETO SOCIAL STRATlFlCATlON BASED ON CASTE

Raja - One who delights others in Dhamma Brahmana - One who puts away evil and

immorality Jhayaka - Onewhomeditates Ajjhayaka - One who does not meditate but

devotes himself to study Vessa - One who engages in various trades Sudda - One who engages in hunting and

such other menid works

This argument is developed in the latter part of the Vasettha Sutta : - i. One who cultivates is afarmer

One who lives on workmanship is an artisan One who plies a trade for livelihood is a trader One who works for another is a servant One who lives off things not given is a thief One who practices archery is a soldier One who lives by priestly craft is a celibate (brahmana) One who rules a village is a rajah

ii. In the Ambattha Sutta the Buddha questions the proud Ambattha about his lineage. He replies that he belongs to the lineage of Kanhayana. Then the Buddha, tracing the history of Kanhayana, shows that Kanhayana is a son of a Sakya wedded to a slave girl. Since the Sakyans are the masters of the Kanhayanas there is no substantial reason for them to claim superiority. However, the Buddha asks Ambattha not to be perturbed and ashamed of the historical fact because one of the greatest sages, Asita Devala, was born of that lineage.

iii. The same argument is developed again to prove the Ksatriya supremacy over Brahmins as they have occupied a prominent place in society


Ksatriyas are superior in birth because even when a Ksatriya has fallen into deepest degradation he is still esteemed and not considered an outcaste. But a Brahmin who has fallen into deepest degradation is treated with contempt. Ambattha admits the Buddha's contention. The argument is based on the social prestige enjoyed by the warrior caste at the time.

Ethical Arguments

i. Ven. Kaccana further points out that if a person of any of the castes breaks into a house to steal or commits a robbery etc. he is called a thief. In the same way, if anyone of the four castes has gone forth from home to the homeless life and refrains from unwholesome acts, he is called a recluse. Continuing his argument, he asks the king, Avantiputta, as to how he would behave towards two persons: the thief and the recluse.

The king asserts that he would punish the first while the second would be honoured and respected and povided with the four requisites, irrespective of caste.

The king is finally convinced that the four castes are identical on ethical grounds.

ii. T h e same ethical argument is explained in the Kannakatthala Sutta with the emphasis on striving, where the Buddha quotes the five qualities of striving to show that there is no difference of achievement by the striving persons despite their caste distinctions:

1 . Faith in the Buddha 2 . Good health 3. Not fraudulent 4. Full of energy 5 . Endowed with wisdom

THE BUDDHIST ATnTUDE TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BASED ON CASTE

iii. The Buddha poses the question to Assalayana in the course of the conversation : "Whom do you select to be the best to be served with offerings for the dead out of two uterine Brahmin brothers: one who is learned, skilled and of evil habits and the other who is not learned, unskilled and of moral habits ? "

The Brahmin youth affirms that although uneducated the Brahmin of good moral habits is chosen ro be served with the offering for the dead, but not the educated one who is of evil habits.

The Buddha then showing the logical discrepancies of his earlier affirmations says: "First you, Assalayana, went on about birth, leaving birth you went on about learning, leaving learning now you have arrived at ethical purity which is just what I lay down".

iv. In the Sonadanda Sutta the Brahmin Sonandanda lays down five qualities to be a brahmin :

1 . Caste 2. Good birth from both sides mother's and father's, 3. Technical training in the Vedas and Vedic lore 4. Virtue 5. Wisdom

But in the course of the conversation with the Buddha, Sonadanda is questioned in such a way that he eventually on eliminates the first three qualities and arrives at the recognition of a Brahmin by virtue and wisdom.

v. The Brahmanic claim to superiority by birth is further refuted by suggesting an ethical etymology to the word brahmana: 'Bahitapapo'ti brahmano'. One is a Brahmin because he has abandoned evil. Tnis tendency is found even in the Agganna Sutta where the specific role of a Brahmin is discussed.

THE BUDDHlST ATTITUDE TO SOClAL SIRATIFICATION BASED ON CASTE

The entire Brahmana Vagga of the Dhammapada follows the same trend and gives an ethical and moral twist to the word 'Brahman'. To quote one :

"He who does no evil through body, speech or mind; who is restrained in these three respects, him 1 call a Brahmin. " ( 9 )

The Vasettha Sutta, too, conclusively states that the moral purity of a person should be counted as a prerequisite to be a Brahmin.

The Vasala Sutta totally rejects the brahmanic claim of birth to be a Brahmin and says:

"None is by birth a Brahmin. None is by birth an Outcast. By deed one becomes a Brahmin. By deed one becomes an Outcaste."(fO)

In fact, the last stanza of the Dhammapada identifies the true Brahmin with an Arahant and says :

"He who has completed the noble life and has reached the end of all passions - him I call a Brahmin."( l 1 )

The word brahmana, by the time of the Buddha, seems to have acquired some sanctity due to its association with the pious and the sages of the past, which may have prompted the Buddha to suggest the word to denote an Arahant, the ethically Perfected One. Prof. Rhys Davids says,

" When the Buddhists in selecting a title of honour for those they valued so highly, for the best of men, for the Arahant, selected the name of Brahman, it is ckar that the word in the opinion of the early Buddhists conveyed to the mind of the people an exalted meaning, a connotation of real veneration and respect."(I 2 )

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDETO SOCIAL STRATlFlCATlON BASED ON CASTE

Religious Arguments

These are arguments based merely on the piety of a person who has left the household life.

i. According to Samannaphala Sutta of the Digha N i a y a the first fruit of being a recluse is the honour and respect shown by the people, probably without any regard for his birth.

ii. In the Assalayana Sutta the Buddha shows that if anyone of the four castes kills creatures, takes what has not been given, wrongly enjoys the pleasures of the senses, is a liar, of slanderous speech, a gossip, covetous, malevolent in mind, of wrong view, he is destined to be born in a state of woe. But one who lives up to the standard laid down in the Dhamma be he a Brahmin or a Ksatriya or a Vaisya or a Sudra he is a better person and destined to be born in a heavenly world.

The same argument is found in the Esukari Sutta too. In the Madhura Sutta Ven Kaccana, while discussing the issue with the king, Avantiputta, uses the same argument.

iii. The Brahmins held the view that demerits could be washed away by bathing in holy rivers. Ascribing religious sanctity to bathing in holy rivers, they used to perform religious rites of purification. Therefore the Buddha in both Assalayana and Esukari Suttas asks the question for argument's sake : "Is it only a Brahmin who taking a back scratcher, bath powder and going to a river is capable of cleansing himself of defilements as well as mud and not a Ksatriya, or a Vaisya or a Sudra ?

Buddhism of course does not approve of dipping in water to wash away one's demerits. As explained by Punna in the Theri Gatha one would wash away not only demerits but merits as well by dipping in water, and fish, tortoises and

THE BUDDHIST AmTUDE TO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BASED ON CASTE

crocodiles would, on the other hand, go directly to heaven as they always lived in water!

Buddhism in no uncertain terms speaks of the unity of humankind, over and above racial, tribal and caste distinction which are imposed by racial pejudice. The Buddha argued for the oneness of all human beings and showed the path of realisation for all. The Abhidhamma work called "Human Types" (Puggala Pannatti), far from being an anthropological explanation of human races as such, analytically describes human types according to ethical and moral grounds and discusses altogether twelve classes of intelligent beings. Out of the twelve, four belong to the average (Puthujjana) and eight to the Noble (Ariya). This classification is so fundamental it treats the entire human race inhabiting the Earth as one family.

Foot Notes

l . Rig Veda X . 22,8 2. Brahmano asya mukhamasid

Bahurajanyah krtah Uruh tadasya yad vaisyam Padbhyam swlro ajayata

3. For a comprehensive discussion see Buddhism and the Race Question by G.P.Malalasekara and K. NJayatilkke p.26 ff

4. Laws ofManu Chap. vii, 271, 272,413,414 5. Rhys Davids - Buddhist lndia , Chap.iv p.52 6 . Ambhatta-DN i , 87ff

Sonadanda-DN i , l l l f f Madhura-MN ii, 83-90 Kannakatthala-MN ii, 125 f f Assalayana-MN ii, 147 f f Vasetrha-MN ii, 196 f f . Also in SN 1 15 f f Vasala-Sn 21 ff

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDETO SOCIAL STRATIFICATION BASED ON CASTE

7. Different opinions hawe been expressed with regard to the identification of these two tem'tories. Rhys Davids while discussing the sixteen great provinces in India during the time of Buddha stated that Kamboja was situated to the extreme north-west of Gandhara with the capital at Takkasila and ruled over by Pukkusati. So according to him it was in Uttarapatha and not in Majjhimadesa. As given in the DPPN Yawana and Yona hawe been used to denote Ionians or Bactrian Greeks, but in later times to introduce all Westerners, still later to mean Mwlims. The chronicle ofMyanmar, Sasanawansa, states that their king Anekasitibhinda conquered Yonaka country in 1581 A .D . Yonaka country consisted of Haripunjaya (Lumpoon) Kamboja, Khemeswara, Sukhodai and Kapunna. Here Kamboja is considered to be Cambodia. See History of Theraw& Buddhism in South East Asia p. 1 1 9 foot note) by K. L. Hazra and also Bwldhist India by Rhys D a d p.28

8 . Agganna-DN iii, 80 ff 9. Yassa kayena vacaya manasa natthi dukkatam

Samwutam tihi thanehi tamaham brumi brahmanam (Dhp. 391) 10. Na jacca vasalo hoti na jacca hoti brahmano

Kammana wasalo hoti kammana hoti brahmano (Vasala sutta, Sn) l I . Sabbavosita wosanam tamaham brumi brahmanam (Dhp, 423) 12. Dialogues of the Buddha i , 140

7. WAR, PEACE AND SOCIAL HARMONY

ar and peace have been the fundamental concerns of modern man; for war, aggression, conflict and confrontation prevailing all over the world because of politics, culture, religion and race are totally detrimental to both the material and spiritual welfare

of humanity. It has beep pointed out that due to the arms race, the very survival of man is at stake. Nevertheless, some are of the opinion that the absence of war on an international scale in our times is due to the possession of nuclear weapons by the super powers.

However, it is evident that the absence of war is also one of the contributory factors conducive to create a peaceful environment congenial to the happiness of the human race. If war is a necessary evil or if it is a biological necessity as some people would have us believe, deliberations to sustain peace would be useless. The notions of inevitability of war are highly controversial and fundamentally, contradictory not only to social ethics, but also to all world religions. Buddhist morality which advocates compassionate love towards all living beings in particular, unfolds a way of life for the betterment of the quality of life; that one may live a life for the sake of oneself and others. Therefore the notions of feasibility of war contemplated from

WAR. PEACE AND SOCIAL HARMONY

whichever point of view can not be vindicated by the teachings of the Buddha. According to the socio-ethical teachings of Buddhism, the place of the individual in society and his commitments towards fellow beings have been stated as adjuncts to the main thesis ensuring the possibility of creating a better world for all of us to live in. Fellow feeling springs up naturally on practical consideration of human situations. Moral behaviour is objectively justified so that each one should think that everyone else is in pursuit of happiness. Then only can one cultivate empathy towards the rest of the world.

Throughout the ages in Asian countries, it has been emphatically stated that one should first turn to one's own mind culture in order to cultivate peace within, before preaching the compatibility of peace to the rest of the world.

The assumption that one's own welfare and the welfare of others both ultimately depend upon the individual who has achieved inner peace is a particularly Buddhist concept. Because a spiritually advanced person is freed from greed, hatred and delusion, he thinks in terms of friendliness towards fellow beings. In fact this is an essential requirement as stressed in the first Article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights which states; "All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act with one another in a spirit of brotherhood." I t is only by developing one's own mind to such an extent where peace and tranquillity reign supreme that a person can think of fostering peace in every sphere of social activity. In this connection, the Buddha once addressed a monk called Cunda, saying "It is not possible Cunda, for him who is stuck in the mud to pull out another who is stuck in the mud. But Cunda, it is possible for one who is himself not stuck in the mud to pull out another who is stuck in the mud." (1)

The moral of the above statement is that social welfare and the attempt to serve society in any measure, depend ultimately upon the


moral development of the person concerned, whether he has attained inner peace or not. One who is deprived of inner peace will not be able to propagate peace in society. By developing peace in his own mind he will very easily avoid all conflicting situations and pave the path for peaceful CO-existence. Although conflicts themselves are part and parcel of our social dealings, when they turn to be aggressive and violent, the consequences are dreadful and shocking. Such situations are inimical to the entire human race, so if man is to suwive on Earth, peace has to be sustained thus changing man's attitude towards the objective world.

It is estimated that about 50 million people were killed in the last World War. Besides, millions and millions were subjected to misery as well as the erosion of moral qualities and the wanton destruction of resources which were other harmful consequences.

Today in Third World countries violence has become a common feature, being nurtured by power-seeking politicians as well as by the very structure of society. Have not racism, starvation, malnutrition, unemployment, exploitation and such other woeful states contributed to violence and terrorism in our part of the world ? Those who are in power and the policy-makers must seriously pay attention to this deplorable state of affairs and should devise ways and means to eliminate violence arising out of the very structure of our society. Since World War 11, there have been many instances of conflicts resulting in a breach of peace. Considering that war is the common enemy of mankind, let not the horror of war ever be repeated.

Peace on the other hand is an art of survival without which we cannot speak of happiness on Earth, nor of human rights and values, nor of the achievements of human civilisation.

Asoka, the great Buddhist emperor of India in the 3rd century B.C., gave up war after the conquest of Kalinga, followed a policy of reconciliation and peace and even inscribed a confession in his 13th

WAR, PEACE AND SOCIAL HARMONY

Rock Edict where very sincerely he admitted the final outcome of the war with sensational phraseology. He frankly admitted how moral degradation was rampant and the law of the jungle reigned when a war was waged. It was in the 8th year after his consecration that he conquered Kalinga.

The inscription runs thus: "In the war waged against the Kalinga, one and a half hundred thousand people were carried away as captives and one hundred thousand were killed and many times that number died there. Thereafter, now having conquered Kalinga, practice and inculcation of the Law of Virtue has been adopted by the King. Because after the conquest of Kalinga, there arose remorse or repentance in the mind of the King. For, when an unconquered country is newly conquered there occur such things as slaughter, death and the carrying away captive of people and these things are exceedingly felt and regarded as serious by the King. There live everywhere Brahmans and ascetics, people of other religious sects and householders, among whom these virtues are practised, namely, harkening to superiors, to mother and father and preceptors and proper behaviour towards friends and acquaintances, comrades and relatives, as well as to slaves and servants and also steadfast devotion to duties. There to them also occur slaughter and banishment of persons attached to them. And those who are well-settled in life and whose affection remain unreduced or unvanished, their friends , acquaintances, comrades and relatives fall into calamity. There to them that too is a kind of injury. This lot of all men is regarded as serious by the King. So whatever number of men was then killed or wounded and died and was carried away captive at the time of annexation of Kalinga, a hundredth part of the thousandth part of the number is regarded as serious by the King." (2)

As revealed by the inscription of Asoka, abuses of human dignity and violations of human rights are the natural outcomes of war. The emperor, when looking at the facts and figures of the terror and the


horror caused by him waging a war to annex Kalinga to his empire, became remorseful and repented. In a war sanity disappears, revenge and cruelty spill out of bounds. He was profoundly moved and decreed further that his sons and grandsons who would ascend the throne would give up war and practice the Law of Virtue (Dharma Vijaya) instead of territorial conquests. (Dig Vijaya).

There is a story in the Buddhist scriptures where the Buddha persuaded two clans in battle array to give up war on practical considerations. Once a battle ensued between the Sakyans and Kolyans over the waters of the Rohini River. These two clans lived on either side of the dam which had been constructed across the river and were in the habit of cultivating their fields with the waters of the Rohini River. When there was a severe drought, a violent quarrel arose between the two peoples and gradually it turned into a battle. Then the Buddha appeared in the nick of time and convinced them of the folly of killing each other for the sake of a little water. The Buddha questioned the two contending parties:

"Why are you clansmen in battk array ? " "For the sake of the waters of the Rohini, Sir."

"Tell me what is more valuabk, water or human liwes ? "

the Buddha asled. "Human lives" was the reply.

Thereupon the Buddha asked them "Is it proper for you to kill each other for water which is of less value ?" (3)

Being thoroughly convinced they finally gave up the battle and established friendly relations once more.

It is true that the world set-up is such that peace is receding faster than ever. Different political ideologies, misdirected national and


racial feelings and a refusal to understand the real state of affairs may have contributed to this state. But we hope unreserved devotion and sincerity of purpose will create better opportunities for peace in every activity of man.

Man will acquire wealth and property in order to fulfil his biological needs but not to fulfil his psychological greed which will release tensions, rivalries and conflicts between individuals and nations. The Buddha's age-old doctrine of compassionate love has refreshing relevance to the modem world today. This doctrine enjoins us to adopt friendly feelings towards all without exception, to our near and dear ones, to those that are neutral and even to our enemies. Such feelings, as the Buddha says, releases a tremendous force of good before which even enemies tum friendly. Once this compassion becomes a reality among men, international relations will fall into proper perspective and a solution leading to world peace will become easier. The Buddha's proclamation that war begins in the hearts of men, that only in the minds of men can the defences of peace be built is a fact that even the preamble to United Nations Charter on Peace has emphasised.

