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CONTENTS

TITLEPAGECOPYRIGHT

1.TheDeepPathandtheWide

2.AncientClues

3.TheAfterIstheBeforefortheNextDuring

4.TheBestWeHad

5.AMindUndisturbed

6.PrimedforLove

7.Attention!

8.LightnessofBeing

9.Mind,Body,andGenome

10.MeditationasPsychotherapy

11.AYogi’sBrain

12.HiddenTreasure

13.AlteringTraits

14.AHealthyMind

FURTHERRESOURCESACKNOWLEDGMENTSNOTESINDEXABOUTTHEAUTHORS

O

1

TheDeepPathandtheWide

nebrightfallmorning,SteveZ,alieutenantcolonelworkinginthePentagon,hearda“crazy,loudnoise,”andinstantlywascoveredin

debrisastheceilingcavedin,knockinghimtothefloor,unconscious.ItwasSeptember11,2001,andapassengerjethadsmashedintothehugebuilding,veryneartoSteve’soffice.

ThedebristhatburiedStevesavedhislifeastheplane’sfuselageexploded,afireballofflamesscouringtheopenoffice.Despiteaconcussion,Stevereturnedtoworkfourdayslater,laboringthroughfeverishnights,6:00p.m.to6:00a.m.,becausethoseweredaytimehoursinAfghanistan.Soonafter,hevolunteeredforayearinIraq.

“ImainlywenttoIraqbecauseIcouldn’twalkaroundtheMallwithoutbeinghypervigilant,waryofhowpeoplelookedatme,totallyonguard,”Steverecalls.“Icouldn’tgetonanelevator,Ifelttrappedinmycarintraffic.”

Hissymptomswereclassicpost-traumaticstressdisorder.Thencamethedayherealizedhecouldn’thandlethisonhisown.Steveendedupwithapsychotherapisthestillsees.Sheledhim,verygently,totrymindfulness.

Mindfulness,herecalls,“gavemesomethingIcoulddotohelpfeelmorecalm,lessstressed,notbesoreactive.”Ashepracticedmore,addedloving-kindnesstothemix,andwentonretreats,hisPTSDsymptomsgraduallybecamelessfrequent,lessintense.Althoughhisirritabilityandrestlessnessstillcame,hecouldseethemcoming.

TaleslikeSteve’sofferencouragingnewsaboutmeditation.Wehavebeenmeditatorsallouradultlives,and,likeSteve,knowforourselvesthatthepracticehascountlessbenefits.

Butourscientificbackgroundsgiveuspause,too.Noteverythingchalkeduptomeditation’smagicactuallystandsuptorigoroustests.Andsowehavesetouttomakeclearwhatworksandwhatdoesnot.

outtomakeclearwhatworksandwhatdoesnot.Someofwhatyouknowaboutmeditationmaybewrong.Butwhatistrue

aboutmeditationyoumaynotknow.TakeSteve’sstory.Thetalehasbeenrepeatedinendlessvariationsby

countlessotherswhoclaimtohavefoundreliefinmeditationmethodslikemindfulness—notjustfromPTSDbutfromvirtuallytheentirerangeofemotionaldisorders.

Yetmindfulness,partofanancientmeditationtradition,wasnotintendedtobesuchacure;thismethodwasonlyrecentlyadaptedasabalmforourmodernformsofangst.Theoriginalaim,embracedinsomecirclestothisday,focusesonadeepexplorationofthemindtowardaprofoundalterationofourverybeing.

Ontheotherhand,thepragmaticapplicationsofmeditation—likethemindfulnessthathelpedSteverecoverfromtrauma—appealwidelybutdonotgosodeep.Becausethiswideapproachhaseasyaccess,multitudeshavefoundawaytoincludeatleastabitofmeditationintheirday.

Thereare,then,twopaths:thedeepandthewide.Thosetwopathsareoftenconfusedwitheachother,thoughtheydiffergreatly.

Weseethedeeppathembodiedattwolevels:inapureform,forexample,intheancientlineagesofTheravadaBuddhismaspracticedinSoutheastAsia,oramongTibetanyogis(forwhomwe’llseesomeremarkabledatainchaptereleven,“AYogi’sBrain”).We’llcallthismostintensivetypeofpracticeLevel1.

AtLevel2,thesetraditionshavebeenremovedfrombeingpartofatotallifestyle—monkoryogi,forexample—andadaptedintoformsmorepalatablefortheWest.AtLevel2,meditationcomesinformsthatleavebehindpartsoftheoriginalAsiansourcethatmightnotmakethecross-culturaljourneysoeasily.

Thentherearethewideapproaches.AtLevel3,afurtherremovetakesthesesamemeditationpracticesoutoftheirspiritualcontextanddistributesthemevermorewidely—asisthecasewithmindfulness-basedstressreduction(betterknownasMBSR),foundedbyourgoodfriendJonKabat-Zinnandtaughtnowinthousandsofclinicsandmedicalcenters,andfarbeyond.OrTranscendentalMeditation(TM),whichoffersclassicSanskritmantrastothemodernworldinauser-friendlyformat.

TheevenmorewidelyaccessibleformsofmeditationatLevel4are,ofnecessity,themostwatered-down,allthebettertorenderthemhandyforthelargestnumberofpeople.Thecurrentvoguesofmindfulness-at-your-desk,or

largestnumberofpeople.Thecurrentvoguesofmindfulness-at-your-desk,orviaminutes-longmeditationapps,exemplifythislevel.

WeforeseealsoaLevel5,onethatexistsnowonlyinbitsandpieces,butwhichmaywellincreaseinnumberandreachwithtime.AtLevel5,thelessonsscientistshavelearnedinstudyingalltheotherlevelswillleadtoinnovationsandadaptationsthatcanbeofwidestbenefit—apotentialweexploreinthefinalchapter,“AHealthyMind.”

ThedeeptransformationsofLevel1fascinateduswhenweoriginallyencounteredmeditation.Danstudiedancienttextsandpracticedthemethodstheydescribe,particularlyduringthetwoyearshelivedinIndiaandSriLankainhisgradschooldaysandjustafterward.Richie(aseveryonecallshim)followedDantoAsiaforalengthyvisit,likewisepracticingonretreatthere,meetingwithmeditationscholars—andmorerecentlyhasscannedthebrainsofOlympic-levelmeditatorsinhislabattheUniversityofWisconsin.

OurownmeditationpracticehasbeenmainlyatLevel2.Butfromthestart,thewidepath,Levels3and4,hasalsobeenimportanttous.OurAsianteacherssaidifanyaspectofmeditationcouldhelpalleviatesuffering,itshouldbeofferedtoall,notjustthoseonaspiritualsearch.Ourdoctoraldissertationsappliedthatadvicebystudyingwaysmeditationcouldhavecognitiveandemotionalpayoffs.

Thestorywetellheremirrorsourownpersonalandprofessionaljourney.Wehavebeenclosefriendsandcollaboratorsonthescienceofmeditationsincethe1970s,whenwemetatHarvardduringgraduateschool,andwehavebothbeenpractitionersofthisinnerartoveralltheseyears(althoughwearenowherenearmastery).

Whilewewerebothtrainedaspsychologists,webringcomplementaryskillstotellingthisstory.DanisaseasonedsciencejournalistwhowrotefortheNewYorkTimesformorethanadecade.Richie,aneuroscientist,foundedandheadstheUniversityofWisconsin’sCenterforHealthyMinds,inadditiontodirectingthebrainimaginglaboratoryattheWaismanCenterthere,repletewithitsownfMRI,PETscanner,andabatteryofcutting-edgedataanalysisprograms,alongwithhundredsofserversfortheheavy-dutycomputingrequiredforthiswork.Hisresearchgroupnumbersmorethanahundredexperts,whorangefromphysicists,statisticians,andcomputerscientiststoneuroscientistsandpsychologists,aswellasscholarsofmeditativetraditions.

Coauthoringabookcanbeawkward.We’vehadsomeofthat,tobesure—butwhateverdrawbackscoauthorshipbroughtushasbeenvastlyovershadowedbythesheerdelightwefindinworkingtogether.We’vebeenbestfriendsfordecadesbutlaboredseparatelyovermostofourcareers.Thisbookhasbrought

decadesbutlaboredseparatelyovermostofourcareers.Thisbookhasbroughtustogetheragain,alwaysajoy.

Youareholdingthebookwehadalwayswantedtowritebutcouldnot.Thescienceandthedataweneededtosupportourideashaveonlyrecentlymatured.Nowthatbothhavereachedacriticalmass,wearedelightedtosharethis.

Ourjoyalsocomesfromoursenseofashared,meaningfulmission:weaimtoshifttheconversationwitharadicalreinterpretationofwhattheactualbenefitsofmeditationare—andarenot—andwhatthetrueaimofpracticehasalwaysbeen.

THEDEEPPATH

AfterhisreturnfromIndiainthefallof1974,RichiewasinaseminaronpsychopathologybackatHarvard.Richie,withlonghairandattireinkeepingwiththezeitgeistofCambridgeinthosetimes—includingacolorfulwovensashthatheworeasabelt—wasstartledwhenhisprofessorsaid,“Onecluetoschizophreniaisthebizarrewayapersondresses,”givingRichieameaningfulglance.

AndwhenRichietoldoneofhisHarvardprofessorsthathewantedtofocushisdissertationonmeditation,thebluntresponsecameimmediately:thatwouldbeacareer-endingmove.

Dansetouttoresearchtheimpactsofmeditationthatusesamantra.Onhearingthis,oneofhisclinicalpsychologyprofessorsaskedwithsuspicion,“Howisamantraanydifferentfrommyobsessivepatientswhocan’tstopsaying‘shit-shit-shit’?”1Theexplanationthattheexpletivesareinvoluntaryinthepsychopathology,whilethesilentmantrarepetitionisavoluntaryandintentionalfocusingdevice,didlittletoplacatehim.

Thesereactionsweretypicaloftheoppositionwefacedfromourdepartmentheads,whowerestillrespondingwithknee-jerknegativitytowardanythingtodowithconsciousness—perhapsamildformofPTSDafterthenotoriousdebacleinvolvingTimothyLearyandRichardAlpert.LearyandAlperthadbeenverypubliclyoustedfromourdepartmentinabrouhahaoverlettingHarvardundergradsexperimentwithpsychedelics.Thiswassomefiveyearsbeforewearrived,buttheechoeslingered.

Despiteouracademicmentors’seeingourmeditationresearchasablindalley,ourheartstoldusthiswasofcompellingimport.Wehadabigidea:beyondthepleasantstatesmeditationcanproduce,therealpayoffsarethelastingtraitsthatcanresult.

Analteredtrait—anewcharacteristicthatarisesfromameditationpractice—enduresapartfrommeditationitself.Alteredtraitsshapehowwebehaveinourdailylives,notjustduringorimmediatelyafterwemeditate.

Theconceptofalteredtraitshasbeenalifelongpursuit,eachofusplayingsynergisticrolesintheunfoldingofthisstory.TherewereDan’syearsinIndiaasanearlyparticipant-observerintheAsianrootsofthesemind-alteringmethods.AndonDan’sreturntoAmericahewasanot-so-successfultransmittertocontemporarypsychologyofbeneficialchangesfrommeditationandtheancientworkingmodelsforachievingthem.

Richie’sownexperienceswithmeditationledtodecadespursuingthesciencethatsupportsourtheoryofalteredtraits.Hisresearchgrouphasnowgeneratedthedatathatlendcredencetowhatcouldotherwiseseemmerefancifultales.Andbyleadingthecreationofafledglingresearchfield,contemplativeneuroscience,hehasbeengroomingacominggenerationofscientistswhoseworkbuildsonandaddstothisevidence.

Inthewakeofthetsunamiofexcitementoverthewidepath,thealternateroutesooftengetsmissed:thatis,thedeeppath,whichhasalwaysbeenthetruegoalofmeditation.Asweseeit,themostcompellingimpactsofmeditationarenotbetterhealthorsharperbusinessperformancebut,rather,afurtherreachtowardourbetternature.

Astreamoffindingsfromthedeeppathmarkedlyboostsscience’smodelsoftheupperlimitsofourpositivepotential.Thefurtherreachesofthedeeppathcultivateenduringqualitieslikeselflessness,equanimity,alovingpresence,andimpartialcompassion—highlypositivealteredtraits.

Whenwebegan,thisseemedbignewsformodernpsychology—ifitwouldlisten.Admittedly,atfirsttheconceptofalteredtraitshadscantbackingsaveforthegutfeelingswehadfrommeetinghighlyseasonedpractitionersinAsia,theclaimsofancientmeditationtexts,andourownfledglingtriesatthisinnerart.Now,afterdecadesofsilenceanddisregard,thelastfewyearshaveseenamplefindingsthatbearoutourearlyhunch.Onlyoflatehavethescientificdatareachedcriticalmass,confirmingwhatourintuitionandthetextstoldus:thesedeepchangesareexternalsignsofstrikinglydifferentbrainfunction.

MuchofthatdatacomesfromRichie’slab,theonlyscientificcenterthathasgatheredfindingsondozensofcontemplativemasters,mainlyTibetanyogis—thelargestpoolofdeeppractitionersstudiedanywhere.

Theseunlikelyresearchpartnershavebeencrucialinbuildingascientificcasefortheexistenceofawayofbeingthathaseludedmodernthought,thoughitwashidinginplainsightasagoaloftheworld’smajorspiritualtraditions.Nowwecansharescientificconfirmationoftheseprofoundalterationsofbeing—atransformationthatdramaticallyupsthelimitsonpsychologicalscience’sideasofhumanpossibility.

Theveryideaof“awakening”—thegoalofthedeeppath—seemsaquaintfairytaletoamodernsensibility.YetdatafromRichie’slab,somejustbeingpublishedinjournalsasthisbookgoestopress,confirmthatremarkable,positivealterationsinbrainandbehavioralongthelinesofthoselongdescribedforthedeeppatharenotamythbutareality.

THEWIDEPATH

WehavebothbeenlongtimeboardmembersoftheMindandLifeInstitute,formedinitiallytocreateintensivedialoguesbetweentheDalaiLamaandscientistsonwide-rangingtopics.2In2000weorganizedoneon“destructiveemotions,”withseveraltopexpertsonemotions,includingRichie.3MidwaythroughthatdialoguetheDalaiLama,turningtoRichie,madeaprovocativechallenge.

Hisowntradition,theDalaiLamaobserved,hadawidearrayoftime-testedpracticesfortamingdestructiveemotions.So,heurged,takethesemethodsintothelaboratoryinformsfreedfromreligioustrappings,testthemrigorously,andiftheycanhelppeoplelessentheirdestructiveemotions,thenspreadthemwidelytoallwhomightbenefit.

Thatfiredusup.Overdinnerthatnight—andseveralnightsfollowing—webegantoplotthegeneralcourseoftheresearchwereportinthisbook.

TheDalaiLama’schallengeledRichietorefocustheformidablepowerofhislabtoassessboththedeepandthewidepaths.And,asfoundingdirectoroftheCenterforHealthyMinds,Richiehasspurredworkonuseful,evidence-basedapplicationssuitableforschools,clinics,businesses,evenforcops—foranyone,anywhere,rangingfromakindnessprogramforpreschoolersto

anyone,anywhere,rangingfromakindnessprogramforpreschoolerstotreatmentsforveteranswithPTSD.

TheDalaiLama’surgingcatalyzedstudiesthatsupportthewidepathinscientificterms,avernacularwelcomedaroundtheglobe.Meanwhilethewidewayhasgoneviral,becomingthestuffofblogs,tweets,andsnappyapps.Forinstance,aswewritethis,awaveofenthusiasmsurroundsmindfulness,andhundredsofthousands—maybemillions—nowpracticethemethod.

Butviewingmindfulness(oranyvarietyofmeditation)throughascientificlensstartswithquestionslike:Whendoesitwork,andwhendoesitnot?Willthismethodhelpeveryone?Areitsbenefitsanydifferentfrom,say,exercise?Theseareamongthequestionsthatbroughtustowritethisbook.

Meditationisacatch-allwordformyriadvarietiesofcontemplativepractice,justassportsreferstoawiderangeofathleticactivities.Forbothsportsandmeditation,theendresultsvarydependingonwhatyouactuallydo.

Somepracticaladvice:forthoseabouttostartameditationpractice,orwhohavebeengrazingamongseveral,keepinmindthataswithgainingskillinagivensport,findingameditationpracticethatappealstoyouandstickingwithitwillhavethegreatestbenefits.Justfindonetotry,decideontheamountoftimeeachdayyoucanrealisticallypracticedaily—evenasshortasafewminutes—tryitforamonth,andseehowyoufeelafterthosethirtydays.

Justasregularworkoutsgiveyoubetterphysicalfitness,mostanytypeofmeditationwillenhancementalfitnesstosomedegree.Aswe’llsee,thespecificbenefitsfromoneoranothertypegetstrongerthemoretotalhoursofpracticeyouputin.

ACAUTIONARYTALE

SwamiX,aswe’llcallhim,wasatthetipofthewaveofmeditationteachersfromAsiawhoswarmedtoAmericainthemid-1970s,duringourHarvarddays.TheswamireachedouttoussayinghewaseagertohavehisyogicprowessstudiedbyscientistsatHarvardwhocouldconfirmhisremarkableabilities.

Itwastheheightofexcitementaboutathennewtechnology,biofeedback,whichfedpeopleinstantinformationabouttheirphysiology—bloodpressure,forinstance—whichotherwisewasbeyondtheirconsciouscontrol.Withthatnewincomingsignal,peoplewereabletonudgetheirbody’soperationsinhealthierdirections.SwamiXclaimedhehadsuchcontrolwithouttheneedfor

healthierdirections.SwamiXclaimedhehadsuchcontrolwithouttheneedforfeedback.

Happytostumbleonaseeminglyaccomplishedsubjectforresearch,wewereabletofinagletheuseofaphysiologylabatHarvardMedicalSchool’sMassachusettsMentalHealthCenter.4

Butcomethedayoftestingtheswami’sprowess,whenweaskedhimtolowerhisbloodpressure,heraisedit.Whenaskedtoraiseit,heloweredit.Andwhenwetoldhimthis,theswamiberatedusforservinghim“toxictea”thatsupposedlysabotagedhisgifts.

Ourphysiologicaltracingsrevealedhecoulddononeofthementalfeatshehadboastedabout.Hedid,however,managetoputhisheartintoatrialfibrillation—ahigh-riskbiotalent—withamethodhecalled“dogsamadhi,”anamethatmystifiesustothisday.

Fromtimetotimetheswamidisappearedintothemen’sroomtosmokeabidi(thesecheapcigarettes,afewflakesoftobaccowrappedinaplantleaf,arepopularthroughoutIndia).AtelegramfromfriendsinIndiasoonafterrevealedthatthe“swami”wasactuallytheformermanagerofashoefactorywhohadabandonedhiswifeandtwochildrenandcometoAmericatomakehisfortune.

NodoubtSwamiXwasseekingamarketingedgetoattractdisciples.Inhissubsequentappearanceshemadesuretomentionthat“scientistsatHarvard”hadstudiedhismeditativeprowess.Thiswasanearlyharbingerofwhathasbecomeabountifulharvestofdatarefriedintosaleshype.

Withsuchcautionaryincidentsinmind,webringopenbutskepticalminds—thescientist’smind-set—tothecurrentwaveofmeditationresearch.Forthemostpartweviewwithsatisfactiontheriseofthemindfulnessmovementanditsrapidlygrowingreachinschools,business,andourprivatelives—thewideapproach.Butwebemoanhowthedataalltoooftenisdistortedorexaggeratedwhensciencegetsusedasasaleshook.

Themixofmeditationandmonetizinghasasorrytrackrecordasarecipeforhucksterism,disappointment,evenscandal.Alltoooften,grossmisrepresentations,questionableclaims,ordistortionsofscientificstudiesareusedtosellmeditation.Abusinesswebsite,forinstance,featuresablogpostcalled“HowMindfulnessFixesYourBrain,ReducesStress,andBoostsPerformance.”Aretheseclaimsjustifiedbysolidscientificfindings?Yesandno—thoughthe“no”tooeasilygetsoverlooked.

Amongtheiffyfindingsgoneviralwithenthusiasticclaims:thatmeditationthickensthebrain’sexecutivecenter,theprefrontalcortex,whileshrinkingtheamygdala,thetriggerforourfreeze-fight-or-flightresponse;thatmeditationshiftsourbrain’ssetpointforemotionsintoamorepositiverange;that

shiftsourbrain’ssetpointforemotionsintoamorepositiverange;thatmeditationslowsaging;andthatmeditationcanbeusedtotreatdiseasesrangingfromdiabetestoattentiondeficithyperactivitydisorder.

Oncloserlook,eachofthestudiesonwhichtheseclaimsarebasedhasproblemswiththemethodsused;theyneedmoretestingandcorroborationtomakefirmclaims.Suchfindingsmaywellstanduptofurtherscrutiny—ormaybenot.

Theresearchreportingamygdalashrinkage,forinstance,usedamethodtoestimateamygdalavolumethatmaynotbeveryaccurate.Andonewidelycitedstudydescribingsloweragingusedaverycomplextreatmentthatincludedsomemeditationbutwasmixedwithaspecialdietandintensiveexerciseaswell;theimpactofmeditationpersewasimpossibletodecipher.

Still,socialmediaarerifewithsuchclaims—andhyperbolicadcopycanbeenticing.Soweofferaclear-eyedviewbasedonhardscience,siftingoutresultsthatarenotnearlyascompellingastheclaimsmadeforthem.

Evenwell-meaningproponentshavelittleguidanceindistinguishingbetweenwhat’ssoundandwhat’squestionable—orjustsheernonsense.Giventherisingtideofenthusiasm,ourmoresober-mindedtakecomesnotamomenttoosoon.

Anotetoreaders.Thefirstthreechapterscoverourinitialforaysintomeditation,andthescientifichunchthatmotivatedourquest.Chaptersfourthroughtwelvenarratethescientificjourney,witheachchapterdevotedtoaparticulartopiclikeattentionorcompassion;eachofthesehasan“InaNutshell”summaryattheendforthosewhoaremoreinterestedinwhatwefoundthanhowwegotthere.Inchapterselevenandtwelvewearriveatourlong-soughtdestination,sharingtheremarkablefindingsonthemostadvancedmeditatorseverstudied.Inchapterthirteen,“AlteringTraits,”welayoutthebenefitsofmeditationatthreelevels:beginner,long-term,and“Olympic.”Inourfinalchapterwespeculateonwhatthefuturemightbring,andhowthesefindingsmightbeofgreaterbenefitnotjusttoeachofusindividuallybuttosociety.

THEACCELERATION

Asearlyasthe1830s,ThoreauandEmerson,alongwiththeirfellowAmericanTranscendentalists,flirtedwiththeseEasterninnerarts.Theywerespurredby

thefirstEnglish-languagetranslationsofancientspiritualtextsfromAsia—buthadnoinstructioninthepracticesthatsupportedthosetexts.Almostacenturylater,SigmundFreudadvisedpsychoanalyststoadoptan“even-hoveringattention”whilelisteningtotheirclients—butagain,offerednomethod.

TheWest’smoreseriousengagementtookholdmeredecadesago,asteachersfromtheEastarrived,andasagenerationofWesternerstraveledtostudymeditationinAsia,somereturningasteachers.Theseforayspavedthewayforthecurrentaccelerationofthewidepath,alongwithfreshpossibilitiesforthosefewwhochoosetopursuethedeepway.

PublicationCountforScientificStudiesonMeditationorMindfulness,1970–2016

Inthe1970s,whenwebeganpublishingourresearchonmeditation,therewerejustahandfulofscientificarticlesonthetopic.Atlastcounttherenumbered6,838sucharticles,withanotableaccelerationoflate.For2014theannualnumberwas925,in2015thetotalwas1,098,andin2016therewere1,113suchpublicationsintheEnglishlanguagescientificliterature.5

PRIMINGTHEFIELD

ItwasApril2001,onthetopflooroftheFlunoCenteronthecampusoftheUniversityofWisconsin–Madison,andwewereconveningwiththeDalaiLamaforanafternoonofscientificdialogueonmeditationresearchfindings.MissingfromtheroomwasFranciscoVarela,aChilean-bornneuroscientistandheadof

fromtheroomwasFranciscoVarela,aChilean-bornneuroscientistandheadofacognitiveneurosciencelaboratoryattheFrenchNationalCenterforScientificResearchinParis.HisremarkablecareerincludedcofoundingtheMindandLifeInstitute,whichhadorganizedthisverygathering.

Asaseriousmeditationpractitioner,Franciscocouldseethepromiseforafullcollaborationbetweenseasonedmeditatorsandthescientistsstudyingthem.ThatmodelbecamestandardpracticeinRichie’slab,aswellasothers.

Franciscohadbeenscheduledtoparticipate,buthewasfightinglivercancerandaseveredownturnmeanthecouldnottravel.HewasinhisbedathomeinParis,closetodying.

ThiswasinthedaysbeforeSkypeandvideoconferencing,butRichie’sgroupmanagedatwo-wayvideohookupbetweenourmeetingroomandFrancisco’sbedroominhisParisapartment.TheDalaiLamaaddressedhimverydirectly,lookingcloselyintothecamera.Theybothknewthatthiswouldbetheverylasttimetheywouldseeeachotherinthislifetime.

TheDalaiLamathankedFranciscoforallhehaddoneforscienceandforthegreatergood,toldhimtobestrong,andsaidthattheywouldremainconnectedforever.Richieandmanyothersintheroomhadtearsstreamingdown,appreciatingthemomentousimportofthemoment.Justdaysafterthemeeting,Franciscopassedaway.

Threeyearslater,in2004,aneventoccurredthatmaderealadreamFranciscohadoftentalkedabout.AttheGarrisonInstitute,anhouruptheHudsonRiverfromNewYorkCity,onehundredscientists,graduatestudents,andpostdocshadgatheredforthefirstinwhathasbecomeayearlyseriesofevents,theSummerResearchInstitute(SRI),agatheringdevotedtofurtheringtherigorousstudyofmeditation.

ThemeetingsareorganizedbytheMindandLifeInstitute,itselfformedin1987bytheDalaiLama,Francisco,andAdamEngle,alawyerturnedbusinessman.Wewerefoundingboardmembers.ThemissionofMindandLifeis“toalleviatesufferingandpromoteflourishingbyintegratingsciencewithcontemplativepractice.”

MindandLife’ssummerinstitute,wefelt,couldofferamorewelcomingrealityforthosewho,likeusinourgradschooldays,wantedtodoresearchonmeditation.Whilewehadbeenisolatedpioneers,wewantedtoknittogetheracommunityoflike-mindedscholarsandscientistswhosharedthisquest.Theycouldbesupportiveofeachother’sworkatadistance,eveniftheywerealoneintheirinterestsattheirowninstitution.

DetailsoftheSRIwerehatchedoverthekitchentableinRichie’shomeinMadison,inaconversationwithAdamEngle.Richieandahandfulofscientists

Madison,inaconversationwithAdamEngle.Richieandahandfulofscientistsandscholarsthenorganizedthefirstsummerprogramandservedasfacultyfortheweek,featuringtopicslikethecognitiveneuroscienceofattentionandmentalimagery.Asofthiswriting,thirteenmoremeetingshavefollowed(withtwosofarinEurope,andpossiblyfuturemeetingsinAsiaandSouthAmerica).

BeginningwiththeveryfirstSRI,theMindandLifeInstitutebeganaprogramofsmallgrantsnamedinhonorofFrancisco.Thesefewdozen,verymodestVarelaresearchawards(upto$25,000,thoughmostresearchofthiskindtakesfarmoreinfunding)haveleveragedmorethan$60millioninfollow-onfundingfromfoundationsandUSfederalgrantingagencies.Andtheinitiativehasborneplentifulfruit:fiftyorsograduatesoftheSRIhavepublishedseveralhundredpapersonmeditation.

Astheseyoungscientistsenteredacademicposts,theyswelledthenumbersofresearchersdoingsuchstudies.Theyhavedriveninnosmallparttheever-growingnumbersofscientificstudiesonmeditation.

Atthesametime,moreestablishedscientistshaveshiftedtheirfocustowardthisareaasresultsshowedvaluableyield.ThefindingsrollingoutofRichie’sbrainlabattheUniversityofWisconsin—andlabsofotherscientists,fromthemedicalschoolsofStanfordandEmory,YaleandHarvard,andfarbeyond—routinelymakeheadlines.

Givenmeditation’sboomingpopularity,wefeelaneedforahard-nosedlook.Theneuralandbiologicalbenefitsbestdocumentedbysoundsciencearenotnecessarilytheoneswehearaboutinthepress,onFacebook,orfromemailmarketingblasts.Andsomeofthosetrumpetedfarandwidehavelittlescientificmerit.

Manyreportsboildowntothewaysashortdailydoseofmeditationaltersourbiologyandemotionallifeforthebetter.Thisnews,goneviral,hasdrawnmillionsworldwidetofindaslotintheirdailyroutineformeditation.

Buttherearefargreaterpossibilities—andsomeperils.Themomenthascometotellthebiggertaletheheadlinesaremissing.

Thereareseveralthreadsinthetapestryweweavehere.Onecanbeseeninthestoryofourdecades-longfriendshipandoursharedsenseofagreaterpurpose,atfirstadistantandunlikelygoalbutoneinwhichwepersisteddespiteobstacles.Anothertracestheemergenceofneuroscience’sevidencethatourexperiencesshapeourbrains,aplatformsupportingourtheorythatasmeditationtrainsthemind,itreshapesthebrain.Thenthere’sthefloodofdatawe’veminedtoshowthegradientofthischange.

Attheoutset,mereminutesadayofpracticehavesurprisingbenefits(thoughnotallthosethatareclaimed).Beyondsuchpayoffsatthebeginning,wecannowshowthatthemorehoursyoupractice,thegreaterthebenefitsyoureap.Andatthehighestlevelsofpracticewefindtruealteredtraits—changesinthebrainthatsciencehasneverobservedbefore,butwhichweproposeddecadesago.

O

2

AncientClues

urstorystartsoneearlyNovembermorningin1970,whenthespireofthestupainBodhGayawaslosttoview,envelopedintheetherealmist

risingfromtheNiranjanRivernearby.NexttothestupastoodadescendantoftheveryBodhiTreeunderwhich,legendhasit,Buddhasatinmeditationashebecameenlightened.

Throughthemistthatmorning,DanglimpsedanelderlyTibetanmonkamblebyashemadehispostdawnrounds,circumambulatingtheholysite.Withshort-croppedgrayhairandeyeglassesasthickasthebottomsofCokebottles,hefingeredhismalabeadswhilemumblingsoftlyamantrapraisingtheBuddhaasasage,ormuniinSanskrit:“Muni,muni,mahamuni,mahamuniyaswaha!”

Afewdayslater,friendshappenedtobringDantovisitthatverymonk,KhunuLama.Heinhabitedasparse,unheatedcell,itsconcretewallsradiatingthelate-fallchill.Awooden-planktucketservedasbothbedanddaycouch,withasmallstandalongsideforperchingtextstoread—andlittleelse.Asbefitsamonk,theroomwasemptyofanyprivatebelongings.

Fromtheearly-morninghoursuntillateintothenight,KhunuLamawouldsitonthatbed,atextalwaysopeninfrontofhim.Wheneveravisitorwouldpopin—andintheTibetanworldthatcouldbeatjustaboutanytime—hewouldinvariablywelcomethemwithakindlygazeandwarmwords.

Khunu’squalities—alovingattentiontowhoevercametoseehim,aneaseofbeing,andagentlepresence—struckDanasquiteunlike,andfarmorepositivethan,thepersonalitytraitshehadbeenstudyingforhisdegreeinclinicalpsychologyatHarvard.Thattrainingfocusedonnegatives:neuroticpatterns,overpoweringburdensomefeelings,andoutrightpsychopathology.

Khunu,ontheotherhand,quietlyexudedthebettersideofhumannature.Hishumility,forinstance,wasfabled.Thestorygoesthattheabbotofthemonastery,inrecognitionofKhunu’sspiritualstatus,offeredhimasliving

monastery,inrecognitionofKhunu’sspiritualstatus,offeredhimaslivingquartersasuiteofroomsonthemonastery’stopfloor,withamonktoserveasanattendant.Khunudeclined,preferringthesimplicityofhissmall,baremonk’scell.

KhunuLamawasoneofthoseraremastersreveredbyallschoolsofTibetanpractice.EventheDalaiLamasoughthimoutforteachings,receivinginstructionsonShantideva’sBodhicharyavatara,aguidetothecompassion-filledlifeofabodhisattva.Tothisday,whenevertheDalaiLamateachesthistext,oneofhisfavorites,hecreditsKhunuashismentoronthetopic.

BeforemeetingKhunuLama,DanhadspentmonthswithanIndianyogi,NeemKaroliBaba,whohaddrawnhimtoIndiainthefirstplace.NeemKaroli,knownbythehonorificMaharaji,wasnewlyfamousintheWestastheguruofRamDass,whointhoseyearstouredthecountrywithmesmerizingaccountsofhistransformationfromRichardAlpert(theHarvardprofessorfiredforexperimentingwithpsychedelics,alongwithhiscolleagueTimothyLeary)toadevoteeofthisoldyogi.Byaccident,duringChristmasbreakfromhisHarvardclassesin1968,DanmetRamDass,whohadjustreturnedfrombeingwithNeemKaroliinIndia,andthatencountereventuallypropelledDan’sjourneytoIndia.

DanmanagedtogetaHarvardPredoctoralTravelingFellowshiptoIndiainfall1970,andlocatedNeemKaroliBabaatasmallashramintheHimalayanfoothills.Livingthelifeofasadhu,Maharaji’sonlyworldlypossessionsseemedtobethewhitecottondhotiheworeonhotdaysandtheheavywoolenplaidblankethewrappedaroundhimselfoncoldones.Hekeptnoparticularschedule,hadnoorganization,norofferedanyfixedprogramofyogicposesormeditations.Likemostsadhus,hewasitinerant,unpredictablyonthemove.Hemainlyhungoutonatucketontheporchofwhateverashram,temple,orhomehewasvisitingatthetime.

Maharajiseemedalwaystobeabsorbedinsomestateofongoingquietrapture,and,paradoxically,atthesametimewasattentivetowhoeverwaswithhim.1WhatstruckDanwashowutterlyatpeaceandhowkindMaharajiwas.LikeKhunu,hetookanequalinterestineveryonewhocame—andhisvisitorsrangedfromthehighest-rankinggovernmentofficialstobeggars.

TherewassomethingabouthisineffablestateofmindthatDanhadneversensedinanyonebeforemeetingMaharaji.Nomatterwhathewasdoing,heseemedtoremaineffortlesslyinablissful,lovingspace,perpetuallyatease.

WhateverstateMaharajiwasinseemednotsometemporaryoasisinthemind,butalastingwayofbeing:atraitofutterwellness.

BEYONDTHEPARADIGM

AftertwomonthsorsomakingdailyvisitstoMaharajiattheashram,DanandhisfriendJeff(nowwidelyknownasthedevotionalsingerKrishnaDas)wenttravelingwithanotherWesternerwhowasdesperatetorenewhisvisaafterspendingsevenyearsinIndialivingasasadhu.ThatjourneyendedforDanatBodhGaya,wherehewassoontomeetKhunuLama.

BodhGaya,intheNorthIndianstateBihar,isapilgrimagesiteforBuddhiststheworldover,andmosteveryBuddhistcountryhasabuildinginthetownwhereitspilgrimscanstay.TheBurmesevihara,orpilgrim’sresthouse,hadbeenbuiltbeforethetakeoverbyamilitarydictatorshipthatforbadeBurma’scitizenstotravel.Theviharahadlotsofroomsbutfewpilgrims—andsoonbecameanovernightstopfortheraggedbandofroamingWesternerswhowanderedthroughtown.

WhenDanarrivedthereinNovember1970,hemetthesolelong-termAmericanresident,JosephGoldstein,aformerPeaceCorpsworkerinThailand.JosephhadspentmorethanfouryearsstudyingattheviharawithAnagarikaMunindra,ameditationmaster.Munindra,ofslightbuildandalwayscladinwhite,belongedtotheBaruacasteinBengal,whosemembershadbeenBuddhistsincethetimeofGautamahimself.2

Munindrahadstudiedvipassana(theTheravadanmeditationandrootsourceofmanynow-popularformsofmindfulness)underBurmesemastersofgreatrepute.Munindra,whobecameDan’sfirstinstructorinthemethod,hadjustinvitedhisfriendS.N.Goenka,ajovial,paunchyformerbusinessmanrecentlyturnedmeditationteacher,tocometotheviharatoleadaseriesoften-dayretreats.

GoenkahadbecomeameditationteacherinatraditionestablishedbyLediSayadaw,aBurmesemonkwho,aspartofaculturalrenaissanceintheearlytwentiethcenturymeanttocounterBritishcolonialinfluence,revolutionizedmeditationbymakingitwidelyavailabletolaypeople.Whilemeditationinthatculturehadforcenturiesbeentheexclusiveprovenanceofmonksandnuns,GoenkalearnedvipassanafromUBaKhin(UisanhonorificinBurmese),at

GoenkalearnedvipassanafromUBaKhin(UisanhonorificinBurmese),atonetimeBurma’saccountantgeneral,whohadbeentaughtthemethodbyafarmer,whowasinturntaughtbyLediSayadaw.

DantookfiveofGoenka’sten-daycoursesinarow,immersinghimselfinthisrichmeditationmethod.Hewasjoinedbyaboutahundredfellowtravelers.Thisgatheringinthewinterof1970–71wasaseminalmomentinthetransferofmindfulnessfromanesotericpracticeinAsiancountriestoitscurrentwidespreadadoptionaroundtheworld.Ahandfulofthestudentsthere,withJosephGoldsteinleadingtheway,laterbecameinstrumentalinbringingmindfulnesstotheWest.3

StartinginhiscollegeyearsDanhaddevelopedatwice-dailyhabitoftwenty-minutemeditationsessions,butthisimmersionintendaysofcontinualpracticebroughthimtonewlevels.Goenka’smethodstartedwithsimplynotingthesensationsofbreathinginandout—notforjusttwentyminutesbutforhoursandhoursaday.Thiscultivationofconcentrationthenmorphedintoasystematicwhole-bodyscanofwhateversensationswereoccurringanywhereinthebody.Whathadbeen“mybody,myknee”becomesaseaofshiftingsensation—aradicalshiftinawareness.

Suchtransformativemomentsmarktheboundaryofmindfulness,whereweobservetheordinaryebbandflowofthemind,withafurtherreachwherewegaininsightintothemind’snature.Withmindfulnessyouwouldjustnotethestreamofsensations.

Thenextstep,insight,bringstheaddedrealizationofhowweclaimthosesensationsas“mine.”Insightintopain,forexample,revealshowweattachasenseof“I”soitbecomes“mypain”ratherthanbeingjustacacophonyofsensationsthatchangecontinuouslyfrommomenttomoment.

Thisinnerjourneywasexplainedinmeticulousdetailinmimeographedbookletsofpracticeadvice—wellworninthemannerofhand-to-handundergroundpublications—writtenbyMahasiSayadaw,Munindra’sBurmesemeditationteacher.Theraggedpamphletsgavedetailedinstructioninmindfulnessandstagesfarbeyond,tofurtherreachesofthepath.

Thesewerepracticalhandbooksfortransformingthemindwithrecipesformental“hacking”thathadbeenincontinuoususeformillennia.4Whenusedalongwithone-on-oneoralteachingstailoredtothestudent,thesedetailedmanualscouldguideameditatortomastery.

Themanualssharedthepremisethatfillingone’slifewithmeditationandrelatedpracticesproducesremarkabletransformationsofbeing.AndtheoverlapinqualitiesbetweenKhunu,Maharaji,andahandfulofothersuchbeingsDanmetinhistravelsaroundIndiaseemedtoaffirmjustsuchpossibilities.

metinhistravelsaroundIndiaseemedtoaffirmjustsuchpossibilities.SpiritualliteraturethroughoutEurasiaconvergesindescriptionsofan

internalliberationfromeverydayworry,fixation,self-focus,ambivalence,andimpulsiveness—onethatmanifestsasfreedomfromconcernswiththeself,equanimitynomatterthedifficulty,akeenlyalert“nowness,”andlovingconcernforall.

Incontrast,modernpsychology,justaboutacenturyold,wascluelessaboutthisrangeofhumanpotential.Clinicalpsychology,Dan’sfield,wasfixatedonlookingforaspecificproblemlikehighanxietyandtryingtofixthatonething.Asianpsychologieshadawiderlensonourlivesandofferedwaystoenhanceourpositiveside.DanresolvedthatonhisreturntoHarvardfromIndia,hewouldmakehiscolleaguesawareofwhatseemedaninnerupgradefarmorepervasivethananydreamedofinourpsychology.5

JustbeforecomingtoIndia,Danhadwrittenanarticle—basedonhisownfirstflingswithmeditationduringcollegeandonthescantsourcesonthetopicthenavailableinEnglish—thatproposedtheexistenceofsuchalastingultra-benignmodeofconsciousness.6Themajorstatesofconsciousness,fromtheperspectiveofthescienceoftheday,werewaking,sleeping,anddreaming—allofwhichhaddistinctivebrainwavesignatures.Anotherkindofconsciousness—morecontroversialandlackinganystrongsupportinscientificevidence—wasthetotalabsorptioninundistractedconcentration,samadhiinSanskrit,analteredstatereachedthroughmeditation.

TherewasbutonesomewhatquestionablescientificcasestudyrelatingtosamadhithatDancouldciteatthetime:areportofaresearchertouchingaheatedtesttubetoayogiinsamadhi,whoseEEGsupposedlyrevealedthatheremainedoblivioustothepain.7

Buttherewasnotashredofdatathatspoketoanylonger-lasting,benignqualityofbeing.AndsoallDancoulddowashypothesize.YethereinIndia,Danmetbeingswhojustmightembodythatrarefiedconsciousness.Orsoitseemed.

Buddhism,Hinduism,Jainism—allthereligionsthatsproutedwithinIndiancivilization—sharetheconceptof“liberation”inoneformorother.Yetpsychologyknowsthatourassumptionsbiaswhatwesee.Indiancultureheldastrongarchetypeofthe“liberated”person,andthatlens,Danknew,mightreadilyfosterwishfulprojections,afalseimageofperfectionintheserviceofapervasiveandpowerfulbeliefsystem.

Sothequestionremainedabouttheserarefiedqualitiesofbeing:factorfairytale?

tale?

THEMAKINGOFAREBEL

JustasmosteveryhomeinIndiahasanaltar,sodotheirvehicles.Ifit’soneoftheubiquitoushuge,lumberingTatatrucks,andthedriverhappenstobeSikh,thepictureswillfeatureGuruNanak,thereveredfounderofthatreligion.IfaHindudriver,therewillbeadeity,perhapsHanuman,Shiva,orDurga,andusuallyafavoritesaintorguru.Thatportraituremakesthedriver’sseatamobilepujatable,thesacredplaceinanIndianhomewheredailyprayeroccurs.

Thefire-engine-redVWvanthatDandrovearoundCambridgeafterreturningtoHarvardfromIndiainthefallof1972featureditsownpantheon.AmongtheimagesScotch-tapedtothedashboardwereNeemKaroliBaba,aswellasothersaintshehadheardabout:anotherworldlyimageofNityananda,aradiantlysmilingRamanaMaharshi,andthemustached,mildlyamusedvisageofMeherBabawithhisslogan—laterpopularizedbysingerBobbyMcFerrin—“Don’tworry.Behappy.”

Danhadparkedthevannotfarfromtheeveningmeetingofacourseonpsychophysiologyhewastakingtoacquirethelabskillshewouldneedforhisdoctoraldissertation,astudyofmeditationasaninterventioninthebody’sreactionstostress.TherewerejustahandfulofstudentsseatedaroundaseminartableinthatroomonthefourteenthfloorofWilliamJamesHall.RichiehappenedtochoosethechairnexttoDan,andourfirstmeetingwasthatnight.

Talkingafterclass,wediscoveredacommongoal:wewantedtouseourdissertationresearchasanopportunitytodocumentsomeofthebenefitsthatmeditationbrings.Weweretakingthatpsychophysiologyseminartolearnthemethodswewouldneed.

DanofferedaridebacktotheapartmentRichiesharedwithSusan(Richie’ssweetheartsincecollege,andnowhiswife).Richie’sreactiontotheVW’sdashboardpujawaswide-eyedastonishment.ButhewasdelightedtoberidingwithDan:evenasanundergraduate,Richiereadbroadlyinpsychologyjournals,includingtheobscureJournalofTranspersonalPsychology,wherehehadcomeuponDan’sarticle.

AsRichierecalls,“ItblewmymindthatsomeoneatHarvardwaswritinganarticlelikethat.”Whenhewasapplyingtogradschool,hehadtakenthisasoneofseveralsignsthatheshouldchooseHarvard.Dan,forhispart,waspleased

ofseveralsignsthatheshouldchooseHarvard.Dan,forhispart,waspleasedthatsomeonehadtakenthearticleseriously.

Richie’sinterestsinconsciousnesshadbeenfirstarousedbytheworksofauthorssuchasAldousHuxley,BritishpsychiatristR.D.Laing,MartinBuber,and,later,RamDass,whoseBeHereNowwaspublishedjustatthestartofhisgraduatestudies.

ButtheseinterestshadbeendrivenundergroundduringhiscollegeyearsinthepsychologydepartmentatNewYorkUniversity’suptowncampusintheBronx,wherestaunchbehaviorists,followersofB.F.Skinner,dominatedthepsychologydepartment.8Theirfirmassumptionwasthatonlyobservablebehaviorwastheproperstudyofpsychology—lookinginsidethemindwasaquestionableendeavor,ataboowasteoftime.Ourmentallife,theyheld,wascompletelyirrelevanttounderstandingbehavior.9

WhenRichiesignedupforacourseinabnormalpsychology,thetextbookwasardentlybehaviorist,claimingthatallpsychopathologywastheresultofoperantconditioning,whereadesiredbehaviorearnsareward,likeatastypelletforapigeonwhenitpeckstherightbutton.Thatview,Richiefelt,wasbankrupt:itnotonlyignoredthemind,italsoignoredthebrain.Richie,whocouldnotstomachthisdogma,droppedthecourseafterthefirstweek.

Richie’ssteelyconvictionwasthatpsychologyshouldstudythemind—notreinforcementschedulesforpigeons—andsohebecamearebel.Richie’sinterestsinwhatwentoninthemindwere,fromthestrictbehavioristperspective,transgressive.10

Whilebydayhefoughtthebehavioristtide,hisnightswerehisowntoexploreotherinterests.HevolunteeredtohelpwithsleepresearchatMaimonidesMedicalCenter,wherehelearnedhowtomonitorbrainactivitywithEEGs,anexpertisethatwouldservehimwellthroughouttherestofhiscareerinthefield.

HisseniorhonorsthesisadviserwasJudithRodin,withwhomRichieconductedresearchondaydreamingandobesity.Hishypothesiswasthatbecausedaydreamstakeusoutofthepresent,webecomelesssensitivetothebody’scuesofsatiety,andsocontinueeatinginsteadofstopping.TheobesitypartwasbecauseofRodin’sinterestinthetopic;daydreamingwasRichie’swayofbeginningtostudyconsciousness.11ForRichiethestudywasanexcusetolearntechniquestoprobewhatwasactuallygoingoninsidethemind,usingphysiologicalandbehavioralmeasures.

Richiemonitoredpeople’sheartrateandsweatingwhiletheylettheirmindwanderordidmentaltasks.Thiswashisfirstuseofphysiologicalmeasurestoinfermentalprocesses,aradicalmethodatthetime.12

Thismethodologicalsleightofhand,tackinganelementofconsciousnessstudiesontoanotherwiserespectable,mainstreamresearchstudy,wastobeahallmarkofRichie’sresearchforthenextdecadeorso,whenhisinterestinmeditationfoundlittletonosupportintheethosofthetime.

Designingadissertationthatdidn’tdependonthemeditationpieceinitselfbutcouldbeastand-alonestudyonjustthenonmeditatorsturnedouttobeasmartmoveforRichie.HesecuredhisfirstacademicpositionatthePurchasecampusoftheStateUniversityofNewYork,wherehekepthisinterestinmeditationtohimselfwhiledoingseminalworkintheemergingfieldofaffectiveneuroscience—howemotionsoperateinthebrain.

Dan,however,couldfindnoteachingpostatanyuniversitythatreflectedhisowninterestsinconsciousness,andgladlyacceptedajobinjournalism—acareerpaththateventuallyledtohisbecomingasciencewriterattheNewYorkTimes.WhilethereheharvestedRichie’sresearchonemotionsandthebrain(amongotherscientists’work)inwritingEmotionalIntelligence.13

OfthemorethaneighthundredarticlesDanwroteattheTimes,justameagerhandfulhadanythingtodowithmeditation—evenaswebothcontinuedtoattendmeditationretreatsonourowntime.Weshelvedthenotionpubliclyforadecadeortwo,whileprivatelypursuingtheevidencethatintenseandprolongedmeditationcanalterthecoreofaperson’sverybeing.Wewerebothflyingundertheradar.

ALTEREDSTATES

WilliamJamesHallloomsoverCambridgeasanarchitecturalmistake,afifteen-storymodernistwhiteslabglaringlyoutofplaceamidthesurroundingVictorianhomesandthelowlyingbrick-and-stonebuildingsoftheHarvardcampus.Atthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,WilliamJamesbecameHarvard’sfirstprofessorofpsychology,afieldhehadamajorhandininventingashetransitionedfromthetheoreticaluniverseofphilosophytoamoreempiricalandpragmaticviewofthemind.James’sformerhomestillstandsintheadjacentneighborhood.

neighborhood.Despitethishistory,asgraduatestudentsinthedepartmenthousedin

WilliamJamesHall,wewereneverassignedasinglepageofJamestoread—hehadlongbeforefallenoutoffashion.Still,Jamesbecameaninspirationtous,largelybecauseheengagedtheverytopicthatourprofessorsignoredandthatfascinatedus:consciousness.

BackinJames’sday,towardtheendofthenineteenthandstartofthetwentiethcenturies,therewasafadamongBoston’scognoscentitoimbibenitrousoxide(or“laughinggas,”asthecompoundcametobecalledwhendentistsroutinelydeployedit).James’stranscendentmomentswiththehelpofnitrousoxideledhimtowhathecalledan“unshakableconviction”that“ournormalwakingconsciousness...isbutonespecialtypeofconsciousness,whilstallaboutit,partedfromitbythefilmiestofscreens,thereliepotentialformsofconsciousnessentirelydifferent.”14

Afterpointingouttheexistenceofalteredstatesofconsciousness(thoughnotbythatname),Jamesadds,“Wemaygothroughlifewithoutsuspectingtheirexistence;butapplytherequisitestimulus,andatatouchtheyarethereinalltheircompleteness.”

Dan’sarticlehadbegunwiththisverypassagefromWilliamJames’sTheVarietiesofReligiousExperience,acalltostudyalteredstatesofconsciousness.Thesestates,asJamessaw,arediscontinuouswithordinaryconsciousness.And,heobserved,“Noaccountoftheuniverseinitstotalitycanbefinalwhichleavestheseotherformsofconsciousnessquitedisregarded.”Theveryexistenceofthesestates“meanstheyforbidaprematureclosingofouraccountswithreality.”

Psychology’stopographyofthemindforeclosedsuchaccounts.Transcendentalexperienceswerenottobefoundanywhereinthatterrain;ifmentionedatall,theywererelegatedtothelessdesirablerealms.Fromtheearlydaysofpsychology,beginningwithFreudhimself,alteredstatesweredismissedassymptomsofoneoranotherformofpsychopathology.Forinstance,whenFrenchpoetandNobellaureateRomainRollandbecameadiscipleoftheIndiansaintSriRamakrishnaaroundthebeginningofthetwentiethcentury,hewrotetoFreuddescribingthemysticalstateheexperienced—andFreuddiagnoseditasregressiontoinfancy.15

Bythe1960s,psychologistsroutinelydismisseddrug-triggeredalteredstatesasartificiallyinducedpsychosis(theoriginaltermforpsychedelicswas“psychotomimetic”drugs—psychosismimics).Aswefound,similarattitudesappliedtomeditation—thissuspiciousnewroutetoalteringthemind—atleast

appliedtomeditation—thissuspiciousnewroutetoalteringthemind—atleastamongourfacultyadvisers.

Still,in1972theCambridgezeitgeistincludedaferventinterestinconsciousnessasRichieenteredHarvardandDanreturnedfromhissojourninAsia(thefirstoftwo)tobeginhisdoctoraldissertation.CharlesTart’sbestselleroftheday,AlteredStatesofConsciousness,collectedarticlesonbiofeedback,drugs,self-hypnosis,yoga,meditation,andothersuchavenuestoJames’s“otherstates,”capturingtheethosoftheday.16Inbrainscience,excitementrevolvedaroundtherecentdiscoveryofneurotransmitters,thechemicalsthatsendmessagesbetweenneurons,likethemoodregulatorserotonin—magicmoleculesthatcouldpitchusintoecstasyordespair.17

ThelabworkonneurotransmittersfilteredintothegeneralcultureasascientificpretextforattainingalteredstatesthroughdrugslikeLSD.Thesewerethedaysofthepsychedelicrevolution,whichhadhaditsrootsintheverydepartmentatHarvardwewerein,whichperhapshelpsexplainwhytheremainingstalwartstookadimviewofanyinterestinthemindthatsmackedofalteredstates.

ANINNERJOURNEY

DalhousienestlesinthelowerreachesoftheDhauladharrange,abranchoftheHimalayasthatstretchesintoIndia’sPunjabandHimachalPradeshstates.Establishedinthemid-nineteenthcenturyasa“hillstation”wherethebureaucratsoftheBritishRajcouldescapethesummerheatoftheIndo-GangeticPlain,Dalhousiewaschosenforitsgorgeoussetting.Withitspicturesquebungalowsleftoverfromcolonialdays,thishillstationhaslongbeenatouristattraction.

Butitwasn’tthesettingthatbroughtRichieandSusantoDalhousiethatsummerof1973.Theyhadcomeforaten-dayretreat—theirfirstdeepdive—withS.N.Goenka,thesameteacherDanhaddonesuccessiveretreatswithinBodhGayaafewyearsbeforewhileonhisfirstsojourninIndiaforhispredoctoraltravelingfellowship.RichieandSusanhadjustvisitedDaninKandy,SriLanka,wherehewaslivingonapostdoctoralfellowshipduringthissecondtriptoAsia.18

DanencouragedthecoupletotakeacoursewithGoenkaasadoorwayintointensivemeditation.Thecoursewasabitdisorientingfromthestart.Forone,Richiesleptinalargetentforthemen,Susaninoneforthewomen.Andtheimpositionof“noblesilence”fromdayonemeantthatRichieneverreallyknewwhoelsesharedthattent—hisvagueimpressionwasthattheyweremostlyEuropeans.

InthemeditationhallRichiefoundthefloorscatteredwithroundzafus,Zen-stylecushions,tositon.ThezafuwouldbeRichie’sperchthroughthetwelveorsohoursofsittinginmeditationthedailyschedulecalledfor.

Settlingontohiszafuinhisusualhalflotus,Richienoticedatwingeofpaininhisrightknee,whichhadalwaysbeentheweakone.Asthehoursofsittingprogresseddaybyday,thattwingemorphedintoalowhowlofdiscomfort,andspreadnotjusttotheotherkneebuttohislowerbackaswell—commonhurtzonesforWesternbodiesunaccustomedtosittingstillforhourssupportedbynothingbutapillowonthefloor.

Richie’smentaltaskforthewholedaywastotuneintothesensationsofbreathingathisnostrils.Themostvividsenseimpressionwasn’thisbreath—itwasthecontinualintensephysicalpaininhiskneesandback.Bytheendofthefirstday,hewasthinking,Ican’tbelieveIhaveninemoredaysofthis.

ButonthethirddaycameamajorshiftwithGoenka’sinstructionto“sweep”withacareful,observingattentionheadtotoe,toetohead,throughallthemanyandvariedsensationsinhisbody.ThoughRichiefoundhisfocusreturningagainandagaintothethrobbingpaininthatknee,healsostartedtoglimpseasenseofequanimityandwell-being.

SoonRichiefoundhimselfenteringastateoftotalabsorptionthat,towardtheendoftheretreat,allowedhimtositforuptofourhoursatago.Atlights-outtimehe’dgototheemptymeditationhallandmeditateonhisbody’ssensationssteadily,sometimesuntil1:00or2:00a.m.

TheretreatwasahighforRichie.Hecameawaywithadeepconvictionthatthereweremethodsthatcouldtransformourmindstoproduceaprofoundwell-being.Wedidnothavetobecontrolledbythemind,withitsrandomassociations,suddenfearsandangers,andalltherest—wecouldtakebackthehelm.

Fordaysaftertheretreatended,Richiestillfelthewasonahigh.Richie’smindkeptsoaringwhileheandSusanstayedoninDalhousie.Thehighrodewithhimonthebusdownthemountainsviaroadswendingthroughfieldsandvillageswithmud-walled,thatch-roofedhouses,ontothebusiercitiesoftheplains,andfinallythroughthethrobbing,packedroadsofDelhi.

plains,andfinallythroughthethrobbing,packedroadsofDelhi.ThereRichiefeltthathighbegintowaneasheandSusanspentafewdays

inthebare-bonesguesthousetheycouldaffordontheirgradstudentbudget,venturingouttoDelhi’scacophonousandcrowdedstreetstohaveatailormakesomeclothesandbuysouvenirs.

Perhapsthebiggestforceinthedeclineofthatmeditationstatewasthetraveler’sstomachtheybothhadcomedownwith.ThatmaladyplaguedthemthroughachangeofplanesinFrankfurtonthecheapflightfromDelhitoKennedyAirport.AfterafulldayspentintraveltheylandedinNewYork,wheretheyweregreetedbybothsetsofparents,eagertoseethemafterthissummerawayinAsia.

AsSusanandRichieexitedCustoms—sick,tired,anddressedintheIndianstyleoftheday—theirfamiliesgreetedthemwithlooksofhorrifiedshock.Insteadofenvelopingtheminlove,theyyelledinalarm,“Whathaveyoudonetoyourselves?Youlookterrible!”

BythetimetheyallarrivedattheupstateNewYorkcountryhouseofSusan’sfamily,thehalf-lifeofthathighhadreachedthebottomofitsslope,andRichiefeltasterribleashe’dlookedwalkingofftheplane.

RichietriedtorevivethestatehehadreachedattheDalhousiecourse,butithadvanished.Itremindedhimofapsychedelictripinthatway:hehadvividmemoriesoftheretreat,buttheywerenotembodied,notalastingtransformation.Theywerejustmemories.

Thatsoberingexperiencefedintowhatwastobecomeaburningscientificquestion:Howlongdostateeffects—likeRichie’smeditativehighs—last?Atwhatpointcantheybeconsideredenduringtraits?Whatallowssuchatransformationofbeingtobecomeembodiedinalastingwayinsteadoffadingintothemistsofmemory?

Andjustwhereinthemind’sterrainhadRichiebeen?

AMEDITATOR’SGUIDEBOOK

ThebearingsforRichie’sinnerwhereaboutsweremorethanlikelytobedetailedsomewhereinathickvolumethatMunindrahadencouragedDantostudyduringhisfirstsojourninIndiaafewyearsbefore:theVisuddhimagga.Thisfifth-centurytext,whichmeansPathtoPurificationinPali(thelanguageof

Buddhism’searliestcanon),wastheancientsourceforthosemimeographedmanualsDanhadporedoverinBodhGaya.

Thoughcenturiesold,theVisuddhimaggaremainedthedefinitiveguidebookformeditatorsinplaceslikeBurmaandThailand,thatfollowtheTheravadatradition,andthroughmoderninterpretationsstilloffersthefundamentaltemplateforinsightmeditation,therootofwhat’spopularlyknownas“mindfulness.”

Thismeditator’smanualonhowtotraversethemind’smostsubtleregionsofferedacarefulphenomenologyofmeditativestatesandtheirprogressionallthewaytonirvana(nibbana,inPali).Thehighwaystothejackpotofutterpeace,themanualrevealed,wereakeenlyconcentratedmindontheonehand,mergingwithasharplymindfulawarenessontheother.

Theexperientiallandmarksalongthewaytomeditativeattainmentswerespelledoutmatter-of-factly.Forinstance,thepathofconcentrationbeginswithamerefocusonthebreath(oranyofmorethanfortyothersuggestedpointsoffocus,suchasapatchofcolor—anythingtofocusthemind).Forbeginnersthismeansawobblydancebetweenfullfocusandawanderingmind.

Atfirsttheflowofthoughtsrusheslikeawaterfall,whichsometimesdiscouragesbeginners,whofeeltheirmindisoutofcontrol.Actually,thesenseofatorrentofthoughtsseemstobeduetopayingcloseattentiontoournaturalstate,whichAsianculturesdub“monkeymind,”foritswildlyfreneticrandomness.

Asourconcentrationstrengthens,wanderingthoughtssubsideratherthanpullingusdownsomebackalleyofthemind.Thestreamofthoughtflowsmoreslowly,likeariver—andfinallyrestsinthestillnessofalake,asanancientmetaphorforsettlingthemindinmeditationpracticetellsus.

Sustainedfocus,themanualnotes,bringsthefirstmajorsignofprogress,“accessconcentration,”whereattentionstaysfixedonthechosentargetwithoutwanderingoff.Withthislevelofconcentrationcomefeelingsofdelightandcalm,and,sometimes,sensoryphenomenalikeflashesoflightorasenseofbodilylightness.

“Access”impliesbeingonthebrinkoftotalconcentration,thefullabsorptioncalledjhana(akintosamadhiinSanskrit),whereanyandalldistractingthoughtstotallycease.Injhanathemindfillswithstrongrapture,bliss,andanunbrokenone-pointedfocusonthemeditationtarget.

TheVisuddhimaggalistssevenmorelevelsofjhana,withprogressmarkedbysuccessivelysubtlefeelingsofblissandrapture,andstrongerequanimity,

alongwithanincreasinglyfirmandeffortlessfocus.Inthelastfourlevels,evenbliss,arelativelygrosssensation,fallsaway,leavingonlyunshakablefocusandequanimity.Thehighestreachofthisevermorerefinedawarenesshassuchsubtletyitiscalledthejhanaof“neitherperceptionnornonperception.”

InthetimeofGautamaBuddha,fullconcentratedabsorptioninsamadhiwasheraldedasthehighwaytoliberationforyogis.LegendhasitthattheBuddhapracticedthisapproachwithagroupofwanderingascetics,butheabandonedthatavenueanddiscoveredaninnovativevarietyofmeditation:lookingdeeplyintothemechanicsofconsciousnessitself.

Jhanaalone,theBuddhaissaidtohavedeclared,wasnotthepathtoaliberatedmind.Thoughstrongconcentrationcanbeanenormousaidalongtheway,theBuddha’spathveersintoadifferentkindofinnerfocus:thepathofinsight.

Here,awarenessstaysopentowhateverarisesinthemindratherthantoonethingonly—totheexclusionofallelse—asintotalconcentration.Theabilitytomaintainthismindfulness,analertbutnonreactivestanceinattention,varieswithourpowersofone-pointedness.

Withmindfulness,themeditatorsimplynoteswithoutreactivitywhatevercomesintomind,suchasthoughtsorsensoryimpressionslikesounds—andletsthemgo.Theoperativewordhereisgo.Ifwethinkmuchofanythingaboutwhatjustarose,orletittriggeranyreactivityatall,wehavelostourmindfulstance—unlessthatreactionorthoughtinturnbecomestheobjectofmindfulness.

TheVisuddhimaggadescribesthewayinwhichcarefullysustainedmindfulness—“theclearandsingle-mindedawarenessofwhatactuallyhappens”inourexperienceduringsuccessivemoments—refinesintoamorenuancedinsightpracticethatcanleadusthroughasuccessionofstagestowardthatfinalepiphany,nirvana/nibbana.19

Thisshifttoinsightmeditationoccursintherelationshipofourawarenesstoourthoughts.Ordinarilyourthoughtscompelus:ourloathingorself-loathinggeneratesonesetoffeelingsandactions;ourromanticfantasiesquiteanother.Butwithstrongmindfulnesswecanexperienceadeepsenseinwhichself-loathingandromanticthoughtsarethesame:likeallotherthoughts,thesearepassingmomentsofmind.Wedon’thavetobechasedthroughthedaybyourthoughts—theyareacontinuousseriesofshortfeatures,previews,andouttakesinatheaterofthemind.

Onceweglimpseourmindasasetofprocesses,ratherthangettingsweptawaybytheseductionsofourthoughts,weenterthepathofinsight.Therewe

awaybytheseductionsofourthoughts,weenterthepathofinsight.Thereweprogressthroughshiftingagainandagainourrelationshiptothatinnershow—eachtimeyieldingyetmoreinsightsintothenatureofconsciousnessitself.

Justasmudsettlinginapondletsusseeintothewater,sothesubsidingofourstreamofthoughtletsusobserveourmentalmachinerywithgreaterclarity.Alongtheway,forinstance,themeditatorseesabewilderinglyrapidparadeofmomentsofperceptionthatracethroughthemind,ordinarilyhiddenfromawarenesssomewherebehindascrim.

Richie’smeditationhighmostcertainlycouldbespottedsomewhereinthesebenchmarksofprogress.Butthathighhaddisappearedintothemistsofmemory.Sictranseuntalteredstates.

InIndiatheytellofayogiwhospentyearsandyearsaloneinacave,achievingrarefiedstatesofsamadhi.Oneday,satisfiedthathehadreachedtheendofhisinnerjourney,theyogicamedownfromhismountainperchintoavillage.

Thatdaythebazaarwascrowded.Ashemadehiswaythroughthecrowd,theyogiwascaughtupinarushtomakewayforalocallordridingthroughonanelephant.Ayoungboystandinginfrontoftheyogisteppedbacksuddenlyinfright—stompingrightontheyogi’sbarefoot.

Theyogi,angeredandinpain,raisedhiswalkingstafftostriketheyoungster.Butsuddenlyseeingwhathewasabouttodo—andtheangerthatpropelledhisarm—theyogiturnedaroundandwentrightbackuptohiscaveformorepractice.

Thetalespeakstothedifferencebetweenmeditationhighsandenduringchange.Beyondtransitorystateslikesamadhi(ortheirequivalent,theabsorptivejhanas),therecanbelastingchangesinourverybeing.TheVissudhimaggaholdsthistransformationtobethetruefruitofreachingthehighestlevelsofthepathofinsight.Forexample,asthetextsays,strongnegativefeelingslikegreedandselfishness,angerandillwill,fadeaway.Intheirplacecomesthepredominanceofpositivequalitieslikeequanimity,kindness,compassion,andjoy.

Thatlistresonateswithsimilarclaimsfromothermeditativetraditions.Whetherthesetraitsareduetosomespecifictransformativeexperiencesthataccrueinattainingthoselevels,orfromthesheerhoursofpracticealongtheway,wecan’tsay.ButRichie’sdeliciousmeditation-inducedhigh—possiblysomewhereinthevicinityofaccessconcentration,ifnotfirstjhana—wasnotsufficienttobringonthesetraitchanges.

TheBuddha’sdiscovery—reachingenlightenmentviathepathofinsight—wasachallengetotheyogictraditionsofhisday,whichfollowedthepathofconcentrationtovariouslevelsofsamadhi,thebliss-filledstateofutterabsorption.Inthosedays,insightversusconcentrationwasaburningissueinapoliticsofconsciousnessthatrevolvedaroundthebestpathtothosealteredtraits.

Fast-forwardtoanotherpoliticsofconsciousnessinthe1960s,duringtheheadydaysofthepsychedelicfad.Thesuddenrevelationsofdrug-inducedalteredstatesledtoassumptionslike,asoneacidheadputit,“WithLSDweexperiencedwhatittookTibetanmonks20yearstoobtain,yetwegottherein20minutes.”20

Deadwrong.Thetroublewithdrug-inducedstatesisthatafterthechemicalclearsyourbody,youremainthesamepersonasalways.And,asRichiediscovered,thesamefadingawayhappenswithhighsinmeditation.

D

3

TheAfterIstheBeforefortheNextDuring

an’ssecondstayinAsiawasin1973,thistimeonaSocialScienceResearchCouncilpostdoc,ostensiblyaventurein“ethnopsychology,”to

studyAsiansystemsforanalyzingthemindanditspossibilities.ItstartedwithsixmonthsinKandy,atowninthehillsofSriLankawhereDanconsultedeveryfewdayswithNyanaponikaThera,aGerman-bornTheravadanmonkwhosescholarshipcenteredonthetheoryandpracticeofmeditation.(DanthencontinuedonforseveralmonthsinDharamsala,India,wherehestudiedattheLibraryofTibetanWorksandArchives.)

Nyanaponika’swritingsfocusedontheAbhidhamma,amodelofmindthatlaidoutamapandmethodsforthetransformationofconsciousnessinthedirectionofalteredtraits.WhiletheVisuddhimaggaandthemeditationmanualsDanhadreadwereoperator’sinstructionsforthemind,theAbhidhammawasaguidingtheoryforsuchmanuals.Thispsychologicalsystemcamewithadetailedexplanationofthemind’skeyelementsandhowtotraversethisinnerlandscapetomakelastingchangesinourcorebeing.

Certainsectionswerecompellingintheirrelevancetopsychology,particularlythedynamicoutlinedbetween“healthy”and“unhealthy”statesofmind.1Alltoooftenourmentalstatesfluctuateinarangethathighlightsdesires,self-centeredness,sluggishness,agitation,andthelike.Theseareamongtheunhealthystatesonthismapofmind.

Healthystates,incontrast,includeeven-mindedness,composure,ongoingmindfulness,andrealisticconfidence.Intriguingly,asubsetofhealthystatesappliestobothmindandbody:buoyancy,flexibility,adaptability,andpliancy.

Thehealthystatesinhibittheunhealthyones,andviceversa.Themarkofprogressalongthispathiswhetherourreactionsindailylifesignalashifttowardhealthystates.Thegoalistoestablishthehealthystatesaspredominant,lastingtraits.

lastingtraits.Whileimmersedindeepconcentration,ameditator’sunhealthystatesare

suppressed—but,aswiththatyogiinthebazaar,canemergeasstrongaseverwhentheconcentrativestatesubsides.Incontrast,accordingtothisancientBuddhistpsychology,attainingdeepeninglevelsofinsightpracticeleadstoaradicaltransformation,ultimatelyfreeingthemeditator’smindoftheunhealthymix.Ahighlyadvancedpractitionereffortlesslystabilizesonthehealthyside,embodyingconfidence,buoyancy,andthelike.

