An Achievement Goal Theory Approach Assessing Student Engagement in Physical Education in Relation...

SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginson

An Achievement Goal Theory Approach Assessing Student Engagement inPhysical Education in Relation to Teaching Theories and Motivational

Climate

ByRyan John Higginson

Independent Study submitted as part requirement for theB.Sc (Hons) degree in Physical Education and Sports Coaching

Scienceat the University of Worcester.

May 2015

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Abstract

The purpose of this study was to assess pupil’s achievement

goals in relation to Nicholas’s (1989) ‘Achievement Goal

Theory’. Teacher’s use of teaching three different teaching

theories, Adam’s (1976) Motor Learning Theory, Bunker &

Thorpe’s (1982a) Teaching Games for Understanding and

Siedentop’s (1994) Sport Education, was also assessed to see

which motivational climate they create to aim to keep pupils

engaged in their lessons.

Eight lesson observations took place which aimed to observe

teacher use of teaching theories, see which type of

motivational climate was being created and assess the levels

of positive and negative engagement during lessons. Two

questionnaires from Papaioannou et al. 2007 took place to assess

pupil’s achievement goals and pupil’s perception of teacher’s

use of achievement goals in lesson.

It was found that combining TGfU and MLT increased pupil’s

engagement in lessons as it catered for the mainly observed

task orientated pupils that learn for the sake of learning. No

significant results were found from the questionnaires.

However, assessing previous research around Nicholas’s (1989)

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‘Achievement Goal Theory’ in comparison to the lesson

observations this study found that teachers did cater for

pupil’s goal orientation.

This study contributes towards previous research surrounding

teaching theories, achievement goals and motivational climate

but attempted to combine the three together to form an overall

assessment of their importance in Physical Education teaching.

Table of ContentsPage number(s)

Title Page 1

Abstract 2

Acknowledgements 6

Introduction 6 – 12 - Teaching Theories 6 – 9 - Motivational Climate 9- Achievement Goal Theory 10- Secondary Education/NHS Strain 10

– 12 - Study Aims 12

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Literature Review 12 – 18

Methodology 18 – 22- Design 18- Participants 18 – 19- Ethical Implications 19- Instrumentation 19 – 21- Data Analysis 22

Results 22 – 31 - Lesson Observations 22 – 26 - Questionnaires 27 – 31

Discussion 31 – 36

Conclusion 36 - 38

References 39 – 46

Appendices 48 – 68- Appendix 1 Ethics Form 48 – 58- Appendix 2 Lesson Observation Form 60- Appendix 3 Lesson Observation One 61- Appendix 4 Lesson Observation Two 62

- Appendix 5 Lesson Observation Three 63

- Appendix 6 Lesson Observation Four 64- Appendix 7 Lesson Observation Five 65- Appendix 8 Lesson Observation Six 66- Appendix 9 Lesson Observation Seven 67- Appendix 10 Lesson Observation Eight 68

List of Tables and Figures Page Number

Figures

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- Figure 1Traditional lesson structure of PE (Doherty & Brennan 2008) 7

- Figure 2 Bunker & Thorpe’s (1982a) Teaching Games for Understanding 8

- Figure 3Lesson Observations by Year Group

25

- Figure 4 Teaching Theories Used Within Lesson Observations

25

- Figure 5Overview of Teaching Theories Observed

26

- Figure 6Overview of Teaching Theories Observed Together and on their Own by Year Group

26

Tables

Perceptions of Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire

- Table 1Model Summary analysis with “School Type” as the dependent variable 27

- Table 2ANOVA analysis with “School Type” as the dependent variable

27

- Table 3Model Summary with “Year Group” as the dependent variable

27

- Table 4

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ANOVA analysis with “Year Group” as the dependent variable27

- Table 5Model Summary with “Key Stage” as the dependent variable

28

- Table 6ANOVA analysis with “Key Stage” as the dependent variable

28

- Table 7Model Summary with “Qualification Studied” as the dependent

variable 28

- Table 8ANOVA analysis with “Qualification Studied” as the dependentvariable 28

Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education)

- Table 9Model Summary with “School Type” as the dependent variable

29

- Table 10ANOVA analysis with “School Type” as the dependent variable29

- Table 11 Model Summary with “Year Group” as the dependent variable

30

- Table 12 ANOVA analysis with “Year Group” as the dependent variable30

- Table 13Model Summary with “Key Stage” as the dependent variable30

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- Table 14ANOVA analysis with “Key Stage” as the dependent variable30

- Table 15Model Summary with “Qualification Studied” as the dependent

variable 31

- Table 16ANOVA analysis with “Qualification Studied” as the dependentvariable 31

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank any person and establishment that

allowed the collection and use of data for this study. I would

also like to thank my family, friends and academic staff for

the support and belief they have install into me throughout

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the course of this degree programme. Finally, I would like to

thank my Independent Study Supervisor, Clair-Marie Roberts who

has believed in my since undertaking The Psychology Of

Coaching module on the HND which is undertook before joining

this degree pathway. Claire-Marie offered much needed support

and guidance at every stage of this research project and I

could not thank her more.

Introduction

Teaching Theories

In the paradigm of Physical Education (PE) three major

teaching theories exist; Motor Learning Theory (MLT) (Adams

1976), Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) (Bunker &

Thorpe 1982a) and Sport Education (SE) (Siedentop 1994). All

theories have been used within PE lessons worldwide (Butler

2006; Wallhead & O’Sullivan 2006; Rukavina & Foxworth 2013).

Adams’ (1976) MLT describes how pupils acquire skills

consisting of two bases; skills-based, in which teachers teach

skills required for effective game play and game-based where

pupils participate in games to learn skills (Schmidt 1991;

Schmidt & Wrisberg 2000). Research suggests that the game-

based approach should only be undertaken once skills-based

approach has been reasonably perfected (Schmidt 1991). Kirk

(2010) stated that for skills to be used effectively during

game play, skills should be practiced in isolation thereby

decontextualizing the skill thus making it easier for pupils

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to learn and develop skills required for effective game play.

MLT led to PE teaching becoming repetitive and thus forming a

traditional lesson structure (Doherty & Brennan 2008) (see

figure 1).

Figure 1- Traditional lesson structure of PE (Doherty &Brennan 2008)

Bunker & Thorpe (1982a) observed practical PE lessons and

found that too much time was being used to improve pupil’s

skills rather than developing their tactical awareness. After

observing this, Bunker & Thorpe (1982a) developed the TGfU

model (see figure 2) which changed the way PE was taught,

enabling pupils to use skills tactically during game play.

The TGfU model has been revised numerous times (Bunker &

Thorpe 1986; Thorpe & Bunker 1982, Werner et al. 1996). Pearson

et al (2008) stated that TGfU allows pupils to develop

critical elements of game play such as technical and tactical

skills. Bunker & Thorpe (1982a) stated PE’s traditional lesson

structure disadvantaged less-abled pupils as it does not allow

pupils to show competence which enables them to demonstrate

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their tactical understanding of a given PE lessons aims.

Starter activities would often be unrelated to the learning

outcomes, therefore pupils could not relate learning from the

starter activity to game play (Bunker & Thorpe 1982b).

Teachers often failed to link skill practice to game

situations, limiting pupils’ understanding of how they can use

taught skills tactically during gameplay (Bunker & Thorpe

1982b). During the game at the end of lessons Bunker & Thorpe

(1982b) found limited teaching took place, meaning teachers

automatically assumed skills-based practice would be

automatically applied by the pupils during the game.

Figure 2- Bunker & Thorpe’s (1982a) Teaching Games forUnderstanding model

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Siedentop (1994) devised the SE model as an authentic

educational model to provide realistic sporting experiences.

SE has three targets for pupils including, improving

competence alongside developing literate and enthusiastic

sports people. This goal is achieved through six key features:

seasons; affiliation; formal competition; culminating events;

record keeping; and festivity (Siedentop et al 2011). Tested

by Sidentop (1994), the SE model inhibits instructional

characteristics (Carlson, 1995; Grant, 1992; Hastie, 1996). SE

allows for pupils to take-on further roles and

responsibilities, for example being a coach, manager or

referee, thus enabling pupils to further understand sporting

constructs (Siedentop 1994). Taking on the responsibility of a

referee would enable a pupil to understand the difficulty of

being a referee and to gain further understanding of the rules

of the game taking place.

Teachers have the responsibility of choosing which theory they

use in each individual PE lesson. However, meeting PE’s

educational outcomes alongside school and government outcomes

makes this increasingly difficult as not all pupils will

engage in the theory a teacher choses (Jenkinson et al. 2014).

Jenkinson et al. (2014) stated that the amount of time pupils

spend in school, the school curriculum, and its potential for

modification all effect which teaching theory is used.

Motivational Climate

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A ‘motivational climate’ is the state created by teachers that

fosters engagement and emphasises achievement goals and is

split into two climates; mastery and competitive (Ames 1992a;

Barkoukis et al. 2007; Biddle 2001; Treasure 2001). Research

examining ‘motivational climate’ within PE lessons has been

conducted by numerous researchers (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001;

Barkoukis et al. 2007; Ames & Archer 1988; Solmon 1996;

Papaioannou et al. 2007; Braithwaite et al.2011; Treasure & Robert

2013; İlker & Demirhan 2012) with findings related to a

pupil’s will to continue participating in exercise beyond

their compulsory PE lessons. However, minimal research has

been linked to teaching theories.

Mastery and competitive motivational climates have been

broadly researched in the domain of PE (Goudas et al. 1994;

Harwood et al. 2008; Papaioannou & Kouli 1999; Theeboom et

al.1995). A mastery climate has been found to be the most

effective at fostering a pupil’s intention to continue

physical activity, as well as promoting pupil’s intrinsic

motivation and increasing their will to succeed within PE

lessons (Goudas 1994; Papaioannou & Kouli 1999). A competitive

climate has been found to decrease pupil’s intrinsic

motivation due to the potentially competitive nature of the PE

lesson, thereby decreasing a pupil’s will to succeed (Goudas

1994; Papaioannou & Kouli 1999).

Even if teachers create an environment that fosters engagement

and enhances learning, schools have their own educational

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outcomes to meet (Jenkinson et al. 2014). For example,

Physical Educators have developmental, psychomotor and

cognitive outcomes to meet (Bailey et al. 2009). To meet

specific school outcomes and PE outcomes, physical educators

are required to use various teaching styles (command, guided

discovery, inclusion) enabling the assistance of student

learning and development (Jenkinson et al. 2014).

Achievement Goal Theory

Nicholas’s (1989) ‘Achievement Goal Theory’ states that during

an achievement situation people demonstrate competence and

develop two achievement orientations (Escartí & Gutiérrez

2001). Task orientation relates to self-reference success in

terms of learning skills (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001). Ego

orientation relates to one’s belief that success determines

whether they are better than others at certain skills, as

demonstrated publically and is underpinned by social

comparison (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001). Task orientated

individuals approach learning with more intrinsic motivation

than ego orientated individuals, meaning that they learn for

their own sake and not for external reward (Duda & Nicholls

1992; Treasure & Roberts 1998).

Achievement Goal Theory has been used to test the motivational

climate within sports and education paradigms (Ames & Ames

1984; Ames 1992b, 1992c; Dweck 1986; Maehr 1980; Nicholls

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1984, 1989). Bryan & Solmon (2012) found that pupils are more

engaged in lessons that sway towards task-orientation; thus

lessons which emphasised learning focus were more useful and

enjoyable, increased intrinsic motivation, created positive

pupil attitude, increased pupils autonomy, and their self-

determination by enabling pupils to make choices in lessons.