Buddhism, preaching the unity of mankind, unfolds a way of life for the betterment of the quality of life here and hereafter. But as some writers have pointed out the socio-ethical aspect of Buddhism has not been amply emphasised by the exponents of Buddhism, mainly due to the consideration of Buddhism as a personal religion dealing only with a code of ethics meant for the deliverance from the cycle of life (4). Evidently, the unsatisfactoriness of the empirical existence and the deliverance from the mass of suffering has been emphasised throughout in the teaching of the Buddha. Nevertheless, the place of the individual in society and his commitments towards fellow beings have been enunciated as adjuncts to the main thesis enhancing the possibility of creating a better world to live in.


On closer observation of the facts it would seem that the Buddha's approach to peace is somewhat different from the common approaches known in the political sphere. In other words, in his approach to peace the Buddha does not concern himself with mere outward palliatives like political adjustments, but with a permanent cure, a permanent remedy.

According to the Buddha there is no problem in existence which cannot be resolved without right understanding and right effort. Every problem, however intricate, however complex, contains within itself the means for its own resolution. So has the problem of peace seen in its true perspective in relation to the Buddhist approach. Men of politics on the other hand, generally exhibit a tendency to ignore religion altogether and to build the ideals of world peace merely on economic readjustments and external political changes. They can be compared to the physician who does not see or refuses to see the root cause of the patient's illness.

In the Sakkapanha Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, Sakka, the chief of the gods, questions the Buddha as to why men in this world who like to live in peace, who aspire for peace act contrary to peace and produce mutual conflicts and wars detrimental to their own good. The answer given by the Buddha is significant. Diagnosing the problem he went on tracing the immediate and secondary causes until he arrived at the final root cause namely; craving (tanha). (5) ~ Craving blurs true vision. There is a famous latin tag expressing the ', same truth : Video meliora proboque deteriora sequor; "I see a better cause and I approve of it ; yet I follow the worse". (6) According to the Buddha craving prevents men from pursuing their own good even when they see clearly the path leading to their welfare.

Political ideologies in the world over advocate that all reforms for peace must proceed from without, that is to say, world peace can be fostered only by economic readjustment, by equal distribution of wealth among people and by creating a classless society. It is indeed


very good if we could dispense with all the class divisions in society and make all men equal in status. The question is, will there be peace :is long as man's craving impulse remains uncontrolled ? For whatever external reforms we may implement without reforming man internally, there will still remain the inner greed for power and profit. That inner will always becomes the outer, disrupting all external reforms. Our biological needs are to be satisfied but not at the expense of psychological health. The Buddha's introspective analysis or diagnosis of the world's conflicts is so fundamental that he designed a remedy to appease the causes of all conflicts - individual, national, as well as international.

Primarily, peace has to be there in individual minds originating through the right mode of thinking. Right Thought (samma sankappa) is the second factor of the Noble Eiehtfold Path which is characterised by three constituents, namely: 1. Renunciation 2. Benevolence and 3. Loving kindness (metta) a disposition transcending all biological and territorial boundaries. The Metta Sutta. the blue~rint of loving kindness, tells us how this boundless compassion should be cultivated towards all living beings without any distinction whatsoever. (7) The friendly attitude to be cultivated towards all living beings is found in the list of the Four Sublime Abodes (brahma vihara) discussed in many a context in the canon. The first two being loving kindness (metta) and compassion (karuna) the third and fourth are sympathetic joy (mudita) and equanimity (upekkha) (8). One is instructed to radiate friendliness even towards one's own enemies. According to the Veludvara Sutta the Noble Disciple reflects thus : 'Here I am fond of my life, not wanting to die, fond of pleasure and averse to pain. Suppose someone should rob me of my life ..... it would not be a thing pleasing or delightful to me. If I in my turn, should rob the life of one fond of his life and not wanting to die, one fond of pleasure and averse to pain, it would not be a thing pleasant or delightful to him. For a state of affairs that is not pleasant or delightful to one must be so to others also, and a state of affairs that is not pleasing or

WAR. PEACE AND SOCIAL HARMOhY

delightful to me how could I impose that upon another ?; As a result of such reflection he himself abstains from taking the life of creatures and he encourages others to abstain and speaks in praise of abstaining from killing (9).

In the Dhammapada, also, it is stated how this fellow feeling comes out as a practical consideration of human situations:

'All tremble at punishment and all fear death. The fore having compared unto oneself one should not kill nor should cause to kill. ' ( 1 0)

Again it is said in the Dhammapada :

'Hatred is never pmfied by hatred. H m e d is only pacified by friendliness. This is an e m 1 law. ' ( 1 1 )

In a battle one is being defeated while the other is being victorious, but both of them are subjected consequently to two types of depressive mental states. Therefore the Dhammapada expressly states :

'Victory breeds hatred and the defeated live in pain. The peaceful, having abandoned both victory and defeat, live in happiness.' (1 2)

The fifth factor found in the Noble Eightfold Path called Right Livelihood (samma ajiva) bears a great relevance to our discussion. The Buddhist who follows the Path enunciated by the Buddha should earn his living by harmless means. Hence Right Livelihood mentions abstinence from five forms of trades that lead to destruction ofpersonal as well as social welfare. They are abstinence from the sale of ( l ) arms (2) human beings and animals (3) fish and meat (4) intoxicants and (5) poisons. The Buddhist who adheres to the admonition of the Buddha is a seeker after peace both personally as well as socially. Therefore Buddhism does not advocate dealing in any kind of weaponry, including chemical warfare substances divided into three categories called lethal, incapacitating and harassing, used in battle


fronts and categorically condemns any transaction involved in weaponry (13).

In this context it must be pointed out that Dr. S. Radhakrishnan in his Religion and Society referring to a sutta in the Samyutta Nikaya seems to have maintained that the Buddha has justified war on righteous grounds (14). The Sutta in question refers to a headman called Yodhajiva who visits the Buddha and asks if it is true that warriors in battle who destroy their enemies are reborn in saranjita heaven. The Buddha, even for the third time, refuses to answer the question. But Yodhajiva keeps on insisting and thereupon the Buddha explains to him that the minds of those who resort to war are low, mean and wrongly motivated, for they exert in killing, destroying and taking enemies as prisoners. Resultantly, they are reborn after death either in hell or among animals. O n hearing the Buddha's repIy he wept and tears fell from his eyes. However at the end he becomes a follower of the Buddha (15).

The sutta immediately following the Yodhajiva Sutta also deals with the same theme. Here too a headman comes and asks the same question in respect of horsemen engaged in war. Even in this instance the Buddha gives the identical answer. In the end, the person concerned is convinced and converted (16).

Now, it is clear that the Buddha criticised severly the prevalent idea of special places in heaven for men of war who resort to violence and engage in ruthless killing of their enemies. Further, the Buddha strongly upheld the purity of heart filled with loving kindness marked with the principle of 'live and let live'.

In this connection another instance of the Buddha's mediation to avert battle even at the expense of his own physical health can be cited. O n one occasion when Vidudabha, the King of Kosala, in order to take revenge on the Sakyans set out for Kapilavatthu with a large


army. The Buddha being aware of the incident sat under a tree of scanty shade just within the Sakyan kingdom. Vidudabha saw the Buddha and knew that the Buddha did not approve of what he was going to do and turned back with his army. Likewise the Buddha sat under the same shadeless tree on three successive occasions when the king set out for attack, but the king turned back with his army on each occasion in honour of the Buddha. Later on the fourth occasion the Buddha knowing that the war could not be averted, kept away (17). It is stated that the exposure to the sun by sitting under the shadeless tree caused a headache that lasted throughout the rest of the life of the Buddha (18).

All the cardinal teachings of Buddhism contribute to the realisation of peace within oneself and, in humanity as a whole, solidarity and world fellowship depend on these teachings. Therefore the basic teachings that outline the Buddhist concept of peace could be listed as follows :

(a) The principle of non-violence is the basic concept upon which the ideal of peace is founded. To refrain from threat and violence and adopt the principle of goodwill and fellow, feeling are appreciated and encouraged. The use of violence is double-edged as it is bound by the law of reciprocal action, to provoke violence in return.

(b) The method of Buddhism is empirical like that of science, and rules out faith and tradition and pure reasoning too as inadequate tests of truth. Nevertheless, like science Buddhism does not restrict its investigation to the mere phenomenal or the empirical but proceeds further and makes discoveries pertaining to the trans-empirical or transcendental as well. This makes Buddhism a perfect science or an empirical philosophy geared to transcendental objectives.

(c) The ignorance of the workings of retributive action (kamma)

WAR, PEACE ANDSOCIAL HARMONY

prompts men towards actions detrimental to their own good. He who understands this law, will refrain from evil actions productive of evil to oneself and to others. The springs of evil are : greed (lobha), hatred (dosa) and delusion (moha) while the springs of good are selflessness (alobha), compassion

(adosa) and wisdom (amoha). I t has been shown that the springs or roots of all

unwholesome and demeritorious evil actions are contributory to violence and oppression in society.

Motivated by greed, hatred or delusion one performs actions with body, speech and thought. Overwhelmed by these root causes one makes another suffer by false accusation and punishment, imprisonment, loss of wealth, abuse and banishment on the ground that 'might is right'. (19)

The discourse in question further illustrates the nature of uses and abuses of power by those who are in power and justify abuses of power by false propaganda, "moreover monks, such a person as this is called, as a speaker, 'inopportune' , 'untruthful', 'irrelevant', 'one who speaks contrary to the Dhamma and Discipline'. Why is he so called ! Because of unjustly causing suffering to another by punishment, imprisonment, loss of wealth, abuse and banishment on the ground that 'might is right'. When confronted with a lie he makes no effort to untangle it saying 'this is baseless', 'this is truth'. Therefore he is called 'inopportune' 'untruthful' etc."

1) Since all beings are in states of suffering the exercise of compassion towards all is the major duty of everyone. Compassion is a great force of good that will turn enemies into friends.

:) The insight into the empirical truth of suffering in all conditions of life forms the beginning of the Buddhist spiritual struggle. Since all conditions of life are suffering, the pursuit

WAR, PEACE AND SOClALHARMONY

of happiness becomes the goal of moral striving.

(f) Since suffering is not caused by a god but by one's own craving the destruction of craving brings release here and now as well as in the final sense.

(g) The Buddha's doctrine of no-soul (anatta) helps the eradication of ego. The complexes of 'I' and 'mine' give rise to separatism and segregation. As all separatism is caused by the I-conceit (attaditthi) the abolition of the I-conceit destroys barriers and promotes world fellowship. It is the wrongly used ego impulse that enhances one's carving for power and possessions at the expense of others' rights and privileges.

(h) In Buddhist cosmology all the worlds including all forms of life are in a state of perpetual change. Nothing is permanent except Nibbana, the transcendence of samsaric existence. Individuals or nations who realise this truth of change and suffering will naturally mitigate their excessive craving. They will acquire wealth and property in order to fulfil their biological needs, but not to fulfil their psychological greed. That will release the tensions, the rivalries and conflicts between individuals and nations.

Foot Notes

1 . MN I p.45 Sallekha Sutta S. No 8 2. Radhgovinda Basak - A s o h Inscriptions p.71 3. MNAVolIIp.783 4 . 0 . H . k A. Wijesekma - The Concept of Peace; Bodhi Leaves

No. B.78 5 . DNVol11,276 6 . Ovid-metamorpheses, Bk. 8.1.20 7. Sutta Nipata 151

WAR, PEACE ANDSOCIAL HARMONY

8. D N uol.111 p. 196 and p.220 9. S N Vol V p.353-354 10. Dhp 129 11. Dhp 5 12. Dhp 201 13. Lord P. Calder-Science Peace and Survival - U N E S C O 1968 14. Dr.S.Radhakrishnun - Religion and Society p.202 15. S N Vol iv ,308 16. S N V o l i v , 310 17. DhpVolI , 4 3 6 - 9 18. Udana Atthakatha 265 Apadanu Vol i 300 19. AN i ,201

8, VALUES: RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL

n our times science keeps on unravelling the mysteries of the universe one by one. Consequently, mankind has been provided with material comforts hitherto unknown in human history. So vast and facinating are the achievements of modem man that he has made the entire

world a 'global village' within the very short period of a few decades. Many are the things invented for man's luxurious living. Well- developed and more sophisticated means of communication and transportation that we possess today are remarkable and were not known before in history.

Modem Social Values Values conceived under the present context, where science and

technology occupy a predominant place, man is inclined to think of "new values for old". But, the paradox is that with all the facilities for comfortable living which the modem world possesses, contemporary man is restless, running a race of unknown destination for he feels he still lacks something. Commercial interests overwhelms every aspect of his life. Competition in commercialisation plays a leading role in his day-to-day life thereby, throwing him into evaluating everything in terms of money. Furthermore we live in a world where mass media keep on arousing and exciting the erotic proclivities of our young

VALUES: RELIGIOCS AND SOCIAL

people resulting in sexual repression, mental breakdown (1) or its opposite, promiscuity. Hunger, malnutrition, unemployment and such other evils over-ride the social structure. In our part of the world a new phenomenon called "ethnic nationalism", is growing up beyond bounds, taking its toll of human life as it has never done before. Obviously security and social stability are fast disappearing because of these destructive tendencies presently dominating our world. New ideologies equip the modern generation to transgress the age-old bounds of traditional values and to justify immoral acts.

The only difference of our time seems to be that modern values are manifold and manifaceted due to the lifestyle of contemporary man.(l)

With all the material comforts for luxurious living, he has made his environment, both nature and society, inimical to himself. All living beings, by nature, are in persuit of happiness, a fact even accepted in Buddhism.(2) Man is no exception to this happiness-seeking tendency and consequently places emphasis on commercial, aesthetic, and moral values. Being attached to objective and subjective spheres of man's life they splinter into a spectrum of numerous values all recognised by man in his search for happiness.

Immutable Values as Religious Values

All values are not altogether immutable. They tend to change from time to time. Moreover, the evaluation of a particular value may differ from nation to nation and person to person. Nevertheless, being the guideline to achieve the best of every sphere in life, immutable values will last long in any society. Values which continue to persist for a considerable length of time are the product of civilisation. They are more or less synchronous with religious values. - Religions throughout history have played the role of communicating values while conserving those prevailing in the contemporary societies of the lands of their birth Hence social values more often take the garb of religious values.

VALUES: RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL

Broadly speaking, while there are values common to both the laity and the recluses, the values upheld by the recluses who renounce the world in search of bliss here and now are obviously different from the values of the laity. Consequently, the laity, in contrast to those who have gone forth from household life, have to fulfil the obligations and demands of day-to-day life. Herein, according to Buddhism, the lay follower must primarily recognise the value of his human existence, because Buddhism reiterates that to be born as a human being is an extremely rare occurrence.(3)

Happiness through Moral Values When we analyse the four kinds of happiness that the Buddhist

laity may wish for, we can see that they are nothing but the idealisation of Buddhist moral values based on humane principles which enhance both individual and social welfare. In other words, in persuing one's own happiness the lay follower takes himself to rightful means ensuring the well-being of others living around him. Therefore the fourfold happiness of a layman consists of:

1 . Economic stability (atthi sukha) 2. Sharing wealth with others (bhoga sukha) 3. Debtlessness (anana sukha) and 4. Blameless actions of body, word and mind (anawajja sukha)

In order to lead a successful life as a lay devotee, economic stability is considered an essential ingredient. Wealth in this connection is described as "acquired by energetic striving, amassed by strength of arm, won by the sweat of one's brow, lawful and lawfully gotten." Wealth thus acquired is to be enjoyed by oneself and also to be used for meritorious putposes. Debtlessness in any measure to anybody and blameless actions of body, speech and mind are also contributory to his happiness.(4) Therefore, happiness as a human value, is to be achieved by resorting to ideals conceived on moral grounds. These come under the purview of the Buddhist Attitude to Wealth, where happy lay life is ensured by economic stability.

VALUES: RELIGIOUS AND SOClAI

Value Aspirations And further, the values that the common man holds in high

esteem have been approached and analysed totally from an ethical point of view. The Buddha recounts the Four Aspirations of men who live the life of a layman and then describes at length how they can be fulfilled to their satisfaction. The Four Aspirations of the people as explained by the Buddha to his deciple, Anathapindika, are:

1 . to acquire wealth by lawful means and to be a wealthier person 2 . to acquire wealth by lawful means, to be a wealthier person, to

live well with relatives and teachers and to be of good reputation 3 , to acquire wealth by lawful means, to be a wealthierperson, to

live well with relatives and teachers, to be of good reputation and to live a long life

4. to acquire wealth by lawful means, to be a wealthier person, to live well with relatives and teachers, to be of good reputation and to be rebom in a heavenly world.

