American Journal of Scientific Research

American Journal of Scientific Research

ISSN: 2301-2005 Issue 89

July, 2013

Editorial Advisory Board

Maika Mitchell, Columbia University Medical Center

Prabhat K. Mahanti, University of New Brunswick

Parag Garhyan, Auburn University

Morteza Shahbazi, Edinburgh University

Jianfang Chai, University of Akron

Raj Rajagopalan, National University of Singapore

Sang-Eon Park, Inha University

Said Elnashaie, Auburn University

Subrata Chowdhury, University of Rhode Island

Ghasem-Ali Omrani, Tehran University of Medical Sciences

Ajay K. Ray, National University of Singapore

Mutwakil Nafi, China University of Geosciences

Felix Ayadi, Texas Southern University

Bansi Sawhney, University of Baltimore

David Wang, Hsuan Chuang University

Cornelis A. Los, Kazakh-British Technical University

Teresa Smith, University of South Carolina

Ranjit Biswas, Philadelphia University

Chiaku Chukwuogor-Ndu, Eastern Connecticut State University

M. Femi Ayadi, University of Houston-Clear Lake

Emmanuel Anoruo, Coppin State University

H. Young Baek, Nova Southeastern University

Mohand-Said Oukil, King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals

David Wang, Chung Yuan Christian University

Cornelis A. Los, Kazakh-British Technical University

Abdul Jalil, Wuhan University

Wen-jen Hsieh, National Cheng Kung University

M. Carmen Guisan, University of Santiago de Compostela

H. Young Baek, Nova Southeastern University

Ebere Oriaku, Elizabeth City State University

Neven Borak, Securities Market Agency

Maria Elena Garcia-Ruiz, University of Cantabria

Ghadir Mahdavi, Kyoto University

Emanuele Bajo, University of Bologna

Wassim Shahin, Lebanese American University

Neil Reid, University of Toledo

Christopher Balding, University of California, Irvine

Jean-Luc Grosso, University of South Carolina

Richard Omotoye, Virginia State University

Eskandan A. Tooma, the American University in Cairo

Rafa E. Al Qutaish, Al-Ain University of Science and Technology, UAE

Leo V. Ryan, DePaul University

Elmer-Rico E. Mojica, State University of New York at Buffalo

Syrous Kooros, Nicholls State University

G. M. Nasira, Sasurie College of Engineering

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American Journal of Scientific Research Issue 89 July, 2013

Contents

The Importance and Necessity of Concurrent Jourisdiction for Granting

Interim Measure Case: Islamic Republic of Iran 5-15

Reza Haghparast

Making and Optimizing Copper Oxide Nano-Particles from Second-Hand Sources 16-23 Farideh Yousefi and Malihe Jalili

Sassanid Religion and the Decline 24-28

Zia Khazaei and Mahnaz Ghaljeh

Production, Manufacturing System Operations, and Logistics Modeling the

Metrics of Lean, Agile, and Leagility: An AHP-Based Approach 29-40 Mahboobe Sadat Haj Mirfattah Tabrizi and Javad khamisabadi

Analyzing the Place of Myth in the Religion 41-46

Zahra Rezaei

Experimental Investigation of the Geotextile Effect on the Strength of Kaolinite Clay 47-59

Amir Kalhor and Kiarash Mirabi

Developing the Capability of Local Management Based on Iranian-Islamic

Criteria (Case Study: The Local Management of Sari) 60-80

Hamid Reza Saremi and Mohammad Rashidi Alashti

Pedestrian Network Development Planning in Kish Island Case

Study: Mirmohanna Walkway 81-90 Hassan Ali Laghai and Mona Loghman

Strategy for Sustainable Urban Development Guidelines for Tehran 91-96 Hassan Ali Laghai, Mona Loghman and Nabiollah Kolbadi

A Survey on Over Confidence under Increasing Inflation in Tehran Stock

Exchange and Tehran Real Estate Market 97-108 Majid Shakeri, Reyhaneh Sadat Tabatabei Yeganeh and Reza Teharni

Management of Ovarian Dermoid Cysts at Jordan University Hospital:

A Teaching Hospital Experience 109-115 Kamil Mosa Fram, MD, Shawqi S.Saleh, Frcog, Fawwaz A. Kazaleh, MD

Firas Obiedat, MD, Osama Samarah, MD and Nadir M. Al-Bsoul, MD

Joint Detection and Discrimination of CDMA2000, WiMAX and Frequency

Hopping Signals 116-124 Ammar Abdul-Hamed Khader, Ahmed M. Husein Shabani and Mirza Tariq Beg

The Impacts of SMS on Formal Writing: A Case Study Among the University

Students of Comsats Vehari Campus 125-138

NaziaSuleman, Iram RubabSial, SaydAbrarHussain Shah and Hafiz SajjadHussain

Role of Countryside Women in Decision Making in different Family Matters 139-143 Mazhar Abbas, Asma Kashif Shahzad, Rafia Waqar,

Wasim Abbas and Syed Abrar Hussain Shah

The Study of Relationship between Free Float Stock Less than 25% and the Stock

Returns of Listed Companies in Tehran Stock Exchange 144-147 Mehdi Najafi and Farshid Asgari


ISSN 2301-2005 Issue 89 July, 2013, pp.5-15

http://www.americanjournalofscientificresearch.com

The Importance and Necessity of Concurrent Jourisdiction for

Granting Interim Measure Case: Islamic Republic of Iran

Reza Haghparast

Masters of Private Law, University of Tehran International Campus Kish Island

Department of Law, Kish International Campus, University of Tehran, Kish Island, Iran

E-mail: [email protected]

Tel: +989124520029

Abstract

One of the most important issues of iran civil procedure code which has always

been dealt as a lacunas is the possibility of granting the interim measure by the arbitral

tribunal. Currently, it is not possible to seek for interim measure through the court and

arbitral tribunal. The reason of the impossibility is that article 311 of the civil procedure

code holds that the capability of handling the request of interim measure lies in the

jurisdiction of the court in which the dispute has been raised, and the reason of

impossibility of seeking it through the arbitral tribunal is due to the absence of giving such

power by the parties in the arbitration agreement. However, the point is that the granting

interim measure is one of the legal requirements that may occur in any dispute. The courts

and the arbitral tribunal must have the concurrent jurisdiction in granting such actions as

well.

Keywords: Arbitral tribunal, interim measure, concurrent jurisdiction, parties agreement,

enforcement of interim measure.

1. Introduction It is a common practice that parties to an arbitration procedure petition the arbitral tribunal for granting

interim measure where the urgency of the case necessitates. Therefore, interim measures are deemed as

a definite necessity and a tool to support or protect what might be endangered throughout the procedure

(Morek, 2007). One of the lacunas in the iran code of civil procedure is failure to determine provisions

concerning possibility to order interim measure by arbitral tribunal. Currently, such failure prevents the

arbitrators to grant interim measures. Even it is out of the court jurisdiction. The reason is that subject

to article 311 of the code of civil procedure, as general proposition, the only authority in capacity to

grant such award is the court where the procedure is commenced. This implies that neither the court

nor the arbitral tribunal may accept the petition of interim measure. However, taking into account

exception to the general proposition, the court may grant interim measure when the subject of the

request is included.

The point is that we can employ the term “lacunas” when there is no mutual agreement between

the parties regarding the grant of jurisdiction for issuing interim measure to the arbitrator. Otherwise,

what is agreed upon as arbitral procedure determines authenticity of the writ. This lies with the fact that

cause of writ is the mutual agreement of the parties, and the jurisdiction of arbitrator is rooted in the so-

called agreement. The lacuna in the law eventuates in inefficiency and ambiguity of arbitration and

makes the parties to bring their case directly to the court. Codification of comprehensive regulation

concerning grant of interim measure entails with using a set of principle bases such as principles of

The Importance and Necessity of Concurrent Jourisdiction for Granting Interim

Measure Case: Islamic Republic of Iran 6

court/arbitral tribunal concurrent jurisdiction, outcomes, and raised limitation as well. Thus, the present

work tries to answer; “under what condition and in observance of what principles and regulation the

arbitral tribunal may grant interim measure?”, “ are the parties allowed to refer to court or arbitral

tribunal to petition for interim measure?”, “is it a breach of arbitral agreement to refer to the court

seeking grant of interim measure?”, and “do the arbitrators have the power to enforce the order

following grant of interim measure by the arbitrator?”

2. Concurrent Jurisdiction of the Court and Arbitral Tribunal to Grant Interim

Measure and the Ambiguity By principle, the courts and arbitrators have jurisdiction to grant interim measures. That is, the parties

are free to petition either the court or the arbitral tribunal for granting interim measure. This is

permitted where there is no otherwise agreement, or the agreement (if any) shall constitute the

authenticity of the arbitration (Mcilwrath and Savage, 2010). the various sorces of arbitration law-

statutes, institutional rules, international conventions, and arbitral awards- recognize this principle and

there is an ascending trend for acknowledgment of concurrent jurisdiction (Fouchard, Gaillard and

Goldman, 1999). As mentioned earlier, the code of civil procedure is remained silent in this regard and,

consequently, it is not possible to petition neither court nor arbitral tribunal for interim measures.

Currently, what hinders grant of interim measure is that when the parties bring their case to arbitral

tribunal (i.e. the case is in jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal), the arbitrator does not have the power to

grant the write due to silence of legislator in this regard. On the other hand, for the case brought to the

court of law, article 311 of code of civil procedure (as a general proposition) stipulates that granting

interim measure is under jurisdiction of the court where the case is filed and/or has the jurisdiction to

deal with the case (Shams, 2009). By definition, jurisdiction is a legal right, which enables the judge to

affect their authority (Jafari Langroud, 1999). Grant of interim measure is not an exception of the

principle – part of public policy. That is, only competent authority, as stipulated by law, may deal with

such cases – intrinsic and acquired competencies (Nahreini, 1999).

Based on this introduction, where each party petitions the court for grant of interim measure,

the court shall reject the request as it does not have the jurisdiction (subject to article 311 of the code of

civil law) and the same is true for the arbitral tribunal. The court where the case is originally opened is

the sole court with the intrinsic jurisdiction to hear such petitions. However, this is not free of

exception, which is where the case is out of jurisdiction of the first court (article 312 of the same law).

Therefore, when the case is open in arbitral tribunal, the court may grant interim measure writ upon

petition of the parties only under the exceptional condition mentioned above. Otherwise, the court may

not grant the writ. Both old and new codes of civil procedures have remained silent on jurisdiction of

the arbitrator. Definitely, this is a sheer lacuna of the code of civil procedure pertinent to arbitration.

However, the principle of concurrent jurisdiction is acknowledge in other arbitration codes of Iranian

law such as Iran International Commercial Arbitration Code (article 9) and two main institution

arbitrations, Arbitration Rules of Center of Iran Chamber (ACIC) (section 35(C)) and Tehran Regional

Arbitration Center rules (TRAC)(23(3)). Subject to these, the parties may petition their request whether

in the court or arbitral tribunal.

Different judicial systems adopt different approaches regarding jurisdiction of courts and

arbitral tribunal. Some, such as Germany, recognizes concurrent jurisdiction of the court and arbitral

tribunal, and some deprive arbitration of the jurisdiction to grant interim measure and power the court

as the sole jurisdiction in this regard (China, Italy, and Argentina). In other case, the court loses the

jurisdiction when the arbitrator is adopted (France); while some have ambiguity in this regard (USA)

(Drahoza, 2003). Nowadays, majority of systems have recongnized concurrent jurisdiction and the

parties may petitionthe court or arbitral tribunal for grant of interim measure. This is the outcome of

decades of development. There was a time that the court was the sole body competent to grant interim

measure. (Winkler, Haver and Mailander, 2007; Moses, 2012)

7 Reza Haghparast

2.1. Consequences of Concurrent Jurisdiction and Silence in this Regard

Naturally, the principle of concurrent jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal and the court results in

specific consequences. What follows deals with the consequences.

2.1.1. Jurisdiction of Courts

The primary outcome of concurrent of jurisdiction of the court and arbitral tribunal is that the each

party may petition the court for grant of interim measure while the case is under procedure in arbitral

tribunal. National courts may grant interim measure whether before or after commencement of

procedure in arbitral tribunal. However, some argue that when a case is open in arbitral tribunal, the

court may only play a secondary or supporting role where the tribunal fails to deal with the petition for

interim measure for whatever reason (Mistelis, 2010). Each party might refer to the court when the

tribunal is not started yet while there is an urgent issue to deal with and the tribunal is not available

immediately (Kroll and Mistelis, Lew, 2003). Deeper look into statute and norms makes it clear that

the legislator intention is that parties of arbitration shall be deprived from the advantages they might be

granted by the court, as the court accepts the petition when it helps facilitating the procedure.

(Fourchard, Gaillard and Golman, op.cit)

Failing to acknowledge jurisdiction of the court to grant interim measure may raise variety of

problems and procedures. To make such problems clearer, consider ISCID (International Center for

Settlement of Investment Disputes, 2006) tribunal codes for instance. The codes of the center remains

silent regarding jurisdiction of the court to grant interim measure and the arbitral tribunal is the only

power to grant the order. It is noticeable, however, this case is a bit different from other arbitral codes

and norms (Bismuth, 2009). Article 47 of the code stipulates “except as the parties otherwise agree, the

tribunal may, if it considers that the circumstances so require, recommend any provisional measures

which should be taken to preserve the respective rights of either party”. (Kryvoi, 2010) It is an old

debate in the convention that “whether the parities may petitions the court for grant of interim measure

where there is an arbitral agreement beforehand? ” or “ is the intention of the article is to imply an

exclusive right for the arbitrator to grant interim measure? At any rate, the center insists that

independency of the arbitrator is not in contrary with power of the court to grant interim measure. The

court of appeal of Ren based its ruling on this argument in Guinea vs. Atlantic Triton (Fouchard,

Gaillard, Goldman, op. cit). There is a great deal of ambiguity concerning this article. For instance, the

fact that it is not clearly stated that the court might grant interim measure in the arbitral agreement

might be interpreted as waiver of the parties of their right to refer to the court (Ibide, p. 643). Clearly,

failing to determine jurisdiction of the court causes may disputes and debates. National laws approach

in this regard is as follows:

2.1.1.1. German Code of Civil Procedure

The essence of articles 1033 and 1041 of the code is that concurrent jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal and

the court is accepted (Kroll, Mistelis and Lew, op. cit). Article 1033 stipulates concerning jurisdiction

of the court that “arbitral agreement may not cause hindrance to the court to grant interim measure

neither before nor during arbitration procedure (Uberstzungen, 2012). Therefore, jurisdiction of the

court is natural not acquired; that is, the jurisdiction of [court] to grant interim measure is identical to

the power granted to arbitral tribunal (Van Den Berg, 2005). In compliance with German code of civil

procedure, therefore, the parties may choose the court or arbitral tribunal to petitions for grant of

interim measure. Thus, German courts have jurisdiction to grant interim measure whether before or

during arbitration procedure.

2.1.1.2. English Arbitration Act 1996

Section 44 of the English Arbitration act (comprised of 7 paragraphs) is a complicated mechanism to

express jurisdiction of national courts concerning interim measures ( Harris and Planterose, 2007).

First of all, the arbitral tribunal has the jurisdiction to grant interim measure and the court may

intervene where the arbitrators do not have the jurisdiction or fail to deal with the case effectively.



Taking into account that this article is centerpiece of regulation that grant supplementary role to the

courts, it can be concluded that national courts of the UK may grant interim measure in specific

condition (Schaefer, 1998). However, it is not expected that the parties refer the case to the court

without sound reason unless the arbitrators recommend the same or the parties agree of doing so.

(Moses, op. cit)

2.1.1.3. France

The former French code of civil procedure was silent concerning jurisdiction to grant interim

measures, though substitute of power by the parties was confirmed. Moreover, the court had concurrent

jurisdiction with arbitral tribunal and could hear the urgent cases before arbitral tribunal (Van Den

Berg, Ibid). With introduction of new arbitral regulation in 2011, the matter of granting interim

measure was explicitly dealt with in an article where concurrent jurisdiction is recognized. Article

1449: " The existence of an arbitration agreement, insofar as the arbitral tribunal has not yet been

constituted, shall not preclude a party from applying to a court for measures relating to the taking of

evidence or provisional or conservatory

Measures". (Code of France Civil Procedure, 2001, Article 1449)

However, along with acknowledging concurrent jurisdiction there are some limitations. The

jurisdiction is recognized in case the arbitral tribunal is not held, and the parties may not refer to the

court when the case is open in the tribunal.

2.1.1.4. USA

The situation in the U.S.A, on the other hand, remains unclear.The Federal Arbitration act Does not

certain any provision on national court jurisdiction for interim measure. Jurisprudence seems to be

inconsistent. However, U.S.A courts, in practice, only shows interest to grant interim measure in the

framework of international arbitration, which is supplementary in nature. It is noticeable that the courts

may not grant the order unless the petitions for grant of interim measure in the arbitral tribunal is

impossible. (Ferrari and Kroll, 2011) Take Simula Inc vs.Autolive Inc where the court finally held the

petitions to grant interim measure unacceptable based on the fact that Sweden arbitral tribunal had the

power to grant the same. (Moses, op. cit)

2.2. No Waiver of the Arbitration Agreement

The paramount result of concurrent jurisdiction of the court and arbitral tribunal is that the request of

one party in the court shall not be deemed as waiver of attribution agreement. Moreover, where such

agreement exists, the national courts have the unquestionable jurisdiction to deal with petitions for

granting of interim measure (Winkler, Haver and Mailander, 2007). The power to grant such interim

measure is aimed to support domestic courts and to preserve interests of the parties. This lies with the

fact that local court are more accessible and their order has more enforcement power. Furthermore, a

fare procedure holds that the parties have the right refer to the court to deal with urgent issues,

preserver their interests, and enforcement of arbitration order. Therefore, this is not in controversy with

jurisdiction of arbitral proceeding and not waiver of arbitration agreement. (Gouchard, Gaillard,

Goldman, op. cit)

In spite of code of civil procedure, Iranian law international commercial arbitration holds in

article 9:“Either party may, before or during arbitration, request the issuance of an attachment order or

an interim measure of protection from the President of the Court, specified in Article (6)”. What is

inferred from the article is that referring the court does not means as breach of arbitration agreement.

Moreover, we read in article 35(c) of Arbitration Rules of Center of Iran Chamber (ACIC): “The

application to the courts in exceptional cases for the purpose of obtaining an interim measure order

before or during the arbitration process, shall not be deemed to be a breach or a waiver of the

Arbitration Agreement and does not preclude the arbitration from proceeding”. (Arbitration Rules of

9 Reza Haghparast

Center of Iran Chamber, 2011). Moreover, paragraph 3 of article 23(3) of Tehran Regional Arbitration

Center rules (TRAC) states: “A request for interim measures addressed by any party to a judicial

authority shall not be deemed incompatible with the agreement to arbitrate, or as a waiver of that

agreement”. (Tehran Regional Arbitration Center rules, 2007)

2.2.1. National law approach

2.2.1.1. German Code of Civil Procedure:

Articles 1033 and 1041 of the code recognize concurrent jurisdiction of the court and arbitral tribunal

for granting interim measure. We may conclude that the parties may petitions the court for granting

interim measure when their case is open in an arbitral tribunal and there is an arbitration agreement. In

compliance with the regulations, the lack of jurisdiction to hear and deal with petitions for grant of

interim measures is rejected. (Van Den Berg, op. cit,)

2.2.1.2. English Arbitration Act 1996

Article 44 of the code, which is the centerpiece of the regulation, authorizes the arbitral tribunal rather

than the court. In particular, there is no clear stipulation concerning no waiver of arbitration agreement,

though the content of the code also implies so. Therefore, referring to the court of law, subject to

arbitration code of England is not deemed as waiver of arbitration agreement. (Schaefer, op.cit; Harris

and Planterose, op. cit)

2.2.1.3. Code of International Arbitration

In this regard, paragraph 9- section 26 of UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules (2010), paragraph 2 of section

28 of international chamber of commerce (ICC 2012), paragraph 3-section 21 of American arbitration

associations (AAA( (Werbicki 2010), paragraph 2-section 31 of Stockholm Chamber of Commerce

(2004), and section (VI) of European convent of international commercial (1961), European

Arbitration (1961) are noticeable. In all these cases, we see that petitioning court for grant of interim is

not breach of arbitration agreement.

2.3. Jurisdiction of the Arbitrators

The third result of concurrent jurisdiction is that the arbitrator may have the jurisdiction to grant

interim measure upon request of the parties. As mentioned earlier, code of civil procedure is silent on

this regard and there is no clear recongnition of jurisdiction of arbitrator to grant interim measure. The

question is that “given the condition of code civil procedure, does the arbitrator have the jurisdiction to

grant interim measure when the arbitration agreement or the code is silent?” The answer is that the

arbitrator does not have the authority when such authority is not granted by the parties. The reason is

that the arbitration is mutually accepted and the cause of authority of the court is nothing but the

parties’ agreement.

That is, in absence of such agreement, the arbitrators do not have intrinsic authority to grant

interim measure. Thus, lack of clear statement of the legislator makes the agreement between the

parties as the only source of authority to grant interim measure. In case of no such agreement,

therefore, the arbitrator may not grant interim measure.

On the other hand, Iran code of international commercial arbitration and two major institutional

arbitrations in Iran recognize concurrent jurisdiction to grant interim measure. section 17 of the former

states “Unless otherwise agreed by the parties, the arbitrator may, at the request of a party, order

interim measure of protection in respect of the subject matter of the claim if an immediate decision is

needed, the arbitrator may require the requesting party to provide appropriate security.” Moreover,

paragraph “a” section 35 of Arbitration Rules of Center of Iran Chamber (Arbitration Rules of Center

of Iran Chamber, op.cit) adopts the same language and grants the jurisdiction to order interim measure

to the arbitral tribunal upon plea of each party and urgency of the case. We read in the note of this

section “The submission by the parties to the Arbitration Centre entails their acceptance of the power

of Arbitrator to order interim measure and to require the deposit of suitable security and the parties are



obliged to observe the content of the interim order”.Therefore, where the parties to the arbitration

agreement fail to state power of the arbitrator to grant interim measure, the arbitrator still has the

authority grant to such order if required. Tehran Regional Arbitration Center rules, section 23(1) states

“At the request of either party, the Arbitral Tribunal may order any interim measures it deems

necessary or appropriate in respect of the subject-matter of the dispute, including measures for the

conservation of the goods forming the subject-matter in dispute, such as ordering their deposit with a

third person or the sale of perishable goods”. (Tehran Regional Arbitration Center rules, op.cit).

Clearly, power of the arbitrator to grant interim measure is recognized in the section. This section relies

on section 17 of UNICITRAL 1985 and argues that the aim is to preserve the goods under dispute.

Moreover, paragraph 2 of the same section concerning predicted order states “Such interim measures

may be established in the form of an Interim Award...”

The modern approach of national laws is to grant authority to grant provisional measure order,

while the authority was limited to national courts in the past. However, some countries such as Italy are

still following the previous path and arbitrators under such jurisdiction do not have authority to grant

provisional measure. section 818 of Italian code of civil procedure states that "the arbitrators may not

grant attachments or other interim measures of protection, except if otherwise provided by the law".

However, the Italian courts’ authority is of supplementary nature and the final award of the court shall

be confirmed by the arbitral tribunal (Mcilwrath, Savage, op. cit). In the following section, some of the

arbitration rules where authority of arbitral tribunal to grant provisional measure is recognized are

presented.

2.3.1. France

As emphasized in former French code of civil procedure (1981), authority of arbitrators to grant

provisional measure is not specified, while the parties may grant such authority to the arbitrator (Van

Den Berg, op.cit). However, the new law is clear regarding such authority so that such authorities are

considerably increased. Consequently, arbitral tribunal may grant provisional measure if required and

revise previous order in this regard. section 1468 of the new code states:"The arbitral tribunal may

order upon the parties any conservatory or provisional measures that it deems appropriate…The

arbitral tribunal has the power to amend or add to any provisional or conservatory measure that it has

granted".(Code of France Civil Procedure, 2011)

2.3.2. German Code of Civil Procedure

According to paragraph 1 of section 1041 of German code of civil procedure:" Unless the parties to the

dispute have agreed otherwise, the arbitral tribunal may direct, upon a party having filed a

corresponding petition, provisional measures or measures serving to provide security as it deems fit

with a view to the subject matter of the litigation…". (Ubersetzungen and Von Schoning, 2012)

Accordingly, where there is a necessity to grant provisional measure, the arbitral tribunal may grant

conservative or provisional measure and secure proper sanction for the parties as required. (Van Den

Berg, op.cit)

2.3.3. English Arbitration act 1996

Section 39 of the English arbitration act 1996 empowers the arbitrator in different ways including the

power to order provisional measures provided that the parties are not otherwise agreed. As mentioned,

the parties may refer to the court for grant of provision measure when the granting the same is beyond

authority of the arbitrator. (Moses, op. cit; Konrad Schwarz, 2009)

Moreover, section 1696 of Belgian judicial code, section 183 of Umbricht (2007), and section

26 of rules of international arbitration of the same country are some other cases that imply similar

meaning.

11 Reza Haghparast

3. Limitations of Concurrent Authority of the Court and Arbitral Tribunal and no

Clarification There are a set of limitations for specific cases on the principle of concurrent competence of the court

and arbitral tribunal. One to name is caused by mutual agreements between the parties likewise

limitations concerning exclusive authority of the courts to enforce interim measure. We deal with such

limitations in what follows.

3.1. Agreement between the Parties

By definition, the principle of concurrent authority is not related to public order, as the cause and

nature of arbitration lies with mutual agreement (Fouchard Gaillard Goldman, op.cit). Thus, the parties

need to achieve an agreement before waiving the authority of the court or arbitrators to grant interim

measure order. In fact, the parties have the power to determine scope of their agreements. It is very rare

in practice that parties wish to waive part of their power so that as common practice, arbitrators or the

courts have the power to grant interim measure order. Iranian law international commercial arbitration

section 17 and Arbitration Rules of Center of Iran Chamber section 35 grant the parties power to waive

their right upon mutual agreement. In general, majority of codes of arbitrations – given that authority

of arbitration is rooted in mutual agreement of the parties- never ban the parties to waive their right.

This is in line with section 39 &44 of the UK arbitration code and section 1041 of German code of

civil procedure.

3.2. Exclusive Jurisdiction of the Courts to Enforce Interim Measure

Jurisdiction of courts to enforce the order of interim measure is due of lack of executive authority of

arbitrators. They are banned to hear any claim to enforce such holding. Therefore, a special limitation

pertaining concurrent jurisdiction of the court and arbitral tribunal is the exclusive jurisdiction of the

former to enforce interim measure. Such jurisdiction is acknowledged in majority of arbitration codes.

3.2.1. Executive Validity of Arbitrator Award

It is worthy to debate whether the award of arbitration has executive power or the power comes from

order of the court. To put it another word, who has the authority to grant enforcement order? From the

laws viewpoint, to enforce the award means to forward the award to the court to be archived and a

confirmed copy to be notified to the parties. (Jafari Langeroud, 1999)

Concerning enforcement of the award, we read in section 488 of Iran code of civil procedure

“when the losing party fails to enforce the award within 20 days after notification, the court prescribed

the arbitration or a competent court to hear the case shall issue enforcement verdict. Execution of

award is subject to applicable regulations”. The common practice for enforcement of arbitrator’ award

is to hand out the writ to the losing party and the subject to the law this party shall enforce the award

within 20 days to 2 months. Otherwise, execution guarantee shall be used against the losing party.

Therefore, the arbitrator award is of optional nature at first.

It is noticeable that power of court award and arbitration award is not the same. The former

receives its authority from the law, while the later receives its authority from mutual agreement

between the parties (Hossein Abadi, 2012). Therefore, the winning parity, if wishes to enforce the

award, shall bring the award to the court with jurisdiction over the case (Shams, op.cit). Given the

content of section 488 of Iran code of civil procedure “…enforcement of award in compliance with

laws…”, enforcement of the award is subject to due formalities to iran code of execution civil award

(Ghorbanian, 2011). Therefore, the compulsory enforcement of award is subject to written petition of

the winning party or the authorized representative (section 2 of iran code of execution civil award), and

when the plea for enforcement of award is received by the judge, they shall issue enforcement order

depending on the case. (Mohajeri, 2009)

Another differentiating feature between arbitration award and court award is that where the

court award is of declaration nature with no necessity for any measure by the losing party- enforcement



of the writ is liability of the Government institutions addressed by the write for execution and with no

need to enforcement order. Therefore, the winning party only needs to submit the writ and proof that

the writ is final the executive arms. On the other hand, provision of the award to the execution body

without order of the court is ineffective. Subject to section 493 of Iran code of civil procedure

arbitrator award is effective even with objection to the award. The aim of legislator is to empower

arbitration and motivate individuals to refer to arbitral tribunal rather than the court of law. Since the

award is issued upon mutual agreement of the parties, mere objection of one party is ineffective on the

enforcement of the award (Mohajeri, 2008). However, where the objection is based on reasonable

ground, the court may halt enforcement of the award for further revision of the ward and grant of final

writ (section 493 of Iran code of civil procedure); moreover, the court may getting proper security until

completion of procedure. Thus, arbitration award is granted with no enforcement power and the court

order is required for enforcement.

3.2.2. Enforcement of Interim Measure

As mentioned, the award of arbitration has no enforcement guarantee, though upon refusal of the

losing party, the winning party may plea for enforcement in a court of law. If so, the court shall further

examine the case and held that enforcement order as required (section 488 of Iran code of civil

procedure). Therefore, even when the award is based on predicted deed, enforcement of the award is

guaranteed by the court order. (Shams, op.cit)

The same issue concerning award of arbitration is ahead of enforcement of interim measure.

That is where the award is not enforced by free will; order of a court is required. However, the case

slightly differs and interim measure award is not supported by enough enforcement guarantees. This

makes the parties to refer to the court in first place to secure interim measure order. The problematic

ambiguity is that the parties may have breached the arbitration agreement by referring the court for

grant of interim measure (Eftekhari Jahroumi, 1999). The problem of enforcement of interim measure

is resolved by acknowledgment of concurrent jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal and court of law. The

court will be able to enforce award of arbitration with more ease and, consequently, their role may not

be neglected, as the award has no enforcement guarantee.

Iranian law international commercial arbitration is silent concerning the enforcement, while the

arbitrator is authorized to grant interim measure. However, apparently there are two reasons to accept

the jurisdiction. 1- section 17 of the said law clearly grants the power to the arbitrator to issue interim

measure. 2- we read in paragraph 1 section 35 of the same law “Excluding the cases mentioned in

Articles (33) and (34), the arbitration award issued in accordance with the regulations of this Law shall

be final and binding after notification. In case written application from the court mentioned in Article

(6), the arrangements for enforcement of court verdicts shall be executed”.Upon a written request to the

court specified in section 6, the procedure for the enforcement of court judgments shall be

implemented. Therefore, award of arbitration shall be enforced by petitioning the court for enforcement

as the award (measure or order) and none of the sections mentioned in section 33 and 34 of the said

law cause no hindrance in enforcement of interim measures.

Further survey of other national laws makes it clear that arbitral tribunal may grant provisional

measure upon plea of the parties, while enforcement guarantee is provided by the courts. Subject to old

German code of civil procedure, plea for enforcement is acceptable only for final awards, while the

new law – paragraph 2, section 1041) gives the parties right to seek interim measure in national courts

(Van Den Berg, 2003; Ubersetzungen and Von Schoning, 2012). Courts in Germany have special

authorities that give them power examine authenticity of arbitration agreement and reject interim

measure if any. section 1041 grants the court power to reexamine enforcement of provisional measures.

Moreover, in compliance with paragraph 3 of the same section, the court may reject or modify

provisional measure upon plea of one party. (Van Den Berg, op. cit)

The UK code of arbitration deals with enforcement of provisional measure award in section 41

and 42. There are two methods to enforce provisional measure under this law. The losing party may

13 Reza Haghparast

enforce the award by their free will or the winning party may petition the court for enforcement of the

award (Van Den Berg, 2003). The latter case is when the losing party refuses to enforce the award. If

so, the petitioner may refer to the court for grant of enforcement order.

4. Conclusion The code of civil arbitration lacks effective provisions for enforcement of interim measure awarded by

arbitral tribunal and remains silent in this regard. This failure of explicitness eventuates in lack of

jurisdiction of arbitral tribunal when the authority is not grant to the arbitrator in the arbitration

agreement. Therefore, where there is no specific grant of authority by the parties in their agreement of

arbitration, the arbitrator(s) is in effect unable to grant interim measure. This means that the arbitration

has no intrinsic authority to grant interim measure. Moreover, section 311 of code of civil procedure,

as a general proposition, does not permit referral to the court as the section gives jurisdiction to grant

interim measure order to the court where the case is opened in first place. However, as mentioned,

there is an exception to this proposition and that is when the subject of dispute is in the court (section

312 of code of civil procedure). This is the only case that the court may grant interim measure.

We concluded then except for some exceptional cases, neither the arbitral tribunal nor the court

is authorized to grant interim measure order. As a lacuna, whether in former or in new version of code

of procedure, this issue has triggered debates. We tried to develop a general framework to enable the

arbitral tribunal to grant interim measure by introducing the principle of concurrent jurisdiction,

results, and limitations. The principle means that where the mutual agreement of arbitration provides,

the parties may petition for interim measure both in arbitral tribunal and court of law. Both authorities

may hear such petition and referring to the court is no breach of arbitration agreement between the

parties. Moreover, the parties may not object jurisdiction of the court where provisional measure is

granted.

Different law systems follow different approaches in this regard. Some like Germany give the

main role to the courts so that the same authority for granting interim measure is given to the courts as

well. Some others like France deprive the court of its jurisdiction when arbitrators are determined;

therefore, concurrent jurisdiction is rejected. Another group of law systems takes unspecific ground

and it is not clear under what condition the courts may grant interim measure.

The principle of concurrent jurisdiction of courts and arbitral tribunal is not free of any

limitation. One limitation is that the parties may deprive the court and arbitrators from the authority to

grant interim measure. As the cause of arbitrator jurisdiction is the mutual agreement of the parties, the

same agreement may deprive the court from the authority in this regard. Moreover, the parties may

make an agreement in contrary, as the principle is not pertinent to public order. Another limitation is

the exclusive jurisdiction of the court to enforce interim measure. Incapacity of arbitrators for

enforcement of award makes the parties to refer to the court for enforcement of the award. Therefore,

where the losing party refuses to enforce the award by free will, the winning party must refer to the

court to grant of enforcement verdict. It is noticeable that such referral to the court is not in contrary

with arbitration agreement.

Reference [1] Mohajeri, A., 2009, Comprehensive Introduction to code of execution civil award, (4th ed.).

Tehran: Fekrsazan Publication, vol. 1.

[2] hams, A., (2008), Procedure Civil: Advanced course, (1th ed.). Tehran: Derak Publication, vol.

3.van Den Berg, A. J., (2003), International Commercial Arbitration: Important Contemporary

Question, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.

[3] Van Den Berg, A. J., (2011), New Horizons in International Commercial Arbitration and

Byond, Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.



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in The Memmory of Centennial of Arzbitration in Iran. In: Collection of Articles Dedicated in

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[5] Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce, (2010). [Online] Available:

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RYCK_1_100927.pdf (july 14, 2012)

[6] Harris B., Planterose R., & Tecks J., (2007), Arbitration Act 1996: A Commentary, (4 st ed.).

Blackwell Publishing,

[7] Belgian Judicial Code Relating To Arbitration.[Online] Available:

http://www.cepina.be/images/upload/00001238_SCHEDULE%20III.pdf)

[8] Drahozal, Christopher, R., (2003), Party Autonomy and Interim Measures In International

Commercial Arbitration, In. van den Berg, A.J., International Council for Cmmercial

Arbitration: Important Contemporary Question, Netherland: Kluwer Law International.

[9] Gaillard E., Knobil Nanou, L., & Pellarini D., (2011), Code of Civil Procedure, Ministry of

Justice and Civil Liberties. [Online] Available:

http://www.iaiparis.com/pdf/FRENCH_LAW_ON_ARBITRATION.pdf

[10] European Convention on International Commercial Arbitration 1961, European Commission

for Europe, vol 484, No 7041. [Online] Available:

http://www.jus.uio.no/lm/europe.international.commercial.arbitration.convention.geneva.1961/

doc.html#1.

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Law Publishers GmbH.

[12] Nahreini, F., (1999), Interim Measure in Iran Laws and an Introduction to Comparative Laws.

(1st ed) Tehran: Ganj Danesh.

[13] Franz, T., Schwarz, Christian W., & Konrad, (2009), The Vienna Rules: A Commentary on

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field, Law Research Magazine, 27-28, 13-44.

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Danesh, 1st ed.

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[18] Mistelis L. A., (2010), Concise International Arbitration, KLuwer Law International.

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Kluwer Law International BV.

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ed.). Tehran: Ganj

Danesh Publication, vol.3.

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ed.). Tehran: Ganj Danesh

Publication.

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Kluwer Law International.

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http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&sa=G&tbo=d&biw=1058&bih=482&tbm=bks&tbm=bks&q=inauthor:%22Franz+T.+Schwarz%22&ei=M5kWUdavCMfV4QSlwIC4Bg&ved=0CC4Q9AgwAA

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15 Reza Haghparast

[24] Bismuth, R., (2009), Anatomy of The Law and Practice of Interim Protective Measures in

International Investment Arbitration, Journal of International Arbitration. 26.

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Arbitration Association for International Arbitration.

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International Arbitration & ADR, JurisNet, LLC.

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(CPIL), Zurich (Switzerland): Umbricht Attorneys.

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Perspective, Association for International Commercial Arbitration (ed).

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http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/englisch_bgb




Making and Optimizing Copper Oxide Nano-Particles from

Second-Hand Sources

Farideh Yousefi

Corresponding Author, Sama Technical and Vocatinal Training College

Islamic Azad University, Kermanshah Branch, Kermanshah, Iran

E-mail: farideh.yousefi @ yahoo.com

Tel: +98-912-8556322

Malihe Jalili

Islamic Azad University, Saveh Branch

Chemistry Department, Saveh, Iran

Abstract

Hydro-methodological method was used to recycle copper from nickel metal battery

and other wastes. The primary components of battery sample is shown in X ray florescence

including 6.44 copper oxide, 47.52 nickel oxide, 5.46 magnesium oxide and 0.03 potassium

oxide. In the first stage the battery interior sample is solved with adding hydrochloric about

three hours in 87 degree centigrade. The second stage is to separate copper by adding iron

powder. Due to copper inadequacy we used copper pipe in this research. In the third stage

the copper pipe was solved using hydrochloric acid during two hours in 121 degree

centigrade. NaCl 0.5 solution was made by gained copper chloride and sodium carbonate.