DansawthisAsianpsychologyasaworkingmodelofthemind,time-testedoverthecourseofcenturies,atheoryofhowmentaltrainingcouldleadtohighlypositivealteredtraits.Thattheoryhadguidedmeditationpracticeformorethantwomillennia—itwasanelectrifyingproofofconcept.

Inthesummerof1973,RichieandSusancametoKandyforasix-weekvisitbeforeheadingtoIndiaforthatthrillingandsoberingretreatwithGoenka.OncetogetherinKandy,RichieandDantrekkedthroughthejungletoconsultwithNyanaponikaathisremotehermitageaboutthismodelofmentalwell-being.2

Laterthatyear,afterDanreturnedfromthissecondsojourninAsiaasaSocialScienceResearchFellow,hewashiredatHarvardasavisitinglecturer.Inthefallsemesterof1974heofferedacourse,ThePsychologyofConsciousness,whichfitwelltheethosofthosedays—atleastamongstudents,manyofwhomweredoingtheirownextracurricularresearchwithpsychedelics,yoga,andevenabitofmeditation.

Oncethepsychologyofconsciousnesscoursewasannounced,hundredsofHarvardundergradsgravitatedtothissurveyofmeditationanditsalteredstates,theBuddhistpsychologicalsystem,andwhatlittlewasthenknownaboutthedynamicsofattention—allamongthetopicscovered.TheenrollmentwassolargethattheclasswasmovedintothelargestclassroomvenueatHarvard,the1,000-seatSandersTheatre.3Richie,theninhisthirdyearofgraduateschool,wasateachingassistantinthecourse.4

MostofthetopicsinThePsychologyofConsciousness—andthecoursetitleitself—werefaroutsidetheconventionalmapofpsychologyinthosedays.Nosurprise,Danwasnotaskedtostayonbythedepartmentafterthatsemesterfinished.Butbythenwehaddonesomewritingandresearchtogether,andRichiewasexcitedbytherealizationthatthiswaswhathisownresearchpathwouldbeandwaseagertogetgoing.

StartingwhilewewereinSriLankaandcontinuingduringDan’ssemesterteachingthatcourseonthepsychologyofconsciousness,weworkedonthefirst

draftofourarticle,makingthecasetoourcolleaguesinpsychologyforalteredtraits.WhileDanhad,ofnecessity,basedhisfirstarticleonthinclaims,scantresearch,andmuchguesswork,nowwehadatemplateforthepathtoalteredtraits,analgorithmforinnertransformation.Wewrestledwithhowtoconnectthismapwiththesparsedatasciencehadbythenyielded.

BackinCambridgewemulledallthisoverinlongconversations,ofteninHarvardSquare.Asvegetariansatthetime,wesettledoncaramelsundaesatBailey’sicecreamparloronBrattleStreet.Thereweworkedonwhatwouldbecomeajournalarticlepiecingtogetherthelittlerelevantdatawecouldfindtosupportourfirststatementofextremelypositivealteredtraits.

Wecalledit“TheRoleofAttentioninMeditationandHypnosis:APsychobiologicalPerspectiveonTransformationsofConsciousness.”Theoperativephrasehereistransformationsofconsciousness,ourtermthenforalteredtraits,whichwesawasa“psychobiological”(todaywe’dsay“neural”)shift.Wecontendedthathypnosis,unlikemeditation,producedprimarilystateeffects,andnottraiteffectsaswithmeditation.

Inthosetimesthefascinationwasnotwithtraitsbutratheralteredstates,whetherfrompsychedelicsormeditation.But,asweputitintalkingatBailey’s,“afterthehighgoes,you’restillthesameschmuckyouwerebefore.”Wearticulatedtheideamoreformallyinthesubsequentjournalarticle.

Wewerespeakingtoabasicconfusion,stilltoocommon,abouthowmeditationcanchangeus.Somepeoplefixateontheremarkablestatesattainedduringameditationsession—particularlyduringlongretreats—andgivelittlenoticetohow,orevenif,thosestatestranslateintoalastingchangeforthebetterintheirqualitiesofbeingafterthey’vegonehome.Valuingjusttheheightsmissesthetruepointofpractice:totransformourselvesinlastingwaysdaytoday.

Morerecently,thispointwasdrivenhometouswhenwehadthechancetotelltheDalaiLamaaboutthemeditativestatesandtheirbrainpatternsthatalongtimepractitionerdisplayedinRichie’slab.Asthisexpertengagedinspecifickindsofmeditation—forinstance,concentrationorvisualization—thebrainimagingdatarevealedadistinctneuralprofileforeachmeditativealteredstate.

“It’sverygood,”theDalaiLamacommented,“hemanagedtoshowsomesignsofyogicability”—bywhichhemeanttheintensivemeditationovermonthsoryearspracticedbyyogisinHimalayancaves,asopposedtothegardenvarietyofyogaforfitnesssopopularthesedays.5

Butthenheadded,“Thetruemarkofameditatoristhathehasdisciplined

Butthenheadded,“Thetruemarkofameditatoristhathehasdisciplinedhismindbyfreeingitfromnegativeemotions.”

ThatruleofthumbhasstayedconstantsincebeforethetimeoftheVisuddhimagga:It’snotthehighsalongthewaythatmatter.It’swhoyoubecome.

Puzzlingoverhowtoreconcilethemeditationmapwithwhatwehadexperiencedourselves,andthenwiththeadmittedlyscantscientificevidence,wearticulatedahypothesis:Theafteristhebeforeforthenextduring.

Tounpackthisidea,afterreferstoenduringchangesfrommeditationthatlastlongbeyondthepracticesessionitself.Beforemeanstheconditionweareinatbaseline,beforewestartmeditating.Duringiswhathappensaswemeditate,temporarychangesinourstatethatpasswhenwestopmeditating.

Inotherwords,repeatedpracticeofmeditationresultsinlastingtraits—theafter.

Wewereintriguedbythepossibilityofsomebiologicalpathwaywhererepeatedpracticeledtoasteadyembodimentofhighlypositivetraitslikekindness,patience,presence,andeaseunderanycircumstances.Meditation,weargued,wasatooltofosterpreciselysuchbeneficialfixturesofbeing.

Wepublishedourarticleinoneofmaybetwoorthreeacademicpublicationsinterestedinsuchexotictopicsasmeditationbackinthe1970s.6Thiswasafirstglimmerofourthinkingonalteredtraits,albeitwithaflimsysciencebase.Themaxim“probabilityisnotproof”applied,inasense:whatwehadwasapossibility,butlittletopinaprobabilityon,andzeroproof.

Whenwefirstwroteaboutthis,noscientificstudyhadbeenconductedthatwouldprovidethekindofevidenceweneeded.OnlylongdecadesafterwepublishedthearticlewouldRichiefindthatforhighlyadeptmeditators,their“before”statewas,indeed,verydifferentfromthatofpeoplewhohadnevermeditated,ordoneverylittlemeditating—itwasanindicatorofanalteredtrait(aswe’llseeinchaptertwelve,“HiddenTreasure”).

Nooneinpsychologyinthosedayshadtalkedaboutalteredtraits.Plus,ourrawmaterialwashighlyunusualforpsychologists:ancientmeditationmanuals,thenhardtocomebyoutsideAsia,alongwithourownexperiencesinintensivemeditationretreats,andchancemeetingswithhighlyadeptpractitioners.Wewere,tosaytheleast,outliersinpsychology—oroddballs,aswenodoubtwereperceivedbysomeofourHarvardcolleagues.

Ourvisionofalteredtraitsmadealeapfarbeyondthepsychologicalscienceofourday.Riskybusiness.

THESCIENCECATCHESUP

Whenanimaginativeresearcherconcoctsanovelidea,itstartsachainofeventsmuchlikenaturalvariationinevolution:assoundempiricaltestsweighnewideas,theyeliminatebadhypothesesandspreadgoodones.7

Forthistohappen,scienceneedstobalanceskepticswithspeculators—peoplewhocastwidenets,thinkimaginatively,andconsider“whatif.”Thewebofknowledgegrowsbytestingoriginalideasbroughttoitbyspeculatorslikeourselves.Ifonlyskepticspursuedscience,littleinnovationwouldoccur.

EconomistJosephSchumpeterhasbecomeknownthesedaysfortheconceptof“creativedestruction,”wherethenewdisruptstheoldinamarket.OurearlyhunchesaboutalteredtraitsfitwhatSchumpetercalled“vision”:anintuitiveactthatsuppliesdirectionandenergyforanalyticefforts.Avisionletsyouseethingsinanewlight,ashesays,one“nottobefoundinthefacts,methods,andresultsofthepreexistingstateofthescience.”8

Sure,wehadavisioninthissense—butwehadpaltrymethodsordataavailableforexploringthispositiverangeofalteredtraits,andnoideaofthebrainmechanismthatwouldallowsuchaprofoundshift.Weweredeterminedtomaketheargument,butwereyearstoosoonforthecrucialscientificpieceinthispuzzle.

Ourdissertationdatawerefeebly—veryfeebly—supportiveoftheideathatthemoreyoupracticehowtogenerateameditativestate,themorethatpracticeshowslastinginfluencesbeyondthesessionitself.

Still,asbrainsciencehasevolvedoverthedecades,wesawmountingrationalesforourideas.

RichieattendedhisfirstmeetingoftheSocietyforNeurosciencein1975inNewYorkCity,alongwithabout2,500otherscientists,allexhilaratedthattheywereseeingthebirthofanewfield(andnonedreamingthatthesedaysthosemeetingswoulddrawmorethan30,000neuroscientists).9Inthemid-1980soneoftheearlypresidentsofthesociety,BruceMcEwenofRockefellerUniversity,gaveusscientificammunition.

McEwenputadominanttreeshrewinthesamecagefortwenty-eightdayswithonelowerinthepeckingorder—therodentversionofbeingtrappedatworkwithanightmareboss24/7foramonth.ThebigshockfromMcEwen’sstudywasthatinthebrainofthedominatedrodent,dendritesshrankinthehippocampus,anodecrucialformemory.Thesebranchingprojectionsofthebody’scellsallowthemtoreachouttoandactonothercells;shrinkingdendrites

body’scellsallowthemtoreachouttoandactonothercells;shrinkingdendritesmeanfaultymemory.

McEwen’sresultsrippedthroughthebrainandbehavioralscienceslikeasmalltsunami,openingmindstothepossibilitythatagivenexperiencecouldleaveanimprintonthebrain.McEwenwaszeroinginonaholygrailforpsychology:howstressfuleventsproducelingeringneuralscars.Thatanexperienceofanykindcouldleaveitsmarkonthebrainhad,untilthen,beenunthinkable.

Tobesure,stresswasparforthecourseforalaboratoryrat—McEwenjustuppedtheintensity.Thestandardsetupforlabratlivingquarterswastherodentequivalentofsolitaryconfinement:weeksormonthsonendinasmallwirecageand,iftheratwaslucky,arunningwheelforexercise.

Contrastthatlifeinperpetualboredomandsocialisolationtosomethinglikearodenthealthresort,withlotsoftoys,thingstoclimbon,colorfulwalls,playmates,andinterestingspacestoexplore.That’sthestimulatinghabitatMarionDiamondattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleybuiltforherlabrats.WorkingaboutthesametimeasMcEwen,Diamondfoundtherats’brainsbenefited,withthickerdendriticbranchesconnectingneuronsandgrowthinbrainareas,suchastheprefrontalcortex,thatarecrucialinattentionandself-regulation.10

WhileMcEwen’sworkshowedhowadverseeventscanshrinkpartsofthebrain,Diamond’semphasizedthepositiveinherstudies.Yetherworkwaslargelymetwithashruginneuroscience,perhapsbecauseitposedadirectchallengetopervasivebeliefsinthefield.Theconventionalwisdomthenwasthatatbirthwehostinourskullamaximumnumberofneurons,andtheninexorablylosetheminasteadydie-offoverthecourseoflife.Experience,supposedly,hadnothingtodowiththis.

ButMcEwenandDiamondledustowonder,Ifthesebrainchangesforworseandforbettercouldoccurwithrats,mighttherightexperiencechangethehumanbraintowardbeneficialalteredtraits?Couldmeditationbejustsuchahelpfulinnerworkout?

Theglimpseofthispossibilitywasexhilarating.Wesensedsomethingtrulyrevolutionarywasintheoffing,butittookacouplemoredecadesbeforetheevidencebegantocatchupwithourhunch.

THEBIGLEAP

THEBIGLEAP

Theyearwas1992,andRichiewasnervouswhenthesociologydepartmentattheUniversityofWisconsinaskedhimtodeliveramajordepartmentalcolloquium.Heknewhewaswalkingintothecenterofanintellectualcyclone,abattleover“nature”and“nurture”thathadragedforyearsinthesocialsciences.Thenurturecampbelievedthatourbehaviorwasshapedbyourexperiences;the“nature”campsawourgenesasdeterminingourbehavior.

Thebattlehadalong,uglyhistory—racistsinthenineteenthandearlytwentiethcenturiestwistedthegeneticsoftheirdayas“scientific”groundsforbiasagainstblacks,NativeAmericans,Jews,theIrish,andalonglistofothertargetsofbigotry.Theracistsattributedanyandalllagsineducationalandeconomicattainmentsofthetargetgrouptotheirgeneticdestiny,ignoringvastimbalancesinopportunity.Theresultingbacklashinthesocialscienceshadmademanyinthatsociologydepartmentdeeplyskepticalofanybiologicalexplanation.

ButRichiefeltthatsociologistscommittedascientificfallacyinimmediatelyassumingthatbiologicalcausesnecessarilyreducedgroupdifferencestogenetics—andsowereseenasunchangeable.InRichie’sview,thesesociologistswerecarriedawaybyanideologicalstance.

Forthefirsttimeinpublicheproposedtheconceptof“neuroplasticity”asawaytoresolvethisbattlebetweennatureandnurture.Neuroplasticity,heexplained,showsthatrepeatedexperiencecanchangethebrain,shapingit.Wedon’thavetochoosebetweennatureornurture.Theyinteract,eachmoldingtheother.

Theconceptneatlyreconciledwhathadbeenhostilepointsofview.ButRichiewasreachingbeyondthescienceoftheday;thedataonhumanneuroplasticitywerestillhazy.

Thatchangedjustafewyearslaterwithacascadeofscientificfindings—forinstance,thoseshowingthatmasteringamusicalinstrumentenlargedtherelevantbraincenters.11Violinists,whoselefthandscontinuouslyfingeredthestringswhiletheyplayed,hadenlargedareasofthebrainthatmanagethatfingerwork.Thelongertheyhadplayed,thegreaterthesize.12

NATURE’SEXPERIMENT

Trythis.Lookstraightaheadandholdupafingerwithyourarmoutstretched.Stilllookingstraightahead,slowlyshiftthatfingeruntilitisabouttwofeettotherightofyournose.Whenyoumoveyourfingerfartotheright,butstayfocusedstraightahead,itlandsinyourperipheralvision,theouteredgeofwhatyourvisualsystemtakesin.13

Mostpeoplelosesightoftheirfingerasitmovestothefarrightorleftoftheirnose.Butonegroupdoesnot:peoplewhoaredeaf.

Whilethisunusualvisualadvantageinthedeafhaslongbeenknown,thebrainbasishasonlyrecentlybeenshown.Andthemechanismis,again,neuroplasticity.

Brainstudieslikethistakeadvantageofso-called“experimentsofnature,”naturallyoccurringsituationssuchascongenitaldeafness.HelenNeville,aneuroscientistattheUniversityofOregonwithapassionateinterestinbrainplasticity,seizedtheopportunitytouseanMRIbrainscannertotestbothdeafandhearingpeoplewithavisualsimulationthatmimickedwhatadeafpersonseeswhenreadingsignlanguage.

Signsareexpansivegestures.Whenadeafpersonisreadingthesigningofanother,shetypicallylooksatthefaceofthepersonwhoissigning—notdirectlyathowthehandsmoveastheysign.Someofthoseexpansivegesturesmoveintheperipheryofthevisualfield,andthusnaturallyexercisethebrain’sabilitytoperceivewithinthisouterrimofvision.Plasticityletsthesecircuitstakeonavisualtaskasthedeafpersonlearnssignlanguage:readingwhat’sgoingonattheveryedgeofvision.

Thechunkofneuralrealestatethatusuallyoperatesastheprimaryauditorycortex(knownasHeschl’sgyrus)receivesnosensoryinputsindeafpeople.Thebrainsofdeafpeople,Nevillediscovered,hadmorphedsothatwhatisordinarilyapartoftheauditorysystemwasnowworkingwiththevisualcircuitry.14

Suchfindingsillustratehowradicallythebraincanrewireitselfinresponsetorepeatedexperiences.15Thefindingsinmusiciansandinthedeaf—andaslewofothers—offeredaproofwehadbeenwaitingfor.Neuroplasticityprovidesanevidence-basedframeworkandalanguagethatmakessenseintermsofcurrentscientificthinking.16Itwasthescientificplatformwehadlongneeded,awayofthinkingabouthowintentionaltrainingofthemind,likemeditation,mightshapethebrain.

THEALTEREDTRAITSPECTRUM

THEALTEREDTRAITSPECTRUM

Alteredtraitsmapalongaspectrumstartingatthenegativeend,withpost-traumaticstressdisorder(PTSD)asacaseinpoint.Theamygdalaactsastheneuralradarforthreat.Overwhelmingtraumaresetstoahairtriggertheamygdala’sthresholdforhijackingtherestofthebraintorespondtowhatitperceivesasanemergency.17InpeoplewithPTSD,anycuethatremindsthemofthetraumaticexperience—andthatforsomeoneelsewouldnotbeparticularlynoticeable—setsoffacascadeofneuraloverreactionsthatcreatetheflashbacks,sleeplessness,irritability,andhypervigilantanxietyofthatdisorder.

Movingalongthetraitspectrumtowardthepositiverange,therearethebeneficialneuralimpactsofbeingasecurechild,whosebraingetsmoldedbyempathic,concerned,andnurturingparenting.Thischildhoodbrainshapingbuildsinadulthood,forexample,intobeingabletocalmdownwellwhenupset.18

Ourinterestinalteredtraitslooksbeyondthemerelyhealthyspectrumtoanevenmorebeneficialrange,wholesometraitsofbeing.Theseextremelypositivealteredtraits,likeequanimityandcompassion,areagoalofmindtrainingincontemplativetraditions.Weusethetermalteredtraitasshorthandforthishighlypositiverange.19

Neuroplasticityoffersascientificbasisforhowrepeatedtrainingcouldcreatethoselastingqualitiesofbeingwehadencounteredinahandfulofexceptionalyogis,swamis,monks,andlamas.Theiralteredtraitsfitancientdescriptionsoflastingtransformationatthehigherlevels.

Amindfreefromdisturbancehasvalueinlesseninghumansuffering,agoalsharedbyscienceandmeditativepathsalike.Butapartfromloftyheightsofbeing,there’samorepracticalpotentialwithinreachofeveryoneofus:alifebestdescribedasflourishing.

FLOURISHING

AsAlexandertheGreatwasleadinghisarmiesthroughwhatisnowKashmir,legendhasithemetagroupofasceticyogisinTaxila,thenathrivingcityonabranchoftheSilkRoadleadingtotheplainsofIndia.

TheyogisrespondedtotheappearanceofAlexander’sfiercesoldierswith

TheyogisrespondedtotheappearanceofAlexander’sfiercesoldierswithindifference,sayingthathe,likethem,couldactuallypossessonlythegroundonwhichhestood—andthathe,likethem,woulddieoneday.

TheGreek-derivedwordfortheseyogisisgymnosophists,literally“nakedphilosophers”(eventodaysomegroupsofIndianyogisroamnaked,coatingthemselvesinashes).Alexander,impressedbytheirequanimity,deemedthemtobe“freemen,”andevenconvincedoneyogi,Kalyana,toaccompanyhimonhisjourneyofconquest.Nodoubttheyogi’slifestyleandoutlookresonatedwithAlexander’sownschooling.AlexanderhadbeentutoredbytheGreekphilosopherAristotle.Renownedforhislifelongloveoflearning,Alexanderwouldhaverecognizedtheyogisasexemplarsofanothersourceofwisdom.

TheGreekschoolsofphilosophyespousedanidealofpersonaltransformationthatremarkablyechoesthoseofAsia,asAlexandermayhavefoundinhisexchangeswithKalyana.TheGreeksandtheirheirstheRomans,ofcourse,laidthefoundationforWesternthoughtdowntothepresentday.

Aristotlepositedthegoaloflifeasavirtue-basedeudaimonia—aqualityofflourishing—aviewthatcontinuesundermanyguisesinmodernthought.Virtues,Aristotlesaid,areattainedinpartbyfindingthe“rightmean”betweenextremes;courageliesbetweenimpulsiverisk-takingandcowardice,atemperedmoderationbetweenself-indulgenceandasceticdenial.

And,headded,wearenotbynaturevirtuousbutallhavethepotentialtobecomesothroughtherighteffort.Thateffortincludeswhattodaywewouldcallself-monitoring,theongoingpracticeofnotingourthoughtsandacts.

OtherGreco-Romanphilosophicschoolsusedsimilarpracticesintheirownpathstowardflourishing.FortheStoics,onekeywasseeingthatourfeelingsaboutlife’sevents,notthoseeventsthemselves,determineourhappiness;wefindequanimitybydistinguishingwhatwecancontrolinlifefromwhatwecannot.TodaythatcreedfindsanechointhepopularizedTwelveStepversionoftheologianReinholdNiebuhr’sprayer:

God,grantmetheserenitytoacceptthethingsIcannotchange,CouragetochangethethingsIcan,Andwisdomtoknowthedifference.

Theclassicalwaytothe“wisdomtoknowthedifference”layinmentaltraining.TheseGreekschoolssawphilosophyasanappliedartandtaughtcontemplativeexercisesandself-disciplineaspathstoflourishing.Liketheir

contemplativeexercisesandself-disciplineaspathstoflourishing.LiketheirpeerstotheEast,theGreekssawthatwecancultivatequalitiesofmindthatfosterwell-being.

TheGreekpracticesfordevelopingvirtuesweretosomeextenttaughtopenly,whileotherswereapparentlygivenonlytoinitiateslikeAlexander,whonotedthatthephilosopher’stextsweremorefullyunderstoodinthecontextofthesesecretiveteachings.

IntheGreco-Romantradition,qualitiessuchasintegrity,kindness,patience,andhumilitywereconsideredkeystoenduringwell-being.TheseWesternthinkersandAsianspiritualtraditionsalikesawthevalueincultivatingavirtuouslifeviaaroughlysimilartransformationofbeing.InBuddhism,forexample,theidealofinnerflourishinggetsputintermsofbodhi(inPaliandSanskrit),apathofself-actualizationthatnourishes“theverybestwithinoneself.”20

ARISTOTLE’SDESCENDANTS

Today’spsychologyusesthetermwell-beingforaversionoftheAristotelianmemeflourishing.UniversityofWisconsinpsychologist(andRichie’scolleaguethere)CarolRyff,drawingonAristotleamongmanyotherthinkers,positsamodelofwell-beingwithsixarms:

Self-acceptance,beingpositiveaboutyourself,acknowledgingbothyourbestandnot-so-goodqualities,andfeelingfineaboutbeingjustasyouare.Thistakesanonjudgmentalself-awareness.Personalgrowth,thesenseyoucontinuetochangeanddeveloptowardyourfullpotential—gettingbetterastimegoeson—adoptingnewwaysofseeingorbeingandmakingthemostofyourtalents.“Eachofyouisperfectthewayyouare,”ZenmasterSuzukiRoshitoldhisstudents,adding,“andyoucanusealittleimprovement”—neatlyreconcilingacceptancewithgrowth.Autonomy,independenceinthoughtanddeed,freedomfromsocialpressure,andusingyourownstandardstomeasureyourself.This,bytheway,appliesmoststronglyinindividualisticcultureslike

AustraliaandtheUnitedStates,ascomparedwithcultureslikeJapan,whereharmonywithone’sgrouploomslarger.Mastery,feelingcompetenttohandlelife’scomplexities,seizingopportunitiesastheycomeyourway,andcreatingsituationsthatsuityourneedsandvalues.Satisfyingrelationships,withwarmth,empathy,andtrust,alongwithmutualconcernforeachotherandahealthygive-and-take.Lifepurpose,goalsandbeliefsthatgiveyouasenseofmeaninganddirection.Somephilosophersarguethattruehappinesscomesasaby-productofmeaningandpurposeinlife.

Ryffseesthesequalitiesasamodernversionofeudaimonia—Aristotle’s“highestofallhumangood,”therealizationofyouruniquepotential.21Aswewillseeinthechaptersthatfollow,differentvarietiesofmeditationseemtocultivateoneormoreofthesecapacities.Moreimmediately,severalstudieshavelookedathowmeditationboostedpeople’sratingsonRyff’sownmeasureofwell-being.

FewerthanhalfofAmericans,accordingtotheCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention,reportfeelingastrongsenseofpurposeinlifebeyondtheirjobsandfamilyobligations.22Thatparticularaspectofwell-beingmayhavesignificantimplications:ViktorFranklhaswrittenabouthowasenseofmeaningandpurposeallowedhimandselectotherstosurviveyearsinaNaziconcentrationcampwhilethousandsweredyingaroundthem.23ForFrankl,continuinghisworkasapsychotherapistwithotherprisonersinthecamplentpurposetohislife;foranothermanthere,itwashavingachildwhowasontheoutside;yetanotherfoundpurposeinthebookhewantedtowrite.

Frankl’ssentimentresonateswithafindingthatafterathree-monthmeditationretreat(about540hourstotal),thosepractitionerswhohadstrengthenedasenseofpurposeinlifeduringthattimealsoshowedasimultaneousincreaseintheactivityoftelomeraseintheirimmunecells,evenfivemonthslater.24Thisenzymeprotectsthelengthoftelomeres,thecapsattheendsofDNAstrandsthatreflecthowlongacellwilllive.

It’sasthoughthebody’scellsweresaying,stickaround—you’vegotimportantworktodo.Ontheotherhand,astheseresearchersnote,thisfindingneedstobereplicatedinwell-designedstudiesbeforewecanbemoresure.

Alsoofinterest:eightweeksofavarietyofmindfulnessseemedtoenlargearegioninthebrainstemthatcorrelatedwithaboostinwell-beingonRyff’stest.25Butthestudywasquitesmall—justfourteenpeople—andso,needstoberedonewithalargergroupbeforewecandrawmorethantentativeconclusions.

Similarly,inaseparatestudy,peoplepracticingapopularformofmindfulnessreportedhigherlevelsofwell-beingandothersuchbenefitsuptoayearlater.26Themoreeverydaymindfulness,thegreaterthesubjectiveboostinwell-being.Again,thenumbersinthisstudyweresmall,andabrainmeasure—which,aswe’vesaid,isfarlesssusceptibletopsychologicalskewthanself-evaluations—wouldbeevenmoreconvincing.

So,whilewefindtheconclusionthatmeditationenhanceswell-beinganappealingidea,especiallyasmeditatorsourselves,oursciencesideremainsskeptical.

Studiessuchastheseareoftencitedas“proving”themeritsofmeditation,particularlythesedays,whenmindfulnesshasbecometheflavordujour.Butmeditationresearchvariesenormouslywhenitcomestoscientificsoundness—thoughwhenusedtopromotesomebrandofmeditation,app,orothercontemplative“product,”thisinconvenienttruthgoesmissing.

Inthechaptersthatfollow,we’veusedrigorousstandardstosortoutflufffromfact.Whatdoesscienceactuallytellusabouttheimpactsofmeditation?

T

4

TheBestWeHad

hescene:awoodworkingshop,andtwofellows—we’llcallthemAlandFrank—arehappilychattingawaywhileAlfeedsahugesheetofplywood

intothejaggedbladesofagiantcircularsaw.SuddenlyyounoticethatAlhasnotusedthesafetyguardforthatsawblade—andyourheartbeatspeedsupasyouseehisthumbisheadedtowardthatnastysharp-toothedcircleofsteel.

AlandFrankarelostintheirchatting,bothoblivioustothedangerathand,evenasthatthumbheadsclosertothewhirringblade.Yourheartracesandbeadsofsweatformonyourbrow.YouhavetheurgentwishtowarnAl—buthe’sanactorinthefilmyou’rewatching.

ItDidn’tHavetoHappen,madebytheCanadianFilmBoardtoscarewoodworkersintousingtheirmachine’ssafetydevices,depictsthreeshopaccidentsinitstwelveshortminutes.Likethatthumbheadinginexorablyintotheblade,eachofthembuildsinsuspenseuntilthemomentofimpact:Alloseshisthumbtothecircularsaw;anotherworkerhashisfingerslacerated,andawoodenplankfliesintothemidsectionofabystander.

Thefilmhadalifequiteapartfromitsintendedwarningtowoodworkers.RichardLazarus,apsychologistattheUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,deployedthosedepictionsofgruesomeaccidentsasareliableemotionalstressorinmorethanadecadeofhislandmarkresearch.1HegenerouslygaveDanacopyofthefilmtouseintheresearchatHarvard.

Danshowedthefilmtosomesixtypeople,halfofthemvolunteers(Harvardstudentstakingpsychologycourses)whohadnomeditationexperience,theotherhalfmeditationteacherswithatleasttwoyearsofpractice.Halfthepeopleineachgroupmeditatedjustbeforewatchingthefilm;hetaughttheHarvardnovicestomeditatethereinthelab.Dantoldthoseassignedtoacontrolgrouppickedatrandomtosimplysitandrelax.

Astheirheartrateandsweatresponsejumpedandsubsidedwiththeshopaccidents,Dansatinthecontrolroomnextdoor.Experiencedmeditatorstendedtorecoverfromthestressofseeingthoseupsettingeventsmorequicklythanpeoplewhowerenewtothepractice.2Orsoitseemed.

ThisresearchwassoundenoughtoearnDanaHarvardPhDandtobepublishedinoneofthetopjournalsinhisfield.Evenso,lookingbackwithcloserscrutiny,weseeaplethoraofissuesandproblems.Thosewhoreviewgrantsandjournalarticleshavestrictstandardsforwhatresearchdesignsarebest—thatis,havethemosttrustworthyresults.Fromthatviewpoint,Dan’sresearch—andthemajorityofstudiesofmeditationeventoday—hasflaws.

Forinstance,Danwasthepersonwhotaughtthevolunteerstomeditateortoldthemtojustrelax.ButDanknewthedesiredoutcome,thatmeditationshouldhelpmore—andthatcouldwellhaveinfluencedhowhespoketothetwogroups,perhapsinawaythatencouragedgoodresultsfrommeditationandpooronesfromthecontrolconditionwhojustrelaxed.

Anotherpoint:ofthe313journalarticlesthatcitedDan’sfindings,notoneattemptedtoredothestudytoseeiftheywouldgetsimilaroutcomes.Theseauthorsjustassumedthattheresultsweresturdyenoughtouseasgroundsfortheirownconclusions.

Dan’sstudyisnotalone;thatattitudeprevailsstilltoday.Replicability,asit’sknowninthetrade,standsasastrengthofthescientificmethod;anyotherscientistshouldbeabletoreproduceagivenexperimentandyieldthesamefindings—orrevealthefailuretoreproducethem.Butvery,veryfewevereventry.

Thislackofreplicationloomsasapervasiveprobleminscience,particularlywhenitcomestostudiesofhumanbehavior.Whilepsychologistshavemadeproposalsformakingpsychologicalstudiesmorereplicable,atpresentlittleisknownabouthowmanyofeventhemostcommonlycitedstudieswouldholdup,thoughpossiblymostwould.3Andonlyatinyfractionofstudiesinpsychologyareevertargetsofreplication;thefield’sincentivesfavororiginalwork,notduplication.Plus,psychology,likeallsciences,hasastronginbuiltpublicationbias:scientistsrarelytrytopublishstudieswhentheygetnosignificantresults.Andyetthatnullfindingitselfhassignificance.

Thenthere’sthecrucialdifferencebetween“soft”and“hard”measures.Ifyouaskpeopletoreportontheirownbehaviors,feelings,andthelike—softmeasures—psychologicalfactorslikeaperson’smoodofthemomentandwantingtolookgoodorpleasetheinvestigatorcaninfluenceenormouslyhow

theyrespond.Ontheotherhand,suchbiasesareless(ornotatall)likelytoinfluencephysiologicalprocesseslikeheartrateorbrainactivity,whichmakesthemhardmetrics.

TakeDan’sresearch:hereliedtosomeextentonsoftmeasureswherepeopleevaluatedtheirownreactions.Heusedapopular(amongpsychologists)anxietyassessmentthathadpeopleratethemselvesonitemslike“Ifeelworried,”from“notatall”to“verymuchso,”andfrom“almostnever”to“almostalways.”4Thismethodbyandlargeshowedthemfeelinglessstressedaftertheirfirsttasteofmeditation—afairlycommonfindingovertheyearssinceinmeditationstudies.Butsuchself-reportsarenotoriouslysusceptibleto“expectationdemand,”theimplicitsignalstoreportapositiveoutcome.

Evenbeginnersinmeditationreporttheyfeelmorerelaxedandlessstressedoncetheystart.Suchself-reportsofbetterstressmanagementshowupmuchearlierinmeditators’datathandohardmeasureslikebrainactivity.Thiscouldmeanthatthesenseoflessenedanxietythatmeditatorsexperienceoccursbeforediscernibleshiftsinthehardmeasures—orthattheexpectationofsucheffectsbiaseswhatmeditatorsreport.

Buttheheartdoesn’tlie.Dan’sstudydeployedphysiologicalmeasureslikeheartrateandsweatresponse,whichtypicallycan’tbeintentionallycontrolled,andsoyieldamoreaccurateportraitofaperson’struereactions—especiallycomparedtothosehighlysubjective,moreeasilybiasedself-reportmeasures.

ForhisdissertationDan’smainphysiologicalmeasurewasthegalvanicskinresponse,orGSR,burstsofelectricalactivitythatsignifyadollopofsweat.TheGSRsignalsthebody’sstressarousal.Assomespeculationhasit,inearlyevolutionsweatreleasemighthavemadetheskinlessbrittle,protectinghumansduringhand-to-handcombat.5

Brainmeasuresareevenmoretrustworthythan“peripheral”physiologicaloneslikeheartrate.Butweweretooearlyforsuchmethods,theleastbiasedandmostconvincingofall.Inthe1970s,brainimagingsystemslikethefMRI,SPECT,andfine-grainedcomputerizedanalysisofEEGhadnotyetbeeninvented.6Measuresofresponsesdistantinthebodyfromthebrain—heartandbreathrates,sweat—werethebestDanhad.7Becausethosephysiologicalresponsesreflectacomplexmixofforces,theyareabitmessytointerpret.8

Anotherweaknessofthestudystemsfromtherecordingtechnologyoftheday,longbeforesuchdataweredigitized.Sweatratesweretrackedbythesweepofaneedleonacontinuousspoolofpaper.TheresultingscrawlwaswhatDanporedoverforhours,convertinginkblipsintonumbersfordataanalysis.This

poredoverforhours,convertinginkblipsintonumbersfordataanalysis.Thismeantcountingthesmirchesthatsignifiedaspurtofsweatbeforeandaftereachshopaccident.

Thekeyquestion:Wasthereameaningfuldifferencebetweenthefourconditions—expertversusnovice,toldtomeditateorjustsitquietly—intheirspeedofrecoveryfromtheheightsofarousalduringtheaccidents?Theresults,asrecordedbyDan,suggestedthatmeditatingspeduptherecoveryrate,andthatseasonedmeditatorsrecoveredquickest.9

ThatphraseasrecordedbyDanspeakstoanotherpotentialproblem:itwasDanwhodidthescoring,andthewholeendeavorwasmeanttosupportahypothesisheendorsed.Thissituationfavorsexperimenterbias,wherethepersondesigningastudyandanalyzingitsdatamightskewtheresultstowardadesiredoutcome.

Dan’sdim(okay,verydim)recollectionafternearlyfiftyyearsisthatamongthemeditators,whentherewasanambiguousGSR—onethatmighthavebeenatthepeakofreactiontotheaccident,orjustafterward—hescoreditasatthepeakratherthanatthebeginningoftherecoveryslope.Theneteffectofsuchabiaswouldbetomakemeditators’sweatresponseseemtoreactmoretotheaccident,whilerecoveringmorequickly(however,asweshallsee,thisispreciselythepatternfoundinthemostadvancedmeditatorsstudiedsofar).

Researchonbiashasfoundtwolevels:ourconsciouspredilectionsand,hardertocounter,ourunconsciousones.TothisdayDancannotswearthathisscoringofthoseinkspotswasunbiased.Alongthoselines,Dansharedthedilemmaofmostscientistswhodoresearchonmeditation:theyarethemselvesmeditators,whichcanencouragesuchbias,evenifunconscious.

UNBIASINGSCIENCE

ItcouldhavebeenascenestraightoutofaBollywoodversionoftheGodfathermovies:ablackCadillaclimopulledupatanassignedtimeandplace,thebackdooropened,andDangotin.Seatednexttohimwasthebigboss—notMarlonBrando/DonCorleone,butratherasmallish,beardedyogicladinawhitedhoti.

YogiZhadcomefromtheEasttoAmericainthe1960sandquicklycapturedheadlinesbyminglingwithcelebrities.Heattractedahugefollowing,andrecruitedhundredsofyoungAmericanstobecometeachersofhismethod.In1971,justbeforehisfirsttriptoIndia,Danattendedateachertraining

In1971,justbeforehisfirsttriptoIndia,Danattendedateachertrainingsummercamptheyogiran.

YogiZsomehowheardthatDanwasaHarvardgradstudentabouttotraveltoIndiaonapredoctoralfellowship.Theyogihadaplanforthispredoc.HandingDanalistofnamesandaddressesofhisownfollowersinIndia,YogiZinstructedhimtolookeachoneup,interviewthem,andthenwriteadoctoraldissertationwiththethesisandconclusionthatthisparticularyogi’smethodwastheonlywaytobecome“enlightened”inthisdayandage.

ForDantheideawasabhorrent.Suchoutrighthijackingofresearchtopromoteaparticularbrandofmeditationtypifiesthehustlethat,regrettably,hascharacterizedacertainkindof“spiritualteacher”(rememberSwamiX).Whensuchateacherengagesintheself-promotiontypicalofsomecommercialbrand,itsignalsthatsomeonehopestousetheappearanceofinnerprogressintheserviceofmarketing.Andwhenresearcherswedtoaparticularbrandofmeditationreportpositivefindings,thesamequestionablebiasarises,aswellasanotherquestion:Weretherenegativeresultsthatwentunreported?

Forinstance,themeditationteachersinDan’sstudytaughtTranscendentalMeditation(TM).TMresearchhashadasomewhatcheckeredhistoryinpartbecausemostofithasbeendonebystaffatMaharishiUniversityofManagement(formerlyMaharishiInternationalUniversity),whichisapartoftheorganizationthatpromotesTM.Thisraisestheconcernofaconflictofinterest,evenwhentheresearchhasbeenwelldone.

Forthisreason,Richie’slabintentionallyemploysseveralscientistswhoareskepticalofmeditation’seffects,andwhoraiseahealthynumberofissuesandquestionsthat“truebelievers”inthepracticemightoverlookorsweepundertherug.Oneresult:Richie’slabhaspublishedseveralnonfindings,studiesthattestaspecifichypothesisabouttheeffectofmeditationandfailtoobservetheexpectedeffect.Thelabalsopublishesfailurestoreplicate—studiesthatdonotgetthesameresultswhenduplicatingthemethodofpreviouslypublishedpapersthatfoundmeditationhassomebeneficialeffect.Suchfailurestoreplicateearlierfindingscallthemintoquestion.

Bringinginskepticsisbutoneofmanywaystominimizeexperimenterbias.Anotherwouldbetostudyagroupthatistoldaboutmeditationpracticesandtheirbenefitsbutgetsnoinstruction.Better:an“activecontrol,”whereonegroupengagesinanactivityunlikemeditation,onethattheybelievewillbenefitthem,suchasexercise.

AfurtherdilemmainourHarvardresearch,alsostillpervasiveinpsychology,wasthattheundergradsavailableforstudyinourlabwerenot

typicalofhumanityasawhole.OurexperimentsweredonewithsubjectsknowninthefieldasWEIRD:Western,educated,industrialized,rich,andfromdemocraticcultures.10AndusingHarvardstudents,anoutliergroupevenamongtheWEIRD,makesthedatalessvaluableinsearchingforuniversalsinhumannature.

THEVARIETIESOFTHEMEDITATIVEEXPERIENCE

Richieinhisdissertationresearchwasamongthefirstneuroscientiststoaskifwecanidentifyaneuralsignatureofattentionskill.Thatbasicquestionwas,inthosedays,quiterespectable.

ButRichie’sPhDresearchwasinthespiritofthatconcealedexcursionintothemindinhisundergraduatework.Theagendaembedded,subrosa,inthestudy:exploringifsignsofskillinattentiondifferedinmeditatorsandnonmeditators.Didmeditatorsgetbetteratfocusing?Inthosedays,thatwasnotarespectablequestion.

RichiemeasuredthebrainelectricalsignalsfromthescalpofmeditatorsastheyheardtonesorsawflashingLEDlights,whileheinstructedthemtofocusonthesoundsandignorethelights,orviceversa.Richieanalyzedtheelectricalsignalsfor“event-relatedpotential”(ERP),indicatedbyspecificblipsinresponsetoalightand/ortone.TheERP,embeddedinachorusofnoise,isasignalsominusculeitismeasuredinmicrovolts—millionthsofavolt.Thesetinysignalsofferawindowonhowweallocateourattention.

Richiefoundthatthesizeofthesetinysignalswasdiminishedinresponsetothetonewhenmeditatorsfocusedonthelight,whilethesignalstriggeredbythelightwerereducedinsizewhenthemeditatorsfocusedtheirattentiononthetone.Thatfindingalonewouldbeho-hum;wewouldexpectthat.Butthispatternofblockingouttheunwantedmodalitywasmuchstrongerinthemeditatorsthaninthecontrols—someofthefirstevidencethatmeditatorswerebetteratfocusingtheirattentionthannonmeditators.

Sinceselectingatargetforfocusandignoringdistractionsmarksakeyattentionskill,Richieconcludedthatbrainelectricalrecordings—theEEG—couldbeusedforthisassessment(routinetoday,butastepinscientificprogressbackthen).Still,theevidencethatmeditatorswereanybetteratthisthanthe

backthen).Still,theevidencethatmeditatorswereanybetteratthisthanthecontrolgroup,whohadnevermeditated,wasratherweak.

Inretrospect,wecanseeonereasonwhythisevidencewasinitselfquestionable:Richiehadrecruitedamixofmeditators,whodeployedvariousmethods.Backin1975wewerequitenaiveabouthowimportantthesevariationsintechniquewere.Todayweknowtherearemanyaspectsofattention,andthatdifferentkindsofmeditationtrainavarietyofmentalhabits,andso,impactmentalskillsinvaryingways.

Forexample,researchersattheMaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciencesinLeipzig,Germany,hadnovicespracticedailyforafewmonthsthreedifferenttypesofmeditation:focusingonbreathing;generatingloving-kindness;andmonitoringthoughtswithoutgettingsweptawaybythem.11Breathfocus,theyfound,wascalming—seemingtoconfirmawidespreadassumptionaboutmeditation’susefulnessasameanstorelax.Butincontradictiontothatstereotype,neithertheloving-kindnesspracticenormonitoringthoughtsmadethebodymorerelaxed,apparentlybecauseeachdemandsmentaleffort:forexample,whilewatchingthoughtsyoucontinuallygetsweptupinthem—andthen,whenyounoticethishashappened,needtomakeaconsciousefforttosimplywatchagain.Inaddition,theloving-kindnesspractice,whereyouwishyourselfandotherswell,understandablycreatedapositivemood,whiletheothertwomethodsdidnot.

So,differingtypesofmeditationproduceuniqueresults—afactthatshouldmakeitaroutinemovetoidentifythespecifictypebeingstudied.Yetconfusionaboutthespecificsremainsalltoocommon.Oneresearchgroup,forinstance,hascollectedstate-of-the-artdataonbrainanatomyinfiftymeditators,aninvaluabledataset.12Exceptthatthenamesofthemeditationpracticesbeingstudiedrevealsamixtureoftypes—ahodgepodge.Hadthespecificmentaltrainingentailedbyeachmeditationtypebeenmethodicallyrecorded,thatdatasetmightwellyieldevenmorevaluablefindings.(Evenso,kudosfordisclosingthisinformation,whichtoooftengoesunnoted.)

Aswereadthroughthenowvasttroveofresearchonmeditation,wesometimeswincewhenwecomeacrosstheconfusionandnaivetéofsomescientistsaboutthespecifics.Toooftentheyaresimplymistaken,likethescientificarticlethatsaidthatinbothZenandGoenka-stylevipassana,meditatorshavetheireyesopen(what’swronghere:Goenkahaspeopleclosetheireyes).

Ahandfulofstudieshaveusedan“antimeditation”methodasanactivecontrol.Inoneversionofthisso-calledantimeditation,volunteersweretoldtoconcentrateonasmanypositivethoughtsaspossible—whichactuallyresemblessomecontemplativemethods,suchastheloving-kindnessmeditationwewillreviewinchaptersix.Thefactthatthoseexperimentersthoughtthiswasunlikemeditationspeakstotheirconfusionaboutwhatexactlytheywereresearching.

Theruleofthumb—thatwhatgetspracticedgetsimproved—underscorestheimportanceofmatchingagivenmentalstrategyinmeditationtoitsresult.Thisistrueequallyforthosewhostudymeditationandthosewhomeditate:onemustbeawareofthelikelyoutcomesfromagivenmeditationapproach.Theyarenotallthesame,contrarytothemisunderstandingamongsomeresearchers,andevenpractitioners.

Intherealmofmind(aseverywhereelse),whatyoudodetermineswhatyouget.Insum,“meditation”isnotasingleactivitybutawiderangeofpractices,allactingintheirownparticularwaysinthemindandbrain.

LostinWonderland,AliceaskedtheCheshireCat,“WhichwayshouldIgo?”

Hereplied,“Thatdependsonwhereyouwanttogetto.”TheCheshireCat’sadvicetoAliceholds,too,formeditation.

COUNTINGTHEHOURS

EachofDan’s“expert”meditators,allTranscendentalMeditationteachers,hadpracticedTMforatleasttwoyears.ButDanhadnowayofknowinghowmanytotalhourstheyhadputinoverthoseyears.Nordidheknowwhattheactualqualityofthosehoursmighthavebeen.

Fewresearchers,eventoday,havethiscrucialpieceofdata.But,aswewillseeinmoredetailinchapterthirteen,“AlteringTraits,”ourmodelofchangetrackshowmanylifetimehoursofpracticeameditatorhasdoneandwhetheritwasdailyoronretreat.Thesetotalhoursarethenconnectedwithshiftsinqualitiesofbeingandtheunderlyingdifferencesinthebrainthatgiverisetothem.

Veryoftenmeditatorsarelumpedintogrosscategoriesofexperience,like“beginner”and“expert,”withoutanyfurtherspecifics.Oneresearchgroupreportedthedailytimethepeopletheystudiedputintomeditation—ranging

reportedthedailytimethepeopletheystudiedputintomeditation—rangingfromtenminutesafewtimesaweekto240minutesdaily—butnothowmanymonthsoryearstheyhaddoneso,whichisessentialincalculatinglifetimehoursofpractice.

Yetthiscalculationgoesmissinginthevastmajorityofmeditationstudies.SothatclassicZenstudyfromthe1960sshowingafailuretohabituatetorepeatedsounds—oneofthefewexistingthenandonethathadgottenusinterestedinthefirstplace—actuallygavesparsedataontheZenmonks’meditationexperience.Wasitanhouraday,tenminutes,zeroonsomedays,orsixhourseveryday?Howmanyretreats(sesshins)ofmoreintensivepracticedidtheydo,andhowmanyhoursofmeditationdideachinvolve?Wehavenoidea.

Tothisdaythelistofstudiesthatsufferfromthisuncertaintycouldgoonandon.Butgettingdetailedinformationaboutthetotallifetimehoursofameditator’spracticehasbecomestandardoperatingprocedureinRichie’slab.Eachofthemeditatorstheystudyreportonwhatkindofmeditationpracticetheydo,howoftenandforhowlongtheydoitinagivenweek,andwhethertheygoonretreats.

Ifso,theynotehowmanyhoursadaytheypracticeonretreat,howlongtheretreatis,andhowmanysuchretreatstheyhavedone.Evenfurther,themeditatorscarefullyrevieweachretreatandestimatethetimespentdoingdifferentstylesofmeditationpractice.ThismathallowstheDavidsongrouptoanalyzetheirdataintermsoftotalhoursofpracticeandseparatethetimefordifferentstylesandforretreatversushomehours.

Aswewillsee,theresometimesisadose-responserelationshipwhenitcomestothebrainandbehavioralbenefitsfrommeditation:themoreyoudoit,thebetterthepayoff.Thatmeansthatwhenresearchersfailtoreportthelifetimehoursofthemeditatorstheyarestudying,somethingimportanthasgonemissing.Bythesametoken,toomanymeditationstudiesthatincludean“expert”groupshowwildvariationinwhatthattermmeans—anddon’tuseaprecisemetricforhowmanyhoursthose“experts”havepracticed.

Ifthepeoplebeingstudiedaremeditatingforthefirsttime—say,beingtrainedinmindfulness—theirnumberofpracticehoursisstraightforward(theinstructionhoursplushowevermanytheydoathomeontheirown).Yetmanyofthemoreinterestingstudieslookatseasonedmeditatorswithoutcalculatingeachperson’slifetimehours,whichcanvarygreatly.One,forexample,lumpedtogethermeditatorswhohadfromoneyearofexperiencetotwenty-nineyears!

Thenthere’sthematterofexpertiseamongthosegivingmeditationinstruction.Ahandfulofstudiesamongthemanywelookedatthoughttomentionhowmanyyearsofexperienceinmeditationtheteachershad,though

mentionhowmanyyearsofexperienceinmeditationtheteachershad,thoughnonecalculatedtheirlifetimehours.Inonestudytheuppernumberwasaboutfifteenyears;thelowestwaszero.

BEYONDTHEHAWTHORNEEFFECT

Waybackinthe1920s,attheHawthorneWorks,afactoryforelectricalequipmentnearChicago,experimenterssimplyimprovedlightinginthatfactoryandslightlyadjustedworkschedules.But,witheventhosesmallchangesforthebetter,peopleworkedharder—atleastforawhile.

Thetake-home:anypositiveintervention(and,perhaps,simplyhavingsomeoneobserveyourbehavior)willmovepeopletosaytheyfeelbetterorimproveinsomeotherway.Such“Hawthorneeffects,”though,donotmeantherewasanyuniquevalue-addedfactorfromagivenintervention;thesameupwardbumpwouldoccurfromanychangepeopleregardedaspositive.

Richie’slab,sensitizedtoissuesliketheHawthorneeffect,hasdevotedconsiderablethoughtandefforttousingpropercomparisonconditionsintheirstudiesofmeditation.Theinstructor’senthusiasmforagivenmethodcaninfectthosewholearnit—andsothe“control”methodshouldbetaughtwiththesamelevelofpositivityasistrueforthemeditation.

Toteaseoutextraneouseffectslikethesefromtheactualimpactsofmeditation,RichieandhiscolleaguesdevelopedaHealthEnhancementProgram(HEP)asacomparisonconditionforstudiesofmindfulness-basedstressreduction.HEPconsistsofmusictherapywithrelaxation;nutritionaleducation;andmovementexerciseslikepostureimprovement,balance,corestrengthening,stretching,andwalkingorjogging.

Inthelabs’studies,theinstructorswhotaughtHEPbelieveditwouldhelp,justasmuchasdidthosewhotaughtmeditation.Suchan“activecontrol”canneutralizefactorslikeenthusiasm,andsobetteridentifytheuniquebenefitsofanyintervention—inthiscase,meditation—toseewhatitaddsoverandabovetheHawthorneedge.

Richie’sgrouprandomlyassignedvolunteerstoeitherHEPormindfulness-basedstressreduction(MBSR)andthenbeforeandafterthetraininghadthemfilloutquestionnairesthatinearlierresearchhadreflectedimprovementsfrommeditation.Butinthisstudy,bothgroupsreportedcomparableimprovementon

thesesubjectivemeasuresofgeneraldistress,anxiety,andmedicalsymptoms.ThisledRichie’sgrouptoconcludethatmuchofthestressreliefimprovementsbeginnerscredittomeditationdonotseemtobethatunique.13

Moreover,onaquestionnairethatwasspecificallydevelopedtomeasuremindfulness,absolutelynodifferencewasfoundinthelevelofimprovementfromMBSRorHEP.14

ThisledRichie’slabtoconcludethatforthisvarietyofmindfulness,andlikelyforanyothermeditation,manyofthereportedbenefitsintheearlystagesofpracticecanbechalkeduptoexpectation,socialbondinginthegroup,instructorenthusiasm,orother“demandcharacteristics.”Ratherthanbeingfrommeditationperse,anyreportedbenefitsmaysimplybesignsthatpeoplehavepositivehopesandexpectations.

Suchdataareawarningtoanyonelookingforameditationpracticetobewaryofexaggeratedclaimsaboutitsbenefits.Andalsoawake-upcalltothescientificcommunitytobemorerigorousindesigningmeditationstudies.Justfindingthatpeoplepracticingoneoranotherkindofmeditationreportimprovementscomparedtothoseinacontrolgroupwhodonothingdoesnotmeansuchbenefitsareduetothemeditationitself.Yetthisisperhapsthemostcommonparadigmstillusedinresearchonthebenefitsofmeditation—anditcloudsthepictureofwhatthetrueadvantagesofthepracticemightbe.

Wemightexpectsimilarenthusiasticreportsfromsomeonewhoexpectsaboostinwell-beingbytakingupPilates,bowling,orthePaleoDiet.

WHATEXACTLYIS“MINDFULNESS”?

Thenthereistheconfusionaboutwhatwemeanbymindfulness,perhapsthemostpopularmethoddujouramongresearchers.Somescientistsusethetermasastandinforanyandallkindsofmeditation.Andinpopularusage,mindfulnesscanrefertomeditationingeneral,despitethefactthatmindfulnessisbutoneofawidevarietyofmethods.

Todigdownabit,mindfulnesshasbecomethemostcommonEnglishtranslationofthePalilanguage’swordsati.Scholars,however,translatesatiinmanyotherways—“awareness,”“attention,”“retention,”even“discernment.”15

Inshort,thereisnotasingleEnglishequivalentforsationwhichallexpertsagree.16

Somemeditationtraditionsreserve“mindfulness”fornoticingwhenthemindwanders.Inthissense,mindfulnessbecomespartofalargersequencewhichstartswithafocusononething,thenthemindwanderingofftosomethingelse,andthenthemindfulmoment:noticingthemindhaswandered.Thesequenceendswithreturningattentiontothepointoffocus.

Thatsequence—familiartoanymeditator—couldalsobecalled“concentration,”wheremindfulnessplaysasupportingroleintheefforttofocusononething.Inone-pointedfocusonamantra,forexample,sometimestheinstructionis,“Wheneveryounoticeyourmindwandering,gentlystartthemantraagain.”Inthemechanicsofmeditation,focusingononethingonlymeansalsonoticingwhenyourmindwandersoffsoyoucanbringitback—andsoconcentrationandmindfulnessgohandinhand.

Anothercommonmeaningofmindfulnessreferstoafloatingawarenessthatwitnesseswhateverhappensinourexperiencewithoutjudgingorotherwisereacting.PerhapsthemostwidelyquoteddefinitioncomesfromJonKabat-Zinn:“Theawarenessthatemergesthroughpayingattentiononpurpose,inthepresentmoment,andnonjudgmentallytotheunfoldingofexperience.”17

Fromtheviewpointofcognitivescience,there’sanothertwistwhenitcomestotheprecisemethodsused:what’scalled“mindfulness,”byscientistsandpractitionersalike,canrefertoverydifferentwaystodeployattention.Forexample,thewaymindfulnessgetsdefinedinaZenorTheravadancontextlookslittleliketheunderstandingoftheterminsomeTibetantraditions.

Eachreferstodiffering(sometimessubtlyso)attentionalstances—andquitepossiblytodisparatebraincorrelates.Soitbecomesessentialthatresearchersunderstandwhatkindofmindfulnesstheyareactuallystudying—orif,indeed,aparticularvarietyofmeditationactuallyismindfulness.

Themeaningofthetermmindfulnessinscientificresearchhastakenastrangeturn.Oneofthemostcommonlyusedmeasuresofmindfulnesswasnotdevelopedonthebasisofwhathappensduringactualmindfulnessmeditationbutratherbytestinghundredsofcollegeundergraduatesonaquestionnairethattheresearchersthoughtwouldcapturedifferentfacetsofmindfulness.18Forexample,youareaskedwhetherstatementslikethesearetrueforyou:“Iwatchmyfeelingswithoutgettingcarriedawaybythem”or“Ifinditdifficulttostayfocusedonwhat’shappeninginthepresentmoment.”

Thetestincludesqualitieslikenotjudgingyourself—forexample,whenyouhaveaninappropriatefeeling.Thisallseemsfineatfirstglance.Suchameasureofmindfulnessshouldanddoescorrelatewithpeople’sprogressintrainingprogramslikeMBSR,andthetestscorescorrelatedwiththeamountandqualityofmindfulnesspracticeitself.19Fromatechnicalviewpointthat’sverygood—it’scalled“constructvalidity”inthetestingtrade.

ButwhenRichie’sgroupputthatmeasuretoanothertechnicaltest,theyfoundproblemsin“discriminantvalidity,”theabilityofameasurenotjusttocorrelatewithwhatitshould—likeMBSR—butalsonottocorrelatewhenitshouldnot.Inthiscase,thattestshouldnotreflectthechangesamongthoseintheHEPactivecontrolgroup,whichwasintentionallydesignednottoenhancemindfulnessinanyway.

ButtheresultsfromtheHEPfolkswereprettymuchlikethosefromMBSR—anuptickinmindfulnessasassessedontheself-reporttest.Moreformally,therewaszeroevidencethatthismeasurehaddiscriminantvalidity.Oops.

Anotherwidelyusedself-reportmeasureofmindfulness,inonestudy,showedapositivecorrelationbetweenbingedrinkingandmindfulness—themoredrinking,thegreaterthemindfulness.Seemslikesomethingisoff-basehere!20Andasmallstudywithtwelveseasoned(averageof5,800hoursofpractice)andtwelvemoreexpertmeditators(averageof11,000hoursofpractice)foundtheydidnotdifferfromanonmeditatinggroupontwoverycommonlyusedquestionnairemeasuresofmindfulness,perhapsbecausetheyaremoreawareofthewanderingsoftheirmindthanmostpeople.21

Anyquestionnairethataskspeopletoreportonthemselvescanbesusceptibletoskews.Oneresearcherputitmorebluntly:“Thesecanbegamed.”ForthatreasontheDavidsongrouphascomeupwithwhattheyconsideramorerobustbehavioralmeasure:yourabilitytomaintainfocusasyoucountyourbreaths,onebyone.

Thisisnotassimpleasitmaysound.Inthetestyoupressthedownarrowonakeyboardoneachoutbreath.Andtouptheodds,oneveryninthexhaleyoutapadifferentkey,therightarrow.Thenyoustartcountingyourbreathsfromonetonineagain.22Thestrengthofthistest:thedifferencebetweenyourcountandtheactualnumberofbreathsyoutookrendersanobjectivemeasurefarlesspronetopsychologicalbias.Whenyourmindwanders,yourcountingaccuracysuffers.Asexpected,expertmeditatorsperformsignificantlybetterthannonmeditators,andscoresonthistestimprovewithtraininginmindfulness.23

Allofthiscautionaryreview—thetroubleswithourfirstattemptsat

Allofthiscautionaryreview—thetroubleswithourfirstattemptsatmeditationresearch,theadvantagesofanactivecontrolgroup,theneedformorerigorandprecisioninmeasuringmeditationimpacts—seemsafittingpreludetoourwadingintotherisingseaofresearchonmeditation.

Insummarizingtheseresultswe’vetriedtoapplythestrictestexperimentalstandards,whichletsusfocusontheverystrongestfindings.Thismeanssettingasidethevastmajorityofresearchinmeditation—includingresultsscientistsviewasquestionable,inconclusive,orotherwisemarred.

Aswe’veseen,oursomewhatflawedresearchmethodsduringourHarvardgraduateschooldaysreflectedthegeneralquality—orlackofit—duringthefirstdecadesofmeditationstudies,the1970sand1980s.Todayourinitialresearchattemptswouldnotmeetourownstandardstobeincludedhere.Indeed,alargeproportionofmeditationstudiesinonewayoranotherfailtomeetthegoldstandardsforresearchmethodsthatareessentialforpublicationinthetop,“A-level”scientificjournals.

Tobesure,overtheyearstherehasbeenaratchetingupwardofsophisticationasthenumberofstudiesofmeditationhasexplodedtomorethanonethousandperyear.Thistsunamiofmeditationresearchcreatesafoggypicture,withaconfusingwelterofresults.Beyondourfocusonthestrongestfindings,wetrytohighlightthemeaningfulpatternswithinthatchaos.

We’vebrokendownthismassoffindingsalongthelinesoftraitchangesdescribedintheclassicliteratureofmanygreatspiritualtraditions.Weseesuchtextsasofferingworkinghypothesesfromancienttimesfortoday’sresearch.

We’vealsorelatedthesetraitchangestothebrainsystemsinvolved,whereverthedataallow.Thefourmainneuralpathwaysmeditationtransformsare,first,thoseforreactingtodisturbingevents—stressandourrecoveryfromit(whichDantriednotsosuccessfullytodocument).Aswewillsee,thesecondbrainsystem,forcompassionandempathy,turnsouttoberemarkablyreadyforanupgrade.Thethird,circuitryforattention,Richie’searlyinterest,alsoimprovesinseveralways—nosurprise,giventhatmeditationatitscoreretrainsourhabitsoffocus.Thefourthneuralsystem,forourverysenseofself,getslittlepressinmoderntalkaboutmeditation,thoughithastraditionallybeenamajortargetforalteration.

Whenthesestrandsofchangearetwinedtogether,therearetwomajorwaysanyonebenefitsfromcontemplativeeffort:havingahealthybodyandahealthymind.Wedevotechapterstotheresearchoneachofthese.

Inteasingoutthemaintraiteffectsofmeditation,wefacedagargantuantask—onethatwe’vesimplifiedbylimitingourconclusionstotheverybest

studies.Thismorerigorouslookcontrastswiththetoo-commonpracticeofacceptingfindings—andtoutingthem—simplybecausetheyarepublishedina“peer-reviewed”journal.Forone,academicjournalsthemselvesvaryinthestandardsbywhichpeersreviewarticles;we’vefavoredA-leveljournals,thosewiththehigheststandards.Foranother,we’velookedcarefullyatthemethodsused,ratherthanignoringthemanydrawbacksandlimitationstothesepublishedstudiesthataredutifullylistedattheendsofsucharticles.

Tostart,Richie’sresearchgroupgatheredanexhaustivecollectionforagiventopiclikecompassionfromalljournalarticlespublishedontheeffectsofmeditation.Theythenwinnowedthemtoselectthosethatmetthehigheststandardsofexperimentaldesign.So,forexample,oftheoriginal231reportsoncultivatingloving-kindnessorcompassion,only37mettopdesignstandards.AndwhenRichielookedthroughthelensesofdesignstrengthandofimportance,eliminatedoverlap,andotherwisedistilledthem,thiscloserscrutinyshrankthatnumberto8orsostudies,whosefindingswetalkaboutinchaptersix,“PrimedforLove,”alongwithafewothersthatraisecompellingissues.

Ourscientificcolleaguesmightexpectafarmoredetailed—okay,obsessive—accountingofalltherelevantstudies,butthat’snotouragendahere.Thatsaid,weshouldnodwithgreatappreciationtothemanyresearcheffortswedidnotincludewhosefindingsagreewithouraccount(ordisagree,oraddatwist),someexcellentandsomenotso.

Butlet’skeepthissimple.

E

5

AMindUndisturbed

verythingyoudo,beitgreatorsmall,isbutone-eighthoftheproblem,”asixth-centuryChristianmonkadmonishedhisfellowrenunciates,

“whereastokeepone’sstateundisturbedeveniftherebyoneshouldfailtoaccomplishthetask,istheotherseven-eighths.”1

Amindundisturbedmarksaprominentgoalofmeditationpathsinallthegreatspiritualtraditions.ThomasMerton,aTrappistcontemplative,wrotehisownversionofapoemlaudingthisveryquality,takenfromtheancientannalsofTaoism.Hetellsofacraftsmanwhocoulddrawperfectcircleswithoutusingacompass,andwhosemindwas“freeandwithoutconcern.”2

Amindunworriedhasasitsoppositetheangstlifebringsus:moneyworries,workingtoohard,familyproblems,healthtroubles.Innature,stressepisodeslikeencounteringapredatoraretemporary,givingthebodytimetorecover.Inmodernlifestressorsaremostlypsychological,notbiological,andcanbeongoing(ifonlyinourthoughts),likeahorrificbossortroublewithfamily.Suchstressorstriggerthosesameancientbiologicalreactions.Ifthesestressreactionslastforalongtime,theycanmakeussick.

Ourvulnerabilitytostress-worseneddiseaseslikediabetesorhypertensionreflectsthedownsideinourbrain’sdesign.Theupsidereflectsthegloriesofthehumancortex,whichhasbuiltcivilizations(andthecomputerthisisbeingwrittenon).Butthebrain’sexecutivecenter,locatedbehindtheforeheadinourprefrontalcortex,givesusbothauniqueadvantageamongallanimalsandaparadoxicaldisadvantage:theabilitytoanticipatethefuture—andworryaboutit—aswellastothinkaboutthepast—andregret.

AsEpictetus,aGreekphilosopher,putitcenturiesago,it’snotthethingsthathappentousthatareupsettingbuttheviewwetakeofthosedoings.AmoremodernsentimentcomesfrompoetCharlesBukowski:it’snotthebigthings

modernsentimentcomesfrompoetCharlesBukowski:it’snotthebigthingsthatdriveusmad,but“theshoelacethatsnapswithnotimeleft.”

Thesciencehereshowsthatthemoreweperceivesuchhasslesinourlives,thehigherourlevelsofstresshormoneslikecortisol.That’sabitominous:cortisol,ifraisedchronically,hasdeleteriousimpactslikeanincreasedriskofdyingfromheartdisease.3Canmeditationhelp?

FROMTHEBACKOFANENVELOPE

WefirstgottoknowJonKabat-ZinnduringourHarvarddays,whenhehadjustfinishedhisPhDinmolecularbiologyatMITandwasexploringmeditationandyoga.JonwasastudentofKoreanZenmasterSeungSahn,whohadameditationcenterinthesameCambridgeneighborhoodwhereDanwasliving.Andnotfaraway,inRichie’ssecond-floorapartmentoffHarvardSquare,JongaveRichiehisfirstinstructioninmeditationandyoga,shortlybeforeRichie’striptoIndia.

Alike-mindedmeditatingscientist,JonhadjoinedourteamwhenwestudiedSwamiXatHarvardMedicalSchool.JonhadjustgottenafellowshipinanatomyandcellbiologyatthenewlyopenedUniversityofMassachusettsMedicalSchoolinWorcester,anhour’sdrivefromCambridge.Theanatomywaswhatinterestedhimmost—JonhadalreadybegunteachingyogaclassesinCambridge.

InthosedaysJonoftenwentonretreatsattheInsightMeditationSociety(IMS),thenrecentlyfounded,inBarre,alsoaboutanhourawayfromBostonandnotfarfromWorcester.In1974,severalyearsbeforeIMSwasfounded,JonhadspenttwoweeksonefreezingearlyAprilinanunheatedGirlScoutcampintheBerkshires,rentedforavipassanacourse.Theteacher,RobertHover,hadbeencommissionedtoteachbytheBurmesemasterUBaKhin,who,youmightremember,wasalsotheteacherofS.N.Goenka,whoseretreatsDanandRichieattendedinIndia.

LikeGoenka,themainmethodsHovertaughtwere,initially,tofocusonyourbreathinordertobuildconcentrationforthefirstthreedaysoftheretreat,andthentosystematicallyscanthebody’ssensationsveryslowly,fromheadtotoe,overandoveragainforthenextsevendays.Duringthescanyoufocusedonlyonthebarebodilysensations—thenorminthatmeditationlineage.

Hover’sinstructionsincludedseveraltwo-hourmeditationsittingsduringwhichstudentsvowednottomakeasinglevoluntarymovement—twiceaslongasthoseatGoenka’scourses.Theseimmobilesessionsproducedalevelofpain,Jonsaid,hehadneverexperiencedinhislife.Butashesatthroughthatunbearablepainandscannedhisbodytofocusonhisexperience,thepaindissolvedintopuresensations.

OnthisretreatJonhadaninsight,whichhequicklywrotedownonthebackofanenvelope,thattheremightbeawaytosharethebenefitsofmeditationpracticeswithmedicalpatients,especiallythoseexperiencingchronicpainthatwouldn’tgoawayjustbychangingtheirpostureorstoppingthemeditationpractice.CoupledwithasuddenvisionthatcametohimafewyearslateronaretreatatIMSandthatdrewtogetherdisparatepartsofhisownpracticehistoryintoaformthatwouldbeaccessibletoanyone,theprogramnowknownaroundtheworldasmindfulness-basedstressreduction,orMBSR,cameintobeinginSeptemberof1979attheUniversityofMassachusettsMedicalCenter.4

Inhisvisionherealizedthatpainclinicsarefilledwithpeoplewhosesymptomsareexcruciatingandwhocan’tescapethepainexceptthroughdebilitatingnarcotics.Hesawthatthebodyscanandothermindfulnesspracticescouldhelpthesepatientsuncouplethecognitiveandemotionalpartsoftheirexperienceofpainfromthepuresensation,aperceptualshiftthatcanitselfbeasignificantrelief.