Secondary Education

Secondary education in England caters for pupils aged 11-16

and covers Years 7-11 consisting of two Key Stages. Key Stage

3 (KS3) covers pupils from Years 7-9 ranging in age from 11-

14. During KS3, pupils undergo a series of teaching

assessments for all subjects on the National Curriculum. Key

Stage 4 (KS4) covers pupils from Years 10-11 ranging in ages

from 15-16. During KS4, pupils are in the process of taking

their General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSEs).

Public provision of secondary education in England is

delivered in a variety of different schools for example,

comprehensive, private and academies. All children aged 5-16

in England are entitled to a place in a state school where no

fees are paid to the school by the parents or guardians (BBC

2014). Around 6.5% of parents in England decide to send their

child to a private or public school where parents pay the fees

towards the cost of running the school (BBC 2014).

Four types of state schools in England follow the National

Curriculum (NC) and are inspected by the government’s Office

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for Standards in Education (OFSTED), Children’s Services and

Skills. State schools further consist of; Community schools

which arerun by local authorities, Foundation and Trust

schools by a Governing Body. Trust schools run alongside a

business or charity which has formed an educational trust;

Voluntary-aided schools are run by a governing body and owned

by a charity, usually a church. Voluntary-controlled schools

are a mix between community and voluntary-aided schools,

whereby local authorities run the school, but are owned by a

charity, usually a church who appoints the members of the

governing body who work for the school (BBC 2014).

State schools often specialise in a subject area such as art,

maths, computing, business, music, sports, languages and

technology. Academy schools and Free Schools in England are

set-up by sponsors from businesses, faith, or voluntary

groups, and partner with the local authority and the

government’s Department for Children, Schools and Families to

form a school that does not have to follow the National

Curriculum set-out by the Department of Education. Schools

that do not follow the NC have no statutory requirement to

include PE, however OFSTED (2013) stated that two-hours per

week of PE was an aspirational target for school following the

NC. In school following the NC, Years 7-9 usually have two-

hours of compulsory PE lessons per week, however Years 10-11

compulsory PE lesson-time usually decreases due to the

commitments of other GCSEs. Pupils who choose GCSE PE are

required to continue compulsory PE alongside their GCSE PE

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specification.

As of September 2014 a new Physical Education National

Curriculum (PENC) was put in place and challenges teacher’s

ability to teach (Department for Education 2013). The

previous 2007 PENC set ways in which Physical Educators should

teach PE (Department for Education 2007). The Key Processes

gave teachers guidance on what pupils should be aiming towards

during their PE lessons. In addition, they enabled teachers to

set lessons around that of the Key Processes to enhance

pupil’s development and learning during PE lessons (Department

for Education 2007).There are no laws relating to what should

be taught during PE lesson for schools that follow the 2014

PENC. As they are examined by OFSTED it is vital that Physical

Educators create a motivational climate that fosters

engagement and allows pupils to learn and develop during PE

lessons.

It is only reasonable to suggest that PE teachers should put

the achievement goals and motivational climate of their pupils

first. Pupils that enjoy PE have been known to continue

exercise beyond their education (Goudas 1994; Papaioannou &

Kouli 1999) which not only decreases obesity rates, it also

decreases the economic strain on the NHS to increase the

health of people residing in the United Kingdom.

This study aimed to assess pupils’ engagement in PE lessons in

relation to Achievement Goal Theory. Teaching use of teaching

theories, selected by the researcher (MLT, TGfU and SE) were Page | 16


examined as well as the perceived motivational climate tested

to see how teachers foster engagement within PE lessons. This

study also aimed to establish which teaching theory or

theories were being used in a variety of year group lesson

consisting of pupils with raging achievement goals which could

affect their engagement in lessons.

Literature Review

Research within education is of high a volume with education

split into sub-topics for enhanced research. Solomon (2006)

stated PE offers research opportunities for sport and exercise

psychology that could have implications on the teaching of PE,

a statement backed up by numerous researches within

educational psychology (Ames & Archer 1988; Taylor & Ntoumanis

2007; Treasure & Robert 2001; Vallerand 2001; Wentzel 1997;

Wigfield & Eccles 2001). The three teaching theories in this

study have been studied to a high volume (Butler 2006; Hastie

et al. 2011; Kirk & MacPhail 2002; McMorris 1998; Rukavina &

Foxworth 2009; Wallhead & O'Sullivan 2005). All theories have

been studied in relation to how PE should be taught which

further backs up Solomon’s (2006) statement about research

opportunities for PE. Motivational climate, also a topic

within this study has been studied worldwide and within

education (Cecchini et al. 2001; Christodoulidis et al. 2001;

Jaakkola & Liukkonen 2006; Martin et al. 2009; Morgan &

Kingston, 2008; Viciana et al. 2007).

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Research has shown that motivation is one of the most

important attributes to possess in order to engage in PE

(Hagger and Chatzisarantis 2007; Malina et al. 2004; Sallis et al.

2000). Roberts (2001) believes there are 32 distinct theories

of motivation. In order to narrow the 32 theories into

motivational climate theories Solomon (2006) stated motivation

theories focusing on instructional climate should be the main

focus for creating a motivational climate that increases pupil

engagement during practical PE lessons.

Fostering engagement and motivation within PE lesson is a

difficult task for teachers as pupils come from different

backgrounds, possess varying knowledge and experiences which

effects their engagement during lessons (Bryan & Solomon

2012). Soini et al. (2014) suggests that autonomy, competence and

relatability, all important psychological constructs of Deci &

Ryan’s (1985) Self-determination Theory, are key attributes

required for optimal functioning and engagement during

physical activity. Research has also found that these

psychological constructs are important for engagement in PE

lessons (Digelidis et al. 2003; Jaakkola et al. 2013; Papaioannou

et al. 2006; Yli-Piipari et al. 2009; Yli-Piipari et al. 2012; Zhang

et al. 2011). Deci & Ryan (2000) found that if autonomy,

competence and relatedness are non-existent, motivation to

exercise decreases, although such findings have not been

related to engagement during PE lessons.

Solomon (2006) suggested five elements that should be part of

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PE lessons aiding the creation of a motivational climate

fostering pupil engagement. The first of Solomon’s (2006)

suggestions is that pupils should value what they are

learning. Wigfield & Eccles (2001) expectancy-value model

shows that pupils are unlikely to engage in a lesson if pupils

see no value in the given lesson. Eccles (2005) states that

there are four components of value; attainment value relates

to the priority of succeeding in a lesson; intrinsic or

interest value refers to pupil enjoyment when associated with

a given lesson; utility value relates to the usefulness a

pupils feels towards a lesson; finally, perceived cost value

is a basis on what has been given up to engage in the given a

lesson. It is the job of a PE teacher to ensure that these

values are passed on to pupils so that engagement in lessons

is increased. Difficulty in maintaining value lies in the

teaching theory used. Solomon (2006) claimed that attainment

and intrinsic values are the most important ones during PE.

Teachers using different teaching theories should make sure

that value is a vital part of their teaching. Sport Education

theory let’s pupils take on extended roles and

responsibilities that enhance pupils’ values when taking part

in certain sports (Siedentop 1994). For instance, if a pupil

takes on the role of a coach during an SE lesson, their value

towards the lesson would increase because their involvement

has increased due to their coaching responsibility. Bunker &

Thorpe’s (1982) TGfU shows utility value, in that pupils get

to see the usefulness of what is being taught as well as being

shown how what is being taught can be applied to game

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situations. Adam’s (1976) MLT inhibits utility and attainment

values, it allows pupils to see the usefulness of learning.

However, by practicing skills in isolation away from the

actual game, MLT potentially decreases pupils intrinsic value

of the taught skills as constantly practicing in isolation

becomes laborious, thus effecting pupils’ engagement during PE

lessons. The difficulty for teachers is to create lessons that

all pupils will value (Wigfield & Eccles 2001). Teachers have

to teach in a way that portrays value in the lesson and

follows the PENC. The way in which a teacher does this effects

the level of value a pupils has towards a lesson (Department

of Education 2013; Wigfield & Eccles 2001).

The second point from Solomon (2006) is that pupils should

have potential for success and a sense of achievement during

PE lesson. Duda (1992) claimed that people enter an

achievement setting aiming to demonstrate competence.

Competence has been found to increase intrinsic motivation and

participation in physical activity (Deci & Ryan 2000;

Ntoumanis 2005). If pupils feel they cannot demonstrate

competence, motivation and engagement in PE decreases (Solomon

2006; Wigfield & Eccles 2001).

Nicholas (1989) stated that competence is measured through the

two orientations of Achievement Goal Theory; both orientations

include cognitive and social factors that affect motivation

during a given activity (Soini et al. 2014). Nicholas (1989)

comments that task-orientated individuals will be motivated to

partake in an activity, no matter the level of competence the

person has. On the other hand, ego-orientated individuals willPage | 20


only partake if their confidence is high enough to perform to

a high standard and should not experience motivational

problems. However, this questions whether teachers would

create an environment to cater for different orientated

pupils, as creating an environment for only one would affect

others motivation and engagement during the lessons. A review

by Roberts et al. (2007) questioned the relationship between

task and ego orientations, findings were inconsistent which

suggests that more research is required in the area. It is

important for teachers to structure lessons around the

capability of pupils and increase pupil’s chances of

succeeding and learning within PE lessons (Solomon 2006).

As previously stated TGfU, shows utility value, and enables

pupils to demonstrate their tactical awareness, which allows

them to enter an achievement setting. TGfU makes it possible

for pupils to be taught tactical awareness by the teacher

allowing them to demonstrate competence enabling them to

achieve in the given lesson (Bunker & Thorpe 1982; Duda 1992).

MLT theory sees pupils practice skills in isolation, away from

the game itself (Schmidt & Wrisberg 2000) questioning whether

pupils would be able to demonstrate competence during a game

situation.

The third suggestion for creating an effective motivation

climate is teacher care. According to Owen’s & Ennis (2005)

teacher care is essential for effective PE teaching. Noddings

(1992) commented on the importance of ethical teacher care

when creating a motivation climate to foster pupils’

engagement, in that teachers should care for their pupils and Page | 21


make sure they learn what is required within lesson time.

Wentzel (1997) commented further and stated that teacher

should show pupils whether or not they care if they learn the

content of the given lesson, which questions whether Wentzel

(1997) is suggesting that teachers should not allow

favouritism to effect whether pupils learn during their

lesson. Owens & Ennis (2005) stated that teacher care links in

with pupil success in that teachers who care will create an

environment that increase pupils success as pupils will mimic

the care that a teacher offers, however the challenge lies in

creating an environment for each individual pupil allowing

them to learn.

The fourth consideration for teachers by Solomon (2006) is to

create a mastery (Ames 1992b) or task-involved (Duda 1992b)

climate that emphasizes a focus on learning and improvement.

Biddle (2001) supports the idea that a climate focusing on

personal improvement and mastering tasks promotes learning and

increases engagement better than a climate that focuses on

outperforming other pupils. Creating a climate that emphasizes

learning can increase engagement which links with potential

for success (Solomon 2006). All pupils can be successful if

teachers inspire pupils to improve their work via meeting the

lesson criteria or achieve personal goals within lessons

(Solomon 2006).