To synthesize copper nano-particles the solid material were placed in 751 degree furnace

for two hours. The results XRF, SEM and XDR verified the nano-particle synthesis.

Keywords: Copper oxide nano-particles, Hydro-methodological, Second-hand battery

1. Introduction When you need a convenient and portable energy source, you can trust batteries. Batteries in different

sizes and shapes provide your needed energy. Batteries are applied to activate circuit so that all the

circuits working with battery cannot work without it. Batteries usually work in the place that we don’t

see them. They control electricity fluctuations and are used as providers of backup energy in critical

times in hospitals and military operations. Annually 15000000000 primary batteries are wasted away

all over the world transferred to land fields. Releasing of battery metal in land fields isn’t solely

problematic but the main issue is battery potential to contaminate underground waters. Burning

batteries are accompanied with two problems including metal releasing to outdoors and metal density

in trash ash which should be buried. Rechargeable batteries can be used again helping the decline of

the effects of buried batteries on environment. Also recycled materials of second-hand batteries can be

used in making new ones. The plan of valuable metal recycling is economical in developed countries

but in Iran it is a new plan.

Regarding the fact that most of batteries are imported to Iran, we can prevent valuable resource

wasting and start a productive and economic industry through recycling technology(A. Darya

beigiZand, M. A. Abduli, 2008). Nickel-metal hydride batteries are a bridge between nickel-cadmium

Making and Optimizing Copper Oxide Nano-Particles from Second-Hand Sources 17

batteries and new lithium ionic batteries which can maintain energy for longer times. Nickel-metal

hydride batteries have longer life and suffer from memory effect. In these batteries this effect is less

than other batteries. This type provides a current more than nickel cadmium batteries. For example, a

kind of nickel cadmium AA battery produces a current of 1200 mAh but AA kind of this battery

produces a current of 4800 mAh.

Never make a short circuit of nickel-metal hydride batteries and nickel-cadmium ones because

they may damage. When making a short circuit, a great current is extracted from battery which can

destroy the battery or warm the battery.

Making particles of nano-dimension are significantly important. Nano-particles have crucial

importance because of having particular features. In fact their extraordinary minutiae and superiority of

level to volume in theses mixtures have caused them electrical, optical, magnetic and chemical features

(Afshari.E. (2006).

2. Statement of the Problem The consumption of battery in household and industrial use has been increasing. These batteries have

valuable metals like nickel, cadmium and copper. After the end of their lives they are released useless

in nature . When batteries are buried or burned inappropriately may release some compounds. So their

recycling is very important. Recycling technology of these valuable metals and its expansion to other

wastes containing used catalysts can make a productive and economic industry in Iran.

3. Research Purpose The consumption of battery in household and industrial use has been increasing. These batteries have

valuable metals like nickel, cadmium and copper. After the end of their lives they are released useless

in nature. When batteries are buried or burned inappropriately may release some compounds. So their

recycling is very important. Recycling technology of these valuable metals and its expansion to other

wastes containing used catalysts can make a productive and economic industry in Iran.

4. Research Method study phase and stating the results of library research activities and information sources

performing laboratory procedures and stating optimized conditions

analyzing and evaluating laboratory findings regarding economic aspects

registering final results

5. History of Battery At the end of eighteenth century an Italian scientist called Luigi Galovani understood that when he

touched frogs’ legs with two different metals, the leg muscles are spurred and rounded. A short while

after another Italian scientist Alexandro Volta informed about Galovani’s discovery. He did lots of

electroscopic experiments to study the accuracy of his clams and recognized that the source of

electricity was not frog’s leg but the hands when touched with two metals. Volta did many experiments

with different metals and understood that two metal can cause potential difference. In one of his

experiments he put silver and zink on sides of his tongue and connected them with a wire. Electricity

flowed and sting his tongue. He concluded some chemicals cause two metals make potential

differences. He made the first battery in 1800. First he wet a paper in salt water and put it between zink

and silver. Then he made lots of these pieces and put them behind each other and made a powerful

battery. Potential difference of battery depends on the used metals. Usually potential difference of

batteries is from 0.5 to 2 volts. The size of metal plates don’t have effects in voltage. Battery facets

18 Farideh Yousefi and Malihe Jalili

only show the amount of used chemicals and determines the total amount of transferable load. So a

bigger battery has longer life not more voltage(American Chemical Society, 2011).

6. Battery Structure The functioning of all batteries are nearly the same. So reaching an exact understanding of one of their

functioning, we can know how all of them work. We explain how a zink-carbon battery. This is one of

the easiest batteries we can make sometimes called standard carbon battery. Suppose we have a

container of acis sulfuric. If we put the zink poles in the container, the acid solves the zink. Hydrogen

bubbles are seen on poles and the solution becomes warm due to chemical reaction. So it happens that:

Acid molecules are divided in three ions including two +H and one SO4-2

The atoms of zink electrons are changed to Zn+2 ions

Zn+2 ions are combined with SO4-2 changed to ZnSO4 which is solved in acid

Hydrogen ions attract electrons which have been lost by Zink atoms and are changed to H2

molecule. These are bubbles which are seen on the poles. If we put carbon pole in the solution and

connect it to the first pole by a wire, the condition change to the followings:

Electrons go to carbon pole through wire and attracted by hydrogen ions. This time the

bubbles of hydrogen gas are formed on carbon pole

In this situation a less amount of heat is released because a part of chemical energy made

by reaction is used for by electron current. In the first condition, chemical energy is only

changed to thermal energy but in the second condition a part is changed to electricity

energy and another part is changed to thermal energy(Linden and T.B. Reddy(2002)

7. Hydro-methodological Method This is a proper and stable procedure for separating and recycling metal ions from used samples. This

method possesses some advantages:

An hindrance to produce poisonous steams

Suitability in small industrial activities

Metal recycling with highest purity degree

Low level of needed energy(John C. BoxAlan P. Prosser, 1986)

8. Flowchart of Copper Recycling Procedure from Nickel-Hydride Second-Hand

Batteries

Figure 1: Flowchart of copper recycling procedure from nickel-hydride second-hand batteries


9. Battery Opening The following is the parts of opened nickel-hydride battery used in this project:

In the time physical opening of nickel-hydride cylindrical batteries some sparks are seen

because of deleting separators and short circuit current.

10. Separators Separators are put between positive and negative plates to prevent ions current between plates and

short circuit and increase the resistance of inside of the cell.

Metal lattice

Positive and negative caused electrode

A lid to prevent explosion and tolerate high pressure

11. Preparing the Primary Sample The used sources to recycle the copper are nickel-hydride second-hand batteries and other rich copper

sources. Theses batteries have increasing uses because they are used in computers, cameras, dolls and

etc. copper is a valuable metal with lots of applications, so we decided to extract this metal. Battery is

opened by physical method.

12. Preparing the Primary Sample This section includes used chemicals, machine equipment and scientific parts of the project.

The used chemicals include hydrochloride acid, iron powder, sodium carbonate and deionized

water. Also we used X-ray diffraction (Philips, made in Holland), X-ray florescent (Philips, made in

Holland), deflation electronic microscope (Hitachi, made in Japan) and electric furnace (Batek, made

in England) to synthesize nano-particles. In this research copper oxide nano-particles were recycled optimized from secon-hand sources

by hydro-methodological method. Optimization stages include: first a used battery was solved by HCI

for three hours in 87 degree of centigrade temperature. In the second stage the replacement of copper

with iron was done by adding iron scobs and then adding sodium carbonate. In the third stage

carbonate sediment was heated in 751 degree centigrade temperature for 2 hours to exit water and other

matters and make copper oxide nano-particles. Nana-particles were washed many times with ethanol to

reach a pH equal to 7 (Bakhtiari, F., Darezereshki., 2011 , yong-feng, sh., wen- ying, X., wen- yong,

N., 2008).

13. Results The synthesis of copper oxide nano-particles were studied by XRD spectrum and SEM pictures.

Figure 2 is shows XRD diagram of copper sediment from 90-0◦. Maximum peak is observed in

45=θ2. Copper XRD has full conformity with card number 959-040-00. The peaks (20.98,36.65,44.72,

= θ2) in these areas showed that the provided sample was pure and unalloyed with any other material.


Figure 2: Copper sediment after addition of iron scobs

Source: The Researcher

Figure 3 is shows X(XRD) diagram of copper sediment from 90-0◦. Copper X(XRD) has full

conformity with card number 01-078-1588. The peaks (37,40,42,44,53,56,64,44.72,= θ2) in these areas

showed that the provided sample was pure and unalloyed with any other material.

Figure 3: Copper oxide nano-particles


The electronic deflation microscopic photos show copper oxide nano-particles in 570 degree

centigrade temperature. Its size is 79 nm and its shape is elliptical.


Figure 4: Copper nano-particles in 570 temperature


The following shows nano-particles in 660 degree centigrade temperature. Its size is 80 nm and

its shape is cylindrical.

Figure 5: Copper nano-particles in 660 degree centigrade


The following picture shows nano-particles in 650 degree centigrade temperature. Its size is 85

nm and its shape is cylindrical.




The following picture shows the nan-particles in 700 degree centigrade temperature. Its size is

97 nm and its shape is round.



The following picture shows nano-particles in 750 degree centigrade. Its size is 100 nm and its

shape is round.



14. Conclusion In this process the effective factors in recycling copper from second-hand nickel-hydride battery and

copper pipe was considered and optimized. Optimized condition of copper recycling included a 5-hour

leaching, 90-95 degree centigrade temperature, 6 molar density of used acid coloridric and acid

sulfuric, 5 grams water and 1 gram second-hand sample. Also copper pipe, the produced copper

sulphate, and used sodium carbonate. X ray was made from terminal sediment of diffraction spectrum.

Copper recycling has significant importance due to the following reasons:


Environment: destruction of used batteries in environment releases heavy metals.

Recycling decreases these pollutions and assists human and environment health.

Costs: recycling copper from used batteries and other wastes has less expenditures

comparing with extracting from minds.

Reduction of raw materials

Reduction of energy consumption

Reduction of air pollution caused by burn of the materials

Reduction of water pollution caused by concealing the trash in soil.

References [1] A. Darya beigiZand, M. A. Abduli, (2008), Current situation of used household batteries in iran

and appropriate management policies, waste management 28, NO. 5. 2085-2090.

[2] Afshari.E. (2006). Considering the performance of Ni-MH batteries. 6th national conference of

chemical engineering and 5th national student conference of Isfahan oil engineering. P.34-41.

[3] American Chemical Society, (2011) "History of the Battery".National historic chemical

landmarks. 2005. (June 23).

[4] Bakhtiari, F., Darezereshki., (2011), one-step synthesis of tenorite (Cuo ) nano-particles from

Cu4(SO4) (OH)6 by direct thermal- decomposition, Januraly,P. 171-174.

[5] John C. BoxAlan P. Prosser,( 1986), A general model for the reaction of several minerals and

several reagents in heap and dump leaching, Hydrometallurgy, Volume 16, AApril, P. 77- 92.

[6] Linden and T.B. Reddy (2002), Handbook of Batteries, 3rd Ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill).

[7] yong-feng, sh., wen- ying, X., wen- yong, N., (2008), Recovery of co(II) and Ni(II) from

hydrochloric acid solution of alloy scrap .




Sassanid Religion and the Decline

Zia Khazaei

Department of Political Science, Zahedan Branch

Islamic Azad University, Zahedan, Iran

Mahnaz Ghaljeh

Msc, Faculti of Nursing

Zahedan of Medical Science University, Zahedan, Iran

Abstract

Zoroastrianism was initially an universally obeyed and secular religion which

emphasized on the man`s will along with afterlife, but gradually it was influenced by

ascetic religious and philosophical circumstances and tended toward fatalism, anchorite and

surrendering fate as well as paved the way for the religious declining of the Sassanid which

was considered as a pillar for Sassanid dynasty establishment like feudalism.

Keywords: Declining, Zoroastrianism, Sassanid dynasty

1. Introduction Religion plays very important role in constructing the civilization of tribes and nations in a historic era.

Religion in the old time was more critical than secular and laic systems of today, so that in the

countries with feudalism structures, formal religion was considered as an important factor in durability

and consolidation of a society, in contrast the opposite political movements were demonstrated in the

form of faith and religion which was propounded in the concept of Bad religious and good religious.

As Marxists and Western liberal scholars have interpreted, there is no disagreement on it, the

Sassanid dynasty was known as a feudal system by the strong religious institutions and spiritual

hierarchy which demonstrated a feudal community, its founder, the First Artaxerxes had strived

initially to make the religion as its ideology and through it create an ideological unity among the tribe

and nation resident in Iran. From the beginning, Zoroastrianism with its special features was

considered as a model for a dynamic and creative civilization and people with determination and

perseverance, because the faith had given a lot of importance to men and their will and made them free

from fatalism and determinism rule on their fate.

In Tetser letter, it is well noted and written that: “In the Zoroastrian religion, it is commanded

to avoid seclusion, worshiping the God in solitude of mortification and hermitage. He in his letter,

referred to Avesta that says: “The man with wife is preferred to the one who lives single, the man with

a shelter is preferred to the one with no house, the one with one son is better than the one without son,

and the rich man is better than the poor.” Mary Boyce, researcher in Zoroastrianism refers to the choice

right in the religion and writes:"

The choice is so important in the Zoroastrian religion principles that it can be certainly said it is

a religion of choice. Angra Mainyu selected the evil and devil by its own will and intention.” Some

researchers suggest that the duality and dualism in Zoroastrianism is a sensual, mental, and moral

issue, which is deposited in the human nature. However belief in duality and dualism in creating the

existence would be taken meaningless and unreasonable because the duality is a moral issue which is

Sassanid Religion and the Decline 25

in the human nature and it is based on the Zoroastrian thought. So belief to the both good and evil

mainyu namely Spenta mainyu which is the source of goodness, purity, truthfulness in thought, word

and deed and the other Angra mainyuis as a source of all devils and evils in thoughts, words and deeds

are not something out of human nature and so are not appeared in the lifeless nature and inanimate

world but they are in human nature from the beginning of the creation abstractly such as dream world

which are move less and inactive, based on the Gathaa teaching, by entering to the world they may

become active in the nature of human as result of his choice that is done by freedom and liberty, so the

evil and goodness may be significant. Being aware of the choice right and power gradually increase the

sense of responsibility in people, while since he is the decision maker on choosing the goodness over

the evil, a moralist person will be emerged.

Zoroastrianism principal have been mentioned in Zoroaster’s Gathats and bring up belief to be

pure monotheism and moralist and responsible person. The following principles belonging to Zoroaster

Gathas are recognized by Dr. Bahar: «1 - there are two forces of rightness and badness in the world, 2 -

Ahura Mazda is the great god, He is the creator Sepanta mainly which has a twin called Ahrimen. 3 -

In addition, Ahura Mazda has six other figures and rules the world by assistance of these seven

appearances. 4 - All creatures in the world whether human or devil is liberal to choose good or evil.

“Thus Zoroaster in Gatha does not believe to a god other than the One God. He is opposite to sacrifice

rituals and intoxicating drinking, human should know his creator by his wisdom and choose the sepanta

mainyu to be saved. The Zoroastrianism with these principles and properties emphasized on human

freedom and free will also knew him accountable against his selection, gradually were exposed by

competitor flows and religions so that most of the principals were deviated and a passive immoral and

somehow polytheist human was replaced by the first Zoroastrian one. One of the Zoroastrian declining

aspects relates to the Zurvanism which is a historical form of Mazdaism and originated from

Magianism in Achaemenian era and has been seen in Sassanid period of time. When Ahura mazda had

being lost his status gradually as God and considered as equal as one of the two mainyu name Sepanta

mainyu opposed to Angra Mianyu that is why the Zurvanism was formed.

Sepanta mainyu was in an infinite light and by contrast, the other namely Angra mainyu was in

an infinite darkness. Since these two mainyu limited each other, hereby they would be bounded and

thus they should be originated from an infinite nature that was Zurvan or unlimited time or space. Arsi

Zener writes about it “Ohrmazd (Ahura Mazda) is introduced as the father of Sepenta mainyu so he is

probably the father of Angra mainyu in Gathas. But in the later (New) Zoroastrianism, the Ohrmazd

and Sepenta mainyu are equal. Thus, it was necessary to find a father for Ohrmazd because it had

become as one of the twins. One of them was in an infinite light and the other was in infinite darkness.

Therefore each of them bounded the other, and none had surpassed on time and space. Thus, the

Zurvanists knew unbounded time and space as father of the two bounded mainyus. “Believing to the

Zurvan had moral and behavioral negative results among the followers.

Considering that in this view, the Sepenta mainyu had been raised from the neutral time and space,

a kind of the materialism and fatalism dominated on Zurvanism beliefs. Everything has been taken as

Zoroastrian characteristics such as free will, reward and punishment, heaven and hell, Ohrmazd and

Ahriman were laid aside. Zener believes that “Zurvanism materialism denied three principals of

Zoroastrianism. 1- Existing of goodness God and evil mainyu, 2- Human freedom and will in selecting

between goodness and badness, 3- reward and punishment for human beings for their good and bad deeds.

Questioning the human will freedom that was the most important element in Zoroastrian religion led to

fatalism and determinism which effects can be seen in Sassanid era. Christian Sen writes about it: “At this

time the belief of Zurvanism which was spread during the Sassanid era led people to determinism and it

was as fatal poison that paralyzes the spirit of the old Zoroastrianism.

Zurvan was the old God and father of Devil and Ohrmazd, He was not only known as finite

time but his other name was destiny.” He refers to a story in Mainog-i - Khirad which is influenced by

Zurvanism. "Although a man possesses the strong intellect and powerful knowledge, He will not be

able to overcome the destiny." Historical studies show that there was a Zurvanism tendency at the

beginning of the Sassanid dynasty and most of political and religious figures tended to it. Manes who

26 Zia Khazaei and Mahnaz Ghaljeh

was favored by Shapur, the first, tended to Zurvanism that`s why he has not known Ahura Mazda but

Zurvan as superior God. Even Kritir, the great hierarch, who finally could bring forth and

institutionalize Zoroastrianism as a formal religion, had Zurvanism tendency and then became opposite

to Zurvanism so knew Manes dangerous for Zoroastrian.

Zurvanism is likely to have been prevalent more in Bahram v and Yazdegerd II era. Kertir

action for formalizing the Zoroastrian religion played an effective role to encountering materialism and

fatalism of Zoroastrianism-Zurvanism which was prevalent in that period of time but it seemed that the

theosophical religious and thought flows as well as fatalism were so strong in Iran that almost all of the

religious movements had such tendencies and influenced by foreign neighbors like India, Greece led

Zoroastrian to passiveness and fatalism. Manichaeism with its pessimistic nature and desire to

asceticism and mortification had been successful during the third century AD since the critical situation

of the period of time prepared the conditions for such trends. Dr. Bahar writes on the Manichaeism

tendencies "The fundamental difference of Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism is its view to the world,

because in Zoroastrianism, the hurmazd world is good and fragrant and save the people, meanwhile on

Manichaeism, the world originated from devil and it is evil, so the reproduction and agriculture just

help the spirit captivity sustainability. So Manichaeism is with pessimistic nature.”

Mazdak also was the supporter of ascetical and virtuous actions even vegetarianism by his

mysterious interpretation of Avesta. Not only in Iran the religious and reformative flows tended toward

asceticism and world-denying, as Max Veber says, flying from this world, but also neighbors send out

mysticism waves to the country. As if the mysticism discourse and avoiding the material world was

dominant in those days against which the Zoroastrianism resisted. Duchenne Gymen writes about it:

"Mazdakism who had struggled against all forms of mortification strictly, inevitably influenced by an

ideal that is preached by Christian, philosopher, Agnostics, Manichaeism, Mazdakism and Hindus."

Zener certainly knows materialism influenced by India and Greece. Although India society is

called Iran sister and they influence each other in some affairs such as class structures, in the country

orientation toward asceticism and world-denying so that as Zener says, the asceticism virtues were

respected and endeared in it, self-denying is the gravity center of their religious beliefs and thought.

Christianity so affected the people of the land during the Sassanid era that someone believe that

if Islam had not come into Iran, it finally dominate on Zoroastrian, it was an ascetical religion and

ceremony in which initially the imitation of the world was considered blameworthy and the world was

without nobility beside afterlife. The Holy Christ spent his life ascetically which led her to be

inattentive toward spouse and offspring and world. So some mystical flows in Islamic world made the

Holy Christ as a model of ascetic and mystic. Renaissance in Christian world was considered as a

reaction to Christian ascetic thought which had negated the world, thus its follower had to strive

additionally which was shown in the flow of secularism.

While the religion like Zoroastrian had no need to the flow since it was initially a secular

religion that gave genuineness to the world. Zener writes about it: “Zoroastrian is materialism in entire

of its religious steps in which the material world is considered as a tangible state of spiritual world so

that the one would be sent from the other one, relied on it and all of them have sustainable worth.

Importantly, according to some of the other researchers on Zoroastrian School, the world is considered

superior to the afterlife in the religion. Mary Boyce writes in this regard: "It is surprising that Zoroaster

prefers the mundane position to divine world. Because in his view the world is a creation of the divine

to which the grace of tangibility and perceptivity is being added. However turning from heaven

position to mundane is not meant as falling and descending but it is as perfection and ascending”.

In Zoroaster viewpoint to exist world structure, the human working and strive are emphasized

and prevent them to be passive and inattentive to material issues. Mary Boyce writes in this regard:

"The purpose of Mazda in holding mundane is practical stability against maliciousness that the belief is

called the universe agreed duality."

In following, she writes about the virtues of working as "according to Zoroaster only the

unremitting and good-mannered labor and strive can remedy the human being. No pleading or

resorting neither for forgiveness and compassion nor for interest and desire are not accepted from the

Sassanid Religion and the Decline 27

God. " The magi in Median era who had been become the clergies of Zoroastrian religion influenced

the religion by their tendencies and beliefs, and led the religion that initially emphasized on faith and

ethic toward canonical dos and don’ts so that at the end of Sassanid era, it became to a lawful inflexible

and dead religious which enact a religious law for every small aspects of human life that Zoroastrian

follower had no power to escape the situation. Christian Sen writes that: “Zoroastrian in the next

evolution was affected by Median Magi thought and so lost its freshness and was formed into

inflexible and boring jurisprudence principal. In Sassanid dynasty as a feudal system in which the

feudal aristocrats and nobles have privileged situation, Zoroastrian was turned into an ideology for the

system and reproduce its benefits. Emphasizing on feudal benefits was so that the magi actually

blocked the way for society class evolutions by enacting religious rules. In feudal system gradually the

way will be paved for developing and evolution the capitalists since the security resulted from

equilibrium between aristocrats and nobles with government will pave the way for capitalism. By

growing and expanding urban areas and developing the capitalism private sector who handled the

industry and commerce in the period of time in Sassanid dynasty, it was needed that an evolution be

occurred in production relations to support their benefits in the field of law, jurisprudence and norms.

But Zoroastrian clergies (Mobad) not only did not pay attention to the leading class requirement but

also prevent any evolution in the society by enacting rules opposing to capitalists` benefits. Pirnia

refers to the issue and writes: “Some beliefs that were entered into Zoroastrianism by magi made some

class of people unsatisfied specifically the city-dwellers and professionals for example they forbid

reddening iron in fire and making the copper red in it because of fire holiness.

Also the seafaring was not accepted for water holiness. Magi solidity was cause for

advancement of other religions in Iran.” Max Weber knew the Zoroastrian religion with anti urban

tendencies since just agriculture was acceptable by the God and all of them were a reflection of noble

feudal thoughts who was the carrier of the religion. It was not reasonless that when Arab attacked Iran,

capitalist was the first class that welcome them, since in Iran there was a meaning vacuum that no

reformative movement did not succeed to fill it. Max Weber says: “There are two directions in any

society, one of them is rational direction or technology and professional field or material evolution and

the second is irrational direction that is tradition, religious and philosophy field. Human as a wise being

should define himself and his environmental world that is charged by irrational direction. If the

definition consist with rational direction of society, human feel identity, otherwise a meaning vacuum

will be appeared in society that allow the revolutions and social uprising.

In the condition in which an interpreter(s) want to fill the vacuum by new commentary on

tradition or religion or presenting a philosophical thought, if he successes to find some followers, he

will win likely.

The society of Sassanid era can be investigated by the Max Weber theory- there was a meaning

vacuum in the dynasty thus reformative movements like Manichaeism and Mazdakism tried to fill the

vacuum by new commentaries of religious that did not success, the subsequent kings regardless to the

society demand just sought to consolidate the power bases that`s why some of the classes of people were

indifferent against the Arab attack and some others support them because they know Arab equalitarianism

interpretation as an answer to this class meaning vacuum. In Manichaeism attempted to pay attention to

leading capitalist class need as well as Mazdak movement answered to the low class of society by new

commentary of tradition and religious but their defeat make people disappointed about internal

reformations. Anyhow defeat of reformative internal movements, defeat of Sassanid kings against the

foreigners, internal war between the mass and nobles and power struggle among the seniors and the leading

active religious and as Max says the world accepted religion so that there is no impact of the positive

aspects of the religion at the end of Sassanid. Christian Sen writes about it: "the Zoroastrian religion that

was considered as formal religion in the country of Sassanid era had been based on the principles that

became completely empty and inane at the end of this era. So the decline was decisive and inevitable.”

Christian Sen refers to ascetical flows such as Christians, Agnostic, Manichaeism, Mazdakism and

influence of Indian thought on Zoroastrian religion and knows it as major factor in declining the religion.

He follows: “Influenced by the new thought, the initial optimism which was the base and fundamental of

28 Zia Khazaei and Mahnaz Ghaljeh

Zoroastrian and encourage people to work and strive was faded and broken, also the tendency toward

asceticism and abandonment that were privileged in Iranian sects against Zoroastrian gradually entered into

it and destruct the base of the religion. Dr. Daryaie also confirms Mystical and ascetic movements in late of

Sassanid dynasty and writes, "it is probable that at the end of the Sassanid period, there have been not only

the monasticism but also ascetic inward developments. These trends may lead to the formation of groups is

Zendican. Zendican were probably Sufis believed ascetic live or mystic desires influenced by Christianity

or Buddhism. They probably laid the foundation of Sufism in Islam. "

Along with Zoroastrian declining which show itself in determinism and fatalism, prevalence of

fetishism, fortunetelling and paying attention to astronomy at the end of Sassanid period aggravated the

situation and was the origin for unwise behavior of Sassanid kings. Duchenne Gymen knows and

writes Khosro-parviz as same as this and writes:” Khosro II is the last important Sassanid kings. He

had believed all sorts of superstitious and fortuneteller or magician surrounded him, even he knows

astronomy, too. “Althaim also writes about "During the Kingdom of Khosro Parviz the symbolic

concept of the sun and the universe was common again ... Tendency toward symbols testify the

hypothesis of prevalence of astronomical and planetary belief.

The influence of astronomer was never disappeared in Chaldean lands; it was comprehensive

and dominant during the last king of Sassanid and this influence was so that Khosro Parvis was forced

to kill his most loyal servant.” Also, Zarrinkob confirmed this irrational and unwise act and writes:”

His (Khosro Parviz) belief to superstitions of astronomers, diviners and fortunetellers made him

hesitate in taking decisive decisions, also his belief to vow, omen or vision made his decisions without

rational necessities and resulted from his interest in seraglio and exaggeration in companionship with

women”. Of course, Zarrinkoun interrelates Khoasro Parvis superstitious belief to harem and long

companionship with women that explain part of the fact that meanwhile society tendency toward

Zurvanism and determinism, lead reasonably people to astronomy because human is deprived of will

and is dominated by destiny, he can ask the astronomer to show him to show destiny to him. Of course

Zoroastrian Clergymen started some reformations to prevent the overall decline of the Zoroastrian

religion of Zoroaster, but this seemed to be that too late. After Iran defeat Muslim Arabs and after their

power was lost, the think for reform the childish aspects of Zurvanism fables and cancelling

worshiping the Sun as well as reviving the monotheism tradition of Zoroastrian religion

References [1] Boyce, Mary (1982), The History of Zoroastrianism, 2, Leiden: Brill, ISBN 90-04-06506-7,

(repr. 1997).

[2] Boyce, Mary (1984), Textual sources for the study of Zoroastrianism, Manchester: Manchester

UP, ISBN 0-226-06930-3

[3] Daryaee, Touraj (2009): Sasanian Persia. The Rise and Fall of an Empire. London: I. B. Tauris.

[4] Haldon, John (1997), Byzantium in the Seventh Century: the Transformation of a Culture,

Cambridge, ISBN 0-521-31917-X.

[5] Malandra, William W. (1983), an Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion. Readings from the

Avesta and Achaemenid Inscriptions, Minneapolis: U. Minnesota Press, ISBN 0-8166-1114-9.

[6] Simpson, John A.; Weiner, Edmund S., eds. (1989), "Zoroastrianism", Oxford English

Dictionary (2nd ed.), London: Oxford UP, ISBN 0-19-861186-2.

[7] Wiesehöfer, Josef (1996), Ancient Persia, New York: I.B. Taurus.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-06506-7

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-06930-3




Production, Manufacturing System Operations, and Logistics

Modeling the Metrics of Lean, Agile, and Leagility:

An AHP-Based Approach

Mahboobe Sadat Haj Mirfattah Tabrizi

Corresponding Author, Master Student in Industrial Management Department

Central Tehran Branch University, Tehran, Iran

E-mail: [email protected], [email protected]

Tel: +98-9398388914

Javad Khamisabadi

Member of Young Researchers and Elite Club

Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

The aim of this study was to develop a methodology for estimating whether an

existing system can perform as a lean, agile, or leagile manufacturing system. We

compared and identified the similarities and differences between leanness and agility,

before developing leagility, by identifying the manufacturing features that were particularly

affected by interdependent variables by preparing based on the conditions and

characteristics that improved solutions to manufacturing practical operations in three case

studies. The present article describes the three case studies and examines the three

functions of lean, agile and leagile mechanisms by considering certain features. This study

measured the available factors and characteristics to build a model based on the Analytical

Hierarchy Process (AHP), which was sent to firms and factories to acquire their responses.

We determined whether the functions were applicable to the manufacturing systems in the

three case studies.

The characteristics of the three case studies did not respond to the same functions,

which suggests that more details or factors should be developed that might affect their

operations to improve manufacturing systems to meet the requirements of customers. The

leanness, agility, and leagility features were examined in the three case studies. Using these

operations to acquire precise results; may require more tests in more highly developed

conditions in certain locations.

Keywords: Agility, Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), Leagility, Leanness, Supply chain.

1. Introduction This study examines the difference between three systems based on the result sheets from selected

companies, which were used to produce complete description of their criteria and functions used for

testing and comparison on.

Lean production is highly suited to functional products and it is moving into the service

industries (Robertson and Jones, 1999). [17]. Lean production has its roots in Toyota production

Production, Manufacturing System Operations, and Logistics Modeling the Metrics of

Lean, Agile, and Leagility: An AHP-Based Approach 30

systems (Ohno, 1988)[15], but it has been suggested that leanness was first utilized during Spitfire

production in the UK during World War II (Aikten et al., 2002) [1].

The appropriate internal supply chain system is designed for a manufacturing system where

leanness is achieved by eliminating redundant periods while agility requires greater reductions of the value-

added time via production factors. Thus,lean and agile manufacturing features have been integrated into the

leagile systematic supply chain (Stevens, 1989)[20]. In the present study, the system lead time, cost,

quality, productivity, and service level were examined during the operations in three case studies.

The stable features considered by the manufacturing system are the lead time, service, costs,

and quality level. The feature (lead time), that needs to be minimized in lean manufacturing is excess

time wasting. Lean and agile systems have been studied by many researchers in various situations. The

first of these manufacturing systems was the lean system of manufacturing, while the agile

manufacturing principles emerged as a new system in companies. Lean was a reaction to old

production systems, which were full of wastes and unsatisfactory quality, while the latter is a response

to changing customer demands. Some researchers have suggested that agility is the next step after

leanness. Thus, if lean principles are implemented in a system, agility is the best next step (Hormozi,

2001; Mason-Jones et al., 2000a), although lean and agile features have contrasting goals. However,

they can be hybridized into total supply chain systems (Mason-Jones et al., 2000a) [13]. This idea

resulted in the combined term, ”leagility”, which fuses these two manufacturing systems(Lean &

Agile) in a total supply chain to ensure the enterprise’s performance.

The measurement of factors and their characteristics of these factors can be used to build a

model with the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). We identified the characteristics that were

considered important by decision makers in different types of manufacturing systems in three

companies, i.e., case studies of Iran Mechanical Industries (IMI), Advanced Electronics Company

(AEC), and Iran Lightening Company (ILC). The selection of the best alternatives that met all of the

decision makers’ criteria attected how the firms performed.

The focus of this study was the applicability of the lean, agile, and leagile appropriate to the

manufacturing systems used by these firms. First we deal with the concepts and definitions of lean, agile, and

leagile features. Next, we provide some descriptions of the characteristics operations found in each firm.

Based on the factors and practical operations each company, we identified the best approach for

their manufacturing systems. The strategies and policies utilized by the three companies were also

different. We compared the results and performed statistical analyses of the best methods for the

manufacturing systems in each company. This study considered only three companies, but a more

accurate assessment of the appropriate manufacturing systems and methods used by more factory and

company would be required to deliver a more precise and scientific analysis of the effects of these

systems. Depending on the adaptations of each company and the functions used, the manufacturing

system was examined the determine the most appropriate approach and policy.

2. Attributes of Leanness, Agility, and Leagility Manufacturing Frameworks In recent years, many researchers have treated supply chain designs based on the relative merits of “lean”

and “agile” philosophies. The focus of lean thinking is the reduction or elimination of wastes, which later

led to the “lean management” or “lean manufacturing” concept (Womack and Jones, 1996)[22].

Agility requires the use of market knowledge to exploit profitable opportunities in a volatile

market place. Leanness means the development of a value stream to eliminate waste, including time,

and to ensure a uniform schedule. When industries shifted their conventional supply chain model to an

agile supply chain model, lean manufacturing was a prerequisite for agility (Richard, 1996) [16]. The

market sensitivity of the agile supply chain was reported by Christopher et al. (2000).

Further suggested that a much higher level of agility is required when the market place is

volatile and the customer demand for variety is high. These studies observed that the agile supply chain

is capable of handling an increased product variety, specialized fragmented customers, and markets.

31 Mahboobe Sadat Haj Mirfattah Tabrizi and Javad Khamisabadi

Furthermore Naylor proposed the concept of leagility by integrating lean and agile principles

factors (Hoekstra et al., 1992) [7].The aim of the leagile supply chain is to postpone the products at the

customer end, to handle the demand uncertainties. Various advantages have been pointed out by Hoek

(1998) [8] and many authors in recent years with respect to the postponement strategy, such as greater

flexibility during production (Kidd, 1995) [11].

The agile and lean approaches are complementary and, in many cases, there is a requirement for

a “hybrid” lean/agile strategy (Christopher and Towil, 2000) [2]. In some cases, lean and agile can be

brought together as a hybrid “leagile” solution (Naylor et al., 1999)[16]. There are three types of

product: standard, innovative, and hybrid. Thus, there is a need for a comprehensive framework to

categorize the supply chain types. According to the product characteristics and the stage of the product,

this may require different characteristics and capabilities, particularly in the category of innovative

production as the supply chain evolves from an agile focus (in the stages of introduction and growth) to

a lean focus (in the stages of maturity).

A number of key characteristics of the two paradigms were also identified by Naylor et al.

(1999)[16] based on a comprehensive review of the available literature1. These characteristics are

described in Table 1.

Table 1: The comparison in characteristics of the three manufacturing systems

Characteristics Lean Agile Leagile

Lead time ** *** **

Costs *** ** ***

Productivity *** ** **

Service * *** ***

Quality *** *** **

1. Rating the Importance of Different Characteristics of Leanness, Agility and Leagility

Table 1 shows the importance of the metrics for each paradigm: three stars indicate a key metric or

essential metric, two stars indicate secondary metrics that are also desirable, while one star is an

arbitrary metric. These characteristics can be used to differentiate the paradigms. The paradigms pay

particular attention to the need to develop an integrated, seamless supply chain, where producers act as

a virtual enterprise. The main difference between leanness and agility in terms of the value to

customers is service, which is the most important factor for agility where cost and the sales fee is

considerable to achieve leanness (Towil, 1996) [21]. Thus, there is only one necessary condition for

enabling agile manufacturing systems.

They also require a minimum total lead time, which is defined as the time taken from a

customer raising a request for a product or service until it is delivered. The total lead time has to be

minimized to enable agility because the demand is highly volatile and fast moving. If a supply chain

has a long lead time, it will not be able to respond quickly enough to exploit the marketplace demand.

Furthermore, the appropriate engineering of the cycle time reduction always leads to significant bottom

line improvements in the manufacturing costs and productivity (Towil, 1996) [21].

Table 2 shows details of the main characteristics when comparing the paradigms and

investigating their similarities and differences.

Table 2: Comparison of Lean and Agile Manufacturing System

Agile Manufacturing Lean Manufacturing

High Profit margin Low profit margin

High product variety Low product variety

1 Steven (1989), Womack et al. (1990), Grunwald and Fortuin (1992) [5], Stalk and Weber (1993) [19], Goldman et

al.,Nagel, R.N. and Preiss, K. (1994) [4], Hayes and Pisano (1994) [6], Harrison (1995), Kidd (1995),Womack and

Jones (1996), Anon (1997), Evans et al. (1997) [3], Mason-Jones and Towill (1997), Towill (1997).



Table 2: Comparison of Lean and Agile Manufacturing System - continued

Marketability dominant cost Physical dominant cost

Market driven Customer driven

Emphasis on thriving in a market environment Emphasis on efficient use of resources

Unpredictable market demand Predictable market demand

Orders based on changing the market Orders based on customers

Greater flexibility for customized products Flexible production for product variety

Checking samples on the line by workers Checking samples on the line by workers

Obligatory enrichment Highly desirable enrichment

Focused on enterprise-wide operations Focused on factory operations

The tactics adopted may also be affected by whether the product is “standard” in scale (lean

approach) or “special” in scale (agile approach). If the lead-time is long and demand is predictable,

there is an opportunity for the pursuit of “lean” strategies.

Finally, if the demand is unpredictable but the lead-time is short, agile solutions will be

required based on a rapid response. “Standard” products, on the other hand, will tend to be more stable

and predictable.

It is possible to simplify the taxonomy in two dimensions: predictability and replenishment

lead-time. In the volatile unpredictable conditions or stable conditions used by for manufacturing

systems in companies, the stock out and obsolescence costs are wasteful.

After comparing lean and agile, we consider that the mixed attribute performance of leagile

manufacturing system has special characteristics. Table 3 shows a comparison of the attributes of lean

and agile supply. The purchasing policy moves from placing orders upstream for products moving in a

streamline flow to assigning lean and agile supply during manufacturing.