The Buddha points out that these wishes of men are very rarely fulfilled and only those who practice the perfections of faith, virtue, generosity and wisdom could anticipate their fulfilment.

Apparently, these values are conditional and depend upon the satisfaction of Four Moral Values as prerequisistes. There are the perfections of Faith(saddha), Virtue(sila), Generosity(caga), and Wisdom (panna) . ( 5 )

What is Faith? Faith is nothing but the rational understanding of the qualities of the Buddha. What are the characteristics of Virtue? Virtue primarily consists of abstension from killing, stealing, unlawful sexual indulgence, lying and taking liquor fermented and distilled which causes sloth.

What is the Perfection of Generosity ? While one is living a life with a heart free from the taint of stinginess, he is open-handed, pure,

VALUES: RELIGIOUS AND SOCIAL

delighting in self-surrender, being a person to be asked for favours and delights in dispensing charitable gifts. What is the Perfection of Wisdom? Coveting, wrongful desire, malice, sloth and torpor, flurry and worry and doubt and wavering are the depravities of the mind. By casting out these, one becomes a person endowed with great wisdom, having a clear range of vision.

Now the discourse in question recounts the Fourfold Deeds of Merit valued from an extremely Buddhist point of view. To be a "contriver of perfect happiness", proper use of what is earned is considered essential. O n principle, proper management of wealth is motivated by consideration. Abstaining from wanton and extravagant mismanagement of wealth, one is to be considerate in expenditure and to take precautions to avoid possible calamities.

The Fourfold Deeds of Merit to be performed by a "contriver of happiness" are thus described:

I . With the wealth thus acquired by energetic sniving he makes his mother and father, children and wife, servants and workmen and friends and comrades cheerful and happy.

2 . He makes himself secure against all misfortunes such as may happen by way of fire, water, a king, a robber, an ill-disposed person or an unworthy heir.

3. He makes fivefold offering, that is, to relatives, to guests, to departed ones, to kings and to deities.

4. He offers gifts to recluses and brahmanas who abstain from sloth and negligence, bent on kindness and forbearence, tamed, calmed and cookd resulting in happiness and kading to a heavenly state.

Yet in a different context, the Buddha speaks of rare values in the form of Desirables of the World:

1. Wealth, 2. Beauty, 3. Health, 4. Virtue, 5. theNoble Life, 6. Friends, 7. Learning, 8. Wisdom, 9. Dhamma, 10. the Heavenly World.

Then follows a description of obstacles to their acquisition:

9. CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE

rime as defined in criminology is an act of violation of law, consciously committed by a sane adult and punishable by the state. Evidently, no action is considered a crime unless it is defined as such by law. In the eyes of the law an accused is regarded innocent until proved guilty

by a just and fair trial. A crime is however considered so relative a factor to the law of a country that different courses of procedure are adopted in different countries in conformity with the religious and cultural milieu of that country. Punishment enforced for a particular crime, for instance, may differ from country to country in view of the gravity of the crime as evaluated in their own social value system.

The relative nature of crime and punishment is clearly seen from the Penal Codes of different countries which enforce different punitive measures for the same offence. Besides, some offences which are considered to be punitive in one country may not be considered to be offences at all in another country. Soviet Russia illegalised the formation of new political parties. In South Africa it was illegal for a black student to attend a'white' college without agovernment permit. In many countries today the penalty for drug trafficking is death, but the quantity recognised for capital punishment varies from country to country. Hence a crime is an act that contravenes the law.

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE

Two conditions are taken into consideration in making a certain behaviour illegal.

Firstly, if permitted, that particular behaviour may be socially disruptive.

Secondly, that particular behaviour maybe difficult to control by mere informal sanctions.

However in the United States, legislative decrees declaring guilt without trial and ex post facto laws that come into effect from a date prior to the crime committed, are forbidden. Throughout the ages all over the world those who had trangressed the law were punished physically or imprisoned. But today the emphasis on corporal punishment and imprisonment has been shifted at least in principle to the reformation and rehabilitation of criminals and the prevention of crime. Because of this tendency, America is said to pay more attention to individual treatment for offenders rather than to equal punishment for equal crimes. Consequently, it is said that 98% of the crimes committed in the country do not result in a prison sentence. Only a handful of criminals get and those who are punished also get off lightly. The second amendment of the constitution called - - .

the Bill of Rights empowers an American to possess arms while the fourth amendment protects citizens from unreasonable searches and seizure.

Unfortunately the crime rate in the country is ever on the increase. It is reported that 200 million guns are in circulation in the country and every 20 seconds someone is injured by a handgun, and a child is killed with firearms every 6 hours, while 40,000 are killed every year by gun-shot injuries. More precisely, according to a FBI report in 1986, on the average "a violent crime is committed in the United States every 24 seconds, a murder every 28 minutes, a forcible rape every 6 minutes, a robbery every 63 seconds, and an aggravated assault every 44 seconds. The rate of violent crime almost doubled


during the 1970's , but declined somewhat in the early 1980's, and rose slightly in the mid 1980's." These crimes are usually grouped as crimes of violence and at present are spreading all over the world in epidemic proportions.

Crimes against property involving damage, stealing and looting have a long history in human civilisation. Crimes considered as "victimless crimes" are said to be difficult to control as there is no aggrieved victim to complain. Gambling, prostitution, vagrancy, drug abuse and the like are considered victimless crimes as the effect of the offence has to be experienced by the offender himself. Yet another kind of crime which is termed "white collar crime" is on the increase due to developments in technological, industrial and commercial activities in our present age. These crimes are usually committed by the so-called elite or people of high position. Crimes such as tax evasion, stock manipulation, fraud, illegal logging and such other crimes are committed by wielding their power or abusing their official status. Increased economic activity in the present age has largely contributed to this type of crime.

The Buddhist View of Crime According to the Buddhist point of view humans commit crimes

or evils because of three fundamental mental attitudes: Craving (lobha), Ill will (dosa) and Ignorance (moha). O n the contrary Non- craving (alobha), Non-ill will (adosa) and Non-ignorance (amoha) are the root causes of wholesome or good actions. Craving, I11 will and Ignorance are latent in everyone's miid and they are kept alive by the fact that each one depends on the other two. This process of interdependence is depicted in the Wheel of Life of Tibetan Buddhism by three symbolical animals turning round and round catching each others' tail. These three states of mind are instrumental in causing crime. Craving is the unsatiable desire to acquire while ill will is the dissatisfaction directed towards people and circumstances. Ignorance


or delusion is rooted in the lack of understanding. Social dealings, sense of fellow-feeling, education, law and religion would wield some power to lessen the rigidity of these mental traits and to make humans more sociable and helpful to others. Buddhism says emphatically that there are two essential moral factors of socialisation without the sense of which society will plunge into chaos. Those two are Moral Shame (hiri) and Moral Dread (ottappa). One must be shameful of misdeed and be afraid of violating social standards. By becoming morally good (sila sampanna) one willfully abstains from bodily and verbal deeds that hurt others.

The Sigalovada Sutta, the Buddhist Layman's Ethics, states four mental drives causing harm to individuals and society: Prejudice (chanda), I11 will (dosa), Fear (bhaya) and Ignorance (moha). Prejudice is complimentary to Craving. Fear as misguided reaction to insecurity is rooted in I11 will. Ignorance is lack of understanding or refusal to see things as they really are. However it is certain all crimes premeditated or otherwise, are committed by uncontrolled mental drives.

In the Agganna Sutta crime and the resultant punishment are traced back to stealing driven by craving. ( l ) In the Cakkavattisihanada (2 ) and Kutadanta Suttas (3)the impact of poverty has been recognised as a social problem and state mediation has been recommended as a remedial measure to alleviate poverty and the resultant unrest.

In order to make a society secure and safe, there is no doubt that crime has to be totally wiped out. Everyone should cultivate respect towards the rights of others to live happily and possess property. Therefore in this context evil is known variantly as malefaction, offence, law-breaking, misdeed, crime or felony and is a 'papa', an evil, 'akusala', an unwholesome action, the opposite of which is called 6 punna' good and 'kusala' wholesome.


Prevention of Crimes on Ethical and Practical Considerations

Obviously, with its ethical bias, Buddhism embarks on a mission on preventing crime on the premise that "prevention is better than cure". Practically, "all are in persuit of happiness and dislike suffering" (Sukhakama satta dukkhapatikkula). So it is reiterated: "if anybody were to torment beings who are in search of happiness, the tormentor will not be happy afterwards."

Buddhism considers that crimes are evils and the criminals beget retributive effects of their evil deeds in this life and in the lives to come. In order to differentiate good from evil, right from wrong, moral conduct from crime, a universal criterion has been enunciated by the Buddha in the discourse called Ambalatthikarahulovada. According to this sutta an action which is harmful to one's own happiness or another's happiness or both one's own and another's happiness is considered an evil, an unwholesome act.

Anguttara Nikaya gives Four Fears to be reflected upon by anyone who is going to commit an evil, a crime:

I . Fear of self-reproach (attanuwada bhaya) 2 . Fear of others' reproach (paranuwada bhaya) 3. Fear of punishment (danda bhaya) 4. Fear ofgoing to a woeful state (duggati bhaya) (4)

Perhaps the Dhammapada portrays the fate of the evil-doer more lucidly:

"Here he suffers. Hereafter he suffers. In both states the ewil-doer (the miminal) suffers. Furthermore he suffers hawing gone

to a woeful state."(5)

Therefore "should a person commit an evil he should not commit it again and again. He should not find pleasure therein.

Painful is the accumulation of euil. " ( 6 ) Dhp 1 1 7


One is even advised not to resort to any deed which brings unhappiness in the end.

"That deed is not well done, which after hawing done it, one repents and reaps its effect in weeping with a tearful face." (7)

According to the Balapandita Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya one who commits a crime is a fool (bala) while a wise one (pandits) is a person who abstains from committing a crime. I t is because of his folly that a fool resorts to crime. Herein the term used for the criminal is suggestive of the sympathetic attitude to be cultivated towards criminals who are mentally deranged, normally resorting to crime due to lack of understanding. The fool according to the discourse cherishes wrong thoughts, speaks wrong words and is a doer of wrong deeds.

l . He makes onslaught on creatures (i.e. kills &m) 2 . He takes what is not given 3. He behaves wrongly with regard to his sense pleasures 4 . He speaks lies 5. He becomes slothful after drinking.

The fool, according to the discourse, experiences a threefold anguish and dejection by committing a crime.

l . By knowing that he is a criminal 2. By knowing how criminals are punished by kings (or by the state) 3. When he is taking rest he feels remorse. Retribution follows him,

after death he wiU be reborn in a place of woe.(8)

Offences in Relation to Motive and Intention The ethical significance of volitional acts is stressed in Buddhism.

There is no vicarious salvation nor any concept of original sin which advocates the atonement for the sins committed by Adam and Eve and by later generations. According to Buddhism one has to take the responsibility for his own actions. In other words volitional acts


(kamma), retribution (vipaka) and rebirth (punabbhava) are part and parcel of Buddhist ethics; where volition plays an important role as a deciding factor. The Buddha said:

"0 monks, volition itself is a volitional act. It is after volition that a volitional act is done by body, speech and mind."

Therefore the effect of an action performed with apolluted mind follows the doer just as the cartwheel the hoofs of the ox tied to the cart. Motive and intention in Buddhist ethics are considered to be essential factors in deciding the gravity of an offence. The blind Cakkhupala although had trampled thousands of small w o r n to death by pacing up and down, committed n o offence, for he had no intention to kill the worms. In another instance the Buddha made it clear by saying : "If there be no wound in one's hand, one may carry poison in it. Poison does not affect him who has no wound. There is no evil (effect) for him who does no wrong." (9)

Although according to Buddhist tradition motive and intention are the initial factors of an act of crime, there are of course some other contributory factors, too, which make a crime a fulfledged one. For instance, to commit a murder:

1 . There should be a human being 2. The kilkr must know that he is aliue 3. There must be the intention to kill 4. There must be a device by which the killing is to be committed 5. KiUing the victim by employing the device (10)

If any of the constituents is lacking in its operation, it would not be counted as a murder of grave retributive effect. It is to be noted in this regard that the Buddhist attitude bears relevance to the modern principle of "mens rea" where no man shall be prosecuted for committing a crime unless a guilty mind can be imputed to him. As defined, most crimes entail both an act (actus reus) and a mental element (mens tea) which is the same in Buddhist tradition as well.


According to penology, a branch of criminology dealing with the study of matters concerned with the punishment of criminals and the operation of prisons, homicide without justification or excuse is distinguished from murder by the absence of malice or premeditation, which is again divided into voluntary manslaughter and involuntary manslaughter. An intentional killing committed in the heat of passion provoked by the victim is called voluntary manslaughter while an unintentional killing resulting from a minor crime such as rioting or reckless driving is called involuntary manslaughter where no mental element is involved.

Buddhism is concerned with the moral significance of the act in its totality, yet penology too also considers the motive and other constituents of committing an act of homicide in levying the penalty. In other words, the degree of gravity of the offence is determined by considering the total factors contributing to the particular act of killing. The Buddhist stance is aptly illustrated in monastic discipline by quoting the incidents which occured during the time of the the Buddha.

The place ascribed to intention in monastic discipline in Buddhist tradition is stressed by stating that there is no offence with regard to homicide, "if it is unintentional, if he does not know, if he does not mean death, if he is not of sane mind." The rule concerned defines the intention of committing the offence as "knowingly, consciously and deliberately." (1 1)

Instances of exemption from punishment for unintentional offences are recorded in Buddhist monastic discipline.

Once a certain monk stood on a seat in the refactory inside a house to take hold of a pestle placed high up. When he took it, a second pestle fell down and hit the head of a certain boy. He died. The Buddha therein declared that the monk had not committed an offence as his act was unintentional. (12)


On another occasion a monk while eating his meal got a piece of meat stuck in his throat. Another monk then gave a blow to that monk's neck. The piece of meat fell out with blood but the monk died. It was declared that the monk who gave the blow did not commit an offence as he did not intend to cause the monk's death.(l3)

Orientation in Discipline : Uposatha Insanity may excuse a crime both in modem penology and in

Buddhist discipline. The ignorance of the law is not an excuse in Buddhist legal tradition as well as in modem law. In this regard Buddhist discipline has set a precedent by evolving the system of 'Confessional Meetings' (uposatha) where the monks recite the Patimokkha, the Code of Monastic Rules. The Higher Ordained monks in a locality are to assemble in a Chapter House (sima) fortnightly. This serves mainly three purposes.

l . The monks are reminded of the rules by which they are to be disciplined by reciting the Code at the Uposatha ceremony

2. On admission, imposition of punishments and procedural measures with regard to those who trangressed are decided

3. The bond of unity is strengthened to assure the social mobility of the law-abiding monks in the locality.

Commonly Accepted Offences and Designated Offences In Buddhist Monastic Discipline there are two kinds of offences;

Commonly Accepted Offences (loka vajja) and Designated Offences (pannatti vajja). The former are the offences punishable by the law of a country. They bear fruit in this life as well as in the lives to come. The latter deals with the infringement of the rules of discipline governing the community of monks. Although these offences are not of retributive effect, they are considered necessary for the training of a monk. Some of the Commonly Accepted Offences are also found in the Designated Offences of the monastic rules thus making common law which is based on customs and traditions, public law which


regulates and governs the relationship between the state and citizenry, civil law which governs individuals and their relationship with one another and criminal law which deals with crimes per se integral in monastic discipline.

Out of the four major offences called 'Defeats' (parajika), the first three rules are against the breach of a code of ethics generally recognised in every civilised country, i.e. against unchastity, stealing, and depriving a human of his life. The fourth is particular to monkhood and deals with false pretension of higher attainments that one actually does not possess. A large portion of the rules deals with Designated Offences, the breaking of which does not entail a kammic effect. These rules deal mainly with indiscipline in monastic life.

Punitive Measures in the Monastic Discipline Prof. Nandasena Ratnapala gives an overview of the legal

procedure in Buddhist tradition where he shows three steps of the procedure: legal punishment, sociological punishment and spiritual punishment.(l4) In order to follow a legal course of action, four different situations of transgressions have been taken into consideration:

1 . Disputes within the community on matters relating to the doctrine and discipline (Vivadadhikarana)

2. Accwations of fellow members (Anuvadadhikarana) 3. Offences committed by breaking the rules of discipline in the

Patimokkha (Apattadhikarana) 4 . Failure to observe proper procedure in all monastic acts

(Kiccadhikarana)

'Defeat' being the gravest monastic crime, the punishment meted out for these four offences are expulsion from the order. Therefore it requires no elaborate legal procedure. But for the other offences penalities and punishments are imposed on the offenders whose correct and good behaviour absolves them from the offences concerned on


admission of the guilt and the expression of earnestness in future restraint. A penalty called manatta is imposed on the offender for a period of six days followed by a prescribed period of probation which may vary according to circumstance.