Butmostofthesepatients—arandomsliceoffolksfromtheworking-classenvironsofWorcester—couldnotsitstillforlongperiodsoftimelikethededicatedmeditatorsHovertaught.SoJonadaptedamethodfromhisyogatraining,alying-downbodyscanmeditationwhich,similartotheHoverapproach,hasyouconnectwithandthenmovethroughkeyregionsofthebodyinasystematicsequence,startingwiththetoesoftheleftfoot,andwindingupatthetopofthehead.Thekeypoint:itispossibletoregisterandtheninvestigateandtransformyourrelationshiptowhateveryouaresensingatagivenplaceinthebody,evenifitishighlyunpleasant.

BorrowingfrombothhisZenbackgroundandvipassana,Jonaddedasittingmeditationwherepeoplepaycarefulattentiontotheirbreath,lettinggoofthoughtsorsensationsthatarise—justbeingawareofattendingitself,notoftheobjectofattention,thebreathatthebeginning,andthenotherobjectssuchassounds,thoughts,emotions,andofcourse,bodilysensationsofallkinds.And,takinganothercuefromZenandvipassana,headdedmindfulwalking,mindfuleating,andageneralawarenessoflife’sactivities,includingone’srelationships.

WewerepleasedthatJonpointedtoourHarvardresearchasevidence(otherwiseprettyscantinthosedays)thatmethodstakenfromcontemplativepathsandputinnewformswithouttheirspiritualcontextcouldhavebenefitsinthemodernworld.5Thesedaysthatevidencehasgrownmorethanample;MBSRhasrisentothetopofmeditationpracticesundergoingscientificscrutiny.MBSRmaybethemostwidelypracticedformofmindfulnessanywhere,taughtaroundtheworldinhospitalsandclinics,schools,evenbusinesses.OneofthemanybenefitsclaimedforMBSR:boostinghowwellpeoplehandlestress.

InanearlystudyoftheimpactofMBSRonstressreactivity,PhilippeGoldin(anSRIattendee)andhismentoratStanfordUniversity,JamesGross,studiedasmallgroupofpatientswithsocialanxietydisorderwhounderwentthestandardeight-weekMBSRprogram.6Beforeandafterthetraining,theywentintothefMRIscanner,whilebeingpresentedwithstressors—statementstakenfromtheirowntalesofsocial“meltdowns”andtheirthoughtsduringthem—forexample,“Iamincompetent,”or“Iamashamedofmyshyness.”

Asthesestressfulthoughtswerepresented,thepatientsusedeitheroftwodifferentattentionalstances:mindfulawarenessoftheirbreathordistractionbydoingmentalarithmetic.Onlymindfulnessoftheirbreathbothloweredactivityintheamygdala—mainlyviaafasterrecovery—andstrengtheneditinthebrain’sattentionalnetworks,whilethepatientsreportedlessstressreactivity.ThesamebeneficialpatternemergedwhenthepatientswhohaddoneMBSRwerecomparedwithsomewhohadtrainedinaerobics.7

ThatisbutoneofmanyhundredsofstudiesthathavebeendoneonMBSR,revealingamultitudeofpayoffs,aswe’llseethroughoutthisbook.ButthesamecanbesaidforMBSR’sclosecousin,mindfulnessitself.

MINDFULATTENTION

WhenwestartedtoparticipateindialoguesbetweentheDalaiLamaandscientistsattheMindandLifeInstitute,wewereimpressedbytheprecisionwithwhichoneofhisinterpreters,AlanWallace,wasabletoequatescientifictermswiththeirequivalentmeaningsinTibetan,alanguagelackinganysuchtechnicalterminology.Alan,itturnedout,hadaPhDinreligiousstudiesfromStanfordUniversity,extensivefamiliaritywithquantumphysics,andrigorousphilosophicaltraining,inpartasaTibetanBuddhistmonkforseveralyears.

philosophicaltraining,inpartasaTibetanBuddhistmonkforseveralyears.Drawingonhiscontemplativeexpertise,Alandevelopedauniqueprogram

thatextractsfromtheTibetancontextameditationpracticeaccessibletoanyone,whathecallsMindfulAttentionTraining.Thisprogramstartswithfullfocusonthebreath,thenprogressivelyrefinesattentiontoobservethenaturalflowofthemindstreamandfinallyrestinthesubtleawarenessofawarenessitself.8

InastudyatEmory,peoplewhohadnevermeditatedpreviouslywererandomlyassignedtopracticeMindfulAttentionTrainingoracompassionmeditation.Athirdgroup,anactivecontrol,wentthroughaseriesofdiscussionsonhealth.9

Theparticipantswerescannedbeforeandaftertheyunderwenteightweeksoftraining.Whileinthescannertheyviewedasetofimages—standardinemotionresearch—whichincludesafewupsettingones,suchasaburnvictim.TheMindfulAttentiongroupshowedreducedamygdalaactivityinresponsetothedisturbingpictures.Thechangesinamygdalafunctionoccurredintheordinarybaselinestateinthisstudy,suggestingtheseedsofatraiteffect.

Awordabouttheamygdala,whichhasaprivilegedroleasthebrain’sradarforthreat:itreceivesimmediateinputfromoursenses,whichitscansforsafetyordanger.Ifitperceivesathreat,theamygdalacircuitrytriggersthebrain’sfreeze-fight-or-flightresponse,astreamofhormoneslikecortisolandadrenalinethatmobilizeusforaction.Theamygdalaalsorespondstoanythingimportanttopayattentionto,whetherwelikeordislikeit.

ThesweatdollopsDanmeasuredinhisstudyweredistantindicatorsofthisamygdala-drivenreaction.Ineffect,Danwastryingtoteaseoutachangeinamygdalafunction—aquickerrecoveryfromarousal—butwasusingahopelesslyindirectmetricwiththesweatresponse.Thatwasinadaylongbeforetheinventionofscannersthatdirectlytrackactivityinbrainregions.

Theamygdalaconnectsstronglytobraincircuitryforbothfocusingourattentionandforintenseemotionalreactions.Thisdualroleexplainswhy,whenweareinthegripofanxiety,wearealsoverydistracted,especiallybywhateverismakingusanxious.Asthebrain’sradarforthreat,theamygdalarivetsourattentiononwhatitfindstroubling.Sowhensomethingworriesorupsetsus,ourmindwandersoverandovertothatthing,eventothepointoffixation—liketheviewersoftheshopaccidentfilmwhentheysawAl’sthumbapproachthatwickedsawblade.

AboutthesametimeasAlan’sfindingsthatmindfulnesscalmstheamygdala,otherresearchershadvolunteerswhohadnevermeditatedbefore

practicemindfulnessforjusttwentyminutesadayoveroneweek,andthenhaveanfMRIscan.10Duringthescantheysawimagesrangingfromgruesomeburnvictimstocutebunnies.Theywatchedtheseimagesintheireverydaystateofmind,andthenwhilepracticingmindfulness.

Duringmindfulattentiontheiramygdalaresponsewassignificantlylower(comparedtononmeditators)toalltheimages.Thissignofbeinglessdisturbed,tellingly,wasgreatestintheamygdalaonthebrain’srightside(thereareamygdalaeinbothrightandlefthemispheres),whichoftenhasastrongerresponsetowhateverupsetsusthantheoneontheleft.

Inthissecondstudy,lessenedamygdalareactivitywasfoundonlyduringmindfulattentionandnotduringordinaryawareness,indicatingastateeffect,notanalteredtrait.Atraitchange,remember,isthe“before,”notthe“after.”

PAINISINTHEBRAIN

Ifyougivethebackofyourhandahardpinch,differentbrainsystemsmobilize,someforthepuresensationofpainandothersforourdislikeofthatpain.Thebrainunifiesthemintoavisceral,instantOuch!

Butthatunityfallsapartwhenwepracticemindfulnessofthebody,spendinghoursnoticingourbodilysensationsingreatdetail.Aswesustainthisfocus,ourawarenessmorphs.

Whathadbeenapainfulpinchtransforms,breakingdownintoitsconstituents:theintensityofthepinchandthepainfulsensation,andtheemotionalfeelingtone—wedon’twantthepain;weurgentlywantthepaintostop.

Butifweperseverewithmindfulinvestigation,thatpinchbecomesanexperiencetounpackwithinterest,evenequanimity.Wecanseeouraversionfallaway,andthe“pain”breakdownintosubtlerflavors:throbbing,heat,intensity.

Imaginenowyouhearasoftrumbleasafive-gallontankofwaterstartsboilingandsendsastreamoffluidthroughthethinrubberhosethatrunsthroughthetwo-inchsquaremetalplatestrappedtightonyourwrist.Theplateheatsup,pleasantlyatfirst.Butthatpleasantnessquicklyheadstowardpain,asthewatertemperaturejumpsseveraldegreeswithinacoupleofseconds.Finally,youcan’ttakeitanymore—ifthiswereahotstoveyouhadtouched,youwouldinstantly

takeitanymore—ifthiswereahotstoveyouhadtouched,youwouldinstantlypullaway.Butyoucan’tremovethatmetalplate.Youfeelthealmostexcruciatingheatforafulltenseconds,sureyouaregettingburned.

Butyougetnoburn;yourskinisfine.You’vejustreachedyourhighestpainthreshold,exactlywhatthisdevice,theMedocthermalstimulator,wasdesignedtodetect.Usedbyneurologiststoassessconditionslikeneuropathythatrevealdeteriorationofthecentralnervoussystem,thethermalstimulatorhasbuilt-insafetydevicessopeople’sskinwon’tbeburned,evenasitcalibratespreciselytheirmaximumpainthreshold.Andpeople’spainthresholdsarenowherenearthehigherrangeatwhichburnsoccur.That’swhytheMedochasbeenusedwithexperimentalvolunteerstoestablishhowmeditationaltersourperceptionsofpain.

Amongpain’smaincomponentsareourpurelyphysiologicalsensations,likeburning,andourpsychologicalreactionstothosesensations.11Meditation,thetheorygoes,mightmuteouremotionalresponsetopainandsomaketheheatsensationsmorebearable.

InZen,forexample,practitionerslearntosuspendtheirmentalreactionsandcategorizationofwhateverarisesintheirmindsoraroundthem,andthismentalstancegraduallyspillsoverintoeverydaylife.12“Theexperiencedpractitionerofzazendoesnotdependonsittingquietly,”asRuthSasaki,aZenteacher,putit,adding,“Statesofconsciousnessatfirstattainedonlyinthemeditationhallgraduallybecomecontinuousinanyandallactivities.”13

SeasonedZenmeditatorswhowerehavingtheirbrainsscanned(andwhowereaskedto“notmeditate”)enduredthethermalstimulator.14Whilewe’venotedthereasonstohaveanactivecontrolgroup,thisresearchhadnone.Butthat’slessanissuehere,becauseofthebrainimaging.Iftheoutcomemeasuresarebasedonself-reports(themosteasilyswayedbyexpectations)orevenbehaviorobservedbysomeoneelse(somewhatlesssusceptibletobias)thenanactivecontrolgroupmattersgreatly.Butwhenitcomestotheirbrainactivity,peoplehavenocluewhat’sgoingon,andsoanactivecontrolmattersless.

ThemoreexperiencedamongtheZenstudentsnotonlywereabletobearmorepainthancouldcontrols,theyalsodisplayedlittleactivityinexecutive,evaluative,andemotionareasduringthepain—allregionsthatordinarilyflareintoactivitywhenweareundersuchintensestress.Tellingly,theirbrainsseemedtodisconnecttheusuallinkbetweenexecutivecentercircuitswhereweevaluate(Thishurts!)andcircuitryforsensingphysicalpain(Thisburns).

Inshort,theZenmeditatorsseemedtorespondtopainasthoughitwasamoreneutralsensation.Inmoretechnicallanguage,theirbrainsshoweda“functionaldecoupling”ofthehigherandlowerbrainregionsthatregisterpain—whiletheirsensorycircuitryfeltthepain,theirthoughtsandemotionsdidnotreacttoit.Thisoffersanewtwistonastrategysometimesusedincognitivetherapy:reappraisalofseverestress—thinkingaboutitinalessthreateningway—whichcanlessenitssubjectiveseverityaswellasthebrain’sresponse.Here,though,theZenmeditatorsseemedtoapplyano-appraisalneuralstrategy—inkeepingwiththemind-setofzazenitself.

Aclosereadingofthisarticlerevealsamentiononlyinpassingofasignificanttraiteffect,inadifferencefoundbetweenZenmeditatorsandthecomparisongroup.Duringtheinitialbaselinereadingthetemperatureisincreasedinastaircase-likeseriesoffinelygraduatedrisestocalibratetheprecisemaximumpainthresholdforeachperson.TheZenpractitioners’painthresholdwas2degreesCentigrade(5.6degreesFahrenheit)higherthanfornonmeditators.

Thismaynotsoundlikemuch,butthewayweexperiencepainfromheatmeansthatslightincreasesintemperaturecanhavedramaticimpactbothsubjectivelyandinhowourbrainresponds.Thoughthatdifferenceof2degreesCentigrademayseemtrivial,intheworldofpainexperience,itishuge.

Researchersare,appropriately,skepticalaboutsuchtraitlikefindingsbecauseself-selectioninwhochoosestostickwithmeditationandwhodropsoutalongthewaymightalsoaccountforsuchdata;perhapspeoplewhochoosetomeditateforyearsandyearsarealreadydifferentinwaysthatlookliketraiteffects.Themaxim“Correlationdoesnotmeancausation”applieshere.

Butifatraitcanbeunderstoodasalastingeffectofthepractice,thatposesanalternativeexplanation.Andwhendifferentresearchgroupscomeupwithsimilartraitfindings,theseconvergingresultsmakeustaketheresultmoreseriously.

ContrasttheZensitters’recoveryfromstressreactivitywithburnout,thedepleted,hopelessstatethatcomesfromyearsofconstant,unremittingpressures,likefromjobsthatdemandtoomuch.Burnouthasbecomerampantamonghealthcareprofessionssuchasnursesanddoctors,aswellasthosewhocareathomeforlovedoneswithproblemslikeAlzheimer’s.And,ofcourse,anyonecanfeelburned-outwhofacestherantsofrudecustomersorcontinualimplacabledeadlines,aswiththehecticpaceofabusinessstart-up.

Suchconstantstresssculptsthebrainfortheworse,itseems.15Brainscansofpeoplewhoforyearshadfacedworkthatdemandeduptoseventyhourseachweekrevealedenlargedamygdalaeandweakconnectionsbetweenareasintheprefrontalcortexthatcanquiettheamygdalainadisturbingmoment.Andwhenthosestressed-outworkerswereaskedtoreducetheiremotionalreactiontoupsettingpictures,theywereunabletodoso—technically,afailurein“down-regulation.”

Likepeoplewhosufferfrompost-traumaticstresssyndrome,victimsofburnoutarenolongerabletoputahalttotheirbrain’sstressresponse—andso,neverhavethehealingbalmofrecoverytime.

Therearetantalizingresultsthatindirectlysupportmeditation’sroleinresilience.AcollaborationbetweenRichie’slabandtheresearchgroupdirectedbyCarolRyfflookedatasubsetofparticipantsinalarge,multisite,nationalstudyofmidlifeintheUnitedStates.Theyfoundthatthestrongeraperson’ssenseofpurposeinlife,themorequicklytheyrecoveredfromalabstressor.16

Havingasenseofpurposeandmeaningmayletpeoplemeetlife’schallengesbetter,reframingtheminwaysthatallowthemtorecovermorereadily.And,aswesawinchapterthree,meditationseemstoenhancewell-beingonRyff’smeasure,whichincludesaperson’ssenseofpurpose.Sowhat’sthedirectevidencethatmeditationcanhelpusmeetupsetsandchallengeswithmoreaplomb?

BEYONDCORRELATION

WhenDantaughtthepsychologyofconsciousnesscoursein1975atHarvard,Richie,theninhislastyearofgraduateschool,was,asmentioned,ateachingassistant.AmongthestudentshemetwithweeklywasCliffSaron,thenasenioratHarvard.Cliffhadaknackforthetechnicalendofresearch,includingtheelectronics(perhapsalegacyofhisfather,BobSaron,whohadmanagedthesoundequipmentatNBC).Cliff’sadeptnesssoonmadehimacoauthoronresearchpaperswithRichie.

AndwhenRichiegothisfirstteachingpostattheStateUniversityofNewYorkatPurchase,hetookCliffalongtomanagethelaboratory.Afterastintthere—andcoauthoringaslewofscientificpaperswithRichie—CliffgothisownPhDinneuroscienceatAlbertEinsteinCollegeofMedicine.Henow

ownPhDinneuroscienceatAlbertEinsteinCollegeofMedicine.HenowdirectsalabattheCenterforMindandBrainattheUniversityofCaliforniaatDavis,andhasoftenbeenonthefacultyattheMindandLifeSummerResearchInstitute.

Cliff’sastutesenseofmethodologicalissuesnodoubthelpedhimdesignandrunacrucialbitofresearch,oneofthefewlongitudinalstudiesofmeditationtodate.17WithAlanWallaceasretreatleader,Cliffputtogetherarigorousbatteryofassessmentsforstudentsgoingthroughathree-monthtraininginarangeofclassicmeditationstyles,includingsome,likemindfulnessofbreathing,meanttoincreasefocusandotherstocultivatepositivestateslikeloving-kindnessandequanimity.Whilethe“yogis”pursuedtheirdemandingscheduleofmeditatingsixormorehoursadayforninetydays,Cliffhadthemtakeabatteryoftestsatthebeginning,middle,andendoftheretreat,andfivemonthsaftertheretreathadconcluded.18

Thecomparisongroupwaspeoplewhohadsignedupforthethree-monthretreatbutwhodidnotstartuntilthefirstgroupfinished.Sucha“wait-list”controleliminatesworriesaboutexpectationdemandandsimilarpsychologicalconfounds(butdoesnotaddanactivecontrollikeHEP—whichwouldbealogisticandfinancialburdeninastudylikethis).Asticklerforprecisioninresearch,Cliffflewpeopleinthewait-listgrouptotheretreatplaceandgavethemexactlythesameassessmentsintheidenticalcontextasthoseintheretreat.

Onetestpresentedlinesofdifferentlengthsinrapidsuccession,withtheinstructiontopressonebuttonforalinethatwasshorterthantheothers.Onlyoneoutoftenlineswasshort;thechallengeistoinhibittheknee-jerktendencytopressthebuttonforashortlinewhenalongoneappears.Astheretreatprogressed,sodidtheabilityofthemeditatorstocontrolthisimpulse—amirroronaskillcriticaltomanagingouremotion,thecapacitytorefrainfromactingonwhimorimpulse.

Thissimpleskill,statisticalanalysessuggested,ledtoarangeofimprovementsonself-reports,fromlessanxietytoanoverallsenseofwell-being,includingemotionregulationasgaugedbyreportsofrecoveringmorequicklyfromupsetsandmorefreedomfromimpulses.Tellingly,thewait-listcontrolsshowednochangeinanyofthesemeasures—butshowedthesameimprovementsoncetheyhadgonethroughtheretreat.

Cliff’sstudydirectlytiesthesebenefitstomeditation,lendingstrongsupporttothecaseforalteredtraits.Aclincher:afollow-upfivemonthsaftertheretreatsendedfoundthattheimprovementsremained.

Andthestudydispelsdoubtsthatallthepositivetraitsfoundinlong-term

Andthestudydispelsdoubtsthatallthepositivetraitsfoundinlong-termmeditatorsaresimplyduetoself-selection,wherepeoplewhoalreadyhadthosetraitschoosethepracticeorstaywithitinthelongrun.Fromevidencelikethis,itseemslikelythatthestateswepracticeinmeditationgraduallyspilloverintodailylifetomoldourtraits—atleastwhenitcomestohandlingstress.

ADEVILISHORDEAL

Imagineyouaredescribingyourqualificationsforajobwhiletwointerviewersglareatyou,unsmiling.Theirfacesrevealnoempathy,notevenanencouragingnod.That’sthesituationintheTrierSocialStressTest(TSST),oneofthemostreliablewaysknowntosciencetotriggerthebrain’sstresscircuitsanditscascadeofstresshormones.

Nowimagine,afterthatdispiritingjobinterview,doingsomepressuredmentalarithmetic:youhavetosubtract13sinrapid-firesuccessionfromanumberlike1,232.That’sthesecondpartoftheTriertest,andthosesameimpassiveinterviewerspushyoutodothemathfasterandfaster—andwheneveryoumakeamistake,theytellyoutostartalloverat1,232.Thatdevilishtestdeliversahugedoseofsocialstress,theawfulfeelingswegetwhenotherpeopleevaluate,reject,orexcludeus.

AlanWallaceandPaulEkmancreatedarenewalprogramforschoolteachersthatcombinedpsychologicaltrainingwithmeditation.19WhereasDanhadusedtheshopaccidentfilmtobringstressintothelab,herethestressorwastheTriertest’ssimulatedjobinterviewfollowedbythatformidablemathchallenge.

Themorehoursthoseteachershadpracticedmeditation,thequickertheirbloodpressurerecoveredfromahighpointduringtheTSST.Thiswastruefivemonthsaftertheprogramended,suggestingatleastamildtraiteffect(fiveyearsafterwardwouldbestillstrongerevidenceofatrait).

Richie’slabusedtheTrierwithseasoned(lifetimeaverage=9,000hours)vipassanameditatorswhodidaneight-hourdayofmeditationandthenextdayunderwentthetest.20Themeditatorsandtheirage-andgender-matchedcomparisongroupallwentthroughtheTSST(aswellasatestforinflammation—moreonthoseresultsinchapternine,“Mind,Body,andGenome”).

Result:themeditatorshadasmallerriseincortisolduringthestress.Justasimportant,themeditatorsperceivedthatdreadedTriertestaslessstressfulthan

didthenonmeditators.Thiscooled-out,morebalancedwayofviewingthatstressoramongthe

seasonedmeditatorswasnottappedwhiletheywerepracticingbutwhiletheywereatrest—our“before.”Theireaseduringboththestressfulinterviewandtheformidablementalmathchallengeseemsagenuinetraiteffect.

Furtherevidenceforthiscomesfromresearchwiththesesameadvancedmeditators.21Themeditators’brainswerescannedwhiletheysawdisturbingimagesofpeoplesuffering,likeburnvictims.Theseasonedpractitioners’brainsrevealedaloweredlevelofreactivityintheamygdala;theyweremoreimmunetoemotionalhijacking.

Thereason:theirbrainshadstrongeroperativeconnectivitybetweentheprefrontalcortex,whichmanagesreactivity,andtheamygdala,whichtriggerssuchreactions.Asneuroscientistsknow,thestrongerthisparticularlinkinthebrain,thelessapersonwillbehijackedbyemotionaldownsandupsofallsorts.

Thisconnectivitymodulatesaperson’slevelofemotionalreactivity:thestrongerthelink,thelessreactive.Indeed,thatrelationshipissostrongthataperson’sreactivitylevelcanbepredictedbytheconnectivity.So,whenthesehigh-lifetime-hourmeditatorssawanimageofagruesome-lookingburnvictim,theyhadlittleamygdalareactivity.Age-matchedvolunteersdidnotshoweithertheheightenedconnectivityortheequanimityonviewingthedisturbingimages.

ButwhenRichie’sgrouprepeatedthisstudywithpeopletakingtheMBSRtraining(atotalofjustunderthirtyhours)plusabitofdailyat-homepractice,theyfailedtofindanystrengtheningofconnectionbetweentheprefrontalregionandtheamygdaladuringthechallengeofupsettingimages.NorwasthereanywhentheMBSRgroupsimplyrested.

WhileMBSRtrainingdidreducethereactivityoftheamygdala,thelong-termmeditatorgroupshowedboththisreducedreactivityintheamygdalaplusstrengtheningoftheconnectionbetweentheprefrontalcortexandamygdala.Thispatternimpliesthatwhenthegoinggetstough—forexample,inresponsetoamajorlifechallengesuchaslosingajob—theabilitytomanagedistress(whichdependsupontheconnectivitybetweentheprefrontalcortexandamygdala)willbegreaterinlong-termmeditatorscomparedtothosewhohaveonlydonetheMBSRtraining.

Thegoodnewsisthatthisresiliencecanbelearned.Whatwedon’tknowishowlongthiseffectmightlast.Wesuspectthatitwouldbeshort-livedunlessparticipantscontinuedtopractice,akeytotransformingastateintoatrait.

Amongthosewhoshowthemostshort-livedamygdalaresponse,emotionscomeandgo,adaptiveandappropriate.Richie’slabputthisideatothetestwith

comeandgo,adaptiveandappropriate.Richie’slabputthisideatothetestwithbrainscansof31highlyseasonedmeditators(lifetimeaveragewas8,800hoursofmeditationpractice,rangingfromjust1,200tomorethan30,000).

Theysawtheusualpicturesrangingfrompeopleinextremesuffering(burnvictims)tocutebunnies.Onfirstanalysisoftheexpertmeditators’amygdalae,therewasnodifferenceinhowtheyreactedfromtheresponsesofmatchedvolunteerswhohadnevermeditated.ButwhenRichie’sgroupdividedtheseasonedmeditatorsintothosewiththeleasthoursofpractice(lifetimeaverage1,849hours)andthemost(lifetimeaverage7,118),theresultsshowedthatthemorehoursofpractice,themorequicklytheamygdalarecoveredfromdistress.22

Thisrapidrecoveryisthehallmarkofresilience.Inshort,equanimityemergesmorestronglywithextendedpractice.Amongthebenefitsoflong-termmeditation,thistellsus,areexactlywhatthoseDesertFatherswereafter:amindundisturbed.

INANUTSHELL

Theamygdala,akeynodeinthebrain’sstresscircuitry,showsdampenedactivityfromamerethirtyorsohoursofMBSRpractice.Othermindfulnesstrainingshowsasimilarbenefit,andtherearehintsintheresearchthatthesechangesaretraitlike:theyappearnotsimplyduringtheexplicitinstructiontoperceivethestressfulstimulimindfullybuteveninthe“baseline”state,withreductionsinamygdalaactivationasgreatas50percent.Suchlesseningofthebrain’sstressreactionsappearsinresponsenotsimplytoseeingthegorypicturesusedinthelaboratorybutalsotomorereal-lifechallengeslikethestressfulTrierinterviewbeforealiveaudience.Moredailypracticeseemsassociatedwithlessenedstressreactivity.ExperiencedZenpractitionerscanwithstandhigherlevelsofpain,andhavelessreactiontothisstressor.Athree-monthmeditationretreatbroughtindicatorsofbetteremotionalregulation,andlong-termpracticewasassociatedwithgreaterfunctionalconnectivitybetweentheprefrontalareasthatmanageemotionandtheareasoftheamygdalathatreacttostress,resultinginlessreactivity.Andanimprovedabilitytoregulateattentionaccompaniessomeofthebeneficialimpactofmeditationonstressreactivity.Finally,the

quicknesswithwhichlong-termmeditatorsrecoverfromstressunderlineshowtraiteffectsemergewithcontinuedpractice.

I

6

PrimedforLove

naridlandscapesduringancienttimes,grapeswererare,asucculentdelicacygrownindistantregions.Yetoneday,recordsfromthesecondcenturyAD

tellus,someonebroughtjustsuchatreatallthewaytothedesertabodeofMacarius,aChristianhermit.1

ButMacariusdidnoteatthegrapes;insteadhegavethemtoanotherhermitnearbywhowasfeebleandwhoseemedingreaterneedofthetreat.

Andthathermit,thoughgratefulforMacarius’skindness,thoughtofyetanotheramongthemwhowouldbenefitfromeatingthegrapes,andpassedthemontothatmonk.SoitwentthroughtheentirehermitcommunityuntilthegrapescamearoundagaintoMacarius.

ThoseearlyChristianhermits,knownasDesertFathers,laudedthesamewholesomemodesofbeingasdoyogisintheHimalayastoday,whofollowsurprisinglysimilardiscipline,customs,andmeditativepractices.Theyshareanethicofselflessnessandgenerosityandliveinisolation,thebettertoimmersethemselvesinmeditation.

Whatpropelledthosejuicygrapes’journeythroughthatdesertcommune?Thedriverswerecompassionandloving-kindness,theattitudeofputtingtheneedsofothersaheadofourown.Technically,“loving-kindness”referstowishingthatotherpeoplebehappy;itsnearcousin“compassion”entailsthewishthatpeopleberelievedofsuffering.Bothoutlooks(whichwe’lljustrefertoas“compassion”)canbestrengthenedthroughmindtraining—andifsuccessful,theresultwillbeactingtohelpothers,asdemonstratedbytheDesertFathersandthatbunchofgrapes.

Butconsideramodernupdate.Divinitystudentsatatheologicalseminaryweretoldtheywouldbeevaluatedonapracticesermon.HalfweregivenarandomselectionofBibletopicsfortheirsermon.TheotherhalfwereassignedtheparableoftheGoodSamaritan,themanwhostoppedtohelpastrangerin

theparableoftheGoodSamaritan,themanwhostoppedtohelpastrangerinneedwhowaslyingbythesideoftheroad,evenasotherswalkedby,indifferent.

Afteratimetopreparetheirthoughts,theywentonebyonetoanotherbuilding,wheretheywereevaluatedonthetalktheyhadjustprepared.Aseachoftheminturnpassedthroughacourtyardonthewaytogivetheirsermon,theypassedamanwhowasbentoverandmoaninginpain.

Thequestion:Didtheystoptohelpthestrangerinneed?Turnsoutwhetheradivinitystudenthelpedornotdependedonhowlatethat

studentfelt—themoretime-pressured,thelesslikelytostop.2Whenwearerushingthroughabusyday,worriedaboutgettingtothenextplaceontime,wetendliterallynottonoticethepeoplearoundus,letalonetheirneeds.

There’saspectrumthatrunsfromself-centeredpreoccupations(I’mlate!),tonoticingthepeoplearoundus,totuningintothem,empathizing,andfinally,iftheyareinneed,actingtohelp.

Holdingtheattitudeofcompassionmeanswemerelyespousethisvirtue;embodyingcompassionmeansweact.ThestudentsponderingtheGoodSamaritanlikelywereappreciatinghiscompassion—butwerenotmorelikelytoactwithcompassionthemselves.

Severalmeditationmethodsaimtocultivatecompassion.Thescientific(andethical)questionis,Doesthismatter—doesitmovepeopletowardcompassionateaction?

MAYALLBEINGSBEFREEFROMSUFFERING

DuringDan’sfirststayinIndia,inDecember1970,hewasaskedtolectureataconferenceonyogaandscienceinNewDelhi.AmongthemanyWesterntravelerswhocametohearDanwasSharonSalzberg,thenaneighteen-year-olddoinganindependentstudyyearfromtheStateUniversityofNewYorkatBuffalo.SharonhadjoinedthethousandsofyoungWesternerswhomadetheoverlandjourneyfromEuropethroughtheNearEasttoIndiainthe1970s,travelthatwarfareandpoliticshavemadevirtuallyimpossibletoday.

DanmentionedthathehadjustcomefromavipassanacoursegivenbyS.N.GoenkainBodhGaya,andthataseriesoftheseten-dayretreatswascontinuing.SharonwasamongthehandfulofWesternerswhoheadedstraightfromDelhitotheBurmeseviharainBodhGayatotakepart.ShebecameanardentstudentofthemethodandcontinuedhermeditationstudieswithteachersinIndiaandBurma,andafterreturningtotheStatesbecameateacherherself,cofoundingtheInsightMeditationSocietyinMassachusetts—alongwithJosephGoldstein,whomshemetatthevihara.

SharonhasbecometheleadingadvocateofamethodshefirstlearnedfromGoenka,calledmettainPaliandlooselytranslatedintoEnglishas“loving-kindness”—anunconditionalbenevolenceandgoodwill—aqualityofloveakintotheGreekagape.3

Intheformatforloving-kindnessthatSharonhelpedbringtotheWest,yousilentlyrepeatphraseslike“MayIbesafe,”“MayIbehealthy,”and“Maymylifeunfoldwithease,”firstwishingthisforyourself,thenforpeopleyoulove,thenforneutralpeople,andfinallyforallbeings—eventhosewhomyoufinddifficultorwhohaveharmedyou.Inoneversionoranother,thishasbecomethemostwell-studiedformatofcompassionmeditation.

Thisversionofloving-kindnesssometimesincludesthecompassionatewishthatpeoplebefreefromsuffering,too.Andthoughthedifferencebetweenloving-kindnessandcompassionmaybeconsequentialinsomeway,littleattentiongetspaidtothisdistinctionintheresearchworld.

YearsafterherreturnfromIndia,SharonwasapanelistinadialoguewiththeDalaiLamain1989,forwhichDanwasmoderator.4AtonepointSharontoldtheDalaiLamathatmanyWesternersfeltloathingtowardthemselves.Hewasastonished—he’dneverheardofthis.Hehad,theDalaiLamareplied,alwaysassumedthatpeoplenaturallylovedthemselves.

YetinEnglishthewordcompassion,theDalaiLamapointedout,signifiesthewishthatothersbewell—butitdoesnotincludeoneself.Heexplainedthatinhisownlanguage,Tibetan,aswellasintheclassicaltonguesPaliandSanskrit,thewordcompassionimpliesfeelingthisforoneselfaswellasothers.English,headded,needsanewword,self-compassion.

ThatverytermcameintotheworldofpsychologymorethanadecadelaterwhenKristinNeff,apsychologistattheUniversityofTexasatAustin,publishedherresearchonameasureofself-compassion.Inherdefinitionthisincludesbeingkindtoyourselfinsteadofself-critical;seeingyourfailuresandmistakesasjustpartofthehumanconditionratherthansomepersonalfailing;andjustnotingyourimperfections,notruminatingaboutthem.

notingyourimperfections,notruminatingaboutthem.Theoppositeofself-compassioncanbeseenintheconstantself-criticism

common,forexample,indepressedwaysofthinking.Loving-kindnessdirectedtoyourself,ontheotherhand,wouldseemtoofferadirectantidote.AnIsraeligrouptestedthisidea,andfoundthatteachingloving-kindnesstopeopleparticularlypronetoself-criticismbothlessenedthoseharshthoughtsandincreasedtheirself-compassion.5

EMPATHYMEANSFEELINGWITH

Brainresearchtellsusofthreekindsofempathy.6Cognitiveempathyletsusunderstandhowtheotherpersonthinks;weseetheirperspective.Inemotionalempathywefeelwhattheotherisfeeling.Andthethird,empathicconcernorcaring,liesattheheartofcompassion.

ThewordempathyenteredtheEnglishlanguageonlyintheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,asatranslationoftheGermanwordEinfühlung,whichmightbetranslatedas“feelingwith.”Purelycognitiveempathyhasnosuchsympatheticfeelings,whilethedefiningsignofemotionalempathyisfeelinginyourownbodywhatthesufferingpersonseemstofeel.

Butifwhatwefeelupsetsus,alltoooftenournextresponsemeanswetuneout,whichhelpsusfeelbetterbutblockscompassionateaction.Inthelabonewaythiswithdrawalinstinctshowsupisinpeopleavertingtheirgazefromphotosthatdepictintensesuffering—likeamansopainfullyburnedthathisskinhaspeeledaway.Similarly,homelesspeoplecomplainthattheybecomeinvisible—thosepassingbyonthestreetignorethem,anotherformofavertingthegazefromsuffering.

Sincecompassionbeginswithacceptingwhat’shappeningwithoutturningaway—anessentialfirststeptowardtakinghelpfulaction—couldmeditationsthatcultivatecompassiontipthebalance?

ResearchersatGermany’sMaxPlanckInstituteinLeipzigtaughtvolunteersaversionofloving-kindnessmeditation.7Thevolunteerspracticedgeneratingsuchloving-kindnessinasix-hourinstructionalsession,andathomeontheirown.

Beforetheyhadlearnedthisloving-kindnessmethod,whenthevolunteerssawgraphicvideosofpeoplesuffering,onlytheirnegativecircuitsforemotional

sawgraphicvideosofpeoplesuffering,onlytheirnegativecircuitsforemotionalempathyactivated:theirbrainsreflectedthestateofthevictims’sufferingasthoughitwerehappeningtothemselves.Thisleftthemfeelingupset,anemotionalechoofdistressthattransferredfromthevictimstothemselves.

Thenpeoplewereinstructedtoempathizewiththevideos—tosharetheemotionsofthepeopletheywereseeing.Suchempathy,fMRIstudiesrevealed,activatedcircuitscenteringonpartsoftheinsula—circuitsthatlightupwhenweourselvesaresuffering.Empathymeantthatpeoplefeltthepainofthosewhoweresuffering.

Butwhenanothergroupinsteadgotinstructionsincompassion—feelingloveforthosesuffering—theirbrainsactivatedacompletelydifferentsetofcircuits,thoseforparentalloveofachild.8Theirbrainsignaturewasclearlydifferentfromthosewhoreceivedinstructionsinempathy.

Andthisafteronlyeighthours!Suchpositiveregardforavictimofsufferingmeanswecanconfrontand

dealwiththeirdifficulty.Thisallowsustomovealongthatspectrumfromnoticingwhat’sgoingontothepayoff,actuallyhelpingthem.InmanyEastAsiancountriesthenameKuanYin,thereveredsymbolofcompassionateawakening,translatesas“theonewholistensandhearsthecriesoftheworldinordertocomeandhelp.”9

FROMATTITUDETOACTION

Theskepticalscientisthastoask,Doesdisplayingthisneuralpatternmeanpeoplewillactuallyhelp,especiallyifdoingsomeanstheyhavetodosomethinguncomfortable,evenmakeasacrifice?Justmeasuringbrainactivityinpeoplewhiletheyliestillinabrainscanner,andevenfindingthatneuralprimingforkindnessandactiongetsstronger,isintriguingbutnotconvincing.Afterall,thoseseminarystudentsreflectingontheGoodSamaritanwerenotmorelikelytoactuallyhelpsomeoneinneed.

Butsomeevidencesuggestsamorehopefuloutcome.InRichie’slab,volunteers’brainswerescannedbeforeandthenaftertwoweeksofeithercompassiontraining(thinkingofothers)orcognitivereappraisal,aself-focus,inwhichyouaretaughttothinkdifferentlyaboutthecausesofnegativeevents.Thentheirbrainswerescannedastheyviewedimagesofhumansuffering.After

thebrainscantheyplayedtheRedistributionGame,wheretheyfirstwitnesseda“dictator”cheatavictimoutofafairshareof$10,givingjustonemeaslydollar.Thegamethenletthevolunteersgiveupto$5oftheirownmoneytothevictim,andgamerulesforcedthedictatortogivetwicethatamounttothevictim.

Result:thosewiththetrainingincompassiongavealmosttwotimesasmuchtothevictimasdidthegroupwhohadlearnedhowtoreappraisetheirfeelings.Andtheirbrainshowedincreasedactivationincircuitsforattention,perspectivetaking,andpositivefeelings;themoreofthisactivation,themorealtruistic.

AsMartinLutherKingJr.commentedontheGoodSamaritantale,thosewhodidnothelpaskedthemselves,IfIstoptohelp,whatwillhappentome?

ButtheGoodSamaritanasked,IfIdon’tstoptohelp,whatwillhappentohim?

READYTOLOVE

Anyonewithhalfaheartwouldfinditpainfultolookataphotoofayoungchildonthebrinkofstarvation,hislarge,sadeyesdowncast,hismoodsullen,hisstomachdistendedwhilehisbonesshowthroughhisemaciatedbody.

Thatimage,liketheoneoftheburnvictim,hasbeenusedinseveralofthesestudiesofcompassionaspartofastandardtestoftheabilitytoconfrontsuffering.Inthearcfromignoringsomeone’spainorneed,tonoticing,empathizing,andthenactingtohelp,stirringupfeelingsofloving-kindnessenergizeseverystep.

Studieswithnoviceslearningloving-kindnessrevealanearlyharbingerofheightenedamygdalareactionstoimagesofpainandsufferingfoundinseasonedmeditators.10Thefindingwasnowhereasstrongasinthelong-termmeditators—justahintthatthepatterncanshowupverysoon.

Howsoon?Maybeinmereminutes—atleastwhenitcomestomood.Onestudyfoundthatjustsevenminutesofloving-kindnesspracticeboostsaperson’sgoodfeelingsandsenseofsocialconnection,ifonlytemporarily.11AndtheDavidsongrouphadfoundthataftereightorsohoursoftraininginloving-kindness,volunteersshowedstrongechoesofthosebrainpatternsfoundinmoreexperiencedmeditators.12Thebeginners’temporarywaveofmellowfeeling

maybeanearlyprecursorofthemorestrikingbrainchangesinpeoplewhopracticeloving-kindnessforweeks,months,oryears.

Andconsiderarandomgroupofpeoplewhovolunteeredtotryweb-basedinstructioninmeditation,foratotaloftwoandahalfhours(thatis,twentysessionsoftenminuteseach).Thisbriefloving-kindnesstrainingresultedinpeoplefeelingmorerelaxedanddonatingtocharityatahigherratethanthoseinacomparisongroupwhodidacomparableamountoflightexerciselikestretching.13

PullingtogetherfindingsfromRichie’slabamongothers,wecanpiecetogetheraneuralprofileofreactionstosuffering.Distresscircuitryconnectingtotheinsula,includingtheamygdala,respondswithparticularstrength—apatterntypicalofanyone’sempathywithotherpeople’spain.Theinsulamonitorsthesignalsinourbodyandalsoactivatesautonomicresponseslikeheartrateandbreathing—asweempathize,ourneuralcentersforpainanddistressechowhatwepickupfromtheotherperson.Andtheamygdalasignalssomethingsalientintheenvironment,inthiscase,thesufferingofanother.Themoredeeplyimmersedinthecompassionmeditationapersonreportedbeing,thestrongerwasthisempathicpattern—compassionseemstoamplifyempathytosuffering,justasthatmeditationintends.

InadifferentstudyfromRichie’slab,long-termmeditatorsgeneratingcompassionshowedastrongincreaseintheamygdalaresponsetodistressingsounds(likeawoman’sscream),whileforthoseinacomparisongrouptherewaslittledifferencebetweencompassionandtheneutralcontrolcondition.14Inacompanionstudy,participantshadbrainscanswhileconcentratingonasmalllightastheyheardthosedisturbingsounds.15Inmeditation-naivevolunteers,theamygdalaflaredintoactionatthosesounds,whileinthemeditatorstheamygdalaresponsewasmutedandtheirconcentrationstrong.Eventhosevolunteerswhohadbeenpromisedarewardiftheyexertedeffortinfocusingonthelightnomatterwhattheyheardnonethelessweredistractedbythescreams.

Puttingthesefindingstogethergivesseveralcluesabouthowmentaltrainingworks.Foronething,veryoftenmeditationcomesinbatches,notasasinglepractice.Vipassanameditators(themajorityofthoseinthelong-termstudiesreportedhere)onatypicalretreatmightmixmindfulnessofbreathingwithloving-kindness.MBSRandsimilarprogramsofferseveralkindsofmentaltraining.

Thesevariousmindtrainingmethodsdrivethebrainindifferentways.Duringcompassionpractice,theamygdalaisturnedupinvolume,whileinfocusedattentiononsomethinglikethebreath,theamygdalaisturneddown.

focusedattentiononsomethinglikethebreath,theamygdalaisturneddown.Meditatorsarelearninghowtochangetheirrelationshiptotheiremotionswithdifferentpractices.

Theamygdala’scircuitslightupwhenweareexposedtosomeonefeelingastrongnegativeemotion—fear,anger,andthelike.Thisamygdalasignalalertsthebrainthatsomethingimportantishappening;theamygdalaactsasneuralradardetectingthesalienceofwhateverweexperience.Ifwhat’sgoingonseemsurgent,likeawomanscreaminginfear,theamygdalahasextensiveconnectionstorecruitothercircuitrytorespond.

Meanwhiletheinsulausesitsconnectionstothebody’svisceralorgans(liketheheart)toreadythebodyforactiveengagement(increasingbloodflowtothemuscles,forexample).Oncethebrainprimesthebodytorespond,thosewhohavemeditatedoncompassionaremorelikelytoacttohelpsomeone.

Butthenthere’sthequestionofhowlongsucheffectsofmentaltrainingincompassionlast.Isthisonlyatemporarystate,ordoesitbecomealastingtrait?Sevenyearsafterhisthree-monthretreatexperimentended,CliffSarontrackeddowntheparticipants.16Hefoundasurpriseamongthosewho,duringandjustaftertheretreat,wereabletosustainattentiontodisturbingimagesofsuffering—apsychophysiologicalmeasureofacceptance,asopposedtotheavertedgazeandexpressionofdisgusthefoundinothers(andwhichtypifiespeopleingeneral).

Thosewhodidnotaverttheireyesbuttookinthatsufferingwere,sevenyearslater,betterabletorememberthosespecificpictures.Incognitivescience,suchmemorybetokensabrainthatwasabletoresistanemotionalhijack,andso,takeinthattragicimagemorefully,rememberitmoreeffectively—and,presumably,act.

Unlikeotherbenefitsofmeditationthatemergegradually—likeaquickerrecoveryfromstress—enhancingcompassioncomesmorereadily.Wesuspectthatcultivatingcompassionmaytakeadvantageof“biologicalpreparedness,”aprogrammedreadinesstolearnagivenskill,asseen,forinstance,intherapiditywithwhichtoddlerslearnlanguage.Justaswithspeaking,thebrainseemsprimedtolearntolove.

Thisseemslargelyduetothebrain’scaretakingcircuitry,whichwesharewithallothermammals.Thesearethenetworksthatlightupwhenweloveourchildren,ourfriends—anyonewhofallswithinournaturalcircleofcaring.Thesecircuits,amongothers,growstrongerevenwithshortperiodsofcompassiontraining.

Aswe’veseen,enhancingacompassionateattitudegoesbeyondamereoutlook;peopleactuallygrowmorelikelytohelpsomeoneinneedevenwhenthere’sacosttothemselves.Suchintenseresonancewithothers’sufferinghasbeenfoundinanothernotablegroup:extraordinaryaltruists,peoplewhodonatedoneoftheirkidneystoastrangerindireneedofatransplant.Brainscansdiscoveredthatthesecompassionatesoulshavealargerright-sideamygdalacomparedtootherpeopleoftheirageandgender.17

Sincethisregionactivateswhenweempathizewithsomeonewhoissuffering,alargeramygdalamayconferanunusualabilitytofeelthepainofothers,somotivatingpeople’saltruism—evenasextraordinarilyasdonatingakidneytosavesomeone’slife.Theneuralchangesfromloving-kindnesspractice(theemergingsignsofwhicharefoundevenamongbeginners)alignwiththosefoundinthebrainsofthesuper-Samaritankidneydonors.18

Thecultivationofalovingconcernforotherpeople’swell-beinghasasurprisinganduniquebenefit:thebrain’scircuitryforhappinessenergizes,alongwithcompassion.19Loving-kindnessalsobooststheconnectionsbetweenthebrain’scircuitsforjoyandhappinessandtheprefrontalcortex,azonecriticalforguidingbehavior.20Andthegreatertheincreaseintheconnectionbetweentheseregions,themorealtruisticapersonbecomesfollowingcompassionmeditationtraining.

NURTURINGCOMPASSION

Whenshewasyoung,TaniaSingerthoughtshemighthaveacareeronthestage,perhapsasdirectoroftheaterandopera.Andfromhercollegeyearson,sheplungedintomeditationretreatsofdifferentsorts,studyingwithavarietyofteachersastheyearswenton.ThemethodsrangedfromvipassanatoFatherDavidStendl-Rast’spracticeofgratitude.Shewasdrawntoteacherswhoembodiedaqualityofunconditionallove.

ThemysteriesofthehumanminddrewTaniaintopsychology,thefieldinwhichsheearnedherPhD;herdoctoralresearchonlearninginveryoldagegotherinterestedinplasticityresearch.Herpostdocresearchonempathyrevealedthatwhenwewitnessthepainandsufferingofsomeoneelseweactivatenetworkswhichunderlietheseverysamefeelingsinourselves—adiscoverythat

gotwideattention,layingthegroundworkforempathyresearchinneuroscience.21

Ourempathicresonancewiththepainofothers,shefound,activateswhatamountstoaneuralalarmthatinstantlytunesustoothers’suffering,potentiallyalertingustothepresenceofdanger.Butcompassion—feelingconcernforthepersonsuffering—seemedtoinvolveadifferentsetofbraincircuits,thoseforfeelingsofwarmth,love,andconcern.

ThisdiscoveryoriginatedfromexperimentsTaniadidwithMatthieuRicard,aTibetanmonkwithaPhDinscience—anddecadesofmeditationpractice.Taniaaskedhimtotryavarietyofmeditativestateswhileinabrainscanner.Shewantedtoseewhathappenedinthebrainofanexpertmeditatorinordertodesignmeditationpracticesanyonecouldtry.

Whenhecultivatedempathy,sharingthesufferingofanother,shesawtheactioninhisneuralnetworksforpain.Butoncehebegantogeneratecompassion—lovingfeelingsforsomeonewhowassuffering—heactivatedbraincircuitryforpositivefeelings,reward,andaffiliation.

Tania’sgroupthenreverseengineeredwhattheyfoundwithMatthieubytraininggroupsofmeditationfirst-timersinempathizingwithaperson’ssuffering,orfeelingcompassionfortheirsuffering.

Compassion,shefound,mutedtheempathicdistressthatcanleadtoemotionalexhaustionandburnout(ashappenssometimesinthecaringprofessionslikenursing).Insteadofsimplyfeelingwiththeotherperson’sangst,compassiontrainingledtothatactivationofcompletelydifferentbraincircuits,thoseforlovingconcern—andtopositivefeelingsandresilience.22

NowTaniadirectstheDepartmentofSocialNeuroscienceattheMaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciences,inLeipzig,Germany.Inameldingofhermeditativeandscientificinterestsandbasedonherpreviouspromisingplasticityresearchonempathyandcompassiontraining,Taniahasdonedefinitiveresearchonmeditationasawaytocultivatewholesomementalqualitiessuchasattention,mindfulness,perspectivetaking,empathy,andcompassion.

InanelegantprogramofresearchcalledtheReSourceProjectTania’sgrouprecruitedaroundthreehundredvolunteerswhocommittedtospendingelevenmonthsindifferenttypesofcontemplativepractices,practicingeachinthreemodulesofseveralmonths—plusacomparisongroupthatgotnotrainingbuttookthesamebatteryoftestseverythreemonths.

Thefirstmentaltraining,“Presence,”entailedabodyscanandbreathfocus.Another,“Perspective,”includedobservingthoughtsviaanovelinterpersonalpracticeof“contemplativedyads,”wherepartnerssharetheirstreamofthoughtwitheachotherfortenminutesdaily,eitherthroughacellphoneapporinperson.23Thethird,“Affect,”includedloving-kindnesspractice.

Results:thescanincreasedbodyawarenessandlessenedmind-wandering.Observingthoughtsenhancedmeta-awareness,aby-productofmindfulness.Ontheotherhand,loving-kindnessboostedwarmthoughtsandfeelingsaboutothers.Inshort,ifyouwanttoincreaseyourfeelingsofkindnessmosteffectively,practiceexactlythat—notsomethingelse.

WHAT’STHEACTIVEINGREDIENT?

“SamanthahasHIV,”youread.“Shecontractedthediseasefromadirtyneedleinadoctor’sofficeabroad.Sheattendspeaceralliesonceamonth.Shedidwellinhighschool.”NexttothisthumbnailsketchyouseeSamantha’sphoto,revealingatwenty-somethingwomanwithshoulder-lengthhair.

Wouldyoudonatemoneytohelpherout?Tolearnwhatinnerfactorsareatworkhere,researchersattheUniversityof

Coloradotaughtacompassionmeditationtoonesetofvolunteers,whileaningeniouscontrolgrouptookadailypuffof“placebooxytocin,”aphonyfeel-goodbraindrug,whichtheyhadbeentoldwouldincreasetheirfeelingsofconnectionandcompassion.Thephonydrugcreatedpositiveexpectationsmatchingthatofthecompassionmeditators.24

Aftereitherthemeditationorthepuff,amobilephoneappshowedeachpersonapictureandthumbnailprofileofsomeoneinneedlikeSamantha,withtheoptiontodonatetothemsomeofthemoneythevolunteerwasbeingpaid.

Tellingly,simplydoingthecompassionmeditationwasnotthestrongestpredictorofwhethersomeonedonated.Infact,inthisstudythosedoingthecompassionmeditationwerenomorelikelytodonatethanthosewhopuffedthefakeoxytocin—oragroupwhodidneither.Nottogettoogeeky,butthisraisesakeypointaboutthemethodsusedinmeditationresearch.Whilethisstudyhadafirst-ratedesigninmanyrespects(suchasthatcleverfakeoxytocincontrolgroup),inatleastonewaythestudyismurky:thenatureofthecompassionmeditationwasunspecified,seemstohavechangedoverthecourseofthestudy,

meditationwasunspecified,seemstohavechangedoverthecourseofthestudy,andincludedmeditationthatcultivatesequanimity.

Thesecontemplativeexercisesweretakenfromasetdesignedtohelppeopleworkingwiththedying(pastoralcounselors,hospiceworkers)staysensitivetosufferingwhilefeelingequanimitytowardadyingperson—afterall,thereislittleornohelptogiveatthatpoint,saveacompassionatepresence.Andwhiletheywerenomorelikelytodonatemoney,thosewhodidthecompassionmeditationfeltmoretendernesstowardthepeopleinneed.Wewonderwhetherequanimitymayhaveaverydifferenteffectondonationsthandoescompassion—perhapsmakingsomeonelesslikelyto,say,givemoney,evenwhileresonatingwiththesuffering.

Thisraisesarelatedissue,whetheryouneedtofocusonloving-kindnesstoenhancecompassionateacts.Forexample,atNortheasternUniversity,volunteersweretaughteithermindfulnessorloving-kindnessmeditation.25Aftertwoweeksoflessons,eachfoundthemselvesinawaitingroomwithawomanoncrutchesandinapparentpain;twootherpeopleonchairsignoredher,andtherewereonlythreechairs.AsintheGoodSamaritanstudy,eachofthemeditatorshadthechoicetogivetheirownchairsothepersononcrutchescouldsitdown.

Boththosewhohadlearnedmindfulnessandthosewhopracticedloving-kindness—comparedtoagroupwhodidneither—moreoftentooktherouteofkindness,givinguptheirchair(inthenonmeditatingcontrolgroup,15percentgaveuptheirchair,whileforthemeditatorsitwasaround50percent).Butfromthisstudyalonewedon’tknowwhethermindfulnessenhancesempathyjustlikeloving-kindnesspractice,orifotherinnerforces—likeagreaterattentiontocircumstances—compelledthatactofcompassion.

Firstsignssuggestthateachvarietyofmeditationhasitsownneuralprofile.TakeresultsfromresearchspearheadedbyGesheLobsangTenzinNegi,whohasadegreeinthephilosophicalandpracticetraditionsharedbytheDalaiLama(aTibetangesheistheequivalentofourPhD),aswellasaPhDfromEmoryUniversity,whereheteaches.GesheNegidrewonhisbackgroundasascholarandmonktocreateCognitively-BasedCompassionTraining(CBCT),methodsforunderstandinghowone’sattitudessupportorhinderacompassionateresponse.Thisincludesavarietyofloving-kindnessmeditation,aspiringtohelpothersbehappyandfreefromsuffering,andthedeterminationtoactaccordingly.26

InresearchatEmory,onegroupdidCBCT,whiletheotherdidAlanWallace’smethodofmeditation(wedescribedthisinchapterfive,“AMind

Wallace’smethodofmeditation(wedescribedthisinchapterfive,“AMindUndisturbed”).Themainfinding:thecompassiongroup’srightamygdalatendedtoincreaseitsactivityinresponsetophotosofsuffering,andthemorehoursofpractice,thelargertheresponse.Theyweresharingthesufferingperson’sdistress.

Butonatestofdepressivethinking,thecompassiongroupalsoreportedbeinghappieringeneral.Sharinganotherperson’sfeelingsofdistressneednotbeadowner.AsDr.AaronBeck,whodesignedthatdepressiontest,hassaid,whenyoufocusonsomeoneelse’ssuffering,youforgetyourowntroubles.

Thenthere’sthegenderdifference.TheEmoryUniversityresearchers,forexample,foundwomenshowhigherlevelsofrightamygdalareactivitythandomeninresponsetoallemotionalimages,happyorsad,includingthoseofsuffering.Thisfindingisnotexactlynewsinpsychology;brainstudieshavelongshownwomenaremoreattunedtootherpeople’semotionsthanaremen.27Thismaybeanothercaseofscienceprovingtheobvious:women,onaverage,seemtobemoreresponsivetootherpeople’semotionsthanmen.28

Paradoxically,womendonotseemmorelikelythanmenactuallytoactwhenconfrontedwithanopportunitytohelp,perhapsbecausetheysometimesfeelmorevulnerable.29Therearemorefactorsatworkincompassionateactionthansimplyabrainsignature,afactthatresearchersinthisareacontinuetostrugglewith.Factorsfromfeelingpressuredfortime,towhetheryouidentifywiththepersoninneed,towhetheryouareinacrowdoralone—eachofthesefactorscanmatter.Oneopenquestion:Willcultivatingacompassionateoutlookprimeapersonsufficientlytoovercometheseotherforcesinthefaceofsomeone’sneed?

WIDENINGOURCIRCLEOFCARING

AhighlyaccomplishedTibetanmeditationmasterstudiedinRichie’slaboncesaidthatonehourspentpracticingloving-kindnesstowardadifficultpersonisequivalenttoonehundredhoursofthesametowardafriendorlovedone.

Thegenericloving-kindnessmeditationtakesusthroughanever-wideningcircleofthekindsofpeoplewetrytoholdtenderfeelingstoward.Thebiggestleapcomeswhenweextendlovebeyondpeopleweknowandlove,topeoplewe

don’tknow,letalonethosewefinddifficult.Andthenafterthatthere’sthegrandaspirationtoloveeveryone,everywhere.

Howcanweextendthecompassionwefeelforourimmediatelovedonestotheentirehumanfamily,includingpeoplewedon’tlike?Thisbigleapinloving-kindness—wereittobecomemorethanamerewish—mightgofarinhealingmanydividesintheworldthatcausepainandconflict.

TheDalaiLamaseesonestrategy:recognizethe“oneness”ofhumankind,evengroupswedislike,andsorealizethat“allofthem,likeourselves,donotwantsuffering;theywanthappiness.”30

Doesthisfeelingofonenesshelp?Wedon’tknowyet,fromaresearchviewpoint.Easytosaybuthardtodo.Onestricttestofthisshifttowarduniversallovemightmeasureunconsciousbias—whenyouactoutsideyourawarenessinaprejudicedwaytowardsomegroup,despitebelievingyouharbornosuchanimus.

Thesehiddenbiasescanbedetectedviaclevertests.Forexample,apersonmaysayhehasnoracialprejudice,yetwhenpresentedwithareactiontimetestinwhichwordsthathavepleasantorunpleasantconnotationsarepairedwiththewordsblackorwhite,wordswithpleasantmeaningaremorequicklypairedwiththewordwhitecomparedwiththewordblack,andviceversa.31

ResearchersatYaleUniversityusedsuchameasureofimplicitbiasbeforeandafterasix-weekclassinloving-kindnessmeditation.32Thisresearchusedastrongcontrolgroup—teachingparticipantsaboutthevalueofloving-kindnessmeditationwithoutactuallyteachingthemthepractice.AbitlikethosedivinitystudentsponderingtheGoodSamaritan,thisno-practicegroupshowedzerobenefitontheimplicitbiastest.Thedropinunconsciousprejudicecamefromloving-kindness.

TheDalaiLamatellsofhishalfcenturyofworkingatcultivatingcompassion.Atthestart,hesays,hehadenormousadmirationforthosewhohaddevelopedgenuinecompassionforallbeings—buthewasnotconfidenthecoulddosohimself.

Heknewintellectuallythatsuchunconditionallovewaspossible,butthatittookacertainkindofinnerworktobuildup.Astimewenton,hefoundthatthemorehepracticedandbecamefamiliarwiththefeelingsofcompassion,thestrongerhiscouragebecamethathe,too,coulddevelopitatthehigherlevels.

Withthispenultimatevarietyofcompassion,headds,weareimpartialinourconcern,extendingittowardeveryone,everywhere—evenwhenthosewefeelittowardholdanimositytowardus.What’smore,ideallythisfeelingdoesnotcomejustsporadically,fromtimetotime,buthasbecomeacompellingand

notcomejustsporadically,fromtimetotime,buthasbecomeacompellingandstableforce,acentralorganizingprincipleofourlives.

Andwhetherornotweattainthatloftyheightoflove,thereareotherbenefitsalongtheway,likehowthebrain’scircuitryforhappinessenergizes,alongwithcompassion.Aswe’veoftenheardtheDalaiLamasay,“Thefirstpersontobenefitfromcompassionistheonewhofeelsit.”

TheDalaiLamarecallsanencounteratMontserrat,amonasterynearBarcelona,withPadreBasili,aChristianmonkwhohadbeeninisolatedretreatinanearbymountainhermitageforfiveyears.Whathadhebeendoing?

Meditatingonlove.“Inoticedaglowinhiseyes,”theDalaiLamasaid,addingthisindicatedthe

depthofhispeaceofmindandthebeautyfrombecomingawonderfulperson.TheDalaiLamanotedthathehadmetpeoplewhohadeverythingtheywanted,yetweremiserable.Theultimatesourceofpeace,hesaid,isinthemind—which,farmorethanourcircumstances,determinesourhappiness.33

INANUTSHELL

Simplylearningaboutcompassiondoesnotnecessarilyincreasecompassionatebehavior.Inthearcfromempathizingwithsomeonesufferingtoactuallyreachingouttohelp,loving-kindness/compassionmeditationupstheoddsofhelping.Therearethreeformsofempathy—cognitiveempathy,emotionalempathy,andempathicconcern.Oftenpeopleempathizeemotionallywithsomeone’ssufferingbutthentuneouttosoothetheirownuncomfortablefeelings.Butcompassionmeditationenhancesempathicconcern,activatescircuitsforgoodfeelingsandlove,aswellascircuitsthatregisterthesufferingofothers,andpreparesapersontoactwhensufferingisencountered.Compassionandloving-kindnessincreaseamygdalaactivationtosufferingwhilefocusedattentiononsomethingneutrallikethebreathlessensamygdalaactivity.Loving-kindnessactsquickly,inaslittleaseighthoursofpractice;reductionsinusuallyintractableunconsciousbiasemergeafterjustsixteenhours.Andthelongerpeoplepractice,thestrongerthesebrainandbehavioraltendenciestowardcompassionbecome.Thestrengthoftheseeffectsfromtheearlydaysofmeditationmaysignalourbiologicalpreparednessforgoodness.

O

7

Attention!

nedayastudentaskedhisZenteachertocreateabrushstrokecalligraphyforhim,“somethingofgreatwisdom.”

TheZenmaster,withouthesitating,tookuphisbrushandwrote:Attention.Hisstudent,abitdismayed,asked,“Isthatall?”Withoutaword,themastertooktohisbrushagain,andwrote,Attention.

Attention.Hisstudent,feelingthatwasnotsoprofound,gotabitirritated,complaining

tothemastertherewasnothingsowiseaboutthat.Againthemasterrespondedinsilence,writingAttention.Attention.

Attention.Frustrated,thestudentdemandedtoknowwhathemeantbythatword,

attention.Towhichthemasterreplied,“Attentionmeansattention.”1WilliamJamesmadeexplicitwhatthatZenmastermayhavebeenhinting

at:“Thefacultyofbringingbackawanderingattentionoverandoveragainistheveryrootofjudgment,characterandwill,”hedeclaredinhisPrinciplesofPsychology,publishedin1890.Jameswentontosaythat“aneducationwhichshouldimprovethisfacultywouldbetheeducationparexcellence.”

Afterthatboldclaimhebacktrackedabitadding,“Butitiseasiertodefinethisidealthantogivepracticaldirectionsforbringingitabout.”

RichiehadreadthispassagebeforehewenttoIndia,andafterhistransformativemomentsattheGoenkaretreat,thosewordsflashedbackinhismindwithanelectriccharge.

Thiswasaseminalmoment,anintellectualpivotpointforRichie.HehadthegutsensethathehadfoundthatmostexcellenteducationJamessought:meditation.Whateverspecificformittakes,mosteverykindofmeditationentailsretrainingattention.

Buttheresearchworldknewlittleaboutattentionbackinourgraduateschooldaysinthe1970s.TheonestudythatconnectedmeditationtoanimprovementinattentionwasbyJapaneseresearchers.2TheybroughtanEEGmachinetoazendoandmeasuredmonks’brainactivityduringmeditationwhilehearingamonotonousseriesofsounds.Whilemostmonksshowednothingremarkable,threeofthemost“advanced”monksdid:theirbrainsrespondedasstronglytothetwentiethsoundastothefirst.Thiswasbignews:ordinarilythebrainwouldtuneout,showingnoreactiontothetenthbing,letalonethetwentieth.

Tuningoutarepeatedsoundreflectstheneuralprocessknownashabituation.Suchwaninginattentiontoanythingmonotonouscanplagueradaroperators,whohavetostayvigilantwhilescanningsignalsfrommostlyemptysky.AttentionfatigueinradaroperatorswasthepracticalreasonthisveryaspectofattentionhadbeenintensivelyresearchedduringWorldWarII,whenpsychologistswereaskedhowtokeepoperatorsalert.Onlythendidattentioncomeunderscientificstudy.

Ordinarilywenoticesomethingunusualjustlongenoughtobesureitposesnothreat,orsimplytocategorizeit.Thenhabituationconservesbrainenergybypayingnoattentiontothatthingonceweknowit’ssafeorfamiliar.Onedownsideofthisbraindynamic:wehabituatetoanythingfamiliar—thepicturesonourwalls,thesamedishnightafternight,even,perhaps,ourlovedones.Habituationmakeslifemanageablebutabitdull.

Thebrainhabituatesusingcircuitryweshareevenwithreptiles:thebrainstem’sreticularactivatingsystem(RAS),oneofthefewattention-relatedcircuitsknownatthetime.Inhabituation,corticalcircuitsinhibittheRAS,keepingthisregionquietwhenweseethesameoldthingoverandover.

Inthereverse,sensitization,asweencountersomethingneworsurprising,corticalcircuitsactivatetheRAS,whichthenengagesotherbraincircuitstoprocessthenovelobject—anewpieceofartinplaceofatoo-familiarone,say.

ElenaAntonova,aBritishneuroscientistwhohasattendedtheSRI,foundthatmeditatorswhohaddoneathree-yearretreatintheTibetantraditionhadlesshabituationofeyeblinkswhentheyheardloudburstsofnoise.3Inotherwords,theirblinkscontinuedunabated.Thisreplicates(atleastconceptually)thatstudyfromJapanwhereadvancedZenmeditatorsdidnothabituatetorepetitivesounds.

TheoriginalZenstudywasforusseminal.ItseemedtheZenbrainscouldsustainattentionwhenotherbrainswouldtuneout.Thisresonatedwithourown

experienceatretreatsonmindfulness,wherewespenthourspushingourattentiontonoticeeverylittledetailofexperienceratherthantuneout.

Byzoominginondetailsofsights,sounds,tastes,andsensationsthatweotherwisewouldhabituateto,ourmindfulnesstransformedthefamiliarandhabitualintothefreshandintriguing.Thisattentiontraining,wesaw,mightwellenrichourlives,givingusthechoicetoreversehabituationbyfocusingusonadeeplytexturedhereandnow,making“theoldnewagain.”

Ourearlyviewofhabituationsawmindfulnessasavoluntaryshiftfromthereflexivetuneout.Butthatwasasfaraswehadgotteninourthinking—andwasalreadypushingtheboundariesofacceptedscientificthought.Backinthe1970ssciencesawattentionasmostlystimulus-driven,automatic,unconscious,andfromthe“bottomup”—afunctionofthebrainstem,aprimitivestructuresittingjustabovethespinalcord,ratherthanfroma“top-down”corticalarea.

Thisviewrendersattentioninvoluntary.Somethinghappensaroundus—aphonerings—andourattentionautomaticallygetspulledtothesourceofthatsound.Asoundcontinuestothepointofmonotonyandwehabituate.

Therewasnoscientificconceptforthevolitionalcontrolofattention—despitethefactthatpsychologiststhemselveswereusingtheirvolitionalattentiontowriteabouthownosuchabilityexisted!Inkeepingwiththescientificstandardsoftheday,therealityoftheirownexperiencewassimplyignoredinfavorofwhatcouldbeobjectivelyobserved.

Thistruncatedviewofattentiongaveonlypartofthestory.Habituationdescribesonevarietyofattentionoverwhichwehavenoconsciouscontrol,buthigherinourneuralcircuitry,abovethesebottom-of-the-brainmechanisms,differentdynamicsapply.

Taketheemotionalcentersinthemidbrain’slimbicsystem,wheremuchoftheactionoriginateswhenemotionsdriveourattention.WhenDanwroteEmotionalIntelligence,hedrewheavilyonresearchbyRichieandotherneuroscientistsonthethennewdiscoveryofthedanceoftheamygdala,thebrain’sradarforthreat(inthemidbrain’semotioncircuits)withprefrontalcircuitry(behindtheforehead)thebrain’sexecutivecenter,whichcanlearn,reflect,decide,andpursuelong-termgoals.

Whenangeroranxietyistriggered,theamygdaladrivesprefrontalcircuitry;assuchdisturbingemotionsreachtheirpeak,anamygdalahijackparalyzesexecutivefunction.Butwhenwetakeactivecontrolofourattention—aswhenwemeditate—wedeploythisprefrontalcircuitry,andtheamygdalaquiets.Richieandhisteamhavefoundthisquietedamygdalabothinlong-term

vipassanameditatorsand,withhintsofthesamepattern—thoughlessstrong—inpeopleaftertraininginMBSR.4

Richie’sscientificcareerhastrackedthelocusofattentionasitmovedsteadilyupthebrain.Inthe1980shehelpedfoundaffectiveneuroscience,thefieldthatstudiesthemidbrain’semotionalcircuitryandhowemotionspushandpullattention.Bythe1990s,ascontemplativeneurosciencebeganandresearchersstartedlookingatthebrainduringmeditation,theyknewhowcircuitryintheprefrontalcortexmanagesourvoluntaryattention.Thisareahastodaybecomethebrain’shotspotformeditationresearch;everyaspectofattentioninvolvestheprefrontalcortexinsomeway.