Pupil success decreases if teachers define success in relation

to elite performance and emphasize outperforming other pupils,

as only a few pupils will be able to perform to that standard

(Solomon 2006). This in turn would decrease pupils’ motivationPage | 22


and engagement in PE lessons and affect how much exercise they

do beyond school PE lessons (Goudas 1994; Papaioannou & Kouli

1999). TGfU and SE models require pupils to have a basic

understanding of tactical game play and further understanding

of game rules and concepts (Bunker & Thorpe 1982a; Siedentop

1994). To ensure pupils who do not possess the basic concept

of tactical play, games rules and sports concepts are

motivated, engaged and have a sense of successful learning,

teachers should emphasize lesson objectives and should show

the usefulness of what they have learnt to increase

engagement.

In order for teachers to create an environment that emphasizes

learning using an MLT lesson Gagen & Getchell (2004) suggested

that teachers “bridge the gap between task-environment difficulty and the

development levels of students” meaning that teachers should set PE

lesson around the development levels of all pupils, requiring

teachers to use differentiation in their lesson so that all

pupils value the learning that is taking place within the

lesson. Treasure (1997) found that pupils feel a sense of

effort from PE lessons with a mastery climate, as pupils have

to put in effort to learn, meaning their motivation to learn

is intrinsic. Bryan & Solomon (2012) found that PE lessons

that had an emphasis on learning and improved positive

attitude and intrinsic motivation appealed to both male and

female pupils. Bryan & Solomon (2012) stated that PE teachers

should offer a range of choices that increase autonomy and

self-determination which overall effects pupils’ engagement

and motivation within PE lessons.

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Questions raised from Solomon’s (2006) suggestions is that by

only creating a mastery (Ames 1992b) or task-involved (Duda

1992b) climate, certain pupils engagement may decrease. This

also adds to the matter that creating lessons to please all

pupils is a challenging task for teachers.

Soini et al. (2014) states that the motivational climate a PE

teacher creates affects pupils’ self-experience, motivation

and attitude towards PE and further physical activity. There

are two types of motivational climate, task (mastery) and ego

(performance) involving (Ames 1992b). Duda & Whitehead (1998)

claim that an ego involved climate emphasizes performance

outcomes and pupil ability comparison, leading to external

motivation, anxiety and decreased engagement due to some

pupils not possessing the ability of their classmates. Studies

have shown that a task-involved climate is a better climate to

engage pupils and positively increase pupil attitude towards

PE (Bakirtzoglou & Ioannou 2011; Moreno-Murcia et al. 2011).

Task orientation has also been shown to increase intrinsic

motivation due to the nature of task orientation, enabling

pupils to make decisions and set their own achievement goals

(Bryan & Solmon 2012; Spittle & Byrne 2009; Standage et al.

2007). An ego-involved motivational climate has been

associated with ego orientation (Bakirtzoglou & Ioannou 2011;

Spittle & Byrne 2009) and a lowering of intrinsic motivation

(Ferrer-Caja and Weiss 2000)

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Previous studies have shown that the integration of

Achievement Goal Theory (Nicholas 1989) and self-determination

(Deci & Ryan 1985) has been useful in finding out how pupils

are motivated (Ciani et al. 2011; Ommundsen and Kvalø, 2007).

Studies have shown that pupils perceive a mastery climate to

lead to less boredom, a feeling of satisfaction, higher

ability, increase intrinsic motivation and an increase

perseverance towards difficult tasks (Carpenter & Morgan 1999;

Papaioannou 1995; Parish & Treasure 2003; Solmon 1996;

Treasure 1997).

Epstein (1989) identified six features that influence the

motivational climate a teacher creates by using the acronym

TARGET (Task, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation and

Time). The teachers’ role within TARGET is to control each

dimension and create an effective motivational climate by

identifying tasks, deciding who will do the tasks (pupils,

teacher, or both), deciding how rewards will be given, how

pupils will be grouped, how pupils will be assessed, and how

long the lesson (task) will take (Boyce 2009). Esptein (1989)

TARGET structure has not been related to the teaching theories

used in this study. However, Boyce (2009) used work from

Curtner-Smith & Todorovich (2002), Patrick et al. (2001), and

Xiang et al. (2003) to develop a check list to test the type of

motivational climate a teacher creates via the use of Epstein

(1989) TARGET structure. More research is required around

Esptein’s (1989) TARGET structure in relation to how teaching

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theories are used to effect each dimension, how it effects the

engagement and the overall motivational climate created.

Methodology

Design

A mixed methods cross sectional design research within a

school population was used in this study with all methods

being analysed and compared to form results in relation to

pupils’ engagement when different teaching theories are used

during practical PE lessons.

Participants

SchoolsSecondary schools within the West Midlands, United Kingdom

were shortlisted if they fulfilled the following criteria:

they were a state (faith or non-faith), a grammar school that

followed the National Curriculum or an academy that followed

its own curriculum. In total twenty schools were shortlisted

and contacted via email or phone in regards to participation

in this study. Of the twenty shortlisted schools, (n= 1) were

included as they met the above criteria and agreed to partake.

Teachers

A total (n=3) of teacher’s lessons were observed, teachers had

various years of teaching experience.

Pupils

Pupil’s ages ranged from 11-17 and were from various school

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types with pupils either taking GCSE or BTEC PE or only

compulsory PE.

Pupils that answered the Achievement Goals Questionnaire

(Physical Education) came from five types of school; faith

school (n=12), Private/Grammar School (n=2), free school (n=3),

state school (n=1), academy (n=1) with (n=16) taking either

GCSE or BTEC PE and (n=4) only taking compulsory PE.

Pupils that took the Perceptions of Teacher’s Emphasis on

Goals questionnaire also came from various schools; faith

school (n=2), Private/Grammar School (n=4), free school (n=4),

state school (n=5), academy (n=5) with (n=10) taking either

GCSE or BTEC PE and (n=10) only taking compulsory PE.

Ethical Implications

As this study involved children, the researcher held an up to

date criminal record check known as Disclosure and Barring

Service (DBS) certificate. The access to pupils at schools

used in this study were accessed through a gatekeeper at each

school, either through the school’s Head Teacher or PE’s Head

of Department. These were informed of the study’s nature and

shown a copy of the researcher’s DBS before collection of data

commenced.

The questionnaires were carefully considered in their wording,

asking pupils to comment upon aspects of their PE teacher's

teaching of practical PE. Prior to their use, the

Page | 27


questionnaires passed ethical clearance allowing for use in

this study.

It was explained that teachers and pupils had the right to

withdraw from the study at any time with no consequences. The

researcher’s study supervisor’s contact details were also made

available to school’s Head Teacher and Head of Department for

PE in case of any concerns. Finally the researcher was

accompanied at all times by the school’s Child Protection

Officer, thus making sure the pupils were safe at all times

during data collection.

Instrumentation

Lesson Observations

A lesson observation [see appendix 2] sheet (Bicknell 2014)

adapted for use in this study. The purpose of the lesson

observations was to identify which teaching theory (MLT, TGfU

or SE) the observed teacher was using. To identify the theory

used the researcher used research knowledge of each theory and

aimed to identify aspects of each, for example;

MLT

If the teacher’s lesson aim was the development or

introduction of a specific skill and how the selected skill is

performed.

TGfU

Page | 28


If the teacher emphasised tactical game play and link skills

to game situations

SE

If the teacher assigned roles to pupils such as manager or

coach.

Motivational Climate

To assess which type of motivational climate was created the

researcher looked for specific behaviours, such as enthusiasm

for learning which would identify a mastery climate. A teacher

emphasising elitism or performance perfection in terms of

disallowing pupil mistake would show a competitive climate.

Pupil Engagement

In terms of pupil engagement the researcher observed pupils

behaviours during the lesson aiming to identify if pupils were

attentive to the teacher, indicating pupil engagement. If

pupils displayed behaviour such as not paying attention to the

teacher or misbehaving then this indicated that the pupil was

not engaged.

Questionnaires


(Papaioannou et al. 2007) and Perceptions of PE Teacher’s

Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007) was

used in this study, both questionnaires were adapted for use

with the age range of participants in this study and adapted

Page | 29


relating to PE. The original questionnaires by Papaioannou et

al. (2007) used the word “love” as a term for approval, this

was changed to “like”, a more appropriate term, in order for

pupils in British schooling to understand the questions.

The Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education)

(Papaioannou et at. 2007) aimed to determine pupils achievement

orientation. Findings were then related to research findings

from different teaching theories in relation to how

achievement goals orientations effects which teaching theory

is used.

The Perceptions of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals

Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007) assessed pupil’s

perception of lesson structure and how it affected their

engagement during PE lessons and their goal orientation. Both

questionnaires had four sub-scales; Mastery, Performance-

Approach, Performance-Avoidance, Social Approval.

Example of questions from the sub-scales include;

The Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education)

(Papaioannou et at. 2007): Mastery- “My goal is to continuously develop my

skills”; Performance Approach: “I feel great when I’m the only one who can

execute a skill”; Performance-Avoidance Items: “It is my attitude to avoid

skills and games for which I may be laughed at because of my ability”; Social

Approval Items: “It is important for me to learn a game or skill so other pupils

Page | 30


like me”.

The Perceptions of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals

Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007): Mastery Items: “The

teacher is very happy when I learn new skills and games” Performance–

Approach Items: “The teacher encourages pupils to play better than others”;

Performance–Avoidance Items: “The teacher often makes me worried if they

say I’m not capable in Physical Education”; Social Approval Items: “The

teacher’s principle if for me to learn skills and games for which my schoolmates will

praise me for”

Data Analysis

Lesson observations were analysed using a coding system with a

colour code for each teaching theory, motivational climate and

pupil engagement.

MLT

TGfU

SE

Task Orientated (Motivational Climate)

Ego Orientated (Motivational Climate

Page | 31


Positive Pupil Engagement

Negative Pupil Engagement

The questionnaires used in this study were analysed using

multiple logistics regression. For the analysis, the social

approval sub scale from both questionnaires was omitted as

research using the questionnaires disregarded them from their

analysis. As part of the questionnaires pupils were asked to

state the type of school they attended, what year group and

Key Stage they are in and finally whether they studied GCSE or

BTEC PE at the school in which they attend. These four

questions were used for form the regression analysis.

Results

Lesson Observations

A total number of eight [see appendices 3 – 10] lessons

observations took place in this study with three sports being

observed; rounders was observed three times [see appendices 3,

4 and 7], tennis observed twice [see appendices 5 – 6] and

finally, cricket was observed three times [see appendices 8, 9

and 10].

Various year group lessons were observed (see figure 3) with

various teaching theories observed (see figure 4). An example

of TGfU being used in the lesson observations can be seen in

lesson observation 2 [see appendix 4] in which TGfU was the

Page | 32


only teaching theory observed. In lesson observation 2 which

was a Year 9 boys rounders lesson. It was observed that the

teaching “stopped game to allowed students to discuss their use of tactics”.

Stopping game play during lessons is a prevalent feature of

TGfU (Bunker & Thorpe 1982a). The stopping of games was also

observed in lesson observations 1 and 5 both of which were

also rounder lessons the only difference been lesson

observation 5 was a Year 7 lesson which also consisted of

observed MLT. Sport Education was used in lesson observation

1, a rounders lesson [see appendix 3] with the teacher giving

pupils that didn’t have their kit the role of “score keepers and

umpires”. Siedentop (1994) stated that pupils should learn more

about the roles that inhibit sport, this is something that has

been done in lesson observation 1. Rather than pupils not in

kit not being part of the lesson, the teacher gave them the

selected roles which allowed them to learn about rounders, the

sports being taught in lesson observation 1.