Probation (~arivasa) was in use as a form of uunishmment as well as a period of training. The latter was imposed in respect of the members of heretical sects who soueht entrance to the Buddhist order. There was no mention of any kind of physical punishment. Both manatta and parivasa have to be considered as a part of monk's course of rehabilitation and not as a process of humiliation. Prof. Jotiya Dhirasekera discusses in detail the different implications of Buddhist monastic probation. (15) While Prof. Nandasena Ratnapala in explaining the legal implications of the procedure, shows that probation as a legal concept is found for the first time in Buddhist monasticism. Obviously, no corporal punishment of any measure is envisaged in the Vinaya. (16)

The Buddha did not enforce rules as such for lay followers as the Jain, Mahavira, did. Criminals continued to be punished by the kings in accordance with the law of the land. It was considered that punishment is meted out not by any human agent but by law. (Na kira no bhavanto karenti dhammo no kareti). (17)

Buddhist discipline mentions additional punitive measures to be adopted in respect of certain behaviours of the sangha. (18)

1. Act of censure (Tajjaniya kamma) 2. Act of subordination (Nissaya kamma) 3. Act of banishment (~abbajini~a kamma) 4. Act of reconciliation (Patisaraniya kamma) 5 . Act of suspension (Ukkhepaniya) 6. Act of proclamation of excommunication (Pakasaniya kamma) 7. Act of suspending communication (Brahmadanda)


Seven modes of legal procedure are also described in the Vinaya, by means of which the Sangha arrive at decisions or settlements involving a breach of monastic discipline. Most of the legal concepts regarded in high esteem today are found in these procedural modes.

I . Recognition of the principle that no penalties or punishments should be imposed on an offender in his absence, necessitating the presence of both parties at the &l. (Sammukha vinaya)

2. The exoneration of a guiltless victim who is accused falsely on malicious intentions (Sati vinaya)

3. Exemption from offences committed in a state of unsound mind (Amulha vinaya)

4. Taking a disciplinary action after the admission of guilt by the offender (Patinnatakarana)

5. When other methods have failed the case has to be referred to another monastery where the Sangha are in greater number to settle the dispute on mutual agreement (Yebhuyyasika)

6 . Act of condemnation of a monk's corrupt and shameless behaviour (Tassapapiyya-sika)

7. "The act of covering with grass" - offences other than Parajika and Sanghadisesa are made to be reconciled by exonerating the two parties (Tinavattharika)( 19)

It is to be noted that Buddhist Monastic rules have always been levied on concrete cases of the breach of discipline and not on imaginary situations of wrong doing.

Judges and Judgements As in every monarchical system even during the time of the

Buddha , the king was the final authority of law. Because of the unlimited power kings had, they could go even beyond tradition. Nobody could question his authority or his judgement. In later times however kings must have been guided by laws written down in Brahmanic circles prescribing different penalties for the same offence


committed by people of different castes, but on the whole offenders were punished according to traditional common law. Nevertheless, there are instances of inflicting penalties based on fabricated charges and on retaliation. Ajatasattu's torturing his father to death without any substantial reason is recorded in the canon. There were kings and ministers who favoured robbers. It is stated in the Samyutta Nikaya that a robber relies on powerful kings and ministers and he is convinced that kings and ministers would come to his defence. Some robbers had the means to bribe and evade arrest.(20) There were prisons (bandhanagara) and jailers (bandhanagarika) but thieves also broke the jails (karabhedaka cora) and escaped.(21) Kings were supposed to be just and legal in the admininstration of justice. Buddhism exhorts the rulers to be righteous (Raja bhavatu dhammiko). The Buddha, followed by commentators spoke in praise of vajjian judiciary because it was based on righteousness.

The Buddhist Approach to Contemporary Punishments

As recorded in the canonical texts, imprisonment, corporal punishment and capital punishment were inflicted in several ways. The Buddhist approach to these punishments however is suggestive of deterrence and correction. Deterrence is not by levying a heavy punishment on the offenders but by making them understand the consequences that would surely follow. These objectives seem to have been achieved in three ways:

Firstly, by mentioning the immediate punishments that one has to undergo as a result of criminality. With this purpose in view, punishments inflicted on miscreants have been described in gross detail. Whoever is caught while doing a crime has to undergo punishment. In this regard numerous types of punishment inflicted on criminals are mentioned. Discussing the four fears of offences, a passage in the Anguttara Nikaya describes how the culprits are punished in order to teach a lesson to onlookers.

O n the command of the king the king's men strongly bind the


arms of the bandit behind him with a strong cord and shave him bald. With a harsh-sounding drum they parade him from street to street, from crossroad to crossroad. Then they lead him to the southern gate and chop off his head. Again, before the punishment is inflicted, he is made to wear a black garment, let down his hair, put a club on his shoulder, come before the public and say: "Sirs, I have done a wicked deed, am worthy of blame and cudgelling. I submit to your worships' pleasure."

Yet another offender is made to wear a black garment, let down his hair, put a provision bag on his shoulder, come before the public and say: "Sirs, I have done a wicked deed surely deserving blame. I submit to your worships' pleasure." And again, a malefactor is made to wear a black garment, let down his hair, come before the public and say: "Sirs, I have done a wicked deed worthy of denouncement and blame. I submit to your worships' pleasure." (22)

Herein it is clear that the punishment is imposed according to the gravity of the offence. By seeing offenders being punished, and listening to their confessions, the onlookers are expected to take heed and abstain from misdeeds.

As given in the Mahadukkhakkhandha Sutta, because of the intention of satisfying senses, people steal, rob and fornicate. Kings, having arrested such a criminal, deal out various punishments. O n the orders of the king they lash him with whips, canes, and cudgels (addhadandaka). They cut off his hand, his foot, both hand and foot, his ear, his nose, both ear and nose, or torture him by taking off the top of his skull, putting a red hot iron ball with pincers and drop it in so that the brain matter boils over (bilanga thalika=gruel pot). Sandpaper the scalp with sand till it is as smooth as a sea shell (sankha mundika=chank shave or sandpapering). Open the culprit's mouth with a skewer and insert oil and a wick and light it (joti malika=fire garland). His hand is made into a torch with oil rags and set alight (hattha pajjotaka=flaming hand). Skin him from the head downwards


and twist below the ankles into a band by which he is hung up (eraka vattika=hay twist). His skin is cut into strips and tied up as a sort of garment (ciraka vasika=bark dress). He is pinned to the ground with an iron pin and roasted alive (eneyyaka= antelope). His skin is removed from his body with double fish hooks (balisa mansika=flesh hooking). Little discs of flesh, the size of a coin, are cut off from his body (kahapanaka=disc-slice). The body is beaten all over with cudgels and wounds are smeared with caustic solution with combs (khara patacchika=pickling process). His body is pinned to the ground through the ears and twirled round by the feet (paligha parivattaka=circling the pin). His body is beaten till every bone is broken and it becomes as limp as a mattress (palala pithaka=straw mattress). Spray him with boiling oil. Give him as food to the dogs. Fix him alive to a pointed stake (jivasula) and chop his head off. (23)

These tortures were conducted in public. The observers were convinced that they would also be punished similarly if they acted against the law.

Secondly, by creating a mental picture of retributive punishments in the world of Yama immediately after death. The discourse, Devaduta Sutta, coming immediately after the Balapandita Sutta refers to hellish torments that a criminal has to undergo in the world of Yama.(24)A person who has committed crimes would be reborn there and subjected to numerous punishments.(25)They are much more severe and unimaginable. A graphic description of these torments are found in the text. The criminals born there do not die till they finish their term of punishment. They are subjected to severe tormenrs one after the other by the guardians of the Yama world. The process described is just similar to the procedure followed in the human world.

The guardians of the Yama world having seized the accused by both anns submit him to the king, Yama, along with the charges against him. Thereupon Yama questions him about the appearance of deva-

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN BUDDHIST PERSPECTIK

messengers in the human world reminding the people to do good. The deva-messengers are:

1 . A young baby boy lying on his back signifyinig birth 2 . An old and aged figure reminding one of old age 3. A person very badly afflicted with illness signifying that illness is

common to all 4 . An evil-doer subjected to various punishments by kings 5. A dead body swollen, discoloured and decomposing

The accused admits that although he has seen these deva- messengers he could not do good due to his indolence. Then Yama tells him: "This is an evil deed of yours. It was not done by your mother, it was not done by your father, it was not done by your brother, it was not done by your sister, it was not done by friends and acquaintances, it was not done by kith and kin, it was not done by recluses and brahmins, it was not done by a deva. This evil deed was done by you; it is you yourself that will experience its ripening."

Having cross examined the accused in front of the guardians, Yama falls silent and then the guardians take the accused away and inflict the punishments one by one. Then follows a description of unimaginable hellish tortures.

The objective behind the illustration of these hellish torments is an ethical one. The imminent dangers of resorting to evil by body, speech or thought are described in gory detail to make the people more moral.

Thirdly, by emphasing the sufferings one has to undergo in several rounds of births. The effect of a volitional evil act is manifested in many stages. T h e doer will have to suffer in his lifetime (ditthadhamma vedaniya). Again h e is subjected to suffering in the life immediately after death (upapajja vedaniya). Further, the evil consequences would continue to bear fruit from the third birth onwards whenever possible (aparapariya vedaniya).(26)


Fourthly, by explaining the social outcome. Herein it is explained how an offender is censured by society. It has been advised not to commit even a slightest wrong that the wise would censure. In this connection, Buddhism advocates the cultivation of Moral Shame (hiri) and Moral Dread (ottappa). They are also two celestial virtues (devadhamma). The process of socialisation of an individual begins with the recognition of these two concepts. The Buddha was so emphatic in illustrating their importance that he once said: "Two lucid things, 0 monks, protect the world : Moral Shame and Moral Dread. If these two things were not to protect the world then one would not respect neither one's mother nor one's mother's sister nor one's brother's wife nor one's teacher's wife ..........." (27) One is here , . requested to develop a sense of contempt towards defiling oneself and a sense of danger in doing evil. Therefore the mental attitude to be developed is the wilful intention of refraining from what is shameful and dangerous. The simile of the red-hot iron ball in a heap of filth has been drawn to illustrate the two concepts. If one were to attempt to take the iron ball he would be burnt and at same time he would be smeared with contemptuous filth. So the danger of burning and the contempt of contacting filth have to be reflected upon before touching the ball. Then the person concerned will understand that the most sensible thing to do to avoid both the iron ball and the filth is to refrain from touching it.

Right Thought in the Noble Eighfold Path consists of three kinds of thoughts, out of which thoughts of loving kindness (avyapada samkappa) and thoughts of non,violence (avihimsa samkappa) are directly linked to refraining from causing harm to others. Therefore the problem of crime and punishment can not arise in a society where the teaching of the Buddha is adhered to.

A crime is a legally defined evil. Whether it is thus defined or not, it is perpetrated to do harm to others. The fact is objectively evaluated in Buddhism even beyond the context of religion. One is advised to reflect in terms of one's own feelings: 1


"As I do not like to be harmed, others also do not like to be harmed, therefore it is not poper for me to resort to any act that

causes any harm to others. " ( 2 8 )

As stated in the Dhammapada:

"All tremble at punishment. All fear death. Therefore having taken oneself as a n example one should

not kill nor should cause to ki11."(29)

Are Criminals Born? Towards the end of the 18th century, an Italian criminologist,

Cesare Lombroso, suggested that criminals are born and can be recognised by such physical attributes as a receding forehead. This view is no longer accepted. It is said that at various times evidence has been produced suggesting that such physiological abnormalities as an extra y chromosome or an endocrine abnormality predispose one to criminality. But no one really knows for certain how criminals are born. In a way it is nearer to the truth to say that criminality is expressed not by physical features but by the physical expression of a person. With the spread of humanitarianism and psychoanalysis, the attitude to causes of crime have considerably changed the world over.Today psychological and environmental factors, family background, emotional disorders as well as poverty are considered as the principal causes of crime. Hence, criminality is considered to be a deviance from normal behaviour due to underlying social, economic, environmental and personal factors. On the other hand some may resort to criminal acts because of social injustice. Still others may be politically motivated , the end justifying the means.

Buddhism views the problem in ethical and moral perspective and at the same time recommends the removal of those factors which create a breeding ground for criminals. Of course the measures to be taken have to be devised by kings and states for the good and well-being of their citizens. Therefore, being humanistic in outlook,

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT IN BUDDHIST PERSPECnVE

Buddhism considers that life is dear to everyone (Sabbesam jivitam piyam). Hence to make a country secure and safe, the king or the government should take steps to maintain law and order by enforcing relevant laws and punishments for the purpose of creating a consciousness (dandabhaya) of legal procedures. The judiciary must be impartial with provisions for a just and fair trial as there was in the Vajjian kingdom 25 centuries ago.

Reformation and Rehabilitation of Criminals

Buddhism holds the view that a person is good as soon as he refrains from doing evil. The Buddhist attitude towards criminals is focussed in a way so that they may be reformed and rehabilitated to be good citizens. Buddhism does not advocate inhuman corporal punishment. The punishment has to be levied after a careful consideration of facts in accordance with the law. There should not be any motive of retaliation or revenge on the basis of a 'tooth for a tooth', but levied out of compassion with motive to reform, correct and rehabilitate.

The Buddhist attitude is highlighted in some of the Buddhist discourses. In the Kesi Sutta of the Anguttara Nikaya, the horse- trainer, Kesi, visits the Buddha. The Buddha asks him how he trains horses. Kesi replies that he trains some by gentleness and some by harshness and others by both and those who do not submit to his training, he destroys. The Buddha then says that just in the same way he deals with men. Some he tames by gentleness - telling them what is good and showing them the way to a heavenly state, others by harshness - condemning the evils in them, and yet others by both. Those who do not submit to any of these methods he destroys by refusing to admonish them, which shows that there are incorrigibles who cannot be disciplined by any means. (30)

In another instance found in the Abhayarajakumara Sutta of the Majjhima Nikaya the Buddha questions prince Abhaya on what


he would do if the baby boy lying on his back on his lap were to put a stick or a stone into his mouth due to the carelessness of the nurse or the prince. He replies:

''I woufd get it out revered Sir. I f I were not able to get it out at once, I would take hold of his head with my left hand, and crooking afinger of my right hand, I would get it out even though it were with blood. The

reason is that I have compassion for the baby. "

Then the Buddha replies:

" Whatever speech the Tathagata knows to be fact, true, connected with the goal, but not liked by others, disagreeable to them, the

Tathagata knows the right time for explaining that speech. The reason being that the Tathagata has compassion for creatures."

This shows that the Buddha carried out his mission out of utter compassion at the proper time, even though it is disagreeable and unpleasant to others.(3 1 )

Buddhism never preached an extreme form of ahimsa as Jainism preached. Being a practical religion embracing all aspects of life, its approach is always pragmatic, empiricist and humanitarian leading to enlightenment. O n this premise it advocates a new orientation based on education which awakens one to realise the stark realities of life. Punishment in this context should never be compensatory or retaliatory but rather it should be corrective and instructive as suggested by the Abhayarajakumara Sutta.(32) Hence it is obvious that Buddhism would never sanction capital ~unishment or the death penalty either by hanging or by electrocution or by gassing or by shooting or by lethel injection or by stoning to death or by decapitation or by any other method which deprives one of life.

CRME AND PUNISHMENT 1N BUDDHIST PERSPECTIVE

Foot Notes

1 . DN iii8N 2. DN iii58f 3. ~ h J i 1 2 7 f 4 . A Catukka Nipata 5 . i. Sukkhmani bhutani-yo dandena Vihimsati

Attano sukhamesano-pecca so na labhate sukham - Dhp 131 ii. ldha tappatipcm +'-W u b h y h tn9W

Papn me katam'ti ta@d*bhryyo W' dugatim gm- Dhp 1 7 6 . Papam cc puriso kayira-na tarn kayira punaepunam

Na tarnhi chandam kayiratha - dukkhc p w s a wmyo-D@ 1 17 7. Na tam kammam katam sadhu- am katwa anuta@aii

Yassa assumukhorodam-wipakam patisevati-Dhp 67 8. MN,iii163 9. Panimhi ce earn nassa-hareyya panina wisam

Nabbanam visamanweti-natthi papam akubbato-Dhp 124 This stanza has been uttered by the Buddha in connection with the wife of KuWcutamitta, the hunter. She, alhoq$ being a strum w h w , used to supply bows and a r m s to her husband who went out hunting.