Inhumanstheprefrontalcortextakesupalargerratioofthebrain’stoplayer,theneocortex,thaninanyotherspecies,andhasbeenthesiteofthemajorevolutionarychangesthatmakeushuman.Thisneuralzone,aswewillsee,holdstheseedsofawakeningtoenduringwell-being,butitisalsoentwinedwithemotionalsuffering.Wecanenvisionwonderfulpossibilities,andwealsocanbedisturbedbyworrisomethoughts—bothsignsoftheprefrontalcortexatwork.

WhileWilliamJameswroteaboutattentionasthoughitwereonesingleentity,sciencenowtellsustheconceptrefersnotjusttooneabilitybuttomany.Amongthem:

Selectiveattention,thecapacitytofocusononeelementandignoreothers.

Vigilance,maintainingaconstantlevelofattentionastimegoeson.Allocatingattentionsowenoticesmallorrapidshiftsinwhatweexperience.

Goalfocus,or“cognitivecontrol,”keepingaspecificgoalortaskinminddespitedistractions.

Meta-awareness,beingabletotrackthequalityofone’sownawareness—forexample,noticingwhenyourmindwandersoryou’vemadeamistake.

SELECTINGATTENTION

Frominfancy,AmishiJhacanrememberherparentsmeditatingeverymorningusingbeadstorecitemantra,astheyhadlearnedintheirnativeIndia.But

usingbeadstorecitemantra,astheyhadlearnedintheirnativeIndia.ButAmishiwasnotinterestedinmeditation;shewentontobecomeacognitiveneuroscientisttrainedintherigorousstudyofattention.

WhileAmishiwasonfacultyattheUniversityofPennsylvania,Richiecametolecture.Duringhistalkhenevermentionedmeditation,buthedidshowfMRIimagesoftwobrains—oneinthedepthsofdepression,theotherhappy.Amishiaskedhim,“Howdoyougetabraintochangefromonetotheother?”

“Meditation,”Richieanswered.ThatgotAmishi’sinterest,bothpersonallyandprofessionally.Shestartedto

meditate,andbegantodoresearchonhowthemethodmightimpactattention.Butshegotpushbackfromhercolleagues,whocautionedherthatitwastooriskyandmightnotbeofbroadscientificinterestwithinthefieldofpsychology.

ThenextyearsheattendedthesecondmeetingoftheMindandLifeSummerResearchInstitute,whichprovedtransformative.Thefaculty,graduatestudents,andpostdocsshemettherewereasupportivecommunity,whoencouragedAmishi.

RichievividlyremembersanemotionaltestimonialAmishigaveatthismeetingabouthowmeditationwaspartofherrootculture.Whileshehadfeltconstrainedinpursuingsuchresearchintheacademy,shefeltshefinallyfoundherhomewithlike-mindedscientistsdoingresearchinthisarea.Amishihasbecomealeaderofanewgenerationofscientistscommittedtocontemplativeneuroscienceanditsbenefitsforsociety.

Sheandhercolleaguesconductedoneofthefirstrigorousstudiesofhowmeditationimpactsattention.5Herlab,nowbasedattheUniversityofMiami,foundthatnovicestrainedinMBSRsignificantlyimprovedinorienting,acomponentofselectiveattentionthatdirectsthemindtotargetoneamongthevirtuallyinfinitearrayofsensoryinputs.

Let’ssayyouareatapartylisteningtothemusic,andtuningoutaconversationgoingonrightnexttoyou.Ifsomeoneweretoaskyouwhattheyhadjustsaid,you’dhavenoidea.Butshouldoneofthemmentionyourname,youwouldzeroinonthosedulcetsoundsasthoughyouhadbeenlisteningtothemrightalong.

Knownincognitivescienceasthe“cocktailpartyeffect,”thissuddenawarenessillustratespartofthedesignofourbrain’sattentionsystems:wetakeinmoreofthestreamofinformationavailablethanweknowinconsciousawareness.Thisletsustuneoutirrelevantsoundsbutstillexaminethemforrelevancesomewhereinthemind.Andourownnameisalwaysrelevant.

Attention,then,hasvariouschannels—theoneweconsciouslyselectand

Attention,then,hasvariouschannels—theoneweconsciouslyselectandthosewetuneoutof.Richie’sdissertationresearchexaminedhowmeditationmightstrengthenourabilitytofocusaswechoosebyaskingvolunteerstopayattentiontowhattheysaw(aflashinglight)andignorewhattheyfelt(avibrationonthewrist)orviceversa,whileheusedEEGreadingsoftheirvisualortactilecortextomeasurethestrengthoftheirfocus.(HisuseofEEGtoexaminethisinhumans,bytheway,brokenewground—ithadonlybeendonewithratsandcatsuntilthen.)

Themeditatorsamongthevolunteersshowedamodestincreaseinwhathecalled“corticalspecificity”—moreactivityintheappropriatepartofthesensoryareasofthecortex.So,forexample,whentheywerepayingattentiontowhattheysaw,thevisualcortexwasmoreactivethanthetactile.

Whenwechoosetoconcentrateonvisualsensationsandignorewhatwetouch,thelightsare“signal”andthetouch“noise.”Whenwegetdistracted,noisedrownsthesignal;concentrationmeansmuchmoresignalthannoise.Richiefoundnoincreaseinthesignal,buttherewassomereductioninnoise—alteringtheratio.Lessnoisemeansmoresignal.

Richie’sdissertationstudy,likeDan’s,wasslightlysuggestiveoftheeffecthewasseekingtofind.Fast-forwardseveraldecadestofarmoresophisticatedmeasuresofthewell-targetedsensoryawarenessRichiehadtriedtodemonstrate.AgroupatMITdeployedMEG—amagneticEEGmeasurewithamuchmoreprecisetargetingofbrainareasthanRichie’sold-timeEEGhadallowed—withvolunteerswhohadbeenrandomlyassignedtoeithergetaneight-weekprograminMBSR,orwhowaitedtogetthetraininguntilaftertheexperimentwasdone.6

MBSR,remember,includesmindfulnessofbreath,practicingasystematicscanofsensationsthroughoutyourbody,attentiveyoga,andmoment-to-momentawarenessofthoughtsandfeelings—withtheinvitationtopracticetheseattentiontrainingmethodsdaily.AftereightweeksthosewhohadgonethroughtheMBSRprogramshowedafarbetterabilitytofocusonsensations—inthiscaseacarefullycalibratedtappingontheirhandorfoot—thantheyhaddonebeforestartingtheMBSRtraining,aswellasbetterthanthosewhowerestillwaitingforMBSR.

Conclusion:mindfulness(atleastinthisform)strengthensthebrain’sabilitytofocusononethingandignoredistractions.Theneuralcircuitryforselectiveattention,thestudyconcluded,canbetrained—contrarytothestandardwisdomwhereattentionwasassumedtobehardwiredandso,beyondthereachofanytrainingattempt.

AsimilarstrengtheningofselectiveattentionwasfoundinvipassanameditatorsattheInsightMeditationSocietywhoweretestedbeforeandafterathree-monthretreat.7Theretreatofferedwhatamountstoexplicitencouragementtobefullyattentive,notjustinthedailyeighthoursofformalsittingsbutthroughoutthedayaswell.

Beforetheretreat,whentheypaidattentiontoselectivebeepsorboops,eachatadifferenttone,theiraccuracyinspottingthetargettoneswasnobetterthananyoneelse’s.Butafterthreemonthstheretreatants’selectiveattentionwasmarkedlymoreaccurate,showingmorethana20percentgain.

SUSTAININGATTENTION

ZenscholarD.T.Suzukiwasapanelistatasymposiumheldoutdoors.Ashesatbehindatablewiththeotherpanelists,Suzukiwasperfectlystill,hiseyesfixedonaspotsomewhereinfrontofhim,seeminglyzonedoutinsomeworldofhisown.Butwhenasuddengustofwindblewsomepapersacrossthetable,Suzukialoneamongthepanelistsmadealightninggrabforthem.Hewasn’tzonedout—hewaspayingkeenattentionintheZenfashion.

TheabilitytosustainattentionwithouthabituatinginZenmeditators,remember,wasoneofthemeagerscientificfindingsaboutmeditationbackwhenwebeganthisscientificquest.ThatZenstudy,thoughithaditslimitations,spurreduson.

Attentionflowsthroughameagerbottleneckinthemind,andweallotthatnarrowbandwidthparsimoniously.Thelion’ssharegoestowhatwechoosetofocusoninthemoment.Butaswekeepourattentiononthatthing,ourfocusinevitablywanes,ourmindwanderingofftootherthoughtsandthelike.Meditationdefiesthismentalinertia.

Auniversalgoalinmeditationofeverykindcomesdowntosustainingattentioninachosenwayortoagiventarget,suchasthebreath.Numerousreports,bothanecdotalandscientific,supporttheideathatmeditationleadstobettersustainedattention,or,tousethetechnicalterm,vigilance.

Butaskepticmightask,Isitthemeditationpracticethatenhancesattention,orsomeotherfactor?That,ofcourse,iswhycontrolgroupsareneeded.Andtoshowevenmoreconvincinglythatthelinkbetweenmeditationandsustained

attentionisnotmereassociation,butratheracausalone,requiresalongitudinalstudy.

ThathigherbarwasmetbyCliffordSaronandAlanWallace’sstudy,wherevolunteersattendedathree-monthmeditationretreatwithWallaceasteacher.8TheypracticedfocusingontheirbreathfivehoursperdayandSarontestedthematthebeginningoftheretreat,onemonthintoit,attheend,andfinallyfivemonthslater.

Themeditatorsimprovedinvigilance,withthegreatestgainsinthefirstmonthofretreat.Fivemonthsaftertheretreatended,eachmeditatortookafollow-uptestofvigilance,and,impressively,theimprovementgainedduringretreatwasstillstrong.

Tobesure,thegainwaslikelymaintainedbythehourofpracticedailythesemeditatorsreported.Still,thisisamongthebestdirecttestsofameditation-inducedalteredtraitinattentionwehavesofar.Ofcoursetheevidencewouldbeallthemorecompellingifthesemeditatorsweretoshowthesamegainfiveyearslater,too!

WHENATTENTIONBLINKS

Watchafour-year-oldintentlyscanthecrowdinaWhere’sWaldo?drawing,andseethemomentofjoywhenshefinallypicksoutWaldoinhisdistinctivered-and-white-stripedsweaterfromtheconfusingcrowd.ThathappyexcitementoverspottingWaldomarksakeymomentintheworkingsofattention;thebrainrewardsusforanysuchvictorywithadoseofpleasingneurochemicals.

Forthosefewmoments,researchtellsus,thenervoussystemtakesourfocusoff-lineandrelaxes,inwhatamountstoashortneuralcelebrationparty.IfanotherWaldoweretopopupduringtheparty,ourattentionwouldbeoccupiedelsewhere.ThatsecondWaldowouldgounseen.

Thismomentoftemporaryblindnessislikeablinkinattention,ashortpauseinourmind’sabilitytoscanoursurroundings(technically,a“refractoryperiod”).Duringthatblink,themind’sabilitytonoticegoesblindandattentionlosessensitivity.Aslightchangethatmightotherwisecatchoureyegoesbyunnoticed.Theblinkmeasurereflects“brainefficiency,”inthesensethatnotgettingtoocaughtupinonethingleavesourfiniteattentionalresourcesavailableforthenext.

availableforthenext.Speakingpractically,thelackofblinkreflectsagreaterabilitytonotice

smallchanges—e.g.,nonverbalemotionalcuesofaperson’sshiftingemotionstelegraphedbyfleetingshiftsinthesmallmusclesaroundtheeyes.Insensitivitytosuchminorsignalscanmeanwemissmajormessages.

Inonetestoftheblink,youseealongstringoflettersinterspersedwithoccasionalnumbers.Eachindividualletterornumberispresentedverybriefly—for50milliseconds,whichis1/20ofasecond,atabreathlessrateoftenpersecond.Youarewarnedthateachstringofletterswillcontainoneortwonumbers,atrandomintervals.

Aftereachstringorfifteenorso,youareaskedifyousawanynumbersandwhattheywere.Iftwonumberswerepresentedinarapid-firesequencemostpeopletendtomissthesecondnumber.That’stheattentionalblink.

Scientistswhostudyattentionhadlongthoughtthisgapinattentionimmediatelyafterspottingalong-soughttargetwashardwired,anaspectofthecentralnervoussystemthatwasinevitableandunchangeable.Butthensomethingsurprisinghappened.

Enterthemeditatorsattheannualthree-monthvipassanacourseattheInsightMeditationSociety,thesameoneswhodidsowellonthetestofselectiveattention.Vipassanameditation,onthefaceofit,mightlessentheblink,sinceitcultivatesacontinuousnonreactiveawarenessofwhateverarisesinexperience,an“open-monitoring”receptivetoallthatoccursinthemind.Anintensivevipassanacoursecreatessomethingakintomindfulnessonsteroids:anonreactivehyperalertnesstoallthestuffthatarisesinone’smind.

Richie’sgroupmeasuredtheattentionalblinkinvipassanameditatorsbeforeandafterthatthree-monthretreat.Aftertheretreattherewasadramaticreduction,20percent,intheattentionalblink.9

Thekeyneuralshiftwasadropinresponsetothefirstglimpseofanumber(theywerejustnotingitspresence)sothemindremainscalmenoughtoalsonoticethesecondnumber,evenifverysoonafterthefirstone.

Thatresultwasahugesurprisetocognitivescientists,whohadbelievedtheattentionalblinkwashardwiredandsocouldnotbelessenedbyanykindoftraining.Oncethenewswasoutinsciencecircles,agroupofresearchersinGermanyaskedwhethermeditationtrainingmightoffsettheuniversalworseningwithageoftheattentionalblink,whichbecomesmorefrequentandcreateslongergapsinawarenessaspeoplegetolder.10Yes:meditatorswhoregularlypracticedsomeformof“openmonitoring”(aspaciousawarenessofwhatevercomestomind)reversedtheusualescalationofattentionalblinkswith

aging,evendoingbetterthananothergrouptakenentirelyfromayoungerpopulation.

Perhaps,theGermanresearchersspeculate,thenonreactiveopenawareness—simplynoticingandallowingwhatevercomesintothemind“justtobe”ratherthanfollowingachainofthoughtsaboutit—becomesacognitiveskillthattransfersovertoregisteringatargetlikethelettersandnumbersontheblinktestwithoutgettingcaughtupinit.Thatleavestheirattentionreadyforthenexttargetinthesequence—amoreefficientwaytowitnessthepassingworld.

Oncetheattentionalblinkhadbeenshowntobereversible,Dutchscientistswondered,What’stheminimumtrainingthatstilllessenstheblink?Theytaughtpeoplewhohadnevermeditatedbeforehowtomonitortheirmind,usingaversionofmindfulness.11Thetrainingsessionslastedjustseventeenminutes,afterwhichthevolunteersweretestedontheattentionalblink.Theyblinkedlessthanacomparisongroup,whohadbeentaughtafocusingmeditationthathadnoeffectonthismentalskill.

THEMULTITASKINGMYTH

Weallsufferfromthedigital-ageversionoflife’s“fullcatastrophe”:incomingemails,pressingtexts,phonemessages,andmore,storminginallatonce—nottomentiontheFacebookposts,Instagrams,andallsuchurgentmemosfromourpersonaluniverseofsocialmedia.Giventheubiquityofsmartphonesandsuchdevices,peopletodayseemtotakeinfarmoreinformationthantheydidbeforethedigitalage.

Decadesbeforewebegantodrowninaseaofdistractions,cognitivescientistHerbertSimonmadethisprescientobservation:“Whatinformationconsumesisattention.Awealthofinformationmeansapovertyofattention.”

Then,too,therearethewaysoursocialconnectionssuffer.Didyoueverhavetheimpulsetotellachildtoputdownherphoneandlookintheeyesofthepersonsheistalkingto?Theneedforsuchadviceisbecomingincreasinglycommonasdigitaldistractionsclaimanotherkindofvictim:basichumanskillslikeempathyandsocialpresence.

Thesymbolicmeaningofeyecontact,ofputtingasidewhatwearedoingtoconnect,liesintherespect,care,evenloveitindicates.Alackofattentiontothosearoundussendsamessageofindifference.Suchsocialnormsforattention

thosearoundussendsamessageofindifference.Suchsocialnormsforattentiontothepeoplewearewithhavesilently,inexorablyshifted.

Yetwearelargelyimpervioustotheseeffects.Manydenizensofthedigitalworld,forinstance,pridethemselvesonbeingabletomultitask,carryingonwiththeiressentialworkevenastheygrazeamongalltheotherincomingchannelsofwhat’s-up.ButcompellingresearchatStanfordUniversityhasshownthatthisveryideaisamyth—thebraindoesnot“multitask”butratherswitchesrapidlyfromonetask(mywork)toothers(allthosefunnyvideos,friends’updates,urgenttexts...).12

Attentiontasksdon’treallygooninparallel,as“multitasking”implies;insteadtheydemandrapidswitchingfromonethingtotheother.Andfollowingeverysuchswitch,whenourattentionreturnstotheoriginaltask,itsstrengthhasbeenappreciablydiminished.Itcantakeseveralminutestorampuponceagaintofullconcentration.

Theharmspillsoverintotherestoflife.Forone,theinabilitytofilteroutthenoise(allthosedistractions)fromthesignal(whatyoumeanttofocuson)createsaconfusionaboutwhat’simportant,andsoadropinourabilitytoretainwhatmatters.Heavymultitaskers,theStanfordgroupdiscovered,aremoreeasilydistractedingeneral.Andwhenmultitaskersdotrytofocusonthatonethingtheyhavetogetdone,theirbrainsactivatemanymoreareasthanjustthoserelevanttothetaskathand—aneuralindicatorofdistraction.

Eventheabilitytomultitaskefficientlysuffers.AsthelateCliffordNass,oneoftheresearchers,putit,multitaskersare“suckersforirrelevancy,”whichhampersnotjustconcentrationbutalsoanalyticunderstandingandempathy.13

COGNITIVECONTROL

Cognitivecontrol,ontheotherhand,letsusfocusonaspecificgoalortaskandkeepitinmindwhileresistingdistractions,theveryabilitiesmultitaskingharms.Suchsteelyfocusisessentialinjobslikeairtrafficcontrol—wherescreenscanbefilledwithdistractionsfromthecontroller’smainfocus,agivenincomingairplane—orjustingettingthroughyourdailyto-dolist.

Thegoodnewsformultitaskers:cognitivecontrolcanbestrengthened.Undergradsvolunteeredtotryten-minutesessionsofeitherfocusingoncounting

theirbreathoranaptcomparisontask:browsingHuffingtonPost,Snapchat,orBuzzFeed.14

Justthreeten-minutesessionsofbreathcountingwasenoughtoappreciablyincreasetheirattentionskillsonabatteryoftests.Andthebiggestgainswereamongtheheavymultitaskers,whodidmorepoorlyonthosetestsinitially.

Ifmultitaskingresultsinflabbyattention,aconcentrationworkoutlikecountingbreathsoffersawaytotoneup,atleastintheshortterm.Buttherewasnoindicationthattheupwardbumpinattentionwouldlast—theimprovementcameimmediatelyafterthe“workout,”andsoregistersonourradarasastateeffect,notalastingtrait.Thebrain’sattentioncircuitryneedsmoresustainedeffortstocreateastabletrait,aswewillsee.

Still,evenbeginnersinmeditationcansharpentheirattentionskills,withsomesurprisingbenefits.Forinstance,researchersattheUniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbaragavevolunteersaneight-minuteinstructionofmindfulnessoftheirbreath,andfoundthatthisshortfocusingsession(comparedtoreadinganewspaperorjustrelaxing)lessenedhowmuchtheirmindwanderedafterward.15

Whilethatfindingisofinterest,thefollow-upwasevenmorecompelling.Thesameresearchersgavevolunteersatwo-weekcourseinmindfulnessofbreathing,aswellasofdailyactivitieslikeeating,foratotalofsixhours,plusten-minuteboostersessionsathomedaily.16Theactivecontrolgroupstudiednutritionforthesameamountoftime.Again,mindfulnessimprovedconcentrationandlessenedmind-wandering.

Asurprise:mindfulnessalsoimprovedworkingmemory—theholdinginmindofinformationsoitcantransferintolong-termmemory.Attentioniscrucialforworkingmemory;ifwearen’tpayingattention,thosedigitswon’tregisterinthefirstplace.

Thistraininginmindfulnessoccurredwhilethestudentsinthestudywerestillinschool.Theboosttotheirattentionandworkingmemorymayhelpaccountfortheevenbiggersurprise:mindfulnessuppedtheirscoresbymorethan30percentontheGRE,theentranceexamforgradschool.Students,takenote.

Anotherwaycognitivecontrolhelpsusisinmanagingourimpulses,technicallyknownas“responseinhibition.”Aswesawinchapterfive,“AMindUndisturbed,”inCliffSaron’sstudythetraininguppedameditator’sabilitytoinhibitimpulseoverthecourseofthreemonthsand,impressively,stayedstrong

inafive-monthfollow-up.17Andbetterimpulseinhibitionwentalongwithaself-reporteduptickinemotionalwell-being.

META-AWARENESS

WhenwedidourfirstvipassanacoursesinIndia,wefoundourselvesimmersedhourafterhourinnotingthecomingsandgoingsofourownmind,cultivatingstabilitybysimplynoticingratherthanfollowingwherethosethoughts,impulses,desires,orfeelingswouldhaveusgo.Thisintensiveattentiontothemovementsofourmindboilsdowntopuremeta-awareness.

Inmeta-awarenessitdoesnotmatterwhatwefocusourattentionon,butratherthatwerecognizeawarenessitself.Usuallywhatweperceiveisafigure,withawarenessinthebackground.Meta-awarenessswitchesfigureandgroundinourperception,soawarenessitselfbecomesforemost.

Suchawarenessofawarenessitselfletsusmonitorourmindwithoutbeingsweptawaybythethoughtsandfeelingswearenoticing.“Thatwhichisawareofsadnessisnotsad,”observesphilosopherSamHarris.“Thatwhichisawareoffearisnotfearful.ThemomentIamlostinthought,however,I’masconfusedasanyoneelse.”18

Scientistsrefertobrainactivityreflectingourconsciousmindanditsmentaldoingsas“top-down.”“Bottom-up”referstowhatgoesoninthemindlargelyoutsideawareness,inwhattechnicallyisthe“cognitiveunconscious.”Asurprisingamountofwhatwethinkisfromthetopdownisactuallyfromthebottomup.Weseemtoimposeatop-downglossonourawareness,wherethethinsliceofthecognitiveunconsciousthatcomestoourattentioncreatestheillusionofbeingtheentiretyofmind.19

Weremainunawareofthemuchvastermentalmachineryofbottom-upprocesses—atleastintheconventionalawarenessofoureverydaylife.Meta-awarenessletsusseealargerswathofbottom-upoperations.

Meta-awarenessallowsustotrackourattentionitself—noticing,forexample,whenourmindhaswanderedofffromsomethingwewanttofocuson.Thisabilitytomonitorthemindwithoutgettingsweptawayintroducesacrucialchoicepointwhenwefindourmindhaswandered:wecanbringourfocusbacktothetaskathand.Thissimplementalskillundergirdsahugerangeofwhatmakesuseffectiveintheworld—everythingfromlearningtorealizingwe’ve

makesuseffectiveintheworld—everythingfromlearningtorealizingwe’vehadacreativeinsighttoseeingaprojectthroughtoitsend.

Therearetwovarietiesofexperience:the“mereawareness”ofathing,whichourordinaryconsciousnessgivesus,versusknowingyouareawareofthatthing—recognizingawarenessitself,withoutjudgmentorotheremotionalreactions.Forexample,wetypicallywatchanengrossingmoviesosweptawaybytheplotthatwe’velostawarenessofbeinginatheaterwithallitssurroundings.Butwealsocanwatchamovieattentivelywhilemaintainingabackgroundawarenessofbeinginthetheaterwatchingamovie.Thisbackgroundawarenessdoesn’tdiminishourappreciationandinvolvementinthemovie—it’ssimplyadifferentmodeofawareness.

Atthemoviesthepersonnexttoyouwithabagofpopcorncouldbemakingcrunchingnoisesthatyoutuneoutbutwhichneverthelessregisterinyourbrain.Duringsuchunconsciousmentalprocessing,activitylessensinakeycorticalarea,thedorsolateralprefrontalcortex,orDLPFCforshort.Asyoubecomemoreawareofbeingaware,theDLPFCbecomesmoreactive.

Considerunconsciousbias,theprejudicesweholdbutdonotbelievewehaveatall(asmentionedinchaptersix,“PrimedforLove”).MeditationcanbothenhancethefunctionoftheDLPFCandlessenunconsciousbias.20

Cognitivepsychologiststestmeta-awarenessbygivingpeoplementaltaskssochallengingthaterrorsareinevitable,andthentrackingthenumberofsucherrors—andwhetherthepersonnoticestheremighthavebeenanerror(that’sthemeta-awarenessangle).Thesetasksarepurposelydevilish,designedandcalibratedtoensurethatwhoevertakesitwillmakeacertainpercentageofmistakes,and,what’smore,thattheirconfidenceintheirresponseswillvary.

Imagine,forinstance,having160wordswhizbyinsuccessionfor1.5secondseach.Thenyouseeanothersetof320words,halfofwhichyou’veseenbeforeinthatzippypresentation.Youhavetopressoneoftwobuttonstotellifyouthinkthewordyouseeinthesecondsetwasinthepreviouslist,ornot.Thenyourateyourconfidenceinyouraccuracyforeachword,ametricformeta-awarenesstothedegreeyoubothhaveconfidenceinandmakethecorrectresponse.

PsychologistsatUC–SantaBarbarausedsuchamentalchallengewithpeoplelearningmindfulnessforthefirsttime,aswellasagroupwhohadacourseinnutrition.21Meta-awarenessimprovedinthemeditationgroup,butnotawhitinthosetakingthenutritionclass.

WILLITLAST?

AmishiJha’slabtestedtheeffectofanintensivemindfulnessretreatwherepeoplemeditatedformorethaneighthourseachdayforamonth.22Theretreatboostedparticipants’“alerting,”avigilantstateofreadinesstorespondtowhateveryouencounter.Butalthoughinapreviousstudyshehadfoundanimprovementinorientingwithbeginnersinabriefcourseofmindfulness,surprisingly,theseretreatparticipantsshowednosuchboost.

Thisnonfindingrepresentsimportantdataifwearetogetafullpictureofhowmeditationdoesanddoesnotmatter.Ithelpsusgetaportraitofhowvariousaspectsofattentionchange—ordonot—withdifferenttypesofmeditation,andatdifferinglevels.

Somechangesmightoccurrightaway,whileotherstakelonger:whileorientingmaybudgeinitiallyandthenstall,alertingseemstoimprovewithpractice.And,wesuspect,meditationsustainedovertimemightbeneededtomaintainsuchshiftsinattention,lesttheyfade.

AboutthetimewhenRichiewasdoinghisHarvardresearchonsignal-to-noiseshiftsinmeditators,cognitivescientistssuchasAnneTreismanandMichaelPosnerpointedoutthat“attention”representstoogrossaconcept.Instead,theyargued,weshouldlookatvarioussubtypesofattention,andtheneuralcircuitryeachinvolves.Meditation,thefindingsnowshow,seemstoenhancemanyofthesesubtypes,thoughwedon’tyethavethefullpicture.Amishi’sresultstellusthatpicturewillbenuanced.

Awordofcaution:whilesomeaspectsofattentionimproveafterjustafewhours(or,itseems,minutes!)ofpractice,thisbynomeansindicatesthoseimprovementswilllast.We’reskepticalthatquickie,one-timeinterventionsmattermuchafteranytemporaryimprovementsfade.Thereisnoevidence,forinstance,thattheerasureoftheattentionalblinkinducedbyseventeenminutesofmindfulnesswillmakeadetectabledifferencemerehourslater,afterthatstatewanes.Thesameholdsforthoseten-minutemindfulnesssessionsthatreversedtheerosionoffocusfrommultitasking.Wesuspectthatunlessyoucontinuethepracticeeveryday,multitaskingwillstillweakenyourfocus.

Ourhunchwouldbethatpushinganeuralsystemlikeattentioninalastingwayrequiresnotjusttheseshorttrainingsandcontinueddailypractice,butalsointensiveboostersessions,aswasthecasewiththosewhowereattheshamatharetreatandthenweretestedfivemonthslaterinCliffSaron’sstudy.Otherwisethebrain’swiringwillregresstoitspreviousstatus:alifeofdistraction

thebrain’swiringwillregresstoitspreviousstatus:alifeofdistractionpunctuatedwithperiodsofconcentration.

Evenso,it’sencouragingthatsuchshortdosesofmeditationimproveattention.ThefactthattheseimprovementscomewithsuchrapidityconfirmsWilliamJames’sconjecturethatsharperattentioncanbecultivated.TodaytherearemeditationcentersinCambridgenomorethanafifteen-minutewalkfromwhereWilliamJamesoncelived.Hadtheybeenthereduringhislifetime,andhadWilliamJamespracticedatone,hewouldnodoubthavefoundhismissingeducationparexcellence.

INANUTSHELL

Meditation,atitsroot,retrainsattention,anddifferenttypesboostvaryingaspectsofattention.MBSRstrengthensselectiveattention,whilelong-termvipassanapracticeenhancesthisevenmore.Evenfivemonthsafterthethree-monthshamatharetreat,meditatorshadenhancedvigilance,theabilitytosustaintheirattention.Andtheattentionalblinklessenedgreatlyafterthreemonthsonavipassanaretreat—butthebeginningsofthislesseningalsoshowedupafterjustseventeenminutesofmindfulnessinbeginners,nodoubtatransitorystateforthenewcomers,andamorelastingtraitforthoseretreatants.Thatsamepractice-makes-perfectmaximlikelyappliestoseveralotherquickiemeditations:justtenminutesofmindfulnessovercamethedamagetoconcentrationfrommultitasking—atleastintheshortterm;onlyeightminutesofmindfulnesslessenedmind-wanderingforawhile.Abouttenhoursofmindfulnessoveratwo-weekperiodstrengthenedattentionandworkingmemory—andledtosubstantialimprovedscoresonthegraduateschoolentranceexam.Whilemeditationboostsmanyaspectsofattention,theseareshort-termgains;morelastingbenefitsnodoubtrequireongoingpractice.

B

8

LightnessofBeing

acktoRichieonhisretreatinDalhousiewithS.N.Goenka.ArevelationcametoRichieontheseventhday,duringtheHourofStillness,which

beginswithavownottomakeasinglevoluntarymovement,nomatterhowexcruciatingyourdiscomfort.

AlmostfromthestartofthatendlesshourRichie’susualacheinhisrightknee,nowintensifiedbytheno-movingvow,wentfrompulsatingjoltstotorture.Butthen,justasthepainreachedtheunbearablepoint,somethingchanged:hisawareness.

Suddenly,whathadbeenpaindisappearedintoacollectionofsensations—tingling,burning,pressure—buthiskneenolongerhurt.The“pain”dissolvedintowavesofvibrationswithoutatraceofemotionalreactivity.

Focusingonjustthesensationsmeantcompletelyreappraisingthenatureofhurting:insteadoffixatingonthepain,theverynotionofpaindeconstructedintorawsensations.Whatwentmissingwasjustascritical:thepsychologicalresistanceto,andnegativefeelingsabout,thosesensations.

Thepainhadnotvanished,butRichiehadchangedhisrelationshiptoit.Therewasjustrawsensation—notmypain,alongwiththeusualstreamofangst-riddenthoughts.

Thoughwhilewesitweordinarilyareoblivioustooursubtleshiftsinpostureandthelike,thesesmallmovementsrelievestressthat’sbuildinginourbody.Whenyoudon’tmoveamuscle,thatstresscanbuildintoexcruciatingpain.Andif,likeRichie,youarescanningthosesensations,aremarkableshiftinyourrelationshiptoyourownexperiencecanoccurwherethefeelingof“pain”meltsawayintoamélangeofphysicalsensations.

InthathourRichie,withhissciencebackground,realizedinhismostpersonalrealitythatwhatwelabelas“pain”isajoiningtogetherofmyriadconstituentsomaticsensationsfromwhichthelabelarises.Withhisnewly

constituentsomaticsensationsfromwhichthelabelarises.Withhisnewlyalteredperception,“pain”becamejustanidea,amentallabelthatputsaconceptualveneeroverwhatarisesfromamotleycoincidenceofsensations,perceptions,andresistantthoughts.

ThiswasavividtasteforRichieofhowmuchmentalactivityisgoingoninourmind“underthehood,”andaboutwhichweareoblivious.Heunderstoodthatourexperienceisnotbasedonthedirectapperceptionofwhatishappening,buttoagreatextentuponourexpectationsandprojections,thehabitualthoughtsandreactionsthatwehavelearnedtomakeinresponse,andanimpenetrableseaofneuralprocesses.Weliveinaworldourmindsbuildratherthanactuallyperceivingtheendlessdetailsofwhatishappening.

ThisledRichietoascientificinsight:thatconsciousnessoperatesasanintegrator,gluingtogetheravastamountofelementarymentalprocesses,mostofwhichweareobliviousto.Weknowtheireventualproduct—mypain—buttypicallyhavenoawarenessofthecountlesselementsthatcombineintothatperception.

Whilethatunderstandinghasbecomeagivenincognitivesciencetoday,backinthedaysoftheDalhousieretreattherewasnosuchunderstanding.Richiehadnoinklingapartfromhisowntransformationinawareness.

DuringthefirstdaysoftheretreatRichiewouldshifthispositionnowandthentorelievethediscomfortinhiskneesorback.Butafterthatno-movingperceptualbreakthrough,Richiecouldbestillasarockduringmarathonsessionsofuptothreehoursorlonger.Withthisradicalinnershift,Richiefeltasensethathecouldsitthroughanything.

Richiesawthatifweactuallypaidattentionintherightwaytothenatureofourexperience,itwouldchangedramatically.TheHourofStillnessshowsthateverywakingmomentofourlives,weconstructourexperiencearoundanarrativewherewearethestar—andthatwecandeconstructthatstorywecenteronourselvesbyapplyingtherightkindofawareness.

HOWOURBRAINCONSTRUCTSOURSELF

MarcusRaichlewassurprised—andtroubled.Raichle,aneuroscientistatWashingtonUniversityinSt.Louis,hadbeendoingpioneeringbrainstudiestoidentifywhichneuralareaswereactiveduringvariousmentalactivities.Todo

thiskindofresearchbackin2001,Raichleusedastrategycommonatthetime:comparingtheactivetasktoabaselinewheretheparticipantwasdoing“nothing.”Whattroubledhim:duringhighlydemandingcognitivetasks—likecountingbackwardby13sfromthenumber1,475—therewereasetofbrainregionsthatdeactivated.

Thestandardassumptionwasthatsuchaneffortfulmentaljobwouldalwaysincreaseactivationinbrainareas.ButthedeactivationRaichlefoundwasasystematicpattern,onethataccompaniestheshiftfromtherestingbaselineofdoing“nothing”todoinganykindofmentaltask.

Inotherwords,whilewe’redoingnothingtherearebrainregionsthatarehighlyactivated,evenmoreactivethanthoseengagedduringadifficultcognitivetask.Whileweareworkingatamentalchallengeliketrickysubtraction,thesebrainregionsgoquiet.

Hisobservationconfirmedamystifyingfactthathadfloatedaroundtheworldofbrainscienceforawhile:thatalthoughthebrainmakesuponly2percentofthebody’smass,itconsumesabout20percentofthebody’smetabolicenergyasmeasuredbyitsoxygenusage,andthatrateofoxygenconsumptionremainsmoreorlessconstantnomatterwhatwearedoing—includingnothingatall.Thebrain,itseems,staysjustasbusywhenwearerelaxedaswhenweareundersomementalstrain.

So,whereareallthoseneurons,chattingbackandforthwhilewedonothinginparticular?Raichleidentifiedaswathofareas,mainlythemPFC(shortformidlineoftheprefrontalcortex)andthePCC(postcingulatecortex),anodeconnectingtothelimbicsystem.Hedubbedthiscircuitrythebrain’s“defaultmodenetwork.”1

Whilethebrainengagesinanactivetask,whethermathormeditating,thedefaultareascalmdownasthoseessentialforthattaskgearup,andrampupagainwhenthatmentaltaskfinishes.Thissolvedtheproblemofhowthebraincouldmaintainitsactivitylevelwhile“nothing”wasgoingon.

Whenscientistsaskedpeopleduringtheseperiodsof“doingnothing”whatwasgoingonintheirminds,notsurprisingly,itwasnotnothing!Theytypicallyreportedthattheirmindswerewandering;mostoften,thismind-wanderingwasfocusedontheself—HowamIdoinginthisexperiment?Iwonderwhattheyarelearningaboutme;IneedtoreplytoJoe’sphonemessage—allreflectingmentalactivityfocusedon“I”and“me.”2

Inshort,ourmindwandersmostlytosomethingaboutourselves—mythoughts,myemotions,myrelationships,wholikedmynewpostonmy

Facebookpage—alltheminutiaeofourlifestory.Byframingeveryeventinhowitimpactsourselves,thedefaultmodemakeseachofusthecenteroftheuniverseasweknowit.Thosereveriesknittogetheroursenseof“self”fromthefragmentarymemories,hopes,dreams,plans,andsoonthatcenteronI,me,andmine.Ourdefaultmodecontinuallyrescriptsamoviewhereeachofusstars,replayingparticularlyfavoriteorupsettingscenesoverandover.

Thedefaultmodeturnsonwhilewechillout,notdoinganythingthatrequiresfocusandeffort;itblossomsduringthemind’sdowntime.Conversely,aswefocusonsomechallenge,likegrapplingwithwhat’shappenedtoyourWi-Fisignal,thedefaultmodequiets.

Withnothingmuchelsetocaptureourattention,ourmindwanders,veryoftentowhat’stroublingus—arootcauseofeverydayangst.Forthisreason,whenHarvardresearchersaskedthousandsofpeopletoreporttheirmentalfocusandmoodatrandompointsthroughtheday,theirconclusionwasthat“awanderingmindisanunhappymind.”

Thisself-systemmullsoverourlife—especiallytheproblemsweface,thedifficultiesinourrelationships,ourworriesandanxieties.Becausetheselfruminatesonwhat’sbotheringus,wefeelrelievedwhenwecanturnitoff.Oneofthegreatappealsofhigh-risksportslikerockclimbingseemstobejustthat—thedangerofthesportdemandsafullfocusonwheretoputyourhandorfootnext.Moremundaneworriestakebackstageinthemind.

Thesameappliesto“flow,”thestatewherepeopleperformattheirbest.Payingfullattentiontowhat’sathand,flowresearchtellsus,rateshighonthelistofwhatputsusinto—andsustains—ajoyousstate.Theself,initsformasmind-wandering,becomesadistraction,suppressedforthetimebeing.

Managingattention,aswesawinthepreviouschapter,isanessentialingredientofeveryvarietyofmeditation.Whenwebecomelostinthoughtsduringmeditation,we’vefallenintothedefaultmodeanditswanderingmind.

Abasicinstructioninalmostallformsofmeditationurgesustonoticewhenourmindhaswanderedandthenreturnourfocustothechosentarget,say,amantraorourbreathing.Thismomenthasuniversalfamiliarityoncontemplativepaths.

Thissimplementalmovehasaneuralcorrelate:activatingtheconnectionbetweenthedorsolateralPFCandthedefaultmode—aconnectionfoundtobestrongerinlong-termmeditatorsthaninbeginners.3Thestrongerthisconnection,themorelikelyregulatorycircuitsintheprefrontalcortexinhibitthe

defaultareas,quietingthemonkeymind—theincessantself-focusedchatterthatsooftenfillsourmindswhennothingelseispressing.

ASufipoemhintsatthisshift,speakingoftheshiftfrom“athousandthoughts”tojustone:“ThereisnogodbutGod.”4

DECONSTRUCTINGTHESELF

Asfifth-centuryIndiansageVasubhanduobserved,“Solongasyougraspattheself,youstayboundtotheworldofsuffering.”

Whilemostwaystorelieveusfromtheburdenofselfaretemporary,meditationpathsaimtomakethatreliefanongoingfactoflife—alastingtrait.Traditionalmeditativepathscontrastoureverydaymentalstates—thatstreamofthoughts,manyladenwithangst,orto-doliststhatneverend—withastateofbeingfreeoftheseweights.Andeachpath,initsparticularterms,seeslighteningoursenseofselfasthekeytosuchinnerfreedom.

WhenthepaininRichie’skneeshiftedfromexcruciatingtosuddenlybearable,therewasaparallelshiftinhowheidentifiedwithit.Itwasnolonger“his”pain;thesenseof“mine”hadevaporated.

Richie’shourofutterstillnessoffersaglimpseofhowourordinary“self”canreducetoanopticalillusionofthemind.Asthiskeenobservationgainsstrength,atsomepointourverysenseofasolidselfbreaksdown.Thisshiftinhowweexperienceourselves—ourpainandallthatweattachtoit—pointstooneofthemaingoalsofallspiritualpractice:lighteningthesystemthatbuildsourfeelingsofI,me,andmine.

TheBuddha,intellingofthisveryinsight,likenedtheselftoachariot,aconceptthatariseswhenwheels,platform,yoke,andsoonareputtogether—butwhichdoesnotexistsaveasthesepartsincombination.Toupdatethemetaphor,thereisno“car”inthetires,northedashboardorthesteelshellofitsbody—butputallthesetogetherwiththemultitudeofotherparts,andwhatwethinkofasacarmanifests.

Inthesameway,cognitivesciencetellsus,oursenseofselfemergesasapropertyofthemanyneuralsubsystemsthatthreadtogether,amongotherstreams,ourmemories,ourperceptions,ouremotions,andourthoughts.Anyof

thosealonewouldbeinsufficientforafullsenseofourself,butintherightcombinationwehavethecozyfeelofouruniquebeing.

Meditativetraditionsofallkindsshareonegoal:lettinggooftheconstantgrasping—the“stickiness”ofourthoughts,emotions,andimpulses—thatguidesusthroughourdaysandlives.Technicallycalled“dereification,”thiskeyinsighthasthemeditatorrealizethatthoughts,feelings,andimpulsesarepassing,insubstantialmentalevents.Withthisinsightwedon’thavetobelieveourthoughts;insteadoffollowingthemdownsometrack,wecanletthemgo.

AsDōgen,founderoftheSotoschoolofZen,instructed,“Ifathoughtarises,takenoteofitandthendismissit.Whenyouforgetallattachmentssteadfastly,youwillnaturallybecomezazenitself.”

Manyothertraditionsseelighteningtheselfasthepathtoinnerfreedom.We’veoftenheardtheDalaiLamatalkabout“emptiness,”bywhichhemeansthesenseinwhichour“self’—andallseemingobjectsinourworld—actuallyemergefromthecombinationoftheircomponents.

SomeChristiantheologiansusethetermkenosisfortheemptyingofself,whereourownwantsandneedsdiminishwhileouropennesstotheneedsofothersgrowsintocompassion.AsaSufiteacherputit,“Whenoccupiedwithself,youareseparatedfromGod.ThewaytoGodisbutonestep;thestepoutofyourself.”5

Suchastepoutoftheself,technicallyspeaking,suggestsweakeningactivationofthedefaultcircuitrythatbindstogetherthemosaicofmemories,thoughts,impulses,andothersemi-independentmentalprocessesintothecohesivesenseof“me”and“mine.”

Thestuffofourlivesbecomesless“sticky”asweshiftintoalessattachedrelationshiptowardallthat.Atthehigherreachesofpractice,mindtraininglessenstheactivityofour“self.”“Me”and“mine”losetheirself-hypnoticpower;ourconcernsbecomelessburdensome.Thoughthebillstillmustbepaid,thelighterour“selfing,”thelessweanguishaboutthatbillandthefreerwefeel.Westillfindawaytopayit,butwithouttheextraloadofemotionalbaggage.

Whilealmosteverycontemplativepathholdslightnessofbeingasaprimaryaim,paradoxically,verylittlescientificresearchspeakstothisgoal.Ourreadingofthemeagerstudiesdonesofarsuggeststheremaybethreestagesinhowmeditationleadstogreaterselflessness.Eachofthesestagesusesadifferentneuralstrategytoquietthebrain’sdefaultmode,andsofreeusabitfromthegripoftheself.

THEDATA

DavidCreswell,nowatCarnegieMellonUniversity,wasanotheryoungscientistwhoseinterestinmeditationwasnurturedbyattendingtheMindandLifeSummerResearchInstitute.Toassesstheearlystage,foundamongmeditationnovices,Creswell’sgroupmeasuredbrainactivityinpeoplewhovolunteeredforathree-dayintensivecourseinmindfulness.6Thevolunteershadnevermeditatedbefore,butinthismindfulnesscoursetheylearnedthatifyouarelostinsomepersonalmelodrama(afavoritethemeofthedefaultmode),youcanvoluntarilydropit—youcannameit,orshiftyourattentiontowatchingyourbreathortobareawarenessofthepresentmoment.Alloftheseareactiveinterventions,effortstoquietthemonkeymind.

Sucheffortsheightenactivityinthedorsolateralprefrontalarea,akeycircuitformanagingthedefaultmode.Aswe’veseen,thisareaspringsintoactionanytimeweintentionallyattempttoquietouragitatedmind—forinstance,whenwetrytothinkofsomethingmorepleasantthansomeupsettingencounterthatkeepsrunningoverandoverinourmind.

Threedaysofpracticingthesemindfulnessmethodsledtoincreasedconnectionsbetweenthiscontrolcircuitryandthedefaultzone’sPCC,aprimaryregionforself-focusedthought.Novicesinmeditation,thissuggests,keeptheirmindfromwanderingbyactivatingneuralwiringthatcanquietthedefaultarea.

Butwithmoreexperiencedmeditators,thenextphaseofdownscalingtheselfaddslessenedactivityinkeysectionsofthedefaultmode—alooseningofthemechanicsofself—whiletheheightenedconnectionswithcontrolareascontinue.Acaseinpoint:researchersledbyJudsonBrewer,thenatYaleUniversity,(andwhohasbeenonthefacultyattheSRI)exploredbraincorrelatesofmindfulnesspractice,comparinghighlyexperiencedmeditators(averagingaround10,500lifetimehours)withnovices.7

Duringthemeditationpractice,allthosetestedwereencouragedtodistinguishbetweensimplynotingtheidentityofanexperience(itchingisoccurring,say)andidentifyingwithit(Iitch)—andthentoletgo.Thisdistinctionseemsacrucialstepinlooseningtheself,byactivatingmeta-awareness—a“minimalself”thatcansimplynoticetheitchratherthanbringitintoourstoryline,myitch.

Asmentioned,whenwearewatchingamovieandarelostinitsstory,butthennoticethatweareinamovietheaterwatchingafilm,wehavesteppedout

ofthemovie’sworldintoalargeframethatincludesthemoviebutgoesbeyond.Havingsuchmeta-awarenessallowsustomonitorourthoughts,feelings,andactions;tomanagethemaswelike;andtoinquireintotheirdynamics.

Oursenseofselfgetswoveninanongoingpersonalnarrativethatthreadstogetherdisparatepartsofourlifeintoacoherentstoryline.Thisnarratorresidesmainlyinthedefaultmodebutbringstogetherinputsfromabroadrangeofbrainareasthatinthemselveshavenothingtodowiththesenseofself.

TheseasonedmeditatorsintheBrewerstudyhadthesamestrongconnectionbetweenthecontrolcircuitandthedefaultmodeseeninbeginners,butinadditionhadlessactivationwithinthedefaultmodeareasthemselves.Thiswasparticularlytruewhentheypracticedloving-kindnessmeditation—acorroborationofthemaximthatthemorewethinkofthewell-beingofothers,thelesswefocusonourselves.8

Intriguingly,thelong-termmeditatorsseemedtohaveroughlythesamelessenedconnectivityinthedefaultmodecircuitrywhiletheyjustrestedbeforethetestastheydisplayedduringmindfulness.That’salikelytraiteffectandagoodsign:thesemeditatorsintentionallytraintobeasmindfulintheirdailylivesasduringmeditationsessions.ThesamelessenedconnectivitycomparedtononmeditatorswasfoundbybrainresearchersinIsraelstudyinglong-termmindfulnessmeditators,whohadonaveragearound9,000hoursofpracticeundertheirbelts.9

Furtherindirectevidenceforthischangeinlong-termmeditatorscomesfromastudyatEmoryUniversityofseasonedZenmeditators(threeyears–pluspractice,butlifetimehoursunknown)who,comparedtocontrols,seemedtoshowlessactivityinpartsofthedefaultareawhilefocusingontheirbreathduringbrainscans.Thebiggerthiseffect,thebettertheydidonatestofsustainedattentionoutsidethescanner,suggestingalastingdropinmind-wandering.10Finally,asmallbutsuggestivestudyofZenmeditatorsattheUniversityofMontrealfoundlesseneddefaultareaconnectivitywhilejustrestingamongZenmeditators(withanaverage1,700hoursofpractice)comparedtoagroupofvolunteerstrainedinzazenforjustoneweek.11

There’satheorythatwhatcapturesourattentionsignifiesanattachment,andthemoreattachedweare,themoreoftenwe’llbesocaptivated.Inanexperimenttestingthispremise,agroupofvolunteersandoneofseasonedmeditators(4,200hours)weretoldtheywouldgetmoneywhenevertheyrecognizedcertaingeometricshapeswithinanarray.12Thatwas,inasense,the

creationofamini-attachment.Then,inalaterphase,whentheyweretoldtosimplyfocusontheirbreathandignorethoseshapes,themeditatorswerelessdistractedbythemthanwerethecontrolgroup.

Alongtheselines,Richie’sgroupfoundthatmeditatorswhohadanaverage7,500lifetimehours,comparedtopeopletheirownage,haddecreasedgraymattervolumeinakeyregion:thenucleusaccumbens.13Thiswastheonlybrainregionshowingadifferenceinbrainstructurecomparedtoage-matchedcontrols.Asmallernucleusaccumbensdiminishesconnectivitybetweentheseself-relatedregionsandtheotherneuralmodulesthatordinarilyorchestratetocreateoursenseofself.

Thisisabitofasurprise:thenucleusaccumbensplaysalargeroleinthebrain’s“reward”circuits,asourceofpleasurablefeelingsinlife.Butthisisalsoakeyareafor“stickiness,”ouremotionalattachments,andaddictions—inshort,whatensnaresus.Thisdecreaseingray-mattervolumeinthenucleusaccumbensmayreflectadiminishedattachmentinthemeditators,particularlytothenarrativeself.

So,doesthischangeleavemeditatorscoldandindifferent?TheDalaiLamaandotherhighlyseasonedpractitionerscometomind—likethosewhocametoRichie’slab,mostofwhomtendtowardjoyousnessandwarmth.

Meditationtextsdescribelong-termpractitionersachievinganongoingcompassionandbliss,butwith“emptiness,”inthesenseofnoattachment.Forinstance,Hinducontemplativepathsdescribevairagya,alaterstageofpracticewhereattachmentsdropaway—renunciation,inthissense,happensspontaneouslyratherthanthroughforceofwill.Andwiththisshiftemergesanalternatesourceofdelightinsheerbeing.14

Couldthisindicateaneuralcircuitthatbringsaquietenjoyment,evenasournucleusaccumbens–basedattachmentswane?Wewillseejustsuchapossibilityinchaptertwelve,“HiddenTreasure,”frombrainstudiesofadvancedyogis.

ArthurZajonc,thesecondpresidentoftheMindandLifeInstitute,andaquantumphysicistandphilosophertoboot,oncesaidthatifweletgoofgrasping,“webecomemoreopentoourownexperience,andtootherpeople.Thatopenness—aformoflove—letsusmoreeasilyapproachotherpeople’ssuffering.”

“Greatsouls,”headded,“seemtoembodytheabilitytoengagesufferingandhandleitwithoutcollapse.Lettinggoofgraspingisliberating,creatingamoralaxisforactionandcompassion.”15

ATHIEFINANEMPTYHOUSE

Ancientmeditationmanualssaylettinggoofthesethoughtsis,atfirst,likeasnakeuncoilingitself;ittakessomeeffort.Later,though,whateverthoughtscometomindarelikeathiefenteringanemptyhouse:there’snothingtodo,sotheyjustleave.

Thisseguefromatfirstmakinganefforttolatereffortlessnessseemsauniversal,thoughlittle-known,themeinmeditationpaths.Commonsensetellsusthatlearninganynewskilltakeshardworkatfirstandbecomesprogressivelyeasierwithpractice.Cognitiveneurosciencetellsusthisshifttoeffortlessnessmarksaneuraltransitioninhabitmastery:theprefrontalareasnolongermakeanefforttodothework,asthebasalganglialowerinthebraincantakeover—aneuralmodethatmarkseffortlessness.

Effortfulpracticeattheearlystagesofmeditationactivatesprefrontalregulatorycircuits.However,thelatershifttoeffortlesspracticemightgoalongwithadifferentdynamic:lessenedconnectivityamongthevariousnodesofthedefaultcircuitry,andlessenedactivityinthePCCaseffortfulcontrolisnolongerneeded—themindatthisstageistrulybeginningtosettleandtheself-narrativeismuchlesssticky.

ThatwasfoundinanotherstudybyJudsonBrewer,whereseasonedmeditatorsreportedtheirexperienceinthemoment,allowingscientiststoseewhatbrainactivitycorrelatedwithit.WhenthemeditatorsshoweddecreasedactivityintheirPCC,theyreportedfeelingslike“undistractedawareness”and“effortlessdoing.”16

Inthescientificstudyofanyskillthatpeoplepractice,fromdentistrytochess,whenitcomestosortingouttheduffersfromthepros,lifetimehoursofpracticearegold.Apatternofhigheffortatthestartsegueingintolesseffortalongwithmoreproficiencyinataskshowsupinexpertsasdiverseasswimmersandviolinists.Andaswe’veseenhere,thebrainsofthosewiththemosthoursofmeditationshowedlittleeffortinkeepingtheirfocusone-pointed,evendespitecompellingdistractions,whilethosewithfewerlifetimehoursputinmoreeffort.Andattheverystart,beginnersshowedanincreaseinbiologicalmarkersofmentaleffort.17

Theruleofthumb:thebrainofanoviceworkshardwhilethatoftheexpertexpendslittleenergy.Aswemasteranyactivity,thebrainconservesitsfuelbyputtingthatactionon“automatic”;cuingupthatactivityshiftsfromtop-of-the-braincircuitstothebasalgangliafarbelowtheneocortex.We’veall

braincircuitstothebasalgangliafarbelowtheneocortex.We’veallaccomplishedthehard-at-firsttono-sweattransitionwhenwelearnedtowalk—andaswe’vemasteredeveryotherhabitsince.Whatatfirstdemandsattentionandexertionbecomesautomaticandeffortless.

Atthethirdandfinalstageoflettinggoofself-referencing,weconjecture,thecontrolcircuitry’sroledropsaway,asthemainactionshiftstolooserconnectivityinthedefaultmode,thehomeoftheself.Brewer’sgroupfoundsuchadecrease.

Withaspontaneousshifttoeffortlessnesscomesachangeintherelationshiptotheself:it’snotso“sticky”anymore.Thesamesortsofthoughtscanariseinyourmind,buttheyarelighter:notsocompelling,withlessemotionaloomph,andsofloatawaymoreeasily.This,atanyrate,reflectswhatwehearfromtheadvancedyogisstudiedintheDavidsonlab,aswellasfromclassicmeditationmanuals.

Butwehavenodataonthispoint,whichremainsariperesearchquestion.Andwhatthatfutureresearchmightfindcouldbesurprising—forexample,withthisshiftinrelationshiptotheself,wemayseechangenotsomuchinthecurrentlyknownneural“self-systems”butratherinothercircuitryyettobediscovered.

Lesseningthegripoftheself,alwaysamajorgoalofmeditationpractitioners,hasbeenoddlyignoredbymeditationresearchers,whoperhapsunderstandablyfocusinsteadonmorepopularbenefitslikerelaxationandbetterhealth.Andso,akeygoalofmeditation—selflessness—hasonlythindata,whileotherbenefits,likehealthimprovements,areheavilyresearched,aswewillseeinthenextchapter.

ALACKOFSTICKINESS

RichieoncesawtearsbegintostreamdowntheDalaiLama’sfaceasheheardaboutatragicsituationinTibet—thelatestself-immolationamongTibetansprotestingtheCommunistChineseoccupationoftheirland.

Andthen,afewmomentslater,theDalaiLamanoticedsomeoneintheroomdoingsomethingfunnyandhebeganlaughing.Therewasnodisrespectforthetragedythatbroughthimtotears,butrather,abuoyantandseamlesstransitionfromoneemotionalnotetotheother.

PaulEkman,aworldexpertonemotionsandtheirexpression,saysthisremarkableaffectiveflexibilityintheDalaiLamastruckhimasexceptionalfromtheirveryfirstmeeting.TheDalaiLamareflectsinhisowndemeanortheemotionshefeelsfromoneperson,andthenimmediatelydropsthatfeelingasthenextmomentbringshimanotheremotionalreality.18

TheDalaiLama’semotionallifeseemstoincludearemarkablydynamicrangeofstrongandcolorfulemotions,fromintensesadnesstopowerfuljoy.Hisrapid,seamlesstransitionsfromonetoanotherareparticularlyunique—thisswiftshiftingbetokensalackofstickiness.

Stickinessseemstoreflectthedynamicsoftheemotionalcircuitryofthebrain,includingtheamygdalaandthenucleusaccumbens.Theseregionsverylikelyunderliewhattraditionaltextsseeastherootcausesofsuffering—attachmentandaversion—wherethemindbecomesfixatedonwantingsomethingthatseemsrewardingorongettingridofsomethingunpleasant.

Thestickinessspectrumrunsfrombeingutterlystuck,unabletofreeourselvesfromdistressingemotionsoraddictivewants,totheDalaiLama’sinstantfreedomfromanygivenaffect.Onetraitthatemergesfromlivingwithoutgettingstuckseemstobeanongoingpositivity,evenjoy.

WhentheDalaiLamaoncewasaskedwhathadbeenthehappiestpointinhislife,heanswered,“Ithinkrightnow.”

INANUTSHELL

Thebrain’sdefaultmodeactivateswhenwearedoingnothingthatdemandsmentaleffort,justlettingourmindwander;wehashoverthoughtsandfeelings(oftenunpleasant)thatfocusonourselves,constructingthenarrativeweexperienceasour“self.”Thedefaultmodecircuitsquietduringmindfulnessandloving-kindnessmeditation.Inearlystagesofmeditationthisquietingoftheself-systementailsbraincircuitsthatinhibitthedefaultzones;inlaterpracticetheconnectionsandactivitywithinthoseareaswane.

Thisquietingoftheself-circuitrybeginsasastateeffect,seenduringorimmediatelyaftermeditation,butwithlong-termpractitionersitbecomesanenduringtrait,alongwithlessenedactivityinthedefaultmodeitself.Theresultingdecreaseinstickinessmeansthatself-focusedthoughtsandfeelings

thatariseinthemindhavemuchless“grab”anddecreasingabilitytohijackattention.

W

9

Mind,Body,andGenome

henJonKabat-ZinnfirstdevelopedMBSRattheUniversityofMassachusettsMedicalCenterinWorcester,hestartedslowly,talking

onebyonetophysiciansthere.Heinvitedthemtorefertheirpatientswhohadtoendurechronicconditionslikeuntreatablepain—thoseconsideredmedical“failures,”becauseevennarcoticsdidn’thelp—orwhohadtomanagelifelongconditionslikediabetesorheartdisease.Jonneverclaimedhecouldcuresuchdiseases.Hismission:improvethequalityofpatients’lives.

Surprisingly,perhaps,Jonmetwithalmostnoresistancefromphysicians.Rightfromthestart,keyclinicdirectors(primarycare,pain,orthopedics)werewillingtosendsuchpatientstowhatJonatthetimecalledtheStressReductionandRelaxationProgram,basedinabasementroomborrowedfromthephysicaltherapydepartment.

Jonledsessionstherejustafewdaysaweek.Butaswordspreadofpatientspraisingthemethodformakingtheirliveswithanincurableconditionmorebearable,theprogramflourishedand,in1995,expandedintotheCenterforMindfulnessinMedicine,HealthCare,andSocietytohouseitsresearch,clinical,andprofessionaleducationalprograms.TodayhospitalsandclinicsaroundtheworldofferMBSR,oneofthefastest-growingkindsofmeditationpractice,andbynowtheapproachwiththestrongestempiricalevidenceofitsbenefits.Beyondhealthcare,MBSRhasbecomeubiquitous,spearheadingthepopularmindfulnessmovementinpsychotherapy,education,andevenbusiness.

NowtaughtatmostacademicmedicalcentersinNorthAmericaandinmanypartsofEurope,MBSRoffersastandardprogramthatmakesitappealingforscientificstudy.Todatetherearemorethansixhundredpublishedstudiesofthemethod,revealingawidevarietyofbenefits—andsomeinstructivecaveats.

Forinstance,medicinesometimesfalterswhenitcomestotreatingchronicpain.Aspirinandotherover-the-counterpainmedicationscanhavetoomany

pain.Aspirinandotherover-the-counterpainmedicationscanhavetoomanysideeffectstobeuseddailyforyears;steroidsoffertemporaryreliefbutagainwithsometimesharmfulsideeffects;andopioidshaveproventooaddictivetobeusedwidely.MBSR,however,canhelpwithoutsuchdrawbacks,sincethereareusuallynonegativesideeffectsofmindfulnesspractice,andifpracticedfollowingtheeight-weekMBSRprogram,cancontinuetohelppeoplelivewellwithchronicconditionsandwithstress-relateddisordersthatwillnotnecessarilygetbetterontheirownorwithconventionalmedicaltreatment.Akeyelementforlong-termbenefitisthecontinuityofpractice,anddespiteMBSR’slonghistory,westillhavevirtuallynogoodinformationontheextenttowhichthosewhohavetakenanMBSRcoursecontinuetoengageinformalpracticeintheyearsfollowingtheirinitialtraining.

Takedebilitatingpainintheelderly.Oneofthemostfearedimpactsofgrowingoldislosingindependenceduetotroubleswithmobilityfrompaininarthritichips,knees,orspine.Inwell-designedresearchwithelderlypainsufferers,MBSRprovedhighlyeffectivebothinreducinghowmuchpainpeoplefeltandhowdisabledtheybecameasaresult.1Theirloweredpainlevelslastedintoasix-monthfollow-up.

AsinallMBSRprograms,participantswereurgedtocontinueadailypracticeathome.Havingamethodtheycanuseontheirowntoeasetheirpaingavethesepatientsasenseof“self-efficacy,”afeelingthattheycancontroltheirdestinytosomeextent.Thisinitselfhelpspatientslivebetterwithpainthatwon’tgoaway.

WhenDutchresearchersanalyzeddozensofstudiesonmindfulnessasapaintreatment,theyconcludedthisapproachwasagoodalternativetopurelymedicaltreatment.2Evenso,noresearchsofarhasfoundthatmeditationproducesclinicalimprovementsinchronicpainbyremovingthebiologicalcauseofthepain—thereliefcomesinhowpeoplerelatetotheirpain.

Fibromyalgiaoffersaninstructivecaseinpoint.Thismaladypresentsamedicalmystery:therearenoknownbiologicalexplanationsforthechronicpain,fatigue,stiffness,andinsomniathattypifythisdebilitatingdisorder.Theoneexceptionseemstobeimpairmentinregulatingheartfunction(thoughthis,too,isdebated).OnegoldstandardstudythatusedMBSRwithwomenwhosufferedfromfibromyalgiafailedtofindanyimpactoncardiacactivity.3

Evenso,anotherwell-designedstudyfoundthatMBSRbroughtsignificantimprovementsinpsychologicalsymptoms,suchashowmuchstressfibromyalgiapatientsfelt,andlessenedmanyoftheirsubjectivesymptoms.4The

moreoftentheyusedMBSRontheirown,thebettertheydid.Still,therewasnochangeinthepatients’physicalfunctioningorinakeystresshormone,cortisol,whichstayedathighlevels.Thepatients’relationshiptotheirpainchangedforthebetterwithMBSR—butnottheunderlyingbiologycausingthepainitself.

ShouldsomeonewithadisorderlikechronicpainorfibromyalgiatryMBSR,ormeditationofanykind?Dependswhoyouask.

Medicalresearchers,inendlesspursuitofdefinitiveoutcomes,haveonesetofcriteria;patientshavequiteanother.Whiledoctorsmaywanttoseeharddatashowingmedicalimprovements,patientsjustwanttofeelbetter,especiallyifthere’slittletobedonetorelievetheirclinicalcondition.Fromapatient’sviewpoint,then,mindfulnessoffersapathtorelief—evenasmedicalresearchtellsdoctorstheevidenceisnotclearwhenitcomestoreversingthebiologicalcauseofthepain.

Thoughpatientsmayfindrelieffrompainaftertheyhavegonethroughtheeight-weekMBSRcourse,manydropthepracticeafterawhile.ThatmaybewhyseveralstudieshavefoundgoodresultsforpatientsimmediatelyaftertheytakeMBSR,butlesssoinsix-monthfollow-ups.So—asJonwilltellyou—thekeytoalifetimerelativelyfreefromtheexperienceofpain,bothphysicalandemotional,iscontinuingone’smindfulnesspracticedayafterdayinthefollowingmonths,years,anddecades.

WHATTHESKINREVEALS

Ourskinoffersasurprisingwindowonhowstressimpactsourhealth.Asabarriertissueindirectcontactwithforeignagentsfromtheworldaroundus(asarethegastrointestinaltractandourlungs),theskinispartofthebody’sfirstlineofdefenseagainstinvadinggerms.Inflammationsignalsabiologicaldefensivemaneuverthatwallsoffinfectionfromhealthytissuesoitwon’tspread.Ared,inflamedpatchsignalsthattheskinhasattackedapathogen.

ThedegreeofinflammationinthebrainandbodyplayabigroleinhowsevereadiseaselikeAlzheimer’s,asthma,ordiabeteswillbe.Stress,thoughoftenpsychological,worsensinflammation,apparentlypartofanancientbiologicalresponsetowarningsofdangerthatmarshalsthebody’sresourcesforrecovery.(Anothersignalofthatresponse:howyoujustwanttorestwhenyougettheflu.)Whilethethreatsthattriggerthisresponseinprehistorywere

gettheflu.)Whilethethreatsthattriggerthisresponseinprehistorywerephysical,likesomethingthatcouldeatus,thesedaysthetriggersarepsychological—anangryspouse,asnarkytweet.Yetthebody’sreactionsarethesame,includingemotionalupset.

Humanskinhasanunusuallylargenumberofnerveendings(aboutfivehundredpersquareinch),eachapathwayforthebraintosendsignalsforwhat’scalled“neurogenic,”orbrain-caused,inflammation.Skinspecialistshavelongobservedthatlife’sstresscancauseneurogenicflare-upsofinflammatorydisorderslikepsoriasisandeczema.Thismakestheskinanappealinglabforstudyinghowupsetsimpactourhealth.

Turnsoutthenervepathwaysthatletthebrainsignaltheskintoinflamearesensitivetocapsaicin,thechemicalthatmakeschilies“hot.”Richie’slabusedthisnovelfacttocreatecarefullycontrolledpatchesofinflammation,toseehowstresswouldincrease,ormeditationmuffle,thisreaction.Meanwhile,MelissaRosenkranz,ascientistinthelab,inventedacleverwaytoassaythechemicalsthatinduceinflammation,bycreatingartificial(andpainless)blistersintheinflamedareathatwouldfillwithfluid.

TheblisterswerecreatedinacontraptionMelissabuiltthatusesavacuumsystemtoraisethefirstlayerofskininsmallcircularareasoverthecourseofforty-fiveminutes.Whendoneslowlythemethodisquitepainless,hardlynoticedbytheparticipants.Tappingthatfluidallowedmeasuringlevelsofpro-inflammatorycytokines,thetypeofproteinsthatdirectlycausethoseredpatches.

Richie’slabcomparedagroupwhoweretaughtMBSRwithanotherwhowentthroughHEP(theactivecontroltreatment)astheyenduredtheTrierordeal—adispiritingjobinterview,followedbyatoughmathworkout—asurewaytotriggerthepandemoniumofthestressresponse.5Morespecifically,thebrain’sthreatradar,theamygdala,signalstheHPAaxis(that’sthehypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcircuitry,ifyoumustknow)toreleaseepinephrine,animportantfreeze-fight-or-flightbrainchemical,alongwiththestresshormonecortisol,whichinturnraisesthebody’senergyexpendituretorespondtothestressor.

Inaddition,inorderforthebodytowardoffbacteriainwounds,pro-inflammatorycytokinesincreasebloodflowtotheareatosupplyimmuneproductsthatgobbleupforeignsubstances.Theresultinginflammationinturnsignalsthebraininwaysthatactivateseveralneuralcircuits,includingtheinsulaanditsextensiveconnectionsthroughoutthebrain.Oneoftheareastriggeredbymessagesfromtheinsulaistheanteriorcingulatecortex(ACC),which

modulatesinflammationandalsoconnectsourthoughtsandfeelingsandcontrolsautonomicactivity,includingheartrate.Richie’sgroupdiscoveredthatwhentheACCactivatesinresponsetoanallergen,peoplewithasthmawillhavemoreattackstwenty-fourhourslater.6

Backtotheinflammationstudy.Therewerenodifferencesinthetwogroups’subjectivereportsofdistress,norintheirlevelsofthecytokinesthattriggerinflammation,norincortisol,thathormonalprecursorofdiseasesmadeworsebychronicstress,likediabetes,hardeningofthearteries,andasthma.

ButtheMBSRgroupdidbetteronanunfudgeabletest:participantshadasignificantlysmallerpatchofinflammationafterthestresstest,andtheirskinwasmoreresilient,healingfaster.Thatdifferenceheldevenfourmonthslater.