Finally, MLT was observed in lesson observation 8 [see

appendix 10]. Lesson observation 8 was a Year 7 cricket lesson

in which appeared to be the first lesson of a block of

cricket. The aim of the lesson was to “learn about the basic

fundamentals for effective cricket fielding”. Learning about the

fundamentals, or in other terms, the basics of fielding is a

great lesson to use Adam’s (1976) MLT. It was observed in this

lesson that the teacher took the lead, showed pupils correct

techniques for fielding then pupils would “practice various fielding

techniques in isolation”. Practicing techniques “in isolation” is a feature

of Adam’s (1976) MLT which sees pupils practice techniques

Page | 33


that are not in a game like situation, it allows pupils to

perfect techniques ready for game play.

It should be noted that in certain lesson observations,

teachers appeared to be using more than one teaching theory.

It was also observed that in other lesson observations only

one teaching theory was observed. An overview of both observed

combined teaching theories and singular observed teaching

theories can be seen in figure 5. For an overview of teaching

theories observed on their own and teaching theories observed

together by year group see figure 6

In Lesson observation 1 [see appendix 3] it was observed that

TGfU and SE were being used by the teacher. As previously

stated, lesson observation 1 saw pupils not in kit being given

the role of either a score keeper or an umpire. Also observed

in lesson observation 1, pupils were able to practice tactical

batting. TGfU is a teaching theory that enables pupils to

understand why techniques are taught and how they are

transferred to game situations. The teacher in lesson

observation 1 wanted pupils to bat the ball to the gaps in the

field or aim for what the pupils perceived to be the weakness

in the field. An example of TGfU and MLT can be seen in lesson

observation 3 a year 9 boys tennis lesson [see appendix 5]. In

this lesson MLT was used to “improve serving technique”, which

appeared to have been taught to pupils in previous PE lessons.

TGfU was used to teach pupils how to “use various serving techniques

tactically during a game”. The combination of both TGfU and MLT

Page | 34


appeared to enhance pupils learning as “there was evidence of pupils

progressing in their serving technique” thus showing the use of MLT

enabled pupils to learn in this lesson, as well as “some pupils

started to use different serving styles to outwit opponents during games” thus

showing that the TGfU element of this lesson enabled pupils to

enhance their technique taught in the MLT element and use them

tactically during the games in lesson observation 1.

All three teachers observed were perceived to create task

mastery motivational with examples from lesson observation 1

in which a “mastery climate was created that emphasised pupil learning”,

lesson observation 6 was the same with learning focus towards

“pupil learning and development of batting technique”. In essence, the focus

for the teachers was to make sure the pupils were learning and

not in competition even though in various lesson observations

pupils were place within a game situation, which matched

Bunker & Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU, the teacher would constantly

be checking pupils learning thus creating a mastery

motivational climate.

Finally, in terms of positive and negative pupil engagement

during observed lessons, both were observed which is to be

expected in any secondary education lesson. The lesson

observations in which rounders was the focus [see appendices

3, and 7] were the lessons which consisted of the most

negative pupil engagement in comparison to the other lesson

observations. Certain pupils were observed to be negatively

engaged in what was perceived to be reaction to their peer’s

Page | 35


perception of their rounders skill ability “Pupils that didn’t seem

to enjoy rounders as a sport seemed to not enjoy the lesson as they were cast off for

what seemed to be a lack of ability and skills”. It was however also observed

in the rounders lessons that pupils were positively engaged in

the lesson due to being allowed to play a game at some point

during the lesson “Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due to the game that the

teacher set”. Even with lessons which teachers used TGfU in which

pupils the lessons would be game or game situation from the

start with constant stopping from the teacher to check the

pupils learning, pupils remained positively engagement due to

what was perceived be the pupils enjoyment of being part of

the game or game situation.

Figure 3- Percentage of lesson observations by year group. Year 7 were observed three times (37.5%), year 8 twice (25%) and year 9 three times (37.5%) giving a total of eight lesson observations.

Page | 36Figure 4- Teaching theories used within lesson observations. Teaching Gamesfor Understanding was observed seven times (50%), Motor Learning Theory (43%) six time and Sport Education (7%) once.

50%43%

7%

Teaching Theories Used WIthin lesson Observations

Teaching Games for Understanding Motor Learning TheorySport Education

37%

25%

38%

Lesson Observations by Year groupYear 7 Year 8 Year 9


13%

25%

25%

13%

13%

13%

Overview of Teaching Theories Observed Together and On Their Own by Year group

Year 7 Motor Learning Theory OnlyYear 7 Teaching Games for Understanding & Motor Learning TheoryYear 8 Teaching Games for Understanding & Motor Learning TheoryYear 9 Teaching Games for Understanding Only

Figure 6- Overview of teaching theories observed together and on their own byyear group. For Year 7 observed lessons Motor Learning Theory only was observed once (12%) and Teaching Games for Understanding and Motor Learning Theory together was observed twice (25%). In Year 8 observed lessons Teaching Games for Understanding and Motor

Page | 37

Figure 5- Overview of teaching theories observed. Teaching Games for Understanding and Motor Learning Theory was observed together five times (62%) with Teaching Games for Understanding and Sport Education Observed together once (12%). Teaching Games for Understanding was observed on its own once (13%) as well as Motor Learning Theory observed on its own once (13%)

63%13%

13%

13%

Overview of Teaching Theories observedTeaching Games for Understanding & Motor Learning TheoryTeaching Games for Understanding & Sport EducationTeaching Games for Understannding OnlyMotor Learning Theory Only


Learning Theory was observed twice (25%). For Year 9 observed lesson Teaching Games for Understanding only was observed once (12%), Teaching Games for Understanding and Sport Education was observed once (13%) and finally Teaching Games for Understanding and Motor Learning Theory was observed once (13%).

Questionnaires

Perceptions of Teachers’ Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire

School TypeModel Summary

Model R R SquareAdjusted R

SquareStd. Error ofthe Estimate

1 .500a .250 .110 1.220Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery, PerformanceApproach

Table 1- Model Summary analysis with “School Type” as thedependent variable

ANOVAa

ModelSum ofSquares df

MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression 7.953 3 2.651 1.782 .191b

Residual 23.797 16 1.487Total 31.750 19

a. Dependent Variable: SchoolTypea. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 2- ANOVA analysis with “School Type” as the dependent

variable

Year GroupModel Summary

Model R R SquareAdjusted R

SquareStd. Error ofthe Estimate

1 .284a .081 -.092 .849

Page | 38


a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery, PerformanceApproachTable 3- Model Summary with “Year Group” as the dependent

variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression 1.014 3 .338 .469 .708b

Residual 11.536 16 .721Total 12.550 19

a. Dependent Variable: YearGrb. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 4- ANOVA analysis with “Year Group” as the dependent

variable

Key StageModel Summary

Model R R SquareAdjusted RSquare

Std. Error ofthe Estimate

1 .212a .045 -.134 .437a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 5- Model Summary with “Key Stage” as the dependent

variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression .144 3 .048 .250 .860b

Residual 3.056 16 .191Total 3.200 19

a. Dependent Variable: KeyStageb. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 6- ANOVA analysis with “Key Stage” as the dependent

variablePage | 39


Qualification StudiedModel Summary



1 .505a .255 .116 .482a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 7- Model Summary with “Qualification Studied” as the

dependent variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression 1.277 3 .426 1.830 .182b

Residual 3.723 16 .233Total 5.000 19

a. Dependent Variable: GCSEb. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvoidance, Mastery,

PerformanceApproachTable 8- ANOVA analysis with “Qualification Studied” as the

dependent variable

Results Interpretation of Perceptions of Teacher’s Emphasis on

Goals Questionnaire

The linear regression analyses suggested that the School Type

study did not predict pupil’s perception of a teacher’s

emphasis on goal orientation R2adj= 0.110 (F= 1.782, p= 0.191).

Neither did Year Group R2adj= -0.092 (F= 0.469, p= 0.708), or

Page | 40


Key Stage R2adj= -0.134 (F= 0.250, p= 0.860) as well as

Qualification Studied R2adj= 0.116 (F= 1.830, p= 0.182).

No significant results were found in this questionnaire.


School TypeModel Summary



1 .541a .293 .160 1.312a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp, MasteryTable 9- Model Summary with “School Type” as the dependent

variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression 11.410 3 3.803 2.210 .127b

Residual 27.540 16 1.721Total 38.950 19

a. Dependent Variable: SchoolTypec. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp,

MasteryTable 10- ANOVA analysis with “School Type” as the dependent

variable

Page | 41


Year GroupModel Summary



1 .363a .132 -.031 .840a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp,

MasteryTable 11- Model Summary with “Year Group” as the dependent

variable

Table 12- ANOVA analysis with “Year Group” as the dependentvariable

Key StageModel Summary



1 .399a .159 .001 .470a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp,

MasteryTable 13- Model Summary with “Key Stage” as the dependent

variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

Page | 42

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression 1.715 3 .572 .811 .506b

Residual 11.285 16 .705Total 13.000 19

a. Dependent Variable: YearGrb. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp, Mastery


1 Regression .668 3 .223 1.008 .415b

Residual 3.532 16 .221Total 4.200 19

a. Dependent Variable: KeyStageb. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp,

MasteryTable 14- ANOVA analysis with “Key Stage” as the dependent

variable

Qualification StudiedModel Summary



1 .452a .204 .055 .399a. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp, MasteryTable 15- Model Summary with “Qualification Studied” as the

dependent variable

ANOVAa


MeanSquare F Sig.

1 Regression .654 3 .218 1.370 .288b

Residual 2.546 16 .159Total 3.200 19

a. Dependent Variable: GCSEc. Predictors: (Constant), PerformanceAvo, PerformanceApp,

MasteryTable 16- ANOVA analysis with “Qualification Studied” as the

dependent variable

Results Interpretation of Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education)

Page | 43


The linear regression analyses suggested that the School Type

study did not predict pupil’s achievement goal orientation

R2adj= 0.160 (F= 2.210, p= 0.127). Neither did Year Group R2

adj= -

0.31 (F= 0.811, p= 0.506), or Key Stage R2adj= 0.001 (F= 1.008,

p= 0.415) as well as Qualification Studied R2adj= 0.055(F=

1.370, p= 0.288).

No significant results were found in this questionnaire.

Discussion

The aim of this study was to assess pupil engagement in PE

lessons in relation to Nicholas’s (1989) Achievement Goal

Theory. Teaching theories and motivational climate were

observed to see how teachers fostered engagement within PE

lessons.

During the lesson observations, all three teaching theories

were observed TGfU (n=7) and MLT (n=6) and SE (n=1). Bunker &

Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU was the main teaching theory observed

throughout the lesson observations. As previously stated TGfU

is a teaching theory in which teachers concentrate more on

pupils’ use of skills which they have previously learnt, but

apply the skills to game situations (Bunker & Thorpe 1982a).

It was observed that pupils were positively engaged in TGfU

lessons which created a mastery motivational climate. Pupils

appeared to see the value in the lessons and enjoyed the

development of technical and tactical play. This finding is

similar to Solomon (2006) and Wigfield & Eccles (2001) who

both found that pupils engage more in lessons in which they

Page | 44


see the value. Even though the results suggest pupils in the

TGfU lessons were perceived to value the lessons, backed up by

the observed positive pupil engagement during the lesson

observation, the results also show that certain pupils were

negatively engaged. It was presumed that the pupils negatively

engaged weren’t engaged due to them not enjoying the sport

being taught on top of what the results suggest about pupils

reacting to certain pupil’s criticism of pupils’ skill ability

in the observed rounders lessons. However, it is the job of

the teacher to keep all pupils positively engaged in lessons

regardless of their thoughts towards the sport being taught in

lesson. Jenkinson et al. (2014) stated that keeping all pupils

positively engaged in lesson is a difficult task which has

been confirmed in this study with each lesson consisting of

observed negative engagement.