Table 3 shows the main points when attributing systems.

Table 3: Comparison of metrics used for leanness, agility, and leagility in manufacturing systems

Distinctive attributes Lean supply chain Agile supply chain Leagile supply chain

Market demand Predictable Volatile Volatile and unpredictable

Product variety Low High Medium

Product life style Long Short Short

Customer drivers Cost Lead-time and availability Service level

Profit margin Low High Moderate

Dominant costs Physical costs Marketability Both

Stock out penalties Long term contractual Immediate and volatile No place for stock out

Purchasing policy Buy goods Assign capacity Vender managed inventory

Information enrichment Highly desirable Obligatory Essential

Forecast mechanism Algorithmic Consultative Both/either

Typical products Commodities Fashion goods Product as per customer

demand

Lead time compression Essential Essential Desirable

Eliminate waste Essential Desirable Arbitrary

Rapid reconfiguration Desirable Essential Essential

Robustness Arbitrary Essential Desirable

Quality Market qualifier Market qualifier Market qualifier

Cost Market qualifier Market qualifier Market qualifier

Lead-time Market qualifier Market qualifier Market qualifier

Service level Market qualifier Market qualifier Market qualifier

Sources: Naylor et al. (1999) [16], Mason-Jones et al. (2000a) [14], Olhager (2003) [17], Bruce et al. (2004) [2].

We present a comprehensive framework for modeling the performance of lean, agile, and

leagile supply chains by analyzing the variables that affect market sensitivity, elimination of waste,


information technology, and flexibility to assess the performance improvement in three cases of supply

chains with fast moving consumer goods business.

We used the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) approach. By using AHP in a supply chain

(SC) context, we can evaluate the effects of various performance dimensions on the specified

objectives of SC, such as a timely response to meet the customer demand (lead-time). We also

explicitly consider the effects of the performance determinants on each other. The dimensions and

determinants of the supply chain performance have systematic characteristics, so they may be

integrated into one model. These systematic relationships can portray the true linkages and

interdependencies more accurately for these determinants (Saaty, 1996) [17].

Supply chain performance. Hult et al. (2004) [9] and Ketchen and Hult (2011) [10] described

supply chains as characterized by reciprocal interdependence, meaning that each SC factor depended on

adjoining participated components to perform its tasks. The supply chain is described as a chain linking

each shared level from up-streamed and down-streamed via manufacturing operations and services. Thus,

requests for the essential amount of material, cost, and information can be managed effectively to meet

the market requirement. Most companies and factories realize that in order to evolve an efficient and

effective supply chain, SCM needs to be assessed to determine its performance. Lee and Billington

(1995) believed that a supply chain is the network of facilities that processes raw materials, which

transforms and delivers the products to customers through a distribution system. The management of this

network requires the mastery of optimization logistics because a specific quantity of goods needs to be

supplied at a particular time and price. The successes and failures of supply chains are ultimately

determined in the marketplace by the end users.

SCM can be defined as the design and management of seamless, increased value process across

organizational boundaries to face the volatile and real needs of the end user (Fawcett et al., 2007).

However, its role in the system is manipulating and handling the tasks, operations, and costs.

The purpose of SCM is to maximize value in the supply chain. SCM competes for value by,

collaborating with users and applicants to create an atmosphere based on value to improve efficiency

by decreasing the costs, or increasing the benefits by promoting market effectiveness.

The goal of the SC is not limited to desirable products or services because it is also directed at

increasing value and absorbing more users into systems or activities.

Next, we describe the method used to determine the best manufacturing system for each sector.

3. AHP Model Initially, we explaine the effective items on the model used by this method, so we describe its

classifications and main levels. AHP is a fundamental approach for decision making, which is a major

multi-criteria decision model for systems that use processes. AHP was introduced by Saaty in the

1970’s (Saaty, 1977) [18]. AHP is utilized to identify problems and to solve them. Thus, the problem is

modeled as a hierarchical structure based on the viewpoints of decision makers’ from the objectives

through intermediate criteria at various levels. Firstly, we find the objectives, then the criteria or

characteristics followed by effective alternatives to solve the problem, as shown in the Figure 1.

Figure 1: A Three-level AHP model

Level 1 Goal

Level 2 A

A

D

A

C

A

B

A

Level 3 3

A

2

A

1

A



By these three hierarchical stages, there are link between the goals, the major criteria, and the

alternatives solutions. After finding these three hierarchical levels of the process, the decision maker

evaluates every criterion compared with the alternatives. Finally, the decision makers must identify the

main priorities, which are arranged to classify or rank the alternatives to make a decision, where the

decision makers have to limit their choices by considering the priority goal. The inconsistency ratio is

calculated during the hierarchical process. The overall criteria are analyzed using three functions: the

first function structures the complexities at the top level of the hierarchical process in Figure 1; the

second function measures the ratios in a reciprocal or pair-wise comparison matrix; and the third

function synthesizes the scales and calculates the result. This level of structure or principle refers to the

lowest level elements, i.e., the alternatives based on all of the scales ranked by the decision makers.

Each priority is weighted based on the higher stage priorities in steps. The aim is to synthesize the

estimates of the majority for each alterative. The priority ranking of the decision alternatives can be

acquired from the synthesized priorities. This produces different values. However, Liu (1999)

considered that the level of hierarchy should be divided into a four level-hierarchy which comprises the

goal level, criterion level, sub-criterion level, and scheme or alternatives level (Liu et al, 1999) [12].

In this paper we briefly discuss the use of this multi-criterion decision making method to find

the best strategy for manufacturing systems based on characteristics of the three case studies. We begin

by defining the pair-wise priorities.

4. AHP Models of the Three Case Studies In this study, there are three decision makers in the three case studies. The decision makers’ use their

knowledge and experience to calculate the scales for each characteristic, before then prioritizing them

using 5 5 matrices. The scales used for the main characteristics depend on elements such as

flexibility, elimination of waste, information technology, market sensitivity. We can determine the

effects of different elements, such as flexibility, which is affected by the source flexibility, delivery

flexibility, and manufacturing flexibility, as well as other elements elimination of waste which is

affected by knowledge disconnects, inventory transportation waiting, and over-production. The

effective items related to information technology include electronic data interchange, types of

information, data accuracy, knowledge bases, and market sensitive elements related to the delivery

speed, new product introduction, and customers' responsiveness. However, the current results and

scales were based on these main characteristics.

The main aim is to identify the most suitable manufacturing system or the best strategy for each

company based on various levels and characteristics. Figure 2 shows the model used in this study.

Figure 2: The three-level hierarchical model used in this study.

The main aim is to identify the most suitable manufacturing system or the best strategy for each company

based on various levels and characteristics. Figure 2 shows the model used in this study.

The

The

The most appropriate manufacturing System

Cost Quality

Quality

Quality

Service

Level Lead Time Productivity

Elimination

of Waste Flexibility

Market

Sensitivity

Info.

Technology

Leanness Leagility Agility


The aims of this research were to obtain the sequences, subsequences, or alternatives estimated

from the overall characteristics of the three case studies. We considered the scales at four levels to

determine the appropriate manufacturing system in each case. The experts (decision makers) were

informed by alternative supply chain then the experts give the relative weights between alternative

sequences during the process to identify the relative weights for the functional operations in

companies.

5. Mutual Interdependence of Criteria in Manufacturing Systems The overall goal of this study was to find the manufacturing system for a supply chain, which would

make it more professional when responding to market requests. The lead time, cost, quality, service

level and productivity were the major determinants in the proposed model. The effects are shown in a

pair-wise comparison matrix (1-9) in Table 4, which aims to find the most suitable manufacturing

system for each firm. We begin with the three manufacturing systems. We compared the

manufacturing systems used by each of the three enterprises from the upper levels down to the sub-

factors to determine the functions and operations.

The scales were based on expert' opinions of the supply chain performance. Next, we illustrate

the performance using scales and functions for a supply chain case with interdependencies.

6. Obtaining the Weights based on Expert' Opinions The weights were obtained based on the supply chain system in each of the three case studies,

according to decision makers and experts who had experience in the area of supply chain management.

They generated the ranks by asking questions relate to the supply chain, e.g., they asked the question:

what is the importance of market demand based on cost when cost is compared to quality? , which they

ranked as 2 in the ranking of 1-9, as shown in the second line of Table 4. Saaty (1980) suggested a

scale of 1-9 for comparing two components. In this ranking one implies equal effects whereas nine

implies the stronger effect of row elements compared with column elements. If experts felt that the

column element had a higher effects than the row element, the reciprocals of numbers from 1-9 were

used.

Table 4 shows the ranks and criteria for a case study when analyzing its manufacturing system,

as well as other manufacturing mechanisms. The second level in Table 4 shows there is a comparison

of the main characteristics of the supply chain of the selected case studies.

Table 4: Pair-wise comparison matrix showing the importance of interdependence among indices

Criteria Lead time Cost Quality Productivity Service Level e. Vector

Lead time 1 1/3 1/5 3 1/4 0.0866

Cost 3 1 1/4 1/6 3 0.1022

Quality 5 4 1 1/7 6 0.252

Productivity 1/3 6 7 1 1/5 0.246

Service Level 4 1/3 1/6 5 1 0.184

Sum 13.33 11.66 8.616 9.306 10.45

max = 0.1 CI= - 1.225 CR= -1.09 < 0.1

The ratios were determined by calculating the weights and the pair-wise consistency by

comparing the scales of the main indices with each other. The second calculation compared the pair-

wise scales for the sub-factors in the remaining hierarchical levels, as shows in next table 4.1, which

were based on the opinions of the decision makers' (ranking).



Table 4.1: Characteristics of factors used to rate the lead time

Elimination of

waste Flexibility

Information

technology

Market

sensitivity e. Vector

Elimination of waste 1 1/3 1/6 1/4 0.005

Flexibility 3 1 2 1/5 0.25

Information technology 6 1/2 1 6 0.61

Market sensitivity 4 5 1/6 1 0.305

Table 4.2: Characteristics of factors used to rate Cost

Elimination of

waste Flexibility

Information

technology

Market

sensitivity e. vector

Elimination of waste 1 1/5 1/7 3 0.18

Flexibility 5 1 1/4 1/2 0.16

Information technology 7 4 1 1/3 0.32

Market sensitivity 1/3 2 3 1 0.27

Table 4.3: Characteristics of factors used to rate quality

Elimination of

waste Flexibility

Information

technology

Market


Elimination of waste 1 7 1/7 1/3 0.05

Flexibility 1/7 1 3 1/5 0.2

Information technology 7 1/3 1 2 0.3

Market sensitivity 3 5 1/2 1 0.31

Table 4.4: Characteristics of factors used to rate productivity

Elimination of

waste Flexibility

Information

technology

Market


Elimination of waste 1 1/6 3 1/5 0.14

Flexibility 6 1 1/4 1/3 0.2

Information technology 1/3 4 1 1/4 0.19

Market sensitivity 5 3 4 1 0.45

Table 4.5: Characteristics factors used to rate of the service Level

Elimination of

waste Flexibility

Information

technology

Market


Elimination of waste 1 1/2 1/6 1/9 0.05

Flexibility 2 1 8 1/4 0.26

Information technology 6 1/8 1 1/3 0.15

Market sensitivity 9 4 3 1 0.4

There were three main sub-factors in the third level; so the identification of the most suitable

manufacturing system was based on all three weighted attributes or components scales for each

company based on the rankings of the decision makers or experts'.

Table 5.1: Expert' rating scales for manufacturing supply chain system with respect to the elimination of waste

Leagility Agility Leanness e. Vector

Leagility 1 5 3 0.59

Agility 1/5 1 4 0.263

Leanness 1/3 1/4 1 0.121


Table 5.2: Expert's rating scales with respect to the flexibility of the system


Leagility 1 6 5 0.65

Agility 1/6 1 3 0.183

Leanness 1/5 1/3 1 0.15

Table 5.3: Expert's rating scales with respect to the information technology in the system


Leagility 1 4 1/3 0.26

Agility 1/4 1 1/6 0.08

Leanness 3 6 1 0.613

Table 5.4: Expert's rating scales with respect to the market sensitivity in the system


Leagility 1 7 1/2 0.39

Agility 1/7 1 1/4 0.08

Leanness 2 4 1 0.47

The three rows and four columns of the scaled weights (three alternatives and four sub-criteria)

are shown in Tables 5.1 to 5.4, which were generated by multiplying the matrix of four by five (four

sub-criteria for five indices or main factors), and these in turn, were calculated from the third and

fourth levels of the model to yield in a matrix of three rows and five columns, as follows;

0.05 0.18 0.05 0.14 0.050.59 0.65 0.26 0.39 0.44 0.395 0.373 0.42 0.36

0.25 0.16 0.2 0.2 0.260.263 0.183 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.1 0.08 0.166 0.09

0.61 0.32 0.3 0.19 0.150.121 0.15 0.613 0.47 0

0.305 0.27 0.31 0.45 0.4 3 5.546 0.354 0.629 0.63 0.3

According to the weighted scales of the attributes, the matrix comprised sub-factor scales of

three by five (alternatives and sub-criteria with five indices) where the upper level indices were used to

estimate the weights for these two levels based on the ranking scales to the factors given by decision

makers or experts.

0.4404

0.079

0.3145

0.18

0.24

0.25

0.1

0.08

0.30.630.6290.3540.546

0.090.1060.080.10.11

0.360.420.340.3950.44

Leanness Manufacturing System

The measures generated by the three stages of values were considered by experts or decision

makers to be the main elements of each manufacturing system with respect to the lean, Agile or

Leagile Supply Chain. This allowed us to find the most suitable manufacturing system based on the

company performance so we could recommend suggested systematic improvements to the operation in

each factory. (0.4404) was determined by multiplying the upper and lower levels and, finally, the last

numerical rates, which related to the leanness factors for the company. This indicated the

manufacturing system that should be focused on as the most important items, which could improve the

efficiency of the manufacturing system and the structure of the company.

We applied this method to the other two enterprises as well. The final calculations for the

second enterprise are as follows;



530.1010.09210300.1150.094

0.3020.430.380.440.41

0.3260.3430.3730.3490.365

0.180.060.10.1720.09

0.120.1390.180.0580.19

0.20.20.110.310.16

0.30.530.530.440.5

0.3130.0920.0690.093

0.110.210.610.53

0.530.680.260.33

.

After multiplying the matrix of sub-factors by the weighted index matrix, the results for the

manufacturing system are as follows.

0.09

0.327

0.293

0.34

0.14

0.23

0.162

0.038

0.1010.0920.1030.1150.094

0.3020.430.380.440.41

0.3260.3430.3730.3490.365

Agile Manufacturing System

After comparing the three manufacturing system, the best choice was the highest amount. The

second scale indicates the agility of the system during manufacturing. For the third company, this was

calculated in the same way as the first and second, as follows.

530.10550.10740.1060.1640.093

0.280.3250.2720.380.309

0.5630.5180.5310.6320.247

0.0870.260.0560.110.0425

0.090.1560.1240.29750.129

0.3050.5050.2450.22750.505

0.50.0540.520.59250.27

0.09230.2630.07850.1003

0.2160.560.34280.226

0.68230.1580.5750.643

This was then multiplied by the weighted index matrix, as follows.

0.116

0.298

0.477

0.2

0.03

0.08

0.42

0.177

0.10550.10740.1060.1640.093

0.280.3250.2720.380.309

0.5630.5180.5310.6320.247

Leagility Manufacturing System

These results evaluated each enterprise's manufacturing system based on the analysis of various

factors that affected the manufacturing systems in a hierarchical manner. The derived scales of the

main elements in the adjacent cluster were based on the priority ranking for the manufacturing system

used by each company. The Expert Choice Software generated the AHP results shown in Figure 3

where the leagile manufacturing system(0.477) for IMI had the best performance of the supply chain

manufacturing systems tested (Agile and Lean Supply Chain).

Figure 3: The results obtained using the Expert Choice Software.

7. Conclusion and Discussion In this paper, we compared major indices such as the lead time, cost, quality, productivity and service

level to analyze manufacturing system performance. These were the main criteria tested but other

factors could test to determine their effects on performance in a systematic manner. We assessed the

effects of these measures based on the opinions of decision makers and experts.


Our analysis allowed us to find the most suitable manufacturing system and to identify the

needs of companies to promote their growth and survival in a supply chain system. These values were

based on the opinions of decision maker so these factors were particularly relevant to the companies.

The most important goal was identifying the use of the functions and operations in the

hierarchy of the model and determining how the main criteria were affected by alternatives. The rank

of each criterion was evaluated and aggregated based on its importance to supply chain management

depending on the expert opinions.

Thus, changes in the hierarchy or opinions would lead to changes in the outcomes. We used

AHP to find the most suitable manufacturing system for each chosen company (according to expert

opinions of the available factors and equipment, during the overall comparison). However, the results

also indicated conflicts between the three manufacturing systems used by the companies. The general

outcome was that the first system lost its agility by reducing some effective factors, although the lean

supply chain was improved. In the second and the third companies, the service level was an important

criterion that affected agility and leagility in the manufacturing systems. The lead time was reduced,

which decreased the cost and improved the quality of products. However, reducing the lead time also

eliminated more waste in the manufacturing supply chain.

Our model allowed us to identify the most suitable attributes for a manufacturing system to

improve the supply chain management performance, while it is also identified the main elements and

factors that could further affect the supply chain management. After considering the importance of

each of the main criteria for the manufacturing system in supply chain, we found that the most

important factors for lean manufacturing systems were cost, quality, and productivity Lead time was an

important criterion in agile manufacturing systems and the service level was an important criterion in

leagile manufacturing systems. To analyze the combined effects of the three supply chain performance

determinants on the selection of the three alternatives we performed clustered by calculating the

weightings of the supply chain system because the number of tables included four more matrices with

additional pair-wise comparison, i.e., one for each upper level determinant. The alternatives and

determinants were also evaluated to determine their importance for improving the supply chain

performance. The overall goal was to reduce the lead time and its score in lean was lower than that in

the agile manufacturing system in the supply chain. Our analysis identified changes that would affect

the supply chain manufacturing system with respect to the lean, agile, and leagile supply chain

elements. Reducing the lead time meant that the lean supply chain had a lower score than the agile

supply chain. The strategy used to decrease the cost and improve the quality meant that the lean supply

chain was better than the other supply chain manufacturing systems. A leagile supply chain was more

desirable for improving the service level and it had a higher rating than the agile supply chain.

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Analyzing the Place of Myth in the Religion

Zahra Rezaei

Ahvaz of Farhangian University, Ahvaz.Iran

Abstract

This study is aimed at examining and determining the myth in religion according to

the researchers’ opinions in the field of religion thoughts taking an epistemic approach and

explaining three basic questions, i.e. the function, origin, and subject of the myth. This is a

document-based study, which uses descriptive-analytic method as well. To collect the data,

note-taking from the library and written materials was used. The results showed that

religion and myth have been two basic human being’s doctrinal issues and have been

considered by different scholars, who discover and interpret the message of the religious

sciences in the light of mental and verbal evidences. Based on the semantics of these texts,

different readings were achieved. To accept the myth, one should believe in God. If the

historian of religion “Mircea Eliade” knows the myth not only the explanation of repetition

or the return of a phenomenon, but also the explanation of it. He also believes that religion

and myth come together; therefore, limiting the myth to a superficial explanation or a

symbolic description of the natural phenomena causes that other available functions in the

myth not to be considered appropriately.

Keywords: Myth, religion, Noah’s flood

1. Introduction Thinking in the language of religious texts and the ways to understand the prepositions are the chronic

considerations of religious history and mythology. In the recent two centuries, some of the researchers

have tried a lot to interpret the religious thoughts and the language of it (secret, allegory, parable, and

myth) so that they expand understanding and cognition in the domain of religious thoughts. However,

through different attitudes of the religious thought, this issue was more significant. The difficulty of the

religious texts, different religious beliefs, generalization of the scientific and epistemic methods, and

the advent of new philosophies, have created new challenges against the issue of religion language and

understanding the myth. Although the issue of mythos has been one of the human being’s basic

questions, no single definition has been presented for it, yet and its historical course has been with

religious concepts and divine thoughts and clarified his curious mind to interpret the religious symbols,

abstract legends with the help of mental, verbal, and linguistic evidences. The mythology theoreticians’

opinions have changed continuously in the intellectual history of it and they have explained it based on

their interpretations. May be this unpredictable specification of myth has won the attentions of

historians and religion historians to it.

In order to explain the stable solutions in understanding these texts and achieving the

approaches to religious knowledge, the scholars of sciences established academic disciplines at

universities to analyze the scientific theories of myths based on social sciences structures and sociology

that are regarded as the cornerstone of the religious sciences. Of course this function does not mean to

overlook the presented challenges in the way of religious cognition in the present age. Instead our idea

is that relying on the archeological mystical documents such as Noah’s Flood and using the

Analyzing the Place of Myth in the Religion 42

experiences and new proper tools, we analyze this issue. The necessity of this research is explaining

these theories, describing and analyzing of which can discover the reason and form of the differences

between the theories. Although some of the modern theories believe that myth is extracted from old

sciences such as philosophy and literature, new theoreticians believe that it is extracted from the social

sciences. The historian of religion “Mircea Eliade” believes that myth is depended on religion, because

the domain of myth is associated with the religious beliefs and rituals. Although myth includes all the

scientific fields of study, there is no single opinion about the issue of myth independently, and it has

given a double importance to the issue, because there is not any study, which analyzes just the myth;

however, the myth is the integration of questions that exist in all different fields of study.

This question is about the origin, function, and the subject of myth and such concepts are

followed by the most number of challenges and the reason for which the concept of myth is associated

with secret, imagination, allegory, and parable. Is the origin of religion is imagination? Or it has had a

mystical and symbolic concept, which has come out of the symbolic imaginations in the form of

human being’s worship-like behaviors and has appeared in the places of worship in association with

rituals. Therefore, scientific analysis is very significant in the society to know exactly the origins of

this issue. This study is done to answer the basic question, relying the available theories in religious

studies, sociology of religion, philosophy, theology, how we can know and analyze the place of myth

in religion. Thus, paying attention to this issue and presenting scientific and functional solutions can be

determinant in planning and religious and cultural policymaking of today’s society.

2. The Relationship between Myth and Religion Although it is very necessary to consider in the language of religion, one should achieve the

infrastructures of such texts in order to interpret the religious texts. In the recent centuries, the basic

questions such as the myths functionality resulted in creating different opinions on the origin of myth

in the language of religion. The theories and opinions presented about the myths are as old as the

myths, and turn to the pre-history times. However, in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, this issue

won the attention of science-oriented researchers and they had special attention to their special

functions and approaches. Specifically, they explained such origins of myths as philosophy, religion

and rituals. Through analyzing and explaining the myth from the perspective of religious studies, the

myth is included below the religion. Searching the reasons for which the secret allegories and the

language of myth were created showed that the soul governing the language is the addressee’s

stimulation and the functional side of the language, which has chosen this model to express itself.

Religion owns a content that is transferred through the tool of language. It has always been discussed

in the history of religion that whether the language of religious texts is superficial or it talks

mysteriously, with allegories, symbols, and parables (Louth, Andrew. 2007).

The existence of supernatural meanings in religious texts and searching their meanings all have

been the focus of particular attention in religious societies. The “secret language” is indirect and mixed

with ambiguities. Thus it is covered and symbolic, and this word has only stated in Holy Quran under

the name of “But a Symbol”, which is covered. The language of allegory is also coded, indirect, and it

usually states the issue in the form of a long or short anecdote. However, the language of “myth” has

been legendary and imaginary, such as the myths attributed to religions and gods that have been made

by the human being’s imaginations similar to legendary tales of the ancient Iran, which have been cited

by Shahnameh (the Book of Kings) in the form of tales such as Zahhak, the Dragon King, or Garshasp

from the Kianian Dynasty (Goodwin, J., 1981).

“Dehkhoda” defines myth as an anecdote with the help of which the people in the past

explained their beliefs about the creation of the universe and some of the natural phenomena, or the

same distracted words defined the legends or the first myths. Myth has been used as the news, tale, or

explanation in the ancient Greece. Then it was used as the “Historia” meaning something that cannot

be existed, and is the poetic imagination. One of the most functions of the myth is to discover the

sample-like paradigms of all the rituals and meaningful behaviors of people started from feeding to art

43 Zahra Rezaei

and wisdom, which have formed as the legends and folk tales as well. Myths are in close relationship

with religious narratives and they have been repeated in some religions. Philosophers were the first

people who explained the myths. As an example, Euhémére believed that the natural phenomena of

myths were the hyperbolic stories of the real people and looked for a historical origin for myths. Some

of the Christian priests believe that myths are previous reports of facts in the Bible or a distortion of it,

for example, “Deucalion” is Noah’s other name. As Alan Segal writes about the Noah’s Flood: if we

are looking for a document or evidence for the real flood and at the same time reject the wonderful

imagination of a ark as the resort of all the live creatures, we have domesticized the myth of Noah. If

we interpret the storm as a symbolic expression of insecurity in human’s life, we have demythologized.

The myths of each nation have their own interpretation. Until the nineteenth century in the west the

content of myths especially (Greek, Roman, and Greece) myths were focused mostly and when

Sanskrit was discovered, the nations’ myths and their different shapes were considered. This step was

taken by James Frazer, the Scottish anthropologist (1854-1941). He gathered a collection of similar

myths and rituals from around the world ignoring the cultural differences among them in a book called

“The Golden Bough” (Wright L.M. 2002). Alan Segal believes that myth is like a story and writes: if

we are asked to name some of the myths we mostly remember Greek and Roman gods’ stories at first.

In spite of this, the myth can be interpreted as a belief. Only two myths are regarded as myths in the

Holy Bible: the story of creation, Heaven, and Noah’s Flood. The other stories of the Holy Bible

should be regarded as legends and folk tales. However, he believes that the myth is absolutely a

significant story and can take place in addition to past, in present and future. (Kirk, G. S. 1973)

In addition, defining myth is very difficult. In answering to the myth, Ruthven says: I feel I am

Augustine’s when he was asked about time since I know it very well, of course if I am not asked about

it, if I am asked; I’m not able to answer and explain it (Goodwin, J.1981).

This hardship to define the myth caused many researchers and scholars to be interested in it.

During the history since from the time of Socrates, a wide range of different theories have been

presented for the myth, each of which is a place for the high number of myth theories. More exactly,

theories related to the myth have a range wider than the myth itself and myth is a subset of the range.

As “Mircea Eliade” presents the theory of social science about the myth of religious studies, or the

anthropological theories about the myth are just the theories of culture that are used about the myth.

(Stace, W. T. 1960)

There is not any independent theory about the mere subject of myth, because no field of study

can be found which is only related to the myth. However, three basic questions (origin, function, and

subject) about the myth unify all different fields of study. By origin, we mean the form and reason for

which myth has been created and by function we mean the way in which myth has been went on, and

by subject, we mean the signified of myth. Some of these theories are superficial readings of such

myths as gods, and some others have readings from the symbolic myth. This symbolic signified can be

everything (morality, beauty, and art…). The most number of theories in the nineteenth century to the

twentieth century are focused on symbolic signified and religious propositions.

“Rudolf Bultmann and Hans Jonas” are the major fans of symbolic readings of the religious

traditional myths. From Bultmann’s point of view, a major part of the New Testament has been written

in mystical language, and it is not an anecdote of the real phenomenon. Many descriptions in Gospel

are not the description of universe, but it is the description of human being’s situation and the condition

of his existence, and only some prepositions, which talk about the existential relationship between

human being and God, are known valid and verified about the description of God (Redford, Donald,

1987) .

He has known myth a truthful issue, since the main aim of myth is not presenting an objective

image of the universe as it is, but it is expressing the human being’s understanding of himself in a

world where he lives. The myth should not be interpreted in the cosmological form, but it should be

interpreted in an anthropological form or an existential form. If the Holy Bible is domesticized, the

conflict between the holy context and new science can be resolved, and Christianity can be specialized


to an age, presupposing that “the Holy Bible and Christian message are not allowed to say anything

which is different from the modern worldviews (Louth, Andrew. 2007).

He believes that human being’s interest in context and familiarity with it are effective in

understanding it. Salvation mentions the human being’s situation of mind, who believes in God. There

is no real Hell; the kingdom of Heaven does not own a Heaven-like place. God’s kingdom of Heaven

does not realize in the form of cosmic chaos, but it is an internal issue and it is realized when the

human being believes in God. One must believe in God to accept the myth. From the perspective of

scholars of Quranic studies such as Allameh Tabatabaei and regarding the doubt stages of the universe

which includes the nature and super nature on one hand, and the range of human being’s understanding

including experience, sense, wisdom revealed by the prophets on the other, when in Quran there are

some words about allegory, there is no chance for the approach to imaginary stories, because an

allegory or parable is a tale that reflects the speaker’s meaning to the listener by the use of figurative

metaphor style, and news of such the events as Noah’s Flood is not imaginary and unreal, but it is

telling the truth and warns the historians and historical scholars from beating around myths and

legends. The language of Quran in historical reports such as Noah’s story is for people to accept

advices not just telling the historical news and events, although Quran is not regarded as a historical

book to explain completely the events. However, language has defined these events during the story

without describing the details that is in opposite with the norm of mystical storytelling. Specifically, in

Noah’s story this issue has been mentioned in forty-three Surahs such as Al-'A`raf, Al-An'am, Hud in

different sides and according to different necessities. However, interpreters and historians have

sometimes suffered from legendary storytelling. Regarding the comprehensive nature of Noah’s story

which is theorized by the followers of different religions and geologists and archaeologists, James

Frazer attributes this issue to even the myths of North and South American nations. (Kroll, Jerome,

Bernard Bachrach.2005)

In spite of the comprehensive nature of this story, Noah’s story faces with many differences

among different nations. We are not aimed at analyzing the languages of such stories and myths,

because they are extracted from historical contexts, or they have been discussed in the Holy Books

(Torah, Gospel, and Quran) and have won the most amounts of analytical language and myth-telling

that is considered as the basis of questioning for this study so that the places of language of religion

and myth are analyzed. Moreover, the language of all the holy texts as Bultmann existentialism’s look

at the holy texts must be based on thought on understanding the language of these Holy Books.

3. Noah’s Flood Story in the Old Tablets (The Sumerian Story of Flood) During 1889 to 1900 while an American board in Iraq was excavating, they faced with a muddy tablet

on which the Sumerian story of the Flood in “Neibuhr” was written. Arnopoil was the first one who

published it and other people did it in the next years. (13) The way in which the story is written shows

that it refers back to the kingdom age of Babylon, Hammurabi (1686-1728 B.C). Discovering the

anecdotes of Sumerian story resulted in the advent of the theory estimates its age to more than the time

of occupying Euphrates by Semites and it seems that Semites have taken this story after immigrating to

Euphrates from Sumerians who have lived there after them. (Campbell, Joseph. 1991)

The Sumerian story of the Flood includes some significant events: the first issue that can be

understood by reading it is related to the human being’s, plants, animals’ creation, and the celestial

origin of the Heaven. In addition to it, it has talked about the available 5 cities before starting the

Flood. An angle-like human has come down from Heaven and established five cities. Then when gods

insist, there is a mention to creating storms, floods, and destroying mankind. Following this cruel

decision, people suffer from misery. Then there is a mention to the hero of the story named “Ziusudra”

who is described as an abstemious man, and the king who is afraid of God and is at God’s disposal.

While he was standing next to a wall hears God’s message that gods are decided to send a flood “to

destroy the mankind.” It can be stated that rest of the words are revelatory instructions to “Ziusudra”

about building the ark and boarding on it. Then we are faced with God’s warn to the human being

45 Zahra Rezaei

about the Flood that for seven days and nights rail fell, the waters rose and increase greatly on the earth

and the Heaven came on the Flood and Ziusudra saw his god’s light, came out of the ark and

worshipped his god in the land of “Dilmun” where the sun was shining, the holy land where is the

place of Heaven. Ziusudra is the one who saved the mankind’s health. (Wright L.M. 2002)

Scientists have different opinions about the Sumerian land “Dilmun”. Some believe that it is

situated in the Western South of Persian lands and some believe that it is the region of Indus Valley,

and some other have attributed it to the current Bahrain Island.

It is obvious to ask if there is any ancient sign that can prove the Sumerian story of Flood in

Iraq. “Sir Leonard Woolley” in 1929 faced with a hill of mud in Urbeh and concluded that the

synchronization of it reaches to the civilization time of “Obaid.” Therefore, there is a reason on the

material existence of Sumerian Flood and achieved this popular view which is synchronized with the

Flood in the Holy Books. However, Dr. Nazvari states that we cannot talk definitely about it because

we have faced winds and storms for many times in the old Iraq and there are some evidences that show

that the age of such winds refer back to the final part of “Jamdet Basr’s life.” Therefore, it is very hard

to analyze these floods definitely (Leonard, Scott. 2007).

Then, this document mentions the eight kings who governed in five cities before the Flood and

these kings governed for 200 to 241 years. (Frazer, J. G. 1930) However, in spite of the mystical data

these documents show us, it is very hard for us to know the end of the mystical time from the

beginning of the historical time. However, these documents can lead us to correct historical

understandings, undoubtedly. What is important at first in this study is the fact that such document

talks clearly about the Flood and separates the two kingdoms before and after it and the second

kingdom starts after the Flood, by resending rain from sky to “Kish” and “Ur.” It can be argued that the

Sumerian Kings’ tablets know the incidence of the Flood between the pre-historical time and the

historical time.

Anyway, the tablets achieved from the Sumerian kings and materials written in cuneiform,

show the historical stories whose age refers back to the historical time in ancient Iraq and even before

it. At the end, according to “Woolley” it is concluded that although in terms of time the Flood is the

same Flood about which the Sumerian Kings’ tablets talk, the same Flood about which Torah talks in

the Genesis, it should not be imagined that this story is completely correct and it should be noted that

the issue is the real historical substitution and interpreters’ discussions and explanations are to clarify

it. The only thing that can be proved is that whether there has been a city before the Flood and it can be

asked again whether the Sumerian Flood has been a comprehensive Flood, or it has been limited to the

South of Iraq. The Babylon story of Flood has been discussed in Gospel, Torah, and Quran each of

which can be the starter of a new research for those who are interested in.

4. Summary and Concluding Remarks Limiting the myth to a superficial explanation or a symbolic description of these natural phenomena

will result in overlooking other functions in the myth properly. The clearest evidence to verify the

existence of other functions and basics of myths is the fact that myth exists around us and this world is

full of events and characters that are similar to the events and characters available in traditional myths.

These are the ones who are not only focused on eradicating poverty, racism, and other social

corruptions, but also they are willing to put an end to the pollution and damages of the Earth like Noah

and help the others to survive through the language of religion and wisdom, because in order to accept

the myth, one should believe in God. The historian of religion “Mircea Eliade” believes that the myth

is not only the explanation of repetition or returning of a phenomenon, but also it is the explanation of

its origin and he believes that the myth and religion come together.


References [1] Bierlein, J.F. Parallel Myths. New York: Ballantine, 1994.

[2] Campbell, Joseph. 1991. The Masks of God: Occidental Mythology. NY: Penguin.

[3] Frazer, J. G. 1930.The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion. NY: Macmillan.

[4] Goodwin, J.1981. "Mystery Religions of the Ancient World". Thames & Hudson.

[5] Kirk, G. S. 1973. Myth, It’s Meaning and Function in Ancient and Other Cultures. Berkeley:

Cambridge UP.

[6] Kroll, Jerome, Bernard Bachrach.2005. The Mystic Mind: The Psychology of Medieval Mystics

and Ascetics. New York and London: Rutledge.

[7] Leonard, Scott. 2007."The History of Mythology: Part I". Scott A. Leonard's Home Page.

[8] Louth, Andrew. 2007. The Origins of the Christian Mystical Tradition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press.

[9] Redford, Donald, 1987."Similarity between Egyptian and Biblical Texts—Indirect Influence?"

Biblical Archaeology Review. . (13[3]:18-32, May/June)

[10] Stace, W. T. 1960.Mysticism and Philosophy.

[11] Wright L.M. 2002. Christianity, Astrology and Myth. USA: Oak Hill Free Press.




Experimental Investigation of the Geotextile Effect on the

Strength of Kaolinite Clay

Amir Kalhor

Islamic Azad University, Shal Branch, Department of Civil Engineering

Kiarash Mirabi

Islamic Azad University, Tehran Branch, Department of Civil Engineering


Abstract

This paper studies the mechanical properties of the Kaolinite Clay reinforced with

two types of Geotextile using uniaxial and CBR tests. Soil reinforcing in these tests is

carried out using Geotextile layers (1 to 4 layers). The layers are laid horizontally among

the compressed soil layers. The samples in uniaxial tests are wet with five different

percentages of humidity and in the CBR test they are moisturized with 23% of humidity.

The results analysis show that increasing the maximum strength of the samples is a

function of the type and number of Geotextile layers in the soil and on the whole,

increasing the number of Geotextile layers will result in increasing the samples’ ductility

and decreasing their secant module.

Keywords: Kaolinite Clay, Geotextile, uniaxial test, CBR test, reinforced soil

1. Introduction Using the soil for different structures has been customary in all eras and the soil has always been

considered and used as the cheapest construction materials. Weak mechanical properties of the soil

against tension constitute its important weak point. Because the soil structures’ dimensions are by far

larger than the similar concrete or steel structures, modifying the mechanical properties of the soil has

always been a subject of attention and attempts have been made to increase the soil strength against

different forces using other materials.

The reinforced soil is a material consisting of soil and some elements resistant to tension. The

reinforcements can include all the materials resistant to tensile forces (steel, glass, plastic, etc.) The

participation of the elements produces especial materials with properties totally different than those of

the actual elements, enabling it to be used for constructing feasible structures. The reinforcements are

normally laid horizontally and act as the transferring factor for the tension between themselves and the

ground mass. Although using the tensile strength elements for increasing the soil loading capacity has

been customary from the ancient times, new methods of soil reinforcing however have developed to

the point that they could be used in large scale engineering structures with economic feasibility.

Currently various methods of producing reinforced soil using different forms of tensile resistant

materials have been developed. Widespread theoretical and empirical studies and researches have been

undertaken since the introduction of these methods and accurate technical specifications and applied

standards have been presented for some of these methods.

Experimental Investigation of the Geotextile Effect on the Strength of Kaolinite Clay 48

Geosynthetics are flat products that are made of polymer products and are incorporated as

inseparable part of the civil engineering projects together with soil, stone, ground or other materials

relevant to the geotechnical engineering.

Using geosynthetics in soil modifies and strengthens some of the soil specifications like the

shear strength, drain ability, filtration, etc. In fact, using these products, the ground physical and

mechanical specifications can be changed considering the project conditions so that the project

requirements are better fulfilled.