AlthoughthesubjectivebenefitsofMBSR,andsomeofthebiologicalones,donotseemunique,thisimpactoninflammationcertainlyseemstobe.ThosewhoengagedintheirMBSRpracticesforthirty-fiveminutesormoreathomedaily,comparedtothosedoingHEP,showedagreaterdecreaseinpro-inflammatorycytokines,theproteinsthattriggertheredpatch.This,intriguingly,supportsanearlyfindingbyJonKabat-ZinnandsomeskinspecialiststhatMBSRcanhelpspeedhealingfrompsoriasis,aconditionworsenedbyinflammatorycytokines(butsomethirtyyearson,thisremainsastudynotyetreplicatedbydermatologyresearchers).7

Togetabetterideaofhowmeditationpracticemighthealsuchinflammatoryconditions,Richie’slabrepeatedthestressstudyusinghighlyexperienced(around9,000lifetimehoursofpractice)vipassanameditators.8Result:themeditatorsnotonlyfoundthedreadedTriertestlessstressfulthandidamatchedcohortofnovices(aswesawinchapterfive),buttheyalsohadsmallerpatchesofinflammationafterward.Mostsignificant,theirlevelsofthestresshormonecortisolwere13percentlowerthaninthecontrols,asubstantialdifferencethatislikelyclinicallymeaningful.Andthemeditatorsreportedbeinginbettermentalhealththanvolunteersmatchedforageandgenderwhodidnotmeditate.

Important:theseseasonedpractitionerswerenotmeditatingwhenthesemeasuresweretaken—thiswasatraiteffect.Mindfulnesspractice,itseems,lessensinflammationdaytoday,notjustduringmeditationitself.Thebenefitsseemtoshowupevenwithjustfourweeksofmindfulnesspractice(aroundthirtyhourstotal),aswellaswithloving-kindnessmeditation.9WhilethosenewtoMBSRhadamildtrendtowardlowercortisol,alargedropincortisolunderstressseemstokickinatsomepointwithcontinuedpractice.Lookslikethere’s

biologicalconfirmationofwhatmeditatorssay:itgetseasiertohandlelife’supsets.

Constantstressandworrytakeatollonourcells,agingthem.Sodocontinualdistractionsandawanderingmind,duetothetoxiceffectsofrumination,whereourmindgravitatestotroublesinourrelationshipsbutneverresolvesthem.

DavidCreswell(whoseresearchwevisitedinchapterseven)recruitedunemployedjobseekers—ahighlystressedgroup—andofferedthemeitherathree-dayintensiveprogramofmindfulnesstrainingoracomparablerelaxationprogram.10Bloodsamplesbeforeandafterrevealedthatthemeditators,butnotthosetakingrelaxation,hadreductionsinakeypro-inflammatorycytokine.

And,fMRIscansshowed,thegreatertheirincreaseinconnectivitybetweentheprefrontalregionandthedefaultareasthatgenerateourinnerstreamofchat,thegreaterthereductionsinthecytokine.Presumably,puttingthebrakesondestructiveself-talkthatfloodsuswiththoughtsofhopelessnessanddepression—understandableintheunemployed—alsoloweredcytokinelevels.Howwerelatetoourgloomyself-talkhasadirectimpactonourhealth.

HYPERTENSION?RELAX.

Themomentyouwokeuptoday,wereyoubreathinginorbreathingout?Thathard-to-answerquestionwasputtoaretreatantbythelateBurmese

monkandmeditationmasterSayadawUPandita.Itbespeakstheextremelyconscientiousandpreciseversionofmindfulnesshewasrenownedforteaching.

ThesayadawwasthedirectlineageholderofthegreatBurmeseteacherMahasiSayadaw,aswellasspiritualguidetoAungSanSuuKyiduringheryears-longhousearrestbeforeshebecameBurma’sheadofgovernment.OnhisoccasionaltripstotheWest,MahasiSayadawhadinstructedmanyofthebest-knownteachersinthevipassanaworld.

Danhadtraveledoff-seasontoarentedkids’summercampinthehighdesertofArizonatospendafewweeksunderUPandita’sguidance.AsDanlaterwroteintheNewYorkTimesMagazine,“Theconsumingtaskofmydaywastobuildapreciseattentiontomybreath,noticingeverynuanceofeach

inhalationandexhalation:itsspeed,lightness,coarseness,warmth.”11ThepointforDan:clearthemind,andso,calmthebody.

WhilethisretreatwasoneofaseriesDantriedtofitintohisyearlycalendarinthedecadesafterreturningfromhisgraduateschoolsojournsinAsia,itwasn’tjustmeditationprogresshehopedfor.OverthefifteenyearsorsosincehislastlongstayinIndia,hisbloodpressurehadgottentoohigh,andDanhopedthisretreatwouldlowerit,atleastforawhile.Hisphysicianhadbeentroubledbyreadingsover140/90,thelowerborderofhypertension.AndwhenDanreturnedhomefromretreat,hewaspleasedtofindareadingfarbelowthatborderline.

ThenotionthatpeoplecouldlowerbloodpressurethroughmeditationlargelyoriginatedwithDr.HerbertBenson,aHarvardMedicalSchoolcardiologist.WhenwewereatHarvard,Dr.Bensonhadjustpublishedoneofthefirststudiesonthetopicshowingmeditationseemedtohelplowerbloodpressure.

Herb,asweknowhim,servedonDan’sdissertationcommittee,andwasoneofthefewfacultymembersanywhereatHarvardsympathetictomeditationstudies.Aslaterresearchonmeditationandbloodpressurehaveshown,hewasontherighttrack.

Take,forexample,awell-designedstudyofAfricanAmericanmen,whoareatparticularlyhighriskforhypertension,cardiacandkidneydisease.Justfourteenminutesofmindfulnesspracticeinagroupwhoalreadysufferedfromkidneydiseaseloweredthemetabolicpatternsthat,ifsustainedyearafteryear,leadtothesediseases.12

Thenextstep,ofcourse,wouldbetotrymindfulness(orsomeothervarietyofmeditation)withasimilargroup,butwhohadnotyetdevelopedafull-blowndisease,comparethemwithamatchedgroupwhodidsomethinglikeHEP,andfollowthemforseveralyearstoseeifmeditationheadedoffthedisease(aswewouldhope—butlet’strythisstudytoseeforsure).

Ontheotherhand,whenwelookatalargersetofstudiesthenewshereismixed.Inameta-analysisofelevenclinicalstudieswherepatientswithconditionslikeheartfailureandischemicheartdiseasewererandomlyassignedtomeditationtrainingoracomparisongroup,resultswere,inthewordsoftheresearchers,“encouraging”butnotconclusive.13Asusual,themeta-analysiscalledforlargerandmorerigorousstudies.

There’sagrowingbodyofresearchherebutameageryieldwhenwelookforwell-designedstudies.Mosthaverandomizedwait-listcontrols,whichis

good,butusuallylackanactivecontrolgroup,whichwouldbebest.Onlywithanactivecontroldoweknowthatthebenefitsareduetothemeditationitselfratherthantothe“nonspecific”impactofhavinganencouraginginstructorandasupportivegroup.

GENOMICS

“It’sjustnaive,”agrantreviewerbluntlytoldRichie,tothinkthatonewillseechangesinhowgenesareexpressedduringjustonedayofmeditation.RichiehadjustreceivedthesamenegativeopinionviaareviewfromtheNationalInstitutesofHealthrejectinghisproposalforthatexactstudy.

Somebackground.Aftergeneticscientistsmappedtheentirehumangenome,theyrealizeditwasn’tenoughtojustknowifwehadagivengeneornot.Therealquestions:Isthatgeneexpressed?Isitmanufacturingtheproteinforwhichitisdesigned?Andhowmuch?Whereisthe“volumecontrol”onthegeneset?

Thismeanttherewasanotherimportantstep:findingwhatturnsourgenesonoroff.Ifwe’veinheritedagenethatgivesusasusceptibilitytoadiseaselikediabetes,wemayneverdevelopthemaladyif,forexample,wehavealifelonghabitofgettingregularexerciseandnoteatingsugar.

Sugarturnsonthegenesfordiabetes;exerciseturnsthemoff.Sugarandexerciseare“epigenetic”influencers,amongthemany,manyfactorsthatcontrolwhetherornotageneexpressesitself.Epigeneticshasbecomeafrontierofgenomicstudies.AndRichiethoughtmeditationjustmighthaveepigeneticimpacts,“down-regulating”thegenesresponsiblefortheinflammatoryresponse.Aswe’veseen,meditationseemstodothis—butthegeneticmechanismfortheeffectwasacompletemystery.

Undeterredbytheskeptics,hislabwentahead,assayingchangesintheexpressionofkeygenesbeforeandafteradayofmeditationinagroupoflong-termvipassanapractitioners(averageofabout6,000lifetimehours).14Theyfollowedafixedeight-hourscheduleofpracticesessionsthroughouttheday,andlistenedtotapesofsomeinspiringtalksandguidedpracticesbyJosephGoldstein.

Afterthedayofpracticethemeditatorshadamarked“down-regulation”ofinflammatorygenes—somethingthathadneverbeenseenbeforeinresponseto

inflammatorygenes—somethingthathadneverbeenseenbeforeinresponsetoapurelymentalpractice.Suchadrop,ifsustainedoveralifetime,mighthelpcombatdiseaseswithonsetsmarkedbychroniclow-gradeinflammation.Aswe’vesaid,theseincludemanyoftheworld’smajorhealthproblems,rangingfromcardiovasculardisorders,arthritis,anddiabetestocancer.

Andthisepigeneticimpact,remember,wasa“naive”ideathatcounteredthethenprevailingwisdomingeneticscience.Despiteassumptionstothecontrary,Richie’sgrouphadshownthatamentalexercise,meditation,couldbeadriverofbenefitsatthelevelofgenes.Geneticsciencewouldhavetochangeitsassumptionsabouthowthemindcanhelpmanagethebody.

Ahandfulofotherstudiesfindthatmeditationseemstohavesalutaryepigeneticeffects.Loneliness,forinstance,spurshigherlevelsofpro-inflammatorygenes;MBSRcannotonlylowerthoselevels—butalsolessenthefeelingofbeinglonely.15Thoughthesewerepilotstudies,anepigeneticboostwasfoundinresearchwithtwoothermeditationmethods.OneisHerbBenson’s“relaxationresponse,”whichhasapersonsilentlyrepeatachosenwordlikepeaceasifitwereamantra.16Theotheris“yogicmeditation,”wherethemeditatorrecitesaSanskritmantra,atfirstaloudandtheninawhisper,andfinallysilently,endingwithashortdeep-breathingrelaxationtechnique.17

Thereareotherpromisinghintsformeditationasaforceinupgradingourepigenetics.TelomeresarethecapsattheendofDNAstrandsthatreflecthowlongacellwilllive.Thelongerthetelomere,thelongerthelifespanofthatcellwillbe.

Telomeraseistheenzymethatslowstheage-relatedshorteningoftelomeres;themoretelomerase,thebetterforhealthandlongevity.Ameta-analysisoffourrandomizedcontrolledstudiesinvolvingatotalof190meditatorsfoundpracticingmindfulnesswasassociatedwithincreasedtelomeraseactivity.18

CliffSaron’sprojectfoundthesameeffectafterthreemonthsofintensivepracticeofmindfulnessandcompassionmeditation.19Themorepresenttotheirimmediateexperience,andthelessmind-wanderingduringconcentrationsessions,thegreaterthetelomerasebenefit.Andapromisingpilotstudyfoundlongertelomeresinwomenwhohadanaverageoffouryearsofregularpracticeofloving-kindnessmeditation.20

Thenthere’spanchakarma,Sanskritfor“fivetreatments,”whichmixesherbalmedicines,massage,dietarychanges,andyogawithmeditation.ThisapproachhasitsrootsinAyurvedicmedicine,anancientIndianhealingsystem,

andhasbecomeanofferingatsomeupscalehealthresortsintheUnitedStates(andatmanylower-costhealthspasinIndia,ifyou’reinterested).

Agroupwhowentthroughasix-daypanchakarmatreatment,comparedtoanothergroupwhowerejustvacationingatthesameresort,showedintriguingimprovementsinarangeofsophisticatedmetabolicmeasuresthatreflectbothepigeneticchangesandactualproteinexpression.21Thismeansgenesarebeingdirectedinbeneficialways.

Buthere’sourproblem:whiletheremightbesomepositivehealthimpactsfrompanchakarma,themixoftreatmentsmakesitimpossibletotellhowmuchanyoneofthem,likemeditation,wasanactiveagent.Thestudyusedfivedifferentkindsofinterventionstogether.Suchamishmash(technically,aconfound)makesitimpossibletotellifthemeditationwastheactiveforce,orperhapssomeherbinthemedicine,oravegetariandiet,orifsomethingelseinthatmixaccountsfortheimprovements.Benefitsaccrue—wejustdon’tknowwhy.

There’salsothegapbetweenshowingimprovementsatthegeneticlevelandprovingmeditationhasbiologicaleffectsthatmattermedically.Noneofthesestudiesmakesthatfurtherconnection.

Inaddition,there’stheissueofwhatkindofmeditationhaswhichphysiologicalimpacts.TaniaSinger’sgroupcomparedconcentratingonthebreathwithloving-kindnessandalsowithmindfulness,lookingathoweachinfluencedheartrateandhowmucheffortmeditatorsreportedthemethodstook.22Thebreathmeditationwasthemostrelaxing,withloving-kindnessandmindfulnessbothboostingheartrateabit,asignthesetakemoreeffort.Richie’slabhadasimilarincreaseinheartratewithhighlyexperiencedmeditators(morethan30,000lifetimehours)doingcompassionmeditation.23

Whileaquickerheartbeatseemsasideeffectofthesewarmheartedmeditations—astateeffect—whenitcomestothebreath,thetraitpayoffgoesintheotherdirection.Sciencehaslongknownthatpeoplewithproblemslikeanxietydisordersandchronicpainbreathemorequicklyandlessregularlythanmostfolks.Andifyou’realreadybreathingfast,youaremorelikelytotriggerafreeze-fight-or-flightreactionwhenconfrontingsomethingstressful.

ButconsiderwhatRichie’slabfoundwhentheylookedatlong-termmeditators(9,000averagelifetimehoursofpractice).24Comparingeachtoanonmeditatorofthesameageandsex,themeditatorswerebreathinganaverage1.6breathsmoreslowly.Andthiswaswhiletheywerejustsittingstill,waitingforacognitivetesttostart.

Overthecourseofasingledaythatdifferenceinbreathratetranslatestomorethan2,000extrabreathsforthenonmeditators—andmorethan800,000extrabreathsoverthecourseofayear.Theseextrabreathsarephysiologicallytaxing,andcanexactahealthtollastimegoeson.

Aspracticecontinuesandbreathingbecomesprogressivelyslower,thebodyadjustsitsphysiologicalsetpointforitsrespiratoryrateaccordingly.That’sagoodthing.Whilechronicrapidbreathingsignifiesongoinganxiety,aslowerbreathrateindicatesreducedautonomicactivity,bettermood,andsalutaryhealth.

THEMEDITATOR’SBRAIN

Youmayhaveheardthegoodnewsthatmeditationthickenskeypartsofthebrain.Thefirstscientificreportofthisneuralbenefitcamein2005fromSaraLazar,anearlygradofMindandLife’sSummerResearchInstitute,whobecamearesearcheratHarvardMedicalSchool.25

Comparedwithnonmeditators,hergroupreported,meditatorshadgreatercorticalthicknessinareasimportantforsensinginsideone’sownbodyandforattention,specificallytheanteriorinsulaandzonesoftheprefrontalcortex.

Sara’sreporthasbeenfollowedbyastreamofothers,many(butnotall)reportingincreasedsizeinkeypartsofmeditators’brains.Lessthanadecadelater(averyshorttimegivenhowlongsuchresearchtakestorampup,execute,analyze,andreport),therewereenoughbrainimagingstudiesofmeditatorstojustifyameta-analysis,wheretwenty-onestudieswerecombinedtoseewhatheldup,whatdidnot.26

Theresults:certainareasofthebrainseemedtoenlargeinmeditators,amongthem:

Theinsula,whichattunesustoourinternalstateandpowersemotionalself-awareness,byenhancingattentiontosuchinternalsignals.Somatomotorareas,themaincorticalhubsforsensingtouchandpain,perhapsanotherbenefitofincreasedbodilyawareness.

Partsoftheprefrontalcortexthatoperateinpayingattentionandinmeta-awareness,abilitiescultivatedinalmostallformsofmeditation.Regionsofthecingulatecortexinstrumentalinself-regulation,anotherskillpracticedinmeditation.Theorbitofrontalcortex,alsopartofthecircuitryforself-regulation.

AndthebignewsaboutmeditationforolderfolkscomesfromastudyatUCLAthatfindsmeditationslowstheusualshrinkageofourbrainasweage:atagefifty,longtimemeditators’brainsare“younger”by7.5yearscomparedtobrainsofnonmeditatorsofthesameage.27Bonus:foreveryyearbeyondfifty,thebrainsofpractitionerswereyoungerthantheirpeers’byonemonthandtwenty-twodays.

Meditation,theresearchersconclude,helpspreservethebrainbyslowingatrophy.Whilewedoubtthatbrainatrophyactuallycanbereversed,wehavereasontoagreeitcanbeslowed.

Buthere’sthetroublewiththeevidencesofar.ThatfindingonmeditationandagingbrainswasareanalysisofanearlierstudydoneatUCLAthatrecruitedfiftymeditatorsandfiftypeoplematchedforageandsexwhohadnevermeditated.Theresearchteammadecarefulimagesoftheirbrainsandfoundmeditatorsshowedgreatercorticalgyrification(thefoldingatthetopoftheneocortex)andsohadmorebraingrowth.28Thelongerthemeditatorhadpracticed,themorefolding.

Butastheresearchersthemselvesnoted,thefindingsraisemanyquestions.ThespecificvarietiesofmeditationpracticedamongthosefiftyrangedfromvipassanaandZentokriyaandkundaliniformsofyoga.Thesepracticescanvarygreatlyintheparticularmentalskillbeingdeployedbyameditator,forexampleopenpresencewhereanythingcancomeintothemindversusatightfocusononethingonly,ormethodsthatmanagebreathingversusthosethatletbreathingbenatural.Thousandsofhoursofpracticeofeachofthesecouldwellhavequiteuniqueimpacts,includinginneuroplasticity.Wedon’tknowfromthisstudywhatmethodresultsinwhichchange—doeseverykindofmeditationleadtotheincreasesthatcausemorefoldingordojustafewaccountforthebulkofit?

Thisconflationofdifferentkindsofmeditation,asthoughtheywereallthesame(andsohavesimilarbrainimpacts),pertainsalsotothatmeta-analysis.Sincethestudiesincludedwerealsoamixofmeditationtypesthere’sthedilemmathatallbutafewofthebrain-imagingfindingsare“cross-sectional”—a

dilemmathatallbutafewofthebrain-imagingfindingsare“cross-sectional”—aone-timeimageofthebrain.

Thedifferencescouldbeduetofactorslikeeducationorexercise,eachofwhichhasitsownbufferingeffectonbrains.Thenthere’sself-selection:perhapspeoplewiththebrainchangesreportedinthesestudieschoosetostickwithmeditation,whileothersdonot—maybehavingabiggerinsulainthefirstplacemakesyoulikemeditationmore.Eachofthesealternatepotentialcauseshasnothingtodowithmeditation.

Tobefair,theresearchersthemselvesnamesuchdrawbackstotheirstudy.Butwehighlightthemheretounderlinethewaysinwhichacomplicated,poorlyunderstood,andtentativescientificfindingcanradiateouttothegeneralpublicasanoversimplifiedmessageof“meditationbuildsthebrain.”Thedevil,asthesayinghasit,isinthedetails.

Sonowlet’sconsidersomepromisingresultsfromthreestudiesthatlookedathowjustalittlemeditationpracticeseemedtohaveincreasedvolumeinpartsofthebrain,basedondifferencesfoundbeforeandaftertryingthepractice.29Similarresultsofincreasesinthicknessandthelikeofappropriatebrainareascomefromotherkindsofmentaltraininglikememorization—andneuroplasticitymeansthisisquitepossiblewithmeditation.

Buthere’sthebigproblemwithallthesestudies:theyhaveaverysmallnumberofsubjects,notenoughtoreachdefinitiveconclusions.Weneedmanymoreparticipantsinthesestudiesbecauseofanotherproblem:thebrainmeasuresusedarerelativelysquishy,basedonstatisticalanalysesofabout300,000voxels(avoxelisavolumeunit,essentiallyathree-dimensionalpixel,eacha1cubicmillimeterhunkofneuralgeography).

Oddsare,asmallportionofthese300,000analyseswillshowupasstatistically“significant,”whentheyareactuallyrandom,aproblemthatdiminishesasthenumberofbrainsbeingimagedincreases.Fornow,there’snowaytoknowinthesestudiesifthefindingsofbraingrowthareactualoranartifactofthemethodsused.Anotherproblem:researcherstendtopublishtheirpositivefindingsbutnotreportnonfindings—timestheydidnotfindanyeffect.30

Finally,brainmeasureshavebecomemorepreciseandsophisticatedsincemanyofthesestudiesweredone.Wedon’tknowifmeasurementsusingthenewer,morestringentcriteriawouldyieldthesamefindings.Ourhunchisthatbetterstudieswillrevealpositivechangesinbrainstructurewithmeditation,butit’stooearlytosay.We’rewaitingtosee.

Amidcoursecorrectiononmeditationandthebrain:Richie’slabtriedtorepeatSaraLazar’sfindingsofcorticalthickeningbylookingatlong-termmeditators,Westernerswithdayjobsandaminimumoffiveyearsasapractitioner—agroupwithanaveragelifetime9,000hoursofmeditation.31ButthethickeningSarahadreporteddidnotshowup,nordidseveralotherstructuralchangesthathadbeenreportedforMBSR.

Therearemanymorequestionsthananswersatthispoint.Someoftheanswersmaycomefromdatabeinganalyzedaswewritethis,fromTaniaSinger’slaboratoryattheMaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciences.Theretheyareverycarefullyandsystematicallyexaminingchangesincorticalthicknessassociatedwiththreedifferenttypesofmeditationpractice(reviewedinchaptersix,“PrimedforLove”),inamassivestudyusingarigorousdesignwithalargenumberofparticipantspracticingoverninemonths.

Oneoftheearlyfindingstoemergefromthiswork:differenttypesoftrainingareassociatedwithdifferentanatomicaleffectsonthebrain.Forexample,amethodthatemphasizescognitiveempathyandunderstandinghowapersonviewslifeeventswasfoundtoenhancecorticalthicknessinaspecificregionofthecortextowardthebackofthebrain,betweenthetemporalandparietallobes,knownasthetemporoparietaljunction,orTPJ.InpreviousresearchbyTania’steam,theTPJhasbeenfoundparticularlyactivewhenwetakeanotherperson’sperspective.32

Thatbrainchangewasfoundonlywiththismethod,andnotwiththeothers.Suchfindingsunderscoretheimportanceformeditationresearcherstodistinguishamongdifferenttypesofpractice,particularlywhenitcomestopinpointingrelatedchangesinthebrain.

NEUROMYTHOLOGY

Whilewe’respotlightingsomeoftheneuromythologyoutandaboutconcerningmeditation,let’slookatonebitthattracesbacktoRichie’sownresearch.33Asofthiswriting,thebest-knownstudyfromRichie’slabhas2,813citations,anastonishingrenownforanacademicarticle.Danwasamongthefirsttoreportonthisresearch,inhisbookaboutthemeetingin2000withtheDalaiLamaondestructiveemotions,whereRichiepresentedthisworkinprogress.34

Theresearchhasgoneviraloutsidetheacademy,reverberatingthroughthe

Theresearchhasgoneviraloutsidetheacademy,reverberatingthroughtheechochamberofbigandsocialmediaalike.Andthosebringingmindfulnesstocompaniesinvariablymentionitas“proof”themethodwillhelpfolksthere.

Yetthatstudyraiseslargequestionmarksintheeyesofscientists,especiallyRichiehimself.We’retalkingaboutthetimehehadJonKabat-ZinnteachMBSRtovolunteersatahigh-stressbiotechstart-upwherepeoplewereontherunvirtually24/7.

First,somebackground.ForseveralyearsRichiepursueddataontheratioofactivityintherightversusleftprefrontalcortexwhilepeoplewereatrest.Moreright-sideactivitythanleftcorrelatedwithnegativemoodslikedepressionandanxiety;relativelymoreleft-sideactivitywasassociatedwithbuoyantmoodslikeenergyandenthusiasm.

Thatratioappearedtopredictaperson’sday-to-daymoodrange.Forthegeneralpopulationthisratioseemedtofitabellcurve,withmostofusinthemiddle—wehavegooddaysandbaddays.Averyfewpeopleareattheextremesofthecurve;iftowardtheleft,theybouncebackfromfeelingdown,iftowardtherighttheymightbeclinicallyanxiousordepressed.

Thestudyatthebiotechstart-upseemedtoshowaremarkableshiftinbrainfunctionafterthemeditationtraining—fromtiltingtowardtherighttoaleftwardpitch,andreportingaswitchintoamorerelaxedstate.Therewerenosuchchangesinacomparisongroupofworkersassignedtoawaitlist,whoweretoldtheywouldreceivethemeditationtraininglater.

Buthere’sonemajorhitch.Thisresearchwasneverreplicated,andwasdesignedonlyasapilot.Wedon’tknow,forinstance,ifanactivecontrollikeHEPwouldresultinsimilarbenefits.

Whilethatstudywasneverreplicated,othersseemtosupportthefindingonthebrainratioanditsshift.AGermanstudyofpatientswithrecurringepisodesofseveredepressionfoundtheirratiotiltedstronglytowardtheright—whichmaybeaneuralmarkerofthedisorder.35AndthesameGermanresearchersfoundthatthisright-sidetiltshiftedbacktowardtheleft—butonlywhiletheywerepracticingmindfulness,notatnormalrest.36

Theproblem:Richie’slabhasnotbeenabletoshowthatthistilttowardleft-sideactivationcontinuestogrowstrongerthemoreyoumeditate.RichiehitasnagwhenhestartedbringingtohislabOlympic-levelmeditators,Tibetanyogis(moreabouttheminchaptertwelve,“HiddenTreasure”).Theseexperts,whohadloggedoff-the-chartshoursofmeditation,didnotshowtheexpected

whoppingleftwardtilt—despitebeingsomeofthemostoptimisticandhappypeopleRichiehaseverknown.

ThisunderminedRichie’sconfidenceinthemeasure,whichhehasdiscontinued.Richiehasnosuresenseofwhythatleft/rightmeasurefailedtoworkasexpectedwiththeyogis.Onepossibility:atilttowardtheleftmayoccuratthebeginningofmeditationpractice,butotherthanasmallrangeofchange,theleft/rightratiodoesnotbudgemuch.Itmayreflecttemporarypressuresorbasictemperamentbutdoesnotseemassociatedwithenduringqualitiesofwell-beingormorecomplexchangesinthebrainfoundinthosewithhighlevelsofmeditationexperience.

Ourcurrentthinkingholdsthatinlaterstagesofmeditationothermechanismskickin,sothatwhatchangesisyourrelationtoanyandallemotions,ratherthantheratioofpositivetonegativeones.Withhighlevelsofmeditationpractice,emotionsseemtolosetheirpowertopullusintotheirmelodrama.

Anotherpossibility:differentbranchesofmeditationhavedisparateeffects,sotheremaynotbeaclearlineofdevelopmentthat’scontinuousfrom,say,mindfulnessinbeginners,tolong-termvipassanapractitioners,totheTibetanexpertsassayedinRichie’slab.

Andthenthere’sthequestionofwhoteachesmindfulness.AsJonhastoldus,MBSRteachersvarygreatlyinexpertise,inhowmuchmeditationretreattimetheyhaveputin,andintheirownqualitiesofbeing.ThebiotechcompanyhadthebenefitofhavingJonhimselfastheirteacher—overandaboveinstructionintheMBSRtechniques,hehasuniquegiftsinimpartingaviewofrealitythatcanpotentiallyshiftstudents’experienceinwaysthat,possibly,mightaccountforashiftinbrainasymmetry.Wedon’tknowwhattheimpactswouldbeifsomeother,randomlyselected,MBSRteacherhadcomethere.

THEBOTTOMLINE

BacktoDanandthemeditationretreatheattendedinhopesofloweringhisbloodpressure.Althoughhedidgetabigdropinhisbloodpressurereadingsimmediatelyafterward,it’simpossibletoknowwhetheritwasbecauseofthe

meditationoramoregeneral“vacationeffect,”thereliefweallfeelwhenwedropourdailypressuresandgetawayforawhile.37

Withinweekshisbloodpressurereadingswerehighagain—andstayedthatwayuntilanastutephysicianguessedthathemighthaveoneofthefewknowncausesofhypertension,ararehereditaryadrenaldisorder.Amedicationthatcorrectsthatmetabolicimbalancebroughthisbloodpressuredowntostay—whilemeditationdidnot.

Ourquestionsaresimplewhenitcomestowhethermeditationleadstobetterhealth:What’strue,what’snot,andwhat’snotknown?Asweleaptintooursurveyofthehundredsofstudieslinkingmeditationtohealtheffects,weappliedstrictstandards.Asistrueofalltoomuchmeditationresearch,themethodsusedinmanystudiesofhealthimpactsfailtoclearthehighestbar.Thatleftussurprisedbyhowlittlewecansaywithcertainty,giventhegreatexcitement(and,okay,hype)aboutmeditationasawaytoboosthealth.

Thesounderstudies,wefound,focusonlesseningourpsychologicaldistressratherthanoncuringmedicalsyndromesorlookingforunderlyingbiologicalmechanisms.So,whenitcomestoabetterqualityoflifeforthosewithchronicdiseases,yestomeditation.Suchpalliativecaregetsignoredtooofteninmedicine,butitmattersenormouslytopatients.

Still,mightmeditationofferbiologicalrelief?ConsidertheDalaiLama,nowinhiseighties,whogoestobedat7:00p.m.andgetsafullnight’ssleepbeforeheawakensaround3:30forafour-hourstintofspiritualpractice,includingmeditation.Addanotherhourofpracticebeforehegoestobedandthatgiveshimfivehoursadayofcontemplativetime.

Butpainfularthritisinhiskneesmakesgoingupordownstairsanordeal—notuncommonforsomeoneintheninthdecadeoflife.Whenhewasaskedifmeditationhelpsmedicalconditions,heretorted,“Ifmeditationwasgoodforallhealthproblems,I’dbefreeofpaininmyknees.”

Whenitcomestowhethermeditationdoesmorethanofferpalliativehelp,we’renotsureyet—andifso,inwhatmedicalconditions?

AfewyearsafterRichiegotthatstingingrejectionofhisplantomeasuregeneticchangesfromonedayofmeditation,hewasinvitedtogivetheprestigiousStephenE.StrausLectureattheNationalInstitutesofHealth,ayearlytalkinhonorofthefounderoftheNationalCenterforComplementaryandIntegrativeHealth.38

Richie’stopic,“ChangeYourBrainbyTrainingYourMind,”wascontroversial,tosaytheleast,amongthemanyskepticsontheNIHcampus.But,comethedayofhistalk,theaugustauditoriumattheClinicalCenterwas

But,comethedayofhistalk,theaugustauditoriumattheClinicalCenterwaspacked,withmanyscientistswatchingalivestreamfromtheiroffices—perhapsanauguryofthechangingstatusofmeditationasatopicforseriousresearch.

Richie’slecturefocusedonthefindingsinthisarea,mainlythosefromhislab,mostofwhicharedescribedinthisbook.Richieilluminatedtheneural,biological,andbehavioralchangeswroughtbymeditation,andhowtheymighthelpmaintainhealth—forinstance,inbetteremotionregulationandsharpenedattention.And,aswe’vetriedtodohere,Richiewalkedaverycarefullinebetweencriticalrigorandgenuineconvictionthatthereisreallya“there”there:thatmeditationhasbeneficialimpactsworthyofseriousscientificinvestigation.

Attheendofhistalk,despiteitsstaidacademictone,Richiereceivedastandingovation.

INANUTSHELL

Noneofthemanyformsofmeditationstudiedherewasoriginallydesignedtotreatillness,atleastaswerecognizeitintheWest.Yettodaythescientificliteratureisrepletewithstudiesassessingwhethertheseancientpracticesmightbeusefulfortreatingjustsuchillnesses.MBSRandsimilarmethodscanreducetheemotionalcomponentofsufferingfromdisease,butnotcurethosemaladies.Yetmindfulnesstraining—evenasshortasthreedays—producesashort-termdecreaseinpro-inflammatorycytokines,themoleculesresponsibleforinflammation.Andthemoreyoupractice,thelowerthelevelbecomesofthesepro-inflammatorycytokines.Thisseemstobecomeatraiteffectwithextensivepractice,withimagingstudiesfindinginmeditatorsatrestlowerlevelsofpro-inflamatorycytokines,alongwithanincreasedconnectivitybetweenregulatorycircuitryandsectorsofthebrain’sselfsystem,particularlytheposteriorcingulatecortex.

Amongexperiencedmeditationpractitioners,adaylongperiodofintensivemindfulnesspracticedown-regulatesgenesinvolvedininflammation.Theenzymetelomerase,whichslowscellularaging,increasesafterthreemonthsofintensivepracticeofmindfulnessandloving-kindness.Finally,long-termmeditationmayleadtobeneficialstructuralchangesinthebrain,thoughcurrentevidenceisinconclusiveaboutwhethersucheffectsemergewithrelativelyshort-termpracticelikeMBSR,oronlybecomeapparentwithlonger-term

practice.Allinall,thehintsofneuralrewiringthatundergirdalteredtraitsseemscientificallycredible,thoughweawaitfurtherstudiesforspecifics.

D

10

MeditationasPsychotherapy

r.AaronBeck,thefounderofcognitivetherapy,hadaquestion:“Whatismindfulness?”

Itwasthemid-1980s,andDr.BeckwasaskingTaraBennett-Goleman,Dan’swife.ShehadcometohishomeinArdmore,Pennsylvania,atDr.Beck’srequest,becauseJudgeJudithBeck,hiswife,wasabouttoundergosomeelectivesurgery.Dr.Beckhadahunchmeditationmighthelpbetterpreparehermentallyand,perhaps,evenphysically.

Tarainstructedthecoupleonthespot.FollowingherguidancetheBeckssatquietlyandobservedthesensationsoftheirbreathinginandout,thentriedawalkingmeditationintheirlivingroom.

Thatwasahintofwhathassincebecomeastrongmovementin“mindfulness-basedcognitivetherapy,”orMBCT.Tara’sbookEmotionalAlchemy:HowtheMindCanHealtheHeartwasthefirsttointegratemindfulnesswithcognitivetherapy.1

Tarahadforyearsbeenastudentofvipassanameditationandhadrecentlycompletedamonths-longintensiveretreatwiththeBurmesemeditationmasterUPandita.Thatdeepdiveintothemindhadyieldedmanyinsights,includingoneaboutthelightnessofthoughtswhenviewedthroughthelensofmindfulness.Thatinsightmirrorsaprincipleincognitivetherapyof“decentering,”observingthoughtsandfeelingswithoutbeingoverlyidentifiedwiththem.Wecanreappraiseoursuffering.

Dr.BeckhadheardaboutTarafromoneofhisclosestudents,Dr.JeffreyYoung,whoatthetimewasestablishingthefirstcognitivetherapycenterinNewYorkCity.Tara,withafreshlymintedmaster’sdegreeincounseling,wastrainingwithDr.Youngathiscenter.Thetwowerejointlytreatingayoungwomanwhosufferedfrompanicattacks.

Dr.Youngusedacognitivetherapyapproach,helpingherdistanceherselffromhercatastrophizingthoughts—Ican’tbreathe,I’mgoingtodie—andchallengethem.Tarabroughtmindfulnessintothesessions,complementingDr.Young’stherapyapproachwiththisuniquelensonthemind.Learningtoobserveherbreathmindfully—calmlyandclearly,withoutpanic—helpedthatpatientovercomeherpanicattacks.

Workingindependently,psychologistJohnTeasdaleattheUniversityofOxford,withZindelSegalandMarkWilliams,waswritingMindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyforDepression,anothersuchintegration.2Hisresearchhadrevealedthatforpeoplewithdepressionsoseverethatdrugsorevenelectroshocktreatmentswerenohelp,thismindfulness-basedcognitivetherapy(MBCT)cuttherateofrelapsebyhalf—morethananymedication.

SuchremarkablefindingsunleashedwhathasbecomeawaveofresearchonMBCT.Ashasbeentrueofmoststudiesofmeditationandpsychotherapy,though,manyofthosestudies(includingTeasdale’soriginalone)failedtomeetthegoldstandardforclinicaloutcomeresearch:randomizedcontrolgroupsandanequivalentcomparisontreatmentbypractitionerswhobelievetheirswillbringresults.

SomeyearslateragroupfromJohnsHopkinsUniversitylookedatwhatnumberedbythenforty-sevenstudiesofmeditationalone(thatis,withoutincludingcognitivetherapy)withpatientssufferingfromdistressrangingfromdepressionandpaintosleepproblemsandoverallqualityoflife—aswellasmaladiesrangingfromdiabetesandarterialdiseasetotinnitusandirritablebowelsyndrome.

Thisreview,bytheway,wasexemplaryincalculatingthehoursofmeditationpracticebeingstudied:MBSRentailedtwentytotwenty-sevenhoursoftrainingovereightweeks,othermindfulnessprogramsabouthalfthat.Transcendentalmeditationtrialsgavesixteentothirty-ninehoursoverthreetotwelvemonths,andothermantrameditationsabouthalfthatamount.

InaprominentarticleinoneoftheJAMAjournals(theofficialpublicationsoftheAmericanMedicalAssociation),theresearchersconcludedthatmindfulness(butnotmantra-basedmeditationlikeTM,forwhichthereweretoofewwell-designedstudiestomakeanyconclusions)couldlessenanxietyanddepression,aswellaspain.Thedegreeofimprovementwasaboutasmuchasformedications,butwithouttroublingsideeffects—makingmindfulness-basedtherapiesaviablealternativetreatmentfortheseconditions.

Butnosuchbenefitswerefoundforotherhealthindicatorslikeeatinghabits,sleep,substanceuse,orweightproblems.Whenitcametootherpsychologicaltroubles,likeuglymoods,addictions,andpoorattention,themeta-analysisfoundlittleornoevidencethatanykindofmeditationmighthelp—atleastintheshort-terminterventionsusedintheresearch.Long-termmeditationpractice,theynote,mightwelloffermorebenefits,thoughthereweretoolittledataonthisforthemtodrawanyconclusion.

Themainproblem:whathadseemedpromisingforrelievingproblemsfromearlierstudiesofmeditationdisappearedintoamistwhencomparedtothebenefitsfromanactivecontrollikeexercise.Bottomlineforawiderangeofstress-basedproblems:“insufficientevidenceofanyeffect,”atleastasyet.3

Fromamedicalperspective,thesestudiesweretheequivalentofa“low-dose,short-term”trialofamedication.Therecommendationhere:thatmoreresearchbedone,usingfarlargernumbersofpeopleandforafarlongerperiod.That’squiteaptforstudiesoftreatmentslikeadrug—theresearchmodeldominantinmedicine.Butsuchstudiesareenormouslyexpensive,costinginthemillionsofdollars—andarepaidforbydrugcompaniesortheNationalInstitutesofHealth.Nosuchluckwhenitcomestomeditation.

Anotherstickingpoint,andthisabitnerdy:themeta-analysisbeganbycollecting18,753citationsofarticlesofallkindsaboutmeditation(ahugenumber,giventhatwecouldfindbutapaltryhandfulbackinthe1970s,andjustabove6,000now—theyusedabroadernumberofsearchtermsthanwedid).Abouthalfofthosetheauthorsspotted,though,werenotreportsofactualdata;oftheempiricalreports,about4,800hadnocontrolgrouporwerenotrandomized.Aftercarefulsifting,only3percent(that’sthe47intheanalysis)—ofthestudiesprovedsufficientlywelldesignedthattheycouldbeincludedinthereview.AstheHopkinsgrouppointsout,thissimplyunderscorestheneedtoupgrademeditationresearch.

Thistypeofreviewcarriesgreatweightwithphysicians,inanerawhenmedicinestrivestobecomemoreevidencebased.TheHopkinsgroupdidthismeta-analysisfortheAgencyforHealthcareResearchandQuality,whoseguidelinesphysicianstrytofollow.

Thereview’sconclusion:meditation(inparticular,mindfulness)canhavearoleintreatingdepression,anxiety,andpain—aboutasmuchasmedicationsbutwithnosideeffects.Meditationalsocan,toalesserdegree,reducethetollofpsychologicalstress.Overall,meditationhasnotbeenprovenbetterforpsychologicaldistressthanmedicaltreatments,thoughtheevidenceforstrongerconclusionsremainsinsufficient.

conclusionsremainsinsufficient.Butthiswastrueasof2013(thestudywaspublishedinJanuary,2014).

Withthequickenedpaceofmeditationresearch,moreandbetter-designedstudiesmayoverturnsuchjudgments,atleasttoadegree.

Depressionmarksasingularcaseinpoint.

CHASINGTHEBLUESAWAY—WITHMINDFULNESS

TheremarkablefindingfromJohnTeasdale’sgroupatOxford,thatMBCTcutrelapseinseveredepressionbyaround50percent,energizedsomeimpressivefollow-upresearch.Afterall,a50percentdropinrelapseoutreachesbyfarwhatanymedicationusedforseveredepressioncanclaim.Ifthisbeneficialimpactweretrueofadrug,somepharmaceuticalcompanywouldbemintingmoneyfromit.

Theneedformorerigorousstudieswasclear;theoriginalTeasdalepilotstudyhadnocontrolgroup,letaloneacomparisonactivity.MarkWilliams,oneofTeasdale’soriginalresearchpartnersatOxford,spearheadedtheresearchneeded.Histeamrecruitedalmostthreehundredpeoplewithdepressionsoseverethatmedicationscouldnotpreventthemrelapsingintodoomandgloom—thesamesortofdifficult-to-treatpatientsasintheoriginalstudy.

ButthistimethepatientswererandomlyassignedtoeitherMBCToroneoftwoactivecontrolgroupswheretheyeitherlearnedthebasicsofcognitivetherapyorjusthadtheusualpsychiatrictreatments.4Thepatientsweretrackedforsixmonthstoseeiftheyhadarelapse.MBCTprovedmoreeffectivewhenitcametopatientswithahistoryofchildhoodtrauma(whichcanmakedepressionalltheworse),andaboutthesameasstandardtreatmentswithrun-of-the-milldepression.

Soonafter,aEuropeangroupfoundthatforasimilargroupwithdepressionsoseverethatnomedicationhelpedthem,MBCTdid.5This,too,wasarandomizedstudywithanactivecontrolgroup.Andby2016ameta-analysisofninesuchstudieswithatotal1,258patientsconcludedthat,overayearafterward,MBCTwasaneffectivewaytolowertherelapserateinsevere

depression.Themoreseverethesymptomsofdepression,thelargerthebenefitsfromMBCT.6

ZindelSegal,oneofJohnTeasdale’scollaborators,delvedmoredeeplyintowhyMBCTseemedsoeffective.7HeusedfMRItocomparepatientswhohadrecoveredfromaboutofmajordepression,someofwhomdidMBCT,whiletheothersreceivedstandardcognitivetherapy(thatis,withoutmindfulness).Thosepatientswho,aftertreatments,showedagreaterincreaseintheactivityoftheirinsulahad35percentfewerrelapses.

Thereason?Inalateranalysis,Segalfoundthebestoutcomeswereinthosepatientsmostableto“decenter,”thatis,stepoutsidetheirthoughtsandfeelingsenoughtoseethemasjustcomingandgoing,ratherthangettingcarriedawayby“mythoughtsandfeelings.”Inotherwords,thesepatientsweremoremindful.Andthemoretimetheyputintomindfulnesspractice,thelowertheiroddsofarelapseintodepression.

Atlastacriticalmassofresearchdemonstratedtothesatisfactionoftheskepticalmedicalworldthatamindfulness-basedmethodcouldbeeffectivefortreatingdepression.

ThereareseveralvariationsofpromisingapplicationsofMBCTfordepression.Forinstance,womenwhoarepregnantandhaveaprevioushistoryofdepressiveepisodesnaturallywanttobesuretheydonotgetdepressedwhilecarryingtheirbabyorafterthebirth,andtheyareunderstandablyleeryoftakingantidepressantswhilepregnant.Goodnews:ateamledbySonaDimidjian,anothergradoftheSummerResearchInstitute,foundthatMBCTcouldlowerthedepressionriskinthesewomen,andsoofferedauser-friendlyalternativetodrugs.8

WhenresearchersfromtheMaharishiInternationalUniversitytaughtTMtoprisonerswithstandardprisonprogramsasthecomparison,theyfoundthatfourmonthslatertheprisonersdoingTMshowedfewersymptomsoftrauma,anxiety,anddepression;theyalsosleptbetterandperceivedtheirdaysaslessstressful.9

Anotherinstance:theangst-filledteenyearscanseethefirstonsetofdepressivesymptoms.In2015,12.5percentoftheUSpopulationagedtwelvetoseventeenhadatleastonemajordepressiveepisodethepreviousyear.Thistranslatestoabout3millionteens.Whilesomeofthemoreobvioussignsofdepressionincludenegativethinking,severeself-criticism,andthelike,sometimesthesignstakesubtleforms,liketroublesleepingorthinkingor

shortnessofbreath.Amindfulnessprogramdesignedforteensreducedovertdepressionandsuchsubtlesigns,evensixmonthsafteritended.10

Allofthesestudies,tantalizingastheyare,needreplicationaswellasupgradestotheirdesigniftheyaretobeacceptabletostrictmedicalreviewstandards.Still,forthepersonsufferingfromdepressivebouts—oranxietyorpain—MBCT(andmaybeTM)offersthepossibilityofrelief.

Thenthere’sthequestionofwhetherMBCTormeditationinalternateformsmightrelievesymptomsofotherpsychiatricmaladies.Andifso,whatarethemechanismsthatexplainthis?

Let’srevisitthatresearchonMBSRforpeoplewithsocialanxietydonebyPhilippeGoldinandJamesGrossatStanfordUniversity(werevieweditinchapterfive).Socialanxiety,whichcanlooklikeanythingfromstagefrighttoshynessatgatherings,turnsouttobeasurprisinglycommonemotionalproblem,affectingmorethan6percentoftheUSpopulation,around15millionpeople.11

Aftertheeight-weekMBSRcoursethepatientsreportedfeelinglessanxiety,agoodsign.Butyoumayrecallthenextstep,whichmakesthestudymoreintriguing:thepatientsalsowentintoabrainscannerwhiledoingabreathawarenessmeditationtomanagetheiremotionsastheylistenedtoupsettingphraseslike“peoplealwaysjudgeme,”oneofthecommonfearsinthementalself-talkamongthosewithsocialanxiety.Thepatientsreportedfeelinglessanxiousthanusualonhearingsuchemotionaltriggers—andatthesametime,brainactivitylessenedintheiramygdalaandincreasedincircuitryforattention.

Thispeekattheunderlyingbrainactivitymayhintatthefutureofresearchonhowmeditationmightrelievementalproblems.Forseveralyearsnow—atleastasofthiswriting—theNationalInstituteofMentalHealth(NIMH),themainsourceoffundingforstudiesinthisarea,hasdisdainedresearchthatreliesontheoldcategoriesofpsychiatrylistedinthefield’sDiagnosticandStatisticalManual(DSM).

Whilementaldisorderslike“depression”initsseveralvarietiesareintheDSM,theNIMHfavorsresearchthatfocusesonspecificsymptomclustersandtheirunderlyingbraincircuitry—notjustDSMcategories.Alongtheselines,wewonder,forexample,ifthefindingfromOxford,thatMBCTworkswellwithdepressedpatientswhohaveahistoryoftrauma,suggeststhatanoverlyreactiveamygdalamaybemoreinvolvedinthistreatment-resistantsubgroupthanamongotherswhogetdepressedfromtimetotime.

Whileweareponderingfutureresearch,hereareafewmorequestions:Whatpreciselyistheaddedvalueofmindfulnesscomparedwithcognitivetherapy?Whatdisordersdoesmeditation(includingitsuseinMBSRand

therapy?Whatdisordersdoesmeditation(includingitsuseinMBSRandMBCT)relievebetterthancurrentstandardpsychiatrictreatments?Shouldthesemethodsbeusedalongwiththosestandardinterventions?Andwhatspecifickindsofmeditationworkbesttorelievewhichmentalproblems—andwhilewe’reatit,what’stheunderlyingneuralcircuitry?

Fornow,theseareunansweredquestions.We’rewaitingtofindout.

LOVING-KINDNESSMEDITATIONFORTRAUMA

RecallthatonSeptember11,2001,ajetsmashedintothePentagonnearSteveZ,andwhathadbeenanopenofficewasinstantlyblastedintoahaze-filledseaofwreckage,reekingofburnedfuel.Whentheofficewasrebuilthemovedbacktotheverydeskhehadbeensittingaton9/11,butinamuchloneliersetting—mostofhisofficebuddieshadbeenkilledinthefireball.

Steverecallshisfeelingsthen:“Wewerefueledbyrage:Thosebastards—we’llgetthem!Itwasadarkplace,amiserabletime.”

HisseverePTSDwascumulative;StevehadpreviouslyservedincombattheatersinDesertStormandIraq.Thecatastropheof9/11intensifiedthetraumathathadalreadybeenbuilding.

Foryearsafter,anger,frustration,andhypervigilantdistrustroiledwithin.Butifanyoneaskedhowhewasdoing,Steve’sstorylinewas,“Noproblem.”Hetriedself-soothingwithalcohol,hardjogging,visitingfamily,reading—anythingtotrytogetagrip.

StevewasclosetosuicidewhenheenteredWalterReedHospitalforhelp,wentthroughdetoxfromalcohol,andslowlybegantheroadtohealing.Helearnedabouthisconditionandagreedtomeetwiththepsychotherapisthestillsees,whointroducedhimtomindfulnessmeditation.

Aftertwoorthreemonthsofsobrietyhetriedtojoinalocalmindfulnessgroup,whichmetonceaweek.ThefirstfewtimesStevewenthewalkedinhesitantly,checkedaroundtheplace,saw“thesearenotmypeople”—andwalkedout.Besides,hefeltclaustrophobicinclosedspaces.

Whenhewasfinallyabletotryashortmindfulnessretreat,hefoundithelped.Andinparticularwhatreallyclickedwastheloving-kindnesspractice,aworkablewaytohavecompassionforhimselfaswellasotherpeople.With

workablewaytohavecompassionforhimselfaswellasotherpeople.Withloving-kindness,hefelt“athomeagain,”adeepreminderofhowhefeltasayoungboyplayingwithfriends—astrongsensethingsweregoingtobeokay.

“Practicehelpedmestaywiththosefeelingsandknow,‘Thiswillpass.’IfIwasgettingangry,Icouldthrowalittlecompassionandloving-kindnessformyselfandtheotherperson.”

Lastweheard,Stevehadgonebacktoschoolinmentalhealthcounseling,gottencredentialedasapsychotherapist,andwascompletingaclinicaldoctorate.Hisdissertationtopic:“moralinjuryandspiritualwellness.”

HeconnectedwiththeVeteransAdministrationandsupportgroupsformilitarypeoplelikehimwithPTSD,andhasbeengettingreferralsfromthemforhissmallprivatepractice.Stevefeelsuniquelyequippedtohelp.

FirstfindingssaySteve’sinstinctshaditright.AttheSeattleVeteransAdministrationhospital,forty-twovetswithPTSDtookatwelve-weekcourseinloving-kindnessmeditation,thekindStevefoundhelpedhim.12ThreemonthslatertheirPTSDsymptomshadimproved,anddepression—acommonsidesymptom—hadlessenedabit.

Theseearlyfindingsarepromising,butwedon’tknow,say,ifanactivecontrolconditionlikeHEPwouldbejustaseffective.ThecaveatsfortheresearchonPTSDtodateprettymuchsumupthestateoftheartforscientificvalidationofmeditationasatreatmentformostpsychiatricdisorders.

Still,therearemanyargumentsforcompassionpracticeasanantidotetoPTSD,beginningwithanecdotalreportslikeSteve’s.13Manyarepractical.AlargeproportionofveteranshavePTSD;inanygivenyear,between11and20percentofveteranssufferfromPTSD,andoveraveteran’slifetimethatnumbergoesupto30percent.Ifloving-kindnesspracticeworks,itoffersacost-effectivegrouptreatment.

Anotherreason:amongthesymptomsofPTSDareemotionalnumbness,alienation,andasenseof“deadness”inrelationships—allofwhichloving-kindnessmighthelpreversebythecultivationofpositivefeelingstowardothers.Stillanother:manyvetsdislikethesideeffectsofthedrugstheyaregivenforPTSD,sotheydonottakethematall—andontheirownaresearchingfornontraditionaltreatments.Loving-kindnessappealsonbothcounts.

DARKNIGHTS

“Iexperiencedawaveofself-hatredsoshocking,sointense,thatitchangedthewayIrelate...tomyowndharmapathandthemeaningoflifeitself.”SorecallsJayMichaelsonofthemomentonalong,silentvipassanaretreatwhenhefellintowhathecallsa“darknight”ofintenselydifficultmentalstates.14

TheVisuddhimaggapegsthiscrisisasmostlikelyatthepointameditatorexperiencesthetransitorylightnessofthoughts.Rightonschedule,Michaelsonhithisdarknightafterhavingcruisedthroughaquietlyecstaticlandmarkonthatpath,thestageof“arisingandpassing,”wherethoughtsseemtodisappearassoonastheybegin,inrapidsuccession.

Shortlyafterwardheplungedintohisdarknight,athickmixtureofmorbiddoubt,self-loathing,anger,guilt,andanxiety.Atonepointthetoxicmixwassostrong,hispracticecollapsed;hebrokedownintears.

Butthenheslowlybeganobservinghismindratherthanbeingsuckedintothethoughtsandfeelingsthatswirledthroughit.Hebegantoseethesefeelingsaspassingmentalstates,likeanyothers.Theepisodewasover.

Othersuchtalesofmeditativedarknightsdonotalwayshavesuchacleanresolution;themeditator’ssufferingcanbeongoinglongafterleavingthemeditationcenter.Becausethemanypositiveimpactsofmeditationarefarmorewidelyknown,somewhogothroughdarknightsdiscoverpeoplecan’tcomprehendorevenbelievethattheyarehurting.Alltoofrequentlypsychotherapistsarelittleornohelp.

Realizingtheneed,WilloughbyBritton,apsychologistatBrownUniversity(andagradoftheSRI),headsthe“darknightproject,”whichaidspeoplewhosufferfrommeditation-relatedpsychologicaldifficulties.HerVarietiesoftheContemplativeExperienceproject,asitismoreformallycalled,addstothemorewidelyknownbeneficialimpactsofmeditationacaveat:Whenmightitdoharm?

Atthemoment,therearenofirmanswers.Brittonhasbeencollectingcasestudiesandhelpingthosewhosufferfromadarknighttounderstandwhattheyaregoingthrough,thattheyarenotalone,and,hopefully,torecover.Herstudysubjectshavebeenlargelyreferralsfromguidingteachersatvipassanameditationcenterswhere,overtheyears,therehavebeenoccasionaldarknightcasualtiesduringintensiveretreats—despitethosecenterstryingtoweedoutthevulnerablebyaskingonenrollmentformsaboutpsychiatrichistories.Tobesure,darknightsmaynotberelatedtosuchhistories.

Darknightsarenotuniquetovipassana;mosteverymeditativetraditionwarnsaboutthem.InJudaism,forexample,Kabbalistictextscautionthatcontemplativemethodsarebestreservedformiddleage,lestanunformedego

contemplativemethodsarebestreservedformiddleage,lestanunformedegofallapart.

Atthispointnooneknowswhetherintensivemeditationpracticeisinitselfadangertocertainpeople,orifthosewhosufferdarknightsmighthavehadabreakdownofsomesortnomattertheircircumstances.WhileBritton’scasestudiesareanecdotal,theirveryexistenceiscompelling.

Theproportionofdarknightsamongallthosewhodoprolongedretreatsare,byallaccounts,verysmall—thoughnoonecansaypreciselywhatthatproportionmightbe.Fromaresearchperspective,oneofthefindingsneededwouldbetoestablishbaseratesforsuchdifficultiesbothamongmeditatorsandinthepopulationatlarge.

NearlyoneinfiveadultsintheUnitedStates,nearly44million,werefoundbytheNationalInstituteofMentalHealthtosufferfromamentalillnessinanygivenyear.Bothfreshmanyearatcollegeandmilitarybootcamp—andevenpsychotherapy—areknowntoprecipitatepsychologicalcrisesinacertainsmallpercentageofpeople.Theresearchquestionbecomes,Istheresomethingaboutdeepmeditationthatputssomepeopleatriskoverandabovethisbaserate?

Forthosewhodohavesuchadarknight,WilloughbyBritton’sprogramofferspracticaladviceandcomfort.Anddespitethe(ratherlow)riskofdarknights,especiallyduringprolongedretreats,meditationhascomeintovogueamongpsychotherapists.

MEDITATIONASMETATHERAPY

InDan’sfirstarticleonmeditationheproposeditmightbeusedinpsychotherapy.15Thatarticle,“MeditationasMeta-Therapy,”appearedduringDan’s1971sojourninIndia,andnaryapsychotherapistshowedmuchinterest.YetonhisreturnhesomehowwasinvitedtolectureonthisnotionatameetingoftheMassachusettsPsychologicalAssociation.

Afterhistalkended,aslim,bright-eyedyoungmanwearinganill-fittingsportjacketapproachedhim,sayinghewasagraduatestudentinpsychologywithsimilarinterests.HehadspentseveralyearsasamonkinThailandstudyingmeditation,survivingthereonthegenerosityoftheThaipeople,acountrywhereeveryhouseholdfindsitanhonortofeedmonks.NosuchluckinNewEngland.

Thisgradstudentthoughtthatasapsychologisthecouldadaptmeditativetools,intheguiseofpsychotherapy,toalleviatepeople’ssuffering.Hewasglad

tools,intheguiseofpsychotherapy,toalleviatepeople’ssuffering.Hewasgladtohearsomeoneelsewasmakingtheconnectionbetweenmeditationandtherapeuticapplications.

ThatgradstudentwasJackKornfield,onwhosedissertationcommitteeRichieserved.Jackbecameoneofthefoundersof,first,theInsightMeditationSocietyinBarre,Massachusetts,andthenwentontofoundSpiritRock,ameditationcenterintheSanFranciscoBayArea.JackhasbeenapioneerintranslatingBuddhisttheoriesofthemindintolanguageattunedtothemodernsensibility.16

Jack,alongwithagroupincludingJosephGoldstein,designedandrantheteachertrainingprogramthatgraduatedtheveryteacherswhohelpedSteveZrecoverfromhisPTSDallthoseyearslater.Jack’sownexplanationofBuddhistpsychologicaltheories,TheWiseHeart,showshowthisperspectiveonthemindandworkingwithmeditationcanbeusedinpsychotherapy—oronyourown.ThissynthesiswasthefirstofhisbynowmanybooksintegratingtraditionalEasternandmodernapproaches.

AnothermainvoiceinthismovementhasbeenMarkEpstein,apsychiatrist.MarkwasastudentinDan’spsychologyofconsciousnesscourse,and,asaHarvardsenior,heaskedDantobehisfacultyadviserforanhonorsprojectonBuddhistpsychology.Dan,atthetimetheonlymemberoftheHarvardpsychologydepartmentwithinterestandabitofknowledgeinthearea,agreed;MarkandDanlaterwroteanarticletogetherinashort-livedjournal.17

InaseriesofbooksintegratingpsychoanalyticandBuddhistviewsofmind,Markhascontinuedtoleadtheway.HisfirstbookhadtheintriguingtitleThoughtsWithoutaThinker,aphrasefromtheobjectrelationstheoristDonaldWinnicott,whichalsovoicesacontemplativeperspective.18Tara’s,Mark’s,andJack’sworksareemblematicofawidermovement,withcountlesstherapistsnowblendingvariouscontemplativepracticesorperspectiveswiththeirownapproachtopsychotherapy.

WhiletheresearchestablishmentremainssomewhatskepticalofthepotencyofmeditationasatreatmentforDSM-leveldisorders,thewideningpoolofpsychotherapistsenthusiasticaboutbringingtogethermeditationandpsychotherapycontinuestogrow.Althoughresearchersawaitrandomizedstudieswithactivecontrols,psychotherapistsalreadyoffermeditation-enrichedtreatmentsfortheirclients.

Forinstance,asofthiswritingtherehavebeen1,125articlesinthescientificliteratureonmindfulness-basedcognitivetherapy.Tellingly,morethan80percentofthesewerepublishedinthepastfiveyears.

percentofthesewerepublishedinthepastfiveyears.Ofcourse,meditationhasitslimits.Dan’soriginalinterestinmeditation

duringhiscollegedayswasbecausehefeltanxious.Meditationseemedtocalmthosefeelingssomewhat,buttheystillcameandwent.

Manypeoplegotopsychotherapistsforjustsuchproblems.Dandidnot.Butyearslaterhewasdiagnosedwiththatadrenaldisorder,thecauseofhislong-standinghighbloodpressure.Oneofthoseadrenalsymptoms:elevatedlevelsofcortisol,thestresshormonethattriggersfeelingsofanxiety.Alongwithhisyearsofmeditation,adrugthatadjuststhatadrenalproblemseemedalsotohandlethecortisol—andtheanxiety.

INANUTSHELL

Althoughmeditationwasnotoriginallyintendedtotreatpsychologicalproblems,inmoderntimesithasshownpromiseinthetreatmentofsome,particularlydepressionandanxietydisorders.Inameta-analysisofforty-sevenstudiesontheapplicationofmeditationmethodstotreatpatientswithmentalhealthproblems,thefindingsshowthatmeditationcanleadtodecreasesindepression(particularlyseveredepression),anxiety,andpain—aboutasmuchasmedicationsbutwithnosideeffects.Meditationalsocan,toalesserdegree,reducethetollofpsychologicalstress.Loving-kindnessmeditationmaybeparticularlyhelpfultopatientssufferingfromtrauma,especiallythosewithPTSD.

Themeldingofmindfulnesswithcognitivetherapy,orMBCT,hasbecomethemostempiricallywell-validatedpsychologicaltreatmentwithameditationbasis.Thisintegrationcontinuestohaveawideimpactintheclinicalworld,withempiricaltestsofapplicationstoaneverlargerrangeofpsychologicaldisordersunderway.Whilethereareoccasionalreportsofnegativeeffectsofmeditation,thefindingstodateunderscorethepotentialpromiseofmeditation-basedstrategies,andtheenormousincreaseinscientificresearchintheseareasbodeswellforthefuture.

I

11

AYogi’sBrain

nthesteephillsabovetheridge-huggingHimalayanvillageofMcLeodGanj,youmightstumbleonasmallhutorremotecavehousingaTibetanyogiona

long-term,soloretreat.Inthespringof1992,anintrepidteamofscientists,RichieandCliffSaronamongthem,traveledtothosehutsandcavestoassessthebrainactivityoftheyogiwithineach.

Athree-dayjourneyhadbroughtthemtoMcLeodGanj,thehillstationinthefoothillsoftheHimalayasthatishometotheDalaiLamaandtheTibetanGovernment-in-Exile.TherethescientistssetupshopinaguesthouseownedbyabrotheroftheDalaiLama,whoresidesnearby.Severalroomsweregivenovertounpackingandassemblingtheequipmentfordeploymentinbackpacksfortransportuptothemountainhermitages.

InthosedayssuchbrainmeasurementsrequiredamélangeofEEGelectrodesandamplifiers,computermonitors,videorecordingequipment,batteries,andgenerators.Thatequipment,muchlargerthantoday’s,weighedseveralhundredpounds.Travelingwiththoseinstrumentsintheirhardprotectivecases,theresearchersresembledanerdyrockband.Therewerenoroadstofollow;yogisonretreatchoosethemostremoteplacetheycanfind.Andso,withgreateffort,andthehelpofseveralporters,thescientistsluggedtheirmeasuringinstrumentstotheyogis.

TheDalaiLamahimselfhadidentifiedtheseyogisasmastersinlojong,asystematicmindtrainingmethod;inhisviewthesewereidealsubjectsforstudy.TheDalaiLamahadwrittenaletterurgingtheyogistocooperate,andevensentalongapersonalemissary,amonkfromhisprivateoffice,tovouchforthetop-levelrequestthattheyparticipate.

Arrivingatayogi’shermitage,thescientistspresentedtheletterandthroughatranslatoraskedtomonitortheyogi’sbrainwhilehemeditated.

Thesameanswercamefromeachyogiinturn:No.

Thesameanswercamefromeachyogiinturn:No.Tobesure,theyallwereexceptionallyfriendlyandwarm.Someofferedto

teachthescientiststheverypracticestheywantedtomeasure.Afewsaidtheywouldthinkaboutit.Butnonewouldgoaheadthenandthere.

SomemayhaveheardaboutanotheryogiwhooncehadbeenpersuadedbyasimilarletterfromtheDalaiLamatoleavehisretreatandtraveltoauniversityinfarawayAmericatodemonstratehisabilitytoraisehiscorebodytemperatureatwill.Thatyogihaddiedsoonafterhisreturn,andrumorsonthemountainsideheldthattheexperimenthadplayedarole.

Formostoftheseyogis,sciencewasquiteforeign;nonehadmuchinklingoftheroleofscienceinmodernWesternculture.Moreover,oftheeightyogistheteammetonthisexpedition,onlyonehadeverseenanactualcomputerbeforeRichieandtheteamarrived.

Afewoftheyogismadethecannyargumentthattheyhadnoideawhat,exactly,thestrangemachinesmeasured.Ifthemeasurementswereirrelevanttowhattheyweredoing,oriftheirbrainfailedtomeetsomescientificexpectation,itmightlooktosomeasthoughtheirmethodswereofnouse.That,theysaid,mightdiscouragethoseonthesamepath.

Whateverthereasons,thenetresultofthisscientificexpeditionwasaresoundingnothing.

Despitethefailuretogetcooperation,letalonedata,andthoughfutileintheshortterm,theexerciseprovedinstructive,beginningasteeplearningcurve.Forstarters,bettertobringthemeditatorstotheequipment,especiallyinawell-fortifiedbrainlab—iftheywouldcome.

Foranother,researchonsuchadeptsconfrontsuniquechallengesbeyondtheirrarity,theirintentionalremoteness,andtheirunfamiliaritywithordisinterestinscientificendeavors.Whiletheirmasteryatthisinnerexpertiseseemsakintoworld-classrankingsinsports,inthis“sport,”thebetteryougetthelessyoucareaboutyourranking—letalonesocialstatus,riches,orfame.

Thatlistofindifferencesincludesanypersonalprideyoumighttakeinwhatscientificmeasuresshowaboutyourinneraccomplishments.Whatmatteredtothemwashowtheresultsmightinfluenceothersforbetterorworse.

Prospectsforscientificstudiesweredim.

ASCIENTISTANDAMONK

EnterMatthieuRicard,whosedegreeinmoleculargeneticsfromFrance’sPasteurInstitutehadbeenunderthetutelageofFrançoisJacob,wholaterwontheNobelPrizeinMedicine.1AsapostdocMatthieuabandonedhispromisingcareerinbiologytobecomeamonk;overthedecadessince,hehaslivedinretreatcenters,monasteries,andhermitages.

Matthieuwasanoldfriendofours;hehadoftenparticipated(ashadwe)indialogues(organizedbytheMindandLifeInstitute)betweentheDalaiLamaandvariousgroupsofscientists,whereMatthieuvoicedtheBuddhistviewpointonwhatevertopicwasathand.2Youmightrecallthatduringthe“destructiveemotions”dialogue,theDalaiLamaexhortedRichietotestmeditationrigorouslyandextractwhatwasofvalueforthebenefitofthelargerworld.

TheDalaiLama’scalltoactiontouchedMatthieuasstronglyasitdidRichie,stirringinthismonk’smind(tohissurprise)along-unusedexpertiseinthescientificmethod.MatthieuhimselfwasthefirstmonktocomeforstudyatRichie’slab,spendingseveraldaysasexperimentalsubjectandascollaboratoronmethodstorefinetheprotocolusedwithasuccessionofotheryogis.MatthieuRicardwasacoauthoronthemainjournalarticlereportinginitialfindingswithyogis.3

FormuchofthetimeMatthieuhadspentasamonkinNepalandBhutan,hewasthepersonalattendanttoDilgoKhyentseRinpoche,oneofthelastcentury’smostuniversallyreveredTibetanmeditationmasters.4Many,manylamasofnoteamongthoselivinginexilefromTibet—includingtheDalaiLama—hadsoughtoutDilgoKhyentseforprivateinstruction.

ThisputMatthieuattheheartofalargenetworkwithintheTibetanmeditativeworld.Heknewwhomtosuggestaspotentialsubjectsofstudy—and,perhapsmostimportant,wastrustedbythoseverymeditationexperts.Matthieu’sparticipationmadeallthedifferenceinrecruitingthoseelusiveadepts.

MatthieucouldreassurethemthattherewasgoodreasontotravelhalftheglobetotheuniversitycampusinMadison,Wisconsin—aplacemanyTibetanlamasandyogishadneverheardof,letaloneseen.Further,theywouldhavetoputupwiththeweirdfoodandhabitsofaforeignculture.

Tobesure,someofthoserecruitedhadtaughtintheWestandwerefamiliarwithitsculturalnorms.But,beyondthejourneytoanexoticland,therewerethestrangeritualsofthescientists—intheyogis’eyesanentirelyalienendeavor.ForthosemorefamiliarwithHimalayanhermitagesthanwiththemodernworld,nothingintheirframeofreferencemademuchsenseofallthis.

Matthieu’sreassurancethattheireffortswouldbeworthwhilewasthekeytotheircooperation.Fortheseyogis,“worthwhile”didnotmeantheirparticipationwouldhaveapersonalbenefit—increasetheirfameorfeedtheirpride—butratherthatitwouldhelpotherpeople.AsMatthieuunderstood,theirmotivationwascompassion,notself-interest.

Matthieuemphasizedthemotivationofthescientists,whodedicatedthemselvestothisbecausetheybelievedifthescientificevidencesupportedtheefficacyofthesepractices,itwouldhelppromotetheincorporationofthepracticesintoWesternculture.