Green (2008) states that approaches to teaching have been the

topic of research in the paradigm for PE for over 30 years. As

previously stated, during the lessons observations teachers

use a variety of teaching theories. Byra (2006) suggest that

the purpose of using different teaching theories depends on

the range of pupils in the lesson as well as the content of

the lesson in relation to the lesson’s learning objective. The

two theories used together more frequently were Bunker &

Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU and Adam’s (1976) MLT. Rink (2006, pg

304) stated that games “consist of many different motor skills that must be

acquired and used in conjunction with each other, and players must learn to use

these skills appropriately.” Rink’s (2006) statement suggest that

Page | 45


teachers are right to combine Bunker and Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU

and Adam’s (1976) MLT. Adam’s (1976) MLT allows for pupils to

learn the skills required for game play. Bunker and Thorpe’s

(1982a) TGfU allows pupils to understand how use specific

skills appropriately in terms of tactically during play.

Combined in one lesson allows pupils to work on both, learn

the various motor skills and apply them in game situation thus

following Rink’s (2006) statement.

Capel (2005: pg 112) state that in terms of teachers use of

various teaching theories that a good teacher utilises a

variety of teaching theories in order to “cater for differences in pupils’

abilities, attainment, needs and ages”, quite simply teacher should be

aware of differentiation. The results in this study from the

lesson observations show that the observed teacher were aware

that differentiation is needed to keep pupils engaged in their

lesson. However, Green (2008) commented that pupils’

compliance is the prerequisite needed for effective teaching.

In this study what Green (2008) labels “compliance” could be

related to pupil’s observed engagement during the lesson

observations.

A mixture of both positive and negative pupil engagement was

observed in the lesson observations. It could be perceived

that the lessons which consisted of positive pupil engagement

that pupils were compliant in the lesson, or that the pupils

were enjoying the lesson. Enjoyment in PE lesson was assessed

in Bryan & Solmon’s (2012) study in which it was found that PE

Page | 46


lessons which pupils enjoyed saw teacher put more of an

emphasis on pupil’s learning and created a mastery motivation

climate to increase pupil’s intrinsic motivation. This study

found similar findings to Bryan & Solmon’s (2012) with all the

teachers observed created lessons that were perceived to be

related to what research suggests as a mastery motivational

climate that emphasised the enjoyment and learning of pupils

within the given lessons.

Research also suggests that creating a mastery motivational

climate in lesson leads to less boredom, a feeling of

satisfaction, self-efficacy, increase intrinsic motivation and

an increase perseverance towards difficult skills (Carpenter &

Morgan 1999; Papaioannou 1995; Parish & Treasure 2003; Solmon

1996; Treasure 1997). There have been contrasting findings in

this study in relation to these previous findings.

In terms of a mastery motivational climate lesson being

suggested to decease pupil boredom, boredom could be linked

with negative pupil engagement. Negative pupil engagement was

observed during various lesson observations with pupils not

engaging in lesson that consisted of sports that pupils seemed

to not enjoy, this was more common in the rounders lesson

observations. It could be suggested that this is due to the

observed teachers’ use of a mastery motivational climate, but

it also could be due to teachers use various teaching theories

such as TGfU and MLT.

Page | 47


The combination of these teaching theories has already been

deemed a positive finding in this study, with the findings

suggesting that the combination increased pupils learning and

engagement in observed lessons. It could be suggested that

lessons involving difficult tasks, that using a combination of

MLT and TGfU could allow pupils to practice and perfect

difficult skills in isolation fitting with Adam’s (1976) MLT.

After this pupils could then use practice the skills in game

situations linking with Bunker and Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU as

observed pupils enjoyed being able to play games, the

combination allows pupils to enjoy learning difficult skills.

To sum up the findings from the lesson observations which

answer part of this study’s research question. The aim of the

lesson observations was to assess the use of teaching theories

which create either a mastery or competitive motivational

climate, in relation to pupil’s engagement during practical PE

lessons. This study found that all lesson observations

inhibited positive and negative pupil engagement, it is

presumed that this occurs in most school lessons as not all

pupils will engage in lessons due to the likes and dislikes of

certain subjects. The combination of Adam’s (1976) MLT and

Bunker & Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU which was observed 62% of the

time during the lessons observations, saw an increase in

positive pupil engagement. This which was presumed to be down

to the combination creating more of a mastery motivational

climate in which more emphasis is placed on the pupils

learning during the lessons rather than focusing on the

Page | 48


creating a competitive motivational climate, which though not

majorly observed in this study. Lessons which saw a full

games, saw certain pupils portray negative engagement

potentially due to not liking being in a competitive

environment in which other pupils wanted them to be better

than their own perception of their ability.

The questionnaires used in this study aimed to assess pupils

perceived achievement goal, in relation to Nicholas’s (1989)

‘Achievement Goal Theory’. Both questionnaires were devised by

Papaioannou et at. (2007) and aimed to assess pupils achievement

goal orientation (Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical

Education) (Papaioannou et at. 2007)) as well as the pupil’s

perception on teacher emphasis on pupils achievement

orientation (Perceptions of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals

Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007)). In order to gain an

understanding the range of pupils achievement goal

orientations both questionnaires were assess in relation to

pupil’s; school type, year group, key stage and qualification

studied (GCSE PE or BTEC Sport). Surprisingly, both

questionnaires found no significant results. With pupil’s

achievement goal orientation not being predicted in relation

to their school type [R2adj= 0.160 (F= 2.210, p= 0.127)], year

group [R2adj= -0.31 (F= 0.811, p= 0.506)], key stage [R2

adj= 0.001

(F= 1.008, p= 0.415)] and qualification studied (GCSE PE or

BTEC Sport) [R2adj= 0.055(F= 1.370, p= 0.288)]. Teacher’s

emphasis on goal orientations was also not predicted in

relation to school type [R2adj= 0.110 (F= 1.782, p= 0.191)],

Page | 49


year group [R2adj= -0.092 (F= 0.469, p= 0.708)], key stage [R2

adj=

-0.134 (F= 0.250, p= 0.860)] and qualification studied (GCSE

PE or BTEC Sport) [R2adj= 0.116 (F= 1.830, p= 0.182)]. With two

achievement goals consistent in Nicholas’s (1989) ‘Achievement

Goal Theory’ labelled task and ego achievement goals. Previous

research has found that task orientated individuals enjoy

learning for its own sake and not learning for reward (Duda &

Nicholls 1992; Treasure & Roberts 1998).

With the lesson observations finding that combining TGfU and

MLT inhibited more positive engagement in lessons, it was

surprising that the Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical

Education) (Papaioannou et at. 2007) found no significant

results as the increased positive pupil engagement could

suggest that pupils in these observed lessons could have been

task orientated meaning that the pupils would enjoy the

learning for their own sake and not for rewards sake as ego

orientated pupils would show. However, even with increased

positive pupil engagement, as previously stated lessons also

inhibited negative pupil engagement. The negative pupil

engagement was shown in behaviours such as pupils not enjoying

being compared to pupils whom perceived their ability to be

better than others “cast off for what seemed to be a lack of ability and skills”,

a behaviour which is consistent with ego orientated

individuals (Duda & Nicholls 1992; Treasure & Roberts 1998).

Bryan & Solmon (2012) found that pupil’s engagement in lessons

increases when their teacher puts more of an emphasis on

pupil’s learning rather than pupil competition. This study’s

Page | 50


findings somewhat supports Bryan & Solmon’s (2012) findings

with teacher’s perceived to focus on pupils learning and not

focusing on pupils competition. This was a major finding in

lesson observations that combined Adam’s (1976) MLT and Bunker

& Thorpe’s (1982a) TGfU.

Although no significant results were found in the Perceptions

of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire (Papaioannou et

al. 2007) this study found that teacher did emphasise pupils

learning matching to which was perceived to be the major

achievement goal orientation of pupils observed in the lesson

observations.

In order to improve this study, it could be suggested that

more lesson observations from a variety of year groups should

have been carried out. This study only saw observations from

year groups 7 to 9 meaning that the amount of lesson

observations consisting of GCSE PE and BTEC sport was limited.

Limiting the GCSE PE and BTEC Sport qualifications could

affect which teaching theory a teacher choses to use to the

lessons consistent of qualification for the pupils in the

lessons. However, if the findings of this study are to go by,

if teachers create lessons which cater for task oriented

individuals one would think that pupils in GCSE PE or BTEC

Sport classes would be positively engaged due to wanting to

gain a good qualification at the end the school year. This

however is something that would need to be researched further.

Page | 51


Comparing the difference in engagement of male and female

pupils with teacher’s choice of teaching theories would also

add more depth to this study as it could be suggested that

different teaching theories would be required to engage female

pupils. This study only assess boys PE lessons and can only

provide results from the observed. In terms of the non-

significant results for the questionnaires in this study, it

could be suggested that more questionnaires would have to be

answered in order to gain significant results. Due to multiple

logistical regression being used to assess the responses to

the questionnaires, more responses were needed in both

questionnaires in order to possibly find significant results.

ConclusionThis study aimed to assess pupil’s achievement goals in

relation to Nicholas’s (1989) ‘Achievement Goal Theory’ and

compare pupils engagement in practical PE lesson in relation

to teachers use of three teaching theories [Adam’s (1976)

Motor Learning Theory, Bunker & Thorpe’s (1982a) Teaching

Games for Understanding and Siedentop’s (1994) Sport

Education]. The motivational climate that a teacher created

was also assess in relation to the teaching theories and

pupils achievement goals to see which motivational climate,

mastery or competitive would increase or decrease pupils

engagement during lessons.

The major finding in this study found that by combining Bunker

& Thorpe’s (1982a) Teaching Games for Understanding with

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Adam’s (1976) Motor Learning theory was perceived to increase

pupil’s engagement during the lesson observations. No

significant findings in relation to the Papaioannou et al. (2007)

questionnaires were found. However, a suggestion of more

responses for the questionnaires was suggested in an attempted

to possibly find significant results in a future study. Even

though the questionnaires found no significant results.

Analysis of previous literature surrounding Nicholas’s (1989)

‘Achievement Goal Theory’ in comparison to findings from the

lesson observations suggest that when teacher creates a

mastery motivational climate to cater for task orientated

individuals that learn for the sake of learning and not for

personal rewards, the engagement of pupils was found to

increase due to the lack of competition in the lesson and the

teacher’s focus on the pupils learning.

Negative pupil’s engagement during the lesson observations was

also found regardless of what teaching theory or theories was

used. However, it was suggested some observation of negative

pupil’s engagement would occur due to certain pupils not

liking PE as a school subject.

It was suggested that in order to expand this study, that more

lesson observations would be required that covered all year

group in secondary school as well as covered GCSE or BTEC

lessons. Finally, it was also suggest that a study be carried

out comparing the engagement of male and female pupils in

relation to their achievement goals as well as their teacher’s

Page | 53


creation of a motivational climate and use of teaching

theories to keep male or female pupils engaged in their

lessons.

For the future of PE teaching, this study has found that

teachers should be made more aware of how teaching styles

effect the motivational climate created and the achievement

goals of pupils. Further research is needed to assess how

varying teaching theories effect the motivational climate and

achievement goals as one would assume that with a

qualification at stake pupils would require a specific

motivational climate in theory lessons in comparison to

practical lessons.