Geosynthetics are divided into 5 general categories of geotextiles, geogrades, geonets,

geomembranes and geocomposites, and considering different applications, they can perform at least

one of the functions of separation, reinforcing, filtration, drainage, and protection of gases and liquids.

Geotextiles are the biggest group of geosynthetics. These products are porous and permeable textiles

that are made of polymeric fibers. Geotextiles ‒ once called as Filter fabrics‒ were first introduced for

erosion control applications and as a replacement for cohesionless soil filters. They are often made of

polypropyleneand polyester, although it is likely that some other polymers like the polyethylene and

polyamide are used in producing geotextiles. Geotextiles are divided into three general categories of

woven, non-woven and kneated categories. Currently the main cause for more spread use of geotextiles

than other geosyntheticsis their lower price, drain ability properties, and possibility of using lower

quality embankments. Application of these materials in constructing retaining walls is highly

important; these walls are constructed in several layers and the geotextile is used simultaneously as

both the reinforcement and wall shell.

The reinforced cohesive soils’ behavior is different from that of the non-cohesive soils. In

comparison with the experimental studies undertaken for studying the sandy soils, the fine-grained

soils have assigned smaller share of the studies to themselves.

Bowman through triaxial and unconfined compression tests on a reinforced clayey soil using

three types of geotextiles, studied the geotextile effect on the stress-strain behavior [1]. Results of these

studies showed that the shear strength of the clayey samples by laying horizontal layers of geotextile in

the samples is increased. This increase is considerable when the geotextile layers are laid in distances

less than the sample diameter. Meanwhile it was observed that for a non-woven geotextile with greater

surface roughness, the increase in the soil shear strength also will be greater.

AL.Ahmadi&Aiban et al. studied the regional soil [2]. This soil had low loading capacity and in

saturation state, this capacity was even considerably lower. So they improved it using two methods:

using geotextile layers and adding 5 to 10 percent of cement to it. Studies showed that although using

cement produced better results, but using geotextile was more economical and the soil samples

improved by geotextile showed considerable increase in loading capacity. This increase was more

visible in saturated soil.

The above studies also showed that:

A Increasing the base layer thickness will decrease the geotextile effect in decreasing of

continual deformations.

B The geotextile effect vs. deviation pressures is ignorable.

C Increasing in the loading capacity of the soil samples, having been improved using

400g/m2 of geotextile is similar to the increase obtained from adding 6.5% of Portland

cement to that soil.

Krishnaswamy and unnikrishnau studied the improvement of the soil strength by laying the

sand layers in the reinforced clay [3]. The cyclic and static behavior of the reinforced clay was studied

in triaxial compression test and the sand layer thickness, the humidity and the reinforcement type were

investigated. In this research, three different types of reinforcements including woven, non-woven, and

micrograde geotextiles were used and the cohesive and coarse grained soils were designated as CL and

SP respectively based on the unified classification.

In the present study, a great number of triaxial tests were performed to study the reinforced

clays’ behavior and the following results were obtained:

49 Amir Kalhor and Kiarash Mirabi

A The sandwich method increases the clay soil loading capacity through increasing the

contact surface between the boundaries.

B The grid type reinforcements have greater effect on increasing the strength and stiffness

of the clay soil compared with the sheet type due to the coherence of the sand in hallo

spaces of the grids.

C The advantage of the sandwich layers for low pore pressure state is higher than the high

pore pressure state. Because in high pore pressures, the effect of the reinforcing is

diminished due to less soil and reinforced material displacements.

D Using the thick sand layers will not result in increasing the efficiency and capacity of the

system.

Bergado, Long & Murthy carried out a series of experiments on an earthfill dam constructed on

a soft soil in two states of non-reinforced and reinforced with geotextileand concluded that using high

resistance geotextiles the following results can be obtained:

A Decreasing the plastic deformations in the foundation soil.

B Increasing the overturning height of the earthfill dam, so that by laying a geotextile layer,

the overturning height is increased about 1.5m above the non-reinforced state.

C The two-step breakage mechanism is provided for the earthfill dam; so that the first

breakage of the foundation soil occurs to thedeformation identical to the non-reinforced

state (before overturning) and the second step of the foundation and the earthfill dam

breakage or overturning occurs in failure time or pullout of the geotextile grids.

Previous studies on determining the loading capacity of the clay soil based foundation

reinforced with geotextile layers are rare. Sakti& Das conducted a number of tests to determine the

loading capacity of saturated clay based strip foundations, reinforced with nonwoven geotextile [4].

The following results were gained from the mentioned experiments:

A The reinforcing useful effects appear most of all when the geotextile layers are laid in

depths equal in size to the foundation width.

B To achieve the highest efficiency, the first geotextile layer must be laid in a depth equal to

0.35 of the foundation width.

Guido, Bresiadecki & Sullivan conducted a number of experiments on laboratory models to

determine the loading capacity of (50% relative density) loose sand based rectangular foundations,

reinforced with non-woven geotextile layers [4]. The results show that in general, when the geotextile

layer are put in a depth equal to the foundation width, they entail a positive effect on increasing the

loading capacity of the foundation, but only when a considerable settlement occurs. This is because the

geotextile layer must have some deformations before they can go under tension.

2. Materials The soil used in the tests was Kaolinite Clay which was supplied in 40Kg bags. To determine the

physical and mechanical properties of the soils, particle-size tests (hydrometery), particle density and

Atterberg limits tests were performed and the results of which have been represented in Table 1:

Table 1: The soil mechanical properties

(USCS) Classification Plasticity index (%) Liquid limit Plasticity limit (%) Gs

CH 37 59 22 2.66

Two types of geotextiles were used in this study. By changing the number of geotextile layers

in soil samples and through uniaxial and CBR tests, their effect in the strength and ductility of the soil

were examined. The properties of dome of the geotextiles used in the tests have been shown in Table 2.


Table 2: The geotextile properties used in uniaxial and CBR tests

Geotextile type

Length increase

percentage in

transverse

direction

Length increase

percentage in

longitudinal

direction

Average tensile

strength in

transverse

direction kN/m

Average tensile

strength in

longitudinal

direction kN/m

Weight of one

square meter

(kg)

PEC55 85 10 12 58 0.358

PEC75 85 10 12 79 0.377

Advantages:

- Resistant against chemical factors, resistant against sunlight, no side effects to the people who work with.

2.2. Method

At first the geotextile layers are cut to the sizes required for uniaxial and CBR tests. After adding water

to the soil and complete mixing, the resulting soil is poured into the uniaxial and CBR tests molds in

layered form and after densification of all the soil layers identically according to the relevant standard,

and scoring the layer surfaces (for better setting with subsequent layers), a geotextile layer is put on top

layer. The number of geotextile layers in these series of experiments are 1 to 4 layers and the uniaxial

tests has been performed with 5 different humidity percentages and the CBR test was done using the

optimum moisture content of the soil.

The prepared samples were tested under the uniaxial and CBR tests and the results were

recorded and analyzed.

3. Results 3.1. Uniaxial and CBR Tests’ Results

This experiment was performed on a series of samples with different percentages of humidity (20, 23,

25, 27.5, 30). The geotextile layers in two different types (55, 77) were cut with a diameter slightly less

than the mold diameter; the geotextile layers so prepared were laid in equal distances (1/2, 1/3, ¼ and

1/5 from the bottom of the mold) within the sample soil. The test was performed on the non-reinforced

(control) samples and reinforced with geotextile samples. Before executing the tests on the reinforced

clays, the strength of non-reinforced Kaolinite Clay was obtained in different humidity percentages

using the uniaxial test and the stress-strain graph was plotted as the control sample. In the next stage,

the mentioned test was performed on the Kaolinite clay reinforced with different number of geotextile

layers (1 to 4 layers).

Considering the results of stress-strain graph of the claysnon-reinforced and reinforced with

geotextile, it can be seen that the non-reinforced samples undergo more tensions with less

displacements, and this is while although all the reinforced samples attain strength with more gentle

slopes, ultimately the maximum strength of the samples having gentle behavior will be more than the

non-reinforced samples orthose reinforced with fewer number of geotextile layers. Also the strength of

the samples varies with respect to the type and number of geotextile layers; so that adding a geotextile

layer of type no. 1 to the sample increases the soil strength for about 7-25 percent. Such increase for

most of the samples is between 7-12% and as can be seen, using the type 2 geotextile increases about

17-25 percent in the samples’ strength in comparison with samples reinforced with type 1geotextile

and among them, the samples with less humidity show higher strength increase. Of course, laying 1 to

4 geotextile layers of higher strength in the samples causes up to 100 percent increase in the samples’

strength compared with the control sample. Meanwhile, by the increase in the number of geotextile

layers, the soil ductility is increased up to 5 times and their secant module is decreased up to 4 times. It

must be mentioned that one reason for ductility of the samples is the increase in humidity of the soil

and changes in the soil humidity is considerably effective in the soil ductility. Also the samples with


23% of humidity (optimum moisture content) have the highest level of strength and after that, the

samples with 20, 25, 27.5 and 30 percent of humidity rank highest respectively in terms of strength.

In Figs. (1-3) the effect of different number of type 1 geotextile layers in Kaolinite soil samples

with 20, 23, and 25% of humidity has been represented. As can be seen, the control samples have the

lowest strength and the samples with 4 layers of geotextile have the highest strength and an upward

trend is seen in the strength and ductility of the soil samples from the control samples to the samples

reinforced with 4 geotextile layers. It’s worth mentioning that the control samples’ strength and the

strength of samples reinforced with 1-2 geotextile layers will have a declining trend after reaching the

maximum strength, and they will not enjoy from prolong ductility; but the samples with 3-4 geotextile

layers will not show decline in their strength after reaching their maximum value.

Figure 1: Uniaxial test results using various number of geotextile layers of type 1 with 20% humidity




Figs. (4, 5) show the uniaxial test results conducted on the samples with different number of

type 1geotextile layers in 27.5 and 30% humidity. As can be seen from the results shown above, the

sample’s strength in these two humidity percentages declines relative to the previous humidities, but

with a constant trend; that is, the sample reinforced with 4 layers of geotextile shows the highest

strength and the control sample shows the lowest strength. This is while in 27.5% humidity all the

samples except for the control sample, along with preserving ductility properties, show constant trend

after reaching the maximum strength, without reversal to declining trend. With 30% humidity however,

all the samples and even the control sample are highly ductile and preserve a constant trend after

reaching the maximum strength without declining. This indicates that through increasing the humidity

and using more number of geotextile layers, the soil ductility could be increased, with the difference

that increasing the humidity causes decrease in the soil strength but using more number of geotextile

layers and even using a geotextile with higher strength increases the soil strength.

Figure 4: Uniaxial test results using various number of geotextile layers of type 1 with 27.5% humidity



Figs. (6, 7) compare the effect of laying different numbers of types 1 and 2 geotextile layers in

Kaolinite soil. According to this comparison, the maximum strengths related to the samples with 23%

of humidity which show the highest strength in any condition and after that, the samples with 20, 25,

27.5 and 30% of humidity represent the highest strength respectively; this is while in 25% of humidity,

the strengths of the samples having different number of geotextile layers are closer to each other

compared with other humidities.

Figure 6: Comparison of the effect of laying different number of type 1 geotextile layers in different humidities


Figure 7: Comparison of the effect of laying different number of type 2 geotextile layers in different humidities

Figs. (8) evaluate the effect of different number of type 1 geotextile layers on the axial strain of

the samples in different humidities. As can be seen, by the increase in the number of geotextile layers

and the humidity percentage, the samples’ ductility is also increased.

Figure 8: Comparison of the effect of different number of geotextile layers on the axial strain of the samples

in different humidities

Figs. (9, 10) compare the effect of humidity on the secant module of the samples reinforced

with different numbers of type 1 geotextile layers. As can be seen, the secant module of all the samples

except for a few cases (control sample with 25% humidity, samples reinforced with: 1 type 1geotextile

layer with 23% humidity, 3 type 1geotextile layers with 27.5% humidity, 1 and 2 of type 2 geotextile

layers with 25% humidity, and 3 type 2 geotextile layers with 27.5% humidity) declines with the

increase in the humidity percentage compared with the previous sample and this declining trend is true

for the cases with increased number of geotextile layers in all the samples except for the control sample

with 1 type 2 geotextile layer; so that the secant module of the samples reinforced with different

numbers of geotextile layers and 30% of humidity are almost identical.


Figure 9: Comparison of the effect of humidity on the samples’ secant module in terms of laying different

number of type 1 geotextilelayers

Figure 10: Comparison of the effect of humidity on the samples’ secant module considering different number

of type 2 geotextile layer

Figs. (11, 12) indicate the effect of the number of type 1 and 2 geotextile layers on the

maximum strength of the samples in different humidities.


Figure 11: Comparison of the effect of the number of type 1 geotextile layers and soil humidity changes on the

maximum strength of the samples

Figure 12: Comparison of the effect of the number of type 2 geotextile layers and soil humidity changes on the

maximum strength of the samples

3.2. The Breakage Schema of the Samples in Uniaxial Tests

Considering the samples’ breakage pattern in the laboratory it can be concluded that the samples with

less humidity and fewer number of geotextile layers show angular fractures but the samples with high

humidity (like 30% and 27.5%) and more number of geotextile layers show less fractures and more

loss of strength and settlement and attain barrel like shape. In the meantime vertical fractures and

collapse of inner layers appear in some samples. Also the fractureangle of the samples was 60◦ to 75◦

degrees with the horizon; the 75◦ relates to the control sample with 20% humidity and this

fractureangle decreases to about 60◦ degrees with the increase in the humidity level and the number of

geotextilelayers. Also the non-reinforced samples that normally contain fractures all across their

height, show decrease in the fractures’ length and continuity after reinforcement.


3.3. CBR Test Results

This experiment was conducted in optimized humidity (23%) and using type 1 and 2 geotextiles laid as

1 layer in the middle of the mold height, 2 layers in 1/3 equal distances across the mold height, 3 layers

in ¼ equal distances across the mold height and 4 layers in 1/5 equal distances across the mold height

while the layers’ diameter was a bit smaller than the CBR mold. Results of the experiment shows that

laying 1 layer of geotextile increases the soil strength to about 11% compared with the control sample

and laying 2 layers of geotextile also adds to the strength with the same ration compared with the

sample having 1 layer of geotextile; but laying 3and 4 layers of geotextile adds less to the soil strength

(about 4 and 6% in comparison with the previous two samples). As a matter of fact, increase in the

number of the type 1 geotextile layers heightens the strength of sample reinforced with 4 layers of

geotextile to about 30% compared with the control sample. This is while it would be possible to

increase the samples’ strength to about 9-10 percent using the type 2 geotextile compared with the

samples reinforced with the type 1 geotextile.

Figure 13: Results of the CBR tests conducted on the samples reinforced with the type 1geotextile

Fig. 13 evaluates the results of using type 1 geotextile effects on the samples in CBR test.

Considering the loading employed in the CBR teats and the samples’ loading capacity, results show

that laying geotextile layers in the samples increases their loading capacity, although the geotextile

layers’ effective ratio in these series of tests is to a degree intangible compared with the uniaxial test.

Also by using more number of layers, less increase of strength is observed; that is using 1 layer of

geotextile produces more visible effect and ultimately, laying 4 layers of geotextile shows no

considerable difference in the soil loading capacity in comparison with using 3 layers of geotextile.


Figure 14: Results of the CBR tests conducted on the samples reinforced with the type 2geotextile

Figure 15: Comparison of the effect of different number of types 1 and 2 geotextile layers on the samples’

maximum strain in CBR test

Fig. 14 evaluates the results of using type 2 geotextile effects on the samples in CBR test. It can

be seen that laying different numbers of geotextile layers with higher strength would be more effective

in the soil strength and thereby the soil loading capacity.

Fig. 15 makes a comparison between the effects of the number of geotextile layers in CBR test.

Increasing the number of geotextile layers in this series of tests also increased the samples’ strength,

but the mentioned effect declined with increasing the number of layers.Hence, perhaps it can be said

that the best result is obtained by laying two layers of geotextile in samples. This effect also observed

with much less ratio in higher number of layers; but in large scale executive projects, using less

number of geotextile layers is more economical in terms of time, workforce and budget.


4. Conclusion Using geotextile increases the reinforced clay soil strength. Adding each geotextile layer causes

an increase of about 7-25% in the uniaxial strength of the soil. Meanwhile laying 1 to 4 of type

2 geotextile layers in the soil increases the samples’ strengths up to about 100% compared with

the control sample.

Using geotextiles in uniaxial tests increases the soil ductility up to 5 fold.

The strength and ductility increase ratio depend on the number of used geotextile layers in the

reinforced soil and more number of layers entails greater effects.

The strength and ductility increase ratio depends to the geotextile type as well; using geotextiles

of higher strength, obtaining a desirable strength with fewer numbers of layers would be

possible.

By the increase in the geotextile layer section, obtaining higher strengths would be possible.

Using geotextiles in uniaxial tests decreases the soil secant module to ¼.

On the whole, changes in the soil humidity percentage will change the soil’s strength and

ductility, and the best result is gained with the soil optimized humidity; so that increasing the

humidity will cause decrease in the strength and increase in the ductility.

Using geotextiles in CBR tests will cause an increase of 10 to 40% in the strength and loading

capacity.

References [1] Koerner, R.M.,Bowman, H.L., 1991, “Geosynthetics in Geotechnical Engineering”, New York.

[2] Aiban, S.A., AL-Ahmadi, H.M., Asi, I.M., Siddique Z.U., and AL-Amoudi, O.S.B. 2006,

“Effect of geotextile and cement on the performance of sabkha subgrade”, Building and

Environment, NO.41, 807-820.

[3] Unnikrishnan, N., Rajagopal, K., Krishnaswamy, N.R., 2001, “Behaviour of reinforced clay

under monotonic and cyclic loading”, Geotextiles and Geomembranes,NO. 20, 117-133.

[4] R. Noorzad , S. Mirmoradi“ Laboratory evaluation of the behavior of ageotextile reinforced

clay” Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Volume 28, Issue 4, August 2010, Pages 386-392

[5] Bergado, T., long, V., Murthy, B.R., 2002, “A case study of geotextile-reinforced embankment

on soft ground”, Geotexlites and Geombranes,NO. 20, 343-365.

[6] Anubhav,,P.K. Basudhar“ Modeling of soil–woven geotextile interface behavior from direct

shear test results”Geotextiles and Geomembranes, Volume 28, Issue 4, August 2010, Pages

403-408

[7] Jigisha M. Vashi, Atul K. Desai, Chandresh H. Solanki “ Evaluation of PET and PP Geotextile

Reinforced Embankment on Soft Soil” Procedia Engineering, Volume 51, 2013, Pages 19-24

[8] S.C. Tuna, S. Altun” Mechanical behaviour of sand-geotextile interface” Scientia Iranica,

Volume 19, Issue 4, August 2012, Pages 1044-1051




Developing the Capability of Local Management Based on

Iranian-Islamic Criteria (Case Study: The Local

Management of Sari)

Hamid Reza Saremi

Department of Urban Planning, Science and Research Branch

Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd, Iran

Mohammad Rashidi Alashti

Department of Land- use Planning, Science and Research Branch

Islamic Azad University, Boroujerd, Iran

Abstract

The local management based on “conducting” people’s partnership and creating

many chances to achieve the fair interests in local domains, have strengthen the social and

political pillars of the country according to the political maturity and democracy stability

and the “political system” and is regarded as a teaching course to be politician and

manager, in addition to be an appropriate bed for accepting the culture by citizens. The

system of local management in Iran, due to focusing on the political-directorial structure, is

in comparison with the individual systems and the national-regional systems have a linear-

vertical direction that has led it to a passive management. Utilizing the Iranian-Islamic

basics and universal theories related to the urban and local management gives us a set of

standards and criteria to stabilize the local management with a specific approach, that is an

Iranian-Islamic approach in this research and it has a significant influence on improving the

role, position, and function of local management in the city. Therefore, at first, the Iranian-

Islamic dimensions of local management that does not have any comprehensive definition

as well as its international accepted dimensions are derived and based on the standards and

appropriate criteria of local managements are edited. These criteria have been measured

and evaluated at the status quo and they have been analyzed through the use of statistical

methods. This research that is done with a functional aim and is written and edited through

the cross-sectional survey has found out that actions such as submitting some parts of the

state tenures to the local management, creating a united urban management with the

centrality of municipality, editing and operating the strategic document of giving services

based on the Iranian-Islamic pattern, editing the structure of local management based on the

population, economic, and geographical specifications can have an effective role in

developing the capability of local management.

Keywords: Local management, Iranian-Islamic city, Sari, Iranian-Islamic pattern

1. Introduction The modern urbanism has introduced the city as an organism and a spatial- physical structure, whose

life is guided and monitored in the common scientific methods. The developmental process of human


Criteria (Case Study: The Local Management of Sari) 61

societies and the philosophical- intellectual developments have shown that the traditional system of

urban management cannot meet the requirements of the modern cities. This issue as well as the lack of

partnership and the weak performance of social and civil institutions state the necessity of a modern

approach to the urban management.

The emergence of expanded social movements caused in the proliferation of new forms of

social organization and the requirement to increase the political partnership in the authorized regimes

at the end of 1970 and the beginning of 1980 and a kind of transition took place from official structures

as the axis of decision making to the role of civil society in performing the democratic rights and

performing the task. Therefore, the approach to the urban management and the approach to the

management-oriented urban management were developed to the approach to local management in the

beginning of 1980s and the beginning of 1990s.

Iran and its urban management also were affected by the above-mentioned changes. The local

management in Iran includes the institution of the Islamic Council of the City and municipality that are

defined as a part of the urban management system in the status quo.

The local management in Iran has won the attention of many policy-makers about one century

ago and laws were provided for it; however, due to different reasons including increasing the urbanism,

the main changes of the urban functions, increasing the dynamism and complexity of urban

phenomena, changes in the lifestyle and type of consumption in cities and increasing the environmental

risks and social harms in cities, the tasks assigned to the local management cannot meet all the

requirements.

Furthermore. The indefinite situation of the place and identity of urban identification in the

master system of civil management, lack of ability to assign the sense of system to the available urban

management due to the defects of functional and geographical coverage, lack of elements and the

citizens’ selected institutions, severe dependency on the central government and the conflicts of

institutions and elements together can be regarded as the reason of lack of urban management function

in managing the stable development of cities in Iran; although, 18 years after conducting this study and

implementing the reforms in the field of local management, it is inevitable to consider this issue.

Approving the law of Baladieh in 1907 and its next reform and approving the law of State and

Province Councils and then the law of organizations, states, and provinces and the authorities’

instruction in 1929 and the laws related to the options of the city council and approving the law of

organizations, duties and selection of the civil Islamic council and selecting mayors in 1996 have been

in meeting the needs of urbanization and the necessity of its management; however, it should be noted

that these laws did not enjoy a necessary universality to solve the problems of the society and the urban

management. One of the most important functional, behavioral, and structural damages dominating the

local managements of Iran is lack of a master pattern to self-control the local managements and lack of

responsibility by the elements of management and lack of harmony between the options with the

natural assignments of local managements, lack of separation between the assignments of the local

management such as mayors, and the institutions of the local management decision-making including

the city council and lack of an organized existence and a directorial element in these local

environments.

One of the most important reasons for the above-mentioned damages is lack of a special local

management pattern in Iran based on the Iranian and Islamic factors and specifications in accordance

with the Islamic Iranian society. If the organization of the local management set in Iran, especially the

municipalities, is observed, it can be seen that this organization has used a kind of organization that is

the organization based on the task; while, in addition to the quality difference of one city population

compared to another city, types of problems and difficulties of one city are changed compared to

another and this issue does not have any harmony with the structures of local management institutions

that are responsible to meet these needs.

62 Hamid Reza Saremi and Mohammad Rashidi Alashti

According to some authors and comparative studies theoreticians’ opinions in the field of local

managements in the book entitled governing the local governments and Barak Pour and Iraj Asadi in

the book entitled urban management and authority, recognizing the western patterns and experiences of

other countries can be useful for solving the urban problems and new local managements in developing

countries. Some other authors including Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf in the book entitled the local

government with the strategy of spatial distribution of political power in Iran, believes that the

available patterns of the usual local managements in other countries, are considered merely based on

cultural, economic, and political peculiarities of the manufacturing country for that pattern and the

editors of these patterns have never sought to edit a universal pattern for their own local management

structures; therefore, they have never sought to solve the problems of such societies. Therefore, this

group of societies, i.e. developing societies should use a pattern based on the specifications of their

own population, political, economic situation and even in our country, such pattern should be based on

the religious specifications to solve the problems of the urban management.

Looking at the article 136, the law of economic, social, and cultural development third plan,

and article 137; the law of economic, social, and cultural development fourth plan show that the

government is able to submit the civil submissions in the affairs of the urban development to the local

management. What we see in practice is something different and it is while the article 173 of the

economic, social, and cultural development fifth plan has mentioned to providing the master plan of

urban management and the management concentration through submitting the governmental

assignments and commissions to municipalities and developing the place of municipalities. Regarding

the motto of independency in Islamic Republic of Iran and the unique nature of the management

system of Iran among other countries, finding a successful pattern of the local managements which

reminds religious democracy to solve the problems of society is very necessary. The present study is

aimed at finding such pattern. In this research, in the range of internal and external relations of the

local management of urbanism, some suggestions have been presented to form a master and functional

pattern of the domesticated local management (Iranian- Islamic) in addition to recognize the

dimensions and effective Iranian- Islamic variables.

2. Review of the Related Literature In the available archive, Fazilat Tooranian (editing and developing the management system of urban

macro region (the institutional aspect), the case study of Shiraz macro region, Elm and Saanat University

of Iran, 2002) has studied and examined the management system in the macro region of Shiraz, and

considering the institutional, and structural aspects and the tools of urban master management, she has

tried to create the institutional capacity to create a more functional management. The results of her

research that is associated with presenting modern institutional framework to integrate the management

of macro region of Shiraz, show that the institutional traditional structure in the urban macro region

including various institutions in the affairs of management and programming, is disable in adjusting the

metropolitan regions and if continues, these regions will be faced with spatial chaotic.

Furthermore, Leila Sayyar Alnagq (presenting an optimized management pattern for Tabriz

municipality, Geography Faculty of Yazd University, 2001) studied the urban management system in

some countries and then summarizing the Islamic management specifications, and the urban management

system in Iran, she focused on the sample of the study. This study that is aimed at studying and

recognizing the organizational structure of Tabriz municipality and the strengths and weaknesses as well

as presenting suitable solutions to reform the available management patterns in this organization, found

out that more than half of the tasks assigned to municipalities are done by other organizations according

to the law of municipality, approved in 1955 and in this regard she presented some suggestions to

improve and develop the management level of municipalities and destroy the available barriers.

The urban management in Iran is turned to a passive and incomprehensive management due to lack

of suitable consistency in systematic relations with the internal and subordinate levels. Therefore, regarding



the environmental dimensions, the urban management in Iran is active in improper environments due to

lack of enjoying proper political, social, financial beds and enough partnership of social contributors. At the

end, in this study some solutions are suggested based on determining a suitable view of the Tehran

management according to theoretical frameworks and analyzing the available situation.

Another study on the field of urban management; “designing the urban management system

suitable for the cities of Iran, case study: Mashhad” is that of Gholamreza Kazemian Shiravan which

was presented as the M.A thesis in 1994 in Shahid Beheshti University. In this study, the existence of

political-social systems, the dominant political role in cities of Iran and lack of separation between

political and civil affairs, are the factors that resulted in lack of forming the independent urban

management institutions. He believed that the urban management system is insufficient and named the

lack of main necessity to suggest the new elements and the necessity of concentration on editing the

tasks and new relations for the available institutions and elements as the main results of his study.

Furthermore, the gradual localizing of the urban planning procedure and improving the municipality as

the executive element can be named as the main suggestions presented in his thesis.

Among the non-Persian sources, the following books and articles can be mentioned:

In the book “Public Participation and Local Government” Bucces Imraan at al analyze the

available situation of local management under the study and study the available laws and state the issue

from the perspective of public participation in local management and present the consequences and

effects. Furthermore, they present some suggestions in terms of improving the system of local

management focusing the local partnership.

Conducting the survey and expanded analysis and examinations, the Improvement and

development agency managers in the book titled as “Key Principles Equality framework for local

government” concluded that the available urban management system follows the traditional standards

and laws and new standards need to be introduced in this regard. In order to achieve this goal, they

present some solutions and strategies.

In the book titled as “private – public partnership, the guide of local governments” The ministry

of municipality affairs of British Colombia states the public-private partnership as the guidance of local

management. They present that in 1998, by approving the province management law, regarding the

limitations that are created in terms of presenting the services and performing the substructure affairs,

the reform of municipality law was done as well. Furthermore, in this book the dimensions of public-

private partnership and the legal framework were studied and how to operate it was stated.

Pamela Gibson et al in an article titled as “Improving performance and Accountability in local

Government with Citizen Participation” believe that finding the successful ways to interact the local

management with people to form the future societies, is one of the significant challenges in the new

millennium. What has been stated as the role of democratic citizens, is the general partnership in the

completing process of modern civil culture; in other words, any change in the pattern of political

system and the functional separation of power, roles, and responsibilities, the citizen is merged in each

part of the government and the relationship with citizens is increased by the public opinion polls,

public sessions, and organizing the group activities.

3. Theoretical Basics Regarding the short-term literature of local management in modern method, the mere viewpoints about

the local management is limited. However, the reality is that before stating the local management,

cities were managed and the theories and viewpoints of many theoreticians have been effective in

forming the modern form of urban management. In this regard, in the European and Americak

countries, the content of local management is very separable and expanded. Therefore, according to the

functional condition and the systematic approach to it enjoy different categorizations, and this trend is

going to be developed and updated through developing the urban title. The deficiency of the theories of


Chicago school in the first decades after the Second World War and the urban development and the

related affairs caused every subject in the city to be studied by the urban sociology and planning. The

interference of the irrelevant experts has increased the complexity of this subject. Lack of suitable

theories results in a serious challenge in this issue. Therefore, it is tried to present the theories related to

the local management:

3.1. The Theories Focusing the Urban Management

3.1.1. Max Weber and the Theory of Bureaucracy

Presenting the general theory of bureaucracy, Weber names domination and authority in the

organizational discussion and believes that a good organization is an organization that considers the

interactive relationship between organizations and individuals.

Figure 1: The Basics of Management from the Perspective of Weber

The Basics of Management from the Perspectives of Weber

Functional

Division of

Labour

Centralization

of authority

Applying

Regulations

instead of

Relations

Formulate rules and

regulations for all affairs

Recording

Prosperities, Actions

and Operations

3.1.2. Brian Mac Lalin and the Theory of Urban Authority and Management

He has considered the city as an open system where the systematic procedure dominating the city

affects the planning and the decision-making system. Furthermore, he believes that authorship is a

procedure, which is containing the integrated and interwoven system that includes both the

“government’ and “society.”

3.1.3. Rex and Moor Theory

These theoreticians have studied the distribution of power and its relation with the political criteria in

analyzing the rare sources in the city and the struggle which exits among the social groups to achieve it

(Rex and Moor, 1967).

3.1.4. Richard Tardaniko Theory

In his idea, the analysis of city is analyzable as a universal and regional action system and in the

viewpoint of structuralism; city is a part of higher system and is a complete behavior that is

continuously affecting and being affected

Figure 2: Theory of Richard Tardaniko

Theory of Richard Tardaniko

Urban Structural

Theory

Theory of Urban

Praxi

Theory of

Dependency to

Urbanization

The Theory of

Universal System of

Urbanization



3.1.5. Theory of Pahl

In his viewpoint, this theoretician names those who control and manage the city in the process of urban

management by assisting the concepts of power and management with the titles of social goal-keeper,

planners, social brokers, and etc. he knows a social system as an environment that reflects the power of

city managers (Pahl, 1975: 10).

3.1.6. The Theories of Partnership and Democracy in Urban Management

Democracy is often defined and analyzed based on the style of definition and interpretation of the

citizens’ partnership. The classic pattern of democracy can be categorized into the theory of elitist, the

partnership theories, and the pluralist theories that are a mixture of elitist and partnership theories.

According to the elitist theories, only a few numbers of citizens have the ability to use the power of

decision-making in the municipalities. Polling and election are the explainers of democracy and the

candidates in each municipality are the representatives of general interests of all the citizens and when

they apply the power of decision-making, they are able to make suitable decisions. The active

partnership of citizens in the government is not necessary. Citizens’ reaction to the election can be

regarded as a tool in evaluating the success of decision-makers. The elitist theories state that power is

divided unequally among citizens and elite is not only used and the various elitist groups fight to get

power. Furthermore, democracy can be placed under the subordination of various elitist groups and in

each case, one group of elitist use the power in one field and the other elite group use the power in

another field. The pluralist theories in democracy know the society as networks of various elitist

groups and direct partnership of citizens that are affected the elitist groups. These theories emphasize

that the partnership results in development and the growth of character and the sense of responsibility

among citizens (Hersey Paul& Blanchard Ken, 1988).

3.1.7. The Theory of Salah-e-Din Yaldyerim

He has stated his opinion about the role of municipality and local governments in four approaches that

is stated in the following table:

Table 1: Theory of Salahedin Yaldyerim

Approach The Issues Discussed

Pluralist The functional dependency of the government and local governments from any interest of social groups

Tool-Oriented The local governments, the realization tool of the interests of special classes or groups

Elitist Management The local government is assigned to defend the local and national interest.

Structuralism The main and vital focus on the orientation in the policies of government to provide the group points.

3.1.8. The Participatory Theory of Arnstein

He applied the citizen participation with the interpretation of citizen’s power and used the ladder of

partnership to explain it:

Citizen Control 8

Citizens’ Power Delegated power 7

Partnership 6

Plaction 5

Minor Participation Consultation 4

Informing 3

Denial of Participation Therapy 2

Manipulation 1

In the lowest step there is no power for Arnstein. In other words, lack of partnership in the

period, shows itself, which are named therapy and manipulation by him. As he believes the


manipulation means that some of the government organizations supply the artificial forms of

partnership whose main aim is teaching citizens to accept affairs that are determined beforehand. Then

is the therapy step, which is a kind of unfaithful partnership. The step of informing and consulting is

the stage of informing citizens of the available facts in the programs of government and rights and their

responsibilities and the available solution (Rosenbloom David, 1989).

3.1.9. The Participation Theory of Scott Davidson

He designed his partnership circulation for the discussion of citizenship partnership. This circulation

shows different stages of partnership without any preferences for a single stage. In this model, he

considers a four-stage level including: 1. Informing, 2. Consultation, 3. Partnership, 4. Empowerment

3.1.10. The Partnership Theory of David Driksell

He believes that the partnership is based on the following three beliefs:

A Development should be in favor of local residents.

B People who live in the programming scope, have the most exact information about that

scope.

C People who accept the most effects from the decisions have greater share for partnership

in decision-making.

According to Driksell there are different forms of partnership that are categorized in two

general groups of “partnership” and “lack of partnership.” (Driksell, 2002: 32)

3.1.11. Theory of Mediation

This theory suggests the method of mediation to maximize the partnership. In this theory, the concepts

of general partnership and general consultation have been focused. Finally, a movement from the

general partnership in planning that is guided by the council and is mainly based on informing about

the programs of councils, to the partnership programming that is based on the basic principles of

mediation is considered as a necessity (Rakodi C, 2001).

3.1.12. The Theory of Public and Elites Participation of Lewin Folket

He believes that in the modern urban democracy, two elements are affective simultaneously. Only

elites and not citizens decide. If there is no partnership in the macro level of the society, the decisions

will be meaningless and the elite group will not be accepted by the public. Therefore, the decision-

making necessitates the existence of elites and the citizens’ partnership. One of the selected democracy

critics’ reasons can be due to this fact that this system rejects the possibility of active participation of

the citizens. Simply, it can be stated that partnership is only limited to the citizens’ activities in relation

to polling in the day of election (Rakodi C, 2001).

3.1.13. Theories Related to Government and Governance

Jonston (2005) defined the governance as “the act or procedure of governing” that the governing is

similar to the government. The government means leading, guiding, managing, and controlling.

Specifically, the government means governing through implementing the power and authority and

managing the civil affairs. Therefore, “the government is an official organization and an authorized

decision-making position, including the executive branches and civil legislation as well as those who

control it. Governing implicitly means the common action and the existence of common aims,

evaluative frameworks, and common rules, continuous balance and determination to achieve the

collective interest that is not achievable through individual actions (Rakodi, 2001: 524).



Table 2: Analzying the Theories of Participatory Urbanism

Theory/ Type of

Partnership Artificial Participation Limited Participation Real Participation

1. The Participation ladder

of Arnstein

Manipulation informing participation

therapy consultation Delegated power

placation Citizens’ control

2. The Participation

Circulation of Davidson

informing participation

consultation empowerment

3. Driksell

Decorative participation consultation People’s responsibility

manipulation Social movement Participation in decision-making

Dramatic egalitarianism

4. Mediation - Public partnership

Participatory planning (through the

way of commitment, negotiation,

pre-mediation, and mediation)

Jonstone believes that two widespread applications can be considered for governance. The first

application is related to the nature of “organizations.” In this application, the governance is defined as

the interference of a widespread range of institutions and actors in producing the policies. The next

application is related to the nature of “relations among organizations.” In this application, the

governance includes a special form of discipline. Contrary to control from up to down that exists in the

discipline based on hierarchy, the governance requires discipline through networks and partnerships.

Therefore, governance means “self-organizing the inter-organization relations.”

Rhodes believes that the governance is the “Self organized inter-organizational networks” and a

good starting point for discussion about the governance. According to this definition, the policymaking

process is regarded as a bargaining game among different types of actors. Therefore, the governance is

the subject about the public actions that are higher than the government and the public observation and

guiding the network to find specific results.

3.1.14. New Regionalism

This viewpoint believes that in the new universal economic conditions, it is necessary to integrate the

institutions to attract the interests and repel the harms of globalization. The fans of reformism have

rejected the support of traditional styles of reforming the government structure especially the classic

metropolitan and have accepted the deficiency of such structures at the status quo. In the pattern of

governing the metropolitan pattern – based on the available conditions- the duties are based on two

axes. On one hand, considering the economic development and the role of a metropolitan region in the

universal economic whose aims are the comparative benefits and effort to achieve the meritorious rank

in the region and on the other hand tasks that are related to the internal region and include partnership

in thinking and finding solutions in the environmental issues, the regional substructures, holding the

distributive justice and social economic affairs with the partnership of all the actors.