10. In the same way for an act to be consheda robbery or theft, there must be five constincent factors: i. There should be a thing belonging W another ii. One should k m tha~it belongs to another iii. The intention to steal iw. The device employed in stealing W . Taking the thing into one's possession by employing the device

1 1 . Book of the hcipline Part i 126f 12. Book of the Discipline Part i 138f 13. Book of the Discipline Part i 139f 14. Nandasena Ratnapala- Crime and Punishment in Buddhist

Tradition p. l l 15. Jotiya Dhirasekara-Buddhist Monastic Discipline pp. 1 10-2,114-8. 16. Nandasena RatnapalapalaBwldhist Sociology p. 148


17. M N , iii 10 18. See Bwldhist Monastic Discipline p. 1 I8 19. Buddhist Monastic Discipline pp. 1 18-1 23 20. S N , iii 128 21. AN, ii240 22. D N , 7 2 , M i 7 5 , Ai i i207 23. This description is found in many places of the canon: A i 45,M

i 8 7 , A i i 1 8 & 1 2 2 24. MNii i 178 f 25. There are fiwe heinous crimes called 'actions with immediate

retributive effect' after death (anantariya kamma): parricide, matricide, killing an arahant , wounding a Buddha and creating a schism in the monk's order A,w 129

26. How reactions to evil actions follow the doer are treated in detail in the Cullakammawibhanga and the Maha!ammawibhanga Suttas in the Majjhima Nikaya

27. AN ii 7 28. SNV 353 29. Sabbe tasanti dandassa-sabbe bhayanti maccuno.

Attanam upamam katwa-na haneyya na ghataye-Dhp. 129 30. A N i i 112f 31. M N i 3 9 1 f 32. A punishment amounting to 'tit for tat' was reported recently

from Mogadishu in Somalia. An Islamic Syariah court ordered a portion of the lower lip of a woman to be cut off. She had been tried for biting off the lower lip of another woman in a fight over a personal matter. It is said that the court had first allowed the eictim to bite the lower lip of the accused, but thinking that she might bite off mare than the amount corresponding to the bitten lip, judges were said to hawe ordered an official to mark the exact portion to be cut with a marker-pen! Very often in Syariah courts, thieves are punished by the amputation of a hand.

10. THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

overty and wealth are inter-related. When one is poor and destitute his life is miserable and he is incapable of obtaining the bare necessities for living: food, clothing, shelter and medicaments. In Buddhism they are called the basic Requirements of Living (cattaro paccaya).

Among these four, food is said to be the first requirement of living beings (Sabbe satta aharatthitika). It is also stated that "this body subsists on food with which it continues to subsist" (Ayam kayo aharatthitiko, aharam paticca titthati anaharo na titthati-Bojjhanga Samyutta). The body needs food to appease hunger which is compared to the most serious illness (Jigaccha parama roga)(l) and also it is said to be a burning fire (Natthi khuda sama aggi). It is so acute that there is no pain equal to it. (Khuda sama natthi narassa annam).

Today hunger as a problem has so grown out of proportion that we speak of "world hunger". Not to mention many of the nations in Asia, Somalia and Ethiopia on the continent of Africa are glaring examples of hunger as a world problem. In spite of our modem progress in science and technolo~v, it is said that two-thirds of the world population suffer from malnutrition due to poverty. Because of the imbalance prevailing in the distribution of wealth and resources, not only under-consumption but over-consumption also has become the

126

M E BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

problems of our time. While the under-nourished lack the minimum requirements for living, the over-nourished live in luxury subjecting themselves to numerous physical and psychological miseries.

It has been shown that many diseases such as beri-beri, rickets, scuny, plague, and marasmus are rooted in under-consumption, while health problems connected with obesity, cholesterol and ailments related to the blood and heart are said to be partly the results of 'fast foods' full of sugar and salt.

Buddhism certainly does not attribute all these problems to individual or collective kamma done by individuals in their previous lives. Evidently, Buddhism differing from the other religions of the Buddha's time, has always viewed the problems ofpoverty and wealth from an ethico-social angle in that it advocates proper distribution of wealth and resources for the benefit of all living beings.

While the pattern of over-eating has become a national problem in some countries, poverty and hunger are themes of many international forums. While some countries wilfully destroy their agricultural products for commercial advantage, people of other countries die of starvation. As a consequence of over-eating, some place their health at the risk, while others die young from malnutrition in the world today. It is said that about one billion people in developed countries consume five times more protein than under-developed countries where there are two billion people, which shows that there is a marked imbalance in world food production and food consumption.

Hunger lingers on where poverty has taken hold. Buddhism, in no uncertain terms, says that poverty is suffering, (daliddiyam'pi ddckham lokasmim) and also one has to suffer in sweating for one's daily bread (idani ahara gavetthi dukkham). But it does not mean that one should be satisfied with what he possesses at the moment. In the Anguttara Nikaya, the Buddha, describing four kinds of persons

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO POVERTY. WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

in the world, appreciates the persons who work hard, acquire wealth and lead happy lives. The four persons are:

l . A person in darkness and bound for darkness (tamo tamaparayana)

2 . A person in darkness but bound for light (tarn joti parayana) 3. A person in light but bound for darkness (joti tama parayana) 4. A person in light and bound for light (joti joti parayana)

The first, the person in darkness and bound for darkness, is described thus: "A certain person is born in a low family, the family of a scavenger or a sweeper or the family of a wretched man, hard to find a meal or earn a living so food and cloth are hard to get. Morever he is ill-formed, ugly, dwarfish, sickly, purblind, crooked, lame or paralysed, with never a bite or a sup, without clothes, vehicles, perfumes, flower- garlands, bed, dwelling or lights. Such a person, being satisfied with his lot, engaging in evil in mind, body and deed will be reborn in an unhappy place after death." But the second, although born in a p o v e q striken, low family, strives hard and resolves to do good by mind, word and deed and thus leads a happy life in this world and also will be reborn in a happy place after death. The third person "in light" is a person born in a high family, a family of wealthy nobles or a family of wealthy brahmins or of wealthy householders, in a family that is rich and wealthy, that abounds in wealth, land and crops. He is comely, charming and attractive. Yet inspite of this, he does evil and goes to a state of woe when he dies. The fourth, a person in light and bound for light is one born into a wealthy family, who strives hard to do good and leads a happy life. After death he is born in a happy place. Out of these four persons, the second and the fourth are considered to be praiseworthy persons.

The fact that life is to be lived happily is illustrated in the parable of the blindman, the one-eyed and the two-eyed. The blind one is a person who neither progresses materially nor spiritually. The one- eyed is the person who concentrates on material development alone.

THE BUDDHIST ATITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

The two-eyed devotes his time and energy for both his material and spiritual development alike. While the first two are blameworthy, the last is praiseworthy and to be followed. It thus shows that Buddhism does not advise one to be out and out materialistic in acquiring wealth and especially acquiring wealth at the expense of morality.

In the Cakkavattisihanada and the Kutadanta Suttas, the moral and spiritual decline of a society has been traced back to poverty. Being a social evil it has to be arrested by implementing a comprehensive policy or plan. Despite class, caste, creed or national distinctions, the social benefits of a country have to be spread evenly (Sabbe janassa anavata).(2)

Man on his part should be energetic and skilful. Sloth and non- exertion are considered to be the obstacles of acquiring wealth. O n the contrary, energy and exertion are considered to be the factors conducive to acquiring wealth. The fact is pretty well explained in the Vyagghapajja Sutta.(3)

A Koliyan called Dighajanu once came to the Buddha and said: "Lord, we householders are immersed in the round of pleasure. We are cumbered with our consorts and children. We delight in muslin and sandalwood from Benares. We deck ourselves with flowers, garlands and cosmetics. We enjoy the use of both gold and silver. Lord, for such as us, let the Exalted One also teach Dhamma which will be to our advantage and happiness here on earth and for our advantage and happiness in the next world after death." So the Buddha, in response to his request, preached four conditions advantageous for this life and four for the next life:

1 . Achievement in Alertness (utthana sampada) 2. Achievement in Conservation (arakkha samp& 3. Good Company (kalyana mittata) 4. Even Life (sama jiwikata)


5 . Achiewement in Faith (saddha sampada) 6 . Achiewement in Morality (sila sampada) 7. Achiewement in Generosity (caga sampada) 8. Achiewement in Wisdom (panna sampada)

In the first condition, the Buddha says that whoever earns his living, whether by ploughing or by cattle rearing or by archery or by services to the state or by any of the crafts, he must be energetic and tireless, gifted with an inquiring turn of mind into ways and means of doing the work in hand. He must be capable of organising and carrying out his job with interest and perseverence.

The second condition deals with the conservation of what is earned by effort and zeal, collected by the strength of one's arm and by the sweat of one's brow, justly obtained in a lawful manner. The third condition speaks of the association with friends who are morally good and sound of heart.

The fourth, Even Life, deals with balancing the budget. The clansman who experiences gain and loss should continue his business serenely, not being unduly elated or depressed by it seeing that his expenditure does not exceed his income. Without being miserly or extravagant, he must be alert to make both ends meet. At the same time he should refrain from dissipating his wealth through adultery, drinking, gambling and association with evil ones.

In the four conditions which are advantageous for the world to come, the Achievement in Faith is placing confidence in the Buddha by rational understanding. The Achievement in Morality is living in accordance with moral precepts such as abstinence from killing, stealing, adultery, lying and becoming intoxicated. The Achievement in Generosity is the sympathetic and philanthropic mental attitude expressed in giving and helping others. The last, the Achievement of Wlsdom is the comprehension of and insight into growth and decay as well as the knowledge of eliminating defilements which result in suffering.

THE BUDDHIST ATITUDE TO POVERTY. WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

As given in the Sigalovada Sutta, by procrastinating in work to be done here and now, one will never progress. Therefore labour is considered to be the main source of producing wealth leading to the elimination of social poverty as well as individual poverty.

Labour Obviously labour depends on the mental and physical capacity

of the worker employed in production. It is measured in accordance with the work done during an allotted time. Hence the effort of doing a task by a person or a group of persons come under the purview of labour .(4)

Buddhism by no means advocates or justifies the exploitation of labour which amounts to the use of a person unfairly for one's own profit. According to Karl Marx, exploitation of labour results in the accumulation of capltal which in turn leads to unemployment, poverry, crime and moral degradation. The Mahadhammasamadana Sutta of the Majjhima Nikayapoints out, although some who resort to stealing, killing and such other evils, live in luxury in this life, they will have to repay, eventually being subjected to manifold physical and mental torture in the lives to come.(5) Exploitation of labour is +irtually a form of stealing and cannot be justified according t o Buddhism. In the Sigalovada Sutta it is stressed that work has to be allotted to the worker in conformity with his physical strength and he must be paid an equitable wage for his labour. Furthermore, the worker must be given medical and other facilities as well as occasional authorised leave from work.

The Buddhist attitude to labour according to Schumacher has three distinct objectives:

1 . Giving a man a chance to utilise and develop his faculties. 2. Enabling him to overcome his egocennicity by joining with other

people in a common task. 3. Bringing forth goods and services to the prevailing situation.(6)

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

State Control and Economic Planning Today large-scale industrial enterprises usually aim at production

targetting profit. They, as could be expected, shift the emphasis from the worker to the product of work. But Buddhist Economics, as Shumacher has shown clearly, is a study of economics in which people matter more than the ~roducts. The consideration of eoods as more important than people and consumption as more important than creative activity, according to Schumacher, is truth "standing o n its head". Buddhism does not advocate maximal production at the expense of optimal human welfare. Economic planning encouraged in Buddhism is dynamic and systematic and is tinged with a moral tone ensuring the welfare of the worker and society as a whole.

The doctrine that an economic system functions best without govenmental interference is called 'laisser-faire' which originated in France and was developed by Adam Smith and others. They maintained that competition motivated by self interest would regulate economic life more effectively than would the state. This is said to be a radical individualistic doctrine and considered to be a principle of classic economics and political conservatism. The earlier generation of economists therefore opposed state mediation in economic enterprises and said that economic activity must be completely free from state intervention.

They argued that consumers knew the quality of the commodity they want better than the state, that private enterprises could fix competitive prices for their commodities and that supply could be carried out in relation to the demand of consumers. But it has been pointed out that no nation in the world has so far adhered to these principles. Theoretically, the theory of laisser-faire was insisted on by private enterprises as an antidote to socialisation. They argued that private profit was an incentive to progress. But the danger of evolving combinations into business monopolies is also a fact adversely affecting the consumer.


Private enterprises mostly aim at maximum profit and give precedence to market economy and consumerism. Consequently, a money-centred society has come into being. In order to arrest some malpractices of some of the commercial ventures, it has been pointed out that state-sponsored institutions had to be set up in many of the affected countries. Creation of a false scarcity of goods, selling whatever is at their disposal by means of persuasive propaganda, ability to fix high prices for goods they produce in collusion with other private enterprises on terms favourable to their own interest, are only some of the disadvantages for the consumer.

Obviously, during the Budda's time in 6th century B.C. India, there were no large-scale industrial or business enterprises. So the problems that popped up after the Industrial Revolution could not have existed in that age. But, the Buddhist attitude to economic activity can be deciphered from discourses such as the Agganna, Cakkavattisihanada, Kutadanta and Mahasudassana in the Digha Nikaya of the Pali Canon. The Kutadanta provides us with a clear picture of state mediation in all economic ventures for the welfare of its citizens. According to the discourse,

a) Those who are interested in argricultural pursuits and cattle- breedingmust be supplied with seed, paddy and other necessaries by the state.(7)The commentary elaboratingon the passage says that when the gants given by the state are not sufficient the state should release more supplies. (8)

b) Capital must be supplied to those who are engaged in wade and commerce. (9)

C) Those who are in state service must be paid sufficiently for their services. ( I 0)

By these references it is clear that the sutta is suggestive of directing the attention of the state towards production and then to distribution followed by state mediation through its officers. Whether


it is a private or state ownership Buddhism emphasises consideration on ethical grounds. I t is only the imposition of ethical standards by the state that a country can prosper by overcoming poverty, unemployment and economic instability. This fact has been highly valued by a modem economist, Glen Alexandrian, who states that ethical considerations should be given a prominent place in production and distribution..(l l )

Trades, Occupations and Wealth

The Buddhist attitude to acquiring wealth and its use is also pragmatic and realistic. Wealth is to be eamed neither by exploitation nor by unjust means, but by "cooperation and zeal, collected by the strength of one's arm, eamed by the sweat of one's brow and justly obtained in a lawful manner" and has to be utilised reasonably.

In acquiring wealth one must resort to right kinds of trades and occupations, which have been often mentioned in the Buddhist texts:

I . Apiculture h i ) 2. Cattk breeding (gorakkha) 3. Archery (issattha) 4. State sewice (rajaporisa) 5 . Other technical works (sippannatara) 6 . Trading (vanijja)

All modem technological and mechanical enterprises can be included in the fifth category provided that they are also within the limits of righteousness.

In describing Right Livelihood in the Noble Eightfold Path five trades to be avoided have been specifically named:

I . Slawes and animals (satta vanijja) 2 . Weaponry (sattha vanijja) 3. Poison [visa vanijja)


4. Meat (mama vanijja) 5 . Intoxicants and drugs (*a vanijja)

The wealth acquired by lawful means is a cause of consolation . and satisfaction for the laity. Addressing Anathapindika, the treasurer,

the Buddha says that stability in ownership is a happiness (atthi sukha) and enjoying wealth with one's relatives and friends and giving in charity is also a happiness (bhoga sukha). Further, freedom from debt (anana sukha) and acquisition of wealth by rightful means (anavajja sukha) are also called happinesses that laity could well enjoy.(l2) According to the Buddha, wealth is not to be spent wontonly or to be used only for sensual pleasures. Sharing wealth with relatives and friends and fulfilling one's social and religious obligations are also considered to be some of the purposes of earning wealth. As stated in the Sigalovada Sutta, one gathers wealth little by little as bees collect honey and as white ants build up an anthill. This accumulated wealth should be divided into four parts. One fourth is to be taken for day-to-day expenditure while two portions are to be invested. The balance of one fourth is to be deposited to be used in an unforseen calamity.(l3)

In this way Buddhism admonishes us to get rid of poverty because when a person is poor he falls into debt. So he borrows. When his bills fall due he is pressed and the money lenders follow him and harass him in public. In this way, as stated in the Anguttara Nikaya, poverty causes physical and mental suffering in the world.(l4)

Once, the Buddha preached t o Anathapindika the Four Aspirations of the laity and pointed out that they are very rarely fulfilled:

1 . May I acquire wealth by lawful means 2. May I gain agoodreputation along with my kinsmen and teachers 3 . May I live long 4. May I attain a heawenly world after death

THE BUDDHIST ARITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

It has been preached that only by the perfection of faith, morality, generosity and wisdom could these wishes be fulfilled.(l5) Buddhism pays attention to investments in the form of treasures in which four kinds of investments are distinguished:

1. Inwestment in immovables (thawara). Immovable property such as real estate or real property comes under this category.

2. Inwestment in mowabks. Vehicles and animals, etc, are considered to be mowabks as they can be taken from one place to another (jamgama).

3. Inwestment in education. As leamingand expertise in arts, crafts and sciences are inseparable from one physical body, the knowledge acquired is considered equal to the limbs of one's body. This is an investment 'proper'(amgasama) which cannot be taken away by anybody.

4. Inwestment whose returns follow after death (anugamika) . This yields results in future existences. Social welfare volunteer work, liberality and the practice of good moral habits will bring good returns. The fwmer three kinds of investments are considered beneficial only for this life while the latter is for future lives.

As in other similar instances, what is clearly seen in this classification, is that even in Buddhist economics, Buddhist morality is considered to be the Highest Common Factor.