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Appendices

Appendix 1 – Ethics Form

Institute of Sport and Exercise ScienceUndergraduate Independent Study Proposal and Ethics Form

(Sept 2014)

All students are required to gain full ethical clearance before contacting participants and collecting primary data.

Students engaging in secondary data collection must still complete the form and demonstrate that they have considered any ethical issues where appropriate.

Completion of the proposal form and ethics approval is a requirement for successful completion of the Independent Study module.

Students who fail to complete this form and obtain ethical clearance will fail the module. Students who collect primary data of a sensitive nature from vulnerable populations may face further penalties.

This form should be discussed and then submitted electronically to your supervisor who will forward it to theISES ethics co-ordinator. Forms submitted without supervisor approval will result in the project not being granted ethical clearance.

This document should be updated and resubmitted if any changes are made to the project or methods.

This form should be saved as a word document using a file name of the following format:

YEAR (space) MODULE CODE (space) SURNAME (space) INITIALS (space) ETHICS FORM

E.g.: 2012 SPRT3001 Jones RD Ethics Form

NOTE: You will not be able to submit additional files with this form. All additional documentation must be inserted in the end of this document to make a single file.

Any text providing guidance on completing each question may be deleted when completing the form

I. Applicant details:

Name of Student: Ryan Higginson

Title of Proposed Project: An Achievement Goal Theory Approach to Assess Student Engagement in Physical Education in Relation to Teaching Theoriesand Motivational Climate

Course Undertaken: BSc Physical Education and Sport Coaching Science

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan HigginsonUW Email Address: [email protected]

Supervisor: Claire-Marie Roberts

II. Research Project:

1. Aim and rationale of the study

In the paradigm of Physical Education (PE) three teaching theories exist, Sport Education (Siedentop 1994), Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) (Bunker & Thorpe 1982) and Motor Learning Theory (MLT) (Adams 1976). All three theories are broadly used within PE lessons worldwide (Butler 2006; Wallhead & O’Sullivan 2006; Rukavina &Foxworth 2013) although the effect each has on the motivational climate and engagement of pupils has not been researched. Research examining the motivational climate in isolation within PE lessons has been carried out by numerous researchers (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001; Barkoukis et al. 2007; Ames & Archer 1988; Solmon 1996; Papaioannou et al. 2007; Braithwaite et al.201; Treasure & Robert 2013; İlker & Demirhan 2012) with links to pupil’s intention to continue physical activity beyond that of their PE lessons. Research has looked at mastery and competitive climates (Goudas 1994; Papaioannou & Kouli 1999; Theeboom et al.1995). A mastery climate has been found to be the most effective in fostering pupil’s intention to continue physical activity(Goudas 1994; Papaioannou & Kouli 1999; Theeboom et al.1999). A mastery climate promotespupils intrinsic motivation to succeed within PE lessons, rather than having more of a focus on competition which decreases pupil’s intrinsic motivation due to the potentially competitive nature of the PE lesson. Achievement Goal Theory has been used to test the motivational process within sports and education paradigms (Ames 1984, 1992; Dweck 1986; Maehr 1980; Nicholls 1984, 1989). Achievement Goal Theory states during an achievement situation people demonstrate competence and develop two achievement orientations (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001). Task orientation relates to self-reference success in terms of learning something new (skills, rules of games) (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001). Ego orientation relates to one’s belief that success determines whether they are better than others at certain skills and demonstrate their ability to perform the skills publicly (Escartí & Gutiérrez 2001). Task orientated individuals bring more intrinsic motivation to learning than ego orientated individuals (Duda & Nicholls 1992; Treasure & Roberts 1998). The motivational climate a teacher creates affects pupil’s engagement within PE lessons; Bryan & Solmon (2012) found that pupils are more engaged in lessons that sway towardstask-orientation, in that lessons were useful, enjoyable, emphasized learning focus, increased intrinsic motivation, created positive pupil attitude, increasing pupil’s autonomy and self-determination by enabling pupils to make choices. Secondary education in England caters for pupils aged 11-16 and covers Years 7-11 consisting of two Key Stages. Key Stage 3 (KS3) covers pupils from Years 7-9 and agesrange from 11-14, pupils in KS3 undergo a series of Teaching Assessments for all subjects on the National Curriculum. Key Stage 4 (KS4) covers pupils from Years 10-11with age ranges between 15-16, during KS4 pupil are in the process of taking their General Certificates of Secondary Education (GCSE’s). Public provision of secondary education in England consists of a variety of different schools. All children aged 5-16 in the England are entitled to a place a state school where no fees are paid to the school by the parents or guardians (BBC 2014). Around 6.5% of parents in England decide to send their child to a private or public schools were parents pay the fees

69

SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginsontowards the cost of running the school (BBC 2014). Four types of state schools in England follow the National Curriculum and are inspected by OFSTED the government’s Office for Standards in Education, Children’s Services and Skills; Community schools ran by local authorities, Foundation and Trust schools ran by a governing body, trustschools ran alongside a business or charity which has formed an educational trust, Voluntary-aided similar to foundation school are ran by a governing body and owned bya charity usually a church, Voluntary-controlled are a mix between community and voluntary-aided schools whereby local authorities run the school however voluntary-controlled schools are owned by a charity usually a church who appoints members of the governing body to work for the school (BBC 2014). State schools often specialise in a subject area such as: arts, maths, computing, business, music, sports, languagesand technology. Academy schools and Free Schools in England are set up by sponsors from businesses, faith or voluntary groups and partner with the local authority and the government’s Department for Children, Schools and Families to form a school that does not have to stick to the National Curriculum set out by the Department of Education. Schools that follow the National Curriculum have no statutory required to devote to Physical Education, however OFSTED (2012) found that two hours per week wasan aspirational target. Years 7-9 usually have two hours of compulsory PE lessons perweek however Years 10-11 compulsory PE lesson time usually drops to one hour or none due to commitments of GCSE’s, however pupils who choose GCSE PE are required to continue with normal PE beyond that of their GCSE PE specification.As of September 2014 a new Physical Education National Curriculum will be place that challenges teacher’s ability to teach (Department for Education 2014. The previous 2007 Physical Education National Curriculum set ways in which Physical Educators should have taught PE (Department for Education 2007). The Key Processes gave teachers guidance on what pupils should be aiming towards during their PE lessons andenabled teachers to set lessons around that of the Key Processes to enhance pupil’s development and learning during PE lessons (Department for Education 2007). There areno laws relating to which schools that follow the 2014 National Curriculum should teach during PE lessons, however as they are examined by OSTED it is vital that Physical Educators are creating a motivational climate that fosters engagement allowing pupils to learn and develop during PE lessons. This study will aim to assess pupil’s engagement in PE lessons in relation to Achievement Goal Theory; teaching theories will be examined and the motivational climate tested to see how a teacher fosters engagement within PE lessons.

2. Research Question and Objectives. (Include Hypothesis/es when appropriate)

Which teaching theory (Sport Education, Teaching Games for Understanding, Motor Learning) creates task orientated motivational climate for engagement in compulsory and non-compulsory Physical Education pupils, and why?

3. Methods:a. Participants:

Pilot Study

A pilot study will be carried out to check the reliability of methods used in this study; making sure the lesson observations are able to collect the data required for the research, making sure the questionnaires are understandable tothe pupils and finally checking that the focus groups are of an appropriate length and are collecting data required to answer the research question.

Name of School- Cardinal Wiseman

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan HigginsonType of School- State Voluntary-aided Location- Coventry Arrangement of Pupils- Years 7-12 (Ages 11-17)Number of PE Teachers- 9 (6 Male, 3 Female)

Once pretesting is completed a variety of schools will be selected to take partin the study (Faith School, Free School, Academy, State school, Private Schools) selected at random by the researcher. A variety of schools will be used in this study due to Academy and Free Schools not having to follow the National Curriculum, the teaching in these types of schools may be different toschools that follow the National Curriculum.The number of schools will be dependent on the variety of schools available in the city’s the study shall take place in the West Midlands, U.K. The background of teaching within schools selected shall be reported within theschools most recent OFSTED report, although the theory used is not reported theOFSTED report will be used to gain a background of the teaching within the schools used in this study; for example schools classified as “Outstanding" mayhave different teaching methods to schools classified as “Good” in terms of howteachers create a motivational climate that fosters pupil’s engagement with P.Elessons. No statements from OFSTED report shall be reported apart from the grade given by OFSTED (Grade 1: Outstanding, Grade 2: Good, Grade 3: Requires Improvement, Grade 4: Inadequate)

b. Data:

Six (three compulsory and three non-compulsory) lessons shall be observed by the researcher to determine which teaching theory the teacher is using, how theteaching keeps pupils motivated and engaged during the course of the lesson, this relates to my research question in terms of testing which teaching theory teachers are using to foster a positive motivational climate. During the lessonobservation 5 pupils selected at random by the researcher will be observed in relation to their behaviour and body language used during the lesson for example are the pupils smiling, enjoying themselves or are they not paying attention, messing out ect, this data shall be recorded on the lesson observation form (see appendix 1) After the lesson observation verification with the teacher to confirm which theory the teacher was using shall be carried out so as to avoid false data being presented.

Pupils will complete two questionnaires that have been adapted for use by pupils aged 11-17 Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education) (Papaioannou et al 2007) and Perceptions of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007) these questionnaires relate to the research at is gives the researcher the ability see test how teacher emphasise achievement with PE and how pupils see themselves as achievers in PE lessons, this data can then be compared to the lessons observations were the motivational climate would have been tested to see if teachers are creating a climate that enables pupils to engage and achieve in PE.

Focus Group interviews with a random selection of 8-12 pupils will be carried out to gain further understanding how pupils are motivated and remain engaged during P.E lessons. Pupils observed during the lessons observations will not be involved in the focus group. Open Questions will be asked for example “What do you/or do not enjoy about P.E lesson”, “What do you like about the lesson structure of yourP.E lessons”. Some responses from pupils may lead to further questioning of their responses therefore an interview guide will be

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginsonused during the focus group interviews. Prompts will also be used to explain question should pupils not understand a question asked during the focus group.

c. Methods:

Selection of schools- Emails, phones calls, face-to-face interviews explaining the research

Consent forms for pupils and teachers to be participants in the study

Lesson observation- Lesson observation form (see appendix 1)- Agreement from teacher for lesson to be observed- Agreement of which selected pupils to observe

Questionnaires (see appendix 2) - Consent form detailing the purpose of the questionnaire- PC to access questionnaire

Focus Group Interview - Classroom to carry out focus group- Consent form from pupils with explanation of focus group- Another adult present for protection purposes - Interview guide - Recording device (pupil will be asked to say their name for thepurposes of transcribing the responses however no names will be used and all responses shall be anonymised for data protection)

4. Participant Information Sheet and Informed Consent Form.

Email to schools

Dear Sir or Madam, I am a current Physical Education and Sports Coaching Science student at the University of Worcester currently looking forschools to participate in my Independent Study which I will be starting in September 2014. The proposed title of the study is "An Achievement Goal Theory Approach to Assess Student Engagement in Physical Education in Relation to Teaching Theories and Motivational Climate" in terms of my method (if you agree to be part of the study)I would be required to watch a mixture of Physical Education lessons with various year groups, including GCSE and Non-GCSE classes which would help me determine which teaching theory is being used in the lesson and how pupils are motivated to be engaged in the lesson; following this pupils wouldbe given two questionnaires Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education) (Papaioannou et al 2007) and Perceptions of PE Teacher's Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire (Papaioanou et al. 2007) (should they wish to not fillout the questionnaire that would be their choice), following the questionnaires, a random selection of pupils would be called to a focus groupinterview to find out more about the answers given on the questionnaire.