Figure 3: The View Point of New-regionalism


3.2. The Relations of Central Government and Local Management

In developing countries the problem is that how the structure of the local government and its relations

are getting adjusted by the central government and how the responsibility of partnership in the national

development is assigned to the local government. In most of the developing countries with the

democratic tendency, the local governments enjoy the complete independency and go toward a new

concept of partnership; however, determining the trends in developing countries is hard since they own

various tendencies. The relations between the central government and local governments are adjusted

based on a set of different values (diagram 3-4) and the specifications of the approaches related to these

values are stated in table 3.

Figure 4: The Relations between the Central Government and the Local Government based on a Set of Values

Focusing on the

partnership

procedures

The Relations between the Central Government and the Local Government based on a Set of Values

Democratic Values Management Values (administrative) Combined Values

Creating a balance between the

local- oriented and service-

oriented governments

Service-oriented

Government

The approach of local-

oriented Government

Table 3: The Specifications and the Assumptions of the Government-oriented, Service-oriented, and

Combined Governments

Government-oriented Service-Oriented Combined

1. the self-managed units that own

the legal status

1. The local management in the

form of: District council, the

central agency or central

government

1. Through reinforcing the local

institutions, the central government

and in order to give effective services,

enjoying the structure, resources, and

responsibilities is active to achieve the

local needs and to fulfill the

democratic assignment.

2. using the financial source of

the central government

2. grants by controlling the

performance

2. supplying the grants through the central

government

3. they are not regarded as the

factor of central government

3. they are necessarily the agencies

of the central government

3. the central and local government as

partners to achieve the public welfare

4. they have freedom in

management

4. assessing the quality of local

units through effective and

functional standards

4. The central government of technical

consultation provides the grants and

the local government is the informing

channel and feedback resource.

5. controlling the local

government by the central

government in sensitive and

key points

5. comprehensive control of the

central government without

paying attention to improving

the response and the democratic

values

5. the partnership of central and local

government



Table 3: The Specifications and the Assumptions of the Government-oriented, Service-oriented, and

Combined Governments - continued

6. lack of attention to sufficient

facilities for effective services

6. local self-managing in giving

services

6. increasing the capacity of local units to

present the effective services with

protecting the interests of central

government

7. emphasizing the democratic

values

7. comprehensive and united

strategies and methods

7. emphasizing the partnership and

achieving the public welfare

8. emphasizing the local

independency

8. emphasizing the control of the

central government

4. Research Method Most of the methodology in the behavioral sciences is descriptive. In descriptive research projects what

exists or the available situation of phenomena is studied. According to Best, a descriptive research

studies the conditions or the available relations, opinions, viewpoints, approaches, and people’s beliefs

about one phenomenon, procedures, and the trends. The aim of a descriptive study is determining the

nature of conditions, activities, and dominant approaches. In a descriptive research, the researcher

describes the activities, objects, and people. The field research is a kind of descriptive research that is

used in the behavioral sciences. The field study includes: observing the phenomena to give meaning to

different aspects of collected information.

4.1. Participants

The population is just the individuals, groups, and organizations that the researcher is going to study

(Ahmadi, 2012: 147). In this research, the considerable society is 120 people of the managers, and

male and female experts of municipality and Islamic Council of Sari.

4.2. Sample and Sampling

4.2.1. Sample

Sample is a small sample of the society that is selected to be observed and analyzed. In other words, a

part of the participants that is selected based on a definite criterion and is considered as the

representative of the society, is called a sample. The sample is named as a subset of a society. In this

research and regarding the number of population, the sample size is 80 people who are selected through

the Table of Krejcie & Morgan.

4.2.2. Sampling

The sampling method in this research is the random method based on the experts and managers.

Table 4: The Sample under the Study Separated by the Post.

Post Manager Employees Total No.

Frequency of each class 30 72 102

The ratio of each class to the whole society 29% 71% 100%

The proportion of sample to the society 22 58 80

In the random sampling-class, the society is categorized in the equal groups and in every group

the individuals have the similar specifications. When the society was divided into the equal or subset

groups, the proportion of each society is calculated to the society and then the ratio calculated in each

group is multiplied in the sample size. Therefore, the number of people in each group gets clear in


comparison to the whole group. Thus, the researcher is sure that the subsets are as much as those exits

as the representatives (Clarke John, J, 1955).

4.3. Data Collection

Two methods were used to collect the data:

a) Library method: in this research in order to collect data and in order to edit the literature of the

research as well as the theoretical basics and the scholars’ opinions, this method was used.

b) Questionnaire: in this research, in order to collect the data, a researcher-created questionnaire

that included 30 questions in 5-scal Likret type was used.

4.4. Validity and Reliability

In order to calculate the validity of the test, the advisor and reader’s opinions were used. Then the

necessary formations were applied and then in order to calculate the reliability, 20 questionnaires were

distributed among the experts and managers and then the reliability was calculated through alpha

Cranach’s as 0.81.

4.5. Analyzing the Data

The data collected through two descriptive and inferential methods was analyzed through SPSS. In this

research, the descriptive data was used to show the frequency of data and the related diagrams and the

Inferential data was used for the meaningfulness of the relations between the variables.

4.5.1. Descriptive Statistics

The set of methods that is used for organizing, summarizing, and describing the observations is called

the descriptive statistics. In this research, it includes a set of concepts and methods used to organize,

summarize, provide tables, draw diagrams, and describe the data collected.

4.5.2. Inferential Statistics

The set of methods through which we deduct the data of sampling, specifications of a major group or a

society is called the inferential statistics. The inferential data enables us to evaluate the specifications

of a bigger group through studying the specifications of a small group (Hasan Zadeh, 2010: 10). In

order to analyze the hypotheses in this research, single-variant t-test as well as the Friedman test was

used to prioritize the answers.

4.6. The Scope of the Research

4.6.1. The Subject Scope

The theoretical literature of this research is in the field of the urban and local management issues as

well as the Islam opinions about the management in city and in each subject, the related criteria are

derived and introduced.

4.6.2. The Place Scope

The present study was performed in the local management of urbanism (municipality and the Islamic

council of the city).

4.6.3. The Time Scope

This research was performed in the period of May 2012 to February 2012.



5. Analyzing the Data of the Research The data and information collected in this research was in fact a raw source that should be examined

and analyzed by suitable tools so that it was able to convey the functional load. Therefore, the most

appropriate instrument to analyze the data collected was the statistical tests. The analysis procedure of

data was changing them into the hypotheses and answering the questions so that the researchers were

able to follow the main and secondary aims of the study and it was completed in three stages:

First stage: analyzing the demographic of samples

Second stage: analyzing the hypotheses

Third stage: describing the demographic of samples

In order to describe the points of samples and the tests about the assumptions, the data were

studied by determining the percentage, frequencies, means, and the weights of respondents to the

variables of gender, educational license, and job experience.

5.1. Analyzing the Demography of Samples

5.1.1. Gender

Table 5: The Respondents Distribution based on Gender

Gender Frequency Percentage

Male 73 91%

Female 7 9%

Total No. 80 100%

According to table 4-2, 91% of respondents are male and 9% are women.

5.1.2. Age

Table 6: The Respondents Distribution based on Age

Age Frequency Percentage

20-30 11 14%

31-40 31 39%

41-50 24 30%

More than 51 14 17%

Total No. 80 100%

According to the above table, 39% of the respondents were between 31-40 years old (the most

frequent) and 14% of them were 20 -30 years old (the least frequent).

5.1.3. Educational Level

Table 7: The Respondents Distribution based on Educational Level

Education Frequency Percentage

Higher diploma 16 20%

Bachelor’s degree 43 54%

Master degree 21 26%

Total No. 80 100%

According to the above table 54% of the respondents held a B.A (the most frequent) and 20%

of them held a higher diploma (the least frequent).


5.1.4. Job Experience

Table 8: The Respondents Distribution based on the Job Experience

Time period Frequency Percentage

Under 5 yrs 6 7%

6 – 10 yrs 21 26%

11 – 15 yrs 34 43%

Over 16 yrs 19 24%

Total No. 80 100%

According to table 5-4, 43% of the respondents had a job experience between 11 to 15 years

and 26% of them had a job experience of 6 to 10 years.

5.1.5. Testing the Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1

“The criterion of local management based on Islamic -Iranian criteria is one of the most important

criteria in developing the ability of the system of local management of Sari”

A. Description

Table 9: Describing the Variable

Number Mean SD

80 84/3 69/0

As it is observed in table 5-5, the calculated mean is 3.48 that is more than the theoretical mean

of 3, which shows the positive approach of respondents to the first hypothesis in terms of description.

In furtherance, in order to generalize the opinions of respondents to the whole society, a t-test is used.

B. Deduction

According to a ‘t-test’ the related coefficients are reflexed in table 5-6.

Table 10: T-Test

T-value df α p-value

63/10 79 May-00 00/0

Reject the H0 0.05= α >0.00= p-value

H0: µ ≤3 H1: µ > 3

Regarding the fact that in table 5-6 the amount of p-value is less than α = 0.05 and regarding

the fact that the mean is more than the theoretical amount of 3, with the confidence level of 95%, it can

be stated that the criterion of local management based on Iranian-Islamic criteria is one of the most

important criterion in developing the ability of local management system of Sari.

Hypothesis: the criteria of local management based on the Iranian-Islamic criteria are the most

important criteria in developing the ability of local management system of Sari.

A. Description

Table 11: T-test related to the first hypothesis

Criteria Number Mean SD t-value error p-value

Dominating the Law 80 45/3 66/0 42/6 May-00 Jan-00

Justice 80 88/3 58/0 67/14 May-00 00/0



Table 11: T-test related to the first hypothesis - continued

Idealism 80 81/3 72/0 10-Dec May-00 00/0

Responding System 80 77/3 64/0 11 May-00 00/0

Consulting Service 80 76/3 61/0 66/12 May-00 00/0

Informing Service 80 91/3 67/0 13 May-00 00/0

Public Partnership 80 97/3 70/0 51/14 May-00 Jan-00

H0: µ ≤3 H1: µ > 3

Source: the statistical data of the research

As it is observed in table 5-7, the mean observed from all the criteria of hypothesis 1 is more

than the theoretical mean amount of 3, showing the positive approach of the respondents in terms of

description compared to the criteria of hypothesis 1. Furthermore, regarding the fact that p-value is less

than α = 0.05, with a confidence level of 95% it can be stated that: the criteria of management are

based on Iranian-Islamic Criteria as the most important criterion in developing the ability of the local

management system of Sari.

Prioritizing the Criteria of Local Management based on Iranian-Islamic Criteria

A. Description

Table 12: The Categorization of Hypotheses in the First Hypothesis

Factors Rating Average

Public Partnership 3-Feb

System of Informing 55/2

Justice 53/2

Idealism 90/1

Table 13: Freidman Test in the First Hypothesis

Chi-square df α p-value

40/103 6 May-00 00/0

Hypothesis Rejection H0 0.05= α >0.00= p-value

Considering the fact that in table 5-9 the amount of p-value is less than α= 0.05, it can be

concluded that there is a significant difference between the criteria of local management based on

Iranian-Islamic criteria. Therefore, considering the table 4-9, it can be concluded that the most mean is

related to the criterion of public partnership and the criteria of informing system and justice are placed

in the next rankings.

Hypothesis 2

“the current criteria of local management in the field of local management of

Sari are in harmony with the Iranian-Islamic criteria of local management”

Table 14: The Description of Variable

Number Mean SD

80 24/3 61/0

Source: the statistical data of the research

As it is observed in table 5-10, the calculated mean equals with 3.24 that is more than the

theoretical mean of 3, indicating the positive approach of respondents from the perspective of

description to the second hypothesis. In furtherance, in order to generalize the respondents’ opinions to

the whole participants, a ‘t-test’ is used.


B. Deduction

According to the ‘t-test’ the related coefficients are reflexed

Table 15: T-test

t-value df α p-value

4 79 May-00 Jan-00

Rejecting the hypothesis H0 0.05= α >0.01= p-value

H0: µ ≤3 H1: µ > 3

Considering the fact that in table 5-11 the p-value is less than α= 0.05, and considering the fact

that the value of mean calculated is more than the theoretical mean of 3 with a 95% of confidence, it

can be concluded that the criteria of local management are in harmony with the Iranian-Islamic

management criteria in the field of the local management of Sari. Although regarding the calculated

mean value is close to the theoretical mean, it shows that the adjustment of local management criteria

in the field of local management of Sari is relatively average with the Iranian-Islamic criteria of

management.

Hypothesis: the current criteria of local management in the field of local management of Sari

are in harmony with the Iranian-Islamic criteria of local management.

A. Description

Table 16: T-test in the second hypothesis

Criteria Number Mean SD t-value error p-value

Justice 80 33/3 64/0 71/4 May-00 00/0

Public partnership 80 36/3 69/0 14/5 May-00 00/0

Informing system 80 25/3 61/0 16/4 May-00 00/0

Consulting service 80 45/3 65/0 42/6 May-00 00/0

Dominance of law 80 86/2 71/0 2- May-00 21/0

Response system 80 92/2 66/0 14/1 May-00 13/0

Idealism 80 41/3 64/0 85/5 May-00 Jan-00

H0: µ ≤3 H1: µ > 3

As it is observed in table 5-12, the calculated mean of all the criteria of hypothesis 2except the

criteria of “dominance of law” and “response system” is more than the theoretical mean 3; indicating

the positive approach of respondents in descriptive terms compared to the criteria of second hypothesis

relatively. Furthermore, considering the fact that in except two cases in the table p-value is less than

the α= 0.05, with a confidence of 95%, it can be concluded that the “current criteria of local

management in the field of urban management of Sari are in harmony with the Iranian-Islamic criteria

of local management and there was not any harmony only in two cases of “dominance of law” and

“response system” with the Iranian-Islamic criteria.

Prioritizing the Matching of Current Criteria of Local Management in the Field of Local

Management of Urbanism with the Iranian-Islamic Criteria

A. Description

Table 17: The Ranking of Variables in the Second Hypothesis

Factors Ranking Average

Justice 61/2

Idealism 37/2

Public Partnership 97/1

Informing System 52/1



Table 18: Freidman test

Chi-Square df α p-value

31/64 6 May-00 00/0

Rejection of Hypothesis H0 0.05= α >0.00= p-value

Regarding the fact that in table 5-14, p-value is less than α= 0.05, it is concluded that there is a

significant difference between the mean matching of current criteria of the local management in the

field of local management of Sari with the Iranian-Islamic criteria. Therefore, considering table 5-13, it

can be concluded that the most amount of mean is related to the criterion of justice and the criterion of

idealism stands in the next place.

6. Conclusion and Suggestions for Further Studies This research was aimed at developing the system of local management in the levels of urban

management and the following questions were posed:

Q1: what are the most important criteria and Iranian-Islamic standard in developing the

capability of urban management?

The study shows that the criteria of justice, public partnership, consulting system, dominance of

law, response system, idealism, informing system can be considered as the most important criteria and

Iranian-Islamic standards in developing the capability of local management.

According to this and considering the results achieved from the data, in responding the first

question of the research that is in contrary with the first hypothesis, one can state that this hypothesis

has been approved by the mean of 3.84. It means that the criterion of local management, based on

Iranian-Islamic criteria is the most important criterion in developing the capability of local

management system, especially the local management of Sari.

Q2: to what extent the available local management is according to the criterion of Iranian-

Islamic standard?

Using the answer of the first question that is the criteria of Iranian-Islamic standard of the local

management and applying the statistical analysis, it is concluded that the local management at the

status quo is matched relatively with the criteria of Iranian-Islamic standard. Therefore, the results

achieved from the statistical data in the response to the second hypothesis of the research which is

related to the second question, are approved the hypothesis relatively.

Therefore, in order to achieve the aims of the research, relying on the Iranian-Islamic criterion

that is derived by the national opinions and religious goals of Iran, and can have the greatest impact in

practice, the functional program is going to be presented in furtherance.

6.1. Editing the Macro and Micro Aims Suggested for Developing the Local Management System

In theoretical studies and in order to achieve the urban development, three universal aims have been for

all the systems of local management:

Developing the condition of work and life of all people in the city

Encouraging the stable economic and social development

Protecting the physical environment of the city

The special aims of local management in Iran can be edited as a combination of evaluative aims

with goals based on solving the problems of the available system relying on the Iranian-Islamic criteria

as follows:

A Supporting the procedure of Urban Development and Stabilizing the Basics of Stable

Development: this issue is aimed at absorbing the citizens’ partnership in managing the affairs

and the urban development as a final goal, which includes the following micro aims:


A-1) Strength of motivations and necessary mechanisms for active and real partnership

of citizens in managing the affairs

A-2) The strength of motivations and necessary mechanisms for maximum functional

utilization from the sources of urban development

A-3) the creation and strength of micro levels of city council

A-4) helping the procedure of development and reform of the administrative structure of

the country

A-5) increasing the factor of programming and managing the cities of Iran

B Determining and Examining the Identity and the Position of Local Management System in

the Macro Civil System

B-1) Creating harmony between the local management system and giving structure to

the administrative system and programming

B-2) submitting the controls and responsibilities to the local management system

C Considering the Local Management System as a Master Management System to Manage

the Urban Region

C-1) Integrating the local management system and all the related elements

C-2) the exact design of the inter-organizational and intra-organizational relations of

local management system and state organizations for the maximum utilization of

their facilities

Editing the Strategies and Suggested Policies of Developing the Local Management System

In order to solve the problems of local management system in Iran, the following policies and

strategies are suggested by relying on the Iranian-Islamic standard and achieving the determined goals:

6.2. Attracting the Active Partnership of Citizens in Local Management and Changing the

Cultural Approach and People’s Understanding of Local Management

1. Matching the policies and strategies of local management with the real needs of people

2. Improving the quality of local management services

3. administrative-executive decentralization of state system and paying specific attention to the

participatory mechanisms and the practical effects.

4. Increasing the control of local management system

5. Applying the programming and strategic management methods based on mechanisms and

participatory actions.

6.3. Considering City as a Source of Development

1. Determining expanded and comprehensive responsibilities for the local management system

in city development

2. Maximum utilization of limited available sources for the development of the city

3. Recycling energy and materials

6.4. Retaking Power from the Central Government and Submitting it to Local Management

System

1. Increasing the participation of the officials of organizations and the elements of central

government and submitting control to the institution of local management

2. Increasing the role and interference of the local management in all the fields of urban

management

3. Separating the political and civil affairs from other affairs as much as we can

4. Organizing and stabilizing the participatory mechanisms



5. Editing and approving the rules and regulations in order to do the administrative-executive

decentralization

6. The strength of horizontal relations of local management with the social groups,

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), professional institutions, and private sector.

7. Using the income sources and local tax

8. Using the bonds at the national level

6.5. Dividing the Proper Work between the Central Government and its Elements with the Local

Management System

1. Separating the political and civil affairs from the urban affairs maximally

2. Submitting all the local affairs to the local management system

3. Determining the expanded responsibilities for the local management system in developing the

city

6.6. Improving the External Relations of Local Management System

1. administrative-executive decentralization from the management system and editing and

approving the necessary laws and regulations for them

2. Increasing the controls of local management system

3. Separating the urban affairs from the political affairs as much as possible

4. Reinforcement of horizontal relations of local management with social groups,

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), professional institutions, and private sector.

5. Determining the expanded responsibilities for the local management system in developing

the city

6. Expanding the inclusion of local management system and its horizontal relations on all the

state organizations and effective elements in the management of city

7. Reinforcing the inter-organizational partnerships

6.7. The Reform of the Inter-Organizational Structure of Local Management

1. Increasing the controls of local management system

2. Utilizing the programming and planning methods and strategic management based on

mechanisms and participatory actions

3. Determining expanded responsibilities for the local management system in the development

of city

4. Reinforcing the horizontal relations of local management with social groups,

nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), professional institutions, and private sector

5. Expanding the inclusion of local management system and its horizontal relations on all the

state organizations and effective elements in the management of city

6. The flexibility of organizational structures based on social, cultural, and mobile management

conditions

7. Determining the role and special position for the mayor (as the manager of the city) in

policymaking, decision-making, and guiding the affairs of the city

8. Designing the local management system in three levels city, district, and neighborhood

including all the tasks and main functions

9. The inclusion of local management on the urban programming


6.8. The Functional and Geographical Integration of Local Management System and Serving

State Organizations

1. Determining the comprehensive responsibilities for the local management system in

developing the city

2. Increasing the inclusion of local management system and its horizontal relations on all the

state organizations and effective elements in the city management



4. Determining the master geographical borders on developed kernels and non-developed

regions

6.9. Reforming the Financial Management of Local Management System

1. Matching the policies and methods of local management with the real needs of people

2. Utilizing the methods of programming and strategic management based on mechanisms and

participatory actions

3. Maximum utilization of the available limited sources for developing the city

4. Receiving the cost of services presented from consumers

5. Recycling materials and energy

6. Using the income sources and local taxes and multiplying the system of financial sources

7. Using the bond at the national level

8. Attracting the participation of private sector

9. Editing and approving the necessary financial laws and regulations

6.10. Organizing and Improving the Quality of Physical Environment of the City

1. Using the planning methods and strategic management based on participatory mechanisms

and actions

2. Receiving the cost of services and wealth resulted from the accumulation and urban focus

on the users and land owners



4. Increasing the inclusion of local management system and its horizontal relations on all the

public organizations and effective elements in the city management

5. Determining the master geographical borders including the developed kernels and

undeveloped regions

6. Editing and operating the necessary physical standards for developing the physic of the city

6.11. Editing the Macro and Micro Aims Suggested for Developing the Local Management

System of SARI

The aims of the local management system of Sari are resulted from the collection of issues and

theoretical basics of this city. Comparing with the public macro aims determined for the local

management system of the all cities of Iran, a macro aim is recognizable for Sari in addition to all the

aims, which is the powerful and authorized local management

In addition to all the public issues, in the field of micro aims, the following specific aims have

been recognized for the local management of Sari:

1. Maximum utilization of the administrative centralization of Sari to advance the aims of

local management

2. Increasing the range of services in the covered area



3. Maximum utilization of the facilities and potentials of the state organizations in city

management

4. Reinforcing the relations with a standard as a responsible of state organizations in the

province

5. Developing the municipality position and assigning the controls and responsibilities to

manage the city purposefully

12.6. Editing the Strategies and Suggested Policies for Developing the Local Management of Sari

Among the determined policies and strategies for the local management of Sari, the following two

strategies are considered specifically for Sari:

1. Paying attention to the administrative centrality of the city as an important factor in

assisting the development of the Sari municipality capability

2. Designing the management structure of Sari comprehensively

Other strategies and policies are much similar to the cases suggested for the local management

in Iran.

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Pedestrian Network Development Planning in Kish Island

Case Study: Mirmohanna Walkway

Hassan Ali Laghai

Associate Professor, Urbanism Department

University of Tehran, Iran

Mona Loghman

Department of Urbanism, Rudehen Branch

Islamic Azad University, Rudehen, Iran

Abstract

Day by day residents of urban areas find themselves more dependent on

automobiles and this study attempts to explore its environmental consequences and

negative effects on normal life of people in cities. Urban development plans and especially

passages and arteries widening plans not only have failed to change this negative process,

but also encouraged people to use more automobiles in urban areas (heavy traffic jams in

mega cities). Nowadays having appropriate spaces for walking in cities, rather than driving,

is one of the most important objectives of human-oriented cities as well as sustainable

urban development in urbanism. Regarding the needs of a walker in Kish Island, this

research, investigates the features and theoretical indices in search for dealing approaches

in present city contexts with a humanistic approach. By extracting statistical and collected

data using various questionnaires as well as comparative and inductive studies with modern

programs of urbanism, the researchers attempted on locating of motion axes and find

presenting how to organize walkers’ movement in Island. SWOT mechanism for searching

suitable approaches was used as the useful instrument of the study. Finally by presenting

necessary strategies, the strategic planning of solutions was achieved.

Keywords: Walkway, Sustainable Tourism and Ecotourism, Sustainable Urban

Development, Pedestrian Network, Strategic Planning,

1. Introduction Regarding the importance of Sustainable development indices in small islands and development and

growth of tourism and ecotourism, it turns to be a must for urban planners to create urban walkways

and expand them. Creation of city spaces based on new set of activities, emphasizing on development

of tourism activities and making more attractions for persistence accompanied by the purpose of a

balanced development of the city leads to benefits of these services for residents and public

satisfaction.

Sustainable tourism applies logical methods to use the natural and human resources in a

standard way and prevents any incorrect use of these resources. Sustainable tourism development

emphasizes on aspects of environment and cultural heritage and resources.

The first international conference on sustainable tourism was held in Madrid in 1995. Criteria

of remaining sustainable were the main discussion of this conference. They negotiated ecological

Pedestrian Network Development Planning in Kish Island Case Study: Mirmohanna Walkway 82

issues in long term, observing economical problems, required obligations towards social and moral

aspects of sustainable tourism and preserving its originality, paying attention to cultural aspects and

values and traditional elements of ethnic communities. 2002 was called the year of ecotourism by

United Nations. The significant event of 2002 was the international meeting on ecotourism in Quebec,

Canada in May 2002. Due to its novel and innovative role, ecotourism must continue so as turn to be a

model for whole tourism industry. Ecotourism is a kind of tourism that requires a kind of responsive

trip to natural areas aiming at protecting the environment and leads to making of sustainable income

for local residents of that area (Saghaei. M, 2003). Walk way or pedestrian street is a single and

separated street in which automobiles have been eliminated. In other words, in this route, non-

motorized commute is prioritized. Of course, it should be mentioned that special vehicles (Fire

engines, ambulances and police car) can use this route in emergency. Cargo and some other service

providing vehicles are also allowed to use the route for traffic but in some pre-scheduled time table. In

walkways people have more freedom to stop, change direction and have direct contact with others. As

Cannon says “Pedestrians’’ freedom of motion in cities and urban spaces is a good mark of civilization

in that city.” (Us Epa Smart Growth Implementation Assistance, 2009).

Industrial Revolution and invention of car has a great contribution on changing relocating

model because before that time, city spaces were man-oriented and have been shaped based on the

capacity of pedestrians transportation. Discussion the role of private automobiles in cities, Jane Jacobs

refers to the position of elements such as highways, interchange vast parking lots. Jacobs believes that

these changes are sentences to failure, scattering and unsafe atmosphere. Jacobs warns about people’s

reluctance to attend urban areas and their tendency to use private automobiles (Pakzad, 2007 P. 144-

145. as cited in Kashani Jou, 2010 P.24.). It may seem hard to imagine cities without cars and

automobiles but the pint is that walkers and pedestrians’ convenience and comfort should be prioritized

in the process of planning, designing and management. After the industrial revolution and invention of

automobile, spreading the motto “Time is Gold” took the public spaces of cities from humans. World

War II, and dominance of United States to European countries accelerated the control shift from

humans to automobiles. By this motto, there was no room for pedestrians in city spaces. Everything

was ready for the advent of what we know as modern urbanism now. Athena Protocol (1933) realized

the separation of different kinds of commuting, distinguishing the neighbors as residential, work area,

transportation, and entertainment. The first phase of urbanism in Iran was the army urbanism in Reza

Khan era. By the approval of “Passages Development Law” in 1933 and the policy of “street making”

with checked design, the physical structure and traditional system of motion in cities transformed and

went under the control of automobiles (Kashani Jou, 2010. P. 36). Generally speaking, making

walkways meet three objectives: 1) Functional objectives which satisfy social needs of citizens.

Functional objectives also consider urban beautification and tourism attraction. 2) Environmental

objectives which are taking the opposition to the increasing number of automobiles, engines and

numerous forms of air pollution. These objectives try to decrease the environmental pollutions and to

create pleasant areas by natural or artificial elements in order to protect pedestrians. Advocates of this

group show great interest to make sustainable green areas that are adaptable with environment. 3)

Experimental and aesthetics objectives which include people’s psychological needs in relation with

nature and environment. These are objectives such as attention to visual perception that helps people

communicate with environment in experimental ways. Understanding environment and urban view is

also important (Jadali, 2003).

2. Reseach Methodology The present research is comparative-analogical (to elicit criteria). It is based on the process of urban

planning and includes comparative study, analysis and field studies. In analytical method, not only the

problem is described, but also causes and effects are analyzed. Whole is divided into pieces and each

83 Hassan Ali Laghai and Mona Loghman

piece is studied in details. In the next step the relationships between the pieces (elements) and effective

factors are studied.

To collect data two methods have been used: Library research and field study. Library research

includes theoretical sections of the projects. Field study was used to collect physical data of the present

condition. Major part of the task was done by field observations and distribution of questionnaire

among tourists and residents of that area. Later on, this data set went under final analysis. The

questionnaires were distributed in two different parts. In part one they were distributed among tourists

and residents in order to recognize the walking axes. In part two after preparing the SWOT tables they

were distributed among residents and experts in order to weighing and evaluation of indices. The

number of questionnaires was calculated by X=N(N-1)/2 (Asgharpour, 2010).

3. Introducing the Site Kish Island is located in Hormozgan province in south of Iran. It is geographically located in north of

Strait of Hormuz. Coasts of this provinces stretch Oman Sea in East and Persian Gulf in West. Area of

Kish Island is 90.457 square kilometers. According to latest political bordering of Iran’s map,

Hormozgan province consists of 9 cities. Lengeh is one of the cities of this province and includes five

sections: central, Bastak, Shibkouh, Gavbandi, and Kish). Kish has two rural districts that are Lavan

and Kish. Lavan includes Lavan island (Mehrban, 2009). The site of present research project in located

in northwest of Kish Island in Mirmohanna neighborhood which is a coastal line along side with the

seaside for about 1 kilometer.

Picture 1: Site of research project

To select the site, two kinds of questionnaires for Kish citizens and residents were prepared.

Then the axes which were suitable for walking and passengers and Kish citizens preferred those routes

for walking were recognized. The possibility of networking those axes was investigated. Then

Mirmohanna axis was studies as one of the favored axes by passengers and residents and by studying

the weak points, advantages, opportunities and threats, suggestions for planning and organizing that

axis were made. Descriptive statistics of 30 random participants who completed the questionnaires

showed that 45% of them go walking every day. 37 % go walking once a week, 3% once a month and

25% go walking occasionally. This statistics show that about 50 % of the residents go walking every

day and it confirms the necessity of developing plans for walking convenience in Kish.


Figure 1: Level of walking in Kish Island

68% of participants said that they walk just for fun and leisure activity. 20% walk to commute

from work to home and vice versa. 10% walk to go to shopping centers. This reveals that 70% of the

residents walk not only as a means of commuting to work, home and shopping centers but also as a

leisure activity and exercise.

Figure 2: Reasons of walking in Kish Island

Figure 2. Reasons of walking in Kish Island

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

walking go forshopping

reasen of walking

68% said that they do not go walking because of hot weather. 22% avoided walking because of

lacking suitable routes and for 8% of them lack of convenient access to routes was the main challenge.

Therefore the challenge ahead is to encourage the residents to go walking in hot days and seasons of

the year.

Figure 3: Obstacles of going walking in Kish Island.


15% of the participants have favored the routes of downtown for walking. 72 % preferred sea

side and 12% enjoyed inside routes. This can easily show that people are more interested in walking in

sea sides. Figure 4: Tendencies to walk in different routes of Kish Island

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

routs ofdowntown

seaside insiderouts

tendencies to walk indifferent routs

Among seaside routes, 45% liked to walk in Recreational Pier, 20% chose Marjan beach and

24% favored Mirmohanna beach and 8% chose other routes in other seaside.

Figure 5: Tendencies to walk in sea sides of Kish Island

Participants had mentioned Mirmohanna route, Damoon Saheli, Behind Morvarid Mall,

Maryam Street as options for walking inside the residential areas. For walking they had marked

Maryam Street, Mirmohanna Pier, Recreational Pier, Marjan Beach and downtown routes of the city.

Statistics show that the following 6 routes which were shown in the map are the most favorite ones for

residents and passengers for walking. First route is Mirmohanna beach, second route is Sanaei

walkway in city center, third center, Recreational Pier, fourth route is Marjan Beach, Fifth route is

Morvarid Mall and sixth route is the street located behind Morvarid Mall. Residents showed more

interest in to the routes inside the residential areas. In the following map suggested routes of walking

have been suggested. Since walking system and bicycling work together, it is possible to network the

current routes by joining to bicycling system.


Picture 6: Suggested routes for walking

Source: Researcher

4. Site Planning Process To achieve appropriate planning strategies, the site was investigated from different viewpoints.

Therefore SWOT method (Strategic planning) was used. Important methods of collecting the strategies

can be included in a three-step framework: Data input is the first step. The second step is to adaptation

of all possible strategies and therefore a kind of balance and parallel is set between the internal and

external factors. Techniques applied here include threats matrix, opportunities, weak and strong points,

situation evaluation matrix and strategic action. The third step which is called decision-making step

uses only the unique method of quantitative strategic planning matrix. In this way it can be evaluated in

an objective way without any personal interference. In order to find the internal and external factors, at

the beginning of the project all defined data in the comprehensive plan and field study are listed. They

either create opportunities or threaten the system. After data inserted, the internal factors are being

evaluated. (Table of weak and strong points, threats and opportunities) (A’raabi, 2010). In SWOT

analysis, internal and external factors are investigated to recognize the opportunities, threats, weak and

strong points of the organization in future. The results can contribute to preparation of suitable

strategies for a better confrontation. To conduct this analysis, SWOT matrix is used. This matrix is one

of the important instrumentation to compare the data of internal and external factors and regarding the

matrix of main strategies, different possible presented matrixes, we can include the matrixes in groups

of WT, ST, WO, SO.

In Mirmohanna route planning, the process of strategic planning was followed. The WOT of

intended site was prepared in nine parts: space organization, transportation, environmental, view and

landscape, climate, economic, social, cultural and functional system.

Table 1: Mirmohanna Site SWOT

Different systems of

Study Strong points Weak points Opportunities Threats

Application

S1. Vacant land

S2. Pier as a public

city area

S3. Close to

University of Tehran

W1. Lack of service

provider walls

alongside the route

W2. Shortage of

urban furniture

O1. Chance to attract

more tourists

O2. Relations with

residential context of

old Saffain

T1. Competitors in

the region


Table 1: Mirmohanna Site SWOT - continued

Space organization

S4. Defined skyline

for orientation

S5. Close to identity

elements such as

Arabs mall, Old

Saffain, Khatam

mosque

W3. Discontinuity of

route

W4. Unreadable routes

among different

applicability

O3. Designing and

directing walking &

biking route inside the

active context

O4. Better

relationship between

current applications

T2. No public

welcome because of

weak accessibility

and lower quality in

environment

Transportation S6. Accessibility by

bicycle

W5. No convenient

access to main street

W6. No parking space

for bikes

O5. Using different

types of transportation

O6. Encouraging

people to welcome

walking habit

T3. Pollutions

resulted from

transportation system

Environmental S7. Sea

W7. Shortage of green

area and its imbalanced

distribution

W8. Shortage of

shadow spreading trees

alongside the routes

O7. Enough space to

assign for green area

T4. Environmental

pollution decreases

the tourism

attractions

View & Landscape

S8. Nice view of

neighborhood from

pier

W9. Undersigned

landscape

W10. No visual variety

W11. Lack of symbol

and sign

O8. Assigning various

applications

T5. No eye contact

with symbols due to

probable

constructions

climate

S9.temperate climate

in the second six

month of year

W12. High temperature

& humidity in summer

O9. Attracting tourists

in cold seasons of

year

T6. No motivation to

walk in hot seasons

Economic

S10. Tow active

economic centers:

Arabs mall and

fishmongers market

W13. Poor context

with tribal and ethnic

variety

O10. Employment in

the region

T7. Higher prices of

surrounding lands

Social and cultural

S11. Pier as the only

aggregation center

on that area

W14. Shortage of

cultural & social

centers for residents

O11. Activating the

cultural & social

centers

T8. Inequality

between current and

new cultural patterns

Functional system

S12. Variety of

orientations for

centers located in

seaside

W15. Independent

functions from sea in

seaside in spite of

convenient

accessibility.

O12. More than half

of the residents of the

island live in this

neighborhood

After preparing the SWOT for the intended site, to realize the strategic priorities for the

residents and people, the matrixes of internal and external factors analysis were used. To form this

matrix, we should insert the scores of internal and external factors evaluation matrixes in vertical and

horizontal dimensions of this matrix. It can help realize the status of each activity in matrix blocks.

Then suitable strategies can be adopted. Internal factors include strong points and weak points and

external factors include opportunities and threats. After listing, each of these factors is labeled with a

weight or coefficient varying from 0 (not important) to 1 (very important). Sum of these coefficients

must be 1. Each of these factors has a rank. Rank 1 = critical weakness, rank 2 = weakness in

opportunities, rank 3 = normal strength, rank 4 = excellent strength. Sum of these ranks must be

between 0>x>4 (A’raabi, 2010, page 34). When the scores of internal and external matrix get ready,

the status of intended site is clarified in four cells matrix and required strategies are presented.


Figure 7: Four cells matrix

Figure 6.Four cells matrix

2 1

12/3 IFE=

2/5

SO

07/3 EFE=

conservative

WO

Defensive

WT

2 2/5

Competitive

2

1

Confluence point of internal and external factors and

the base of walkway design based on its location in

invasion space

Regarding the priority of invasive strategies in this study, as shown in this figure the researcher

tries to investigate the effect of other internal and external factors of the intended environment on

strategies of selected environment in the strategic quantitative planning table. To do so, all of the

internal and external factors as well as their coefficients (the coefficients that have been mentioned in

the tables of internal and external factors). Then to find the better strategy, each one is assigned with a

suggested score of attraction. This score shows the level of attraction for each strategy in the strategies

set. The score of attraction indicates the power and ability of that strategy in terms of logical

confrontation with internal and external factors. The score of attraction is in this way: 1 = not

attractive, 2 = somehow attractive, 3 = normally attractive, 4 = very attractive. Then this score is

calculated for the factors which are the result of coefficient of each factor multiplied by the score of

attraction. The sum total of attraction scores for each column shows that which one of these strategies

are more attractive and are prioritized to administer. The sum total of each one of the factors must be

something between 0 to 8.

5. Conclusion According to the conclusion and prioritization of the strategies, invasive strategies are list in order:

Table 2: Prioritization of strategies

Prioritization Strategies Policies

S3O1

First stretegy

Activating and improving the walking & biking route

form university to pier

Organizing the side walksand building

bike track from university to pier

S6O1

Second strategy

Activating bike tracks for connecting different

applicability

Building bike track in specified routes

S1O7

Third strategy

Assigning grean area applicability Building seaside park

S5O1

Fourth strategy

Empowering the permeability, accessibility,

exhilaration of current centers and organizations to

attract tourists

Using lighting elements in parks,

furniture, and creating visual symbols

and signs

S1O1

Fifth strategy

Assigning applicability for tourism and sightseeing Alfresco coffee shops and restaurants,

kiosks


Table 2: Prioritization of strategies - continued

S2O3

Sixth strategy

Connecting pier’s walking route with road network

of new Saffain and reforming the network

Organizing the walkways of pier and

connecting it to Saffain

S2O1

Seventh strategy

Using pier’s potentiality to start various activities

for tourism attraction by suggesting suitable urban

furniture

Using furniture matched with

environment in form and material,

establishing spaces for music

performance and ritual ceremonies

S12O11

Eighth strategy

Using the potentialities of Arabs malls and

fishmongers market to attract tourists by

establishing business-entertainment areas near these

centers

Establishing kiosks to sell food and

handicrafts with an emphasis on local

products

S2O7

Ninth strategy Designing urban furniture and green area in the pier

Combing local shadow spreading trees

with matched furniture in the

environment

S5O3

Tenth strategy

Involving the walking and biking networks with

current identity-oriented business centers

Establishing bike track between present

applicability

S1O8

Eleventh strategy Assigning cultural applicability

Positioning the cultural centers to run

exhibitions, etc.