Economic Resources Man's attitude to economic resources has created many problems

in the modem world. The resources in the world over are of two kinds: renewable resources and non-renewable resources. Sunrays, air, water and such other resources are called renewables while coal, patrolium, minerals etc. are called non-renewables . No need to speak of non-renewables, even renewables are being threatened by pollution due to toxic wastes spread all over the world. Over-industriaslisation has become a menace to the very existence of man. Desertification,

THE BUDDHIST AlTITUDE TO POVERTY, WEALTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

deforestation, over-urbanisation, over-hunting, over-grazing among others have already endangered life on Earth.

In the fields of modem economic, scientific and technological developments, Schumacher says that there are two kinds of specialists holding two trends of thought which are contradictory to each other and are constantly at war.

The first are "forward stampeders" encouraging us to go forward utilising the full benefits of science and technology. If there is pollution, they say that anti-pollution measures could be employed with the help of science to battle against it and in the case of the shortage of resources they suggest turning to synthetics.

But the "homecomers" do not suggest goingahead at breakneck speed with the current of science and technology. Instead they suggest re-examining the purpose of life and economic activity. " Homecomers" define economics as a science where people matter. They turn to moral values in order to create a better world for all living beings to live in.

In the first place, the difference between needs and wants have to be identified. In actuality, a limit to man's needs can be thought of, but a limit to his wants cannot be imagined. As Buddhism puts it, "the world is always lacking, unsatisfied and slave to craving" (uno loko atitto tanhadaso) and man is never satisfied just with the pleasure that he enjoys (kamesu loke nahi atthi titti). As long as this truth is understood we realise that man will never be satisfied merely with his needs fulfilled. Buddhism envisages contentment which is said to be the highest wealth (santutthi paramam dhanam). Discussing character-building qualities, the Metta Sutta states that one should be contented, easily supportable, with few undertakings, of simple livelihood (santussako ca subharo ca appakicco ca sallahukavutti), which is the theme discussed at length by Schumacher in his book 'Small is Beautiful'. The concept of small is beautiful is said to have

THE BUDDHIST ATTITUDE TO POVERTY, WEAlTH AND ECONOMIC RESOURCES

been introduced by an Austrian philosopher a few years ago, but Schumacher elaborated on it in the Buddhist context. It is evident that those qualities to be cultivated are devoid of unnecessary commplications ensuring the wholesome economic aspect of man's life.

What is Buddhist Economics ?

Due to consumerism and the market economy which over-ride every situation of human life, humanity is lost in 'wants'. Day in and day out the mass media keep on bombarding our minds to crave for more and more wants. In order to satisfy those wants one after the other, man needs more and more money. As a result, he resorts to any means to get it even at the risk of his own life. So the amassing of wealth in the form of money has turned out to be the whole purpose of life. In his point of view, as the ends justify the means, he pursues it relentlessly with whatever means at his disposal. There are, of course, two persons who can never be satisfied: one who squanders and one who continues to hoard.

The problems of poverty, wealth and economic resources are no longer confined to a particular nation or a country in this world. These problems have grown out of proportion to other problems in today's world. Some scholars such as E.F. Schumacher and Glen Alexandrian, therefore stress the validity of Buddhist Economics in solving the world's economic problems. In particular, Glen Alexandrian emphasises that, as modem economics confines its scope solely to statistics without any concern for ethics, it must be replaced by Buddhist Economics as it is applicable to all nations the world over.(l6)

Buddhism advocates moderation in consumption. Once, the King of Kosala went to see the Buddha after a heavy meal, feeling sleepy and nodding most of the time in front of the Buddha. Straight away the Buddha preached to him the benefits of knowing the limits of


eating!(l7) Following the advice, he became slimmer and felt better and healthier. He visited the Buddha again one day and expressed his appreciation of the Buddha's admonition. Food is considered essential in every way, but over-eating is not encouraged. The monks were asked to stop eating while there still is room left for four or five more morsels of food. The Buddhist attitude to food is clearly illustrated in the story of a person who went in search of his lost ox. A poor man went in search of his lost ox. O n his way back he came to Alavi and visited the Buddha. As he was tired and hungry, the Buddha asked devotees to serve him with food. Only when he had finished his meal did the Buddha expound the Dhamma explaining hunger as the greatest illness.(l8)

Wealth is not, according to Buddhism, an end in itself. It is only a means to fulfil social and religious obligations. One has to behave as a bee in accumulating wealth. Then little by little wealth heaps up to him just as an anthill is built up by white ants. Wealth thus acquired is to be used for five 'offerings' (bali). The offerings are to kinsfolk, guests, the departed, the king (in the form of tax) and deities.(l9)

Foot notes

Dhp-l20 Mahudassana Suttu-DN ii, 169 f f AN IV, 281 R.T.Byms and G.W.Stone - Economics p.7 Mahadhummusamuduna sutta - M 1,309 f f Schumacher - Small is Beautiful "Ye bhoto ranne janupude ussahati h i gorakkhe tesam bhuwam raja bijabhattam anuppudetu" "Dinne appahonte puna annampi bijam ca bhattam ca kasiparibhundum ca sabbam detu'ti atthon-DA 1,296 "Ye bhoto ranne janapude ussahuti wanijjaya tesam bhuwam raja pabhutum anuppudetu"


10 "Ye bhoto ranne janapade ussahanti rajaporise tesam bhavam raja bhatta vetanam pakappetu"

l l See Glen Akxandrian - Ethics and Economics 12 SNt,137 13 Ekena bhoge bhunjeyya

Dvihi kammam payojaye Catuttham ca nidhapeyya Apadasu bhavissati

14 AN iii,351-2 15 AhJii ,65 16 Glen Alexandrian - Buddhist Economics p.629 17 DhA,167 18 DhA,165 19 AN1168,11145

1 1. THE BUDDHIST APPROACH TO THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS

urrounding condit ions influencing growth and development are known as 'environment', but as the problem of environmental hazards has risen excessively, a serious study of the subject has recently come into being, termed 'ecology', which focusses its attention on the study

of the pattern of the relationship between plants, animals, people and the environment. Ecology, being a new discipline, developed in this century, further shows interest in studying environmental conditions such as temperature, soil, light, wind and moisture. Ecology therefore deals with five basic principles:

1 . That everything is in a state of change 2. That everything is interconnected 3 . That no wisdom exceeds that of nature 4. That nothing exists without meaning 5. That fundamentally there is no such thing as waste-matter

Hence according to ecologists growth and development are inter- related and dynamic and any obstacle in its way would lead to environmental choas.

Today, environmental pollution threatens the public health of many nations in the world. Since science and technology have created

THE BUDDHIST APPROACH TO THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS

conflicting reactions in developed and developing countries air, water, soil, plants and food are being polluted in numerous ways. It is said that of the fifty states of America , Texas alone emitted a hundred and sixty-five million pounds of toxic wastes in 1987. Hawaii, being the last on the list, is said to have pumped out 2.6 million pounds of toxic chemicals in the same year. These chemical wastes were either dissolved in waters or buried in the earth or released into the air. As to how the respective governments have taken action in regard to the disposal of chemical wastes has been studied in detail in a report called Environmental Protection Agency's Inventory of Toxic Chemicals Emitted by US Industries in 1987. The study reports that environmental pollution caused by these toxic emissions has become a threat to all living things. Chronic respiratory diseases, cancer, birth defects and psycho-behavioural shortcomings are directly linked to air pollution. The sulphate content in the air is directly responsible for bronchitis, asthma and emphysema. Due to the current sulphur dioxide standard in US cities, it is estimated that there are six thousand premature deaths, six million to ten million avoidable asthma attacks and twenty million to thirty million cardio-vascular and respiratory diseases. In Los Angeles, school children have been cautioned against vigourous play because of air pollution. It has been found out that exposure to some chemicals spreading widely due to industrialisation, cause cancer. One in four of all Americans now living will be affected, approximately 800,000 cases being diagnosed each year.

Tokyo policemen, it is said, inhale pure oxygen from oxygen tanks every two hours, to avoid carbon monoxide poisoning. In the United Kingdom deaths due to bronchitis are twice as frequent in urban areas as a result of polluted air. Insecticides and weedicides, used particularly by the farmers of third world countries, not only destroy trillions of insects and worms who fertilise soil, but have also become a health hazard to the farmers themselves as well.

We hear very often from international seminars and from

THE BUDDHIST APPROACH TO THE ECOLOGICAL CRiSlS

individual experts about the dangerous side-effects of the modem process of development. Hazards to life are daily being multiplied without any consideration for living organisms. If the mismanagement and wonton destruction of natural resources for the benefit of a few, the ecological disaster, the pollution caused by toxic wastes, deforestation, desertification and such other man-made calamities are allowed to continue without any scrutinisation of the effects, before long there will not be a 'fittest' to survive on this planet of ours.

In particular, ecological imbalance caused by man's irrational behaviour has become a powerful challenge to man's very survival. Depletion of the atmospheric ozone layer has been a major topic of discussion today. Air is being polluted by factories, motor vehicles, air-craft and various machineries by the emission of carbon monoxide, hydro-carbon and numerous other chemical wastes into the air. Consequently, harmful radiation of ultra-violet rays emitted by the sun reaching the ground through the depleted ozone layer influence living organisms in many respects. Radiation of ultra-violet rays will result in melting away snow on Earth and consequently, some regions of the Earth will sink into the sea.

Cancer and genetic damage will be a common feature. Temperatures over the globe will be higher and tropical forests will dry up. Recently an AFP report from Wellington disclosed that the amount of ozone above the antarctichad reached a record low level. According to the New Zealand's National Institute of Water and Atmospheric research, all the ozone between 13.5 kilometers (8.3 miles) and 19 kilometers (11 miles) above the earth has already been destroyed. Although ecologically there is nothing called 'waste- matter', the way of disposing chemical wastes has created disastrous reactions in this present age.

The problems of our time are no longer confined to the country where the problems have arisen. They have become global. Expanding economic activity concentrated on mere economic growth has


rendered air, water, fish and many foods unfit for human use. It has been pointed out that levels of industrial activity in the United States have already affected the food supply in Russia. Rivers in eastern United States carrying industrial wastes to Atlantic Ocean have destroyed fish once plentiful there. Recently it was reported that highly toxic sea food was common in Hongkong. It has been shown that there are high levels of toxin and bacteria in fish caught in Hongkong waters and sold in its markets. The samples of snapper fish have shown levels of cadmium, a metal which can cause kidney failure and foetus damage, and E coli, known for causing hepatitis, far above the recommended level by WHO.

Indeed, the problem of environmental pollution known to us today, was not known in India in the 6th century B.C. It has been inherited by the present world thanks to modern technology and industrialisation. Hence the solution has to be sought in the way of manipulating these very technological achievements by the people of our generation. Nevertheless, since the Buddhist approach to the - - - natural environment and man's relation to nature as depicted in the Buddhist canonical scriptures are conducive to creating a congenial atmosphere for life on earth, i t seems that Buddhism is throwing a flood of light on to a possible solution to the problem of this environmental crisis. In keeping with ecological observations Buddhism cultivates a friendly attitude to nature and looks at the relationship of plants, animals and people to one another from this angle of frienship and harmony.

Three major events of t h e life of the Buddha, Birth, Enlightenment and Demise, took place in openaair under trees. Very often than not,the Buddha advised the monks to seek out forest glades and the foot of trees for their meditational practices. The delightful, serene atmosphere in a natural environment was considered an incentive for spiritual growth.

The Buddha's concern for trees and forests is highlighted in the


Vanaro~a Sutta of the Samvutta Nikava,( l ) where it is said that the , . . .

planting of gardens (aramaropa) and forests (vanaropa) are meritorious acts, bestowing merits dav and night on the benefactors. Evidentlv the Buddha was considerate of the utilitarian aspect of trees and forests. In the Dhammapada the 'vana' or forest has been used by the Buddha as a pun which can be meaningfully applied to the present world context:

"Vamm chindatha ma rukkham - vanato jayati bhayam." "Cut down the forest of passions(vana) but not real MeeS. From the

forest of passions springs fear."(2)

The irony is that the present world is engaged in cutting down trees thereby eliminating "forests of trees". What actually should be done is to cut down the "forest and brushwood of passions" in oneself, which keep on hindering one's intellectual and spiritual growth. When passions(vana) are cut down, one would not think of cutting down individual trees in a forest(vana) of nees, because it is passionate desire that drives one to cut down trees. Therefore the moral is, 'Don't cut down trees but cut down desire'.

However, planting forests (vanaropa) is relevant to the concept of mass-planted forests, conceived by ecologists, in order to save the world from deforestation and consequent desertification. Monks are prohibited in the Vinaya to cut down uees, citing the popular belief that Bees are living organisms. The Buddha, laying down the rule inquestion, explains, "Why do you foolish people cut down and cause others to cut down nees. Indeed, people believe that trees have life." (Katham hi nama mogha purisa rukkham chindissatha'pi chindapessatha'pi. Jivasannino manussa rukkasmim). Just as much as the dog, the ox, the cow, or the horse, nees silently serve man providing him with many of his requisites. Besides, plants in the daytime absorb carbon dioxide which we exhale, and punfy our surroundings by emitting oxygen which is vital for life, a task the artificial plastic plants in our households cannot cany out. Therefore the cutting down of nees by a Higher Ordained monk, is laid down as an offence of 'expiation'.


Buddhism considers that the cutting down of even a branch from a tree which provides shade is an act of ingratitude. It is recorded in the scriptures that the first example was set by the Buddha. In the second week after his Enlightenment, as a demonstration of his gratitude he faced the Bodhi Tree with unblinking eyes for a whole week, as it had provided him with shade and protection from the baking summer heat in that month of May.

In the suttas there is a recurring phrase connoting the compatibility of the environment; "Indeed the place is pleasant, the forest glade is delightful and the river too keeps on flowing near by" (Ramaniyo vata bhumibhago, pasadiko ca vanasando, nadi ca sandati). Thera Sariputta also speaks in the same vein about Gosinga Sala Grove, "Friend Revata, moonlit Gosinga Sala Grove is delightful. The sala trees are in full bloom. The sweet smell that wafts, I deem divine" (Ramaniyam avuso revata gosinga sala vanam, dosina ratti, sabbapaliphulla sala, dibba manne gandha sampavanti).(3)

Thera Gatha, the collection of verses composed by the early Saints is full of discriptions of nature and the environment. The deep appreciation of nature found in some of them could be ranked as among the best nature poetry. Thera Kaludayi, reminding the Buddha of the proper time to leave for Kapilavatthu, the Buddha's native town, comes out with an appreciation of nature in autumn:

"The delightful trees in bloom diffuse their scent all around, in all directions hawing shed their petals, hopingfor fruits. It is time to go

forth from here. "

"The trees are now Mimson, Lord, hawing shed their (old) foliage, about to fruit. They seem illuminated as though aflame. The time partakes of

flavour, 0 Great Hero. " (4 )

Many saintly monks speak of forests, flora and fauna, birds and beasts and flowing rivers and water rippling down from mountain slopes as stimulants for their noble quest. Thera Ekavihariya says:

THE BUDDHIST APPROACH TO THE ECOLOGICAL CRlSlS

" I shall go alone to the forest praised by the Buddha."(S) "In well-flowered Sitavana in a cool mountain cave having sprinkled

my limbs I shall pace up and down alone. " "While the wind blows cool and sweet smelling, I shall split ignorance

asunder as I sit on the mountain top."(6)

The Thera Sappaka creates a visual scene before the reader by his poetic expression of the surroundings.

"When the manes with clear bright wings, temified by fear of black clouds, flee to shelter, then the river Ajakarani delights me."(7)

Thera Talaputa expresses his wish to be in the natural surrounding of a forest and destroy defilements that cause rebirth:

"When hearing in the mountain cavern the cry of the peacock, the crested bird in the wood, shall I rise up and give thought to the

attainment of the undying?"(B) Addressing his own mind he says: " l n a cave and on a mountain crest,

frequented and plunged into by wild boars and antelopes or on a naturally pleasant place or in a grove rain-sprinkled with fresh water

you will rejoice there in your cave-house."(9)

Senasanakkhandhaka of the Cullavagga Pali deals with a number of measures taken by the Buddha to prevent environmental pollution and safeguard health and sanitation in the community of monks. Instructions given on disposing wastes, use of toilets, siting of places for steam baths and on the upkeep of monastaries and monasterial apartments are aimed at avoiding pollution of the air, water and the vicinity.

In the Bhikkhuni Patimokkha a specific rule of Expiation has been laid down with reference to the disposal of wastes, "Whoever should throw out or should cause (another) to throw out excrement, urine, rubbish or remains of food over a wall or over a fence has transgresses an offence of expiation." - Bhikkkuni Patimokkha. Two


Sekhiya precepts of the Bhiikhu Patimokkha deal with the pollution of food and water:

"I will not ease myself or spit, if not ill, on green c m . " " I will not ease myself in the water." (10)

In this way monks were expected to observe the Sekhiya rules to avoid pollution of food and water.

The Khuddaka Vatthukkhandhaka of the Cullavagga Pali specifically prohibits setting fire to forests, "0, monks, do not set fire to forests. Whoever sets fire to forests commits an offence of 'wrong doing' (Na bhikkhave dayo alimpetabbo. Yo alimpeyya apatti dukkatassa.)