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan HigginsonIf you would be interested in taking part in this study it would be fantasticand I would appreciate it if you could ask other members of the PE staff within your school if they are also okay with me carrying out a study during their lessons.

Yours faithfully Ryan Higginson

Informed Consent Form for Lesson Observations

Information About the Study:“An Achievement Goal Theory Approach to Assess Student Engagement in Physical Education in

Relation to Teaching Theories and Motivational Climate”

You are being asked to take part in a research study assessing pupil engagement in Physical Education (P.E) in relation to teaching theories and Motivational Climate. The data is being collected for the purposes of establishing how the way P.E taught keeps pupils engaged during lessons. You will be asked to have your lessons observed to determine how pupils are engaged during P.E in relationto the way P.E is being taught.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. You may decide to stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation. You also have the right to ask that any data you have supplied to that point be withdrawn/destroyed.

No one will be able to link the data you provide to the identifying information you supplied. However presented results may be used for future research or presentations, this data will contain no information that could identify yourself or others.

There are no known benefits or risks for you in this study.

If you have concerns about any aspect of this study you should ask to speak to the researcher Ryan Higginson ([email protected]) who will be willing to answer your questions. However, if you have further concerns and wish to complain formally about any aspect of or about the way you have been treated during the study, you may contact Claire-Marie Roberts ([email protected]).

Consent: By signing below, I confirm that:

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginson• I have volunteered to take part in this project. • I know I can withdraw at any time without being disadvantaged. • I am satisfied that the results will be stored securely. • I know that the results may be published, but they will not be linked to me. • I am aware of any possible risks and discomfort. • I agree to inform the researcher immediately if I feel uncomfortable. • I have had the chance to ask questions regarding the study. • I know that I will not receive any money for taking part in this study.

Signed: Witness:

Date: Date:

Informed Consent Form for Questionnaire

Information About the Study:“An Achievement Goal Theory Approach to Assess Student Engagement in Physical Education in

Relation to Teaching Theories and Motivational Climate”

You are being asked to take part in a research study assessing pupil engagement in Physical Education (P.E) in relation to teaching theories and Motivational Climate. The data is being collected for the purposes of establishing how the way P.E taught keeps pupils engaged during lessons. You will be asked to complete two online questionnaires each consisting of 24 question. The questionnaire will take around 10 – 15 minutes to complete.

Your participation in this study is voluntary. You may decide to stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation. You also have the

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginsonright to ask that any data you have supplied to that point be withdrawn/destroyed.

No one will be able to link the data you provide to the identifying information you supplied. However presented results may be used for future research or presentations, this data will contain no information that could identify yourself or others.

There are no known benefits or risks for you in this study.

If you have concerns about any aspect of this study you should ask to speak to the researcher Ryan Higginson ([email protected]) who will be willing to answer your questions. However, if you have further concerns and wish to complain formally about any aspect of or about the way you have been treated during the study, you may contact Claire-Marie Roberts ([email protected]).

Consent To Undertake Questionnaires:

By signing below, I confirm that: • I have volunteered to take part in this project. • I know I can withdraw at any time without being disadvantaged. • I am satisfied that the results will be stored securely. • I know that the results may be published, but they will not be linked to me. • I am aware of any possible risks and discomfort. • I agree to inform the researcher immediately if I feel uncomfortable. • I have had the chance to ask questions regarding the study. • I know that I will not receive any money for taking part in this study.

Signed: Witness:

Date: Date:

III. Ethics:

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginson1. Who are the participants? How will consent be gained? Do they belong to a

group unable to give informed consent? (If yes, please explain exactly who will give consent) Give as much detail as possible.

Participants shall be: Schools Pupils

- Informed consent form for each stage of the methods- Head Teacher letter to parents about research being undertaken

Teachers- Informed consent for lesson observation - Pupils consent via letter to parents from Head Teacher

Researcher will show CRB/DBS to Head Teacher, P.E Teachers before commencing any research.

All participants will have the right to withdraw at any stage of the research with no consequences.

2. How will the participants be recruited? (Outline the entire recruitment procedure, e.g., Do you need permission to approach prospective participants at their school, sports club, etc.? Are there any threats to privacy through your recruitment process such as identifying prospective participants via confidential records?)

Schools shall be emailed, phones call, or contacted for face-to-face meeting from the researcher to request for participation within the study. Permission shall be required from the head teacher and head of PE to undertake the study within the school. There is minimal threat to privacy in this study as school name; pupils and teachers names shall remain anonymous throughout.

3. How will you explain the purpose and nature of your research to prospective participants?

Lesson Observations:Teachers will be briefed beforehand of the nature of the research and purposeof the observation, a document shall be provided with the purpose of the research clearly outlined.

Questionnaires: Pupils will be briefed of the nature of the research and the nature of the questionnaire, a document informing pupils about the research shall be provided with the questionnaire.

Focus Group Interviews: Pupils in the focus group shall be reminded of the nature of the research andprevious methods used within the study. They shall be reminded of the purposeof each stage of the data collection and briefed on the nature of the focus group interview, the same document outlining the research shall be provided to each pupil in the focus group interview.

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan HigginsonSchools requesting to see their own data of lesson observations and responsesto questionnaires will be grated upon request to the research. The researcheralone will be the only person who will have access to results of lesson observations, questionnaires and focus group interview responses. All data will be stored in a password protected Roshal Archive (RAR) file and data will be anonymised for security purposes.

4. Does the procedure involve any possible distress, discomfort or harm to participants? If ‘No’, explain why. If ‘Yes’, give details and say what stepsare to be taken to protect participants. (Consider all possible causes of distress carefully, including discussion of sensitive topics, invasive procedures, maximal exercise tests, psychological stresses or deception).

No risk of distress, discomfort or harm will take place during this research.Pupils and teachers will be briefed of the nature of each stage of the research and will have the opportunity to ask questions about anything they may uncomfortable about. The researcher will be accompanied by a representative from the schools used in the research at all times. Arrangements will be in consultation with the schools Safeguarding Officer.

5. How will you provide opportunities for potential participants to exercise their right not to participate?

Participants in the study shall be reminded of their right to withdraw from the study before, during and after research is carried out.

Lesson observation: Pupils and teachers will have the right to not be observed. Teachers will also have the right to have a lesson observation withdrawn from the study upon request.

At the bottom of the questionnaires the right to withdrawal shall be noted with the researchers email available should a participant wish to have their answers withdrawn from the questionnaire.

During the focus group:Before commencing the focus group participants shall be reminded of their right to withdraw from the study, right to not answer a question and right to withdraw after the focus group has taken place (email shall be provided in the informed consent form for the focus group)

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginson6. Does the research involve contact with any other organisation or group (e.g.

schools, clubs, etc.)? If ‘Yes’, give as much detail as possible.

Pilot StudyThe pilot study will take place at:

Cardinal Wiseman Secondary School and Language CollegePotters Green Road Coventry West MidlandsCV2 2AJ

After the pilot study various schools will be contacted to request for participation in the research.

7. Will the research be undertaken outside the University of Worcester Campus? If ‘Yes’, have you made yourself aware of local provisions for Health and Safety in the research location? List them here and give as much detail as possible.

Research will be taking place in various schools and the researcher will liaise with schools about Health & Safety within school premises. Researcher will make sure that they sign in and collect a visitors badge upon arrival atthe schools and finds out about fire drill protocols and other protocols in case of emergency.

8. Are there any specific risks to the researcher greater than those encounteredin normal day-to-day life? (Consider all possible causes of risk carefully, including social, physical and psychological.) If ‘Not’, why. If ‘Yes’, list them here and explain what you will do to minimize this risk.

No risks to researcher are present within this study. All health & safety procedures required for this research will be checked with participating schools.

9. Please indicate what particular qualifications, vetting (e.g., CRB) or training are needed to administer the tests or sessions, and if so, whether the supervisor or student is appropriately qualified or external assistance is needed. Please note that students utilising laboratory equipment, Institute facilities and/or procedures are required to demonstrate competencyin these procedures before collecting data outlined in the ISES lab manual. Students must submit a competency form in their final submission

Research holds CRB (DBS) via University of WorcesterCRB (DBS) Number: 001348225363

10. If the research involves research assistants or other personnel to carry out specific research tasks in your research, how will you ensure that they comply with the Institute’s Ethics procedures?

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No research assistants or other personal are required to carry out research tasks.

11. How will you address anonymity and confidentiality issues? Give as much detail as possible.

Following the Data Protection Act 1998 all data within the research shall be anonymised with no identities present.

12. How will you provide for security of the data during and after the study? Give as much detail as possible.

All data collected via lesson observations, questionnaires, and focus groups interviews will be held electronically and protected via password protected Roshal ARchive (RAR) file that only the researcher will have access to.

Questionnaires are based online therefore a password to gain access to the questionnaire is required with only the researcher knowing the relevant password.

Recordings from focus group interviews will be placed in a password protectedRoshal ARchive (RAR) file with only the researcher knowing the password to gain access to the recordings.

13._________________________________________________________________________Please describe any other procedures relevant to complying with the University Ethics or BASES code of conduct, indicated in the lab manual inthe E- admin website.

During this research the researcher will follow The British Association ofSport and Exercise Science, British Psychological Society and the University of Worcester’s ethical procedures during all stages of the research.

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IV. UW Ethics Checklist:

Yes No

(Delete as applicable)

1. Does the study involve participants who are particularly vulnerable or unable to give informed consent? (e.g. children, people with learning disabilities, your own students/employees)

2. Will the study require the co-operation of a gatekeeper for initial access to the groups or individuals to be recruited? (e.g. students at school, members of self-help group, residents of nursing home)

3. Will the study involve discussion of sensitive topics(e.g. sexual activity, drug use, abuse, discrimination)?

4. Is pain or discomfort likely to result from the study?

5. Could the study induce psychological stress or anxiety or cause harm or negative consequences beyondthe risks encountered in normal life?

6. Will it be necessary for participants to take part inthe study without their knowledge and consent at the time? (e.g. covert observation of people in non-public places)

7. Does the study involve deception?

8. Will the study require the gathering of information about unlawful activity?

9. Does the research involve access to, or the collection of, sensitive/confidential data from otherorganisations?

10.

Will financial inducements be offered beyond reasonable expenses and/or compensation for time?

11.

Will invasive procedures be part of the research (e.g. blood sampling, temperature probes)?

12.

Will the study involve prolonged, high intensity or repetitive testing?

13.

Does the study involve the testing or observation of animals?

14 Does the study involve collection of DNA, cells,

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginson. tissues or other samples from humans or animals?

15.

Does the study involve human remains or burial sites?

16.

Does the study involve NHS patients, staff or premises?

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V. Declarations:

Declarations by Chief Investigator (Student)

The information contained herein is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, accurate.

I have attempted to identify all risks related to the research that may arise in conducting this research and acknowledge my obligations and the rights of the participants.

Note to student: Submitting this form certifies that you agree to carry out the research in the manner specified above. If you wish to deviate from the above-outlined procedures at any time, you should discuss this with your supervisor, and, if he/she thinks it necessary, you should re-submit the form along with all appropriate appendices.