S1O8

Twelfth strategy

Taking some actions to attract tourists in 6 cold

months of the year regarding the nice climate Establishing café and seaside restaurants

S7O3

Thirteenth strategy Empowering the connection between sea and beach

Designing walking routes with a view

toward sea

S1O6

Fourteenth strategy

Assigning applicability regarding the walker’s need

(aesthetic-service)

Positioning service providing applicability

such as kiosks and sale booth

S10O1

Fifteenth strategy

Using identity oriented centers in designing and

respecting psychological area

S1O2

Sixteenth strategy

Assigning applicability according to resident’s

needs

Positioning and establishing what the

residents needs

S1O3

Seventeenth strategy Improving bike tracks

Assigning temporary residence (station)

and parking for bike riders

S7O7

Eighteenth strategy

Reforming the beach edge regarding greenways and

all recreational green areas

Respecting privacy and using suitable

pavement and shadow spreading trees

S7O6

Nineteenth strategy

Reforming the edges and activating all projections

and indentationsof beach in order to make the

sidewalks more attractive

Designing areas to access a direct view

to sea and designing alcoves

S7O1

Twentieth strategy

Dependant recreational applicability regarding the

limitation

Establishing sports and recreational

clubs, etc.

S2O9

21st strategy

Using traditional potentiality of fishing and

revitalizing it in Mirmohanna pier

Using traditional boats and local

boatmen as well as establishing areas for

fishing

S7O8

22nd

strategy

Establishing different business centers in seaside

edge (zoning the activities)

Creational, tourism, cultural and

business applicability, etc.

S5O11

23rd

, strategy

Empowering relationship and association among

activity areas

Evoking the activities and involving the

nearby areas with them

S3O2

24th

strategy

Revitalizing old Saffain in order to attract present

social potentialities

Local community is benefited by

creating job opportunities in that site

S4O4

25th

, strategy

Creating a balance between development and

environment in sustainable development plan

Compiling the requirements of density

and construction in the area regarding the

present situation

6. Suggested Plan for Mirmohanna Route The general form or concept at site was considered based on the analysis of view and landscape and

performance. It continues in a linear way alongside with the coastal line. It is the place for locating

applicability, motion routes, water element, fountains, stop and concentration spots and walkway

routes. The applicability of site was clarified based on the conducted studies and the general form is as

follows:


Table 7: Suggested applicability

Activity Applicability Activity Applicability

Recreational Water sports club for renting boat

and launch Recreational

Fountain and sitting area around it,

designing alcoves overlooking sea

Tourism Restaurant café, small shops to sell

food stuff

Productions and

local industry

Designing market with the form of

local markets and restaurants

Artistic Performing local music and street

theater Biking Bike track, rest station and parking

Cultural Cultural spaces, short-term

exhibitions Walking

Suitable route of moving, using

canopies matched with climate

Fishing Places for fishing Children Room for children to play

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Strategy for Sustainable Urban Development Guidelines for

Tehran

Hassan Ali Laghai

Associate Professor, Urbanism Department

University of Tehran, Iran

Mona Loghman



Nabiollah Kolbadi



Abstract

Why sustainable development? Are Iran’s cities sustainable now? Have we been

able to stay loyal to our international obligations of Instruction 21 of Rio De Janeiro (1992)

and Istanbul (1996) as well as other international obligations to achieve sustainable housing

and city (Micro and Macro Architecture)? Considering the growth in Iran’s population

which is a consequence of appropriate and sustainable planning, future seems worrisome.

The population perspective of 120,000,000 requires having 800 or 1000 sustainable cities.

This attitude was presented in Bam Urban Sustainable Development Charter in association

with different experts in recent years. But actions different than what we have expected,

were taken. Unfortunately a set of repeated routine works are being done to remove

problems. This article analyzes the international findings and conventions that have been

confirmed by Iran Management System. It is also an attempt to discuss the horizons,

methods, indices, and practical mechanism of achieving urban sustainability in order to

present a practical approach in this area by using analytical-comparative method of

applicable suggestions. Suggestions are made on how to make a new start in preparing

urban sustainable development programs and how to administer them. This issue is the

result of forty years of Teaching and research which is presented in an article.

Key Terms: Sustainable urban development, applied plans, administrative mechanism,

public participation

1. Introduction To where urban sustainable development be end? Recognition of unsustainable factors becomes so

necessary ,according to instruction 21,Zhohansburg 2002,Habitat Istanbul 96 ,World Health

Organization plan ,under the name of healthy city, bringing up and considering Istanbul +5,annually

ratification CSD, that Ratified 17 years ago and based upon unsuccessful of comprehensive plans and

unsustainable urban development.

Strategy for Sustainable Urban Development Guidelines for Tehran 92

Recognition of unsustainable factors was gained by assessment and polling of experts in

retraining courses of country managers and urbanity doctorate courses ,that we pointed just to priorities

of that factors in Iran and what should we do now? In fact the research includes analysis of urban

sustainable indicators and syllogistic examination of them with executive realities in Iran ,so we can

solve the problems.

2. Sustainable Development Concept and Background The subject of sustainable development lies in the institution of so many organizations ,constitutions

and had suggested various descriptions in statements, conferences, researchers, articles and books ,and

the existing Varity in these descriptions shows that there is no comprehensive description and concept

yet, that can be acceptable for all.

We should remind United Nations organization conference on human environment ,resulted in

Stockholm proclamation in 1972 and this conference was point of inflection in history of human

formal view to natural sources and operation systems from earth. Further meetings eventually leaded to

formation of environmental conference and development or “earth session” in 1992.

Three main context ratified in mentioned session:

Instruction 21

Rio statement about environment and development

Main principles of earth forest sustainable management.

Instructions 21 includes 40 sections propounding 4 main parts including economical and social

dimensions ,necessary sources for development ,strengthening main groups and at least executive

methods. According to this goals, another conference had formed in the name of earth session in

United Nations Organization of Newyourk in 1997,that its goal is emphasis on executing instruction

21.After introduction and adding the word of “sustainability” to development, in addition to

international conferences and seminars, so many articles and research books had published from 70s

till now. And so many authors tried to define, explain and interpret this idiom. As noted above various

interpret ions was presented by experts individuals. But common axis is the same attention to “our

common future” in all descriptions.

According to emphasis and definition of environmental development world commission, in the

name of “our common future” that means Brant Land Commission in 1987,our today function has a

serious effect on earth in sequences of posterity to supply their needs. It means that sustainability

development is a kind of development that consider supplying today s need without decreasing

posterity ability to supply their needs.

In fact, sustainability development and management is such a development consider creating,

maintaining and increasing life quality of all human kinds in all periods of time.

As noted, this subject didn’t find a common acceptable and equal meaning for us yet. Besides

attention to common points in these definitions, we should remind a twofold state which is observed

among the various definitions , so that in addition to some ideas, the words a descript on goal, but in

some definitions specially recent definitions “sustainable development” is as a principle or leader code

to supply a form for various decisions. This two folding can make problem in exact understanding of

sustainable development .It is notable that it seems that unbelieving to plan for the future, searches a

means of scope by different explanations.

It seems in recent years ,the definitions is going to become more exact and sustainable

development formatting in Iran.

Now we should understand by which mechanism ,sustainable development can be fulfilled.

To fulfill this affair ,its essential to analyze sustainable development content, according to

existing definitions and to examine its dimensions and elements. One of the subgroups of this

development is urban sustainable development executive

Mechanisms, that is main subject of this article.

93 Hassan Ali Laghai, Mona Loghman and Nabiollah Kolbadi

3. Sustainibility Development Principles and Elements Its clear that mentioned principles should be risen from existing facts in economical, social, cultural

,formal, legal, political and executive patterns in every country.

Proclaimed formal principles in instruction 21 and healthy city program can be a suitable base

for understanding sustainability development concept.

The main goal of human residence is improving social, economical and environmental quality

of human residence and work and life environment for all people specially urban and rural poor people.

This important must be based upon common technical actions and cooperation of public and private

sector and social groups and participates these groups and other particular groups such as women,

native people and adults, in decision making process. These approaches should form central part of

settlement national strategies.

This programs dimensions including:

A Supplying suitable residence for all

B Improving human kind settlement management

C Coordinated environmental infrastructural actions :water ,healthy water ,stringing and

solid hysteresis bureau

D Advancing plan and management of earth application

E Development of transport and energy systems in human residence

F Planning and management development of human residences in disastrous areas.

G Industrial activities development for making clurable residences

H Human source development and increasing settlement capacity

The important point in instruction 21 is bringing up program dimensions and principles of

actions that is essential to achieve every mentioned goal. There is often used the word “must” in

describing these actions and their executive instructions, as government commitment in solving

problems of human residence.

They emphasis on the cases below in the field of development and urban sustainability

achievement:

A The cities should institute public and private sector, social group specially native men

and women ,based on continuous conversations among active elements in urban

sustainable development.

B City environment should improve supplying urban infrastructural actions, by

strengthening social organizations and people environmental knowledge through local

societies partnership in recognizing people need to public services.

C They should strengthen local executive administrations capacity and use urban planning

pattern, through society approach to plan according to particular need for every city.

D Participating in international sustainability city networks to exchange experiences and

mobilize international, financial and technical supports.

Where as instruction ,obliged representative board of participation governments to take part in

participable ,affairs, optimum performance participatory planning, Participatory management,

strengthening interested groups, assessment and controlling the process through networking and

applying modern technologies.

The human residence program of United Nations asked countries for represent ting assessment

of executed program after 5 years. Now we point to key elements in this regard.

4. Unsustainable Factores in Urban Program in Iran(Tehran) Before representing strategies for sustainable urban development it is better to say the important

unsustainable factors in urban development in Tehran.

Absence of single and centralized urban management

Shortage of comprehensive strategy for development


Momentarily decision making system

Non assessment of success in development programs

Giving no worth to world experiences

Excessive technicolize

Disbelieving to ratified programs

Discordance among programs and country development fourth program

Non measurement of success levels in reforming programs

Eroded office systems

Absence of planning center and permanent control

Poor belief to planning

Excessive centralization

Inability in applying citizens power

Inattention to cultural identities maintenance effect

All mentioned factors have fundamental role in creating unsustainablity in the cities.

5. Strategy for Urban Sustainable Development The strategies for Urban Sustainable Development represent in 5 parts:

1. Environmental goals

2. Urban development planning goals

3. Urban activity and land use goals

4. Strategical Goals in Social Problem solving

5. Physical and space development goals

5.1. Environmental Goals

Use the existing law for preparing the national land use plan based on carrying capacity of

the environment .

Define achievable horizon of National Sustainable Development.

Applicate the results and outputs into the national level programs (SNDS) .

Use the Environmental Impact Assessment in national, regional and local planning.

Good governance and management through the existent law for air pollution control and

finding the necessary cooperation, and public participation (NGOs).

Organize Youth participation for neighborhood recreational programs.

5.2. Urban Development Planning Goals

Preparation of a new law for urban planning , urban design and their implementation

process and providing monitoring system .

Define a new complementary role for Ministry of Housing and Urban planning in

cooperation with Department of Environment.

Planning to achieve the necessary speed for research and use the global experiences to

satisfy crescent social needs.

Prevent the gaps and pitfalls with systematic continues monitoring and planning.

Decentralization of the new settlement with

Regional strategic planning development and site selection in coordination with EIA.

Focus on small town and cities in relation with development axes.

95 Hassan Ali Laghai, Mona Loghman and Nabiollah Kolbadi

5.3. Urban Activity and Land Use Goals

Prepare new vision and policy focusing on urban and rural sustainable development in

consideration the changing world and entity of new population and their needs ,using existent

law for preparation new settlement texture.

Prevent the new centralization with urban regeneration in old cities with public participation in

process of planning, design, and implementation monitoring.

Create a new and sustainable vision for surveying and reviewing urban planning process and its

out com in various levels as regional ,municipal, and rural planning.

Up-to-date the methods of preparation of plans in sense of continues planning.

(Thinking room of decision makers )

Use the national traditional knowledge and combine it with up to date environmental, social ,

technical and economical sciences.

Create new policies for urban good governance with public participation and stockholders and

their organizations to prepare new policies for implementation and instruments.

5.4. Strategical Goals in Social Problem Solving

Prepare and organize public participation policy at neighborhood level, with responsibilities to

approve local land use and plan.

Provide land destination for the new social activities and centers (neighborhood city center and

NGOs center).

Create social communication center in the metropolitan area and give the necessary importance

and authority by the law.

5.5. Physical and Space Development Goals

Use analytical highrarchy process (AHP) for defining priority of development zones and its

potentialities to define objectives and projects.

Provide the management organization and interrelation between parts for good governance and

management.

Continuous land survey (remote sensing) and serious control for prevention undesirable

settlement growth.

Prepare the local development plan and use local authority and initiatives for partnership in

context of national policies.

Provide the coordinate urban managing system and prevent uncoordinated implementation.

References [1] Iniasim, zax, 1375, translated by victoria jamali,”looking at the difinitions of sustainable

developments from different perspectives”, jurnal of iranian society of environmentalists, vul. 3

&4.

[2] Kaabi nazadian, abdolrazzagh, 1378,”new energy technologies”.

[3] Pietro, las, translated by jahani&ghodrat nama, 1994,”water resource management and

sustainable development”, jurnal of development,vul2.

[4] Lester r.brown&hall kane،translated by taravati & bahar,”here are afew people?” Jihad

university publication of mashhad.

[5] Redclift, michael, translated by niroo hosain,” sustainable development,”1373, departmant of

argiculturepublication, tehran.

[6] Laghai, hassanali, “sustainable urban development”, 1378, jurnal of fine arts, tehran

university,vol6.


[7] Laghai, hassanali,”the role of public organization in the third development plan”1379,

proceedings of third conference of iranian society of environmentalists.

[8] Laghai, hassanali, ”a review on human settlement from rio until johansburg “,1380-81,jurnal of

the national committe on human settlements.

[9] Word conservation union, 1991,u.n.environment program and word wide fund for nature

[10] Coupland.a(ed), 1997, reclaiming the city ,e & epson

[11] Mcpherson ,e.g. .1994 ,chicagos urban fores ecosystems




A Survey on Over Confidence under Increasing Inflation in

Tehran Stock Exchange and Tehran Real Estate Market

Majid Shakeri

Corresponding Author, Management Faculty

Tehran University, Jalal e ale Ahmad St., Tehran, Iran


Reyhaneh Sadat Tabatabei Yeganeh

Architecture Faculty, Iran University of Science and Technology

Narmak, Tehran, Iran


Reza Teharni

Management Faculty, Tehran University

Jalal e ale Ahmad St., Tehran, Iran


Abstract

Iranian macroeconomic status has vastly changed during 2012 because of sanctions

and mismanaged fiscal policies and Investors’ expectations and overconfidence level

totally revolved. Glaser’s measure scores overconfidence in three aspects: miscalibration,

better than average effect, and illusion of control. This study tests if there is any significant

difference in distinct aspect of overconfidence scores, calculated in 2011 and 2012. On the

other hand we measure the overconfidence scores in real estate market and make a

comparison between real estate market extracted overconfidence data and that of stock

market. This study shows decreasing trend in general knowledge score in stock market. We

use T test to analyze questionnaires collected in stock market and real estate market. The

“better than average” score in stock market are low but more than scores calculated in2011.

Results supports that mean illusion of control score in 2012 stock market is lower than the

year 2011. T test outputs verify more general knowledge score in stock market than real

estate market, originated from more passive behavior in real estate investors. There is a

paradoxical situation in better than average score comparison in real estate and stock

market dependent on the way of measurement. Less liquidity risk in stock market may

explain more IOC score in stock market than real estate market.

Keywords: Miscalibration, better than average effect, illusion of control, overconfidence

1. Introduction According to Nofsinger (2005), behavioral finance demonstrates how actual behavior of individuals in

financial settings differs from rational behavior. Typical behavioral biases related to decision making

include anchoring, herding, framing, hindsight, loss aversion, regret, overreaction, overconfidence and

mental accounting. This study focuses on overconfidence because of the potential adverse effects on

A Survey on Over Confidence under Increasing Inflation in Tehran Stock Exchange and

Tehran Real Estate Market 98

decisions made by financial advisors with an overconfidence bias. Evidence of overconfidence biases

have been found for investment bankers (Oskamp 1965) and for security analysts and economic

forecasters (Ahlers & Lakonishok 1983; Froot & Frankel 1989; De Bondt & Thaler 1990). Little study

of this particular behavioural bias has been done among financial planners. (Tehrani, Shakeri,

Movafaghi and Mohamadkhani (2012))

Psychology studies suggest that people overestimate the precision of their knowledge in some

circumstances, especially for challenging judgment tasks (Alpert and Raiffa (1982)or chtenstein,

Fischhoff, and Phillips (1982)). Camerer (1995) argues that even experts can display overconfidence.

A similar phenomena is illusion of knowledge the fact that persons who do not agree become more

polarized when given arguments that serve both sides (Lord, Ross and Lepper (1979)).

Overconfidence as a psychological judgment trait can take on different forms in various

contexts. Nofsinger (2005) includes the systematic overestimation of knowledge, the underestimation

of risk and even an overstatement of the ability to control events as overconfidence biases. In a

business environment, overconfidence can have detrimental effects as illustrated by the following

example from Russo and Schoemaker (1992): In the early 1970s, Royal Dutch/Shell grew concerned

that its young geologists too confidently predicted the presence of oil or gas, costing the company

millions of dry-well dollars. For instance, they would estimate a 40% chance of finding oil, but when

ten such wells were actually drilled, only one or two would produce. (Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and

Mohamadkhani (2012))

Real estate agents adjust their valuation of the asset as new information arrives. With short-

selling constraints, this introduces a speculative motive to own the asset for the option to sell the asset

toanother agent who might in the future value the asset at a price higher than the original purchase

price. The size of the bubble increases with the level of overconfidence, the volatility of information,

and the underlying uncertainties about the asset. (Bucchianeri(2010))

In this study, we compare overconfidence scores in 2011 and 2012 to measure the effect of

economic crisis on investors’ overconfidence. On the other hand, we make a comparison between real

estate and stock market investors’ overconfidence. These two markets are different in liquidity. The

Lower liquidity of real estate market make slows its reaction to changing inflation rate slower than

stock market. This structural difference might lead to different investor expectation and overconfidence

level in two markets.

2. Previous Research Measurement of Overconfidence in Different Asset Markets

Researchers have shown that the majority of individuals tend to overestimate their ability to do well in

tasks requiring skill, the so-called better-than-average effect. In a seminal illustration of

overconfidence, Svenson (1981) reported on the perception of individuals regarding their driving

competence. If a symmetrically distributed skill level of the general population is assumed, 50% of

individuals should possess above average and 50% below average driving abilities. However, Svenson

found that that approximately 80% of drivers perceived themselves as more skillful and less risky than

the average driver, suggesting overconfidence in their own abilities. Sutton (1987) suggests this as a

reason why many individuals do not purchase auto, health or life insurance. This overconfidence also

extends to other social areas such as an individual’s self-evaluation of his or her ability to get along

with other people.

In a related field, a study by Glaser, Langer and Weber (2005) investigated overconfidence

among financial market professionals such as traders and investment bankers. The authors requested

90% confident ranges for five German indices over three time intervals. The prediction intervals were

found to be narrower for financial market professionals than a student control group, indicating

overconfidence in professionals related to task familiarity.

99 Majid Shakeri, Reyhaneh Sadat Tabatabei Yeganeh and Reza Teharni

Overconfidence in the financial planning industry suggested by this and earlier research may be

problematic for a number of reasons: (i) Overconfidence appears to occur more frequently amongst

males than females, a worrying fact considering the small number of females represented in the

financial planning industry; (ii) A significant negative correlation between years’ experience and

susceptibility to overconfidence implies that financial planners do not learn from judgmental errors and

confirms previous research that experienced and successful market forecasters become even more

overconfident over time; (iii) The Russel Investment Group survey of 2005 identified extreme

optimism among financial advisors; and, (iv) Extreme overconfidence has been shown to affect tasks

of great difficulty such as prediction of stock price changes. (Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and


Wang, Zhou, Chan and Chau(2000) developed a model, using the unique pre-sale system

prevailing in Asian real estate markets as the framework. In other words, they treat the pre-sale activity

as a way for a developer to confirm her/his private belief. If the presale level conforms to a developer's

original belief, then the developer will become over-confident about her/his ability to estimate future

demand level. Otherwise, the developer will behave rationally. With the pre-sale system and over-

confidence on the developer's part, they show that the real estate market will become more over-

supplied and have a more prominent real estate cycle.

The results model confirm the stylized facts that cities in Asian countries tend to have higher

vacancy rates and longer real estate cycles than cities in North America and other parts of the world

because of overconfidence effect in developer decision making. (Wang, Zhou, Chan and Chau(2000))

3. Measurement of Overconfidence: Calibration Studies Most traditional confidence studies have focused on individuals’ perception of their knowledge and

skill compared to others. However, in line with Brenner et al (1996) definition of overconfidence as

‘the difference between mean confidence and overall accuracy’, calibration studies have concluded that

individuals are inclined to overestimate their own knowledge as manifested in their judgment skills and

prediction accuracy (Teigen & Jørgensen 2005). Teigen and Jørgensen and Klayman, Soll, Gonzalez-

Vallejo and Barlas (1999) indicate that the most common testing procedure is to ask respondents to

provide a numerical range (interval) estimate of an unknown quantity with the condition that their

estimate corresponds to a given high level of confidence. The purpose of the procedure is to deduce an

individual’s level of trust in their own knowledge by the narrowness of their interval provided.

Probability scales are frequently used in most areas of estimation and prediction. For example,

financial managers use range estimates in capital budgeting proposals as part of a sensitivity analysis.

Project managers typically estimate ‘most optimistic’ and ‘most pessimistic’ completion times (Teigen

& Jørgensen 2005). Range estimates are also very popular in financial markets where economists

regularly estimate possible outcome ranges with an associated probability. However, if the estimate is

biased by overconfidence, a narrower range will be given. Adapting the example of Brenner et al.

(1996), the client of a financial planner will be disillusioned to find out that their particular advisor’s

99% confidence prediction is actually only accurate 75% of the time. This point further emphasized by

Snelbecker, Roszkowski and Cutler (1990) who suggest that inconsistencies between financial planners

may be harmful to the majority of clients since they usually have access to only one advisor and there

are bound to be an abundance of unintentional, but nevertheless incorrect recommendations offered.

The first influential research of this type was conducted by Alpert and Raiffa (1982) who

illustrated that individuals tend to estimate very narrow intervals in their estimation of future quantities

such as index levels. For example, they found that the forecasted 99% intervals of individuals included

the true quantity only approximately 60% of the time. If individuals were well-calibrated, the number

of future values that fall outside the estimated 99% confidence interval should be about one out of 100.

The high reported values indicate that individuals perceive that they can estimate future values with

much greater accuracy than is actually the case. (Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and Mohamadkhani

(2012))



4. Overconfidence under Increasing Inflation Crisis We had a survey on investor’s overconfidence in Tehran exchange market in 2011 based on Glaser’s

overconfidence test. The study concluded to overconfidence scores calculation in miscalibration, better

than average effect and illusion of control areas. The miscalibration means score was 0.409877 and its

Standard Deviation was 0.3096792. The better than average effect (BTA) mean score was 0.204259

with 0.4263032 Standard Deviation. The illusions of control (IOC) mean score and standard deviation

was 0.533951 and 0.1254092. (Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and Mohamadkhani 2012)

Drastic changes in Iranian political and economic situation resulted to market economic crisis.

A complex of sanctions and mismanaged expansionary fiscal policy ended to high inflation rate and

national currency devaluation. Market indexes have been adjusted to new circumstance regarding their

own specifications. Stock index has been approximately doubled just in two months, Real estate prices

rose more than 50 percent and Investors’ expectations reshaped completely. In this situation, over

viewing the previous study is necessary.

Numerous studies analyze the determinants of investor expectations but little is known about

how market participants react in a crisis situation with a high degree of uncertainty in connection with

a large drop in share prices. (Glaser and weber 2003)

Several arguments are usually put forth in the literature stressing the usefulness of survey or

investor expectations data. Black (1993) and Shefrin and Statman (2003) argue that some competing

theories involving expected returns cannot be tested using realized returns only as these are only noisy

measures of expected returns. Other studies explicitly use expectations of financial markets participants

to test asset pricing models (see,for example, Brav et al. (2003)). Shiller et al. (1996) also emphasize

that it is impossible to find out what investors think in a crisis situation unless one asks them.

MacDonald (2000) especially stresses the usefulness of disaggregate survey data to test heterogeneous

behavior or beliefs of investors.

Choe et al (1999) find evidence of positive feedback trading by foreign investors before the

period of Korea’s economic crisis. However, during the crisis period, positive feedback trading by

foreign investors mostly disappears.

In this study, we focus on overconfidence level changes before and after 2012 increasing

inflation crisis in Iran. Rising uncertainty may lead to lower overconfidence scores in all three aspects:

miscalibration, the better than average effect and the illusion of control. One the other hand, the slower

changing prices in real estate market may result to higher investors’ overconfidence level than stock

market investors’.

5. Hypotheses There are 6 main hypotheses we have studied in this survey:

1. The average miscalibration score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the previous year.

Glaser test measures miscalibration in two forms, general knowledge questions and market

forecast. So, we can divide hypothesis 1 to two sub hypothesis:

1.1. The average general knowledge score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the

previous year.

1.2. The average market forecast score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the previous

year.

2. The average “better than average effect” score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the

previous year.

Glaser test measures better than average effect by two question forms which namedBTA1 and

BTA 2 in this study. Again we can divide the hypothesis 2:

2.1. The BTA1 score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the previous year.

2.2. The BTA2 score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the previous year.


3. The average illusion of control score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the previous year

4. The average miscalibration score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the average

miscalibration score in real estate market.

As mentioned previously, micalibration could define in two ways and there is two subsets for

this hypothesis:

4.1. The average general knowledge score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the real

estate market in this year.

4.2. The average market forecast score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the real estate

market in this year

5. The average “better than average “effect score in stock market in 2012 is lower than The

average” better than average effect” score in real estate market.

This hypothesis has two subsets:

5.1. The BTA1 score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the real estate market's

5.2. The BTA2 score in stock market in 2012 is lower than that of real estate markets.

6. The average illusion of control score in stock market in 2012 is lower than the average

illusion of control score in real estate market.

6. Research Method 300 questionnaires were distributed among stock traders in Tehran Stock Exchange Market (TSEM)in

a week. 105 stock traders answered it which 93 of them were completely answered. So we have

response rate of 31% which is represents higher rate of response rate than our previous study. We

received the questionnaire data at the end of May, 2011, from the stock traders. On the other hand, 300

similar questionnaires were distributed among real estate investors, who had at list bought one property

for investment purpose.85 investor answered it which 68 of them were completed correctly. Our

response rate was 0.22% which is lower than stock market response rate. The mean age of Tehran

stock investor respondents is 35.1 but its median age is 42.9 years. About 95 % of investors are male.

On the other hand, the mean age of real estate investors is 40.5 and the median age is 49. All of real

estate investors are male.

7. Measures of Overconfidence We consider the following forms of overconfidence: miscalibration, the better than average Effect and

illusion of control. In this subsection, we will present the questions designed to measure

overconfidence as well as the overconfidence measures Obtained from the answers to these questions.

In designing the questionnaire we tried To be as close as possible to the concepts and experimental

tasks in the psychological Literature reviewed previously. Of course, we were aware of the fact that

this may lead to a lower response rate.

7.1. Miscalibration

7.1.1. General Knowledge Questions

The investors were asked to state upper and lower bounds of 90 % confidence intervals to five

questions concerning general knowledge:

1) Number of oil barrel, Iran produces in a day.

2) The highest price of gold in the summer of 1389(Persian year).

3) Number of automobile Iranian companies produced during the last year.

4) Amount of petroleum consumption in Iran a day

5) The percentage of Iranian governmental budget dependency on oil selling.

This way of measuring the degree of miscalibration is widely used. 101 of 300 stock Investors

answered at least one question. 84 real estate investors answered one or more question.



If the correct answer lies outside the 90 % confidence interval given by the investor we call this a

surprise. For the questions which were actually answered by the respondents we calculate the percentage of

surprises. Note, again, that the percentage of surprises of well calibrated investors should be 10 %.

(Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and Mohamadkhani (2012))

Table 1 summarizes the results. We use the abbreviation POS 151 for the stock investors’

miscalibration scores as overconfidence models assume that investors are miscalibrated. POS 152

shows the miscalibration score measured for real estate investors. The mean percentage of surprises is

38 % in stock market. Real estate investors’ mean percentage is 43.5%. These figures are higher than

10 %, the expected proportion of answers outside a well calibrated 90 % confidence interval. These

findings are in line with prior research. Russo and Schoemaker (1992), for example, find percentage of

surprises in the range from 42 % to 64 %.

Table 1:

N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std.

Deviation Variance

General knowledge question (POS 151) 95 1.0000 .0000 1.0000 0.38012 .2876493 .0827

General knowledge question (POS 152) 61 1 0 1 0.33521 .2543091 0.0646

stock market forecast (POS 691) 83 1.0000 .0000 1.0000 .35234 .2887733 .083

stock market forecast (POS 692) 63 1.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.4012 0.26432 0.069

Better than average 1(BTA11) 83 2.0000 -1.0000 1.0000 .306049 .2432106 .0591

Better than average 1(BTA12) 63 2.0000 -1.0000 1.0000 .236049 .3764434 .1417

Better than average2(BTA21) 83 2.0000 -1.0000 1.0000 .28254 .32654 .1066

Better than average2(BTA22) 63 2.0000 -1.0000 1.0000 .180123 .18976 .0360

BTA1 81 1.903 -1.0000 .903 .29429 0.806665 0.650709

BTA2 63 1.895 -1.0000 .895 .208086 0.896728 0.804121

IOC1 83 .6250 .1875 .8125 .533951 .1254092 0.021

IOC2 63 0.645 .0675 .7125 .80543 .09134 0.008343

7.1.2. Stock Market Forecasts

The stock investors were asked to provide upper and lower bounds of 90 % confidence intervals to five

questions concerning stock market forecasts (metal industry index, TSDI, Food industry index, Ghadir

investment banker stock price) for the end of may 2011. The real estate investors’ question was about

upper ad lower bonds of 90% confidence intervals in five real estate specified questions.(commercial

building in Mirdamad Blvd, residential building in Elahie, commercial building in Enghealb St,

residential rental rate in Mirdamad Blvd, commercial rental rate in Enghealb St). The use of confidence

interval questions is widely used to elicit subjects Probability distributions, perceptions of expected

returns, and variance estimations of stock returns.

93 of 300 stock Investors answered at least one question. 83 investors answered all questions

which we have calculated its results in pos691. On the other hand 63 real estate investor answered all

questions which we had reflected the result in pos692. If the correct answer lies outside the 90 %

confidence interval given by the investor we call this a surprise. For the questions which were actually

answered by the respondents

We calculate the percentage of surprises. Again, Table 1 summarizes the results. The results are

similar to test of general knowledge and less than similar studies. The high standard deviations are

signs of large individual differences

7.2. Better than Average Effect

We try to measure the degree of the better than average effect using the following two questions

similar to our previous study, concerning skills and performance relative to others. Investors were

asked to answer the following two questions:


1) What percentage of customers of your discount brokerage house have better skills (e.g. in the

way you interpret information; general knowledge) than you at identifying stocks with above

average performance in the future? (Please give a number between 0 % and 100 %)

2) What percentage of customers of your discount brokerage house had higher returns than

you in the four-year period from January 2010 to December 2011? (Please give a number

between 0 % and 100 %)

The responses to these questions has named BTA11 and BTA12.

We reshape these questions in a compatible way with real estate market information.

1) What percentage of investors of your sector have better skills (e.g. in the way you

interpret information; general knowledge) than you at identifying properties with above

average performance in the future? (Please give a number between 0 % and 100 %)

2) What percentage of investors of your sector had higher returns than you in the four-year

period from January 2010 to December 2011? (Please give a number between 0 % and

100 %)

We measure two above questions by BTA12 and BTA22.

Table 1 summarizes the results of the answers to these two questions. Similar to 2011 survey,

using Glaser test shows that in Tehran Exchange traders BTA is much less than other studies. But the

results show high increasing trend in BTA1 in stock market investors. The BTA11 in this study is more

than 30 % which increased 8 % in comparison with previous study. In a similar way, the BTA 12 is

28% which was 18% in 2011 survey. Conversely, monitoring real estate data shows the mean of

BTA12 as lower as 23% and the mean of BTA 22 is as lower as 18%.

we calculate better than average scores of investor i (BTA11i andBTA12i or BTA21i and

BTA22i) as (50-answeri)/50, as well as the arithmetic average of these two scores (BTAi).

These ratios yield 0 if the respondent thinks she or he is average, 1 if she or he thinks is better

than everybody else, and -1 if she or he thinks to be worse than everybody else. (Tehrani, Shakeri,

Movafaghi and Mohamadkhani (2012))

This result indicates no better than average effect but increasing trend in stock investors’ BTA

could be understood. It seems to be more “better than average effect” in stock investors than real estate

investors. This phenomenon will be analyzed in conclusion section more detailed. The high standard

deviations are signs of large individual differences.

7.3. Illusion of Control

We consider the following aspects that are mainly summarized as illusion of control as control over (an

almost) random task (such as investing in the stock market), unrealistically high personal success

probability, and unrealistic optimism about the future. Nevertheless, we use the term illusion of control

for all these conceptualizations in the following.

We calculate three illusions of control scores. The first illusion of control score is based on the

level of agreement with the following four statements. Investors were asked to state scores from 1 (I

totally agree) to 5 (I completely disagree). For each question we calculate an illusion of control score

of investor i as described below the respective statement.

1) I never buy stocks that will underperform in the future.

I1i =( 5-Answeri)/4

If the investor thinks she or he will never buy stocks that will underperform in the future, the

score I1 is 100 %. If the investor completely disagrees, the score is 0 %.

2) I am not able to identify stocks with above average performance in the future.

I2i = (Answeri-1)/4

If the investor thinks she or he is not able to identify stocks with above average performance in

the future, the score I2 is 0 %.

3) Buying stocks is like buying lottery tickets. Above-average performance seems to me to

be more a matter of chance.



I3i =( Answeri-1)/4

If the investor thinks buying stocks is like buying lottery tickets, the score I3 is 0 %.

4) My forecasts of future stock prices are always true.

I4i = (5-Answeri)/4

If the respondent thinks her or his forecasts are always true, the score I4 is 100 %.

IOC is the arithmetic average of these four scores. (Tehrani, Shakeri, Movafaghi and


8. Overconfidence Measures Comparison The three initial Hypothesis focus on a comparison between over confidence measures difference

between 2011 and 2012 survey. Sample sizes in both studies are more than 30, so we can assume

normal distribution for population mean. Although, the original population in both studies is Tehran

stock exchange market investors; the key factors with determinant effect on the population’s

expectation had been changed, so the population mean and variance can be changed from 2011 to

2012.

When we make a comparison between over confidence measures in real estate and stock

market, According to the sample size, it can be assumed that the mean variable in both samples has

normal distribution. On the other hand, because of different origins, the variances of two populations

(real estate investors and stock investors) are not necessary equal.

Before mean tests, we should test if the variances of the compared population are equal using

Levin test. The result of the test determines how to test the study hypothesis.

2

2

2

11

2

2

2

10

:H

:H

The test statistic has Fisher distribution and described with relation 1:

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

δ

s

δ

s

F Relation 1

If we assume that the variances are equal we can reform the relation 2:

2

2

2

1 s

sF Relation 2

The degree of freedom is described by relation 3:

1i i ndf Relation 3

Hypothesis 1 says that:”The average miscalibration score in stock market in 2012 is lower than

the previous year.” So we should compare the variance of miscalibration score in stock market in 2011

and 2012 to determine which statistical test should be used for testing the hypothesis 1. The degree of

freedom for miscalibration score variance in 2011. Comparison should be made for general knowledge

question (pos15) and stock market forecast.In case of general knowledge question the df2011 is 80, the

df2012 is 94 and α is 0.05. F0.025, 80, 94 is 1.52313054 and F0.975, 80, 94 is 0.65174608. Fhypothsis1 is 1.160822.

So h0 is not rejected.

Total results of fisher test have been shown in table2. According to table 2, we should assume

variance equality for hypothseis1-1, 3, 4-1,4-2,6 and inequality for 1-2,2-1,2-2,5-1,5-2.


Table 2:

Hypothesis Df1 Df2

lower Critical

value

Upper

Critical value Test statistic result

Hypothesis 1-1,pos15(general

knowledge questions) 80 94 0.65174608 1.52313054 1.160822

2 2

1 2.

Hypothesis 1-2,pos69( stock

market forecast) 80 82 0.64451130 1.54969978 1.819277

2 2

1 2.

Hypothesis 2-1, BTA1 80 82 0.64451130 1.54969978 3.874788 2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 2-2, BTA2 80 82 0.64451130 1.54969978 0.24 2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 3-IOC 80 82 0.64451130 1.54969978 0.761905 2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 4-1, pos15(general

knowledge questions) 94 60 0.63773299 1.60580697 1.280186

2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 4-2, pos69( stock

market forecast) 82 62 0.62966759 1.61300067 1.202899

2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 5-1,BTA1 82 62 0.62966759 1.61300067 0.417078 2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 5-2,BTA2 82 62 0.62966759 1.61300067 2.961111 2 2

1 2

Hypothesis 6-IOC 82 62 0.62966759 1.61300067 0.809218 2 2

1 2

According to the equality or inequality variances in each hypothesis, there are two separated

way to test. In case of equality in population variances, T test used to determine if there is any

significant difference between mean scores as described below:

21

2121

11

nns

μμxxt

p

Relation 4

2

11

21

2

22

2

11

nn

snsnS p Relation 5

Degree of freedom= 221 nn Relation 6

The results are presented in table 3. According to table 3, it can be inferred that, hypothesis 1-1,

3, 4-1, 6 are significant. In the other word, the mean of general knowledge score in 2012 is lower than

2011. Also, the mean illusion of control score has decreased In comparison with last year. Mean

General knowledge in stock market investor is more than general knowledge in real estate investors in

2012. In case of mean market forecast score, hypothesis 4-2 is rejected and there is no significant

evidence to show any difference in mean market forecast between stock and real estate investors. As

hypothesis 6 is significant, study shows that mean illusion of control in stock market investors in more

than that of real estate investors.