Matthieu’scrucialreassuranceshavesofarbroughttwenty-oneofthesemostadvancedmeditatorstoRichie’slabforbrainstudies.ThatnumberincludessevenWesternerswhohavedoneatleastonethree-yearretreatatthecenterinDordogne,France,whereMatthieuhaspracticed,aswellasfourteenTibetanadeptswhotraveledtoWisconsinfromIndiaorNepal.

FIRST,SECOND,ANDTHIRDPERSONS

Matthieu’straininginmolecularbiologygavehimaneasewiththerigorsandrulesofscience’smethods.Hedoveintotheplanningsessionstohelpdesignthemethodsthatwouldbeusedtoassaythefirstguineapig—himself.Asbothdesigncollaboratorandvolunteernumberone,hetriedouttheveryscientificprotocolhehadhelpedshape.

Whileextremelyunusualintheannalsofscience,thereareprecedentsforresearcherstobethefirstguineapigintheirownexperiments,particularlytobeassuredofthesafetyofsomenewmedicaltreatment.5Therationalehere,though,wasnotfearofexposingotherstoanunknownrisk,butrather,auniqueconsiderationwhenitcomestostudyinghowwemighttrainthemindandshapethebrain.

What’sbeingstudiedisintenselyprivate,oneperson’sinnerexperience—whilethetoolsusedtomeasureitaremachinesthatyieldobjectivemeasuresofbiologicalreality,butnothingofthatinnerone.Technically,theinnerassessmentrequiresa“first-person”report,whilethemeasurementsarea“third-person”report.

ClosingthegapbetweenthefirstandthirdpersonwastheideaofFranciscoVarela,thebrilliantbiologistandcofounderoftheMindandLifeInstitute.InhisacademicwritingVarelaproposedamethodforcombiningthefirst-andthird-personlenseswitha“secondperson,”anexpertonthetopicbeingstudied.6And,heargued,thepersonbeingstudiedshouldhaveawell-trainedmind,andso,yieldbetterdatathansomeonenotsowelltrained.

Matthieuwasbothtopicexpertandpossessorofthatwell-trainedmind.So,forexample,whenRichiebegantostudythevarioustypesofmeditation,hedidnotrealizethat“visualization”requiredmorethanjustgeneratingamentalimage.MatthieuexplainedtoRichieandhisteamthatthemeditatoralsocultivatesaparticularemotionalstatethatgoesalongwithagivenimage—say,withanimageofthebodhisattvaTaratheaccompanyingstatemeldscompassionandloving-kindness.AdvicesuchasthisledRichie’sgrouptochangefrombeingguidedbythetop-downnormsofbrainscience,tocollaboratingwithMatthieuinthedetailsofdesigningtheexperimentalprotocol.7

LongbeforeMatthieubecameacollaboratorwehadmovedinthisdirectionbyimmersingourselvesinwhatwewerestudying—meditation—togeneratehypothesesforempirictesting.Thesedaysscienceknowsthisgeneralapproachasaninstanceofthegenerationof“groundedtheory”—thatis,groundedinadirectpersonalsenseofwhat’sgoingon.

Varela’sapproachgoesastepfurther,necessarywhenwhat’sbeingstudiedlurksinthemindandbrainofonepersonyetresemblesastrangelandtotheonedoingtheresearch.HavingexpertslikeMatthieuinthisprivatedomainallowsmethodologicalprecisionwheretherewouldotherwisebeguesswork.

Weadmittoourownmistakeshere.Backinthe1980s,whenRichiewasayoungprofessorattheStateUniversityofNewYorkatPurchaseandDanajournalistworkinginNewYorkCity,wejoinedtogetherforsomeresearchonasingle,giftedmeditator.ThisstudentofUBaKhin(Goenka’steacher)hadhimselfbecomeateacher,andclaimedhecouldenteratwillastateofnibbana—theendpointofthatBurmesemeditativepath.Wewantedtofindhardcorrelatesofthatvauntedstate.

Problemwas,themaintoolwehadwasanassayofbloodlevelsofcortisol,ahottopicinresearchoftheday.Weusedthatasourmainmeasurebecausewewereborrowingalabfromoneofthemaininvestigatorsofcortisol—notbecausetherewassomestronghypothesisrelatingnibbanatocortisol.Buttakingcortisollevelsdemandedthatthemeditator—ensconcedinahospitalroomontheothersideofaone-waymirror—behookeduptoanIVthatletus

drawhisbloodeveryhour;wetradedshiftswithtwootherscientistssowecouldprovidearound-the-clockcoverage,aroutinewefollowedforseveraldays.

Themeditatorsignaledwithabuzzerseveraltimesduringthosefewdaysthathehadenterednibbana.Butthecortisollevelsbudgednotatall—theywereirrelevant.Wealsodeployedabrainmeasure,butthat,too,wasnotsoapt,andprimitivebytoday’sstandards.We’vecomealongway.

Whatmightbenextascontemplativesciencecontinuestoevolve?TheDalaiLama,atwinkleinhiseye,oncetoldDanthatsomeday“thepersonbeingstudiedandthepersondoingtheresearchwillbeoneandthesame.”

Perhapspartlywiththataiminmind,theDalaiLamahasencouragedagroupatEmoryUniversitytointroduceaTibetan-languagesciencecurriculumintothestudiesofmonksinmonasteries.8Aradicalmove:thefirstsuchchangeinsixhundredyears!

THEJOYOFLIVING

OnecoolSeptembermorningin2002,aTibetanmonkarrivedattheMadison,Wisconsin,airport.Hisjourneyhadstartedseventhousandmilesaway,atamonasteryatopahillonthefringeofKathmandu,Nepal.Thetriptookeighteenhoursintheairoverthreedaysandcrossedtentimezones.

Richiehadmetthemonkbrieflyatthe1995MindandLifemeetingondestructiveemotionsinDharamsala,buthadforgottenwhathelookedlike.Still,itwaseasytopickhimoutfromthecrowd.Hewastheonlyshaven-headedmanwearinggold-and-crimsonrobesintheDaneCountyRegionalAirport.HisnamewasMingyurRinpocheandhehadtraveledallthiswaytohavehisbrainassayedwhilehemeditated.

Afteranight’srest,RichiebroughtMingyurtothelab’sEEGroom,wherebrainwavesaremeasuredwithwhatlookslikeasurrealistartpiece:ashowercapextrudingspaghetti-likewires.Thisspeciallydesignedcapholds256thinwiresinplace,eachleadingtoasensorpastedtoapreciselocationonthescalp.Atightconnectionbetweenthesensorandthescalpmakesallthedifferencebetweenrecordingusabledataaboutthebrain’selectricalactivityandhavingtheelectrodesimplybeanantennafornoise.

AsMingyurwastoldwhenalabtechnicianbeganpastingsensorstohisscalp,ensuringatightconnectionforeachandplacingthemintheirexactspot

scalp,ensuringatightconnectionforeachandplacingthemintheirexactspottakesnomorethanfifteenminutes.ButwhenMingyur,ashaven-headedmonk,offereduphisbaldscalp,itturnedoutsuchcontinuallyexposedskinismorethickenedandcallusedthanoneprotectedbyhair.Tomakethecrucialelectrode-to-scalpconnectiontightenoughtoyieldviablereadingsthroughthickerskinendeduptakingmuchlongerthanusual.

Mostpeoplewhocomeintothelabgetimpatient,ifnotirritated,bysuchdelays.ButMingyurwasnotintheleastperturbed,whichcalmedthenervouslabtechnician—andallthoselookingon—withthefeelingthatanythingthathappenedwouldbeokaywithhim.ThatwasthefirstinklingofMingyur’seaseofbeing,apalpablesenseofrelaxedreadinessforwhateverlifemightbring.ThelastingimpressionMingyurconveyedwasofendlesspatienceandagentlequalityofkindness.

Afterspendingwhatseemedlikeaneternityensuringthatthesensorshadgoodcontactwiththescalp,theexperimentwasfinallyreadytobegin.MingyurwasthefirstyogistudiedafterthatinitialsessionwithMatthieu.Theteamhuddledinthecontrolroom,eagertoseeiftherewasa“there”there.

Apreciseanalysisofsomethingassquishyas,say,compassiondemandsanexactingprotocol,onethatcandetectthatmentalstate’sspecificpatternofbrainactivityamidthecacophonyoftheelectricalstormfromeverythingelsegoingon.TheprotocolhadMingyuralternatebetweenoneminuteofmeditationoncompassionandthirtysecondsofaneutralrestingperiod.Toensureconfidencethatanyeffectdetectedwasreliableratherthanarandomfinding,hewouldhavetodothisfourtimesinrapidsuccession.

FromthestartRichiehadgravedoubtsaboutwhetherthiscouldwork.Thoseonthelabteamwhomeditated,Richieamongthem,allknewittakestimejusttosettlethemind,oftenconsiderablylongerthanafewminutes.Itwasinconceivable,theythought,thatevensomeonelikeMingyurwouldbeabletoenterthesestatesinstantaneouslyandnotneedsometimetoreachinnerquiet.

Despitetheirskepticism,indesigningthisprotocoltheyhadlistenedtoMatthieu,whoknewboththecultureofscienceandofthehermitage.HehadassuredthemthatthesementalgymnasticswouldbenoproblemforsomeoneatMingyur’slevelofexpertise.ButMingyurwasthefirstsuchadepttobeformallytestedthiswayandRichieandhistechnicianswereunsure,evennervous.

RichiewasfortunatethatJohnDunne,aBuddhistscholarattheUniversityofWisconsin—whoexhibitsararecombinationofscientificinterests,humanitiesexpertise,andfluencyinTibetan—volunteeredtotranslate.9John

deliveredpreciselytimedinstructionstoMingyursignalinghimtostartacompassionmeditation,andthenaftersixtysecondsanothercueforthirtysecondsofhismentalrestingstate,andsoonforthreemorecycles.

JustasMingyurbeganthemeditation,therewasasuddenhugeburstofelectricalactivityonthecomputermonitorsdisplayingthesignalsfromhisbrain.Everyoneassumedthismeanthehadmoved;suchmovementartifactsareacommonprobleminresearchwithEEG,whichregistersaswavepatternreadingsofelectricalactivityatthetopofthebrain.Anymotionthattugsthesensors—alegshifting,atiltofthehead—getsamplifiedinthosereadingsintoahugespikethatlookslikeabrainwaveandhastobefilteredoutforacleananalysis.

Oddly,thisburstseemedtolasttheentireperiodofthecompassionmeditation,andasfarasanyonecouldsee,Mingyurhadnotmovedaniota.What’smore,thegiantspikesdiminishedbutdidnotdisappearashewentintothementalrestperiod,againwithnovisibleshiftinhisbody.

Thefourexperimentersinthecontrolroomteamwatched,transfixed,whilethenextmeditationperiodwasannounced.AsJohnDunnetranslatedthenextinstructiontomeditateintoTibetan,theteamstudiedthemonitorsinsilence,glancingbackandforthfromthebrainwavemonitortothevideotrainedonMingyur.

Instantlythesamedramaticburstofelectricalsignaloccurred.AgainMingyurwasperfectlystill,withnovisiblechangeinhisbody’spositionfromrestingtothemeditationperiod.Yetthemonitorstilldisplayedthatsamebrainwavesurge.Asthispatternrepeatedeachtimehewasinstructedtogeneratecompassion,theteamlookedatoneanotherinastonishedsilence,nearlyjumpingofftheirseatsinexcitement.

Thelabteamknewatthatmomenttheywerewitnessingsomethingprofound,somethingthathadneverbeforebeenobservedinthelaboratory.Nonecouldpredictwhatthiswouldleadto,buteveryonesensedthiswasacriticalinflectionpointinneurosciencehistory.

Thenewsofthatsessionhascreatedascientificstir.Asofthiswriting,thejournalarticlereportingthesefindingshasbeencitedmorethan1,100timesintheworld’sscientificliterature.10Sciencehaspaidattention.

AMISSEDBOAT

AboutthetimenewsofMingyurRinpoche’sremarkabledatawasreachingthescientificworld,hewasinvitedtothelabofafamouscognitivescientistthenatHarvardUniversity.ThereMingyurwasputthroughtwoprotocols:inonehewasaskedtogenerateanelaboratevisualimage;intheotherhewasassessedtoseeifhehadanyknackforextrasensoryperception.Thecognitivescientisthadhighhopesthathewoulddocumenttheachievementsofanextraordinarysubject.

Mingyur’stranslator,meanwhile,wasfumingbecausetheprotocolwasnotjusthourslongandonerousbutpainfullyirrelevanttoMingyur’sactualmeditativeexpertise—fromthetranslator’sperspective,anactofdisrespectwithinTibetannormsfortreatingateacherlikeMingyur(whoneverthelessretainedhisusualgoodcheerthroughout).

ThenetresultofMingyur’sdayinthatlab:heflunkedbothtests,doingnobetterthanthecollegesophomoreswhoweretheusualsubjectsofstudythere.

Mingyur,itturnedout,haddonenopracticewithvisualizationsincethelong-gone,earlyyearsofhispractice.Astimewenton,hismeditationsevolved.Hiscurrentmethod,ongoingopenpresence(whichexpressesitselfaskindnessineverydaylife),encourageslettinggoofanyandallthoughtsratherthangeneratinganyspecificvisualimages.Mingyur’spracticeactuallyrancountertothepurposefulgenerationofanimageandthefeelingsthatgoalongwithit—perhapsreversinganyskillhemightoncehavehadinthat.Hiscircuitryforvisualmemoryhadgottennoparticularworkout,despitehisthousandsofhoursspentinotherkindsofmentaltraining.

Asfor“extrasensoryperception,”Mingyurhadneverclaimedtohavesuchsupernormalpowers.Indeed,thetextsofhistraditionmadeclearthatanyfascinationwithsuchabilitieswasadetour,adeadendonthepath.

Thatwasnosecret.Butnobodyhadaskedhim.Mingyurhadrunsmackintoaparadoxoftoday’sresearchonconsciousness,themind,andmeditativetraining:thosewhodotheresearchonmeditationaretooofteninthedarkaboutwhattheyareactuallystudying.

Ordinarilyinthecognitiveneurosciences,a“subject”(thetermforsomeonewhovolunteersforthestudy,intheobjectifying,at-a-distancelanguageofscience)goesthroughanexperimentalprotocoldesignedbytheresearcher.Theresearcherconcoctsthatdesignwithoutconferringwithanyofthesubjects,partlybecausesubjectsaremeanttobenaiveaboutthepurpose(toavoidapotentialbiasingfactor)butalsobecausethescientistshavetheirownpointsofreference—theirhypotheses,otherstudiesdoneinthefieldwhichtheyhopeto

inform,andthelike.Scientistsdon’tconsidertheirsubjectsparticularlywellinformedaboutanyofthis.

ThattraditionalscientificstancecompletelymissedthechancetoassessMingyur’sactualmeditativetalents,asdidourearlierfailuretotakethemeasureofnibbana.Bothtimesthatfirst-andthird-personestrangementledtomisjudgingwherethesemeditators’remarkablestrengthslieandhowtomeasurethem,akintotestingalegendarygolferlikeJackNicklausonhisprowessatshootingbasketballfreethrows.

NEURALPROWESS

BacktoMingyur’stimeinRichie’slab.ThenextstunnercamewhenMingyurwentthroughanotherbatchoftests,thistimewithfMRI,whichrenderswhatamountstoa3-Dvideoofbrainactivity.ThefMRIgivessciencealensthatcomplementstheEEG,whichtracksthebrain’selectricalactivity.TheEEGreadingsaremorepreciseintime,thefMRImoreaccurateinneurallocations.

AnEEGdoesnotrevealwhat’shappeningdeeperinthebrain,letaloneshowwhereinthebrainthechangesoccur—thatspatialprecisioncomesfromthefMRI,whichmapstheregionswherebrainactivityoccursinminutedetail.Ontheotherhand,fMRI,thoughspatiallyexacting,tracksthetimingofchangesoveroneortwoseconds,farslowerthanEEG.

WhilehisbrainwasprobedbythefMRI,Mingyurfollowedthecuetoengagecompassion.OnceagainthemindsofRichieandtheotherswatchinginthecontrolroomfeltasthoughtheyhadstopped.Thereason:Mingyur’sbrain’scircuitryforempathy(whichtypicallyfiresabitduringthismentalexercise)rosetoanactivitylevel700to800percentgreaterthanithadbeenduringtherestperiodjustbefore.

Suchanextremeincreasebefuddlesscience;theintensitywithwhichthosestateswereactivatedinMingyur’sbrainexceedsanywehaveseeninstudiesof“normal”people.Theclosestresemblanceisinepilepticseizures,butthoseepisodeslastbriefseconds,notafullminute.Andbesides,brainsareseizedbyseizures,incontrasttoMingyur’sdisplayofintentionalcontrolofhisbrainactivity.

Mingyurwasameditationprodigy,asthelabteamlearnedwhiletallyinghishistoryoflifetimehoursofthepractice:atthatpoint,62,000.Mingyurgrewup

historyoflifetimehoursofthepractice:atthatpoint,62,000.Mingyurgrewupinafamilyofmeditationexperts;hisbrotherTsoknyiRinpocheandhalfbrothersChokyiNyimaRinpocheandTsikeyChoklingRinpocheareconsideredcontemplativemastersintheirownright.

Theirfather,TulkuUrgyenRinpoche,waswidelyrespectedamongtheTibetancommunityasoneofthefewgreatlivingmastersinthisinnerartwhohadtrainedinoldTibet,butthen(spurredbyChina’sinvasion)livedoutsidethatcountry.WhileMingyurhasasofthiswritingbeenonretreatsforatotaloftenofhisforty-twoyears,TulkuUrgyenreputedlyhaddonemorethantwentyyearsofretreatoverhislifetime;Mingyur’sgrandfather—TulkuUrgyen’sfather—wassaidtohaveputinmorethanthirtyyearsonretreat.11

AsayoungboyoneofMingyur’sfavoritepastimeswaspretendinghewasayogimeditatinginacave.Heenteredathree-yearmeditationretreatwhenhewasjustthirteen,adecadeormoreearlierthanmostwhoundertakesuchachallenge.Andbytheendofthatretreatheprovedsoproficientthathewasmademeditationmasterforthenextthree-yearround,whichbegansoonafterthefirstended.

THEWANDERERRETURNS

InJune2016,MingyurRinpochecamebacktoRichie’slab.IthadbeeneightyearssinceMingyurhadlastbeenstudiedthere.WewerefascinatedtoseewhatanMRIofhisbrainmightshow.

Someyearsbefore,hehadannouncedhewouldbestartinganotherthree-yearretreat—histhird.Buttoeveryone’sshock,insteadofgoingintoaremotehermitagewithanattendantalongtocookandcareforhimasistraditional,hedisappearedonenightfromhismonasteryinBodhGaya,India,takingonlyhisrobes,abitofcash,andanIDcard.

DuringhisodysseyMingyurlivedasawanderingmendicant,spendingwintersasasadhuontheplainsofIndiaandduringthewarmermonthsinhabitingHimalayancaveswherefabledTibetanmastershadstayed.Suchawanderingretreat,notuncommoninoldTibet,hasbecomerare,especiallyamongTibetanslikeMingyurwhosediasporahasbroughtthemintothemodernworld.

Duringthosewanderingyearstherewasnotawordfromhim,saveoncewhenhewasrecognizedbyaTaiwanesenunataretreatcave.Hegavehera

whenhewasrecognizedbyaTaiwanesenunataretreatcave.Hegaveheraletter(tellinghertosenditafterhehadmovedon)thatsaidnottoworry,hewasfine—andexhortinghisstudentstopractice.Aphotothatsurfacedwhenamonk,alongtimefriend,managedtojoinMingyurshowsaradiantfacewithawispybeardandlonghair,hisexpressiononeofebullientrapture.

Then,suddenly,inNovember2015,afteralmostfourandahalfyearsasawandererinradiosilence,MingyurreappearedathismonasteryinBodhGaya.Onhearingthatnews,RichiearrangedtoseehimduringavisittoIndiathatDecember.

Monthslater,MingyurstoppedinMadisonwhileonanAmericanteachingtour,andstayedatRichie’shouse.WithinminutesofhisarrivalatthehouseMingyuragreedtogobackintothescanner.Onlyafewmonthsafterreturningfromhishardscrabblelifeheseemedrightathomeinthisup-to-the-minutelab.

AsMingyurenteredtheMRIsuite,thelabtechniciangavehimafriendlywelcome,saying,“Iwasthetechthelasttimeyouwereinthescanner.”Mingyurbeamedhiselectricsmileinreturn.Whilehewaitedforthemachinetobereadied,MingyurjokedwithanothermemberofRichie’steam,anIndianscientistfromHyderabad.

Giventhego-ahead,Mingyurlefthissandalsatthebottomofthetwo-stepladderthatboostedhimtotheMRItableandlaydownsothetechcouldstraphisheadintoacradletightenoughthatitallowsnomorethan2millimetersofmovement—allthebettertoobtainsharpimagesofhisbrain.Hiscalves,thickenedbyyearsoftrekkingthesteepslopesoftheHimalayas,protrudedfromhismonk’srobesandthendisappearedasthetableslippedintothemawoftheMRI.

Thetechnologyhadimprovedsincehislastvisit;themonitorsrevealacrisperimageofhisbrain’sfoldsandtucks.Itwouldtakemonthstocomparethesedatawiththosecollectedyearsbefore,andtotrackthechangesinhisbrainduringthattimeagainstthenormalalterationsseeninthebrainsofmenhisage.

Althoughhewasbarragedwithrequests,followinghisreturnfromthislastretreat,tohavehisbrainscannedbymanylabsallovertheworld,Mingyurturnedmostallofthemdownforfearofbecomingaperpetualsubject.HehadconsentedtohavehisbrainrescannedbyRichieandhisteambecauseheknewtheyhadlongitudinaldatafrompreviousscansandcouldanalyzewayshisbrainmightbeshowingatypicalchanges.

ThefirstscanRichie’slabhadofMingyur’sbrainwasobtainedin2002;therewasanotherin2010andnowthemostrecent,in2016.Thesethreescansprovidedthelabteamwithanopportunitytoexamineage-relateddeclinesin

graymatterdensity,thesiteofthebrain’smolecularmachinery.Eachofushasadecreaseinthedensityofgraymatterasweage,andaswesawinchapternine,“Mind,Body,andGenome,”agivenbraincanbecomparedwithalargedatabaseofthebrainsofotherpeoplethesameage.

Withthedevelopmentofhigh-resolutionMRI,scientistshavenowdiscoveredthattheycanuseanatomicallandmarkstoestimatetheageofaperson’sbrain.Brainsofpeopleofagivenagegroupintoanormaldistribution,abell-shapecurve;mostpeople’sbrain’shoveraroundtheirchronologicalage.Butsomepeople’sbrainsagemorequicklythantheirchronologicalagewouldpredict,puttingthematriskforprematureage-relatedbraindisorderssuchasdementia.Andotherpeople’sbrainsagemoreslowlycomparedwiththeirchronologicalage.

AsofthiswritingthemostrecentsetofscansofMingyur’sbrainarestillbeingprocessed,butRichieandhisteamseesomeclearpatternsalready,usingrigorousquantitativeanatomicallandmarks.ComparingMingyur’sbraintonormsforhisage,hefallsinthe99thpercentile—thatis,ifwehad100peoplewhoarethesamechronologicalageasMingyur(forty-oneyearsatthisscan),hisbrainwouldbetheyoungestinagroupof100age-andgender-matchedpeers.Afterhislatestretreatasawanderer,whenthelabcomparedMingyur’sbrainchangestothoseofacontrolgroupoverthesameperiodoftime,Mingyur’sbrainisclearlyagingmoreslowly.

Althoughhischronologicalagewasforty-oneatthetime,hisbrainfitmostcloselythenormsforthosewhosechronologicalagewasthirty-three.

Thisratherremarkablefacthighlightsthefurtherreachesofneuroplasticity,theverybasisofanalteredtrait:anenduringmodeofbeingreflectinganunderlyingchangeinthestructureofthebrain.

ThetotalhoursofpracticeMingyurputinduringhisyearsasawandereraredifficulttocalculate.Athislevelofexpertise,“meditation”becomesanongoingfeatureofawareness—atrait—notadiscreteact.Inaveryrealsense,hepracticescontinuously,dayandnight.Infact,inhislineagethedistinctionmadeisnottheconventionalequationofmeditationwithtimespentinasessionsittingonacushionversusregularlife,butrather,betweenbeinginameditativestateornot,nomatterwhatelseyouaredoing.

FromMingyur’sveryfirstvisittothelab,hehadrenderedcompellingdatahintingatthepowerofintentional,sustainedmentalexercisetoredesignneuralcircuitry.ButthefindingsfromMingyurwereonlyanecdotal,asinglecasethatmightbeexplainedmanydifferentways.Forinstance,perhapshisremarkablefamilyhassomemysteriousgeneticpredispositionthatbothmotivatesthemto

familyhassomemysteriousgeneticpredispositionthatbothmotivatesthemtomeditateandleadsthemtohighlevelsofproficiency.

MoreconvincingareresultsfromalargergroupofseasonedmeditationadeptslikeMingyur.Hisremarkableneuralperformancewaspartofalargerstory,aone-of-a-kindbrainresearchprogramthathasharvesteddatafromtheseworld-classmeditationexperts.Richie’slabcontinuestostudyandanalyzethemassofdatapointsfromtheseyogis,inanever-growingsetoffindingsunparalleledinthehistoryofcontemplativetraditions,letalonebrainscience.

INANUTSHELL

AtfirstRichie’slabfounditimpossibletogetthecooperationofthemosthighlyexperiencedyogis.ButwhenMatthieuRicard,aseasonedyogihimselfwithaPhDinbiology,assuredhispeerstheirparticipationmightbeofbenefittopeople,atotaloftwenty-oneyogisagreed.Matthieu,inaninnovativecollaborationwithRichie’slab,helpeddesigntheexperimentalprotocol.Thenextyogitocometothelab,MingyurRinpoche,wasalsotheonewithmostlifetimehoursofpractice—62,000atthetime.WhenhemeditatedoncompassiontherewasahugesurgeinelectricalactivityinhisbrainasrecordedbyEEG;fMRIimagesrevealedthatduringthismeditationhiscircuitryforempathyjumpedinactivityby700to800percentcomparedtoitslevelatrest.Andwhenhelaterwentonretreatasawandererforfourandahalfyears,theagingofhisbrainslowed,sothatatforty-onehisbrainresembledthenormforthirty-three-year-olds.

W

12

HiddenTreasure

hileMingyur’svisittoMadisonhadyieldedjaw-droppingresults,hewasnotalone.OvertheyearsinRichie’slab,thosetwenty-oneyogis

havecometobeformallytested.Theywereattheheightofthisinnerart,havingrackeduplifetimemeditationhoursrangingfrom12,000toMingyur’s62,000(thenumberhehadaccomplishedwhilegoingthroughthesestudies,andbeforehisfour-years-pluswanderingretreat).

Eachoftheseyogiscompletedatleastonethree-yearretreat,duringwhichtheymeditatedinformalpracticeaminimumofeighthoursperdayforthreecontinuousyears—actually,forthreeyears,threemonths,andthreedays.Thatequates,inaconservativeestimate,toabout9,500hoursperretreat.

Allhaveundergonethesamescientificprotocol,thosefourone-minutecyclesofthreekindsofmeditation—whichhasyieldedamountainofmetrics.Thelab’steamspentmonthsandmonthsanalyzingthedramaticchangestheysawduringthoseshortminutesinthesehighlyseasonedpractitioners.

LikeMingyur,theyenteredthespecifiedmeditativestatesatwill,eachonemarkedbyadistinctiveneuralsignature.AswithMingyur,theseadeptshaveshownremarkablementaldexterity,instantlyandwithstrikingeasemobilizingthesestates:generatingfeelingsofcompassion,thespaciousequanimityofcompleteopennesstowhateveroccurs,orlaser-sharp,unbreakablefocus.

Theyenteredandleftthesedifficult-to-achievelevelsofawarenesswithinsplitseconds.Theseshiftsinawarenesswereaccompaniedbyequallypronouncedshiftsinmeasurablebrainactivity.Suchafeatofcollectivementalgymnasticshasneverbeenseenbysciencebefore.

ASCIENTIFICSURPRISE

ASCIENTIFICSURPRISE

RecallthatatthelastminutethebedriddenFrancisco,justamonthbeforehedied,hadtocancelattendingthatmeetinginMadisonwiththeDalaiLama.HesenthisclosestudentAntoineLutz,whohadjustreceivedhisPhDunderFrancisco’smentorship,topresentinhisabsence.

RichieandAntoinemetforthefirsttimejustonedaybeforethatmeeting,andfromthestarttheirtwoscientificmindsmelded.Antoine’sbackgroundinengineeringandRichie’sinpsychologyandneurosciencemadeforacomplementarypairing.

AntoineendedupspendingthenexttenyearsinRichie’slab,wherehebroughthisprecisionmindtotheanalysisoftheEEGsandfMRIsofyogis.Antoine,likeFrancisco,hasbeenadedicatedmeditationpractitionerhimself,andthecombinationofhisintrospectiveinsightswithhisscientificmind-setmadeforanextraordinarycolleagueinRichie’scenter.

NowaprofessorattheLyonNeuroscienceResearchCenterinFrance,Antoinecontinuestopursueresearchincontemplativeneuroscience.Hehasbeeninvolvedfromthestartintheresearchwithyogisandhascoauthoredastreamofarticles,withmorecoming,reportinghisfindings.

Preparingtherawdataontheyogisforsiftingbysophisticatedstatisticalprogramshasdemandedpainstakingwork.Justteasingoutthedifferencesbetweentheyogis’restingstateandtheirbrainactivityduringmeditationwasagargantuancomputingtask.SoittookAntoineandRichiequiteawhiletostumbleuponapatternhidinginthatdataflood,empiricalevidencethatgotlostamidtheexcitementabouttheyogis’prowessinalteringtheirbrainactivityduringmeditativestates.Infact,themissedpatternsurfacedonlyasanafterthoughtduringalesshecticmoment,monthslater,whentheanalyticteamsiftedthroughthedataagain.

Allalongthestatisticalteamhadfocusedontemporarystateeffectsbycomputingthedifferencebetweenayogi’sbaselinebrainactivityandthatproducedduringtheone-minutemeditationperiods.RichiewasreviewingthenumberswithAntoineandwantedaroutinechecktoensurethattheinitialbaselineEEGreadings—thosetakenatrest,beforetheexperimentbegan—werethesameinagroupofcontrolvolunteerswhotriedtheidenticalmeditationstheyogisweredoing.Heaskedtoseejustthebaselinemeasuresbythemselves.

WhenRichieandAntoinesatdowntoreviewwhatthecomputershadjustcrunched,theylookedatthenumbersandthenlookedatoneanother.Theyknewexactlywhattheywereseeingandexchangedjustoneword:“Amazing!”

knewexactlywhattheywereseeingandexchangedjustoneword:“Amazing!”Alltheyogishadelevatedgammaoscillations,notjustduringthemeditation

practiceperiodsforopenpresenceandcompassionbutalsoduringtheveryfirstmeasurement,beforeanymeditationwasperformed.ThiselectrifyingpatternwasintheEEGfrequencyknownas“high-amplitude”gamma,thestrongest,mostintenseform.Thesewaveslastedthefullminuteofthebaselinemeasurementbeforetheystartedthemeditation.

ThiswastheveryEEGwavethatMingyurhaddisplayedinthatsurprisingsurgeduringbothopenpresenceandcompassion.AndnowRichie’steamsawthatsameunusualbrainpatterninalltheyogisasastandardfeatureoftheireverydayneuralactivity.Inotherwords,RichieandAntoinehadstumbledupontheholygrail:aneuralsignatureshowinganenduringtransformation.

TherearefourmaintypesofEEGwaves,classedbytheirfrequency(technically,measuredinhertz).Delta,theslowestwave,oscillatesbetweenoneandfourcyclespersecond,andoccursmainlyduringdeepsleep;theta,thenextslowest,cansignifydrowsiness;alphaoccurswhenwearedoinglittlethinkingandindicatesrelaxation;andbeta,thefastest,accompaniesthinking,alertness,orconcentration.

Gamma,theveryfastestbrainwave,occursduringmomentswhendifferingbrainregionsfireinharmony,likemomentsofinsightwhendifferentelementsofamentalpuzzle“click”together.Togetasenseofthis“click,”trythis:Whatsinglewordcanturneachoftheseintoacompoundword:sauce,pine,crab?*

Theinstantyourmindcomesupwiththeanswer,yourbrainsignalmomentarilyproducesthatdistinctivegammaflare.Youalsoelicitashort-livedgammawavewhen,forinstance,youimaginebitingintoaripe,juicypeachandyourbraindrawstogethermemoriesstoredindifferentregionsoftheoccipital,temporal,somatosensory,insular,andolfactorycorticestosuddenlymeshthesight,smells,taste,feel,andsoundintoasingleexperience.Forthatquickmomentthegammawavesfromeachofthesecorticalregionsoscillateinperfectsynchrony.Ordinarilygammawavesfrom,say,acreativeinsight,lastnolongerthanafifthofasecond—notthefullminuteseenintheyogis.

Anyone’sEEGwillshowdistinctivegammawavesforshortmomentsfromtimetotime.Ordinarily,duringawakingstateweexhibitamixtureofdifferentbrainwavesthatwaxandwaneatdifferentfrequencies.Thesebrainoscillationsreflectcomplexmentalactivity,likeinformationprocessing,andtheirvariousfrequenciescorrespondtobroadlydifferentfunctions.Thelocationoftheseoscillationsvariesamongbrainregions;wecandisplayalphainonecorticallocationandgammainanother.

locationandgammainanother.Intheyogis,gammaoscillationsareafarmoreprominentfeatureoftheir

brainactivitythaninotherpeople.OurusualgammawavesarenotnearlyasstrongasthatseenbyRichie’steaminyogislikeMingyur.Thecontrastbetweentheyogisandcontrolsintheintensityofgammawasimmense:onaveragetheyogishadtwenty-fivetimesgreateramplitudegammaoscillationsduringbaselinecomparedwiththecontrolgroup.

Wecanonlymakeconjecturesaboutwhatstateofconsciousnessthisreflects:yogislikeMingyurseemtoexperienceanongoingstateofopen,richawarenessduringtheirdailylives,notjustwhentheymeditate.Theyogisthemselveshavedescribeditasaspaciousnessandvastnessintheirexperience,asifalltheirsenseswerewideopentothefull,richpanoramaofexperience.

Or,asafourteenth-centuryTibetantextdescribesit,

...astateofbare,transparentawareness;Effortlessandbrilliantlyvivid,astateofrelaxed,rootlesswisdom;Fixationfreeandcrystalclear,astatewithouttheslightestreferencepoint;

Spaciousemptyclarity,astatewide-openandunconfined;thesensesunfettered...1

ThegammabrainstateRichieandAntoinediscoveredwasmorethanunusual,itwasunprecedented—awow!Nobrainlabhadeverbeforeseengammaoscillationsthatpersistforminutesratherthansplitseconds,aresostrong,andareinsynchronyacrosswidespreadregionsofthebrain.

Astonishingly,thissustained,brain-entraininggammapatterngoesonevenwhileseasonedmeditatorsareasleep—aswasfoundbytheDavidsongroupinotherresearchwithlong-termvipassanameditatorswhohaveanaverageofabout10,000hourslifetimepractice.Thesegammaoscillationscontinuingduringdeepsleepare,again,somethingneverseenbeforeandseemtoreflectaresidualqualityofawarenessthatpersistsdayandnight.2

Theyogis’patternofgammaoscillationcontrastswithhow,ordinarily,thesewavesoccuronlybriefly,andinanisolatedneurallocation.Theadeptshadasharplyheightenedlevelofgammawavesoscillatinginsynchronyacrosstheirbrain,independentofanyparticularmentalact.Unheardof.

RichieandAntoinewereseeingforthefirsttimeaneuralechooftheenduringtransformationsthatyearsofmeditationpracticeetchonthebrain.

Herewasthetreasure,hiddeninthedataallalong:agenuinealteredtrait.

STATEBYTRAIT

InoneofthemanystudiesAntoinespearheaded,whenvolunteersnewtomeditationweretrainedforaweekinthesamepracticesthattheyogisdo,therewasabsolutelynodifferencebetweenthevolunteers’brainsatrestandwhentheyweretryingtomeditateoncue,astheyogisdid.3Thiscontrastswiththeremarkabledifferencebetweenrestingandmeditationintheyogis.Sinceanylearnablementalskilltakessustainedpracticeovertimetomaster,giventhemassivehoursoflifetimemeditationamongtheyogis,wearenotsurprisedbythisvastdifferencebetweennovicesandmasters.

Butthere’sanothersurprisehere:theyogis’remarkabletalentatenteringaspecificmeditativestateoncue,withinasecondortwo,itselfsignalsanalteredtrait.Thismentalfeatstandsinstarkcontrasttomostofusmeditatorswho,relativetotheyogis,aremorelikebeginners:whenwemeditate,ittakesusawhiletosettleourminds,letgoofdistractingthoughtsthatoverwhelmourfocus,andgetsomemomentuminourmeditation.

Fromtimetotimewemayhavewhatweconsidera“good”meditativeexperience.Andnowandthenwemightpeekatourwatchtoseehowmuchlongerthesessionshouldlast.

Notfortheyogis.Theirremarkablemeditationskillsbespeakwhat’stechnicallyknownasa

“statebytraitinteraction,”suggestingthebrainchangesthatunderliethetraitalsogiverisetospecialabilitiesthatactivateduringmeditativestates—here,aheightenedspeedofonset,greaterintensity,andextendedduration.

Incontemplativescience,an“alteredstate”referstochangesthatoccuronlyduringmeditation.Analteredtraitindicatesthatthepracticeofmeditationtransformedthebrainandbiologysothatmeditation-inducedchangesareseenbeforebeginningtomeditate.

Soa“state-by-trait”effectreferstotemporarystatechangesthatareseenonlyinthosewhodisplayenduringalteredtraits—thelong-termmeditatorsandtheyogis.SeveralhaveshownupduringtheresearchinRichie’slab.

Oneexample.Recallthattheyogisshowapronouncedelevationingammaactivityduringtheopenpresenceandcompassionmeditations,fargreaterthanin

activityduringtheopenpresenceandcompassionmeditations,fargreaterthaninthecontrols.Thiselevationingammaactivitywasachangefrombaseline,theireverydaylevels—markinganotherstate-by-traiteffect.

What’smore,whiletheyrestin“openpresence,”theverydistinctionbetweenastateandatraitblurs:intheirtradition,theyogisareexplicitlyinstructedtominglethestateofopenpresencewiththeireverydaylife—tomorphthestateintoatrait.

READYFORACTION

Onebyonetheylayinthescanners,theirheadsheldfirmlyinplacebycumbersomeearphones.Therewasonegroupofmeditationnovices,andanotherofTibetanandWesternyogis(lifetimeaverage34,000hours);eachonehadhisorher(yes,therewerefemaleyogis)brainscannedwhiledoingacompassionpractice.4

ThespecificmethodtheydeployedwasdescribedbyMatthieuRicard,whocollaboratedonthestudy,asfollows.Firstbringtomindsomeoneyoucareaboutdeeplyandrelishthefeelingofcompassiontowardthatperson—andthenholdthatsameloving-kindnesstowardallbeings,withoutthinkingofanyoneinparticular.5

Duringthesessionofloving-kindnesseachpersonheardatrandomaseriesofsounds,somehappy,likeababylaughing;othersneutral,likebackgroundsoundsinacafé,orstillothers,soundsofhumansuffering(likescreams,asinthestudiesinchaptersix).Justasinpreviousstudiesofempathyandthebrain,foreveryonetheneuralcircuitryfortuningintodistressactivatedmorestronglyduringcompassionmeditationthanwhenthosevocalsignalsofsufferingcamewhilethepersonwasatrest.

Significantly,thisbrainresponseforsharinganotherperson’sfeelingswasgreaterintheyogiscomparedtobeginners.Inaddition,theirexpertiseincompassionpracticealsouppedactionincircuitrytypicallyinvolvedwhilewesenseanotherperson’smentalstateortaketheirperspective.Finally,therewasaboostinbrainareas,especiallytheamygdala,keyforwhat’ssalient;wefeelanotherperson’sdistressisofcompellingimportanceandpaymoreattention.

Tellingly,theyogisbutnotthebeginnersshowedthefinalpartofthebrain’sarctoaction,ajumpinactivityinthemotorcentersthatguidethebodywhenwearereadytomove—totakesomedecisiveactiontohelp,eventhoughthe

arereadytomove—totakesomedecisiveactiontohelp,eventhoughthesubjectswerelyingstillinascanner.Theyogisshowedahugeboostinthesecircuits.Theinvolvementofneuralregionsforaction,particularlythepremotorcortex,seemsstriking:toemotionalresonancewithaperson’ssufferingitaddsthereadinesstohelp.

Theyogi’sneuralprofileduringcompassionseemstoreflectanendpointofthepathofchange.Forpeoplewhohavenevermeditatedbefore,absolutebeginners,thepatterndoesnotshowupduringtheirmeditationoncompassion—ittakesabitofpractice.There’sadoseresponsehere:thispatternshowsupabitinbeginners,moreinpeoplewhohaveputinmorelifetimehoursofmeditation,andtothegreatestextentintheyogis.

Intriguingly,yogishearingsoundsofpeopleindistresswhiletheyweredoingloving-kindnessmeditationshowedlessactivitythanothersdointheirpostcingulatecortex(PCC),akeyareaforself-focusedthought.6Intheyogis,hearingsoundsofsufferingseemstoprimeafocusonothers.

TheyalsoshowastrongerconnectionbetweenthePCCandtheprefrontalcortex,anoverallpatternsuggestinga“down-regulation”ofthe“whatwillhappentome?”self-concernthatcandampencompassionateaction.7

Someoftheyogislaterexplainedthattheirtrainingimbuedthemwithpreparednessforaction,sothemomenttheyencountersufferingtheyarepredisposedtoactwithouthesitationtohelptheperson.Thispreparedness,alongwiththeirwillingnesstoengagewithsomeone’ssuffering,countersthenormaltendencytowithdraw,tobackawayfromapersonindistress.

ThatseemstoembodytheadviceofTibetanmeditationmaster(andMatthieu’smainteacher)DilgoKhyentseRinpochetoyogissuchasthese:“Developacompleteacceptanceandopennesstoallsituationsandemotions,andtoallpeople,experiencingeverythingtotallywithoutmentalreservationsandblockages....”8

PRESENCETOPAIN

Aneighteenth-centuryTibetantexturgesmeditatorstopractice“onwhateverharmscomeyourway,”adding,“Whensick,practiceonthatsickness....When

cold,practiceonthatcoldness.Bypracticinginthiswayallsituationswillariseasmeditation.”9

MingyurRinpoche,likewise,encouragesmakingallsensation,evenpain,our“friend,”usingitasabasisformeditation.Sincetheessenceofmeditationisawareness,anysensationthatanchorsattentioncanbeusedassupport—andpainparticularlycanbeveryeffectiveinfocusing.Treatingitasafriend“softensandwarms”ourrelationship,asheputsit,aswegraduallylearntoacceptthepainratherthantrytogetridofit.

Withthatadviceinmind,considerwhathappenedwhenRichie’sgroupusedthethermalstimulatortocreateintensepainintheyogis.Eachyogi(includingMingyur)wascomparedtoameditation-naivevolunteermatchedforageandgender.Foraweekbeforetheycametobestudied,thesevolunteerslearnedtogeneratean“openpresence,”anattentionalstanceoflettingwhateverlifepresentsuscomeandgo,withoutaddingthoughtsoremotionalreactions.Oursensesarefullyopen,andwejuststayawareofwhathappenswithoutgettingcarriedawaybyanydownsorups.

Allthoseinthestudywerefirsttestedtofindtheirindividualmaximalheatpoint.Thentheyweretoldtheywouldgetaten-secondblastofthatfierydevice,whichwouldbeprecededbyaslightwarmingoftheplate—aten-secondwarning.Meanwhile,theirbrainwasbeingscanned.

Themomenttheplateheatedabit—thecueforpainabouttocome—thecontrolgroupsactivatedregionsthroughoutthebrain’spainmatrixasthoughtheywerealreadyfeelingtheintenseburn.Thereactiontothe“asif”pain—technically,“anticipatoryanxiety”—wassostrongthatwhentheactualburningsensationbegan,theirpainmatrixactivationbecamejustabitstronger.Andintheten-secondrecoveryperiod,rightaftertheheatsubsided,thatmatrixstayednearlyasactive—therewasnoimmediaterecovery.

Thissequenceofanticipation-reactivity-recoverygivesusawindowonemotionregulation.Forinstance,intenseworryaboutsomethinglikeanupcomingpainfulmedicalprocedurecaninitselfcauseusanticipatorysuffering,justimagininghowbadwewillfeel.Andaftertherealeventwecancontinuetobeupsetbywhatwehavegonethrough.Inthissenseourpainresponsecanstartwellbeforeandlastlongaftertheactualpainfulmoment—exactlythepatternshownbythosevolunteersinthecomparisongroup.

Theyogis,ontheotherhand,hadaverydifferentresponseinthissequence.They,likethecontrols,werealsoinastateofopenpresence—nodoubtonesomemagnitudesgreaterthanforthenovices.Fortheyogis,theirpainmatrixshowedlittlechangeinactivitywhentheplatewarmedabit,eventhoughthis

showedlittlechangeinactivitywhentheplatewarmedabit,eventhoughthiscuemeantextremepainwastensecondsaway.Theirbrainsseemedtosimplyregisterthatcuewithnoparticularreaction.

Butduringtheactualmomentsofintenseheattheyogishadasurprisingheightenedresponse,mainlyinthesensoryareasthatreceivethegranularfeelofastimulus—thetingling,pressure,highheat,andotherrawsensationsontheskinofthewristwherethehotplaterested.Theemotionalregionsofthepainmatrixactivatedabit,butnotasmuchasthesensorycircuitry.

Thissuggestsalesseningofthepsychologicalcomponent—liketheworrywefeelinanticipationofpain—alongwithintensificationofthepainsensationsthemselves.Rightaftertheheatstopped,alltheregionsofthepainmatrixrapidlyreturneddowntotheirlevelsbeforethepaincue,farmorequicklythanwasthecaseforthecontrols.Forthesehighlyadvancedmeditators,therecoveryfrompainwasalmostasthoughnothingmuchhadhappenedatall.

ThisinvertedV-shapedpattern,withlittlereactionduringanticipationofapainfulevent,followedbyasurgeofintensityattheactualmoment,thenswiftrecoveryfromit,canbehighlyadaptive.Thisletsusbefullyresponsivetoachallengeasithappens,withoutlettingouremotionalreactionsinterferebeforeorafterward,whentheyarenolongeruseful.Thisseemsanoptimalpatternofemotionregulation.

Rememberthefearwefeltwhenweweresixyearsoldaboutgoingtothedentisttogetacavityfilled?Thiscouldmeannightmaresatthatage.Butwechangeaswegrowolder.Whenwearetwenty-six,whatmighthaveloomedasatraumainchildhoodbecomesho-hum,anappointmenttoscheduleinthemidstofabusyday.Weareaverydifferentpersonasanadultthanwewereasachild—webringmorematurewaysofthinkingandreactingtothemoment.

Likewise,withtheyogisinthepainstudy,theirmanyyearsofmeditationpracticesuggeststhestatetheywereinduringthepainreflectsenduringchangesacquiredthroughtheirtraining.Andbecausetheywereengagedintheopenpresencepractice,this,too,qualifiesasastatebytraiteffect.

EFFORTLESS

Aswithanyskillwesharpen,withinthefirstweeksofmeditationpractice,beginnersnoticeincreasedease.Forinstance,whenvolunteersnewto

meditationpracticeddailyfortenweeks,theyreportedthepracticeprogressivelygoteasierandmoreenjoyable,whethertheywerefocusingontheirbreath,generatingloving-kindness,orjustobservingtheflowoftheirthoughts.10

Andaswesawinchaptereight,JudsonBrewerfoundagroupoflong-termmeditators(withanaveragelifetimepracticeofabout10,000hours)reportedeffortlessawarenessduringmeditationinassociationwithdecreasedactivityinthePCC,thatpartofthedefaultnetworkactiveduring“selfing”mentaloperations.11Whenwetaketheselfoutofthepicture,itseems,thingsgoalongwithlittleeffort.

Whenlong-termmeditatorsreported“undistractedawareness,”“effortlessdoing,”“notefforting,”and“contentment,”activationinthePCCwentdown.Ontheotherhand,whentheyreported“distractedawareness,”“efforting,”and“discontentment,”activationofthePCCwentup.12

Agroupoffirst-timemeditatorsalsoreportedanincreaseinease,thoughonlywhiletheywereactivelybeingmindful—astateeffectthatdidnotpersistotherwise.Forthebeginners,“increasedease”appearsveryrelative:goingfromexertinggreateffort—particularlytocounterthemind’stendencytowander—andgettingabitbetteratitasthedaysandweeksgoon.Buttheeasingoftheireffortgoesnowhereneartheeffortlessnessfoundintheyogis,aswe’veseenintheirremarkableperformanceintheon/offlabprotocol.

Onemetricforeffortlessnessherecomesdowntobeingabletokeepyourmindonachosenpointoffocusandresistthenaturaltendencytowanderoffintosometrainofthoughtorbepulledawaybyasound,whilehavingnofeelingofmakinganeffort.Thiskindofeaseseemstoincreasewithpractice.

Richie’slabgroupinitiallycomparedexpertmeditatorstocontrolsinthemagnitudeofprefrontalactivationduringfocusedattentiononasmalllight.Thelong-termmeditatorsshowedamodestincreaseinprefrontalactivationcomparedwiththecontrols,thoughthedifferencewas,strangely,notveryimpressive.

OneafternoonasRichieandhislabteamsataroundalongconferencetableponderingthesesomewhatdisappointingdata,theybegantoreflectonthelargespanofexpertiseevenwithintheso-calledexpertmeditatorgroup.Thisexpertgroupactuallyrangedinpracticehoursfrom10,000to50,000—averylargespread.Richiewonderedwhattheywouldfindiftheycomparedthosewiththemostversusleastamountofpractice.Hehadalreadyfoundthatwithhigherlevelsofexpertise,there’saneffortlessnessthatactuallywouldbereflectedinlessratherthanmoreprefrontalactivation.

Whentheteamcomparedthosewiththemostversusthosewiththeleastamountofpractice,theyfoundsomethingtrulystriking:alloftheincreaseinprefrontalactivationwasaccountedforbythosewiththeleastamountofpractice.Forthosewiththemostlifetimehoursofpractice,therewasverylittleprefrontalactivation.

Curiously,theactivationtendedtooccuronlyattheverybeginningofapracticeperiod,whilethemindwasfocusingontheobjectofconcentration,thatlittlelight.Oncethelightwasinfocus,theprefrontalactivationdroppedaway.Thissequencemayrepresenttheneuralechoesofeffortlessconcentration.

Anothermeasureofconcentrationwastoseehowdistractedthemeditatorsarebyemotionalsounds—laughing,screaming,crying—whichtheyheardinthebackgroundwhilefocusingonthelight.Themoreamygdalaactivationinresponsetothosesounds,themorewaveringinconcentration.Amongmeditatorswiththegreatestamountoflifetimepracticehours—anaverageof44,000lifetimehours(theequivalentoftwelvehoursadayfortenyears)theamygdalahardlyrespondedtotheemotionalsounds.Butforthosewithlesspractice,(thoughstillahighnumber—19,000hours)theamygdalaalsoshowedarobustresponse.Therewasastaggering400percentdifferenceinthesizeoftheamygdalaresponsebetweenthesegroups!

Thisindicatesanextraordinaryselectivityofattention:abraineffortlesslyabletoblockouttheextraneoussoundsandtheemotionalreactivitytheynormallyelicit.

What’smore,thismeanstraitscontinuetoalterevenatthehighestlevelofpractice.Thedose-responserelationshipdoesnotseemtoendevenupto50,000hoursofpractice.

ThefindingofaswitchtoeffortlessnessinbrainfunctionamongthemosthighlyexperiencedyogiswasonlypossiblebecauseRichie’sgrouphadassessedtotallifetimehoursofmeditationpractice.Lackingthatsimplemetric,thisvaluablefindingwouldhavebeenburiedinthegeneralcomparisonbetweennovicesandexperts.

THEHEART-MIND

Backin1992,RichieandthatgallantbandofresearchersbroughttheirtonsofequipmenttoIndia,hopingtomeasurethemostseasonedmeditationmasters

equipmenttoIndia,hopingtomeasurethemostseasonedmeditationmastersnearwheretheDalaiLamalives.NexttohisresidencesitstheNamgyalMonasteryInstituteofBuddhistStudies,animportanttraininggroundformonk-scholarsintheDalaiLama’stradition.Richieandhisresearcherfriends,you’llremember,wereunabletocollectanyrealscientificdatafromthemountain-dwellingyogis.

ButwhentheDalaiLamaaskedRichieandhiscolleaguestogiveatalkontheirworktothemonksinthemonastery,RichiethoughtmaybetheequipmenttheyschleppedtoIndiacouldbeputtosomegooduse.Ratherthanjustadryacademictalk,theywouldgivealivedemonstrationofhowbrainelectricalsignalscanberecorded.

Andso,twohundredmonksweredutifullysittingoncushionsonthefloorwhenRichieandfriendsarrivedwiththeirsuitcasesfilledwithEEGequipment.Toplaceaheadfulofelectrodestakesquiteabitoftime.Richieandtheotherscientistsworkedasquicklyaspossibletosecurealltheelectrodesinplace.

ThedemothateveningusedassubjecttheneuroscientistFranciscoVarela.AsRichieplacedtheelectrodesonFrancisco’sscalp,theviewofFranciscowasblocked.ButwhenRichiecompletedhistaskandmovedoutofway,aloudchorusoflaughtereruptedfromtheusuallyverystaidmonks.

RichiethoughtthemonkswerelaughingbecauseFranciscolookedabitfunnywithwirescomingoffhisscalpelectrodeslikeabigbundleofspaghetti.Butthatwasnotwhatthemonksfoundfunny.

TheywerelaughingbecauseRichieandhisteamhadtoldthemoftheirinterestinstudyingcompassion—buttheywereplacingelectrodesonthehead,ratherthantheheart!

IttookRichie’sgroupaboutfifteenyearstoseethemonks’point.OnceyogisstartedtocometoRichie’slab,thegroupsawdatathatmadethemrealizecompassionwasverymuchanembodiedstate,withtightlinksbetweenthebrainandbody,andespeciallybetweenthebrainandtheheart.

Evidenceforthislinkagecamefromananalysisthatrelatedtheyogis’brainactivitytotheirheartrate—afollow-uptotheunexpectedfindingthattheyogis’heartsbeatmorerapidlycomparedtonovices’whentheyheardsoundsofpeopleindistress.13Theyogis’heartratewascoupledwiththeactivityofakeyareaintheinsula,abrainregionthatactsastheportalthroughwhichinformationaboutthebodyisconveyedtothebrainandviceversa.

Inasense,then,theNamgyalmonkswereright.Richie’steamhaddatasuggestingthatwithyogictrainingthebrainbecomesmorefinelytunedtotheheart—specificallyduringcompassionmeditation.

Again,thiswasastate-by-traitfinding,onethatoccurredintheyogisonlywhentheymeditatedoncompassion(andnotduringotherkindsofmeditation,atrest,oramongthoseinacomparisongroup).

Inshort,compassionintheyogissharpenstheirsenseofotherpeople’semotions,especiallyiftheyaredistraught,andheightenssensitivitytotheirownbodies—particularlytheheart,akeysourceofempathicresonancewiththesufferingofothers.

Thevarietyofcompassionmaymatter.Herethepractitionerswereengagedin“nonreferential”compassion.InthewordsofMatthieu,theywere“generatingastateinwhichloveandcompassionpermeatedthewholemindwithnootherdiscursivethoughts.”Theywerenotfocusingonanyspecificperson,butratherweregeneratingthebackgroundqualityofcompassion;thismaybeespeciallyimportantinengagingtheneuralcircuitsthattunethebraintotheheart.

Beingpresenttoanotherperson—asustained,caringattention—canbeseenasabasicformofcompassion.Carefulattentiontoanotherpersonalsoenhancesempathy,lettinguscatchmoreofthefleetingfacialexpressionsandothersuchcuesthatattuneustohowthatpersonactuallyfeelsinthemoment.Butifourattention“blinks,”wemaymissthosesignals.Aswesawinchapterseven,long-termmeditatorshavefewersuchblinksintheirattentionthandootherfolks.

Thiscancellationoftheattentionalblinknumbersamongahostofmentalfunctionsthatchangewithrigorousmindtraining—andwhichscientistshadthoughttobefrozen,immutable,basicpropertiesofthenervoussystem.Mostofthesearelittleknownoutsidescientificcircles,wheretheyaretakenasstronggivens—achallengetothatstatusjarstheassumptivesystemofcognitivescience.Butdiscardingoldassumptionsinlightofnewfindingsisthemotorofscienceitself.

Anotherpoint.Weexpectthatthelighteningofselfandlesseningofattachmentintheyogiswouldcorrelatewithashrinkingofthenucleusaccumbens,aswasfoundinlong-termWesternmeditators.ButRichiehascollectednodataonthisfromtheyogis,despitethefallingawayofattachmentsbeinganexplicitgoaloftheirpractice.

Thediscoveryofthedefaultmodeandhowtomeasureit,aswellasitscrucialroleinthebrain’sself-system,hascomesorecentlythatwhentheyogiswerecomingonebyonethroughthelab,Richie’steamhadnoinklingtheymightwanttousethebaselinetomeasurethisshift.Onlytowardthetailendofthisstreamdidthelabgettherestingstatemeasuresneeded—andontoofewyogistohaverobustdatafortheanalysis.

Scienceprogressesinpartthroughinnovativemeasuresthatyielddatanever

Scienceprogressesinpartthroughinnovativemeasuresthatyielddataneverseenbefore.That’swhatwehavehere.Butthatalsomeanstheslicesoffindingswehaveontheyogishavemoretodowiththeserendipityofmeasuresavailabletousthanwithsomecarefulassayofthetopographyofthisregionofhumanexperience.

Thishighlightsaweaknessinwhatotherwisemightseemquiteimpressivefindingsontheyogis:thesedatapointsarebutglimpsesofthealteredtraitsthatintensive,prolongedmeditationproduces.Wedonotwanttoreducethisqualityofbeingtowhatwehappentobeabletomeasure.

Science’sviewoftheseyogis’alteredtraitsisakintotheparableoftheblindmenandtheelephant.Thegammafinding,forinstance,seemsquiteexciting,butit’slikefeelingtheelephant’strunkwithoutknowingabouttherestofitsbody.Andso,too,withtheirmissingattentionalblink,effortlessmeditativestates,ultrarapidrecoveryfrompain,andreadinesstohelpsomeoneindistress—thesearebutglimpsesofalargerrealitywedonotfullycomprehend.

Whatmattersmost,though,maybetherealizationthatourordinarystateofwakingconsciousness—asWilliamJamesobservedmorethanacenturyago—isbutoneoption.Alteredtraitsareanother.

Awordabouttheglobalsignificanceoftheseyogis.Suchpeopleareveryrare,whatsomeAsianculturescall“livingtreasures.”Encounterswiththemareextremelynourishingandofteninspiring,notbecauseofsomevauntedstatusorcelebritybutbecauseoftheinnerqualitiestheyradiate.Wehopenationsandculturesthatharborsuchbeingswillseetheneedtoprotectthemandtheircommunitiesofexpertiseandpractice,aswellaspreservetheculturalattitudesthatvaluethesealteredtraits.Tolosethewaytothisinnerexpertisewouldbeaworldtragedy.

INANUTSHELL

Themassivelevelsofgammaactivityintheyogisandthesynchronyofthegammaoscillationsacrosswidespreadregionsofthebrainsuggestthevastnessandpanoramicqualityofawarenessthattheyreport.Theyogis’awarenessinthepresentmoment—withoutgettingstuckintheanticipationofthefutureorruminatingonthepast—seemsreflectedinthestrong“invertedV”responsetopain,whereyogisshowlittleanticipatoryresponseandveryrapidrecovery.Theyogisalsoshowneuralevidenceofeffortlessconcentration:ittakesonlya

yogisalsoshowneuralevidenceofeffortlessconcentration:ittakesonlyaflickeroftheneuralcircuitrytoplacetheirattentiononachosenobject,andlittletonoefforttoholditthere.Finally,whengeneratingcompassion,thebrainsofyogisbecomemoreconnectedtotheirbodies,particularlytheirhearts—indicatingemotionalresonance.

I

13

AlteringTraits

nthebeginningnothingcomes,inthemiddlenothingstays,intheendnothinggoes.”ThatenigmaticriddlecomesfromJetsunMilarepa,Tibet’s

eminenttwelfth-centurypoet,yogi,andsage.1MatthieuRicardunpacksMilarepa’spuzzlethisway:atthestartof

contemplativepractice,littleornothingseemstochangeinus.Aftercontinuedpractice,wenoticesomechangesinourwayofbeing,buttheycomeandgo.Finally,aspracticestabilizes,thechangesareconstantandenduring,withnofluctuation.Theyarealteredtraits.

Takenasawhole,thedataonmeditationtrackaroughvectorofprogressivetransformations,frombeginnersthroughthelong-termmeditatorsandontotheyogis.Thisarcofimprovementseemstoreflectbothlifetimehoursofpracticeaswellastimeonretreatwithexpertguidance.

Thestudiesofbeginnerstypicallylookattheimpactsfromunder100totalhoursofpractice—andasfewas7.Thelong-termgroup,mainlyvipassanameditators,hadameanof9,000lifetimehours(therangeranfrom1,000to10,000hoursandmore).

AndtheyogisstudiedinRichie’slab,hadalldoneatleastoneTibetan-stylethree-yearretreat,withlifetimehoursuptoMingyur’s62,000.Yogis,onaveragehadthreetimesmorelifetimehoursthandidlong-termmeditators—9,000hoursversus27,000.

Afewlong-termvipassanameditatorshadaccumulatedmorethan20,000lifetimehoursandoneortwoupto30,000,thoughnonehaddoneathree-yearretreat,whichbecameadefactodistinguishingfeatureoftheyogigroup.Despitetherareoverlapsinlifetimehours,thevastmajorityofthethreegroupsfallintotheseroughcategories.

Therearenohard-and-fastlifetimehourcutoffsforthethreelevels,butresearchonthemhasclusteredinparticularranges.We’veorganized

researchonthemhasclusteredinparticularranges.We’veorganizedmeditation’sbenefitsintothreedose-responselevels,roughlymappingonthenovicetoamateurtoprofessionalrankingsfoundinexpertiseofallkinds,fromballerinastochesschampions.

ThevastmajorityofmeditatorsintheWestfallintothefirstlevel:peoplewhomeditateforashortperiod—afewminutestohalfanhourorsoonmostdays.Asmallergroupcontinuesontothelong-termmeditatorlevel.Andamerehandfulattaintheexpertiseoftheyogis.

Let’slookattheimpactsinthosewhohavejustbegunameditationpractice.Whenitcomestostressrecovery,theevidenceforsomebenefitsinthefirstfewmonthsofdailypracticearemoresubjectivethanobjective—andshaky.Ontheotherhandtheamygdala,akeynodeinthebrain’sstresscircuitry,showslessenedreactivityafterthirtyorsohoursovereightweeksofMBSRpractice.

Compassionmeditationshowsstrongerbenefitsfromtheget-go;asfewasseventotalhoursoverthecourseoftwoweeksleadstoincreasedconnectivityincircuitsimportantforempathyandpositivefeelings,strongenoughtoshowupoutsidethemeditationstateperse.Thisisthefirstsignofastatemorphingintoatrait,thoughtheseeffectslikelywillnotlastwithoutdailypractice.Butthefactthattheyappearoutsidetheformalmeditationstateitselfmayreflectourinnatewiringforbasicgoodness.

Beginnersalsofindimprovementsinattentionveryearlyon,includinglessmind-wanderingafterjusteightminutesofmindfulnesspractice—ashort-livedbenefit,tobesure.Butevenaslittleastwoweeksofpracticeissufficienttoproducelessmind-wanderingandbetterfocusandworkingmemory,enoughforasignificantboostinscoresontheGRE,theentranceexamforgraduateschool.Indeed,somefindingssuggestdecreasesinactivationintheself-relevantregionsofthedefaultmodewithaslittleastwomonthsofpractice.Whenitcomestophysicalhealth,thereismoregoodnews:smallimprovementsinthemolecularmarkersofcellularagingseemtoemergewithjustthirtyhoursofpractice.

Still,allsucheffectsareunlikelytopersistwithoutsustainedpractice.Evenso,thesebenefitsstrikeusassurprisinglystrongforbeginners.Take-home:practicingmeditationcanpayoffquicklyinsomeways,evenifyouhavejuststarted.

INTHELONGTERM

Stickingwithmeditationovertheyearsoffersmorebenefitsasmeditatorsreachthelong-termrangeoflifetimehours,around1,000to10,000hours.Thismightmeanadailymeditationsession,andperhapsannualretreatswithfurtherinstructionlastingaweekorso—allsustainedovermanyyears.Theearliereffectsdeepen,whileothersemerge.

Forexample,inthisrangeweseetheemergenceofneuralandhormonalindicatorsoflessenedstressreactivity.Inaddition,functionalconnectivityinthebraininacircuitimportantforemotionregulationisstrengthened,andcortisol,akeyhormonesecretedbytheadrenalglandinresponsetostress,lessens.

Loving-kindnessandcompassionpracticeoverthelongtermenhanceneuralresonancewithanotherperson’ssuffering,alongwithconcernandagreaterlikelihoodofactuallyhelping.Attention,too,strengthensinmanyaspectswithlong-termpractice:selectiveattentionsharpens,theattentionalblinkdiminishes,sustainedattentionbecomeseasier,andanalertreadinesstorespondincreases.Andlong-termpractitionersshowenhancedabilitytodown-regulatethemind-wanderingandself-obsessedthoughtsofthedefaultmode,aswellasweakeningconnectivitywithinthosecircuits—signifyinglessself-preoccupation.Theseimprovementsoftenshowupduringmeditativestates,andgenerallytendtobecometraits.

Shiftsinverybasicbiologicalprocesses,suchasaslowerbreathrate,occuronlyafterseveralthousandhoursofpractice.Someoftheseimpactsseemmorestronglyenhancedbyintensivepracticeonretreatthanbydailypractice.

Whileevidenceremainsinconclusive,neuroplasticityfromlong-termpracticeseemstocreatebothstructuralandfunctionalbrainchanges,suchasgreaterworkingconnectionbetweentheamygdalaandtheregulatorycircuitsintheprefrontalareas.Andtheneuralcircuitsofthenucleusaccumbensassociatedwith“wanting”orattachmentappeartoshrinkinsizewithlonger-termpractice.

Whileingeneralweseeagradientofshiftswithmorelifetimemeditationhours,wesuspecttherearedifferentratesofchangeindisparateneuralsystems.Forinstance,thebenefitsofcompassioncomesoonerthandoesstressmastery.Weexpectstudiesinthefuturewillfillinthedetailsofadose-responsedynamicforvariousbraincircuits.

Intriguingsignssuggestthatlong-termmeditatorstosomedegreeundergostate-by-traiteffectsthatenhancethepotencyoftheirpractice.Someelementsofthemeditativestate,likegammawaves,maycontinueduringsleep.Andadaylongretreatbyseasonedmeditatorsbenefitedtheirimmuneresponseatthegeneticlevel—afindingthatstartledthemedicalestablishment.

THEYOGIS

Atthisworld-classlevel(roughly12,000to62,000lifetimehoursofpractice,includingmanyyearsindeepretreat),trulyremarkableeffectsemerge.Practiceinpartrevolvesaroundconvertingmeditativestatestotraits—theTibetantermforthistranslatesas“gettingfamiliar”withthemeditativemind-set.Meditationstatesmergewithdailyactivities,asalteredstatesstabilizeintoalteredtraitsandbecomeenduringcharacteristics.

HereRichie’sgroupsawsignsofalteredtraitsintheyogi’sbrainfunctionandevenstructure,alongwithstronglypositivehumanqualities.Thejumpinsynchronizedgammaoscillationsinitiallyobservedduringcompassionmeditationwasalsofound,albeittoalesserextent,inthebaselinestate.Inotherwords,fortheyogisthisstatehasbecomeatrait.

State-by-traitinteractionsmeanthatwhathappensduringmeditationcanbeverydifferentfortheyogis,showingupstarklywhencomparedwithnovicesdoingthesamepractice.Perhapsthestrongestevidencecomesfromtheyogis’responsetophysicalpainduringsimplemindfulness-typepractice:asharp“invertedV,”withlittlebrainactivityduringanticipationofthepain,anintensebutveryshortpeakduringthepain,followedbyveryrapidrecovery.

Formostofuswhomeditate,concentrationtakesmentaleffort,butfortheyogiswithmostlifetimehours,itbecomeseffortless.Oncetheirattentionlocksontoatargetstimulus,theirneuralcircuitsforeffortfulattentiongoquietwhiletheirattentionstaysperfectlyfocused.

Whentheyogismeditateoncompassionthere’sastrengtheningofthecouplingbetweenheartandbrainbeyondwhatisordinarilyseen.Finally,thereisthattantalizingbitofdatashowingshrinkinginthenucleusaccumbensinlong-termmeditators,suggestingwemightfindfurtherstructuralchangesintheyogi’sbrainthatsupportalesseningofattachment,grasping,andself-focus.Preciselywhatothersuchneuralshiftstheremightbe,andwhattheymean,awaitdecipheringinfutureresearch.

THEAFTER

Theseremarkabledatapointsmerelyhintatthefullfloweringofthecontemplativepathatthislevel.Someofthesefindingshaveshownupthrough

contemplativepathatthislevel.Someofthesefindingshaveshownupthroughhappenstance—aswhenRichiedecidedtocheckonthebaselinedatafortheyogis,ortolookatthemostseasonedgroupcomparedtotherest.

Andthenthere’sanecdotalevidence:whenRichie’slabaskedoneyogitotakeswabsofsalivatoassesshiscortisolactivitywhilehewasonretreat,thelevelsweresolowtheywereoffthestandardscale,andthelabhadtoadjusttheassayrangedownward.