Student’s name: Ryan Higginson Date: 22/05/2014

Declaration by supervisor:

Supervisors should highlight the appropriate section and delete the section that is not relevant. In case the proposal is referred to the Institute for review please contact the ISES Ethics coordinator as soon as possible.

The student has the skills to carry out the research or appropriate assistance has been arranged (e.g., a copy of the lab competency form has been seen).*

I have seen the participant informed consent and I consider it appropriate.* The procedures for recruitment are appropriate.*

A copy of this proposal is being referred to the Institute for further consideration.*

(* delete as appropriate)

Note to Supervisor: Do not submit this form unless you have seen all the above-mentioned documents and all declarations are correct.

Supervisor’s name: Date:

If referred to Institute for further consideration:

Decision of Institute (if required)* No further action required / Refer to UW Ethics Committee (*delete as

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SPRT3002 Independent Study Ryan Higginsonappropriate)

Ethics coordinator’s comments:

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Links to Questionnaires

Achievement Goals Questionnaire (Physical Education) (Papaioannou et al 2007): http://www.instant.ly/s/qMjJZ Perceptions of PE Teacher’s Emphasis on Goals Questionnaire (Papaioannou et al. 2007): http://www.instant.ly/s/XShcs

Appendix 2 – Lesson Observation Form Adapted from Bicknell (2014) Teaching Observation Form for SPRT2026 Teaching Games in Secondary Schools

Lesson Observation Form

Observers Name: Location: Class Details: Date:

Teaching Model Used (MLT, TGfU,Sport Education)

Learning Outcomes Transitions Between Activities Clear Lesson Structure

Teaching Points Used Learning & Teaching Styles Used Inclusion (everyone Included) Evidence of Learning/PupilProgression

Use Of Feedback (praise) Use of Feedback (technical) Teaching Abilities (inc: use ofvoice)

Behaviour Management

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Motivational Climate Created Evidence of Pupil Enjoyment Evidence of Pupils Non-enjoyment Evidence of Teacher-Pupil Relationships

Appendix 3 - Lesson Observation One

Observers Name: Head Researcher Observation Number: 1 Location: School 1 Class Details: Year 9 Boys

Date: 4th June 2014 Sport: Rounders

Teaching Model Used (MLT, TGfU, Sport Education)

TGfU Sport Education

Learning Outcomes

To be able to bat tactically in order to score more rounders

Transitions Between Activities

The lesson flowed with activities clear

- Game - Conditioned Game - Tactical discussion - Game

Clear Lesson Structure

Lesson followed the traditional TGfUstructure. Pupils were allowed toplay a game to start with. Teacherstopped game to discuss tactical

elements of batting in rounders andallowed students to offer their ownopinion on what would be the besttactic to use. After this a pupilswere allowed to play a game againwith enhanced tactical knowledge.

Teaching Points Used

Teacher constantly stopped the game to go over teaching points for all skills needed for rounders

Learning & Teaching Styles Used

Lassez-fair – this lessons was more based around game play with no time lesson timeset for learning or enhancingskills.

Inclusion (everyone Included)

All pupils were included in the lesson. Pupils not in kit were askedto be score keepers and umpires

Evidence of Learning/PupilProgression

There was evidence of pupils using tactical awareness when they worked together at fielding and batting.Pupils started batting more tactically and hit the gaps in the field and aimed for perceived weak

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fielders.Use Of Feedback (praise)

Teacher praised pupils when they used the teaching points.

Use of Feedback (technical)

Teacher had basic understanding of the technical aspects of rounders but used his knowledge effectively and gave technical feedback to good effect.

Teaching Abilities (inc: use ofvoice)

Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to play rounders effectively.


Teacher managed behaviour well during this lesson making sure all pupils were listening when the teacher had teaching points to make

Motivational Climate Created

Mastery climate was created that emphasized pupil learning. However, it seems that certain pupils would fare better in competitive climate as some seemed to complain about certain pupils appeared to really want to win whatever the cost

Evidence of Pupil Enjoyment

Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due to the game that the teacher set.

Evidence of Pupils Non-enjoyment

As this lesson was purely a game. Pupils that didn’t seem to enjoy rounders as a sport seemed to not enjoy the lesson as they were cast off for what seemed to be a lack of ability and skills.

Evidence of Teacher-PupilRelationships

Pupils got on well with the teacher and listened when the teacher was giving instructions.

Appendix 4 - Lesson Observation Two




TGfU

Learning Outcomes

To be able to bat tactically in order to score more rounders



- Game - Conditioned Game


Lesson followed the traditional TGfUstructure. Pupils were allowed toplay a game to start with. Teacherstopped game to allowed students to

discuss their use of tactics.

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- Tactical discussion - Game




Lassez-fair


All pupils were included in the lesson.


There was evidence of pupils using tactical awareness when they worked together at fielding and batting

Use Of Feedback (praise)


Praise was also given more to pupilsthat the teacher deemed to have lessability. Assume this was a motivational tool to encourage participation.


Teacher had basic understanding of the technical aspects of rounders but used his knowledge effectively and gave technical feedback to good effect.


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to play rounders effectively.




Mastery climate was created that emphasized pupil learning.


Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due being allowed to play a game andhave their own tactical discussions as a team.


Pupils that seemed to be being bossed around by the more competitive pupils seemed to lack enjoyment.

Evidence of Teacher-Pupil Relationships


Appendix 5 - Lesson ObservationThree


Date: 9th June 2014 Sport: Tennis

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TGfU MLT

Learning Outcomes

To be able improve serving technique in tennis.

To be able to use various serving techniques tacticallyduring a game.


The lesson only had one activity which lead into a game at the end.

The transition was clear and allowedpupils to practice serving


Lesson followed the traditionalTGfU/MLT structure.




Guided learning




There was evidence of pupils progressing in their serving technique. Some pupils started to use different serving styles to outwit opponents during games.




Teacher had good understanding of the technical aspects of tennis and used his knowledge effectively gaving technical feedback to good effect.


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to serve effectively.






Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due to being able to learn various service types.


Some pupils who weren’t very good atserving seemed to not enjoy parts ofthis lesson. The teacher emphasised continuous practice.



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Appendix 6 - Lesson Observation Four


Date: 9th June 2014 Sport: Tennis


TGfU MLT

Learning Outcomes

To be able learn the basics of serving in tennis


The lesson only had one activity which lead into a game at the end.

The transition was clear and allowedpupils to practice serving


Lesson followed the traditionalTGfU/MLT structure.




Guided learning




There was evidence of pupils progressing in their serving technique.




Teacher had good understanding of the technical aspects of tennis and used his knowledge effectively gaving technical feedback to good effect.


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to serve effectively.






Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due to being able to learn various service types.


Some pupils who weren’t very good atserving seemed to not enjoy parts ofthis lesson. The teacher emphasised continuous



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Pupils enjoyed being able to practice their serving in the games towards the end of the lesson

practice.

Appendix 7 - Lesson Observation Five




TGfU MLT

Learning Outcomes

To be able to learn the basicskills required for effectiverounders play



- Game - Conditioned Game - Tactical discussion - Game


Lesson followed the traditional TGfUand MLT structure. Pupils wereallowed to play a game to startwith. Teacher stopped game to

allowed students to discuss theirtechnique and tactics.




Guided learning




There was evidence of pupils using tactical awareness when they worked together at fielding and batting.




Teacher had basic understanding of the technical aspects of rounders but used his knowledge effectively


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure


Teacher managed behaviour well during this lesson making sure all pupils were listening when the

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Praise was also given more to pupilsthat the teacher deemed to have lessability.

and gave technical feedback to good effect.

that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to play rounders effectively.

teacher had teaching points to make.




Pupils seemed to enjoy the lesson due being allowed to play a game andhave their own tactical discussions as a team.


Some pupils that perceived rounders to be a “girls” sports seemed to lack enjoyment in this lesson. The teacher emphasised how the PE curriculum has changed and that rounders is not just a game for girls.



Appendix 8 - Lesson Observation Six

Observers Name: Head Researcher Observation Number: 6 Location: School 1 Class Details: Year 8 BoysCricket

Date: 19th June


TGfU MLT

Learning Outcomes

To work on the technique required for effective batting


Only a game was played in this lesson


Only a game was played, but it was clear who was on whichteam.


Teacher constantly stopped the game to go over teaching points for batting.


Guided learning


All pupils were included in this lesson and the teacher made sure everyone got a chance to bat, bowl


With the teacher stopping the game at certain points to go over

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and field teaching points pupils were able to learn and progress their batting technique


Teacher praised pupils when they used the teaching points for effective batting


Teacher had basic understanding of the technical aspects of cricket batting but used his knowledge effectively and gave technical feedback to good effect.


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to bat effectively.


Teacher managed behaviour well during this lesson making sure all pupils were listening when the teacher had teaching points to make.


Mastery climate was created that emphasized pupil learning and development of batting technique.


Pupils enjoyed learning how to bat and were motivated to learn how to bat technically and effectively


During the game pupils wanted to batmore than bowl or field. The teacheragreed but stuck to a normal game.



Appendix 9 - Lesson Observation Seven

Observers Name: Head Researcher Observation Number: 7 Location: School 1 Class Details: Year 8 Boys Cricket

Date: 23rd June

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TGfU MLT

Learning Outcomes

To work on the technique required for effective bowling


There was a clear transition between activities that allowed pupils to develop their skills


The lesson structure was clear and allowed pupils to break down the skill of bowling.


Teacher constantly stopped the game to go over teaching points for bowling.


Command Guided learning


All pupils were included in this lessons and the teacher made sure everyone got a chance to show the development of their bowling technique


Pupils were given to the chance to explore the tactics of bowling whichseemed to allow pupils to progress.


Teacher praised pupils when they used the teaching points for effective bowling.


Teacher had an understanding of the technical aspects of cricket bowlingbut used his knowledge effectively and gave technical feedback to good effect which allowed to pupils to understand the skill breakdown of bowling


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to bowl effectively.




Mastery climate was created that emphasized pupil learning and development of bowling technique.


Pupils enjoyed learning how to bowl and were motivated to learn how to bowl technically and effectively.


During the game some pupils wanted to bat more than bowl due to their perceived bowling ability. The teacher allowed pupils who have low perceived bowling ability to bat more but emphasised the importance of bowling practice



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Appendix 10 - Lesson Observation Eight

Observers Name: Head Researcher Observation Number: 8 Location: School 1 Class Details: Year 7 Boys Cricket

Date: 24rd June


MLT

Learning Outcomes

To learn about the basic fundamentals for effective cricket fielding.


There was a clear transition between activities that allowed pupils to develop their skills


The lesson structure was clear and allowed pupils to practice various fielding techniques in isolation.


Teacher constantly stopped the drills to go over teaching points for fielding.


Command


All pupils were included in this lessons and the teacher made sure everyone got a chance to show the development of their fielding technique


Pupils were given to the chance to explore the difference ways fieldingtechniques can be carried out.


Teacher praised pupils when they used the teaching points for effective fielding.


Teacher had an understanding of the technical aspects of cricket fielding and used his knowledge effectively and gave technical feedback to good effect which allowed to pupils to understand the skill breakdown of various fielding techniques.


Teacher showed the ability to teach a mixed ability class and made sure that the lesson was tailored to all pupils so that all pupils would value the lesson and learn how to field effectively.



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Mastery climate was created that emphasized pupil learning and development of fielding technique.


Pupils enjoyed learning how to bowl and were motivated to learn how to bowl technically and effectively.


During the game some pupils wanted to bat more than field due to “how boring fielding can be” The teacher emphasised the importance of fielding practice



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