Table 3:

hypothesis s1 s2 n1 n2 sp x1 x2 t df critical t

statistic result

1-1 0.096 0.0827 81 95 0.089062 0.40987 0.28764 9.07455 174 1.9736914 1

3 0.16 0.021 81 83 0.113425 0.53395 0.12540 23.0615 162 1.974715749 1

4-1 0.0827 0.0646 95 61 0.076161 0.28764 0.25430 2.66807 154 1.975488024 1

4-2 0.083 0.069 83 63 0.077284 0.28877 0.26432 1.89357 144 1.976575034 0

6 0.021 0.008343 83 63 0.016766 0.12540 0.09134 12.1609 144 1.976575034 1

In case of inequality in population variances, adjusted T test used to determine significance of

difference between mean scores as described below:



2

2

2

1

2

1

2121

n

s

n

s

μμxxt ' Relation 7

1

)(

1

)(

)(

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

2

1

2

2

2

1

2

1

'

n

n

s

n

n

s

n

s

n

s

d.f Relation 8

The results are presented in table 4. According to table 4, it can be inferred that, hypothesis 1-2

and 5-2 are significant but hypothesis 2-1, 2-2 and 5-1 are rejected. The results show that, mean market

forecast score, has been decreased since last year. Although hypothesis 2-1 says that the mean BTA1

score in 2012 is lower than that of 2011, table 4 shows that there is no significant evidence for any

difference in mean BTA1 score in these years. The behavior of BTA 2 is similar to BTA1 in 2011 and

2012. Hypothesis 5-1 has been rejected and the mean BTA1 in stock market investors is not more than

that of real estate investors. T test shows that the mean BTA2 score in stock market is much more than

this measure score in real estate.

Table 4:

Hypothesis s1 s2 n1 n2 x1 x2 x1-x2 t critical t

statistic Result

1-2 0.151 0.083 81 83 0.419753 0.288773 0.13098 6.860549505 1.959970921 1

2-1 0.229 0.0591 81 83 0.226049 0.243211 -0.01716 -0.65356694 1.959982029 0

2-2 0.24 0.1066 81 83 0.182469 0.32654 -0.14407 -4.94735582 1.95998225 0

5-1 0.0591 0.1417 83 63 0.243211 0.376443 -0.13323 -7.0142485 1.959974843 0

5-2 0.1066 0.036 83 63 0.32654 0.18976 0.13678 10.89952139 1.959967474 1

9. The Results of Hypotheses Testing Conclusion

This study shows decreasing trend in general knowledge score in stock market. It can be

inferred that fast changes in key market factors, has lowered the level of overconfidence in

general knowledge questions among stock market investors. This Proposition affected market

forecast score in a same way.

The BTA1 and BTA2 in stock market are low, similar to our previous study. Surprisingly, it

can be inferred that the mean BTA1 and BTA2 score increase in this year. The effect of new

dominant factors- foreign currency exchange rate, inflation rate and political news- in macro

economics and systematic risks has lowered the importance of market and industry level of

analyzing. This analyzing pattern reinforces Framing bias in investors’ decision making which

can explain the increasing BTA score.

Our study supports that mean illusion of control score in 2012 stock market is lower than the

year 2011.rapid changes in Macroeconomic main factors mostly explain the reason.

The results verify more general knowledge score in stock market than real estate market,

originated from more passive behavior in real estate investors. Traditional views about

continuous price increase in jumping inflation status concluded to more market forecast score

in real estate market than stock market.

There is a paradoxical situation in better than average score comparison in real estate and stock

market dependent on the way of measurement. Although there is no support for more BTA1 in


stock market than real estate market investors, significant evidences show more BTA2 score in

stock market than real estate market. It may originate from different time horizon of BTA1 and

BTA2. Stock market better performance in last year may result in more optimistic

Retrospective views in stock market than real estate market. On the other hand, hopeful views

about real estate price adjustment may conclude to more mean BTA1 scores in this market.

Less liquidity risk in stock market may explain more IOC score in stock market than real estate

market. Liquidity capability reinforces active behaviors in stock market and increase IOC score

in stock market investors.

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REVIEW, Vol. 3 No. 1: pp. 93 - 108




Management of Ovarian Dermoid Cysts at Jordan University

Hospital: A Teaching Hospital Experience

Kamil Mosa Fram, MD

Corresponding Author, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology

Faculty of Medicine, the University of Jordan, Amman-Jordan


Tel: +962 7 9564 2000; Fax: +962 6 553 5469

Shawqi S.Saleh, Frcog

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology


Fawwaz A. Kazaleh, MD

Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology


Firas Obiedat, MD

Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine

The University of Jordan, Amman-Jordan

Osama Samarah, MD

Department of Radiology, Faculty of Medicine


Nadir M. Al-Bsoul, MD

Department of Surgery, Faculty of Medicine


Summary

Purpose: This research concentrates on evaluating the best and the safest method of

treating patients diagnosed to have ovarian dermoid cysts. Setting: This analysis took place

at the University of Jordan hospital. Material and methods: The retrospective records

were reviewed for over 2 years (from January 2011 to January 2013). The sample of study

included a total number of 23 patients with benign ovarian dermoid. Ten patients (43.48%)

presented with abdominal pain, 8 patients (34.78%) were accidently found to have this kind

of ovarian cysts, 3 patients (13.04%) presented with dysparunia, and 2 patients (08.70%)

presented with abnormal vaginal bleeding. Eleven patients (47.83%) were found to have

right sided ovarian dermoid, while 7 patients (30.43%) were found to have bilateral, and 5

patients (21.74%) were found to have left sided one.

Conclusion: Laparotomy and ovarian cystectomy were performed for 20 patients

(86.95%) without rupturing or leakage of the content, which seems to be superior to other

methods of management.


A Teaching Hospital Experience 110

Keywords: Ovarian dermoid, laparotomy, abdominal pain.

Introduction Of the most common germinative benign ovarian tumors is dermoid cysts, which occur in the

reproductive years of women [1], particularly so in the younger age group (mean patient age, 30 years)

[2] by comparison to epithelial ovarian neoplasms (mean patient age, 55years) [3]. The growth rate of

dermoids is a slow one with an average rate of 1.8 mm each year. Such slow growth rate led some

scholars to adopt nonsurgical management of smaller (<6-cm) tumors [4]. Dermoid cysts are, in about

10% of the cases, binary location wise, in the sense that they could occur in either or both ovaries [5,6].

Generally speaking, dermoid cysts of the ovary develop from a primary germ cell in the ovary

that is totipotential in nature; in the sense that, it has the ability to develop into any type of mature

tissue [7]. For this reason a combination of tissue types is found in these unusual tumors, including

teeth, bone, cartilage, nerves, oily material, fat, and hair [8]. The size of dermoid cysts ranges from tiny

to very large tumors that fill the entire abdomen [9]. Millions of women in their childbearing ages from

puberty to menopause are affected. Only in rare cases that dermoid cysts do pose either a diagnostic or

therapeutic issue; nevertheless, the complications that arise resultantly take various forms, all of which

are illustrated in a patient appearing quite ill, thus posing a diagnostic dilemma.

In some women this kind of cyst may develop early on in her life, even at the time of her birth.

The cyst may go unnoticed until it gets very large in size or ruptures. Many dermoid cysts of the ovary

do not cause symptoms; however, if a dermoid cyst grows, it may result in complications. Some

women with a dermoid cyst may have abdominal pain, abnormal vaginal bleeding, difficulty urinating,

or a dull ache in the lower back and thighs. In some cases, a dermoid cyst may grow large enough to

put pressure on or twist the ovary (ovarian torsion, which compromises the ovary’s blood supply and

constitutes an emergency) [10]. This may result in abnormal pain and bleeding. An enlarged dermoid

cyst can also cause pain in the pelvic region, and pressure on the bladder resulting in difficulty in and

during urinating. A small percentage of dermoid cysts can progress to cancer 1-3% [11, 12]. The exact

dermoid ovarian cyst causes are unknown but their development is understood. These cysts develop

from a special kind of cell called a "germ cell" in the tissue of the ovary. Germ cells are normal body

cells that can grow into a variety of types of body tissues including, as previously stated, fat, hair, skin,

teeth, eyes, and glands [13]. This study aims at outlaying the experience of its authors in diagnosing

and managing dermoid cysts as a type of ovarian tumors, with particular attention on cases involving

young age group suffering this type of tumors.

Patients and Methods For the period falling between the first of January 2011 and the first of January 2013, a total number of

23 patients diagnosed to have dermoid cysts and were considered to be candidates for surgery were

surveyed for the purpose of this study. All patients underwent preoperative evaluation including full

clinical history and examination, routine laboratory tests, chest X-ray and, in some cases,

electrocardiogram. CT scan, MRI, and plain abdomen imaging were requested in certain cases

according to the presentation and the probabilities as to the nature of the adnexal mass. The tumor

markers CA125, CA19.9 and AFP (alpha fetoprotein) were ordered to the majority of patients. All

patients were counseled about the surgery and various different possibilities were put forth, which

possibilities ranged from simple cystectomy to the possibility of radical surgery based on the nature of

the cyst, the operative findings, and the result of frozen section pathology.

All patients' questions and those of their families were thoroughly addressed, and the queries

that related to the future of reproductive and feminine life in particular were elaborately clarified. All

the twenty-three patients included in the study were diagnosed of having either unilateral or bilateral

dermoid cysts. Conclusive confirmation for the cysts was confirmed by the pathological examination

111 Kamil Mosa Fram, MD, Shawqi S.Saleh, Frcog, Fawwaz A. Kazaleh, MD, Firas Obiedat, MD

Osama Samarah, MD and Nadir M. Al-Bsoul, MD

for the specimens removed in all cases. The laparotomy was carried out via an abdominal wall incision

in layers and taking peritoneal washing for cytology. When a twisting of the cyst was noticed, a re-

twisting was immediately performed by covering the ovary with warm saline until it gained the normal

pink color. If and when the decision for cystectomy is taken (which was carried out in most of the

cases), a scalpel blade number 12 is used to make a fine gentle scar on the wall of the cyst, followed by

grasping the edges of the cyst by fine mosquitoes and slow blunt traction with fingers apart to undress

the cyst capsule and deliver the dermoid cyst whilst still intact out of its bed.

Eventually, the cysts were enucleated easily and haemostasis was performed for any bleeding

spots encountered during dissection. Due to thick nature of dermoid cyst capsule, blunt dissection and

pealing was quite easy and risk of cyst puncture seldom occurred if tissue planes were preserved

properly. The cysts were immediately sent for frozen section report in search for possibility of

malignancy, together with the resection of the necrotic tissues that were carried out in cases where

necrosis was found. Upon return of answers and revelation that the cyst was of benign nature, closure

the abdominal wall with the fashion steps were carried out.

Results The case records of all patients who were diagnosed to have benign cystic teratomas and underwent

surgical management were retrospectively reviewed. A total number of 23 patients were candidates for

review during the period extending from the first of January 2010 to the first of January 2013. Mean

age at the time of surgery was 32.7 years (range 16-53); mean gravidity among the married patients

was 1.79 (range 0-8), while the mean parity was 1.43 children (range 0-4), 11 patients were married

while 9 patients were single at the time of presentation, with a mean weight 66.6 kg (range 46-90) as

illustrated in table I. Among these patients, the chief complaint was pelvic pain in 10 (43.47%)

patients, dysparunia in 3 (13.04%) cases, abnormal irregular menstrual cycles in 2 (8.69%) patients,

and 8 (34.78%) cases were asymptomatic and discovered incidentally mainly during routine ultrasound

examination (Table 2). The cyst twisted 4 times in 2 cases, 3 times in 1 case, and once in 1 case.

Sixteen (69.57%) cases found to have unilateral cysts, 11 (47.82%) of them on the right side and the

largest cyst size was 15 × 10 cm and diagnosed accidently, while 5 (21.73%) of them on the left side,

the largest cyst size was 30 × 20 cm and diagnosed also accidently, where the rest 7 (30.43%) cases

had bilateral cysts. Different procedures were performed to manage the cysts according to patient age,

fertility and clinical presentation. Twenty cysts (86.96%) were removed by ovarian cystectomy and

enucleation, 1 case (4.34%) was subjected to bilateral salpingo-oopherectomy, 1 case (4.34%) was

subjected to left salpingo-oopherectomy, and 1 case (4.34%) was subjected to right salpingo-

oopherectomy, the latter two cases found to have necrotic ovaries due to torsion. Concomitant surgical

procedure consisted of myomectomy in 2 cases (8.7%), total abdominal hysterectomies in 2 cases

(8.7%), pelvic lymphadenectomy in 2 cases (8.7%), lysis of adhesions in 1 case (4.34%) case as seen in

Table 3. No leakage of the contents of the cysts was reported with preservation of the healthy ovarian

tissues in the managed cases as all cysts removed remained intact. Mean cyst diameter on the right side

was 7.7 cm (range 3- 15) and 9.3 cm (range 3-30) on the left side, Mean blood loss, and operative time

were 93.5 mL (range 50-300), and 63.3 minute (range 45-90) respectively.

Table 1: Reproductive Criteria

Variable Mean Range

Age (years) 32.7 16-53

Gravidity (G) 1.8 0-8

Parity (P) 1.4 0-5

Weight (Kg) 66.6 46-90



Table 2: Chief Complaint

Variable Number Percentage (%)

Abdominal pain 10 43.48

Accidental 8 34.78

Dysparunia 3 13.04

Abnormal bleeding 2 08.70

Table 3: Dermoid Presentation


Bilateral 7 30.43

Right side 11 47.83

Left side 5 21.74

Total 23 100

Table 4: Surgical Procedure Variables


Ovarian Cystectomy (case) 20 86.95

B.S.O* 01 04.35

Lt. S.O* 01 04.35

Rt. S.O* 01 04.35

B.S.O; bilateral salpingo-oophrectomy, Lt. S.O; left salpingo-oophrectomy, Rt. S. O; right salpingo-oophrectomy

Table 5: Surgical Procedure Variables

Variable Mean Range

Mean blood loss (ml) 93.5 50-300

Operative time (minute) 63.3 45-90

Average hospital stay (days) 3.48 2-7

Follow up (months) 12.13 2-24

Table 6: Concomitant Surgical Procedure


Myomectomy 2 8.70

T.A.H* 2 8.70

P.L.A* 2 8.70

Adhesiolysis 1 4.35

Omentectomy 1 4.35

T.A.H; total abdominal hysterectomy, P.L.A; pelvic lymph adenectomy

In fact, the mean time for straight forward ovarian cystectomy without additional operative

intervention lasts approximately 54 minutes (range 45-90). Part of time consumption during surgery

was dedicated for the irrigation step to ensure complete pelvic clean out. Once the cyst was removed, it

was sent immediately for frozen section analysis to ensure the benign nature of the cyst. Pathological

confirmation of the definite mature cystic teratoma without atypia was quite clear in all cases. There

were no intraoperative complications. Overall hospital stays were 3.48 days (range 2-7). No

postoperative complication reported during the follow up period which ranged from 2-24 months

(mean 12.13). Two patients became pregnant after surgery.



Discussion The approach adopted by the authors in managing ovarian dermoids took into consideration avoiding

any leakage of the content of the dermoid into the abdominal cavity. The effort was crowned with an

outstanding outcome as results shown not a single incident of rupture of ovarian cyst. We believe that

surgical excision is the treatment of choice. Surgery should be performed even more carefully than

usual because the content of the cyst may spread to the surrounding tissues or anatomic structures,

particularly if the cyst was infected with bacteria or was a malignant one. The spreading of these

contents can either cause foreign body reactions and severe complications or lead to the spreading of

an avoidable peritoneal malignancy.

Up to the point that cyst complications raise a red flag leading to a check up, the existence of ovarian

cysts is considered a natural phenomena. In general terms, there exist two groups of ovarian cysts, those being

the Functional group and the Complex group. As the name dictates, functional cysts carry out certain task as

part of the ovarian functions, which tasks are illustrated by way of an example in helping the release of ovum

at the right time for fertilization. On the other hand, the complex ones do nothing of the sort.

Dermoids belong to the second category of cysts, i.e. the complex ones. Although they contain

mature skin that is complete with sweat glands, hair follicles as well as pockets of stale blood, fat, bone,

cartilages, nails, teeth, and even traces of thyroid tissues, dermoids are cystic teratoma that serve no

functional purpose, quite the contrary, they could lead to complications and damage to the organs. [14].

Dermoids are generally very benign thus not calling for an alarm. Such though is somewhat

problematic given that, although it is not cancerous, some complications are possible if not detected and

treated in due time. Symptoms arising as a result of a dermoid ovarian cysts, are very similar to those

arising from the symptoms of an ovarian cyst, both sharing the differential diagnosis. As a cyst expands in

size it may apply pressure on the ovary or other organs causing symptoms to become more severe. In some

cases a dermoid ovarian cyst will cause the ovary to twist or distort and cut off its blood supply.

Intensity of symptoms is not experienced equally by all women. Only a respected percentage of

women will have no symptoms of dermoid ovarian cyst, while most will experience a range from mild

to severe. In the current study, abdominal pain was reported by 10 (43.47% of) patients, either as a

constant ache or sharp shooting pain, while 3(13.04 % of) patients experienced the pain during sexual

activity, and others reported abnormality in the menstrual cycle which in turn related to the dermoid.

Dermoid cysts may very well show no symptoms, and as such is discovered in the course of a routine

pelvic examination as an incidental finding or in the form of adnexal enlargement or swelling of the

ovary [15]. Due regard ought to be given to the fact that the prevalence of malignant transformation in

dermoid cysts has been reported as 1- 3 % [16].

As abnormal cysts become larger, they display a tendency to twisting, which results in severe pain in

the lower abdomen. In radical cases, the blood supply to the ovary is cut off, with more serious consequences

to the extent of killing the ovary. The preceding is in addition to the underlying risk of rupture and spillage of

the contents of the cyst in and within the abdominal cavity. No cases of rupture or spillage of the contents are

reported in this study, although, there were 5 cases of torsion ranging from 2 to 5 turns in which cases the

exposure to the risk of rupture and spillage is higher. The approach is to adopt holistic remedies in which the

body is treated as a whole with the focus being on detecting the root causes and eradicating them. Once causes

are dispensed with, the cyst goes away, never to return again. It is for this very reason that holistic remedies

have had a higher success rate in the treatment of all kinds of ovarian cysts.

Skilful laparotomy remains the most appropriate method by which the cyst is removed whilst

still intact, hence avoiding the possibility of rupture and spillage of the contents into the abdominal

cavity. As laparotomy coupled with skilful management of the cyst was adopted, no leakage was

reported in any of the managed cases subject of this study, though it is known that the rate of spillage

during laparotomy is about 4-12% [17, 18]. However, the spread of the content of the cyst especially in

malignant cases remain a cause for concern given its potential damage. The reported spillage rate via

laparoscopic approach is 15-100% [19, 20, 21], which practically means causing, duplicating, and flaring



complications in the future particularly, the adhesions and chronic pelvic pain together with fluctuation of

fertility. Chemical peritonitis following rupture of a dermoid cyst during laparoscopy was reported

nonetheless in addition to reports of intraperitoneal dissemination in a patient who underwent

laparoscopic cystectomy for a dermoid that had undergone malignant transformation [22, 23].

In a review by Cristoforoni P et al, he documented spillage of contents in 310 cases out of 470

(66%cases) managed laparoscopically [24]. This report supports the authors' vision concerning the ideal

approach to handle these cases which approach is also supported by Berek J et al 2010 [25]. The attention

should be addressed from a futuristic perspective vis-a-vis the patient and should not be limited to the

narrower perspective of possible malignancy. The big achievement in the clinical applications of

laparoscopic surgery in recent years cannot and must not be overlooked. However, this should be a topic of

individualization, and there should be certain guidelines governing its application. It must be stressed that

attempt are in place to have a criteria for selected cases of dermoids to be managed laparoscopically. This is

however, not without its limitations in light of the fact that the status of the setup and equipment in the

hospital is not contemporary, thus limiting the ability to undertake this type of surgery. Nonetheless,

distinguished skills were gained through and during training abroad. In this study, the common tumor

markers ordered were of negative value insofar as the possibility of malignancy and no spillage of the

content or rupture of the cysts have been documented. The frozen section and the final histopathology

report confirmed the benign nature of the cysts in the entire 23 cases subject of this study. Worthy of noting

that a main success factor of this study lied in the collaboration, coordination and mutual exchange of data

by, between and amongst the authors of this study.

Conclusion It is believed that the management of cases of young patients presented with ovarian dermoid cysts is best

served by skilful laparotomy, ultimately preserving and maintaining their fertility and ovarian functionality.

Although it constitutes a significant health risk for women, ovarian masses are not typically at the forefront

of one's mind. This state of mind is translated into a delay in diagnosis and subsequently enhances the

possibility of exposure to the risk of complications occurring. One of the ways by which the risk can be

mitigated is through detection by physical examination coupled with imaging evaluation given the fact that

the condition causes enlargement of the ovary, hence the importance of regular checkups. It is further

suggested that screening programs are introduced and implemented amongst the focused group of females.

Said suggestion should be given premium priority in national health policy strategies in the future.

However, prospective controlled clinical trials with a large number of patients are necessary to compare

conventional methods with laparoscopy in cases with dermoids and to assess more rare events like

undetected malignancy, chemical peritonitis or excess adhesion formation.

Declaration of Interests The authors report no declarations of interest.

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http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed?term=Pardi%20G%5BAuthor%5D&cauthor=true&cauthor_uid=12818451




Joint Detection and Discrimination of CDMA2000, WiMAX and

Frequency Hopping Signals

Ammar Abdul-Hamed Khader

Dept. of Computer Engineering, Mosul University, Iraq

Ph.D. Candidate, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India


Ahmed M. Husein Shabani

Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India


Mirza Tariq Beg

Head of Dept. of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India


Abstract

With the advent of next generation mobile data networks, ubiquitous, high-speed,

mobile Internet access has become a reality. However, the concurrent development of

multiple mobile data technologies has led to the existence of overlapping, mutually

incompatible mobile data networks. This paper extending the work of Bouncing Detector

that used in detecting Frequency Hopping signals, to detect and discriminate other

important signals like CDMA2000 and WiMAX. The results show that this detector can

discriminate among these different signals easily and the performance guaranteed.

Keywords: Bouncing Detector (BD), Hopping Rate Detector (HRD), Frequency Hopping

(FH), CDMA2000, IEEE802.16-2004 OFDM (WiMAX).

1. Introduction Cellular mobile services were initially offered using analogue radio technologies and these were

considered as the first generation systems (1G). The definition of 2G was straight forward because

analogue radio networks were replaced with digital ones (2G networks) in the 1990’s. However the

definition of 3G is not so simple because these various 2G digital networks have been extensively

deployed throughout the world and have evolved significantly throughout their long service life to

offer greatly improved performance and capabilities, particularly for data services [1].

Despite the challenges faced when transmitting data through varying wireless channels,

broadband metropolitan area wireless systems are becoming a reality, partly thanks to the increasingly

sophisticated designs that are being employed. Such designs have been made possible by theoretical

advances and also by improvements in technology that have led to faster and cheaper implementations

compared to older systems. Currently, the focus is on developing 4G systems in the framework of

IMT-Advanced, an ITU platform on which the next generation of wireless systems will be built [2].

Joint Detection and Discrimination of CDMA2000, WiMAX and Frequency Hopping Signals 117

The world's first CDMA2000 networks were launched in Korea in October 2000, providing 144

Kbit/s data rates to subscribing customers and delivering nearly twice the voice capacity that operators

experienced with their CDMA One (IS-95) systems. The success of the CDMA2000 1X system in

Korea has encouraged many operators in the Americas and Asia to follow through with their plans to

launch CDMA2000 [3]. CDMA2000 also known as IMT Multi-Carriers (IMT-MC), is a family of 3G

mobile technology standards, which use CDMA channel access, to send voice, data, and signalling data

between mobile phones and cell sites. The name CDMA2000 actually denotes a family of standards

that represent the successive, evolutionary stages of the underlying technology. These are, in order of

evolution: (CDMA2000 1xRTT), (CDMA2000 1xEV-DO_Release 0, Revision A, Revision B),

(CDMA2000 1xEV-DO_Revision C or Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)) and (CDMA2000 1xEVDV).

All are approved radio interfaces for the ITU's IMT-2000. CDMA2000 has a relatively long technical

history and is backward-compatible with its previous 2G iteration IS-95 (CDMA One). In the United

States, CDMA2000 is a registered trademark of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-

USA) [4].

WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) Forum is a worldwide

organization created to promote and certify compatibility and interoperability of broadband wireless

products based on the IEEE 802.16 standard. The final standard for mobile WiMAX - IEEE802.16e-

2005 - was approved in late 2005. The WiMAX Forum undertakes testing and certification against the

IEEE standards to ensure vendor interoperability Overview of Mobile WiMAX [5].

WiMAX is a wireless broadband solution that offers a rich set of features with a lot of

flexibility in terms of deployment options and potential service offerings [6, 7]. IEEE802.16d,

IEEE802.16e and IEEE802.16m are standards for Wireless Metropolitan Area Network (WMAN).

WiMAX forum have released several technical specification profiles [8, 9].

Spread spectrum (SS) is a means of transmission in which the signal occupies a bandwidth in

excess of the minimum necessary to send the information. In the SS system, the transmitted signal is

spread over a frequency band that is much larger, in fact, than the maximum bandwidth required to

transmit the information bearing (baseband) signal. An SS system takes a baseband signal with a

bandwidth of only a few kilohertz (kHz), and spreads it over a band that may be many megahertz

(MHz) wide. Frequency hopping (FH) can introduce frequency diversity and interference diversity. It

can be an effective technique for combating Rayleigh fading, reducing interleaving depth, associated

delay, and enabling efficient frequency reuse in a multiple access communication system [10, 11].

The rest of the paper is organized as follows; Section II gives a summary on Mobile Generation

Updating. Section III, IV and V present a brief on CDMA2000, IEEE 802.16 and Frequency Hopping

Signal respectively. This is followed by a Simulation Model in Section VI. The Results are discusses in

Section VII. Discrimination drawbacks are illustrated in section VIII. And Section IX wraps up

everything to draw a conclusion

2. Mobile Generation Updating In the mid 1980’s the ITU started work to define the next “generation” of mobile radio standards to

move these networks from National and Regional standards onto a global basis. This necessitated

finding a new globally available frequency band as well as attempting to maximize convergence within

the many existing 2G wireless technologies. At the 1992 ITU World Radio Conference 230 MHz of

new radio spectrum was identified for ‘Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunication Systems”

(FPLMTS), later to be known as International Mobile Telecommunications-2000 (IMT-2000). Because

of the extensive deployment and investment in 2G radio technologies during the 1990’s IMT-2000

became a “family of standards” offering evolution/revolution options from the major existing 2G

network standards. In general an “evolution” option enabled backwards compatible evolution of a 2G

standard to its 3G equivalent within an operators existing spectrum allocation. Whereas a “revolution”

option typically required an operator to obtain additional spectrum, build an overlay network, and

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3G

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_division_multiple_access

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_access_method

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2G

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IS-95

118 Ammar Abdul-Hamed Khader, Ahmed M. Husein Shabani and Mirza Tariq Beg

utilize dual mode/band mobile equipment. These 3G ITU standards were finalized in time for 3G

services to be initially launched in 2000. Not surprisingly an evolution option was the first IMT-2000

technology to be deployed [1, 2].

3. Brief on CDMA2000 CDMA 2000 is a terrestrial radio interface for the third generation of wireless communications

developed within the framework of the International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT)-2000

standard, as defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU). The specifications of the

cdma2000 system are being developed by the Third Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2). The

cdma2000 air interface is a direct spread technology. This means that it spreads encoded user data at a

relatively low rate over a much wider bandwidth (1.23 MHz for the 1x case), using a sequence of

pseudorandom units called chips at a much higher rate (1.2288 Mcps). By assigning a unique code to

each user, the receiver, which has knowledge of the code of the intended user, can successfully

separate the desired signal from the received waveform [12].

CDMA 2000 represents a family of technologies that includes CDMA2000 1X and

CDMA2000 1xEV. CDMA2000 1X can double the voice capacity of CDMA One networks and

delivers peak packet data speeds of 307 Kbps in mobile environments. 1xEV-DO Rev 0 had initial

success in Korea and Japan beginning in 2003 with additional major deployments following in 2004

and 2005. The initial launch for EV-DO Rev A with CDMA2000 UL enhancements took place in

Korea and Japan in 2005 [5].

A further enhancement to the CDMA2000 standard is 1xEV-DO-Rev B (also known as DO

Multi-Carrier). This enhancement will increase the DL peak over the air data rate for a 1.25 MHz

carrier to 4.9 Mbps and, by aggregating 3 carriers (known as 3xEV-DO) in a nominal 5 MHz channel

bandwidth, will provide a peak DL rate of 14.7 Mbps and a peak UL data rate of 5.4 Mbps.

Commercial deployments for 1xEVDO-Rev B are not anticipated until 2008 [5].

Table 1: Theoretical Throughputs of CDMA System

CDMA

Technology Theoretical Throughput

Forward link (Kbps) Return link (Kbps)

1 x 1.25MHz 614 614

1 x EV-DO Rev 0 (1.25MHz) 2458 153

2005

1 x EV-DO Rev A (1.25MHz)

2006-2007 3072 1800

1 x EV-DO Rev B (1.25MHz)

2007-2008 14745 5400

4. Brief on WiMAX WiMAX is one of the most promising technologies for broadband wireless access solution, as well as a

4G candidate. In parallel the WiMAX forum releases several technical specification profiles. Evolution

and deployment of WiMAX technology rely on cooperative and complementary efforts in the WiMAX

forum and IEEE 802.16 standard [5, 6, 9]. The important features of WiMAX are scalable OFDMA,

multiple input multiple output (MIMO) antenna, beam forming and adaptive modulation and coding

(AMC), support time division duplexing (TDD) and frequency division duplexing (FDD), space time

coding, strong security and multiple QoS classes [12]. IEE802.16 OFDMA divides the available

resources (frequency & time) into several orthogonal sub carriers in frequency domain and into several

adjacent symbols in time domain. This gives more flexibility in assigning those recourses, serving

many users supporting several service classes with QoS. This leads to a significant increase in resource


allocation challenges. In centralized system such as WiMAX system the Base Station (BS) performs

scheduling using Quality of services (QoS) scheduling algorithms and data packing using data packing

algorithms. The standards specify only uplink (UL) Packing algorithm and leaves QoS scheduling

algorithms and downlink (DL) Packing algorithms as open issues which open the door for researcher

and manufacturer to propose new algorithms or adopt some existing algorithms to improve WiMAX

system performance and capacity. In designing efficient downlink packing algorithm many factors and

tradeoffs issues like mapping overhead, wastage slots, power consummation... etc have to be

considered [13, 14, 15].

5. Brief on Frequency Hopping Signal FHSS technique has been used widely not only in public safety communications but also in

commercial communications such as GSM, home RF and Bluetooth, with interference avoidance and

multiple access capability. However, the traditional FHSS systems are regulated by fixed frequency

hop set. If some carrier frequencies are occupied by other wireless equipments, the FH system also

communicates in the occupied carrier frequencies which degrade the quality of communication [10].

A field of study known as Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) Communications is devoted to

designing waveforms that make interception and jamming more difficult. One of the most popular and

effective techniques is Frequency Hopping (FH) which is a type of spread spectrum (SS). In SS

systems, an advantage in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is achieved by the modulation and demodulation

process. The spreading signal is selected to have properties to facilitate demodulation of the

transmitted signal by the intended receiver and to make demodulation by an unintended receiver as

difficult as possible. These same properties also make it possible for the intended receiver to

differentiate between the communication signal and jamming [11]. As normal FH system, a hop-

sequence generator has to be determined, so that the FH system will avoid the congested channel and

transmit the data in clear channel. The hop-sequence generator is determined based on the link quality

testing results as well as the analysis of wireless communication theory. FH is categorized into slow

hopping and fast hopping. By slow hopping, more than one data symbol is transmitted in same

channel. Fast hopping change frequency several times during one symbol. For wideband

communication, a random FH schemes together with forward error correction, FEC method, the short

noise burst will not affect wideband transmission; it is protected from jamming transmission and has

low probability of interception [16].

6. Simulation Model As shown in figure (1) we built three different transmitter systems (IEEE 802.16-2004 OFDM

(WiMAX), frequency hopping FH and CDMA2000) using Matlab Simulink. Then separate Bouncing

Detectors (BDs) or Hopping Rate Detectors are used after all these signals crossing noisy channel

(Rayleigh and Gaussian Noise). BD is essentially designed for detection FH signals [16]. But here in

this article we extend the work of BD to detect and discriminate other important signals like

CDMA2000 and WiMAX. A block diagram of BD is shown in figure (2). Where the received signal

plus noise are passed through two adjoin bandpass filters (BPF). Those filters are split the bandwidth

of the noisy input into two continuous segments each of (bandwidth /2). In case of receiving a

frequency hopping noisy signal, the output of one of these two BPFs will be the sum of the signal plus

noise and the other BPF will contain only noise.

The particular BPF who contains the signal plus noise is bouncing at the hop rate between BPF

1 and BPF 2 in accordance whether the corresponding hop is in the upper or lower half of the input

spread spectrum band. The output of two BPFs are squared and differenced producing a signal whose

(signal dot signal) term ideally has a rectangular envelope with potential transition that occur at a

multiples of hop time (Th). Passing this signal through a lowpass filter (LPF) will extract the envelop.


Next a delay by half a hop time and multiply operation produces an approximately stationary

waveform that can be seen on oscilloscope. The exact value of hop rate can show in spectrum analyzer.

But the case is different in another input signals like CDMA2000 and WiMAX, where the data and its

carrier frequency are fixed in band. So, BD gives different shape than FH signal.

Figure 1: IEEE 802.16-2004 OFDM (WiMAX), Frequency Hopping FH and CDMA2000 Simulink

Transmitter’s Block

Figure 2: Bouncing Detector (BD) Matlab Simulink Block

7. The Results As mentioned above we can know the hop rate of FH signal by connecting a spectrum analyzer to the

output of BD2. Figures (3) and (4) show that we can get a maximum power value (Y axis) at one point

on the frequency (X axis), that corresponding or equal to the exact hop rate of the transmitted signal.

Where the FH transmitted signal’s hop rate is (500 hps) hop/sec. and (1000 hps) respectively.

Figure (5) shows the three transmitted signals in time domain before entering the detection

blocks (BDs), the first one is WiMAX signal the second one is FH signal and the third one is

CDMA2000. Where the (X) axis is the time and (Y) axis is the amplitude.


Figure 3: The Detected Spectrum of FH Signal Transmitted at 500 hps

Figure 4: The Detected Spectrum of FH Signal Transmitted At 1000 hps

Figure 5: WiMAX, FH and CDMA2000 in Time Domain Before Entering Their Detectors

The detection and discrimination among these three signals can be achieved easily by noticing

the output of the BDs in time domain. Where each detected signal has its own shape and differs from

the other (does not look like). Figure (6) and (7) show the output of BDs at different parameter values

like cyclic prefix in WiMAX, hopping rate in FH and data rate in CDMA2000 respectively but in ideal

case i.e. without noise. We can notice that the envelope shape for each recovered signal is remaining

same with slightly small difference when the parameter values are changed.

Figure (8), (9) and (10) illustrate the shape of the three signals but with different cases of noise

power (0, 5 and 10 dB) and different parameter values (Number of OFDM symbols per burst, cyclic

prefix (WiMAX), hop rate (FH) and data rate (CDMA2000)). Also here we can discriminate among

these signals easily. The effect of increasing noise power is appeared only on the tail of the WiMAX

signal. While its appeared on the top of FH signal. CDMA2000 is look like unstable signal on all cases

and that become very clear in higher values of noise power.


Figure 6: Signals Without Noise, Cyclic Prefix 1/ 8 (WiMAX), Hop Rate 1000 hps (FH) and Data Rate 4.8

Kbps (CDMA2000).

Figure 7: Signals Without Noise, Cyclic Prefix 1/ 32 (WiMAX), Hop Rate 500 hps (FH) and Data Rate 9.6

Kbps (CDMA2000).

Figure 8: Signals With 0 dB Noise, Number of OFDM Symbols Per Burst1, Cyclic Prefix 1/8 (WiMAX), Hop

Rate 1000 hps (FH) and Data Rate 4.8 Kbps (CDMA2000).


Figure 9: Signals With 5 dB Noise, Number of OFDM Symbols Per Burst 10, Cyclic Prefix 1/32 (WiMAX),

Hop Rate 1000 hps (FH) and Data Rate 9.6 Kbps (CDMA2000)

Figure 10: Signals With 10 dB Noise, Number of OFDM Symbols Per Burst 1 , Cyclic Prefix 1/8 (WiMAX),

Hop Rate 1000 Hps (FH) and Data Rate 4.8 Kbps (CDMA2000)

8. Summary and Concluding Remarks This paper considers the problem of detecting and discriminating the presence of CDMA2000 and

IEEE 802.16 2004 OFDM. We extended the work of Bouncing Detector or Frequency Hopping

Detector that used for detecting Frequency Hopping signals, to detect and discriminate these important

signals. The results show that this detector can discriminate among these different signals easily and

the performance guaranteed. There is a little drawback when the noise power is very high.

References [1] Jeff Kennington • Eli Olinick • Dinesh Rajan, Wireless Network Design, Optimization Models

and Solution Procedures, Springer Science + Business Media, LLC 2011.

[2] Ioannis Papapanagiotou, Dimitris Toumpakaris, Jungwon Lee, Michael Devetsikiotis, A Survey

on Next Generation Mobile WiMAX Networks: Objectives, Features and Technical

Challenges, IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, Vol. 11, No. 4, Fourth Quarter 2009.

[3] Johan Langer and Gwenn Larsson ‘CDMA2000—A world view” Ericsson Review No. 3, Issue

no. 03/2001.

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[5] Comparing Mobile WiMAX, 3G and Beyond A technical comparison of mobile WiMAX and

third generation mobile technologies, [Online]. Avalable: http://www. crystalcomltd.

com/featured_whitepapers/010231032509Comparing_WiMAX_vs_3G_White_Page.

[6] J. G. Andrews, A. Ghosh, and R. Muhamed, Fundamentals of WiMAX Understanding

Broadband Wireless Networking, Prentice Hall, 2007.