Jataka tales such as Kusanala, Tacchasukara etc. speak of the utilitarian value of trees for man's survival. Asoka, following the teaching of the Buddha, prohibited setting fire to forests by royal decree in the Rock Edict 5, and planted trees along the roads in order to provide shelter for travellers.

Evidently, Buddhism recognises the value of life. Ethically, while one abstains from killing, positively he cultivates goodwill and compassion towards all living beings (sabbapanabhutanukampi). Such a person would not think of harming another. Morever, the thoughts of loving kindness that Buddhism teaches would not permit anyone to engage in hazardous ventures like environmental pollution.

Foot Notes

1. S N i , 3 2 2. Dhp 283 3. MNi ,205 f f 4. Theragatha 528-529 5 . Theragatha 538 6 . Theragatha 544

THE BUDDHIS APPROACH TO THE ECOLOGICAL CRISIS

7. Yada balaka sucipandaracchada Kalassa meghsa bhayena, tajjita Pakhi ti alayamalayesini Tada nadi ajakarani rameti m m . Theragatha 307

8. Theragatha 1 103 9. Theragatha 1 135 10. Sekhiya 74,75

THE BUDDHIST APPROACH TO THE ECOLCGICAL CRISIS

hen the US government inquired about the buying of tribal lands from Seattle, the chief of the American Indian tribe inhabiting modern Seattle in Washington State, is said to have sent a marvelous letter to the President. The letter shows how far the so-called

'aborigines' are considerate towards nature and the environment and how profoundly they felt that life is connected to all forms of nature. Chief Seattle, being one of the last to speak of moral values coming down from the paleolithic age, voices his great concern over the issue, in about 1852, at a time when the problems of the Green House Effect or Global Warning had not yet been thought of.

The following is an excerpt from his letter:

"The President of Washington sends words that he wished to buy our lands. But how can you buy or sell the sky? The land?

The idea is strange to us. I f we do not own the freshness of the air and the sparkle of the water, how can you buy them?"

"Euery part of this earth is sacred to my people. Euery shiningpine needle, every sandy shore, every mist in the dark woods, every meadow, every humming insect, all are holy in the

memory and experience of my people. "


"We know the sap which courses through the trees, we know the blood that courses through our veins. W e are part of the earth and it is

part of us. The perfumed flowers are our sisters. The bear, the deer and the great eagk, all these are our brothers. The rocky

crests, the dew in the meadow and the body heat of the pony and man, all belongs to the same family. The shining water that moves in the stream and the rivers is not just water but the blood of our

ancestors. I f we sell you our land you must remember that it is sacred. Each ghostly reflection in the clear waters of the lakes tells

of events and memories in the life of my people. The water's murmur is the voice of m y father's father."

"The rivers are my brothers. They quench our thirst. They carry our canoes and feed our children. So you must give to the rivers the

kindness you would give to any brother."

" I f we sell you our land remember that the air is precious to us, that the air shares its spirit with all the life it supports. The wind that gave our

grandfather his first breath also receives his last sigh. The wind also gioes our children the spirit of life. So if we sell you our land you m w t keep it apart and saned, as a place where man can go to taste the wind

that is sweetened by the meadow flowers."

He foreshadows what we as individuals as well as nations would do in our technological age by polluting air, water, food and environment.

"Will you teach your children what we have taught our children? That this is our mother? What befalls the earth, befalls all sons of the earth."

"This we know, the earth does not belong to man, man belongs to the earth. All things are connected like the blood that unites us all. Man did not weave the web of life, he is merely a saand in it. Whatever he

does to the web, he does to himelf."


He continues further to stress the monotheistic belief common to them as well as to Christians.

"One thtng we know, our God is also your God. The earth is precious to him and to harm the earth is to heap contempt on its creator."

"Your destiny is a mystery to us. What wiU happen when the buffaloes are all slaughtered? The wild horses tamed?

What will happen when the secret corners of the forest are heavy with the scent of many men and the ciew of the ripe hills is blotted by talking wires? Where will the thicket be? Gone!

Where will the eagk be? Gone! And what is it to say goodbye to swift pony and the hunt? The end of living and the beginning of survival.

When the last red man has vanished with his wilderness and his memory is only shadow of a cloud moving moss the prairie,

will these shores and forests stiU be there? Will there be any of the spirit of my peopk kft?"

"We love this earth a a new-born loves its mother's heartbeat. So, if we sell you our land, love it as we have loved it.

Care for it a we hawe cared for it. Hold in your mind the memory of the land as it is when you received it.

Preserve the land for all children and love it as God loves al."

As Chief Seattle predicted, has not the end of living and the fight for survival begun?

Adapted from Power of Myth p.34,35 By Josap Cambell with Bill Moyers

12, THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

uddhist monasticism begins with the ordination of the five ascetics who listened to the first sermon ' The Turning of the Wheel of Law'. However, it is clear that recluses and ascetics were not unknown in India at that time. Even the Bodhisattva was tempted to become a

recluse by seeing the figure of a recluse who had left household life behind in search of Truth. Early disciples of the Buddha, therefore, were led by the traditional disciplinary standards that were in vogue among the various ascetic circles in India. In addition, Buddhist training guided them in Buddhist discipline developing morality, concentration and wisdom which culminates in the realisation of Nibbana, the Supreme Bliss. At the early stage of the dispensation, those who entered the order for the sole objective of realising Truth were admonished to build up their character on this threefold division of training.

Portraying the life of a monk who follows morality in a gradual ascending order, the Samannaphala Sutta states: "When he has thus become a recluse he lives self- restrained by that restraint that should be binding on a recluse. Uprightness is his delight and he sees danger in the least of those things he should avoid. He adopts and trains himself in the precepts. He adopts and accompanies himself with good

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

deeds in act and word. Pure are his means of livelihood, good is his conduct, with guarded senses, mindful and self-possesed, he is altogether happy.''( l )

Obligations of Monkhood

The monk who underwent the training envisaged in the order was considered to be a distinguished entity totally different from the laity. As the Sutta Nipata states, the monk who follows the course of training is 'ahead of laymen just as the peacock adorned with its blue neck never equals the swan in its speed of flight.'(2)

He symbolises virtue and lives up to the ideals set out for him. In the Dasadhamma Sutta, the ten virtues that a monk should constantly contemplate upon are mentioned, which show that monks must always be aware of their obligation of living up to the standard required by the monkhood. A monk should always keep in mind that:

l . I have attained the state of having no caste 2. My livelihood is for others 3. A demeanour different from laymen should be maintained by me 4. Does not my conscience blame me on account of my morality? 5 . Do not my learned fellow cekbates b h me on account of my

morality? 6 . There will be differentiation and separation from all who are

dear and beloved to me (when I die) 7 . I am one who knows that kamma is my own property 8 . How do I conduct myself day and night? 9 . Do I delight in a quiet abode? 10. Are there qualities in me beyond the power of men when I would

be questioned by fellow celebates that would make me not confused? (3)

The rules of discipline had not been formulated at the inception of the Sasana. The promulgation of rules were necessitated due to

THE PLACE OF SOCIALNORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

numerous reasons that came into prominence some years after the Buddha's missionary career had begun. At the earlier stage however the monks were guided by disciplinary measures generally in practice among other recluses. When there were lapses in disciplined behaviour the Buddha says in the Kakacuparna Sutta that it was enough for them to be reminded of it.(4)

Conditions for Causing Cankers

As recorded in the preamble to Parajika Pali, once Sariputta asked the Buddha to levy rules of discipline for monks. The Buddha thereupon is said to have told Sariputta that he would levy ~ l e s when the conditions for causing cankers (a~avatthani~a dhamma) appear in the dispensation. They are four in number:

1 . Greatness in long standing (rattannu mahattata) 2. Greatness in geographical expamion (vefnrlla mahattata) 3. Greatness in gaim(labhagga mahattata) 4. Greatness in learning (bahusacca mahattata)(5)

The Objectives of Levying Vinaya Rules Then the Buddha proceeds to state that rules would be

promulgated in consideration of the fulfilment of ten objectives:

1. For the excelfence of the order (sangha sutthutaya) 2 For the comfort of the order (sangha phasutaya) 3 . For the restraint of ewil-minded men (dummankunam

puggalanam niggahaya) 4 . For the ease of well-behaved monks (pesalanam bhikkunam

phasuviharaya) 5 . For the restraint of cankers belonging to this life

(ditthadhammikanam asavanam patighataya) 6 . For the destruction of the cankers belonging to other world

(samparayikanam asavanam patighataya) 7 . For the benefit of the non-believers (appasannanam va

Pasadaya)

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTlClSM

8. For the increasing of the number of believers (pasannanam wa bhiyyobhawaya)

9. For the establishment ofthe gooddhammu (saddhammatthitiya) 10. For the encouragement of disciplinary behaviour

(ulnayanuggahaya)

Rules of the Patimokkha and Higher Ordination The Patimokkha deals with the rules which are obligatory for

higher ordained monks and nuns. They were promulgated from time to time on incidents involving wrong doing.

The Patimokkha rules taken from the two vinaya texts Parajika Pali and Pacittiya Pali are codified for liturgical purposes in a manual called Bhikku-bhikkuni Patimokkha which deals with rules of discipline for both monks and nuns.


The monk and the nun who have received Higher Ordination are bound by the rules of Patimokkha. The minimum age limit for the conferment of Higher Ordination is twenty. After Higher Ordination a monk receives the full membership of the Buddhist community of monks. The Pali term Upasampada (Upa+sam+pad) 'taking upon' or 'acquiring' technically denotes the taking up of the responsibilities of monkhood. It is by Higher Ordination that a monk becomes a full-fledged member of the community of monks.

Buddhist Monasticism and Higher Ordination

The institution of Higher Ordination has undergone several changes from its inception. Remarkably, the formation of the order of monks and the laying down of a comprehensive set of disciplinary rules governing the monastic life, by the Buddha, are unique features in Buddhist monasticism. The first chapter of the Mahavagga Pali, the third book of the Buddhist monastic discipline, traces the history of this coenobitic institution referring to numerous contributory factors that affected its evolution from the very earliest and simplest beginnings up to the present procedural formalities of the Higher Ordination ceremony. I t reveals how the territorial expansion and the influx of new adherents who sought admission to the order, due to various reasons, necessitated new procedural measures to be introduced for the healthy growth of the newly established monastic order. Procedural acts pertaining to both Ordination (Pabbajja) and Higher Ordination (Upasampada) that evolved within the life time of the Buddha himself ensured the dignity and esteem of the community of monks.

It is plausible to assume that at the outset there could have been only a simple admission procedure called Ordination (Pabbajja) which in a later phase of the increasing popularity of Buddhist monasticism came to be differentiated from Higher Ordination (Upasampada). The Mahavagga Pali, however, tracing the history of these two


monastic institutions says that both Ordination and Higher Ordination had been conferred by the Buddha concurrently at the beginning when the five asetics sought admission into the order. Customarily, Ordination is followed by Higher Ordination, which points to the recognition of the latter as an essential requirement of monkhood to be a full member of the community.

As practised today Ordination is conferred by administering the Three Refuges and the Observance of the Ten Precepts: abstention from l. Destruction of life 2.Stealing 3.Unchastity 4.Speaking untruth 5 . Taking fermented and distilled intoxicating drinks 6. Taking meals at unseemly hours 7. Watching dancing, singing, music and theatrical performances 8. Wearing garlands and applying scents, cosmetics and wearing ornaments 9. Using high and expensive beds 10. Accepting gold and silver.

The first among the five ascetics who listened to the first sermon, Kondanna, who attained the first stage of sainthood, begged of the Master: "0 Lord! Let me receive Ordination and Higher Ordination from the Blessed One." Thereupon the Buddha said: "Come 0 Monk, well taught is the doctrine, lead the holy life for the sake of the complete extinction of suffering." The Buddha's very form of address to Kondanna was adequate to confer both the Ordination and the Higher Ordination on him. In this way Vappa and Bhaddiya as well as Mahanama and Assaji respectively on two occasions begged for Ordination and in turn they also were admitted to the order by being addressed in the same way. In this way, according to Mahavagga Pali, the Buddha continued to exercise the privilege of admitting new disciples to the order. Immediately afterwards, Yasa and his fifty-four friends were admitted to the order by the Buddha following the same method.(6)

Gradually, there was an increasing interest in the new movement and monks who set out to propagate the doctrine kept on bringing to the Buddha new candidates aspiring for Ordination from different

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS W BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

parts of the country. In this connection in order to lessen the difficulties that both the aspirants and the monks had to undergo, the Buddha authorised the monks themselves to confer both forms of ordination by making the aspirant utter thrice the Threefold Declaration of Taking Refuge in the Buddha, the Doctrine and the Community of Monks. Nevertheless, he reserved for himself the privilege of conferring Ordination and Higher Ordination with the formula: "Come 0 Monks!" Afterwards he ordained three matted- hair ascetics along with their followers and later the chief disciples, Sariputta and Moggallana, in the same way.

Yet on a later occasion, with reference to a brahmin called Radha who sought admission to the order, the Buddha enjoined the monks to confer Higher Ordination by a formal act of the order with the motion followed by three announcements (natti catuttha kamma). With some amendments and additions due to new situations the procedure prescribed came to be regarded as the standard ecclesiastical modus for bestowing Higher Ordination. Today not only members in all monastic traditions in Sri Lanka but also all the Theravada countries, follow the same method.

Essential Requirements for Higher Ordination

Regulations governing Higher Ordination are scattered over many sections of the Mahavagga Pali. Details pertaining to the institution as evolved in subsequent centuries are found in the commentarial works such as Kankhavitarani, Samantapasadika, Vimativinodani and Saratthadipani. The sanctity and the legitimacy of the act are guaranteed only by fulfilling the essential requirements. As enunciated by the celebrated commentator, Buddhaghosa, in the Samantapasadika, they are fivefold:

1. The purity and the eligibility of the person (vatthu) 2. The absence of the fivefold defects in bringing a motion (natti) 3. Avoidance of the fivefold wrong articulation and utterance of the

procedural act (anussavana)


4. Auoulance ofhe defects in settling boundaries ofa chapter-house (sima)

5. Maintenance of the moral purity of the participating monks and the quorum (parisa)

When a novice is being vouchsafed Higher Ordination, he is simultaneously made to be bound by 227 disciplinary rules including the seven settlements of legal processes (sattadhikarana samatha) found in the monastic disciplinary code. Beside the specific rules prescribed in the Patimokkha there are some other minor obligatory rules in the monastic disciplines governing the monks individual behaviour as well as his social relationships. Even a novice (samanera) who has received his ordination along time ago is made to disrobe and is ordained again before the Higher Ordination, ensuring the sanctity of the conferment and the purity of the person concerned. Ven Mahakassapa and Ven Sopaka are mentioned to have received their Higher Ordinations in two distinctly different methods. T h e acceptance of three plain expository sermons by Ven Mahakassapa was sufficient for him to be admitted (7) whereas the solution of questions set by the Buddha to Ven Sopaka was adequate for him to be elevated to Higher Ordination.(8) These two methods of conferment are called Ovadapatiggahana and Panhabyakarana respectively.

As recorded in the Bhikkhuni Khandhaka of the Cullavagga Pali, Mahapajapati Gotami was conferred both Ordination and the Higher Ordination by her mere acceptance of eight strict conditions (Attha Garudhamma).(9) Again with reference to Addhakasi, a former courtesan, the Buddha even empowered the monks to confer Higher Ordination through a n emissary.(lO) Before the decentralisation of powers pertaining to disciplinary matters there was an intermediate phase in the monastic order of nuns where nltns were admitted to Higher Ordination following the formal act of procedure by nuns as well as by monks.(ll) As the motion and the

THE PLACE OF SOCIALNORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

announcement are pronounced eight times before both communities, this particular method is called Atthavacika.

As the foregoing discussion shows, there were eight methods of conferring Higher Ordination during the time of the Buddha:

I . Ehi bhikkhu (Come, 0 Monk) 2. Saranagamana (Taking refuge in the cripk gem) 3. Ovadapatiggahana (Acceptance of advice) 4. Panhabyakarana (Answering questions) 5 . Atthagarudhamma (Acceptance of eight strict rules) 6. Duta (Throunh an emissary) 7. Atthavacika ( B ~ the pronouncement of eight times) 8. Natticatuttha kamma (By three announcements)

In course of time, the eighth came to be regarded as the one and only p r o c ~ ~ l l ~ r e for admitting a novice to Higher Ordination. It has been pointed out that the instance of empowering the Sangha to confer Higher Ordination by a formal act of procedure is relatively early in the history of Buddhist monasticism. The procedure to be followed in conferring Higher Ordination is found in a handbook called Kammavaca, which specifies the formal acts of the order.(l2)

Eligibility and Admonition With regard to the eligibility of the novice seeking Higher

Ordination a monk appointed for the purpose instructs him. He is next led before the Sangha and the following questions are put to him.

1 . Are you afflicted with the following diseases: leprosy, boils, dry leprosy, consumption and fits?