SomeBuddhisttraditionsspeakofthislevelofstabilizationasrecognitionofaninner“basicgoodness”thatpermeatestheperson’smindandactivities.AsoneTibetanlamasaidabouthisownteacher—amasterreveredbyalltheTibetancontemplativelineages—“Someonelikehimhasatwo-tierconsciousness,”wherehismeditativeaccomplishmentsareasteadybackgroundforwhateverelsehedoes.

Severallabs—includingRichie’sandJudsonBrewer’s—havenoticedthatmoreadvancedmeditatorscanshowabrainpatternwhilemerelyrestingthatresemblesthatofameditativestatelikemindfulnessorloving-kindness,whilebeginnersdonot.2Thatcomparisonoftheexpertmeditator’sbaselinewithsomeonenewtopracticestandsasahallmarkofthewayalteredtraitsshowupinresearch,thoughitoffersjustasnapshot.

Perhapsonedayanultralongstudywillgiveustheequivalentofavideoonhowalteredtraitsemerge.Fornow,astheBrewergroupconjectured,meditationseemstotransformtherestingstate—thebrain’sdefaultmode—toresemblethemeditativestate.

Or,asweputitlongago,theafteristhebeforeforthenextduring.

INSEARCHOFLASTINGCHANGE

“Iftheheartwandersorisdistracted,”advisedFrancisdeSales(1567–1622),aCatholicsaint,“bringitbacktothepointquitegently...andevenifyoudidnothingduringthewholeofyourhourbutbringyourheartback...thoughitwentawayeverytime,yourhourwouldbeverywell-employed.”3

Virtuallyallmeditatorsexecuteacommonseriesofsteps,nomatterthespecificsofpractice.Thesebeginwithanintendedfocus—butthenafterawhile

yourmindwandersoff.Whenyounoticeithaswanderedyoucanmakethefinalstep:bringyourmindbacktotheoriginalfocus.

ResearchatEmoryUniversitybyWendyHasenkamp(anSRIalumandnowdirectorofscienceatMindandLifeInstitute)foundtheconnectionsbetweenbrainregionsinvolvedinthesestepstobestrongeramongmoreseasonedmeditators.4Importantly,thedifferencesbetweenmeditatorandcontrolswerefoundnotjustinmeditationbutintheordinary“resting”stateaswell—suggestingapossibletraiteffect.

Thelifetimehoursmeasureoffersaripeopportunitytocorrelatethatnumberwith,say,changesinthebrain.Buttobesuresuchanassociationisnotduetoself-selectionorothersuchfactorsrequiresanotherstep:alongitudinalstudywhere,ideally,theimpactgrowsstrongeraspracticecontinues(plusanactivecontrolgroupfollowedforthesamelengthoftimewhodonotshowthosechanges).

Twolongitudinalstudies—TaniaSinger’sworkonempathyandcompassion,andCliffSaron’sonshamatha—haveyieldedsomeofthemostconvincingdatayetonthepowerofmeditationtocreatealteredtraits.Andthentherearesomesurprises.

TakeafindingfromTania’sresearch.Shenotesthatsomeresearchershadwonderedwhymeditatorswhodidadailybodyscan(asinGoenka’smethod)failedtoshowanyimprovementincountingtheirheartbeats,astandardtestof“interoception,”orattunementtothebody.

ShefoundananswerinherReSourceProject.Theabilitytobeawareofbodilysignalslikeheartbeatdidnotincreaseafterthreemonthsofdailypracticeof“presence,”whichincludesamindfulbodyscan.However,thoseveryimprovementsbegantoshowupaftersixmonths,withevenbiggergainsafterninemonths.Somebenefitstaketimetoripen—whatpsychologistscalla“sleeper”effect.

ConsiderthetaleofayogiwhohadspentyearsinaHimalayancaveonretreat.Onedayatravelerhappenedbyand,seeingtheyogi,askedhimwhathewasdoing.“I’mmeditatingonpatience,”theyogisaid.

“Inthatcase,”repliedthetraveler,“youcangotohell!”Towhichtheyogiangrilyretorted,“Yougotohell!”Thattale(liketheoneabouttheyogiinthebazaar)hasservedforcenturies

asacautionarytaletoseriouspractitioners,remindingthemthatthetestoftheirpracticeislifeitself,notisolatedhoursinmeditation.Atraitlikepatienceshouldleaveusunflappablenomatterwhatlifebringsourway.

TheDalaiLamatoldthisstory,clarifying,“There’sasayinginTibetanthatinsomecasespractitionershavetheoutwardformofbeingholypeople,whichholdswheneverythingisfine—whenthesunisshiningandthebellyisfull.Butwhentheyareconfrontedwitharealchallengeorcrisis,thentheybecomejustlikeeveryoneelse.”5

The“fullcatastrophe”ofourlivesoffersthebestdurabilitytestofalteredtraits.Whileayogi’ssuperlowcortisollevelonretreattellsushowrelaxedhecanget,hiscortisollevelduringahecticdaywouldrevealwhetherthishadbecomeapermanent,alteredtrait.

EXPERTISE

We’veallheardittakessomeone10,000hoursofpracticetomasteraskilllikecomputerprogrammingorgolf,right?

Wrong.Inrealitysciencefindsthatsomedomains(likememorization)canbe

masteredinaslittleas200hours.Moretothepoint,Richie’slabfindsthatevenamongthemeditationadepts—allofwhomhaveputinatleast10,000hoursofpractice—expertisecontinuestoincreasesteadilywiththenumberoflifetimehours.

ThiswouldbenosurprisetoAndersEricsson,thecognitivescientistwhoseworkonexpertise—tohisannoyance—gaverisetothatinaccuratebutwidelyheldbeliefinthemagicalpowerof10,000hourstobestowmastery.6Ratherthanjustthesheerhoursofpracticeputin,Ericsson’sresearchreveals,it’showsmartthosehoursare.

Whathecalls“deliberate”practiceinvolvesanexpertcoachgivingfeedbackonhowyouaredoing,sothatyoucanpracticeimprovinginamannertargetedtoyourprogress.Agolfercangetpinpointedadvicefromhercoachonexactlyhowtoimproveherswing;likewiseasurgeonintraining,frommoreseasonedsurgeons,onhowtoimprovemedicaltechnique.Andoncethegolferandsurgeonhavepracticedthoseimprovementstothepointofmastery,thecoachescangivethemfurtherfeedbackfortheirnextroundofgains.

Thisiswhysomanyprofessionalperformers—insports,theater,chess,music,andmanyotherwalksoflife—continuetohavecoachesthroughouttheircareer.Nomatterhowgoodyouare,youcanalwaysgetjustabitbetter.In

career.Nomatterhowgoodyouare,youcanalwaysgetjustabitbetter.Incompetitivearenas,smallimprovementsmaymakeallthedifferencebetweenwinningandlosing.Andifyouarenotcompeting,it’syourpersonalbestthatnotchesupward.

Thesameappliestomeditation.TakethecaseofRichieandDan.Wehavecontinuedtopracticeregularlyoverthedecades,formanyofthoseyearsdoingaweeklongretreatortwo.Weeachhavesatinmeditationeverymorningformorethanfortyyears(exceptifsomethinglikea6:00a.m.flightdisruptstheroutine).Whilewebothmighttechnicallyqualifyaslong-termmeditators,withsomewherearound10,000lifetimehoursofpractice,neitherofusfeelsparticularlyevolvedwhenitcomestoextremelypositivealteredtraits.Why?

Forone,thedatasuggeststhatmeditatingforonesessiondailyisverydifferentfromamultidayorlongerretreat.Takeafindingthatemergedunexpectedlyinthestudyofseasonedmeditators(9,000hoursaverage)andtheirreactivitytostress7(seechapterfive,“AMindUndisturbed”).Thestrongertheconnectivitybetweenthemeditators’prefrontalareaandamygdala,thelessreactivetheywere.Thesurprise:thegreatestincreaseinprefrontal-amygdalaconnectioncorrelatedwiththenumberofhoursameditatorhadspentinretreatbutnotwithhomehours.

Alongtheselinesanothersurprisingfindingwasfromthestudyofbreathrate.Ameditator’shoursofretreatpracticemoststronglycorrelatedwithslowerbreathing,muchmorethandailypractice.8

Oneimportantdifferenceaboutmeditationonretreatisthatthereareteachersavailablewhocanprovideguidance—likeacoach.Andthenthereisthesheerintensityoftheretreatpractice,wheremeditatorstypicallyspenduptoeighthours(andsometimesmuchmore)adayinformalpractice,oftenformanydaysinarow.Andmanyormostretreatsareatleastpartiallyinsilence,whichmaywellcontributetobuildingintensity.Allofthataddsuptoauniqueopportunitytoampupthelearningcurve.

Anotherdifferencebetweenamateursandexpertshastodowithhowtheypractice.Amateurslearnthebasicmovesoftheskill—whethergolf,chess,or,presumably,mindfulnessandthelike—andveryoftenleveloffafteraboutfiftyhoursofimprovingthroughpractice.Fortherestofthetimetheirskilllevelstaysaboutthesame—furtherpracticedoesnotleadtogreatimprovements.

Experts,ontheotherhand,practicedifferently.Theydointensivesessionsunderthewatchfuleyeofacoach,whosuggeststothemwhattoworkonnextto

getevenbetter.Thisleadstoacontinuouslearningcurvewithsteadyimprovements.

Thesefindingspointtotheneedforateacher,someonemoreadvancedthanyouare,whocangiveyoucoachingonhowtoimprove.Bothofushavecontinuedtoseekguidancefrommeditationteachersovertheyears,buttheopportunityoccurssporadicallyinourlives.

TheVisuddhimaggaadvisespractitionerstofindasaguidesomeonemoreexperiencedthantheyare.Thisancientlistofpotentialteachersstartsatthetopwith,ideally,directionfromanarhant(thePaliwordforafullyaccomplishedmeditator,someoneattheOlympiclevel).Ifnoneisavailable,itadvises,justfindsomeonemoreseasonedthanyou—attheveryleast,theyshouldhavereadasutra,apassagefromaholytext—ifyouhavereadnone.Intoday’sworld,thatmightbetheequivalentofgettinginstructionfromsomeonewhohadtriedoutameditationapp—it’sbetterthannothing.

BRAINMATCHING

“Yourprogram,”DanwrotetoJonKabat-Zinn,“couldspreadthroughoutthehealthcaresystem.”Littledidheknow.Theyearwas1983,andJonwasstillworkinghardjusttogetdoctorsathismedicalcentertosendhimpatients.

DanwasencouragingJontodosomeresearchontheprogram’seffectiveness—perhapsasmallseedofthehundredsofsuchstudiesonMBSRtoday.DanandRichie,withtheirthesisadviseratHarvard,hadcomeupwithasoftmeasureofwhetherpeopleexperienceanxietymainlyintheirmindorintheirbody.PointingoutthattheMBSRprogramofferedbothcognitiveandsomaticpractices,DansuggestedJonstudy“whichelementsworkbestforwhichtype.”

Jonwentaheadwiththatstudy;onefindingwasthatthoseattheextremeforworriesandanxiousthoughts(thatis,cognitiveanxiety)foundmostrelieffromdoingtheyogainMBSR.9Thisraisesaquestionforalltypesofmeditation—andthemorewidelydeployeduser-friendlyversionsthatderivefromthem:Whichformsofpracticearemosthelpfultowhichpeople?

Matchingthestudenttothemethodhasancientroots.IntheVisuddhimagga,forinstance,meditationteachersareadvisedtocarefullyobservetheirstudents

toassesswhichcategorytheyfitin—“greedy”or“hateful”typesbeingtwoexamples—allthebettertomatchthemtocircumstancesandmethodsmostsuitable.Thematches,whichmightseemtomodernsensibilitiesabitmedieval,include:forthegreedy(who,forinstance,firstnoticewhat’sbeautiful),badfoodanduncomfortablelodgingsandtheloathsomenessofbodypartsastheobjectofmeditation.Forthehateful(whofirstnoticewhat’swrong),thebestfoodandaroomwithacomfybedtosleepandmeditateonsoothingtopicslikeloving-kindnessorequanimity.

Amorescientificallybasedoptimalmatchingcouldstartbyusingexistingmeasuresofpeople’scognitiveandemotionalstyles,asRichieandCortlandDahlhaveproposed.10Forexample,forthosepronetoruminatingandworryingaboutthemselves,ahelpfulstarterpracticemightbemindfulnessofthoughts,wheretheylearntoregardthoughtsas“justthought,”withoutgettingwrappedupintheircontent(oryoga,asJonfound).And,perhaps,feedbackfromtheirsweatresponse,ameasureofemotionalhijackingbythoughts,couldfurtherhelp.Orapersonwithstrong,focusedattentionbutadeficitinempathicconcernmightbeginwithcompassionpractice.

Onedaythosematch-upsmightbebasedonabrainscanthathelpspointpeopletotheoptimalmethod.Suchmatchingofmedicinetodiagnosisalreadygoesoninsomeacademicmedicalcenterswith“precisionmedicine,”wheretreatmentsaretailoredtoanindividual’sspecificgeneticmakeup.

TYPOLOGIES

NeemKaroliBaba,theremarkableyogiDanmetonhisfirstvisittoIndia,oftenstayedatHindutemplesandashramsdedicatedtoHanuman,themonkeygod.Hisfollowerspracticedbhakti,theyogaofdevotiondominantinthepartsofIndiawherehestayed.

Whilehenevertalkedabouthisownpracticehistory,bitsleakedoutnowandthen.Wordhadithehadlivedforalongtimeasajungleyogi;somesayhealsopracticedinanundergroundcaveforyears.Hismeditationsweredevotional,toRam,theherooftheIndianepicRamayana;hecouldsometimesbeheardreciting“Ram,Ram,Ram...”underhisbreath,orcountingthemantraonhisfingers.

HewasalsosaidtohavetraveledtoMeccainthe1930swithaMuslim

HewasalsosaidtohavetraveledtoMeccainthe1930swithaMuslimdevotee.ToWesternershepraisedChrist.Fortwoyearshetookunderhiswing,andbecameclosefriendswith,LamaNorla,whohadfledTibetforIndiain1957,longbeforethereweresettlementsforsuchrefugees.(LamaNorlawasaretreatmasterinoneoftheverymeditationlineagesthatMingyurRinpochehaspracticedin.)

Ifsomeonewasfollowingagiveninnerpath,NeemKarolialwaysencouragedit.Fromhisperspectivethemainpointwasthatyoudoyourpractice—nottrytofindthe“verybest.”

WheneverNeemKaroliwasaskedaboutwhichpathwasbest,hisanswerwas“Subek!”—Hindifor“Theyareallone.”Everyonehasdifferentpreferences,needs,andthelike.Justchooseoneandplungein.

Inthatviewcontemplativepathsaremoreorlessthesame,adoorwaybeyondordinaryexperience.Atapracticallevel,allformsofmeditationshareacommoncoreofmindtraining—e.g.,learningtoletgoofthemyriaddistractionsthatflowthroughthemindandtofocusononeobjectofattentionorstanceofawareness.

Butaswegetmorefamiliarwiththemechanicsofthevariouspaths,theydivideandclustertogether.Forinstance,someonesilentlyrecitingamantraandignoringeverythingelsedeploysdifferentmentaloperationsthandoesapersonwhomindfullyobservespassingthoughts.

Andatthefinest-grainedlevel,eachpathinitsparticularsisquiteunique.Astudentofbhaktiyogawhosingsdevotionalbhajanstoadeitymaysharesomeaspects,butnotothers,withaVajrayanapractitionerwhosilentlygeneratesanimageofadeity,likethecompassionateGreenTara,alongwithtryingtogeneratethequalitiesthatgowiththatimage.

Weshouldnotethatthethreelevelsofpracticewellstudiedsofar—beginner,long-term,andyogi—aregroupedarounddifferentkindsofmeditation:mainlymindfulnessforbeginners,vipassanaforlong-term(withsomestudiesofZen,too),andfortheyogis,theTibetanpathsknownasDzogchenandMahamudra.Asithappens,ourownpracticehistoryhasfollowedthisroughtrajectory,andinourexperiencetherearesignificantdifferencesamongthesethreemethods.

Mindfulness,forinstance,hasthemeditatorwitnesswhateverthoughtsandfeelingscomeandgointhemind.Vipassanastartsthere,thentransitionsintoameta-awarenessoftheprocessesofmind,nottheshiftingcontents.AndDzogchenandMahamudraincludebothinearlystages—andahostofothermeditationtypes—butendina“nondual”stance,restinginamoresubtlelevel

of“meta-awareness.”Thisraisesascientificquestionaboutthevectoroftransformation:Canweextrapolateinsightsfrommindfulnessandapplythemtovipassana(atraditionalsegue),andfromvipassanatotheTibetanpractices?

Taxonomieshelpscienceorganizesuchquestions,andDanattemptedoneformeditation.11HisimmersionintheVisuddhimaggaofferedhimalensforcategorizingthebewilderingmélangeofmeditationstatesandmethodsheencounteredinhiswanderingsthroughIndia.Hebuiltaclassificationaroundthedifferencebetweenone-pointedconcentrationandthemorefree-floatingawarenessofmindfulness,amajordividewithinvipassanapractice(andalsointheTibetanpaths,butwithverydifferentmeanings—itgetscomplicated).

Amoreinclusive—andmorecurrent—typologybyRichiewithhiscolleaguesCortlandDahlandAntoineLutzorganizesthinkingaboutmeditation“clusters”onthebasisofabodyoffindingsincognitivescienceandclinicalpsychology.12Theyseethreecategories:

Attentional.Thesemeditationsfocusontrainingaspectsofattention,whetherinconcentration,asinzeroinginonthebreath,amindfulobservationofexperience,amantra,ormeta-awareness,asinopenpresence.Constructive.Cultivatingvirtuousqualities,likeloving-kindness,typifiesthesemethods.Deconstructive.Aswithinsightpractice,thesemethodsuseself-observationtopiercethenatureofexperience.Theyinclude“nondual”approachesthatshiftintoamodewhereordinarycognitionnolongerdominates.

Suchawidelyinclusivetypologymakesglaringlyclearhowmeditationresearchhasfocusedonanarrowsubsetofmethodsandignoredthemuchlargeruniverseoftechniques.ThebulkofresearchhasbeendoneonMBSRandrelatedmindfulness-basedapproaches,andtherehavebeenmanystudiesofloving-kindnessandTM,plusahandfulonZen.

Butthemanyvarietiesofmeditationbeyondthesemaywelltargettheirownrangeofbraincircuitryandcultivatetheiruniquesetofparticularqualities.Wehopethatascontemplativesciencegrows,researcherswillstudyawidervarietyofmeditations,notjustasmallbranchoftheentiretree.Whilefindingssofarareencouraging,therecouldwellbeothersthatwehavenotyetevenahintof.

Thewiderthenet,themorewewillunderstandabouthowmeditation

Thewiderthenet,themorewewillunderstandabouthowmeditationtrainingshapesthebrainandmind.What,forexample,mightbethebenefitsofthemeditativewhirlingpracticeinsomeschoolsofSufism,orthedevotionalsinginginHinduism’sbhaktibranch?OroftheanalyticmeditationpracticedbysomeTibetanBuddhists,aswellasbysomeschoolsofHinduyogis?

Butwhatevertheparticularsofameditationpath,theyshareonegoalincommon:alteredtraits.

CHECKLISTSFORALTEREDTRAITS

Aboutfortyreporters,photographers,andTVcameraoperatorswerepackedintoasmallbasementroom,partofthecryptbelowthemainfloorofLondon’sWestminsterCathedral.TheywerethereforapressconferencewiththeDalaiLama,whowasabouttoreceivetheTempletonPrize—morethanamilliondollarsgiveneachyeartorecognizean“exceptionalcontributiontoaffirminglife’sspiritualdimension.”

RichieandDanwereinLondonatthatpressconferencetogivereportersabackgrounderontheDalaiLama’slifelongpursuitofscientificknowledge,andhisinsightthatbothscienceandreligionsharecommongoals:pursuitofthetruthandservinghumanity.

Inresponsetothelastquestionatthepressconference,theDalaiLamaannouncedwhathewoulddowiththeaward:immediatelygiveitaway.Heexplainedheneedsnomoney—he’sasimplemonk,andbesides,he’saguestoftheIndiangovernment,whichtakescareofallhisneeds.

Sothemomenthegetstheawardhepromptlygivesonemillion–plusdollarstoSavetheChildren,inappreciationoftheirglobalworkwiththeworld’spoorestchildren,andforhavinghelpedTibetanrefugeeswhentheyfledChina.ThenhegiveswhatremainstotheMindandLifeInstitute,andtoEmoryUniversityforitsTibetan-languageprogramtoeducateTibetanmonksinscience.

We’veseenhimdothesameoverandover.Hisgenerosityseemsspontaneousandwithouttheleastregretorholdingontoevenatinybitforhimself.Generositylikethis,instantandwithoutattachment,marksoneofseveralqualitiesfoundintraditionallistsofparamitas(“completenessor

perfection”;literally,“gonetotheothershore”),virtuoustraitsthatmarkprogressincontemplativetraditions.

Adefinitiveworkontheparamitas,calledTheWayoftheBodhisattva,waswrittenbyShantideva,aneighth-centurymonkatNalandaUniversityinIndia,oneoftheworld’sfirstplacesofhigherlearning.TheDalaiLamafrequentlyteachesthistext,alwaysacknowledginghisdebttohisowntutoronit—KhunuLama,thesamehumblemonkDanmetinBodhGaya.

Amongtheparamitas,embracedbythepracticetraditionsoftheyogiswhocametoRichie’slab,aregenerosity,whethermaterial,liketheDalaiLamagivingawayhisprizemoney,orevensimplepresence,givingofoneself;andethicalconduct,notharmingoneselforothersandfollowingguidelinesforself-discipline.

Another:patience,tolerance,andcomposure.Thisalsoimpliesasereneequanimity.“Realpeace,”theDalaiLamatoldanMITaudience,“iswhenyourmindgoestwenty-fourhoursadaywithnofear,noanxiety.”

There’senergeticeffortanddiligence;concentrationandnondistraction;andwisdom,inthesenseofinsightsthatcomeviadeepmeditationpractice.

Thisnotionofactualizingtheverybestinusaslastingtraitsresonatesbroadlyacrossspiritualtraditions.Aswesawinchapterthree,“TheAfterIstheBeforefortheNextDuring,”Greco-Romanphilosophersheraldedanoverlappingsetofvirtues.AndaSufisayinghasit,“Goodnessofcharacterisprosperityenough.”13

ConsiderthetaleofRabbiLeib,astudentofRabbiDovBaer,aneighteenth-centuryHasidicteacher.InthosetimesstudentsinthattraditionmainlystudiedreligioustomesandheardlecturesonpassagesfromtheTorah,theirholybook.ButLeibhadadifferentgoal.

HehadnotgonetoDovBaer,hisreligiousmentor,tostudytextsorhearsermons,Leibsaid.Rather,hewentto“seehowhetieshisshoes.”14

Inotherwords,whathesoughtwastowitnessandabsorbthequalitiesofbeinghisteacherembodied.

Thereareintriguingdovetailsbetweenthescientificdataandtheancientmapstoalteredtraits.Forexample,aneighteenth-centuryTibetantextadvisesthatamongthesignsofspiritualprogressareloving-kindnessandstrongcompassiontowardeveryone,contentment,and“weakdesires.”15

Thesequalitiesseemtomatchwithindicatorsofbrainchangesthatwehavetrackedinearlierchapters:amped-upcircuitryforempathicconcernandparental

love,amorerelaxedamygdala,anddecreasedvolumeofbraincircuitsassociatedwithattachment.

TheyogiswhocametoRichie’slaballhadpracticedinaTibetantraditionthatproffersaviewthatcansometimesbeconfusing:thatweallhaveBuddhanature,butwesimplyfailtorecognizeit.Inthisview,thenubofpracticebecomesrecognizingintrinsicqualities,what’salreadypresentratherthanthedevelopmentofanynewinnerskill.Fromthisperspective,theremarkableneuralandbiologicalfindingsamongtheyogisaresignsnotsomuchofskilldevelopmentbutratherofthisqualityofrecognition.

Arealteredtraitsadd-onstoournature,oruncoveredaspectsthatwerethereallalong?Atthisstageinthedevelopmentofcontemplativescienceitisdifficulttoweighinoneithersideofthisdebate.Thereis,however,anincreasinglyrobustcorpusofscientificfindingsshowing,forexample,thatifaninfantwatchespuppetswhoengageinanaltruistic,warmheartedencounter,oroneswhoareselfishandaggressive,whengiventhechoiceofapuppettoreachfor,almostallinfantschooseoneofthefriendlyones.16Thisnaturaltendencycontinuesthroughthetoddleryears.

Thesefindingsareconsistentwiththeviewofpreexistingvirtueslikeanintrinsicbasicgoodness,andinvitethepossibilitythattraininginloving-kindnessandcompassioninvolverecognizingearlyonacorequalitythatispresentandstrengtheningit.Inthissense,practitionersmaynotbedevelopinganewskillbutrathernurturingabasiccompetence,inmuchthesamewaythatlanguageisdeveloped.

Whetherthewholerangeofqualitiessaidtobecultivatedbydifferentmeditationpracticesisbestviewedinthiswayormoreasskilldevelopmentwillbedecidedbyfuturescientificwork.Wesimplyentertaintheideathatatleastsomeaspectsofmeditationpracticemaybelesslikelearninganewskill,andmoreakintorecognizingabasicpropensitytherefromthestart.

WHAT’SMISSING?

Historically,meditationwasnotmeanttoimproveourhealth,relaxus,orenhanceworksuccess.Althoughthesearethekindsofappealthathasmademeditationubiquitoustoday,overthecenturiessuchbenefitswereincidental,unnotedsideeffects.Thetruecontemplativegoalhasalwaysbeenalteredtraits.

unnotedsideeffects.Thetruecontemplativegoalhasalwaysbeenalteredtraits.Thestrongestsignsofthesequalitiesareinthegroupofyogiswhocameto

Richie’slab.Thisraisesacrucialquestionforunderstandinghowcontemplativepracticeworks.Thoseyogisallpracticewithinaspiritualtradition,inthe“deep”mode.Yetmostofusintoday’sworldpreferourpracticeeasy(andbrief),apragmaticapproachthattendstoborrowwhatworksandleavebehindtherest.

Andquitealothasbeenleftbehindastheworld’srichcontemplativetraditionsmorphedintouser-friendlyforms.Asmeditationmigratesfromitsoriginalsettingintopopularadaptations,whathasbeenabandonedisignoredorforgotten.

Someimportantcomponentsofcontemplativepracticearenotmeditationperse.Inthedeeppaths,meditationrepresentsjustonepartofarangeofmeanshelpingtoincreaseself-awareness,gaininsightsintothesubtletiesofconsciousness,and,ultimately,toachievealastingtransformationofbeing.Thesedauntinggoalsrequirelifelongdedication.

TheyogiswhocametoRichie’slaballpracticedinaTibetantraditionthatholdstheidealthat,eventually,peopleeverywherecanbefreedfromsufferingofallsorts—andthatthemeditatorsetsouttowardthisenormoustaskthroughmindtraining.Partofthisyogicmind-setinvolvesdevelopingmoreequanimitytowardourownemotionalworld,aswellastheconvictionthatmeditationandrelatedpracticescanproducelastingtransformation—alteredtraits.

Whilesomeofthosewhofollowthe“deep”pathintheWestmaythemselvesholdsuchconvictions,otherswhotraininthosesamemethodsdosoonapathtorenewal—akindofinnervacation—ratherthanalifelongcalling.(Thatsaid,motivationscanchangewithprogress,sothatwhatbroughtsomeonetomeditationmaynotbethesamegoalthatkeepsthemgoing.)

Thesenseofalifemissioncenteredonpracticenumbersamongthoseelementssooftenleftonafarshore,butthatmaymattergreatly.Amongothersthatmight,infact,becrucialforcultivatingalteredtraitsatthelevelfoundintheyogis:

Anethicalstance,asetofmoralguidelinesthatfacilitatetheinnerchangesonthepath.Manytraditionsurgesuchaninnercompass,lestanyabilitiesdevelopedbeusedforpersonalgain.Altruisticintention,wherethepractitionerinvokesthestrongmotivationtopracticeforthebenefitofallothers,notjustoneself.

Groundedfaith,themind-setthataparticularpathhasvalueandwillleadyoutothetransformationyouseek.Sometextswarnagainstblindfaithandurgestudentstodowhatwecalltoday“duediligence”infindingateacher.Personalizedguidance.Aknowledgeableteacherwhocoachesyouonthepath,givingyoutheadviceyouneedtogotothenextstep.Cognitivescienceknowsthatattainingtop-levelmasteryrequiressuchfeedback.Devotion,adeepappreciationforallthepeople,principles,andsuchthatmakepracticepossible.Devotioncanalsobetothequalitiesofadivinefigure,ateacher,ortheteacher’salteredtraitsorqualityofmind.Community.Asupportivecircleoffriendsonthepathwhoarethemselvesdedicatedtopractice.Contrastthatwiththeisolationofmanymodernmeditators.Asupportiveculture.TraditionalAsiancultureshavelongrecognizedthevalueofpeoplewhodevotetheirlifetotransformingthemselvestoembodyvirtuesofattention,patience,compassion,andsoon.Thosewhoworkandhavefamilieswillinglysupportthosewhodedicatethemselvestodeeppracticebygivingthemmoney,feedingthem,andotherwisemakinglifeeasier.Notsoinmodernsocieties.Potentialforalteredtraits.Theveryideathatthesepracticescanleadtoaliberationfromourordinarymindstates—notjustself-improvement—hasalwaysframedthesepractices,fosteringrespectorreverenceforthepathandthoseonit.

Wehavenowayofknowinghowanyofthose“left-behinds”mightactuallybeactiveingredientsinthealteredtraitsthatscientificresearchhasbeguntodocumentinthelab.

AWAKENING

SoonafterSiddharthaGautama,theprince-turned-renunciate,hadcompletedhisinnerjourneyatBodhGaya,heencounteredsomewanderingyogis.RecognizingthatGautamahadundergonesomekindofremarkabletransformation,they

thatGautamahadundergonesomekindofremarkabletransformation,theyaskedhim,“Areyouagod?”

Towhichhereplied,“No.Iamawake.”TheSanskritwordfor“awake,”bodhi,gaveGautamathenameweknow

himbytoday,Buddha—theAwakenedOne.Noonecanknowwithabsolutecertaintywhatthatawakeningentailed,butourdataonthemostadvancedyogismayyieldsomeclues.Forinstance,there’sthathighlevelofongoinggamma,whichseemstolendasenseofvastspaciousness,senseswide-open,enrichingeverydayexperience—evendeepsleep,suggestinganaround-the-clockqualityofawakening.17

Themetaphorofourordinaryconsciousnessasakindofsleep,andaninnershiftleadingtobecoming“awake”hasalonghistoryandwidecirculation.Whilevariousschoolsofthoughtcontendonthepoint,wearenotpreparednorqualifiedtowadeintothecountlessdebatesaboutwhat“awakening”meansexactly,nordowecontendthatsciencecanrefereemetaphysicaldebates.

Justasmathandpoetryaredifferentwaysofknowingreality,scienceandreligionrepresentdisparatemagisteria,realmsofauthority,areasofinquiryandwaysofknowing—religionspeakingtovalues,beliefs,andtranscendence,andsciencetofact,hypotheses,andrationality.18Intakingthemeasureofthemeditator’smindwedonotspeaktothetruth-valueofwhatvariousreligionsmakeofthosementalstates.

Weaimforsomethingmorepragmatic:Whatintheseprocessesoftransformationfromthedeeppathmightbeextractedthathaswideuniversalbenefit?Canwedrawonthemechanicsofthedeeppathtocreatebenefitsforthewidestnumbers?

INANUTSHELL

Fromthebeginninghours,days,andweeksofmeditation,severalbenefitsemerge.Forone,beginners’brainsshowlessamygdalareactivitytostress.Improvementsinattentionafterjusttwoweeksofpracticeincludebetterfocus,lessmind-wandering,andimprovedworkingmemory—withaconcretepayoffinboostedscoresonagraduateschoolentranceexam.Someoftheearliestbenefitsarewithcompassionmeditation,includingincreasedconnectivityinthecircuitryforempathy.Andmarkersforinflammationlessenabitwithjustthirtyhoursofpractice.Whilethesebenefitsemergeevenwithremarkablymodest

hoursofpractice.Whilethesebenefitsemergeevenwithremarkablymodesthoursofpractice,theyarelikelyfragile,andneeddailysessionstobesustained.

Forlong-termmeditators,thosewhohavedoneabout1,000hoursormoreofpractice,thebenefitsdocumentedsofararemorerobust,withsomenewonesaddedtothemix.Therearebrainandhormonalindicatorsofloweredreactivitytostressandlessenedinflammation,astrengtheningoftheprefrontalcircuitsformanagingdistress,andlowerlevelsofthestresshormonecortisol,signalinglessreactivitytostressesingeneral.Compassionmeditationatthislevelbringsagreaterneuralattunementwiththosewhoaresuffering,andenhancedlikelihoodofdoingsomethingtohelp.

Whenitcomestoattention,therearearangeofbenefits:strongerselectiveattention,decreasedattentionalblink,greatereaseinsustainingattention,aheightenedreadinesstorespondtowhatevermaycome,andlessmind-wandering.Alongwithfewerself-obsessedthoughtscomesaweakeningofthecircuitryforattachment.Otherbiologicalandbrainchangesincludeaslowerbreathrate(indictingaslowingofthemetabolicrate).Adaylongretreatenhancestheimmunesystem,andsignsofmeditativestatescontinueduringsleep.Allthesechangessuggesttheemergenceofalteredtraits.

Finally,therearetheyogisatthe“Olympic”level,whohaveanaverageof27,000lifetimehoursofmeditation.Theyshowclearsignsofalteredtraits,suchaslargegammawavesinsynchronyamongfar-flungbrainregions—abrainpatternnotseenbeforeinanyone—andwhichalsooccursatrestamongthoseyogiswhohavedonethemosthoursofpractice.Whilestrongestduringthepracticesofopenpresenceandofcompassion,thegammacontinueswhilethemindisatrest,thoughtoalesserdegree.Also,yogis’brainsseemtoagemoreslowlycomparedtobrainsofotherpeopletheirage.

Othersignsoftheyogis’expertiseincludestoppingandstartingmeditativestatesinseconds,andeffortlessnessinmeditation(particularlyamongthemostseasoned).Theirpainreaction,too,setstheyogisapart:littlesignofanticipatoryanxiety,ashortbutintensereactionduringthepainitself,andthenarapidrecovery.Duringcompassionmeditation,yogis’brainsandheartscoupleinwaysalsonotseeninotherpeople.Mostsignificant,theyogis’brainstatesatrestresemblethebrainstatesofotherswhiletheymeditate—thestatehasbecomeatrait.

D

14

AHealthyMind

r.SusanDavidson,Richie’swife,isaspecialistinhigh-riskobstetrics—and,likeRichie,alongtimemeditator.SomeyearsbackSusanandafew

othersdecidedtoorganizeameditationgroupforthedoctorsinherhospitalinMadison.ThegroupmetFridays,inthemorning.Susanwouldsendoutregularemailstothehospital’sphysiciansremindingthemoftheopportunity.Andveryoftenshewouldbestoppedinthehallwaybyoneoranotherofthemwhosaid,ineffect,“I’msogladyou’redoingthis.”

Andthenadd,“ButIcan’tcome.”Tobesure,thereweregoodreasons.Thephysiciansatthetimewereeven

morebusythanusual,tryingtoimplementelectronicrecordkeepingbeforetherewereready-madetemplatesforit.Andthemedicalspecialtythattrains“hospitalists”—in-housephysiciansandstaffwhodelivercomprehensivecaretoinpatients,freeinguptimeforothersfromhavingtomakerounds—didnotyetexist.Sothemeditationgrouplikelywouldhaverepresentedaboonforthoseharriedphysicians,achancetorestorethemselvesabit.

Butstill,overtheyearsonlysixorsevenphysiciansshowedupatanygivensession.EventuallySusanandtheothersranoutofsteam;feelingthegroupnevergotrealtraction,theyendedit.

Thatfeelingofnothavingtimemaybethenumberoneexcuseamongpeoplewhowanttomeditatebutnevergetaroundtoit.

Recognizingthis,RichieandhisteamaredevelopingadigitalplatformcalledHealthyMindsthatteachesmeditation-basedstrategiestocultivatewell-being,evenforthosewhosaythey“havenotime.”Ifyouinsistyouaretoobusyforformalmeditation,HealthyMindscanbetailoredsoyoucanpiggybackyourpracticeonsomethingyoudoanyway,likecommutingorcleaningthehouse.Aslongasthatactivitydoesnotdemandyourfullattention,youcanlistentopracticeinstructionsinthebackground.Sincesomeofthemainpayoffsfrom

practiceinstructionsinthebackground.Sincesomeofthemainpayoffsfrommeditationareinhowtheyprepareusforeverydaylifeanyway,thechancetopracticeinthemidstoflifecouldbeastrength.

HealthyMinds,ofcourse,addstotheeverlongerlistofappsthatteachmeditation.Butwhilethosemanyappsusethescientificfindingsonthebenefitsofmeditationasasellingpoint,HealthyMindswillgoonecrucialstepfurther:Richie’slabwillscientificallyinvestigateitsimpactstoassesshowwellsuchpiggybackedpracticeactuallyworks.

Forexample,howdoestwentyminutesadayduringcommutingcomparetotwentyminutesadaysittinginaquietplaceathome?Wedon’tknowtheanswertothissimplequestion.Andisitbettertopracticeinasingletwenty-minuteperiod,twoten-minuteperiods,orfourperiodsoffiveminuteseach?TheseareamongthemanypracticalquestionsRichieandhisteamhopetoanswer.

Weseethisdigitalplatformandtheresearchevaluatingitasaprototypeofthenextstepinwideningthepathofaccesstothemanybenefitssciencefindsfromcontemplativepractice.AlreadyMBSR,TM,andgenericformsofmindfulnessareineasy-to-accessformsanyonemightbenefitfrom,withouthavingtoembrace,orevenknowabout,theirAsianroots.

Manycompanies,forinstance,havedeployedtheseapproachesasbeneficialbothfortheiremployeesandforthebottomline,offeringcontemplativemethodsaspartoftheirtraininganddevelopmentmenus;someevenhavemeditationroomswhereemployeescanspendquiettimefocusing.(Ofcourse,suchofferingsneedasupportiveworkculture—atonecompanywhereworkerspoundedawayattheirterminalsforexhaustinghoursonend,Danwastoldinconfidencethatpeopleseenusingthemeditationroomtheretoooftenmightbefired.)

AmishiJha’sgroupattheUniversityofMiaminowoffersmindfulnesstrainingtohigh-stressgroupsrangingfromcombattroopstofootballplayers,firefighters,andteachers.TheGarrisonInstituteoutsideNewYorkCityoffersamindfulness-basedprogramtohelpfrontlinetraumaworkersinAfricaandtheMiddleEastdealwiththeirsecondarytraumafrom,e.g.,fightingtheEbolaepidemicorhelpingdesperaterefugees.AndFleetMaull,whileservingafourteen-yearsentencefordrugsmuggling,foundedthePrisonMindfulnessInstitute,whichnowteachesinmatesinclosetoeightyprisonsacrossAmerica.

Weseecontemplativescienceasabodyofbasicinformationaboutthemanywaysourminds,bodies,andbrainscanbemoldedtowardhealthinitsbroadest

sense.“Health,”astheWorldHealthOrganizationdefinesit,goesbeyondtheabsenceofdiseaseordisabilitytoinclude“completephysical,mental,andsocialwell-being.”Meditationanditsderivativescanbeanactiveingredientinsuchwell-beinginseveralways,andcanhavealongreachtofarcorners.

Findingsfromcontemplativesciencecanspawninnovativeapproachesthataresoundlyevidence-based,butwhichlooknothinglikemeditationperse.Theseapplicationsofmeditationtohelpsolvepersonalandsocialdilemmasarealltothegood.Butwhatthefuturemightbringexcitesus,too.

Distancingthesemethodsfromtheirrootsmaybetothegood—solongaswhatemergesstaysgroundedinscience—makingthesesolutionsmorereadilyavailabletothewidestrangeofpeoplewhomightbenefit.Why,afterall,shouldthesemethodsandtheirbenefitsjustbeformeditators?

GUIDINGNEUROPLASTICITY

“Whatdoplantsneedtogrow?”askedLauraPinger,acurriculumspecialistinRichie’scenterwhodevelopedtheKindnessCurriculumforpreschoolchildren.

Thatmorning,manyamongthefifteenpreschoolerslearningtoemphasizekindnesseagerlywavedtheirhandstoanswer.

“Sunlight,”saidone.“Water,”saidanother.Andathird,whohadstruggledwithattentionproblemsbutbenefitedgreatly

fromthekindnessprogram,shotuphishandandblurtedout,“Love.”Therewasapalpablemomentofappreciationforwhatbecameateachable

moment.Thelessonthisledtowasaboutkindnessasaformoflove.TheKindnessCurriculumbeginswithverybasic,age-appropriate

mindfulnessexerciseswherethefour-year-oldslistentothesoundofabellandpayattentiontotheirbreathingastheylieontheirbacks,smallstonesplacedontheirtummiesrisingandfallingwitheachbreath.

Theythenusethatmindfulattentiontofocusawarenessontheirbody,learninghowtopaycloseattentiontothosefeelingswhileinteractingwithotherkids—particularlyifthatotherchildhasgottenupset.Suchupsetsbecomeopportunitiestohavethechildrennotonlynoticewhatishappeningintheirownbodiesbutalsoimaginewhatmightbehappeninginthebodyoftheirupsetclassmate—aventureintoempathy.

classmate—aventureintoempathy.Thechildrenareencouragedtopracticehelpingoneanother,andtoexpress

gratitude.Whenchildrenappreciatethehelpfulnessofanother,theycanrewardthatactbytellingtheteacher,whowillgivethehelpfulchildastickeronaposterofa“kindnessgarden.”

Toevaluatetheimpactofthisprogram,theDavidsongroupinvitedchildrentosharestickers(importantcurrencyforatoddler)withoneoffourchildren:theirfavoritepersonintheclass;theirleastfavoriteclassmate;astranger—akidthey’venevermet—orasick-lookingchild.

Toddlersinthekindnesscurriculumsharedmorewiththeleastfavoriteandthesickchildren,comparedtootherkidsinstandardpre-Kwhogavemoststickerstotheirfavoriteperson.1Anotherfinding:unlikemostchildren,thekindnesskidsdidnotbecomeself-focusedwhentheyreachedkindergarten.

Helpingchildrendevelopkindnessseemsanobvious,goodidea—butatpresentthisvaluablehumancapacityislefttochanceinoureducationalsystem.Manyfamilies,ofcourse,instillthesevaluesintheirchildren—butmanydonot.Gettingsuchprogramsintoschoolsensuresthatallchildrenwillhavethelessonsthatwillstrengthenthismuscleoftheheart.2

Kindness,caring,andcompassionallfollowalineofdevelopmentthatoureducationalsystemlargelyignores—alongwithattention,self-regulation,empathy,andacapacityforhumanconnection.Whilewedoagoodenoughjobwiththetraditionalacademicskillslikereadingandmath,whynotexpandwhatchildrenlearntoincludesuchcrucialskillsforlivingafulfilledlife?

Developmentalpsychologiststellusthattherearedifferingratesofmaturationforattention,forempathyandkindness,forcalmnessandforsocialconnection.Thebehavioralsignsofthismaturation—liketherambunctiousnessofkindergartnersversusbetter-behavedfourthgraders—areoutersignsofgrowthinunderlyingneuralnetworks.AndneuroplasticitytellsusallsuchbraincircuitrycanbeguidedinthebestdirectionthroughtrainingliketheKindnessCurriculum.

Atpresenthowourchildrendevelopthesevitalcapacitieshasbeenleftmainlytorandomforces.Wecanbesmarterinhowwehelpchildrencultivatethem.Forinstance,allmeditationmethodsattheirrootarepracticesinstrengtheningattention.Adaptingthesetechniquesinwaysthatbringattention-buildingexercisetochildrenhasanarrayofadvantages.Noattention,nothinglearned.

It’sremarkablehowlittleconsiderationgoestostrengtheningattentioninchildren,especiallybecausechildhoodoffersalongperiodofopportunityforgrowthinthebrain’scircuitry,andaddedhelpmightstrengthenthosecircuits.

growthinthebrain’scircuitry,andaddedhelpmightstrengthenthosecircuits.Thescienceofcultivatingattentionisquiterobust,sothepathtoaccomplishingthisaimiswithinourreach.

Andwehaveallthemorereason:oursocietysuffersfromanattentiondeficit.Today’schildrengrowupwithadigitaldeviceathandcontinuously,andthosedevicesofferconstantdistractions(andalargerstreamofinformationthanforanygenerationinthepast),soweconsiderboostingattentionskillstobenothingshortofanurgentpublichealthneed.

Danwasacofounderofthemovementcalled“social/emotionallearning,”orSEL;todaytherearethousandsofschoolsofferingSELaroundtheworld.Boostingattentionandempathicconcern,hehasargued,arethenextstep.3Tobesure,arobustmovementhasemergedtobringmindfulnesstoschoolsandparticularlytopoorortroubledyouth.4Buttheseareisolatedeffortsorpilots.Weenvisionprogramsinfocusingattentionandkindnessonedaybeingpartofthestandardofferingsforallchildren.

Givenhowmuchtimeschool-agekidsspendplayingvideogames,thatspeakstoanotherroutetodeliveringtheselessons.Thegames,tobesure,aresometimesdemonizedascontributingtotheattentiondeficitwecollectivelyfaceinmodernculture.Butimagineaworldinwhichtheirpowercanbeharnessedforgood,forcultivatingwholesomestatesandtraits.Richie’sgrouphascollaboratedwithvideogamedesignerswhospecializeineducationalgamestocreatesomeforyoungteens.5

TenacityisthenameofavideogamebasedonresearchinRichie’slabonbreathcounting.6ItturnsoutthatifyouareaskedtotapaniPadoneachin-breath,mostpeoplecandothisveryaccurately.However,iftheyarealsoaskedtotapwithtwofingerseveryninthbreath,onthissecondtasktheymakemistakes,indicatingtheirmindhaswandered.

RichieandhiscolleaguesusedthisinformationasthecoregamemechanicindevelopingTenacity.KidstaptheiPadwithonefingeroneachin-breathandwithtwofingerseveryfifthbreath.Sincemostkidsarehighlyaccurateintappingwitheachin-breath,Richie’steamcandetermineifthedouble-fingertapscorrectlytrackedeachfifthbreath.Themorestringsoffiveaccuratecounts,thehigherthescoreonthegame.Andwitheverycorrecttwo-fingeredtap,theiPadscreen’sscenerygetsmoredecoration;inoneversion,gorgeousflowersbegantosproutinadesertlandscape.

Playingthegameforjusttwentytothirtyminutesdailyovertwoweeks,Richie’sgroupfound,increasedconnectivitybetweenthebrain’sexecutive

centerintheprefrontalcortexandcircuitryforfocusedattention.7Andinothertests,theplayerswerebetterabletofocusonsomeone’sfacialexpressionandignoredistractions—signsofincreasedempathy.

Noonebelievesthesechangeswilllastwithoutcontinuedpracticeofsomekind(ideally,withoutthegame).Butthefactthatbeneficialchangesoccurredbothinthebrainandinbehaviorisaproofofconceptthatvideogamescanimprovemindfulattentionandempathy.

THEMENTALGYM

WhenRichiegavethathigh-profilelectureattheNationalInstitutesofHealth,thein-housenoticeofhistalkofferedthisintriguingspeculation:“Whatifwecouldexerciseourmindslikeweexerciseourbodies?”

Thefitnessindustrythrivesonourwishtobehealthy;physicalfitnessisagoalmosteveryoneespouses(whetherornotwedomuchaboutit).Andhabitsofpersonalhygienelikeregularbathingandtoothbrushingaresecondnature.Sowhynotmentalfitness?

Neuroplasticity—theshapingofthebrainbyrepeatedexperiences—goesonunwittinglythroughoutourdays,thoughwearetypicallyunawareoftheseforces.Wespendlonghoursingestingwhat’sonthescreenofourdigitaldevices,orincountlessotherrelativelymindlesspursuits.Meanwhileourneuronsaredutifullystrengtheningorweakeningtherelevantbraincircuitry.Suchahaphazardmentaldietmostlikelyleadstoequallyhaphazardchangesinthemuscleofthemind.

Contemplativesciencetellsuswecantakemoreresponsibilityforthecareofourownminds.Thebenefitsfromshapingourmindsmoreintentionallycancomeearly,aswesawinthedataonloving-kindnesspractices.

ConsiderworkbyTracyShors,aneuroscientistwhodevelopedatrainingprogramshehypothesizedwouldincreaseneurogenesis—thegrowthofnewbraincells—calledMentalandPhysical(MAP)Training.8Participantsdidthirtyminutesoffocusedattentionmeditationfollowedbythirtyminutesofmoderate-intensityaerobicexercisetwotimesaweekforeightweeks.Benefitsincludedimprovedexecutivefunction,supportingthenotionthatthebrainwasshapedpositively.

Whileworkingoutintensivelyproducesmoremuscleandbetterendurance,

Whileworkingoutintensivelyproducesmoremuscleandbetterendurance,ifwestopexercising,weknowthatweareheadingbacktowardmorebreathlessnessandflab.Thesamegoesforthechangesinthemindandbrainfromthatinnerworkout,meditationanditsspinoffs.

Andsincethebrainislikeamusclethatimproveswithexercise,whynotanequivalentofphysicalfitnessprograms—mentalgyms?Thementalgymwouldnotbeaphysicalspacebutratherasetofappsforinnerexercisesthatcanbeperformedanywhere.

Digitaldeliverysystemscanofferthebenefitsofcontemplativepracticetotheverywidestnumbers.Whilemeditationappsarealreadyinwideuse,therearenodirectscientificevaluationsofthesemethods.Insteadtheappstypicallycitestudiesdoneelsewhereonsomekindofmeditation(andnotnecessarilythebestsuchstudies),whilefailingtobetransparentabouttheirowneffectiveness.Onesuchapp,whichsupposedlyenhancedmentalfunctions,hadtopayalargefinewhengovernmentagencieschallengedtheirclaims,whichprovedunsupported.

Ontheotherhand,theevidencesofarsuggeststhatwerewell-designeddigitaldeliveriestobetestedwithrigor,theymightdowell.Forexample,therewasthatstudyofweb-basedinstructioninloving-kindness(reviewedinchaptersix,“PrimedforLove”)thatshoweditmadepeoplebothmorerelaxedandmoregenerous.9

AndSonaDimidjian’sgroupreachedoutonthewebtopeoplewhohavelow-levelsymptomsofdepression—agroupatahigher-than-averageriskforaboutoffull-blowndepression.Sona’steamdevelopedaweb-basedcourse,derivedfromMBCT,calledMindfulMoodBalance;theeightsessionsreducedsymptomsofdepressionandanxietysuchasconstantworryandrumination.10

Butthesesuccessstoriesdonotautomaticallymeananyandallonlineteachingofmeditationoritsderivativeswillbebeneficial.Aresomemoreeffectivethanothers?Ifso,why?Theseareempiricalquestions.

Tothebestofourknowledge,thereisnotasinglepublicationinthemainstreamscientificliteraturethathasdirectlyevaluatedtheefficacyofanyofthemultitudeofmeditationappsthatclaimabasisinscience.Wehopeonedaysuchanevaluationwouldbestandardforanysuchapp,toshowitworksaspromised.

Still,meditationresearchoffersabundantsupportforthelikelypayofffrommindtraining.Weenvisionatimewhenourculturetreatsthemindinthesame

wayittreatsthebody,withexercisestocareforourmindbecomingpartofourdailyroutine.

NEURALHACKING

TheNewEnglandsnowwassomewherebetweenicyandmeltingthatMarchmorning,andthelivingroomoftheVictorianhouseontheAmherstCollegecampuscontainedasmallNoah’sarkofdisciplines.Therewerepairsofreligiousscholars,experimentalpsychologists,neuroscientists,andphilosophers.

ThegrouphadgatheredundertheauspicesoftheMindandLifeInstitutetoexplorethecornerofthemindthatbeginswitheverydaydesire.Sometimesthatpathwayrunsthroughcravingtoaddiction—beittodrugs,porn,orshopping.

Thereligiousscholarstherepinpointedtheproblematthemomentofgrasping,theemotionalimpulsethatmakesusleanintowardpleasure,whateverformitmighttake.Inthegripofgrasping,particularlyasitslidesinintensitytowardcravingandaddiction,there’sasenseofuneasinessthatdrivestheclinging,seductivementalwhispersthattheparticularobjectofourdesireswillrelieveourdisease.

Momentsofgraspingcanbesosubtletheypassbyunnoticedinthefreneticdistractionsofourusualstateofmind.Wearemostlikely,theresearchshows,toreachforthatfatteningtreatinthemomentswearemostdistracted—andaddictsarelikelytoseekthenextfixwhentheyseesmallprompts,liketheshirttheyworeduringahigh,thatfloodthemwithmemoriesoftheirlastfix.

Thisstatecontrasts,philosopherJakeDavisnoted,withthesenseofuttereasewefeelwhenwearefreeofcompulsivemotivations.A“mindofnongrasping”rendersusimmunetotheseimpulses,contentinourselvesasweare.

Mindfulnessletsusobservewhat’shappeningintheminditselfratherthansimplybecarriedawaybyit.Thoseimpulsestograbstarttostandout.“Youneedtoseeittoletitgo,”saidDavis.Whilewearemindfulwenoticesuchimpulsesarisingbutregardtheminthesamewayasotherspontaneouslyarisingthoughts.

TheneuralactionhererevolvesaroundthePCC(postcingulatecortex),suggestedpsychiatristandneuroscientistJudsonBrewer,whohadjustbecomedirectorofresearchattheCenterforMindfulnessattheUniversityof

directorofresearchattheCenterforMindfulnessattheUniversityofMassachusettsMedicalSchoolinWorcester—birthplaceofMBSR.MentalactivitieswherethePCCplaysapartincludebeingdistracted,lettingourmindwander,thinkingaboutourselves,likingachoicewe’vemadeevenifwefinditimmoral,andfeelingguilty.And,ohyes—craving.

Brewer’sgroup,aswesawinchaptereight,“LightnessofBeing,”imagedthebrainsofpeopleduringmindfulness,findingthemethodquietsthePCC.Themoreeffortlessmindfulnessbecomes,thequieterthePCC.11InBrewer’slab,mindfulnesshashelpedpeopleaddictedtocigaretteskickthehabit.12Hehasdevelopedtwoapps—forovereatingandforsmoking—applyinghisPCCfindingstobreakingaddictions.

Brewerwentontotranslatethisneuralfindingintoapracticalapproachusing“neurofeedback,”whichmonitorstheactivityofaperson’sbrainandtellstheminstantlyifagivenregionisgettingmoreorlessactive.ThisallowsthepersontoexperimentwithwhattheirmindcandotomaketheirPCClessactive.Ordinarilyweareoblivioustowhatgoesonwithinourbrain,particularlyatthelevelreadbybrainscannersandthelike.That’samainreasonneurosciencefindingscarrysuchweight.Butneurofeedbackpiercesthatmind-brainbarrier,openingawindowonthebrain’sactivitytoallowafeedbackloop.Thisletsussensehowagivenmentalmaneuverimpactsthegoings-onwithinourbrain.Weenvisionanextgenerationofmeditation-derivedappsthatusefeedbackfromrelevantbiologicalorneuralprocesses,withBrewer’sPCCneurofeedbackasaprototype.

Anothertargetforneurofeedbackmightbegammawaves,thatEEGpatternthattypifiesthebrainofadvancedyogis.Still,whilesomegammawavefeedbacksimulationofayogi’svastopennessmightresult,wedonotseeneurofeedbackasashortcuttotheyogi’srealizationofalteredtraits.Gammaoscillations,oranyparticularmeasuretakenoftheyogis’stateofmind,offersatbestanarbitraryandthinsliceoftherichfullnessyogisseemtoenjoy.Whilegammawavefeedback,orsomeotherdipintosuchelements,mayofferacontrasttoourordinarymindstates,theybynomeansequatewiththefruitsofyearsofcontemplativepractice.

Butthereareotherpossiblepayoffs.Considerthemeditatingmice.MeditatingMice?!?Thisridiculouspossibility—oraveryvagueparallel—

hasbeenexploredbyneuroscientistsattheUniversityofOregon.Okay,themicedidn’treallymeditate;researchersusedaspecializedstrobelighttodrivethemouse’sbrainatspecificfrequencies,amethodcalledphoticdriving,wheretherhythmofEEGwaveslockintothatofaflashingbrightlight.Themiceseemed

tofindthisrelaxing,judgingfromrodentsignsoflessenedanxiety.13Whenotherresearchersdrovetherodentbrainintothegammafrequencywithphoticdriving,theyfounditreducedtheneuralplaqueassociatedwithAlzheimer’sdisease,atleastinagedmice.14

Couldfeedbackofgammawaves(thatfrequencyabundantinyogis)sloworreverseAlzheimer’sdisease?Theannalsofpharmaceuticalresearcharerifewithpotentialmedicationsthatseemedsuccessfulwhenusedinmice,butfailedoncehumantrialsbegan.15GammawaveneurofeedbackforpreventingAlzheimer’sdiseaseinhumansmay(ormaynot)beapipedream.

Butthebasicmodel,thatneurofeedbackappsmaymakeoncerarefiedstatesavailabletoawideswathofpeople,seemsmorepromising.Hereagainweseecaveats—nottheleastbeingthatsuchdevicesarelikelytoproducetemporarystateeffects,notlastingtraits.Letalonethehugedividebetweenyearsofintensivemeditationandmerelyusinganewappforabit.

Still,weenvisionanextgenerationofhelpfulapplications,allderivedfromthemethodsandinsightsunveiledbycontemplativescience.Whatshapesthesewilleventuallytakewejustdonotknow.

OURJOURNEY

Thehardevidenceforalteredtraitscameslowly,overdecades.Weweregraduatestudentswhenwestartedonthescent,andnow,aswesumupwhathas,finally,becomecompellingevidence,havereachedtheeraoflifewhenpeoplelooktowardretiring.

Formuchofthistimewehadtopursueascientifichunchwithfewsupportingdata.Butwewerecomfortedbythedictumthat“anabsenceofevidenceisnotevidenceofabsence.”Therootsofourconvictionlayinourownexperiencesinmeditationretreats,thefewrarebeingswehadmetwhoseemedtoembodyalteredtraits,andourreadingofmeditationtextsthatpointedtothesepositivetransformationsofbeing.

Still,fromanacademicpointofview,thisamountedtoanabsenceofevidence:therewerenoimpartialempiricaldata.Whenwebeganthisscientificjourneytherewerescantmethodsavailabletoexplorealteredtraits.Inthe1970s,wewerestymied—wecouldonlydostudiesthattangentiallyspoketotheidea.

Foronething,wehadnoaccesstotheappropriatesubjects—insteadofdedicatedyogisfromremotemountainhermitages,wehadtosettleforHarvardsophomores.

Mostimportant,humanneurosciencewasinitstentative,beginningphase.Themethodsathandforstudyingthebrainwereprimitivebytoday’sstandards;“stateoftheart”inthosedaysmeantvagueorindirectmeasuresofbrainactivity.

InthedecadebeforeourHarvardyearsphilosopherThomasKuhnpublishedTheStructureofScientificRevolutions,holdingthatscienceshiftsabruptlyfromtimetotimeasnovelideasandradicallyinnovativeparadigmsforceshiftsinthinking.Thisideahadcaughtourfancyaswesearchedforparadigmsthatpositedhumanpossibilitiesundreamtofinourpsychology.Kuhn’sideas,hotlydiscussedinthescientificworld,spurredusondespiteoppositionfromourownfacultyadvisers.

Scienceneedsitsadventurers.That’swhatwewereasRichiesatonhiszafuthroughthathourofnotmovingwithGoenka-ji,andwhatDanwasashehungoutwithyogisandlamas,andspentmonthsporingoverthatfifth-centuryguidebookformeditators,theVisuddhimagga.

Ourconvictionregardingalteredtraitsmadeusvigilantforstudiesthatmightsupportourhunch.Wefilteredthefindingsthroughthelensofourexperience,drawingoutimplicationsfewothers,ifany,wereseeing.

Sciencesoperatewithinawebofculture-boundassumptionsthatlimitourviewofwhatispossible,mostpowerfullyforthebehavioralsciences.ModernpsychologyhadnotknownthatEasternsystemsoffermeanstotransformaperson’sverybeing.WhenwelookedthroughthatalternateEasternlens,wesawfreshpossibilities.

Bynow,mountingempiricalstudiesconfirmourearlyhunches:sustainedmindtrainingaltersthebrainbothstructurallyandfunctionally,proofofconceptfortheneuralbasisofalteredtraitsthatpractitioners’textshavedescribedformillennia.What’smore,weallcanmovealongthisspectrum,whichseemstofollowaroughdose-responsealgorithm,gainingbenefitsinaccordwithourefforts.

Contemplativeneuroscience,theemergingspecialtywhichsuppliesthesciencebehindalteredtraits,hasreachedmaturity.

CODA

CODA

“Whatif,bytransformingourminds,wecouldimprovenotonlyourownhealthandwell-beingbutalsothoseofourcommunitiesandthewiderworld?”

Thatrhetoricalquestion,too,comesfromtheinternalnoticeattheNationalInstitutesofHealthaboutRichie’stalkthere.

So,whatif?Weenvisionaworldwherewidespreadmentalfitnessdeeplyalterssociety

forthebetter.Wehopethescientificcasewemakehereshowstheenormouspotentialforenduringwell-beingfromcaringforourmindsandbrains,andconvincesyouthatalittledailymentalexercisecangoalongwaytowardthecultivationofthatwell-being.

Signsofsuchflourishingincludeincreasinggenerosity,kindnessandfocus,andalessrigiddivisionbetween“us”and“them.”Inlightofincreasesinempathyandperspectivetakingfromvariouskindsofmeditation,wethinkitlikelythatthesepracticeswillproduceagreatersenseofourinterdependenceononeanotherandwiththeplanet.

Whennurturedonagrandscale,thesequalities—particularlykindnessandcompassion—wouldinevitablyleadtochangesforthebetterinourcommunities,ournations,andoursocieties.Thesepositivealteredtraitshavethepotentialfortransformingourworldinwaysthatwillenhancenotonlyourindividualthrivingbutalsotheoddsforourspecies’survival.

WeareinspiredbythevisionoftheDalaiLamaashereachedeightyyearsofage.Heencouragesusalltodothreethings:gaincomposure,adoptamoralrudderofcompassion,andacttobettertheworld.Thefirst,innercalm,andthesecond,navigatingwithcompassion,canbeproductsofmeditationpractice,ascanexecutingthethird,viaskillfulaction.Exactlywhatactionwetake,though,remainsuptoeachofus,anddependsonourindividualabilitiesandpossibilities—weeachcanbeagentsinaforceforgood.16

Weviewthis“curriculum”asonesolutiontoanurgentpublichealthneed:reducinggreed,selfishness,us/themthinkingandimpendingeco-calamities,andpromotingmorekindness,clarity,andcalm.Targetingandupgradingthesehumancapacitiesdirectlycouldhelpbreakthecycleofsomeotherwiseintractablesocialmaladies,likeongoingpoverty,intergrouphatreds,andmindlessnessaboutourplanet’swell-being.17

Tobesure,therearestillmany,manyquestionsabouthowalteredtraitsoccur,andmuchmoreresearchisneeded.Butthescientificdatasupportingalteredtraitshavecometogethertothepointthatanyreasonablescientistwould

alteredtraitshavecometogethertothepointthatanyreasonablescientistwouldagreethatthisinnershiftseemspossible.Yettoofewofusatpresentrealizethis,letaloneentertainthepossibilityforourselves.

Thescientificdata,whilenecessary,arebynomeanssufficientforthechangeweenvision.Inaworldgrowingmorefracturedandendangered,weneedanalternativetomind-setssnarkyandcynical,viewsfosteredbyfocusingonthebadthathappenseachdayratherthanthefarmorenumerousactsofgoodness.Inshort,wehaveevergreaterneedforthehumanqualitiesalteredtraitsfoster.

Weneedmorepeopleofgoodwill,whoaremoretolerantandpatient,morekindandcompassionate.Andthesecanbecomequalitiesnotjustespousedbutembodied.

We—alongwithlegionsoffellowjourneyers—havebeenexploringalteredtraits,inthefield,inthelab,andinourownminds,formorethanfortyyears.So,whythisbooknow?

Simple.Wefeelthatthemoretheseupgradesinthebrain,mind,andbeingarepursued,themoretheycanchangetheworldforthebetter.Whatsetsthisstrategyforhumanbettermentapartfromthelonghistoryoffailedutopianschemescomesdowntothescience.

Wehaveshowntheevidencethatitispossibletocultivatethesepositivequalitiesinthedepthsofourbeing,andthatanyofuscanbeginthisinnerjourney.Manyofusmaynotbeabletoputforththeintenseeffortneededtowalkthedeeppath.Butthewiderroutesshowthatqualitieslikeequanimityandcompassionarelearnableskills,oneswecanteachourchildrenandimproveinourselves.

Anystepswetakeinthisdirectionareapositiveofferingtoourlivesandourworld.

FurtherResources

FORONGOINGREPORTSOFMEDITATIONRESEARCH

https://centerhealthyminds.org/—CenterforHealthyMinds,UniversityofWisconsin–Madisonhttps://www.mindandlife.org/—Mind&LifeInstitutehttps://nccih.nih.gov/—NationalCenterforComplementaryandIntegrativeHealthhttp://ccare.stanford.edu/—CenterforCompassionandAltruismResearchandEducation,StanfordUniversityhttp://mbct.com/—Mindfulness-basedcognitivetherapyKEYMEDITATIONRESEARCHGROUPS

https://centerhealthyminds.org/science/studies—RichieDavidson’slabhttp://www.umassmed.edu/cfm/—JudsonBrewer’slab,andthecenterforMBSR

https://www.resource-project.org/en/home.html—TaniaSinger’smeditationstudyhttp://www.amishi.com/lab/—AmishiJha’slabhttp://saronlab.ucdavis.edu/—CliffordSaron’slabhttps://www.psych.ox.ac.uk/research/mindfulness—OxfordMindfulnessCentrehttp://marc.ucla.edu/—UCLAMindfulAwarenessResearchCenterSOCIETALIMPLICATIONS

DalaiLama’sVision:www.joinaforce4good.orgFORTHEAUDIOVERSIONOFTHISBOOKwww.MoreThanSound.net

Acknowledgments

Wecouldnothavebegunthejourneythatresultedinthisbookwithouttheinitialinspirationfromthosespirituallyadvancedbeingswemetwhohaveprogressedfaronthepathofmeditation.

TherearethoseDanmetinAsia,includingNeemKaroliBaba,KhunuLama,andAnandaMayeeMa,amongseveralothers.Andourteachers:S.N.Goenka,Munindra-ji,SayadawUPandita,NyoshulKhen,AdeuRinpoche,TulkuUrgyen,andhissons,allrinpoches,too:ChokyiNyima,TsikeyChokling,Tsoknyi,and,ofcourse,Mingyur.

ThentherearethemanyTibetanyogiswhotraveledfartobestudiedinRichie’slab,aswellastheWesternretreatantsfromtheircenterinDordogne,France.WearedeeplyindebtedtoMatthieuRicard,whobridgedtheworldsofscienceandcontemplation,makingthislineofresearchpossible.

Thescientistswhohavecontributedtheirstudiestotheever-buildingmassofcontemplativeresearcharetoonumeroustoname,butwearegratefulfortheirscientificwork.SpecialthankstothoseatRichie’slab,notablyAntoineLutz,CortlandDahl,JohnDunne,MelissaRosenkranz,HeleenSlagter,HelenWeng,andmanyotherstoonumeroustolistwhotogethercontributedenormouslytothiswork.TheworkinRichie’scenterwouldnotbepossiblewithoutthetirelesscontributionsoftheextraordinaryadministrativestaffandleadership,especiallyIsaDolski,SusanJensen,andBarbMathison.

Amongthemanyfriendsandcolleagueswhohavemadeinsightfulsuggestionsalongtheway,wethankJackKornfield,JosephGoldstein,DawaTarchinPhillips,TaniaSinger,AvidehShashaani,SharonSalzberg,MirabhaiBush,andLarryBrilliant,tomentionafew.

Andofcoursewecouldnothavewrittenthisbookwithoutthelovingsupportandencouragementofourwives,SusanandTara.

OurbiggestdebtofgratitudegoestoHisHolinesstheDalaiLama,whobothinspiredusbyhisverybeingandalsopointedlysuggestedhowmeditationresearchcouldbringthevalueofthesepracticestothewidestnumberofpeople.

Notes

CHAPTERONE.THEDEEPPATHANDTHEWIDE

1.HewasprobablyreferringtotheexpletivesthatsometimesexplodefromthosewithTourette’ssyndrome,notobsessive-compulsivedisorder,butintheearly1970sclinicalpsychologywasnotyetfamiliarwiththeTourette’sdiagnosis.

2.www.mindandlife.org.3.DanielGoleman,DestructiveEmotions:HowCanWeOvercomeThem?(NewYork:Bantam,2003).Alsoseewww.mindandlife.org.

4.Thelabwasrunbyourphysiologyprofessor,DavidShapiro.AmongothersintheresearchgroupwereJonKabat-Zinn,whowasabouttobeginteachingwhathasbecomemindfulness-basedstressreduction,andRichardSurwit,thenapsychologyinternatMassachusettsMentalHealthCenter,wholaterbecameaprofessorinpsychiatryandbehavioralmedicineatDukeUniversityMedicalSchool.DavidShapiroleftHarvardtojointhefacultyatUCLA,whereamongothertopicshestudiedthephysiologicalbenefitsofyoga.

5.Thekeywordsusedinthissearchwere:meditation,mindfulnessmeditation,compassionmeditation,andloving-kindnessmeditation.