[7] IEEE Std. 802.16-2004, “IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks – Part 16:

Air Interface for Fixed Broadband Wireless Access Systems,” IEEE Computer Society and the

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society Oct. 2004.

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Air Interface for Fixed and Mobile Broadband Wireless Access Systems.” IEEE Computer

Society and the IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, 28 Feb. 2006.

[9] IEEE Std 802.16m™-2011 “IEEE Standard for Local and metropolitan area networks—Part

16: Air Interface for Broadband Wireless Access Systems” IEEE Computer Society and the

IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society, 6 May 2011.

[10] Jim K Omura, Robert A Scholtz, Spread Spectrum Communications, Handbook McGraw-Hill

telecom: Engineering 2002.

[11] Ammar Abdul-Hamed Khader “Enhanced Performance of FH Detection System Using

Adaptive Threshold Level” AL Rafdain Engineering Journal, Volume: 18, Issue: 5, 2010.

[12] Michael Lin, Heesook Choi, Thomas La Porta “CDMA2000-WiMAX Interworking” [Online].

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[13] Kamran Etemad, Ming-YeeLai, WiMAX Technology and Network Evolution, Wiley-IEEE

Press , September 2010.

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WiMAX Networks: Key Issues and a Survey," IEEE Journal (JSAC), Vol. 27, No. 2, Feb 2009,

pp. 156-171.

[15] Ahmed M Husein Shabani, M.T.Beg and Ammar Abdul-Hamed Khader “Survey of Down Link

Data Allocation Algorithms in IEEE 802.16 WiMAX” International Journal of Distributed and

Parallel Systems (IJDPS) Vol.3, No.4, July 2012.

[16] Siddeeq Y. Ameen, Ammar Abdul-Hamed. Khader and M. N. Abdullah “Comparison and

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The Impacts of SMS on Formal Writing: A Case Study

Among the University Students of Comsats Vehari Campus

NaziaSuleman

Department of Humanities

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Vehari Campus


Tel: +923336268792

Iram RubabSial

PhD ScholerIslamia University Bahawalpur Department of English


Tel: +923346087585

SaydAbrarHussain Shah


COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Vehari Campus


Tel: +92333700275

Hafiz SajjadHussain


COMSATS Institute of Information Technology VehariCampus


Tel: +923007855522

Abstract

SMS appears to have influenced the Standard English. SMS language had greatly

influenced the Standard English language used by the students because of its brevity and

conciseness. SMS language is in vogue because of its distinguishing features of easy and

quick way of communication. A questionnaire comprised of open and close ended

questions was administered to check the influence of the SMS language in students of

COMSATS Vehari. Findings strongly suggest that abbreviated language is very obvious in

writing English.

Introduction As more and more students are immersing themselves in mobile phone usage the text users are being

multiplied every day. Despite of its numerous benefits, language researchers/linguists have found that

the prolonged use of SMS has detrimental effects on the learners’ language proficiency (Dansieh,

2011; Mphahlele and Mashamaite, 2005; Ochonogor, Alakpodia and Achugbue, 2012; Winzker,

Southwood and Huddlestone, 2009).

An alarming impact of the text messaging had been observed at the English written expression

of the students (Daniesh, 2011). Teachers as well as parents are highly concerned about it and finding

the ways to deal with it and devising the ways to resist this practice in formal writing. Different schools

The Impacts of SMS on Formal Writing: A Case Study Among the

University Students of Comsats Vehari Campus 126

of thoughts have been brought in wake by this phenomenon (Daniesh, 2011). The first school of

thought is of the view that distinguishing features of brevity, precision, accuracy are flourishing the use

of texting and is over passing the basic rules of English grammar like spelling, punctuation,

capitalization and syntax (O’Conor, 2005). Second school of thought is being spearheaded by a renown

linguist David Crystal who is of the view that texting is not posing any threat to the language rather it’s

a source of practicing the language for a number of times and is enhancing the literary skills of the

users as well as paving the way for more and frequent use of a language, its acting like a catalyst for

the new learners of English language (Crystal, 2008). Third school of thought is of the view that SMS

is not posing negative or positive impact but rather its neutral and is not violating or by passing any

rule of grammar (Russell, 2010).

These views will be discussed in the literature review section and would be analyzed and

evaluated critically.

Objectives of the Study This study, firstly, aims at finding how SMS language affects the formal writing? Secondly, it will also

find out what are commonly repeated words in SMS which directly or indirectly affect the formal

writing?

To trace how sms is affecting the formal writing of students in COMSATS Vehari

Considering what are the commonly repeated words in SMS which directly or indirectly

influence formal writing

To identify the areas which need special care while writing

Literature Review In a short span of time (December, 1992 to 2012) text message language has aroused a great deal of

interest amongst the scholars, teachers and parents to look for its possible impact upon the young

generation. According to Goldstuck (2006) mobile phones were introduced to the youth market in the

late 1990’s. Thurlow (2011) studied the cell phone users, SMS character and its length and the factors

behind text language which are making users to go for rebus writing, for short spellings and for other

grammatical lapses. While Crystal (2008) is of the view that texting is a way to increase the literary

skills of a particular language and also a way of practice which would ultimately increase the

proficiency of a language.Txtng the Gr8 Db8 by David Crystal is so far the most comprehensive work

on SMS text language. Newspaper and on the internet are arguing about the impact of the language

upon the communication skills of the students. While one school of thought is calling the service a

curse as it is affecting the written skills and is posing threats to the real grammar with its excess usage.

Another school of thought led by Davis Crystal is of the view that texting is not of threat to the

language rather it’s a means to flourish it. Texting is not harmful to the student literacy rather it

enhances it (Crystal, 2008).

SMS Text Messaging Text messaging is in vogue since 1992 and its users are multiplying with the every passing day.

According to Buczynski (2008), “text messaging or more specifically, SMS (Short Message Service)

texting enables text messages up to 160 characters long to be sent and received by mobile phones” (p.

263). A reason of abbreviation is the number of characters which is limited. SMS has become an

indispensible part of our daily lives due to its widespread availability.

“Text has gripped the imagination of the U.K. in a very short space of time, and already has its

own language, its own etiquette and its own humour” (Peter Baker, The Dating Channel).

127 NaziaSuleman, Iram RubabSial, SaydAbrarHussain Shah and Hafiz SajjadHussain

As SMS is cheaper so its users are not only students but also professionals and businesspersons.

In 2007,Finnish author HannuLuntiala published the first ever book written solely in text message

language, about a business executive travelling throughout Europe and India.(Crystal, 2008). Its use is

multifaceted as its being employed by the electronic media for multiple kinds of polls and votes and for

ordering products.

SMS makes the communication possible within the twinkling of an eye and the feedback is also

on time. Even during the survey it was noticed that students are relying more on SMS for sharinglatest

information as compared to E-mails.

According to latest statistics issued by Pakistan Telecommunication Authority, cellular industry of

Pakistan ended May 2012 with almost 120 million subscribers or 119,860,799 subscribers to be exact.

Research Methods and Data Collection Thurlow’s (2003) division of text message as typographic or orthographic forms following divisions

have been addressed:

Shortening (deletion of letters)

Contractions

Number Homophones B4

Letter Homophones U

Non conventional Spellings for example: Good(gud)

Questionnaire particularly addresses a common area being employed by the students during the

writing that is abbreviation and spellings.A questionnaire composed of 20 questions was administered

comprising of both open and close ended questions in COMSATS Vehari from the undergraduate

students ranging from 18-21 years. The formal work of the students was also analyzed by giving them

a task of free writing. Students did commit the same spellings and abbreviations mistakes which were

observed in the questionnaire.

This study involved total 40 respondents, all were full-time university students. They all belong

from Bachelor programs of CIIT (COMSATS Institute of Information Technology Vehari Campus),

including 08 students from BSTN (CS), 04 male and 04 female, 07 Students from BSCS (CS) 03male

and 04 Female, 11 from BS (COM) all are male students and 14 from BSBA (MS), 10 female and 04

male. The ages of respondents ranged from 16 to 24 years.

This study provides different information about the use of SMS Language and the numbers of

errors which have harmful impacts upon their formal writings. The findings of the study show different

results, which is a new thing for the researchers and it shows that SMS Language has a stronger impact

upon the writings of Bachelor students. In this questionnaire there were total 20 questions, 07 were open

ended questions and 13 were close ended questions. All the results show through the use Pie Charts.

5.1 Q: Do you use SMS?



This Pie Chart shows that all the Students having cell phones and they are regular user of SMS

language. The 100% phone usage rate among student respondents probably demonstrates a high

frequency of Phone usage among CIIT students. It also suggests that all the student respondents are

strongly favor the SMS because the conciseness of its messages, it over come shyness and using it is an

appropriate social behavior.

5.2 Q: When you use SMS?

This pie chart shows different kind of information about the results, moods of the students and

their way of thinking is another important part if their study. This question responds differently from

the 1st one, because 67% student respondents suggest “every time”, 13% respondents suggest “Due to

less balance” and remaining 20% students respond that it depends on the “Mood of Chat”. These three

categories show that students are enough interest to use SMS language.

5.3 Q: Do you shorten up the words, or Chunk the words?


As all the student respondents were belong from Bachelor programs, they have enough

knowledge about these words, (Abbreviate, chunk and shorten up) and they respond according to their

own contexts. But according to the results 67% having the answer “No”, 20% “shorten up the words”

and 13 % “chunk the words”. It shows that some student respondents know the meanings of these

words properly.

5.4 Q: Do you use Abbreviations in SMS?

All the students respond 100% “yes”. It shows that all the respondents are fully aware the use

of abbreviations in the SMS language and even they know how to abbreviate the words? They also

used abbreviations in the SMS Language frequently. Some student respondents respond differently

from each other because SMS Language varies from person to person and from region to region.

5.5 Q: Do you frequently use abbreviations for friends or family friends or others?

Same alike all others questions, there is also a new result for this question and students respond

according to their own SMS usage. They mostly use SMS for their friend and some are also support the



SMS for the use towards family friends and some also favors the others. About 67% of the respondents

use SMS for their “Friends”, 20% for their “Family” and about 13% use SMS for “Others”.

5.6 Q: Do you think shortening up in SMS is corrupting English Language?

This is another difficult question for the student respondents of bachelor programs that how

they realize that SMS language corrupt the English language. But they respond very well like the other

researchers, the results indicate that most respondents are well aware that the use shortening the words

is corrupting the English language and that is why about 80% having the answer “Yes” and 20 %

having the answer “No”. It shows that some student respondents having the sense of accurate English

language.

5.7 Q: What abbreviation you use for the word fine?

This Pie Chart shows straight kind of results about the shortening up the word “fine” for the use

of SMS language in communication. The 80% of the students which were in the favor of shorten the


word “Fine” and they suggested “f9” and 20% suggested Fine should be written in the straightway like

“Fine”.

5.8 Q: In SMS language “bzi” is used for busy?

This is another complex question for the student, but they respond according to their own

understanding and their level of education. About 36 students respond in the favour of “bzi” which is

the 90% of the total 40 respondents and 4 respondents suggested shorten up the word “busy” which is

the 10% of the total respondents.

5.9 Q: In SMS language “AOA” is used for Assalam u Alaikum?


of “AOA” as an abbreviations in the SMS language and even they know how to abbreviate the words?

They also used this “AOA” abbreviation in the SMS Language frequently might be it is a standard

shorten up of Assalam u Alaikum.



5.10 Q: In SMS language “CUM” is used for come?

This is another interesting question for the student, but they respond according to their own

understanding and in the well manner. About 37 students respond in the favors of “CUM” which is the

92% of the total 40 respondents and 1 respondent suggested shorten up the word “come” in the form of

“CM” which is approximately 3% of the total respondents and 2 students were in the favors of no

response. 5.11 Q: In SMS language “Gr8” is used for great?


of “Gr8” as an abbreviations in the SMS language. They also used this “Gr8” abbreviation in the SMS

Language frequently might be they are habitual the use of this abbreviation of “great”.


5.12 Q: In SMS language “4” is used for (for)?

This pie chart shows different kind of information about the results, moods of the students and

their way of thinking is another important part of their study. This question responds differently from

the other questions, because 70% student respondents favor the abbreviation of “4” instead of “for” and

30% were in the favors of “NO” and no support for the “suggestion” category. These three categories

show that students are enough interest to use SMS language.

5.13 Q: In SMS language “TC” is used for take care?

This pie chart also shows approximately same kind of results above one but the average is

different from the previous one, because SMS language vary from person to Person. This question

responds differently from the other questions, because 70% student respondents favour the

abbreviation of “TC” instead of take care, and 35% were in the favour of “NO” and no support for the

“suggestion” category.



5.14 Q: In SMS language “M2” is used for me too?

These are also same kind of results above one but the percentage, because SMS language varies

from person to Person. This question responds differently from the other questions, because 67%

student respondents favour the abbreviation of “M2” instead of me too, and 35% were in the favour of

“NO” and there is no for the “suggestion” category.

5.15 Q: In SMS language “Y” is used for why?

This is another interesting results for this question about 75 % students respond in the favour of

“Y” and about 20% students respond in the support of “NO” and about 5% participants responds in the

favour of “Suggestion”. It shows that all the respondents have different mind sets for the use of

abbreviations in the SMS communications.


5.16 Q: In SMS language “CLG” is used for college?

As all the responds are mostly in the favour of questionnaire, but in this question all the

situation is changed and respondents respond about 68% against the question and 32 % in the favour of

abbreviation “CLG” and there is no respond in the category of “Suggestion”.

5.17 Q: In SMS language “U” is used for you?


of “U” as an abbreviations in the SMS language. They also used this “U” abbreviation in the SMS

Language frequently might be they are habitual the use of this abbreviation of “you”.



5.18 Q: In SMS language “B4” is used for before?

This is another surprise result which is in the favour of questionnaire, but in this question all the

situation is changed and respondents respond about 47% against the question and 45 % in the favour of

abbreviation “B4” and 8% respond in the category of “Suggestion”.

. 5.19 Q: In SMS language “v” is used for we?

As the students are regular user of the SMS language on the daily basisand they respond in the

different manner. For this question about 70 % students respond in the favour of “Y” and about 25%

students respond in the support of “NO” and about 5% participants responds in the favour of

“Suggestion”. It shows that all the respondents have different mind sets for the use of abbreviations in

the SMS communications.


5.20 Q: In SMS language “Ni8” is used for night?

This is another interesting question for the student, but they respond according to their own

understanding and in the well manner. About 32 students respond in the favour of “Ni8” which is the

80% of the total 40 respondents, 12% students are against this question and 8% suggested new

abbreviations.

Conclusion For abbreviation and SMS usage all the students agreed and got 100% results. Use of abbreviation is

not standard it keeps on changing from person to person or circle to circle.

The negative impact of abbreviated language in the academic work makes a negative

impression on the receiver and the faculty which is also negating the David Crystal’s and Russell’s

view that SMS texting abbreviation has nil effect on writing. Abbreviation has also been compared to

codes, unfortunately coded language expressions (text message) are not necessarily comprehensible to

an outsider (Thurlow, 2003).

According to Gold stuck language has altered with the passage of time.

References [1] Text Full Word [Online] Available: http://www.txt2nite.com/message/sms-research-

history(15/02/2013)

[2] Crystal,D(2008).Txtng the Gr8 Deb8. Oxford: Oxford University Press

[3] Dansieh,S. SMS Texting and its Potential Impact on Student’s Written Communication Skills.

[4] International Journal of Linguistics. Department of General and Liberal Studies ,Wa

Polytechnic

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Cellular Subscribers (13 july, 2012) [Online] Available:

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subscribers/retrived (15/02/ 2013)

[8] Bosman, D.B; Van der Merwe, I.W. and Hiemstra, L.W. 2003. Pharos Bilingual Dictionary.

Cape Town: PharosDictionaries.



[9] Cummins, J. 1984. Wanted: A theoretical framework for relating language proficiency to

academic achievement amongbilingual students.

[10] In C. Rivera (Ed.), Language proficiency and academic achievement. Avon, England:

MultilingualMatters Ltd.

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South Africa (Pty) Ltd.

[12] Erasmus-Kritzinger, L.E.; Bowler, A. and Goliath, D. 2000. Effective Communication.

Pretoria: Afritech publishers.

[13] Hartmann, R.K.K. 1989. Sociology of the Dictionary User: Hypotheses and Empirical Studies.

In Hausmann, F.J. et.al.(eds.). 1989-1991. Dictionaries: 102-111. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.

[14] Macmillan English Dictionary for Advanced Learners. 2002. Oxford: Macmillan Education.

[15] Oller, J.W. and Damico, J.S. 1991. Theoretical considerations in the assessment of LEP

students. In E. Hamayan& J.S.

[16] Damico (Eds.), Limiting bias in the assessment of bilingual students. Austin: Pro-ed

publications.

[17] Sinclair, J. 1995. Collins Coubuild English Dictionary. London: HarperCollins Publishers.

[18] Theo, E.G. and Cutter, M.A. 1971. Why can’t the English: An analogy of admirable and

execrable English. Basterville:

[19] Valdés, G. and Figueroa, R. 1994. Bilingualism and testing A special case of bias. Norwood,

NJ: Ablex PublishingCorporation.

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Mexico: New Mexico HighlandsUniversity.

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[22] Webster’s Third International Dictionary. 1986. Chicago: Meriam-Webster Inc.




Role of Countryside Women in Decision Making in Different

Family Matters

Mazhar Abbas

Department of Management Sciences

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Vehari Pakistan


Asma Kashif Shahzad




Rafia Waqar




Wasim Abbas




Syed Abrar Hussain Shah




Abstract

The research was conducted to examine the role of countryside women in decision

making in different family matters. Six villages of mouza kotla rahim ali shah tehsil jatoi

(Dist. Muzaffar Garh), chosen at random, constituted the world of this study. Two married

female from each of the twenty four households arbitrarily chosen from each of the six

villages was face-to-face interviewed, via pretested interviewing calendar. Additionally

some individual information about the respondents, 15 family affairs subjectively listed in

the questionnaire to collect the data concerning the degree of participation of women in

decision making process. The participation of rural women in decision making was resolute

on the basis of extent of discussion of husbands with their spouses in respect of different

family affairs. The discussion among (under “frequently” discussion category) the

respondents and their spouses to take decision in many family matters was more or less

43% under the category of “a little bit” discussion among the respondents and their

spouses, the array varied from about 25 to 38%, the average being 22.66%. A huge

majority (75%) of respondents up till now believed in leading position of husband in

Role of Countryside Women in Decision Making in Different Family Matters 140

making significant decisions in family matter. Some respondents decided that they were

happy with their position as housewives.

Keywords: Arbitrarily, Participants, Countryside, Family Matters

1. Introduction In our human society women play an integral role. The development of any civilization and homeland

depends significantly upon women involvement in all fields of life. The involvement of countryside

women in the community and monetary wisdom has been much larger but extraordinarily sufficient,

they have not been particular acknowledgment. The responsibility of women in civilization

perspective, of Pakistan has constantly been misconceived. In rural areas most women classified as

housewives and fewer than 4% are revealed as working women. In Pakistani cultural women faced lot

of constrains most of which are lacking religious and moral sanctions. The literary prescriptions

attached with extensive working hours, place countryside women in a very fragile situation (Khizra,

1981). As a matter of fact, a distinctive Pakistani women lives in very undersized cottage in a remote

areas. She is born in poverty, lives in poverty and eventually dies in poverty (Haq, 1988).

Rural areas because of isolated region are no doubt more uncovered to the command of

illiteracy and unawareness, characterized via little as 7% female literacy rate (Tikka, 1994). It is feared

that gender inequity may be extra in trend in these remote areas. Conclusion taken as a cattle farm

house is several, varying from that of cost-effective to collective environment. The current study was

thus designed to examine the job of rural women in decision making in various family affairs.

2. Methodology The same kind of study was done in Faisalabad district (Romeena Nasreen, 1994). And we have

adopted their methodology because of same geography, climate, living standard and population for

extension of the research.

Our study was conducted in six villages of Mouza Kotla Rahim Ali Shah Tehsil Jatoi (Dist.

Muzaffar Garh). These villages were situated 6-10 km from Tehsil Jatoi and 2-4 km on either side of

Jatoi-Shah Jmal road. The residents of these villages ranged from 5000-7000. Irrigation services,

geography, soil type annual rainfall rate and ecological condition were uniform. Didactic services

though varied a bit. About 200 villages Mouza Kotla Rahim Ali Shah six were arbitrarily chosen.

Thirty five household were arbitrarily chosen for person interview from every village. After that from

every household two married female was interviewed via pretested interview calendar. All the

participants were interviewed individually and the total respondents were 125. Many of them were

uneducated. One dependent variable (i.e., level of respondent’s participation in decision making in

family matters) was used, though there were many independent variables such as education, income,

caste, family status, family structure and age.

Everything were examined into frequency distribution wherefrom the percentage were worked

away. Chi-square test was used to determine the significance of association among independent and

dependent variables.

3. Aim of the Study To examine the level to which women are concerned in decision making in family matters and to

discover if a few common variables for instance caste and education are correlated with female

involvement in family matters.

To examine the bond, if any among the preferred socio-economic distinctiveness of the

participants and their culture intensity and social order.

141 Mazhar Abbas, Asma Kashif Shahzad, Rafia Waqar


4. Result and Discussion The degree of participation of countryside women in decision making in various family affairs has

been shown in Table 1. This was analyzed on the basis of level of discussion of husbands with their life

partner in value of different family matters as subjectively listed in table 1.

The overall outcome signifying the level of discussion among the respondents and their

husbands in different family matters have been tabulated under three categories (frequently, a little bit

and never) according to the frequency distribution of the view of the participants. These values

suggested the series of “frequently” discussion among the respondents and their life partner in decision

making in many family matters different from practically 35.66 to 52.04%. Of 15 family matters

planned in table 1. Simply in case of three family matters the percentage for “frequently” discussion

attained the intensity of 46% or a little above. In two family matters the percentage was (i.e. and

control of day to day expenditure and saving) that the participants were consulted to the degree of a bit

above 41% and 45% correspondingly. On average the discussion (in “frequently” class) among the

participants and their life partner to take decisions in many family affairs was about 43% which even

though is much fewer than yet 45% up till now it’s not disappointing. Parveen (1980) and Shoukat

(1985) supported these results. The previous reported that 52% participants were concerned on the

whole decision making procedure on the subject of family matters, whereas the afterward supposed

that women played a dynamic job as decision makers, certainly men were governing in the majority

affairs. In the group of “a little bit” meeting among the participants and their life partners, the series

diverse from about 25 to 38%. Of 15 family matters randomly scheduled to determine the participation

of countryside women in decision making in family matters, only in case of five matters, discussion

under the group was less than 35.66%, while it was only in one case (care of milch animals) that the

discussion level dropped to the minimum of 25.08%. As a whole the discussion with countryside

women to take decisions in family matters under “a little bit” group was 35%.

The array of values representing “Never” discussion among the participants and their life

partner regarding family matters varied from about 13 to 39% (Table 1). “Never” discussion group

nevertheless accounted for above 20% in 8 out of 15 family matters referred to in this study (Table 1).

Taking as a whole average in this group (Never) was 22.66%. The previous found that countryside

women were permissible small height of activity in social and cost-effective domains in significant

decision making practice. Afterward acknowledged that in countryside areas men, the governing

power, kept women obedient. On the opposite, Charyulu and Reddy (1987) reported that countryside

women had a well-built reliant state of mind and they generally looked towards men for essential

decisions. Ali and Khan (1990) examined that women might recognize problems and help in their

resolution but lack of decision making influence in them might be kept in view.

A big majority (75%) of the participants thought in governing role of husbands in making

significant decisions concerning family matters, while less than one-fourth of the participants (31%)

were of the analyze that the men should have a restricted role (somewhat) in family matters. Nearly 8%

participants tended to forbid several jobs to the men in family matters (Table 1)

Table 1: Believing in men dominancy in making essential decisions

Response Frequency Percentage

somewhat 29 31

to a large extent 80 75

Not at all 9 8

The majority analysis articulated above evidently indicates that the spouses in common, up till

now suppose in compliant the supremacy of husbands in family matters or in other words they do not

have the daring, self-reliance to do the majority of it by yourself.

Investigation of the data showed that the independent variable such as education, caste, income,

age and family type of the participants had no important involvement with the decision making

Role of Countryside Women in Decision Making in Different Family Matters 142

procedure in family matters. Apart from an insignificant number, a large majority of the participants

decided they were satisfied with their position as housewives. Of 125 participants only ten were found

to be operational women. Of these five were instructor in nearby schools, one was lady health worker

and other four were self employed. Every one of them indicated that efficiently they were self-

governing and were happy with their profession.

Table 2: Degree of participation of countryside women in decision making in diverse family matters

Sr.No significant Matters Frequently

-----%-------

A little bit

------%------

Never

-----%-----

1 Education of Children “Male and Female” 42.00 35.25 22.75

2 Career of Children 39.13 38.13 22.74

3 Control of day to day spending 41.74 35.39 22.87

4 Overall management of budget 46.70 35.00 18.30

5 Saving 45.22 36.39 18.39

6 Routine menu 52.04 34.79 13.17

7 Medical expenditure 44.34 38.13 17.53

8 Engagement and marriage of children 46.21 37.26 16.53

9 Dealing with friends and kingship relationing 45.21 36.26 18.53

10 Repair/redecoration of house 36.78 35.39 27.83

11 Construction/ purchase of house 36.53 33.78 29.69

12 Purchase/trade of property 41.87 29.43 28.70

13 Keeping of milch animals 35.66 25.08 39.26

14 Sale of milk 35.77 34.66 29.57

15 gift for daughters 48.69 37.13 14.18

Different Family Matters

5. Conclusions A big majority 75% of the participants up till now believed in governing role of husbands in making

vital decisions regarding family matters. Majority of participants was also happy with their positions as

housewives.

The level of participation of countryside women in decision making was about 43% whereas

when consulted “a little bit” the participation of participants was found to be about 35%. On the other

hand overall average for the class that concerned no consultation with the participants was nearly

22.66%.

It was analyzed that independent variable such as education, caste, income, family structure and

age of the participants tend to have no considerable involvement with the decision making

development in family matters.

References [1] Tikka, MJ. 1994. Address of the provincial (Punjab) Minister, delivered at a seminar held at

Lahore in the month of December.

[2] Charyulu, U.V.N and A.N. Reddy. 1987. Rural Women: Decision making, public participation

and other basic needs: A study of two South Indian villages. Ind. J. Social work, 47(4): 407-415

(Rural Develop. Abst., 11: 707; 1988).

[3] Haq, MA. 1988. Local Participation in development planning: A strategy for improving

situation of Pakistani rural women. PARC, Islamabad.

[4] Jaffri, M.S. 1995. Empowerment of women or disem powerment of men; that is the question.

Daily newspaper, the news, March 7.

[5] Khizira, S. 1981. Constraints on women participation in developmental process: A focus on the

traditional image of women. M.Sc. Rural Sociology Thesis, Univ. Agri., Faisalabad.

143 Mazhar Abbas, Asma Kashif Shahzad, Rafia Waqar


[6] Parveen, S. 1980. A study of the status of rural women in their families. M.Sc. Rural Sociology

Thesis, Unv. Of Agri., Faisalabad.

[7] Shaukat, S. 1985. The role of women in rural development in three selected villages of

Peshawar. M.Sc. Thesis, NWFP Agri. Univ., Peshawar.

[8] Shafiq, M. 1994. A study of attitude of rural males towards female education and employment.

M.Sc. Rural Sociology Thesis, Univ, of Agri. Faisalabad

[9] Ali, A.G. and K. Khan. 1990. Women in development. The workshop on WID held at Karachi

in April.

[10] Nasreen, R. Qazi, A.R. Ijaz, K. and Ashfaq, M. 1994. Role of rural women in decision making

in various family affairs. Pakistan Journal of Agri. Sciences, Vol. 31, No.4.




The Study of Relationship between Free Float Stock Less than

25% and the Stock Returns of Listed Companies in

Tehran Stock Exchange

Mehdi Najafi

Department of Management

Kish International Campus, University of Tehran, Iran

Farshid Asgari

Corresponding Author, Department of Management

Kish International Campus, University of Tehran, Iran


Abstract

Investors always look for a good return on their investments. Therefore they attempt

to find some information to be effective on their investment returns. The main objective of

this research is to find the relationship between free float stock less than 25% and the stock

returns of listed companies in Tehran Stock Exchange. In line with this goal, 30 eligible

companies were selected from 6 periods of 50 best companies from 2011 until the end of

summer 2012. In this study the independent variable is the free float stock and the

dependent variable is the total return on stocks. To test this hypothesis, the Pearson

correlation coefficient was used. The obtained results indicate that there is no significant

relationship between free float stock and stock returns in Tehran Stock Exchange.

Keywords: Free float stock, Tehran Stock Exchange, Pearson correlation coefficient,

stock returns

Introduction Achieving economic growth and the desire to make investments requires the basic guidelines in order

to achieve a good return on new investments. The main motivation for the creation of a stock exchange

as a fundamental unit of capital markets is to facilitate re-trading securities. Besides this issue one of

the most important roles of stock is to attract and guide the scattered Savings and liquidity in society

towards the more efficient activities and optimal allocation of scarce resources(Najafi and Asgari

2013). Thus the scattered funds of the private sector must be collected and allocated to improve the

economy and provide the interests for investors. Therefore, the role of the private sector must be

highlighted in the capital market and this requires that the government reduces its ownership role in the

stock of exchange companies (Arabzadeh and Meghaminejad 2012). Government intervention in the

market and the low level of free float stock in the market lead to lower turnover and high stagnant

liquidity in the market. However, William O'Neill provides a different view. He concluded from his

studies on the equity capital markets around the world that Most of the successful stocks had free float

of less than 25%. O'Neill believes that the stock which is used by many people changes a little and has

the risk of loss due to the non-professional and emotional decisions of shareholders. But the stock with


Returns of Listed Companies in Tehran Stock Exchange 145

less free float amount is easy to swing. According to William O'Neill, the conclusion can be reached

that being large is not always good and this is the law of supply and demand that determines the price

of things in everyday life(O'Neil and Ryan 2002).

According to the statistics of the free float stock in Tehran Stock Exchange, The question arises

that is there a significant relationship between the free float stock below 25% and its return on equity?

Accordingly, due to the relationship between free float stock less than 25% and the stock

returns of in Tehran Stock Exchange, the hypothesis is stated as follows: There is a significant

relationship between stock returns and the free float stock below 25%

Methodology The research is primarily a descriptive – analytical which studies the subject’s background and then

introduces the free float stock. The Population consists of all companies listed in Tehran Stock

Exchange and the sample is consisted of a group of companies that are highly active and are in the list

of 50 top companies of Tehran Stock Exchange. Two-year period beginning in 2011 to the end of 2011

was considered and the listed companies in Tehran Stock Exchange were evaluated and analyzed for

this period.

Review of Literature Much research has been done on various factors affecting stock returns. However, there is little

research on the relationship between the amount of free float stock and stock returns of companies in

Iran. Much research has been done on the effect of free float stock on the market liquidity and

indicators.

Chan made a study entitled “Free float and market liquidity" in Hong Kong. They studied the

Relationship between market liquidity and free float stock after the intervention of government in the

stock market of Hong Kong. They concluded that the government intervention in the stock market

reduces the free float stock and the micro stock trading volume and increases the stagnant Liquidity in

the market (Chan, Chan et al. 2004).

Wang and Xu, made a study entitled "What determines Chinese stock returns" in the Chinese

stock market and tried to find some factors affecting the stock returns rate. They could provide a three-

factor model which includes the market and size and free float (Wang and Xu 2003).

AbdehTabrizi in an article entitled "Free float stock and determining the size of the base"

studied the Iranian market indices and stated that the free float stock should be considered in the

calculation of the index. However, due to the difficulty of computing to adjust the index, the base size

is used as a minimum number of dealing that shape the change in share price(AbdehTabrizi 2003).

Ali MollaHosseini and Kamran Ghorban Nejad in an article entitled "The relationship between

stock returns and free float stock of the companies in Tehran Stock Exchange" examined the

relationship between stock returns and free float stock. They eventually came to the conclusion that

there is a significant relationship between the level of free float stock and stock returns. However, this

relationship was different at the levels of free float stock, and there was no such a relationship between

various industries (Mollahosseini and GhorbanNezhad 2008).

Kashanipoor and Rezaee in an article entitled “Study of effects of changes in free float stock on

the stock returns of listed companies in Tehran Stock Exchange " investigated the relationship between

the two variables. The result shows that the Changes in free float stock have some information content

and have a significant effect on the stock returns of companies and reduces the Stock returns

(Kashanipoor and Rezaee 2011).

146 Mehdi Najafi and Farshid Asgari

Free Float Stock The total number of stock in the capital structure of the company shows the potential number of stock

for the purchase. Also supplying the float stock is a concept that means the number of stock that is

available to companies’ managers after deducting the stock. The high percentage of stock that is

available to the managers usually has a better future.

One of the positive signs for companies, especially small and medium ones is that they

purchase their stock within a specified period of time in the free market. This reduces the number of

stock in the capital structure and means that the company is waiting for increased revenue and profits

in the future. As a result, the total revenue of company is divided among fewer stocks and the profit of

each stock increases. As previously mentioned, the percentage of increased profit per stock is

considered as one of the main driving forces of increased stock prices.

The low ratio of corporate debt to capital is usually a good thing. After selecting the company's

stock which has a small share, the percentage of long-term debt to the total capital ratio will be

examined. When this ratio is lower the company is usually better and safer (O'Neil and Ryan 2002,

Tharp, Chabot et al. 2007).

Research Population There are 728 companies listed in Tehran Stock Exchange. About 434 companies have been stopped

and 5 other companies have not a certain condition. In other words, the stock of about 439 companies

in Tehran Stock Exchange is not exchanged due to different reasons (Arabzadeh and Meghaminejad

2012, Najafi and Asgari 2013). Therefore our sample will be 289 companies and the benchmark

turnover (the number of shares traded per day) related to the company's stock could be the best option

for the selected sample. Since the volume would be different on different days and arithmetic average

of the volume over a period of three months will be considered as a benchmark.

Tehran Stock Exchange introduces 50 active companies in Tehran Stock Exchange every three

months according to the mentioned criterion which is known as the index of 50 well-known

companies. In this study, the numbers of participating different companies on the list of top 50

companies were identified in this interval in order to select the sample size from March 2011 until

summer 2012. Then the companies that have continually participated in three periods were selected to

examine the reseacrh hypothesis. In total, 30 companies were selected randomly.

Method of Data Analysis To analyze the collected data, both descriptive and inferential statistical methods were used.

Descriptive statistics was used with the aim of collecting, arranging, presenting information clearly and

computing the society’s information and determining the relationships between the collected data. To

collect the necessary data, the information on the site of Stock Exchange and its associated sites and

the Trader 5 software were used. This study used PSS software and Pearson correlation analysis to

investigate the research hypothesis.

Conclusion As previously mentioned, The main objective of this research is to find the relationship between free

float stock less than 25% and the stock returns of listed companies in Tehran Stock Exchange, So that

the Investors and companies make more informed decisions in the Liberalization of their stock.

According to the theory of William O'Neill, those companies that have free float stock less than

25% have adequate power for development in the future. Table (1) shows the information of free float

stock of the companies and their revenues.


Returns of Listed Companies in Tehran Stock Exchange 147

According to the output of SPSS software, there is a direct and weak correlation between the

amount of free float stock below 25% and the total return per stock. (r = 0.011). However, because the

significance test is greater than 0.05 (i.e., 0.964), the correlation does not exist between the two

variables.

Table 1: The amount of free float stock in Tehran Stock Exchange

company Free float

percentage

Return

(%) company

Free float

percentage Return (%)

North Drilling 9 24.25 Takin Ku Corrosion Control 33 (27.37)

National Iranian Copper Industries 21 38.01 Iran communication 4 13.45

Iran Transfo 14 17.73 Tejarat Bank 12 8.47

Mellat Bank 24 25.21 Behshahr Industrial Group,

Iran

12 57.04

Jaber Hayan Pharmacy 23 (5.4) Pars Khodro 13 (2.6)

Sahand Rubber Industries 20 (10.28) East Electric Vehicle 16.5 (22.34)

Behshahr Industrial Development 25 34.77 Iran Zinc Mines 61 69.5

Pars Toosheh Investment 39 34.76 Khark Petrochemical 16.3 80.8

Sina Bank 5 26.53 Gas Pipe 44 (35.4)

Azarab Industry 49 (5.65) Saipa Leasing Rayan 27 37.9

Eghtesad Novin Bank 9 61.12 Mobarakeh Steel 18 29.9

Information Services 7 44.73 Saipa 18 (3.1)

KarAfarin Bank 39 (3.4) Porcelain factories in Iran 37 107.65

West Cement 18 158.14 Damavand future investment 5.66 5.7

Shahid Bahonar Copper 15 (0.77) Ardakan Industrial Ceramics 26 152.7

It is noteworthy that The major shareholders of listed companies in Tehran Stock Exchange are

dependent companies, thus the Indirect involvement of the government in Tehran Stock Exchange

Could cause the results of this study to be different from the theory of William O'Neill.

References [1] AbdehTabrizi, H. (2003). free float stock and determining the size of the base, Library

Exchange Organization of Iran.

[2] Arabzadeh, M. and M. Meghaminejad (2012). "The capital structure and Liquidity on the

Tehran Stock Exchange." American Journal of Scientific research 47: 69-78.

[3] Chan, K., et al. (2004). "Free float and market liquidity: A study of Hong Kong government

intervention." Journal of Financial Research 27(2): 179-197.

[4] Kashanipoor, M. and A. Rezaee (2011). "The Investigation of Free Float Change Effects on

Stock Return in Tehran Stock Exchange (TSE)." Journal of Research in Financial Accounting

3(3): 95-112.

[5] Mollahosseini, A. and K. GhorbanNezhad (2008). "INVESTIGATION OF RELEVANCE OF

FREE FLOAT OF THE COMPANIES IN TEHRAN STOCK EXCHANGE WITH THEIR

RATE OF RETURN." THE IRANIAN ACCOUNTING AND AUDITING REVIEW 51: 69-

86.

[6] Najafi, M. and F. Asgari (2013). "Using CANSLIM Analysis for Evaluating Stocks of the

Companies Admitted in Tehran Stock Exchange." Journal of American Science 9(4s).

[7] O'Neil, W. J. and C. Ryan (2002). How to make money in stocks: a winning system in good

times or bad, McGraw-Hill.

[8] Tharp, V. K., et al. (2007). Trade your way to financial freedom, McGraw-Hill.

[9] Wang, F. and Y. Xu (2003). "What determines Chinese stock returns?" Available at SSRN

581801.

American Journal of Scientific Research

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