2. Are you a human being? 3. Are you a mak? 4. Are you a freeman? 5. Have you no debts?


6 . Are you Lot in royal serwice? 7. Have your mother and father given their consent? 8. Are you full twenq years old? 9. Are your alms bowl and your robes in order? 10. What is your name? l l . What is your preceptor's name?

The negation of the first and affirmation of the rest of the questions are anticipated.(l3) As soon as the conferment of the Higher Ordination is over the Sangha measures the shadow (chaya) to reckon the time and to tell him all the particulars pertaining to the season (utuppamana), the time of day (divasabhaga), all details together (samgiti) and advise him further in regard to all the four resources (nissaya), the minimum requirements of a monk, the four prohibitions (akaraniyani) and the acts not to be resorted to by a monk who has received his Higher Ordinatiom(l4)

The Double Role of the Preceptor and the Teacher

As the dispensation grew gradually, the Buddha asked the young monks to appoint preceptors (upajjhayakas) by themselves for their guidance . The preceptor dwelt in and shared the same monasterial apartment with the monk 'who shares the apartment' (saddhiviharika). Both of them were advised to develop reverence and deference mutually to one another as if a father to a son.

"Monks, I allow a preceptor. The preceptor, Monks, should arouse in the one who shares his cell the attitude of a son. The one who shares his cell should arouse in the preceptor the attitude of a father. Thus this living with reverence, with deference, with courtesy towards one another will come to grow, to increase, to mature in this Dhamma and Discipline."(l5)

But later on, when their preceptors had gone away, or had left the order or had died or had gone over to another teacher, being


I1 MONARCHIES AND CONFEDERACIES

IN ANCIENT INDIA

hen Buddhism arose in India in the 6th century B.C., although kingly power was not unknown, there was no sovereign ruling over the whole of India. Nevertheless, the Buddhist texts refer to four kingdoms in North India which were ruled over by monarchs:

1 . The kingdom of Magadha rukd ower by Bimbisara and later by Ajatasattu, his son, who imprisoned Bimbisara until his (Bimbisara's) death. Rajagaha was its ancient capital. Ajatasattu shifted the capital to Pataliputta with the purpose of attacking th adjoiningvajjian kingdom. Later on, Pataliputta became the capital of Magadha for seweral centuries.

2. The kingdom of Kosala situated north of Magadha, reigned over by Pasenadi KosaJaandlater by his son,Vidudabha, who usurped the throne from Pasenadi KosaJa. The capital was Savathi.

3. The kingdom ofVamsa or Vatsa reigned over by King Udena. The capital was Kosambi.

4. The kingdom of Awanti further south, ruled over by Canda~ajjota j b m its capital, Ujjeni.

There were matrimonial alliances between the royal families of I hese kingdoms, but due to some reason or other there were breaches of peace and at times they were at war.


without guidance and not being instructed they walked for almsfood, wrongly dressed and not befittingly attired.(l6) Then they were advised to appoint teachers (acariyas) by themselves. Teachers and pupils (antevasikas) were to consider one another as father and son and develop reverence and deference towards one another. By this method of delegating the authority of guiding the saddhiviharikas and antevasikas to upajjhayas and acariyas, the Buddha gradually paved the way for the solidarity of the Sangha as a separate community of its own. As an effective religious community the Sangha gained strength by this mutual respect. The preceptor and the teacher were to play a dual role being father and guide to those who sought guidance and protection from them. References to the norms of mutual behaviour are described in detail in the Mahavagga Pali. This bond of relationship was considered necessary for the healthy growth of the dispensation.

Right Conduct for Monks (Samana Samici Patipada) While accepting social norms at the time , monks were to adhere

to norms meant for the fulfilment of their mission. Their relationship with society had to be maintained while being more conscious of the aims and objectives of the Holy Life. Hence being bound by the rules of the order which were conducive to the Noble Life (adibrahmacariyaka) they were expected to follow norms guiding their social relations by good behaviour (abhisamacarika). While the former . - is laid out in the two works of discipline: Parajika Pali and Pacittiya Pali, the latter is described in the two other works of discipline: Mahavagga Pali and Cullavagga Pali. Therefore the conduct for monks (samana samici patipada) is illustrated as superior and distinct from the conduct for the laity (gihi samici patipada).

Social Integration and Mobility Seniority in the Order depends o n the number of rain-retreats a

monk has spent after Higher Ordination, which means that maturity


in moral conduct itself is the criterion of reckoning seniority, not the age of the monk concerned. Once the aspirant enters the order he is bound by the bond of brotherhood to every one in the order. This fact is highlighted by the Buddha with reference to a monk fallen sick and neglected by the CO-resident monks in the monastery. The monk in question was sufferring from dysentry and lay fallen in his own excrement. He was not looked after by any of the monks in the monastery and was left unattended. The Buddha coming to know this, made the monks assemble and reminded them that as they had come from diverse families in different parts of the country and that they had neither mother nor father to look after them, that they themselves should see to one another's welfare and declared: "whoever monks would tend me, so should he tend the sick."(l7)

The Sangha is constituted of different strata of lay society. As - soon as they enter the order they must give up all social stratifications by which they were identified in lay society and are then integrated - into the sangha; a unit by itself. A Vinaya Ale makes it an offence to despise a monk by naming the caste to which the monk belonged as a layman. The Sangha, being a castelss and classless community based on democratic principles, are all entitled to enjoy the privileges of the community and bear responsibilities in respect of seniority. All procedural acts are carried out democratically by an announcement and those who do not agree are asked to speak out. Nevertheless, unlike in modem democracy, careful attention has been focussed on arriving at the right decision with the agreement of those who participated in the assembly. Reading the motion three times and counting votes are conducted just as in modem democracies. The monks individually are expected to expose their transgressions and express their willingness in future restraint. The Buddha states in the Anguttara Nikaya: "Growth, verily, Kassapa is this in the discipline of an Ariyan, when having seen one's transgression as such he makes confession thereof as is right and in future practises self-restraint."(l8)


Some seemed to have expressed their grave concern over the social mobility of the Sangha organisation even after the demise of the Buddha. Brahmin Vassakara questioned Ananda as to how the Sangha can function without a leader, a refuge, a central figure for respect and allegiance: "How do you maintain your unity after all?" he asked. Ananda replied: "We are not, brahmin, devoid of refuge. The Dhamma is our refuge."(l9) In fact the Buddha himself had asked the monks to consider the Dhamma and Vinaya as the teacher after his demise.(20)

The secret of the success of social mobility lies in the integration into a body on the directions laid out in the Dhamma and Vinaya. For instance, the Buddha once addressing the monks enunciated six conditions contributory to the monks' welfare:

1, 2, and 3, So long as the monks shall persevere in kindness in action, kindness in speech and thought towards their fellow disciples, both in public and in private,

4. So long as they shall divide without partiality and share in common with upright companions all such things as they receive in accordance with the just provisions of the order down even to the mere contents of the begging bowl,

5. So long as they shall live among the Saints in the practice, both in private and in public, of those virtues which are promotive of freedom and praised by the wise, which are untarnished, and which are conducive to concentration of mind,

6. So long as they shall live among the Saints cherishing both in public and private that noble and saving insight which leads to the complete destruction of the sorrow of him who acts according to it, so long may the Sangha be expected not to decline but to prospec(21) Having followed the course of training envisaged in the norms of good social conduct, the monk attracts the respect of society. In the Dhammacetiya Sutta king Pasenadi Kosala expresses his feelings about the Sangha in terms of praise:


1 . Monks are faring a perfectly fulfilled, perfectly purified nobk life until their last breath.

2 . Monks are liwing on friendly terms and harmoniously, not quarrelling; like milk and water blending, regarding one another with the eye of affection.

3. Monks here are very joyful, exultant, looking contented and cheerful, liwing unconcerned, unmf id , dependent on others with a mind just as a deer's.

4. When the Lord is teaching to warious msemblies there is no sound of expectorating among the Lord's disciples, no sound of coughing. (22)

Disciplinary Rules Amount to Training in Morality, Concentration and Wisdom

Although there are two hundred and twenty seven rules in the PatimoMcha, when taken as a whole, they are tantamount to discipline in morality, concentration and wisdom leading to restraints of body, word and thought. The fact is aptly illustrated in a conversation of the Buddha with a certain Vajjian monk. A certain Vajjian monk once said to the Buddha:

"Lord, the recital I hawe to make twice a month amounts to more than a hundred and f i f ty ruks. Lord, I can't stand such a training."

Then Buddha asked him:

"Well, monk, can you stand the training in three particulars - that in higher morality, in higher thought and that in

higher insight?" "Yes Lord, 1 can do that."

"Then do so in these three particulars. Then, monk, when you are proficient in higher morality, thought and

insight then lust, malice and delusion will be abandoned by you When you hawe abandoned these you will not perform any

wrong deed. You will follow no wicked way."

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS W BUDDHIST MONASTICISM

So the monk some time after, trained himself in higher morality, thought and insight and on completion of the training, lust, malice and delusion were abandoned by him. Thereafter he did no wrong deed, he followed no wicked way. (23)

Sanghika Property and Community Living Property that belongs to the community is called sanghika . .

property. The donors are encouraged to offer to the Sangha and not to individual monks as such. A monk may possess the bare necessaries . .

of life for his personal use, the rest belongs to the community. The community of monks is considered 'an incomparable field of merits'(anuttaram punnakkhettam lokassa). Once Mahapajapati Gotami wanted to offer a robe to the Buddha prepared by herself from very expensive material. The Buddha, refusing her offer, suggested that she give it to the Sangha, the community as a whole, for, when given to the Sangha he (the Buddha) too was offered the robe as it were. When Ananda intervened, the Buddha explained that he suggested that for the greater good of Mahapajapati Gotami and also as an example to those who might make similar gifts in the future. (24) Things offered to the Sangha are considered sanghika property for they are to be used by the community as a whole. There were of course circumstances in which the Sangha had the authority to 'individualise' and give away any sanghika property for the personal use of a monk. In any case, property belonging to the Sangha is considered sacred and considered in high esteem. Since abuse of sanghika property is an offence, several Vinaya rules have been levied to arrest such abuses:

"Whatever monk spreading skeping place or having it spread in a dwelling belonging to the order, then setting forth should neither remowe

it nor have it removed W should go away without asking (for permission)-there is an offence of expiation. " ( 2 5 )

The principle of first come first served is being followed in respect of common dwellings:

THE PLACEOF SOCIAL NORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASTIClSM

"Whatever monk lie down in a sleeping place in a dwelling belonging to the order knowing that he is encroaching upon

(the space intended for) a monk who had arrived first, saying; 'he for whom it becomes too crowded may depart' doing it for just this

object, not for another-there is an offence of expiation." (26)

No monk is allowed to 'personalise' the dwellings belonging to the community of monks:

"Whatever monk, angry, displeased, should throw out a monk or cause him to be thrown out from a dwelling place belonging to the

order-there is an offence of expiation." (27)

A sense of respect and care is always expected towards sanghika property:

"Whatewer monk should sit or lie down on a bed or bench with detachable legs on an (unplanked) loft in a dwelling belonging to the

Order-there is an offence of expiation. "(28)

Decorum, Etiquette and Manners

Measures have been taken in levying disciplinary rules to arrest the unseemly behaviour of monks. The steps taken were helpful for the progress of the community in two ways: firstly to maintain a cultured behaviour on standards accepted by the elite in lay society thereby paving the path for the development of healthy social relations with different strata of society. In this connection, the recurrent phrase in the canonical texts is "for the sake of faith in those who have no faith and for the increase of those who have faith." (appasannanam va pasadaya pasannanam va bhiyyobhavaya). Secondly, to enhance the uniformity in all patterns of behaviour and to make the monks conscious that they belonged to an integrated body different from all customs, traditions and manners followed in lay society.


The seventy-five rules called 'training' are significant in this connection. They are applicable to both novices and Higher Ordained monks. They mostly deal with decorum, etiquette and manners governing the individual behaviour of monks and can be broadly divided into four types. The transgression of these would amount to offences of Wrongdoing.

The first twenty deal with the conduct of monks entering villages. For example:

"Properly clad will I go amidst the bwes" is a training W be obsewed (29)

"Not witk a m akimbo will I go amidst the h e s - is a raining W be obserwed(30)

The second group of thirty govern the monks' behaviour in accepting and partaking of food. Here we find the violation of much of the etiquette and infringement of what are usually known as table- manners have been formulated as offences:

"Attentively will I eat almsfood - is a training to be obserwed"(31)

" I will not take too large a mouthful - is a training W be observed" (32)

" I will not talk with a mouthful of food in the mouth - is a training to be obserwed"(33)

" I will not eat smacking my lips - is a training to be obserwed"(34)

" I will not eat licking my fingers - is a mining to be obserwed"(3.5)

"I will not eat licking my bowl - is a training to be observed" (36)

The third group of sixteen rules speaks of the ways and means to be adopted while preaching Dhamma:

"I will not teach Dhamma to someone who has a weapon in his hand and who is not ill-is a training to be observed" (37)

"I will not teach Dhamma having sat down on a low seat to someone sitting on a high seat and who is not ill - is a training to be observed" (38)

THE PLACE OF SOCIALNORMS IN BUDDHIST MONASllClSM

The fourth group is related to the unbecoming ways of answering the calls of nature and spitting:

" I will not ease myself or spit if not ill on green corn - is a training to be observed (39)

"I will not ease myself or spit in the water if not ill , is a training to be observed" (40)

Obviously, while taking prevalent social norms into consideration, the Sangha was considered to be examplary in maintaining moral and social standards accepted at the time. They were not in any way expected to act conaary to those nottns accepted by society. While being conscious of the ideal in view, they were to follow the disciplinary measures laid down from time to time for the common good of the monkhood. This still holds for today.

Foot Notes

1. D N i , 63 2. Sutta Nipata 221 3. A i ,83 f 4 . Kakacupama Sutta - M N i, 122f 5. Bhaddali Sutta MN i, 437f 6 . Vin. i 12f 7. SN ii, 220 8 . Thag.vw 48Of;ThagA 477 9. Vin. ii, 271 10. ibid 277 1 1 . ibid274 12. Jotiya Dhirasekera - Buddhist Monastic Discipline p. 10 13. Vin. i , 94f 14. Vin.i ,96f 15. Vin. i , 44f 16. Vin. i, 59

THE PLACE OF SOCIAL NORMS IN BUDDHlSTMONASTIClSM

17. Mahawagga 300ff " Yo gilanam upatthaheyya, so mum upatthaheyya"

18. A N i , 238 19. Gopakamoggallana Sutta - h4N iii, 7 f 20. D N i , 154 21. DNi i , 80 22. MNi i , 119-123 23. AN i, 230 24. MNi i i253 ,MNAi i , 100 25. Pacittiya xw - Book of Discipline ii, 243 26. Pacittiya xwi - Book of Discipline ii, 248 27. Pacittiya xvii - Book of Discipline ii,251 28. Pacittiya xviii - Book of Discipline ii, 255 29. Sekhiya 3 and 4 - Book of Discipline iii, l 2Of 30. Sekhiya 20 31. Sekhiya 31 32. Sekhiya 39 33. Sekhiya 43 34. Sekhiya 50 35. Sekhiya 52 36. Sekhiya 53 37. Sekhiya 60 38. Sekhiya69 39. Sekhiya 74 40. Sekhiya 75

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Translated by Miss I.B. Homer Pali Texts Society, London

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DighaNikayaTr. Dialogues of the BuddhaVols. i, ii & iii-Rhys Davids Majjhima Nikaya Tr. Middle Length sayings Vols. i, ii & iii-Horner Samyutta Nikaya Tr. Kindred Sayings

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Pali Text Society, London

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An Approach to Buddhist Social Philosophy

Early Buddhism as found in Pali Tipitaka consists of the teachings of the Buddha over a period of forty five years. A store-house of knowledge,it has amongst other things,a great deal of data pertaining to the discipline of sociology which are sufficient to bring out several volumes on the subject.

A scholar of many sided leaming,the Ven.Pategama Gnanarama Thera has done a great service to early Buddhism by producing this work-An Approach to Buddhist Social Philosophy- consisting of twelve chapters.Wel1-documented with direct reference to the original texts of the Pali canon,it is a very good contribution in the field of social philosophy of early Buddhism. Systematic in presentation and academic in approach,this slim volume of 181 pages fills a vacuum which has existed hitherto.This piece of research will be very useful not only to the students of Buddhist social philosophy but also to those of sociology, anthropology,and the cultural history of ancient India.

Professor S.G.M.Weerasinghe Professor Emeritus Professor of Social Sciences, Institute of Technological Studies, Colombo, Sri Lanka Formerly Professor of Philosophy and Dea the Faculty of Social Sciences, University Kelaniya, Sri Lanka L

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TI-SARANA BUDDHIST ASSOCIATION 90, DUKU ROAD, SINGAPORE 429254 TEL 345-6741

?. ISBN 281-00-8183-9

An Approach to Buddhist Social Philosophy, by Ven. Pategama Gnanarama

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