CHAPTERTWO.ANCIENTCLUES

1.ForakaleidoscopicsenseofNeemKaroliBabaasseenthroughtheeyesofWesternerswhoknewhim,see:ParvatiMarkus,LoveEveryone:TheTranscendentWisdomofNeemKaroliBabaToldThroughtheStoriesoftheWesternersWhoseLivesHeTransformed(SanFrancisco:HarperOne,2015).

2.MirkaKnaster,LivingThisLifeFully:StoriesandTeachingsofMunindra(Boston:Shambhala,2010).3.ThethrongofmeditatorsincludedotherswhohadbeenwithMaharaji,includingKrishnaDas,andRamDasshimself.Others,includingSharonSalzberg,JohnTravis,andWesNisker,becamevipassanateachersthemselves.MirabaiBush,anotherattendee,laterfoundedtheCenterforContemplativeMindinSociety,anorganizationdedicatedtoencouragingcontemplativepedagogyatthecollegelevel,andshecodesignedthefirstcourseonmindfulnessandemotionalintelligenceatGoogle.

4.Tobesure,somepartsofsuchtextsseemedtoofancifultomeritseriousattention—notably,onachievingsupernormalpowers—whichmatchedfairlywellasimilarsectioninPatanjali’sYogaSutras.Thesetextsdismisssuch“powers,”likehearingatagreatdistance,ashavingnospiritualsignificance—andindeed,insomeIndianepicsliketheRamayana,thevillainsaresaidtohaveattainedsuchpowersthroughyearsofasceticmeditationpractices,butwithoutaprotectiveethicalframework(andthustheirvillainy).

5.SeeDanielGoleman,“TheBuddhaonMeditationandStatesofConsciousness,PartI:TheTeachings,”JournalofTranspersonalPsychology4:1(1972):1–44.

6.DanielGoleman,“MeditationasMeta-Therapy:HypothesesTowardaProposedFifthStageofConsciousness,”JournalofTranspersonalPsychology3:1(1971):1–25.Onreadingthisonceagain

somefortyyearslater,Danfeelsbothembarrassedinmanywaysbyitsnaivetéand,inafewrespects,pleasedatitsprescience.

7.B.K.Anandetal.,“SomeAspectsofEEGStudiesinYogis,”EEGandClinicalNeurophysiology13(1961):452–56.Besidesbeingananecdotalreport,thisstudyoccurredlongbeforetheadventofcomputerizeddataanalysis.

8.ThekeynotionofSkinner’s“radicalbehaviorism”wasthatallhumanactivityresultedfromlearnedassociationsofagivenstimulus(famously,Pavlovringingabell)andaspecificresponse(adogsalivatinginresponsetothebell)thatgetsreinforced(initiallybyfood).

9.ThechairmanofRichie’sdepartmenthadgottenhisPhDfromHarvardunderB.F.Skinnerhimself,andbroughttoNYUhisstudiesofpigeontrainingviaconditioning—alongwithalabfulofcagedpigeons.Thedepartmentchairmanwasnotjustrigidinhisbehavioristoutlookbut,inRichie’sview,fartooadamant,ifnotoutrightrabid.Inthoseyearsbehaviorismhadtakenovermanyprestigiouspsychologydepartmentsaspartofamoregeneralmovementinacademicpsychologytomakethefieldmore“scientific”throughexperimentalresearch—areactiontothepsychoanalytictheoriesthathaddominatedthefield(whichwerelargelysupportedbyclinicalanecdotesratherthanexperimentation).

10.Asastudentinthechairman’sseniorhonorsseminar,RichiewashorrifiedtofindthatthetextwasSkinner’s1957bookVerbalBehavior,whichclaimedthatallhumanhabitswerelearnedthroughreinforcement,withlanguageasthecaseinpoint.SomeyearsearlierSkinner’sbookhadcomeunderfierce,andhighlyvisible,attackinacriticalreviewbyMITlinguistNoamChomsky.Thecritiquepointsout,forinstance,thatnomatterhowmuchadogheardhumanlanguage,noamountofrewardwouldgetittotalk—whilehumanbabieseverywherelearntodosowithnoparticularreinforcement.Thissuggeststhatinherentcognitiveabilities,notmerelearnedassociations,propelthemasteryoflanguage.ForhisseminarpresentationRichierecappedNoamChomsky’scritiqueofSkinner’sbook—andthereafterfelthisdepartmentchairmanworkedceaselesslytounderminehimandinfactwantedtothrowhimoutofthedepartment.ThatseminardroveRichienuts;hehadfantasiesaboutgoingintothechairman’slabatthreeinthemorningandliberatingthepigeons.SeeNoamChomsky,“TheCaseAgainstBehaviorism,”NewYorkReviewofBooks,December30,1971.

11.Richie’sadviserJudithRodinhadherselfjustfinishedherPhDatColumbiaUniversity.Rodinwentontoadistinguishedcareerinpsychology,becomingthedeanoftheGraduateSchoolofArtsandScienceatYale,latertheuniversity’sprovost,andthenthefirstfemalepresidentofanIvyLeaguecollege,theUniversityofPennsylvania.AsofthiswritingsheisjuststeppingdownaspresidentoftheRockefellerFoundation.

12.ForjustsuchmethodsheturnedtoJohnAntrobus,whotaughtacrosstownattheCityCollegeofNewYork.RichiewouldhangoutinAntrobus’slab,arefugefromtheatmosphereofhisowndepartment.

13.DanielGoleman,EmotionalIntelligence(NewYork:Bantam,1995).14.WilliamJames,TheVarietiesofReligiousExperience(CreateSpaceIndependentPublishingPlatform,

2013),p.388.15.FreudandRolland:seeSigmundFreud,CivilizationandItsDiscontents.Later,though,transcendental

experienceswereincludedinthetheoriesofAbrahamMaslow,whocalledthem“peakexperiences.”Fromthe1970stherewasanascentmovementattheedgeofthealreadyperipheralhumanisticpsychologymovement,called“transpersonal”psychology,whichtookalteredstatesseriously(DanwasanearlypresidentoftheAssociationforTranspersonalPsychology).DanpublishedhisfirstmeditationarticlesinTheJournalofTranspersonalPsychology.

16.CharlesTart,ed.,AlteredStatesofConsciousness(NewYork:Harper&Row,1969).17.Theexcitementandculturalfascinationwithpsychedelicswasinasenseanoffshootofthestateof

brainscienceatthetime,whichforyearshadbeenadvancingitsknowledgeofneurotransmitters.Dozensofthesehadbeenidentifiedintheearly1970s,thoughtheirfunctionswerelittleunderstood.Fortyyearslaterwecanidentifymorethanahundred,withavastlymoresophisticatedlistofwhattheydointhebrain,alongwithahealthyappreciationofthecomplexityoftheirinteractions.

18.ASocialScienceResearchCouncilfellowshiptostudythepsychologicalsystemswithinAsianspiritual

traditions.19.ThisdefinitionofmindfulnesscomesfromNyanaponika,ThePowerofMindfulness(Kandy,SriLanka:

BuddhistPublicationSociety,1986).20.LuriaCastellDickinson,quotedinSheilaWeller,“SuddenlyThatSummer,”VanityFair,July,2012,p.

72.Similarly,neurologistOliverSackswroteabouthisownexplorationswithawiderangeofmind-alteringdrugs,“somepeoplecanreachtranscendentstatesthroughmeditationorsimilartrance-inducingtechniques.Butdrugsofferashortcut;theypromisetranscendenceondemand.”OliverSacks,“AlteredStates,”TheNewYorker,August27,2012,p.40.Whiledrugscaninducealteredstates,theydonothelpwithalteredtraits.

CHAPTERTHREE.THEAFTERISTHEBEFOREFORTHENEXTDURING

1.Healthyandunhealthy:Intheacademicvernacularoftranslations,thetwoareusuallycalled“unwholesome”and“wholesome”“mentalfactors.”

2.Nyanaponika’soriginalnamewasSiegmundFeniger.HewasbornJewishinGermanyin1901,wasalreadyaBuddhistinhistwenties,andfoundthewritingsofanotherGerman-bornBuddhist,NyanatilokaThera(AntonGueth),particularlyinspiring.WiththeriseofHitler,FenigertraveledtowhatwasthenCeylontojoinNyanatilokaatamonasterynearColombo.NyanatilokahadstudiedmeditationwithaBurmesemonkreputedtobeenlightened(thatis,anarhant)andNyanaponikalaterstudiedwiththelegendaryBurmesemeditationmasterandscholarMahasiSayadaw,whowasMunindra’steacher.

3.Thecoursealsoattractedanumberofnonstudents,includingMitchKapor,wholaterfoundedLotus,anearlysoftwaresuccess.

4.AnotherteachingassistantwhowentontoanillustriouscareerwasShoshanahZuboff,whobecameaprofessoratHarvardBusinessSchool,andwroteInTheAgeoftheSmartMachine(BasicBooks,1989),amongotherbooks.Astudent,JoelMcCleary,becameamemberoftheJimmyCarteradministrationandwascrucialingettingStateDepartmentapprovalfortheDalaiLamatovisittheUnitedStatesforthefirsttime.

5.ThemillionswhopracticeyogainmoderncentersarenotduplicatingthestandardmethodsofAsianyogiswhoeventodayseekremoteplacestopracticetheirmethodsinprivacy.Traditionally,teachingthesepracticesinvolvesasingleteacher(or“guru”)andstudent,notaclassinayogastudio.Andthesetsofposestypicalinmodernsettingsdifferinkeywaysfromthetraditionalyogicpractices:thestandingposeswerearecentinnovation,theformatofsetsofposeswasborrowedfromEuropeanexerciseroutines,andyogisinthewilddeploymuchmorepranayamatocalmthemindandtriggermeditativestatesthanisthecasein,say,yogaprogramsdesignedforfitnessratherthantosupportlongsittingsessionsinmeditation(whichwasanoriginalpurposeoftheyogaasanas).SeeWilliamBroad,TheScienceofYoga(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,2012).

6.RichardJ.DavidsonandDanielJ.Goleman,“TheRoleofAttentioninMeditationandHypnosis:APsychobiologicalPerspectiveonTransformationsofConsciousness,”InternationalJournalofClinicalandExperimentalHypnosis25:4(1977):291–308.

7.DavidHull,ScienceasaProcess(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1990).8.JosephSchumpeter,HistoryofEconomicAnalysis(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,1996),p.41.9.Theseweretheyearswhenthefieldofneurosciencewasjustforming,largelybasedonresearchwithanimals,notpeople.TheSocietyforNeurosciencehelditsfirstmeetingin1971.Richie’sfirstmeetingwasthesociety’sfifth.

10.E.L.Bennettetal.,“RatBrain:EffectsofEnvironmentalEnrichmentonWetandDryWeights,”Science163:3869(1969):825–26.http://www.sciencemag.org/content/163/3869/825.short.Wenowknowthatthegrowthmightalsoincludeaddingnewneurons.

11.Forrecentreviewsofhowmusictrainingshapesthebrain,seeC.PantevandS.C.Herholz,“PlasticityoftheHumanAuditoryCortexRelatedtoMusicalTraining,”NeuroscienceBiobehavioralReview35:10(2011):2140–54;doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.06.010;S.C.HerholzandR.J.Zatorre,“MusicalTrainingasaFrameworkforBrainPlasticity:Behavior,Function,andStructure,”Neuron2012:76(3):486–502;doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.011.

12.T.Elbertetal.,“IncreasedCorticalRepresentationoftheFingersoftheLeftHandinStringPlayers,”Science270:5234(1995):305–7;doi:10.1126/science.270.5234.305.Sixviolists,twocellists,andoneguitarist,alongwithsixage-matchednonmusiciancontrolsformedthesubjectsforoneofthemostinfluentialstudiesontheimpactofmusicaltrainingonthebrain.Themusicians’trainingrangedfromalowofsevenyearstoahighofseventeenyearsoftraining.Thenonmusicianswereage-andgender-matchedtothemusicians.Importantly,allthemusiciansplayedastringinstrumentandallwereright-handed;thelefthandofthesemusiciansiscontinuouslyengagedinfingeringtheinstrumentwhentheyplay.Playingastringinstrumentrequiresconsiderablemanualdexterityandcultivatesenhancedtactilesensitivitythatiskeytoskillfulperformance.Usingatechniquetomeasurethemagneticsignalsgeneratedbythebrain,verymuchlikemeasuringtheelectricalsignals(thoughwithgreaterspatialresolution)showedthatthesizeofthecorticalsurfacedevotedtorepresentingthefingersofthelefthandwasdramaticallylargerinthemusicianscomparedtothenonmusicians.Thesizeofthisareawasgreatestforthosemusicianswhobegantheirtrainingearlierinlife.

13.Technically,thisisparafovealvision.Thefoveaistheareaoftheretinathatreceivesinputfromobjectsjustinfrontofyou,whileinformationthatisfarofftotherightorleftisparafoveal.

14.Nevillestudiedtenprofoundlyandcongenitallydeafindividualswithanaverageageofthirtyandcomparedthemtoanage-andgender-matchedtypicallydevelopinggroupwithnohearingdeficits.Neville’steamtestedthemonataskthatwasdesignedtoassesstheirparafovealvision.Yellowflashingcircleswerepresentedonthescreen,withsomeflashingquicklybutmostflashingmoreslowly.Theparticipants’taskwastopressabuttonwhentheysawthelessfrequentlypresentedfaster-flashingyellowcircle.Sometimesthecirclesappearedtowardthecenterofthescreenandatothertimesthecircleswerepresentedtowardthesides,inparafovealvision.Thedeafparticipantsweremoreaccuratethanthetypicallydevelopingcontrolsindetectingtheyellowcircleswhentheyappearedintheperiphery.Thisfindingwastobeexpectedsincethedeafsubjectswereallexperiencedinsignlanguageandthustheirvisualexperiencewasquitedifferentthancontrolsandincludedregularexposuretorichinformationthatwasnotcentrallylocated.Butthefindingthatwasmoststartlingwasthattheprimaryauditorycortex,thesectorofcorticalrealestatethatreceivestheinitialupstreaminputthatbeginsintheear,showedrobustactivationinresponsetothecirclespresentedofftotheside,butonlyinthedeafsubjects.Thehearingsubjectsshowedabsolutelynoactivationofthisprimaryauditoryregioninresponsetovisualinput.SeeG.D.Scott,C.M.Karns,M.W.Dow,C.Stevens,H.J.Neville,“EnhancedPeripheralVisualProcessinginCongenitallyDeafHumansIsSupportedbyMultipleBrainRegions,IncludingPrimaryAuditoryCortex,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience2014:8(March):1–9;doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00177.

15.Thisresearchputstorestaneuro-myth,thatinanephrology-likemapofthebrain,eachareahasaspecificsetoffunctions,andthesecannotchange.

16.Theveryideaposedagravechallengetoahostofhallowedassumptionsinpsychology—forinstance,thatbyearlyadulthoodpersonalitybecomesfixed,andthatthepersonyouareatthatpointwouldbewhoyouwerefortherestofyourlife—personalitywasstableacrosstimeandindifferentcontexts.Neuroplasticitysuggestedotherwise,thatyourlifeexperiencecouldalteryourpersonalitytraitstosomeextent.

17.See,e.g.,DennisCharneyetal.,“PsychobiologicMechanismsofPost-TraumaticStressDisorder,”ArchivesofGeneralPsychiatry50(1993):294–305.

18.D.Palitskyetal.,“TheAssociationbetweenAdultAttachmentStyle,MentalDisorders,andSuicidality,”JournalofNervousandMentalDisease201:7(2013):579–86;doi:10.1097/NMD.0b013e31829829ab.

19.Moreformally,analteredtraitrepresentssustained,beneficialqualitiesofthinking,feeling,andactingresultingfrompurposefulmindtrainingandaccompaniedbylasting,supportivechangesinthebrain.

20.CortlandDahletal.,“MeditationandtheCultivationofWellbeing:HistoricalRootsandContemporaryScience,”PsychologicalBulletin,inpress,2016.

21.CarolRyffinterviewedathttp://blogs.plos.org/neuroanthropology/2012/07/19/psychologist-carol-ryff-on-wellbeing-and-aging-the-fpr-interview/.

22.RosemaryKobauetal.,“WellBeingAssessment:AnEvaluationofWellBeingScalesforPublicHealthandPopulationEstimatesofWellBeingamongUSAdults,”AppliedPsychology:HealthandWellBeing2:3(2010):272–97.

23.ViktorFrankl,Man’sSearchforMeaning(Boston:BeaconPress,2006).24.TonyaJacobsetal.,“IntensiveMeditationTraining,ImmuneCellTelomeraseActivity,and

PsychologicalMediators,”Psychoneuroendocrinology2010;doi:10.1016/j.psyneurn.2010.09.010.25.OmarSingletonetal.,“ChangeinBrainstemGrayMatterConcentrationFollowingaMindfulness-

BasedInterventionIsCorrelatedwithImprovementinPsychologicalWellBeing,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience,February18,2014;doi:10.3389/fnhum.2014.00033.

26.ShaunaShapiroetal.,“TheModerationofMindfulness-BasedStressReductionEffectsbyTraitMindfulness:ResultsfromaRandomizedControlledTrial,”JournalofClinicalPsychology67:3(2011):267–77.

CHAPTERFOUR.THEBESTWEHAD

1.RichardLazarus,Stress,AppraisalandCoping(NewYork:Springer,1984).2.DanielGoleman,“MeditationandStressReactivity,”HarvardUniversityPhDthesis,1973;DanielGolemanandGaryE.Schwartz,“MeditationasanInterventioninStressReactivity,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology44:3(June1976):456–66;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.44.3.456.

3.DanielT.Gilbertetal.,“Commenton‘EstimatingtheReproducibilityofPsychologicalScience,’”Science351:6277(2016);doi:10.1126/science.aad7243.

4.Theself-assessmentDanused,theState-TraitAnxietyMeasure,continuestobewidelydeployedinresearchonstressandanxiety,includinginmeditationstudies.Charles.D.Spielbergeretal.,ManualfortheState-TraitAnxietyInventory(PaloAlto,CA:ConsultingPsychologistsPress,1983).

5.Urgedbyhisadviser,DanspentweeksandweeksstudyingtomesintheBakerLibraryatHarvardMedicalSchooltotrackthebrainwiringthatleadstotheGSR,aburstofsweatontheskin—whichatthetimewasacircuitnotyetpiecedtogetherfromthebitsandpiecesknownaboutneuroanatomy.Dan’sadviserhaddreamsofpublishingajournalarticleonthis—thoughitnevercametopass.

6.Tobesure,Richie’smainelectricalmeasureswereadvancedforthetime.Butevenreadingtherecordingsthencurrentgaveanimprecisesenseofwhat’sactuallygoingoninsidethebrain,especiallycomparedtocontemporarysystemsforanalyzingEEG.

7.Worse,inDan’sstudyeventhoseperipheralmeasureswerebotchedtosomedegree.Besidesheartrateandsweatresponse,DanhadmeasuredEMG,orelectromyogram,assessingtheleveloftensioninthefrontalismuscle(whichknitsourbrowstogetherwhenwefrownorworry).ButtheEMGresultshadtobethrownoutbecauseDanwasgivenerroneousadviceaboutthekindofpastetousetoattachthesesensorstotheforehead.

8.Dan’sadviserinstructedhimtoskiptheheartratemeasureforhisdissertation.Onlylater,fortheircoauthoredpaperinanacademicjournal,didhisadviserwanglesomefundsfromthedepartmentthatallowedhiringsomeundergradstodothescoring.Butthereweren’tenoughfundstoscoreheartratefortheentiretimeofrecording—onlyforcertainperiodsDan’sadviserchoseascritical—e.g.,theslopeofrecoveryfromtheshopaccidents.Buthereagaintherewasaproblem:themeditatorshadastrongerreactiontotheaccidentsthandidthecontrols.Thoughtheirslopeofrecoverywassteeper—indicatinga

morerapidreturntobaseline—thismeasuredidnotshowthembecomingevenmorerelaxedpost-accidentthanthecontrols.Thiswasaweakpoint,asnotedinlatercritiquesofthestudy.See,e.g.,DavidS.Holmes,“MeditationandSomaticArousalReduction:AReviewoftheExperimentalEvidence,”AmericanPsychologist39:1(1984):1–10.

9.Thecrucialcomparisonpointingtoapossibletraiteffectwouldbebetweentheseasonedmeditatorsandthenovicesintheconditionwhereneithergroupmeditatedbeforeseeingtheaccidentfilm.

10.JosephHenrichetal.,“MostPeopleAreNotWEIRD,”Nature466:28(2010).PublishedonlineJune30,2010;doi:10.1038/466029a.

11.Anna-LenaLummaetal.,“IsMeditationAlwaysRelaxing?InvestigatingHeartRate,HeartRateVariability,ExperiencedEffortandLikeabilityDuringTrainingofThreeTypesofMeditation,”InternationalJournalofPsychophysiology97(2015):38–45.

12.EileenLudersetal.,“TheUniqueBrainAnatomyofMeditationPractitioners’AlterationsinCorticalGyrification,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6:34(2012):1–7.

13.Thecomplexityofinferringthatchangesfoundareduetoagivenintervention—whethermeditationorpsychotherapyoramedicineratherthanbeing“nonspecific”effectsofinterventionsingeneral—continuestobeacrucialpointinexperimentdesign.

14.S.B.Goldbergetal.,“DoestheFiveFacetMindfulnessQuestionnaireMeasureWhatWeThinkItDoes?ConstructValidityEvidencefromanActiveControlledRandomizedClinicalTrial,”PsychologicalAssessment28:8(2016):1009–14;doi:10.1037/pas0000233.

15.R.J.DavidsonandAlfredW.Kazniak,“ConceptualandMethodologicalIssuesinResearchonMindfulnessandMeditation,”AmericanPsychologist70:7(2015):581–92.

16.Seealso,e.g.,BhikkhuBodhi,“WhatDoesMindfulnessReallyMean?ACanonicalPerspective,”ContemporaryBuddhism12:1(2011):19–39;JohnDunne,“TowardanUnderstandingofNon-DualMindfulness,”ContemporaryBuddhism12:1(2011)71–88.

17.See,e.g,http://www.mindful.org/jon-kabat-zinn-defining-mindfulness/.AlsoJ.Kabat-Zinn,“Mindfulness-BasedInterventionsinContext:Past,Present,andFuture,”ClinicalPsychologyScienceandPractice10(2003):145.

18.TheFiveFacetMindfulnessQuestionnaire:R.A.Baeretal.,“UsingSelf-ReportAssessmentMethodstoExploreFacetsofMindfulness,”Assessment13(2009):27–45.

19.S.B.Goldbergetal.,“TheSecretIngredientinMindfulnessInterventions?ACaseforPracticeQualityoverQuantity,”JournalofCounselingPsychology61(2014):491–97.

20.J.Leighetal.,“Spirituality,Mindfulness,andSubstanceAbuse,AddictiveBehavior20:7(2005):1335–41.

21.E.Antonovaetal.,“MoreMeditation,LessHabituation:TheEffectofIntensiveMindfulnessPracticeontheAcousticStartleReflex,”PLoSOne10:5(2015):1–16;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123512.

22.D.B.Levinsonetal.,“AMindYouCanCountOn:ValidatingBreathCountingasBehavioralMeasureofMindfulness,”FrontiersinPsychology5:1202(2014);http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/110196/abstract.

23.Ibid.

CHAPTERFIVE.AMINDUNDISTURBED

1.St.AbbaDorotheus,quotedinE.KadloubovskyandG.E.H.Palmer,EarlyFathersfromthePhilokalia(London:Faber&Faber,1971),p.161.

2.ThomasMerton,“WhentheShoeFits,”TheWayofChuangTzu(NewYork:NewDirections,2010),p.226.

3.BruceS.McEwen,“AllostasisandAllostaticLoad,”Neuropsychoparmacology22(2000):108–24.4.JonKabat-Zinn,“SomeReflectionsontheOriginsofMBSR,SkillfulMeans,andtheTroublewithMaps,”ContemporaryBuddhism12:1(2011);doi:10.1080/14639947.2011.564844.

5.Ibid.6.PhilippeR.GoldinandJamesJ.Gross,“EffectsofMindfulness-BasedStressReduction(MBSR)onEmotionRegulationinSocialAnxietyDisorder,”Emotion10:1(2010):83–91;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018441.

7.PhillipeGoldinetal.,“MBSRvs.AerobicExerciseinSocialAnxiety:fMRIofEmotionRegulationofNegativeSelf-Beliefs,”SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscienceAdvanceAccess,publishedAugust27,2012;doi:10.1093/scan/nss054.

8.AlanWallace,TheAttentionRevolution:UnlockingthePoweroftheFocusedMind.Somerville,MA:WisdomPublications,2006.Foranexplorationofthevariousmeaningsof“mindfulness,”seeB.AlanWallace,“AMindfulBalance,”Tricycle(Spring2008):60.

9.GaelleDesbordes,“EffectsofMindful-AttentionandCompassionMeditationTrainingonAmygdalaResponsetoEmotionalStimuliinanOrdinary,NonMeditativeState,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6:292(2012):1–15;doi:10.399/fnhum.2012.00292.

10.V.A.Tayloretal.,“ImpactofMindfulnessontheNeuralResponsestoEmotionalPicturesinExperiencedandBeginnerMeditators,”NeuroImage57:4(2011):1524–1533;doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.001.

11.TorD.Wageretal.,“AnfMRI-BasedNeurologicSignatureofPhysicalPain,”NEJM368:15(April11,2013):1388–97.

12.See,e.g.,JamesAustin,ZenandtheBrain:TowardanUnderstandingofMeditationandConsciousness(Cambridge,MA:MITPress,1999).

13.IsshuMiuraandRuthFillerSasaki,TheZenKoan(NewYork:Harcourt,Brace&World,1965),p.xi.14.JoshuaA.Grantetal.,“ANon-ElaborativeMentalStanceandDecouplingofExecutiveandPain-

RelatedCorticesPredictsLowPainSensitivityinZenMeditators,”Pain152(2011):150–56.15.A.Golkaretal.,“TheInfluenceofWork-RelatedChronicStressontheRegulationofEmotionandon

FunctionalConnectivityintheBrain,”PloSOne9:9(2014):e104550.16.StaceyM.Schaeferetal.,“PurposeinLifePredictsBetterEmotionalRecoveryfromNegativeStimuli,”

PLoSOne8:11(2013):e80329;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0080329.17.CliffordSaron,“TrainingtheMind—TheShamathaProject,”inA.Fraser,ed.,TheHealingPowerof

Meditation(Boston,MA:ShambhalaPublications,2013),pp.45–65.18.BaljinderK.Sahdraetal.,“EnhancedResponseInhibitionDuringIntensiveMeditationTraining

PredictsImprovementsinSelf-ReportedAdaptiveSocioemotionalFunctioning,”Emotion11:2(2011):299–312.

19.MargaretE.Kemenyetal.,“Contemplative/EmotionTrainingReducesNegativeEmotionalBehaviorandPromotesProsocialResponses,”Emotion1:2(2012):338.

20.MelissaA.Rosenkranzetal.,“ReducedStressandInflammatoryResponsivenessinExperiencedMeditatorsComparedtoaMatchedHealthyControlGroup,”Psychoneuroimmunology68(2016):117–25.Thelong-termmeditatorsallhadpracticedvipassanaandloving-kindnessmeditationoveraperiodofatleastthreeyears,diddailypracticeofatleastthirtyminutes,andhadalsodoneseveralintensivemeditationretreats.Eachwasmatchedonageandsexwithanonmeditatingvolunteertocreateacomparisongroup.Theyalsogavesalivasamplesatseveralpointsintheexperiment,whichrevealedtheirlevelsofcortisol.Therewasnoactivecontrolgrouphere,fortworeasons.Whenthemeasuresusedarebiologicalratherthanself-report,theoutcomesarefarlesssusceptibletobias.And,aswithCliff’sthree-monthcourse,itwouldbeimpossibletocreateanactivecontrolakinto9,000hoursofmeditationoverthreeyearsormore.

21.T.R.A.Kraletal.,“MeditationTrainingIsAssociatedwithAlteredAmygdalaReactivitytoEmotionalStimuli,”underreview,2017.

22.IfRichiewereanalyzingthedatainthesamewayasthatusedinmostotherstudies,noneofthesedifferenceswouldhaveemerged.Thepeakoftheamygdalaresponsewasidenticalinthesegroups.However,theresponseofthemeditatorswhohadpracticedthelongestshowedthefastestrecovery.

Thismaybeaneuralechoof“nonstickiness”—showinganappropriateinitialresponsetoadisturbingimage,butthennothavingthatresponselinger.

CHAPTERSIX.PRIMEDFORLOVE

1.TheDesertFatherswereearlyChristianhermitswholivedincommunitieslocatedinremoteareasofEgypt’sdesertintheearlycenturiesAD.Theretheycouldbetterfocusontheirreligiouspractices,mainlytherecitationofKyrieEleison(aGreekphrasemeaning“Lord,havemercy”),aChristian“mantra.”ThesehermitcommunitieswerethehistoricpredecessorsofChristianordersformonksandnuns;repetitionofKyrieEleisonremainsaprimarypracticeamongEasternOrthodoxmonks,e.g.,thoseonMountAthos.HistoricalrecordssuggestthatChristianmonksfromEgyptsettledonMountAthosintheseventhcentury,fleeingIslamicconquest.HelenWaddell,TheDesertFathers(AnnArbor:UniversityofMichiganPress,1957).

2.TheGoodSamaritansetupwasanexperiment,oneofanextensive,systematicseriesofstudiesoftheconditionsthatencourageorinhibitaltruisticacts.DanielBatson,AltruisminHumans(NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,2011).

3.SharonSalzberg,Lovingkindness:TheRevolutionaryArtofHappiness(Boston:Shambhala,2002).4.ArnoldKotler,ed.,WorldsinHarmony:DialoguesonCompassionateAction(Berkeley:ParallaxPress,1992).

5.Theresearchersnotethatself-criticismisnotlimitedtodepression;itshowsupinarangeofemotionalproblems.Liketheseresearchers,we’dliketoseeastudythatshowsameditation-inducedriseinself-compassioncoupledwithasimilarshiftinrelatedbraincircuitry.SeeBenShahar,“AWait-ListRandomizedControlledTrialofLoving-KindnessMeditationProgrammeforSelf-Criticism,”ClinicalPsychologyandPsychotherapy(2014);doi:10.1002/cpp.1893.

6.See,e.g.,JeanDecety,“TheNeurodevelopmentofEmpathy,”DevelopmentalNeuroscience32(2010):257–67.

7.OlgaKlimeckietal.,“FunctionalNeuralPlasticityandAssociatedChangesinPositiveAffectafterCompassionTraining,”CerebralCortex23:7(July2013)1552–61.

8.OlgaKlimeckietal.,“DifferentialPatternofFunctionalBrainPlasticityafterCompassionandEmpathyTraining,”SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience9:6(June2014):873–79;doi:10.1093/scan/nst060.

9.ThichNhatHanh,“TheFullnessofEmptiness,”Lion’sRoar,August6,2012.“Kuan”issometimesrenderedas“Kwan,”“Guan,”or“Quan.”

10.GaelleDesbordes,“EffectsofMindful-AttentionandCompassionMeditationTrainingonAmygdalaResponsetoEmotionalStimuliinanOrdinary,NonMeditativeState,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6:292(2012):1–15;doi:10.399/fnhum.2012.00292.

11.CendriA.Hutchersonetal.,“Loving-KindnessMeditationIncreasesSocialConnectedness,”Emotion8:5(2008):720–24.

12.HelenY.Wengetal.,“CompassionTrainingAltersAltruismandNeuralResponsestoSuffering,”PsychologicalScience,publishedonlineMay21,2013;http://pss.sagepub.com/content/early/2013/05/20/0956797612469537.

13.JulietaGalante,“Loving-KindnessMeditationEffectsonWellBeingandAltruism:AMixed-MethodsOnlineRCT,”AppliedPsychology:HealthandWellBeing(2016);doi:10.1111/aphw.12074.

14.AntoineLutzetal.,“RegulationoftheNeuralCircuitryofEmotionbyCompassionMeditation:EffectsofMeditativeExpertise,”PLoSOne3:3(2008):e1897;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897.

15.J.A.Brefczynski-Lewisetal.,“NeuralCorrelatesofAttentionalExpertiseinLong-TermMeditationPractitioners,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences104:27(2007):11483–88.

16.CliffordSaron,presentationattheSecondInternationalConferenceonContemplativeScience,SanDiego,November2016.

17.AbigailA.Marshetal.,“NeuralandCognitiveCharacteristicsofExtraordinaryAltruists,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences111:42(2014),15036–41;doi:10.1073/pnas.1408440111.

18.Therearenumerousfactorsatworkinaltruism,buttheabilitytofeelthesufferingofsomeoneelseseemsakeyingredient.Tobesure,thechangesinthemeditatorswerenotasstrongnoraslong-lastingasthestructuralbrainpatternsuniquetothekidneydonors.SeeDesbordes,“EffectsofMindful-AttentionandCompassionMeditationTrainingonAmygdalaResponsetoEmotionalStimuliinanOrdinary,NonMeditativeState,”2012.

19.TaniaSingerandOlgaKlimecki,“EmpathyandCompassion,”CurrentBiology24:15(2014):R875–R878.

20.Wengetal.,“CompassionTrainingAltersAltruismandNeuralResponsestoSuffering,”2013.21.TaniaSingeretal.,“EmpathyforPainInvolvestheAffectivebutNotSensoryComponentsofPain,”

Science303:5661(2004):1157–62;doi:10.1126/science.1093535.22.Klimeckietal.,“FunctionalNeuralPlasticityandAssociatedChangesinPositiveAffectafter

CompassionTraining.”23.BethanyE.KokandTaniaSinger,“PhenomenologicalFingerprintsofFourMeditations:Differential

StateChangesinAffect,Mind-Wandering,Meta-Cognition,andInteroceptionBeforeandAfterDailyPracticeAcross9MonthsofTraining,”Mindfulness,publishedonlineAugust19,2016;doi:10.1007/s12671-016-0594-9.

24.YoniAsharetal.,“EffectsofCompassionMeditationonaPsychologicalModelofCharitableDonation,”Emotion,publishedonlineMarch28,2016,http:///dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000119.

25.PaulCondonetal.,“MeditationIncreasesCompassionateResponsetoSuffering,”PsychologicalScience24:10(August2013):1171–80;doi:10.1177/0956797613485603.

26.Desbordesetal.,“EffectsofMindful-AttentionandCompassionMeditationTrainingonAmygdalaResponsetoEmotionalStimuliinanOrdinary,NonMeditativeState,”2012.Bothgroupspracticedforatotalofatleasttwentyhours.Allthevolunteershadbrainscanningbeforeandafterthetraining;thesecondgroupwerescannedwhiletheyweresimplyatrest,notmeditating.

27.See,forexample,Derntletal.,“MultidimensionalAssessmentofEmpathicAbilities:NeuralCorrelatesandGenderDifferences,”Psychoneuroimmunology35(2010):67–82.

28.L.Christov-Mooreetal.,“Empathy:GenderEffectsinBrainandBehavior,”Neuroscience&BiobehavioralReviews4:46(2014):604–27;doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2014.09.001.Empathy.

29.M.P.EspinosaandJ.Kovářík,“ProsocialBehaviorandGender,”FrontiersinBehavioralNeuroscience9(2015):1–9;doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00088.

30.TheDalaiLamaextendsthissentimentinfinitely.Althoughwehavenoproof,theremaywellbeotherworldsingalaxiesnearorfarwiththeirownlife-forms.Ifso,heassumesthey,too,wouldwishtoavoidsufferingandwanthappiness.

31.A.J.GreenwaldandM.R.Banaji,“ImplicitSocialCognition:Attitudes,Self-Esteem,andStereotypes,”PsychologicalReview102:1(1995):4–27;doi:10.1037/0033-295X.102.1.4.

32.Y.Kangetal.,“TheNondiscriminatingHeart:LovingkindnessMeditationTrainingDecreasesImplicitIntergroupBias,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology143:3(2014):1306–13;doi:10.1037/a0034150.

33.TheDalaiLamamadetheseremarksinDunedin,NewZealand,onJune10,2013,asrecordedbyJeremyRussellatwww.dalailama.org.

CHAPTERSEVEN.ATTENTION!

1.CharlotteJokoBeck,NothingSpecial:LivingZen(NewYork:HarperCollins,1993),p.168.2.AkiraKasamatsuandTomioHirai,“AnElectroencephalographicStudyonZenMeditation(Zazen),”PsychiatryandClinicalNeurosciences20:4(1966):325–36.

3.ElenaAntonovaetal.,“MoreMeditation,LessHabituation:TheEffectofIntensiveMindfulnessPracticeontheAcousticStartleReflex,”PLoSOne10:5(2015):1–16;

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0123512.Themeditatorswereinstructedtostayin“openawareness”duringthenoises,andthemeditation-naivecontrolswereinstructedto“remainalertandawakethroughouttheexperiment...andtoreturntheirawarenesstothesurroundingsiftheycaughtthemselvesmind-wandering.”

4.T.R.A.Kraletal.,“MeditationTrainingIsAssociatedwithAlteredAmygdalaReactivitytoEmotionalStimuli,”underreview,2017.

5.AmishiJhaetal.,“MindfulnessTrainingModifiesSubsystemsofAttention,”Cognitive,Affective,&BehavioralNeuroscience7:2(2007):109–19;http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17672382.

6.CatherineE.Kerretal.,“EffectsofMindfulnessMeditationTrainingonAnticipatoryAlphaModulationinPrimarySomatosensoryCortex,”BrainResearchBulletin85(2011):98–103.

7.AntoineLutzetal.,“MentalTrainingEnhancesAttentionalStability:NeuralandBehavioralEvidence,”JournalofNeuroscience29:42(2009):13418–27;HeleenA.Slagteretal.,“ThetaPhaseSynchronyandConsciousTargetPerception:ImpactofIntensiveMentalTraining,”JournalofCognitiveNeuroscience21:8(2009):1536–49.Anactivecontrolgroup,whoweretaughtmindfulnessduringaone-hoursessionatthestartandendofthethree-monthperiodandwereinstructedtopracticefortwentyminutesperday,didnobetterafterthattrainingthanbefore.

8.KatherineA.MacLeanetal.,“IntensiveMeditationTrainingImprovesPerceptualDiscriminationandSustainedAttention,”PsychologicalScience21:6(2010):829–39.

9.H.A.Slagteretal.,“MentalTrainingAffectsDistributionofLimitedBrainResources,”PLoSBiology5:6(2007):e138;doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050138.Amongnonmeditatingcontrolstestedatthesameintervals,therewasnochangeintheattentionalblink.

10.SaravanLeeuwenetal.,“AgeEffectsonAttentionalBlinkPerformanceinMeditation,”ConsciousnessandCognition,18(2009):593–99.

11.LorenzoS.Colzatoetal.,“Meditation-InducedStatesPredictAttentionalControloverTime,”ConsciousnessandCognition37(2015):57–62.

12.E.Ophiretal.,“CognitiveControlinMulti-Taskers,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences106:37(2009):15583–87.

13.CliffordNass,inanNPRinterview,asquotedinFastCompany,February2,2014.14.ThomasE.GormanandC.ShawnGree,“Short-TermMindfulnessInterventionReducestheNegative

AttentionalEffectsAssociatedwithHeavyMediaMultitasking,”ScientificReports6(2016):24542;doi:10.1038/srep24542.

15.MichaelD.Mrazeketal.,“MindfulnessandMindWandering:FindingConvergencethroughOpposingConstructs,”Emotion12:3(2012):442–48.

16.MichaelD.Mrazeketal.,“MindfulnessTrainingImprovesWorkingMemoryCapacityandGREPerformanceWhileReducingMindWandering,”PsychologicalScience24:5(2013):776–81.

17.BajinderK.Sahdraetal.,“EnhancedResponseInhibitionDuringIntensiveMeditationPredictsImprovementsinSelf-ReportedAdaptiveSocioemotionalFunctioning,”Emotion11:2(2011):299–312.

18.SamHarris,WakingUp:AGuidetoSpiritualityWithoutReligion(NY:Simon&Schuster,2015),p.144.

19.See,e.g.,DanielKahneman,Thinking,FastandSlow(NewYork:Farrar,StrausandGiroux,2011).20.R.C.Lapateetal.,“AwarenessofEmotionalStimuliDeterminestheBehavioralConsequencesof

AmygdalaActivationandAmygdala-PrefrontalConnectivity,”ScientificReports20:6(2016):25826;doi:10.1038/srep25826.

21.BenjaminBairdetal.,“Domain-SpecificEnhancementofMetacognitiveAbilityFollowingMeditationTraining,”JournalofExperimentalPsychology:General143:5(2014):1972–79;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0036882.Boththemindfulnessandactivecontrolgroupstookforty-five-minuteclassesfourtimesaweekfortwoweeks,alongwithhomepracticeforfifteenminutesdaily.

22.AmishiJhaetal.,“MindfulnessTrainingModifiesSubsystemsofAttention,”Cognitive,Affective,&BehavioralNeuroscience7:2(2007):109–19;doi:10.3758/cabn.7.2.109.

CHAPTEREIGHT.LIGHTNESSOFBEING

1.MarcusRaichleetal.,“ADefaultModeofBrainFunction,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences98(2001):676–82.

2.M.F.Masonetal.,“WanderingMinds:TheDefaultNetworkandStimulus-IndependentThought,”Science315:581(2007):393–95;doi:10.1126/science.1131295.

3.JudsonBreweretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithDifferencesinDefaultModeNetworkActivityandConnectivity,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108:50(2011):1–6;doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108.

4.FakhruddinIraqi,athirteenth-centurySufipoet,quotedinJamesFadimanandRobertFrager,EssentialSufism(NewYork:HarperCollins,1997).

5.AbuSaidofMineh,quotedinP.Rice,ThePersianSufis(London:Allen&Unwin,1964),p.34.6.DavidCreswelletal.,“AlterationsinResting-StateFunctionalConnectivityLinkMindfulnessMeditationwithReducedInterleukin-6:ARandomizedControlledTrial,”BiologicalPsychiatry80(2016):53–61.

7.Breweretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithDifferencesinDefaultModeNetworkActivityandConnectivity.”

8.KathleenA.Garrisonetal.,“BOLDSignalsandFunctionalConnectivityAssociatedwithLovingKindnessMeditation,”BrainandBehavior4:3(2014):337–47.

9.AvivaBerkovich-Ohanaetal.,“AlterationsinTask-InducedActivityandResting-StateFluctuationsinVisualandDMNAreasRevealedinLong-TermMeditators,”NeuroImage135(2016):125–34.

10.GiuseppePagnoni,“DynamicalPropertiesofBOLDActivityfromtheVentralPosteromedialCortexAssociatedwithMeditationandAttentionalSkills,”JournalofNeuroscience32:15(2012):5242–49.

11.V.A.Tayloretal.,“ImpactofMeditationTrainingontheDefaultModeNetworkduringaRestfulState,”SocialCognitiveandAffectiveNeuroscience8(2013):4–14.

12.D.B.Levinsonetal.,“AMindYouCanCountOn:ValidatingBreathCountingasaBehavioralMeasureofMindfulness,”FrontiersinPsychology5(2014);http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/110196/abstract.

13.ColeKoparnay,CenterforHealthyMinds,UniversityofWisconsin,inpreparation.Thisstudyappliedstrictercriteriaforbrainchangesthanearlieronesthathavereportedvariousincreasesinmeditatorbrainvolume.

14.Thenagain,perhapsasubsetofmeditatorsgoesdownapaththatmakesthemmorealoofandcoldorindifferent.Offsettingthistendencymightbeonereasonsomanytraditionsemphasizecompassionanddevotion,whichare“juicy.”

15.ArthurZajonc,personalcommunication.16.KathleenGarrisonetal.,“EffortlessAwareness:UsingRealTimeNeurofeedbacktoInvestigate

CorrelatesofPosteriorCingulateCortexActivityinMeditators’Self-Report,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience7:440(August2013):1–9.

17.Anna-LenaLummaetal.,“IsMeditationAlwaysRelaxing?InvestigatingHeartRate,HeartRateVariability,ExperiencedEffortandLikeabilityDuringTrainingofThreeTypesofMeditation,”InternationalJournalofPsychophysiology97(2015):38–45.

18.SeeDanielGoleman,DestructiveEmotions:HowCanWeOvercomeThem?(NewYork:Bantam,2003).

CHAPTERNINE.MIND,BODY,ANDGENOME

1.NatalieA.Moroneetal.,“AMind-BodyProgramforOlderAdultswithChronicLowBackPain:ARandomizedTrial,”JAMAInternalMedicine176:3(2016):329–37.

2.M.M.Veehof,“Acceptance-andMindfulness-BasedInterventionsfortheTreatmentofChronicPain:AMeta-AnalyticReview,2016,”CognitiveBehaviourTherapy45:1(2016):5–31.

3.PaulGrossmanetal.,“Mindfulness-BasedInterventionDoesNotInfluenceCardiacAutonomicControlorPatternofPhysicalActivityinFibromyalgiainDailyLife:AnAmbulatory,Multi-MeasureRandomizedControlledTrial,”ClinicalJournalofPain(2017);doi:10.1097/AJP.0000000000000420.

4.ElizabethCashetal.,“MindfulnessMeditationAlleviatesFribromyalgiaSymptomsinWomen:ResultsofaRandomizedClinicalTrial,”AnnalsofBehavioralMedicine49:3(2015):319–30.

5.MelissaA.Rosenkranzetal.,“AComparisonofMindfulness-BasedStressReductionandanActiveControlinModulationofNeurogenicInflammation,”Brain,Behavior,andImmunity27(2013):174–84.

6.MelissaA.Rosenkranzetal.,“NeuralCircuitryUnderlyingtheInteractionBetweenEmotionandAsthmaSymptomExacerbation,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences102:37(2005):13319–24;http://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0504365102.

7.JonKabat-Zinnetal.,“InfluenceofaMindfulnessMeditation-BasedStressReductionInterventiononRatesofSkinClearinginPatientswithModeratetoSeverePsoriasisUndergoingPhototherapy(UVB)andPhotochemotherapy(PUVA),”PsychosomaticMedicine60(1988):625–32.

8.MelissaA.Rosenkranzetal.,“ReducedStressandInflammatoryResponsivenessinExperiencedMeditatorsComparedtoaMatchedHealthyControlGroup,”Psychoneuroimmunology68(2016):117–25.

9.E.Walsh,“BriefMindfulnessTrainingReducesSalivaryIL-6andTNF-αinYoungWomenwithDepressiveSymptomatology,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology84:10(2016):887–97;doi:10.1037/ccp0000122;T.W.Paceetal.,“EffectofCompassionMeditationonNeuroendocrine,InnateImmuneandBehavioralResponsestoPsychologicalStress,”Psychoneuroimmunology34(2009):87–98.

10.DavidCreswelletal.,“AlterationsinResting-StateFunctionalConnectivityLinkMindfulnessMeditationwithReducedInterleukin-6:ARandomizedControlledTrial,”BiologicalPsychiatry80(2016):53–61.

11.DanielGoleman,“Hypertension?Relax,”NewYorkTimesMagazine,December11,1988.12.JeanieParketal.,“MindfulnessMeditationLowersMuscleSympatheticNerveActivityandBlood

PressureinAfrican-AmericanMaleswithChronicKidneyDisease,”AmericanJournalofPhysiology—Regulatory,IntegrativeandComparativePhysiology307:1(July1,2014),R93–R101;publishedonlineMay14,2014;doi:10.1152/ajpregu.00558.2013.

13.JohnO.Younge,“Mind-BodyPracticesforPatientswithCardiacDisease:ASystematicReviewandMeta-Analysis,”EuropeanJournalofPreventiveCardiology22:11(2015):1385–98.

14.PerlaKalimanetal.,“RapidChangesinHistoneDeacetylasesandInflammatoryGeneExpressioninExpertMeditators,”Psychoneuroendocrinology40(2014):96–107.

15.J.D.Creswelletal.,“Mindfulness-BasedStressReductionTrainingReducesLonelinessandPro-InflammatoryGeneExpressioninOlderAdults:ASmallRandomizedControlledTrial,”Brain,Behavior,andImmunity26(2012):1095–1101.

16.J.A.Dusek,“GenomicCounter-StressChangesInducedbytheRelaxationResponse,”PLoSOne3:7(2008):e2576;M.K.Bhasinetal.,“RelaxationResponseInducesTemporalTranscriptomeChangesinEnergyMetabolism,InsulinSecretionandInflammatoryPathways,”PLoSOne8:5(2013):e62817.

17.H.Lavretskyetal.,“APilotStudyofYogicMeditationforFamilyDementiaCaregiverswithDepressiveSymptoms:EffectsonMentalHealth,Cognition,andTelomeraseActivity,”InternationalJournalofGeriatricPsychiatry28:1(2013):57–65.

18.N.S.SchutteandJ.M.Malouff,“AMeta-AnalyticReviewoftheEffectsofMindfulnessMeditationonTelomeraseActivity,”Psychoneuroendocrinology42(2014):45–48;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2013.12.017.

19.TonyaL.Jacobsetal.,“IntensiveMeditationTraining,ImmuneCellTelomeraseActivity,andPsychologicalMediators,”Psychoneuroendocrinology36:5(2011):664–81;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2010.09.010.

20.ElizabethA.Hogeetal.,“Loving-KindnessMeditationPracticeAssociatedwithLongerTelomeresin

Women,”Brain,Behavior,andImmunity32(2013):159–63.21.ChristineTaraPetersonetal.,“IdentificationofAlteredMetabolomicsProfilesFollowinga

Panchakarma-BasedAyurvedicInterventioninHealthySubjects:TheSelf-DirectedBiologicalTransformationInitiative(SBTI),”Nature:ScientificReports6(2016):32609;doi:10.1038/srep32609.

22.A.L.Lummaetal.,“IsMeditationAlwaysRelaxing?InvestigatingHeartRate,HeartRateVariability,ExperiencedEffortandLikeabilityDuringTrainingofThreeTypesofMeditation,”InternationalJournalofPsychophysiology97:1(2015):38–45.

23.AntoineLutzetal.,“BOLDSignalinInsulaIsDifferentiallyRelatedtoCardiacFunctionduringCompassionMeditationinExpertsvs.Novices,”NeuroImage47:3(2009):1038–46;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.081.

24.J.Wielgoszetal.,“Long-TermMindfulnessTrainingIsAssociatedwithReliableDifferencesinRestingRespirationRate,”ScientificReports6(2016):27533;doi:10.1038/srep27533.

25.SaraLazaretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithIncreasedCorticalThickness,”Neuroreport16(2005):1893–97.Thestudycomparedtwentyvipassanapractitioners(averagearound3,000hourslifetimeexperience)withage-andgender-matchedcontrols.

26.KieranC.R.Fox,“IsMeditationAssociatedwithAlteredBrainStructure?ASystematicReviewandMeta-AnalysisofMorphometricNeuroimaginginMeditationPractitioners,”NeuroscienceandBiobehavioralReviews43(2014):48–73.

27.EileenLudersetal.,“EstimatingBrainAgeUsingHigh-ResolutionPatternRecognition:YoungerBrainsinLong-TermMeditationPractitioners,”NeuroImage(2016);doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.04.007.

28.EileenLudersetal.,“TheUniqueBrainAnatomyofMeditationPractitioners’AlterationsinCorticalGyrification,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6:34(2012):1–7.

29.Forexample,B.K.Holzeletal.,“MindfulnessMeditationLeadstoIncreaseinRegionalGreyMatterDensity,”PsychiatryResearch:Neuroimaging191(2011):36–43.

30.S.Coronado-Montoyaetal.,“ReportingofPositiveResultsinRandomizedControlledTrialsofMindfulness-BasedMentalHealthInterventions,”PLoSOne11:4(2016):e0153220;http://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0153220.

31.ColeKorponay,inpreparation.32.A.Tuscheetal.,“DecodingtheCharitableBrain:Empathy,PerspectiveTaking,andAttentionShifts

DifferentiallyPredictAltruisticGiving,”JournalofNeuroscience36:17(2016):4719–32.doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3392-15.2016.

33.S.K.SuttonandR.J.Davidson,“PrefrontalBrainAsymmetry:ABiologicalSubstrateoftheBehavioralApproachandInhibitionSystems,”PsychologicalScience8:3(1997):204–10;http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00413.x.

34.DanielGoleman,DestructiveEmotions:HowCanWeOvercomeThem?(NewYork:Bantam,2003).35.P.M.Keuneetal.,“Mindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapy(MBCT),CognitiveStyle,andtheTemporal

DynamicsofFrontalEEGAlphaAsymmetryinRecurrentlyDepressedPatients,”BiologicalPsychology88:2–3(2011):243–52;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2011.08.008.

36.P.M.Keuneetal.,“ApproachingDysphoricMood:State-EffectsofMindfulnessMeditationonFrontalBrainAsymmetry,”BiologicalPsychology93:1(2013):105–13;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.01.016.

37.E.S.Epeletal.,“MeditationandVacationEffectsHaveanImpactonDisease-AssociatedMolecularPhenotypes,”Nature6(2016):e880;doi:10.1038/tp.2016.164.

38.TheStephenE.StrausDistinguishedLectureintheScienceofComplementaryHealthTherapies.

CHAPTERTEN.MEDITATIONASPSYCHOTHERAPY

1.TaraBennett-Goleman,EmotionalAlchemy:HowtheMindCanHealtheHeart(NewYork:HarmonyBooks,2001).

2.ZindelSegal,MarkWilliams,JohnTeasdale,etal.,Mindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyforDepression(NewYork:GuilfordPress,2003);JohnTeasdaleetal.,“PreventionofRelapse/RecurrenceinMajorDepressionbyMindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapy,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology68:4(2000):615–23.

3.MadhavGoyaletal.,“MeditationProgramsforPsychologicalStressandWellBeing:ASystematicReviewandMeta-Analysis,”JAMAInternalMedicine,publishedonlineJanuary6,2014;doi:10.1001/jamainternmed.2013.13018.

4.J.MarkWilliamsetal.,“Mindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyforPreventingRelapseinRecurrentDepression:ARandomizedDismantlingTrial,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology82:2(2014):275–86.

5.AlbertoChiesa,“Mindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyvs.Psycho-EducationforPatientswithMajorDepressionWhoDidNotAchieveRemissionFollowingAnti-DepressantTreatment,”PsychiatryResearch226(2015):174–83.

6.WilliamKuykenetal.,“EfficacyofMindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyinPreventionofDepressiveRelapse,”JAMAPsychiatry(April27,2016);doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.0076.

7.ZindelSegal,presentationattheInternationalConferenceonContemplativeScience,SanDiego,November18–20,2016.

8.SonaDimidjianetal.,“StayingWellDuringPregnancyandthePostpartum:APilotRandomizedTrialofMindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyforthePreventionofDepressiveRelapse/Recurrence,”JournalofConsultingandClinicalPsychology84:2(2016):134–45.

9.S.Nidichetal.,“ReducedTraumaSymptomsandPerceivedStressinMalePrisonInmatesthroughtheTranscendentalMeditationProgram:ARandomizedControlledTrial,”PermanenteJournal20:4(2016):43–47;http://doi.org/10.7812/TPP/16-007.

10.FilipRaesetal.,“School-BasedPreventionandReductionofDepressioninAdolescents:ACluster-RandomizedControlledTrialofaMindfulnessGroup,”Mindfulness,March2013;doi:10.1007/s12671-013-0202-1.

11.PhilippeR.GoldinandJamesJ.Gross,“EffectsofMindfulness-BasedStressReduction(MBSR)onEmotionRegulationinSocialAnxietyDisorder,”Emotion10:1(2010):83–91;http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0018441.

12.DavidJ.Kearneyetal.,“Loving-KindnessMeditationforPost-TraumaticStressDisorder:APilotStudy,”JournalofTraumaticStress26(2013):426–34.TheVAresearcherspointoutthattheirpromisingresultscallforafollow-upstudy,whichasofthiswritingisinprogress.Thisfollow-upstudyhas130veteranswithPTSD,randomizedintoanactivecontrolgroup,andafour-yeartimeline.Lovingkindnessmeditationisbeingcomparedtowhat’sconsidereda“goldstandard”treatmentforPTSD,avarietyofcognitivetherapy,intheactivecontrol.Thehypothesis:loving-kindnesswillworkaswell,butviadifferentmechanisms.

13.Anotheranecdotalreport:P.GilbertandS.Procter,“CompassionateMindTrainingforPeoplewithHighShameandSelf-Criticism:OverviewandPilotStudyofaGroupTherapyApproach,”ClinicalPsychology&Psychotherapy13(2006):353–79.

14.JayMichaelson,EvolvingDharma:Meditation,Buddhism,andtheNextGenerationofEnlightenment(Berkeley:EvolverPublications,2013).Inpopularusethephrase“darknight”inaspiritualjourneyhasbecometwistedabitinmeaningfromitsoriginalsense.Theseventeenth-centurySpanishmysticSt.JohnoftheCrossfamouslyfirstusedtheterm—buttodescribethemysteriousascentthroughanunknownterritorytoanecstaticmergerwiththedivine.Today,though,“darknight”meansmiringinthefearsandsuchthatthreateningourworldlyidentitycanbring.

15.DanielGoleman,“MeditationasMeta-Therapy:HypothesesTowardaProposedFifthStateofConsciousness,”JournalofTranspersonalPsychology3:1(1971):1–26.

16.JackKornfield,TheWiseHeart:AGuidetotheUniversalTeachingsofBuddhistPsychology(New

York:Bantam,2009).17.DanielGolemanandMarkEpstein,“MeditationandWellBeing:AnEasternModelofPsychological

Health,”ReVision3:2(1980):73–84.ReprintedinRogerWalshandDeaneShapiro,BeyondHealthandNormality(NewYork:VanNostrandReinhold,1983).

18.ThoughtsWithoutaThinker:PsychotherapyfromaBuddhistPerspective(NewYork:BasicBooks,1995)wasMarkEpstein’sfirstbook;AdviceNotGiven:AGuidetoGettingoverYourself(NewYork:PenguinPress,2018)willbehisnext.

CHAPTERELEVEN.AYOGI’SBRAIN

1.FrançoisJacobdiscoveredthatenzymeexpressionlevelsincellsoccurthroughthemechanismsofDNAtranscription.ForthisdiscoveryhewonaNobelPrizein1965.

2.ForseveralyearsMatthieuwasaboardmemberoftheMindandLifeInstitute,andhaslongengagedwiththescientistsconnectedtothatcommunityaswellasinmanyscientificdialogueswiththeDalaiLama.

3.AntoineLutzetal.,“Long-TermMeditatorsSelf-InduceHigh-AmplitudeGammaSynchronyDuringMentalPractice,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences101:46(2004):16369;http://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16369.short.

4.DilgoKhyentseRinpoche(1910–1991).5.LawrenceK.Altman,WhoGoesFirst?(NewYork:RandomHouse,1987).6.FranciscoJ.VarelaandJonathanShear,“First-PersonMethodologies:What,Why,How?”JournalofConsciousnessStudies6:2–3(1999):1–14.

7.H.A.Slagteretal.,“MentalTrainingasaToolintheNeuroscientificStudyofBrainandCognitivePlasticity,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience5:17(2011);doi:10.3389/fnhum.2011.00017.

8.ThecurriculumhasbeendevelopedbytheTibet-EmoryScienceProject,underthecodirectionofGesheLobsangTenzinNegi.Tocelebratethenewcurriculum,RichiewaspartofameetingwiththeDalaiLama,scientists,philosophers,andcontemplativesattheDrepungMonastery,aTibetanBuddhistoutpostintheSouthIndianstateofKarnataka.MindandLifeXXVI,“Mind,Brain,andMatter:ACriticalConversationbetweenBuddhistThoughtandScience,”Mundgod,India,2013.

9.AtthetimeJohnDunnewasanassistantprofessorintheDepartmentofLanguagesandCulturesofAsiaattheUniversityofWisconsin;nowheholdsachairastheDistinguishedProfessorofContemplativeHumanities,affiliatedwithRichie’sresearchprogramthere.

10.AntoineLutzetal.,“Long-TermMeditatorsSelf-InduceHigh-AmplitudeGammaSynchronyDuringMentalPractice,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences101:46(2004):16369.http://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16369.short.

11.TulkuUrgyen’sfather,inturn,issaidtohavedonemorethanthirtyyearsofretreatoverthecourseofhislifetime.AndTulkuUrgyen’sgreat-grandfatherthelegendaryChoklingRinpochewasaspiritualgiantwhofoundedastill-vibrantpracticelineage.SeeTulkuUrgyen,trans.ErikPemaKunzang,BlazingSplendor(Kathmandu:BlazingSplendorPublications,2005).

CHAPTERTWELVE.HIDDENTREASURE

1.ThirdDzogchenRinpoche,trans.CortlandDahl,GreatPerfection,VolumeTwo:SeparationandBreakthrough(Ithaca,NY:SnowLionPublications,2008),p.181.

2.F.Ferrarellietal.,“ExperiencedMindfulnessMeditatorsExhibitHigherParietal-OccipitalEEGGammaActivityduringNREMSleep,”PLoSOne8:8(2013):e73417;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073417.Thisfitswhatyogisreport,andwestronglysuspectwewouldfinditinthem,too(thatstudyofsleepinTibetanyogishasnotyetbeendone—althoughtheyactuallydoapracticetocultivatemeditativeawarenessduringsleep).

3.AntoineLutzetal.,“Long-TermMeditatorsSelf-InduceHigh-AmplitudeGammaSynchronyDuringMentalPractice,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences101:46(2004):16369;http://www.pnas.org/content/101/46/16369.short.

4.AntoineLutzetal.,“RegulationoftheNeuralCircuitryofEmotionbyCompassionMeditation:EffectsofMeditativeExpertise,”PLoSOne3:3(2008):e1897;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0001897.

5.Fortheweekleadinguptotheirbrainscansession,thenovicesspenttwentyminutesadaygeneratingthisstateofpositivitytowardall.

6.Lutzetal.,“RegulationoftheNeuralCircuitryofEmotionbyCompassionMeditation:EffectsofMeditativeExpertise.”

7.JudsonBreweretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithDifferencesinDefaultModeNetworkActivityandConnectivity,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108:50(2011):1–6;doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108.

8.https://www.freebuddhistaudio.com/texts/meditation/Dilgo_Khyentse_Rinpoche/FBA13_Dilgo_Khyentse_Rinpoche_on_Maha_Ati.pdf.

9.TheThirdKhamtrulRinpoche,trans.GerardoAbboud,TheRoyalSealofMahamudra(Boston:Shambhala,2014),p.128.

10.Anna-LenaLummaetal.,“IsMeditationAlwaysRelaxing?InvestigatingHeartRate,HeartRateVariability,ExperiencedEffortandLikeabilityDuringTrainingofThreeTypesofMeditation,”InternationalJournalofPsychophysiology97(2015):38–45.

11.R.vanLutterveldetal.,“Source-SpaceEEGNeurofeedbackLinksSubjectiveExperiencewithBrainActivityduringEffortlessAwarenessMeditation,”NeuroImage(2016);doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.02.047.

12.K.A.Garrisonetal.,“EffortlessAwareness:UsingRealTimeNeurofeedbacktoInvestigateCorrelatesofPosteriorCingulateCortexActivityinMeditators’Self-Report,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience7(August2013):1–9;doi:10.3389/fnhum.2013.00440.

13.AntoineLutzetal.,“BOLDSignalinInsulaIsDifferentiallyRelatedtoCardiacFunctionduringCompassionMeditationinExpertsvs.Novices,”NeuroImage47:3(2009):1038–46;http://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.04.081.

CHAPTERTHIRTEEN.ALTERINGTRAITS

1.MilarepainMatthieuRicard,OnthePathtoEnlightenment(Boston:Shambhala,2013),p.122.2.JudsonBreweretal.,“MeditationExperienceIsAssociatedwithDifferencesinDefaultModeNetworkActivityandConnectivity,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences108:50(2011):1–6;doi:10.1073/pnas.1112029108.V.A.Tayloretal.,“ImpactofMindfulnessontheNeuralResponsestoEmotionalPicturesinExperiencedandBeginnerMeditators,”NeuroImage57:4(2011):1524–33;doi:101016/j.neuroimage.2011.06.001.

3.FrancisdeSales,quotedinAldousHuxley,ThePerennialPhilosophy(NewYork:Harper&Row,1947),p.285.

4.WendyHasenkampandherteamusedfMRItoidentifythebrainregionsengagedbyeachofthesesteps.WendyHasenkampetal.,“MindWanderingandAttentionduringFocusedMeditation:AFine-GrainedTemporalAnalysisduringFluctuatingCognitiveStates,”NeuroImage59:1(2012):750–60;WendyHasenkampandL.W.Barsalou,“EffectsofMeditationExperienceonFunctionalConnectivityofDistributedBrainNetworks,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience6:38(2012);doi:10.3389/fnhum.2012.00038.

5.TheDalaiLamatoldthisstoryandexplaineditsimplicationsattheMindandLifeXXIIImeetinginDharamsala,2011.DanielGolemanandJohnDunne,eds.,Ecology,EthicsandInterdependence(Boston:WisdomPublications,2017).

6.AndersEricssonandRobertPool,Peak:SecretsfromtheNewScienceofExpertise(NewYork:HoughtonMifflinHarcourt,2016).

7.T.R.A.Kraletal.,“MeditationTrainingIsAssociatedwithAlteredAmygdalaReactivitytoEmotionalStimuli,”underreview,2017.

8.J.Wielgoszetal.,“Long-TermMindfulnessTrainingIsAssociatedwithReliableDifferencesinRestingRespirationRate,”ScientificReports6(2016):27533;doi:10.1038/srep27533.

9.JonKabat-Zinnetal.,“TheRelationshipofCognitiveandSomaticComponentsofAnxietytoPatientPreferenceforAlternativeRelaxationTechniques,”Mind/BodyMedicine2(1997):101–9.

10.RichardDavidsonandCortlandDahl,“VarietiesofContemplativePractice,”JAMAPsychiatry74:2(2017):121;doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2016.3469.

11.See,e.g.,DanielGoleman,TheMeditativeMind(NewYork:Tarcher/Putnam,1996;firstpublished1977asTheVarietiesoftheMeditativeExperience).Dannowseesthatcategorizationaslimitedinmanyways.Forone,thisbinarytypingomitsorotherwiseconflatesseveralimportantcontemplativemethodslikevisualization,whereyougenerateanimageandthesetoffeelingsandattitudesthatgowithit.

12.CortlandJ.Dahl,AntoineLutz,andRichardJ.Davidson,“ReconstructingandDeconstructingtheSelf:CognitiveMechanismsinMeditationPractice,”TrendsinCognitiveScience20(2015):1–9;http//dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2015.07.001.

13.HazratAli,quotedinThomasCleary,LivingandDyinginGrace:CounselofHazratAli(Boston:Shambhala,1996).

14.ParaphrasedfromMartinBuber,TalesoftheHasidim(NewYork:SchockenBooks,1991),p.107.15.TheThirdKhamtrulRinpoche,trans.GerardoAbboud,TheRoyalSealofMahamudra(Boston:

Shambhala,2014).16.J.K.Hamlinetal.,“SocialEvaluationbyPreverbalInfants,”Nature450:7169(2007):557–59;

doi:10.1038/nature06288.17.F.Ferrarellietal.,“ExperiencedMindfulnessMeditatorsExhibitHigherParietal-OccipitalEEG

GammaActivityduringNREMSleep,”PLoSOne8:8(2013):e73417;doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0073417.

18.Theviewthatscienceandreligionoccupydifferentrealmsofauthorityandwaysofknowing,andthatthesedonotoverlap,hasbeenadvocated,forexample,byStephenJayGouldinRocksofAges:ScienceandReligionintheFullnessofLife(NewYork:Ballantine,1999).

CHAPTERFOURTEEN.AHEALTHYMIND

1.L.Flooketal.,“PromotingProsocialBehaviorandSelf-RegulatorySkillsinPreschoolChildrenthroughaMindfulness-BasedKindnessCurriculum,”DevelopmentalPsychology51:1(2015):44–51;doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038256.

2.R.Davidsonetal.,“ContemplativePracticesandMentalTraining:ProspectsforAmericanEducation,”ChildDevelopmentPerspectives6:2(2012):146–53;doi:10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00240.

3.DanielGolemanandPeterSenge,TheTripleFocus:ANewApproachtoEducation(Northampton,MA:MoreThanSoundProductions,2014).

4.DanielRechstschaffen,MindfulEducationWorkbook(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2016);PatriciaJennings,MindfulnessforTeachers(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2015);R.Davidsonetal.,“ContemplativePracticesandMentalTraining:ProspectsforAmericanEducation.”

5.Thisworkisstillinitsinfancyandasofthiswriting,thefirstscientificarticlesassessingthegamesarebeingpreparedforpublication.

6.D.B.Levinsonetal.,“AMindYouCanCountOn:ValidatingBreathCountingasaBehavioralMeasureofMindfulness,”FrontiersinPsychology5(2014);

http://journal.frontiersin.org/Journal/110196/abstract.Tenacitywilllikelybeavailableinlate2017.Formoreinfo:http://centerhealthyminds.org/.

7.E.G.Patsenkoetal.,“RestingState(rs)-fMRIandDiffusionTensorImaging(DTI)RevealsTrainingEffectsofaMeditation-BasedVideoGameonLeftFronto-ParietalAttentionalNetworkinAdolescents,”submitted2017.

8.B.L.Aldermanetal.,“MentalandPhysical(MAP)Training:CombiningMeditationandAerobicExerciseReducesDepressionandRuminationwhileEnhancingSynchronizedBrainActivity,”TranslationalPsychiatry2(acceptedforpublication2016)e726–9;doi:10.1038/tp.2015.225.

9.JulietaGalante,“Loving-KindnessMeditationEffectsonWellBeingandAltruism:AMixed-MethodsOnlineRCT,”AppliedPsychology:HealthandWellBeing8:3(2016):322–50;doi:10.1111/aphw.12074.

10.SonaDimidjianetal.,“Web-BasedMindfulness-BasedCognitiveTherapyforReducingResidualDepressiveSymptoms:AnOpenTrialandQuasi-ExperimentalComparisontoPropensityScoreMatchedControls,”BehaviourResearchandTherapy63(2014):83–89;doi:10.1016/j.brat.2014.09.004.

11.KathleenGarrison,“EffortlessAwareness:UsingRealTimeNeurofeedbacktoInvestigateCorrelatesofPosteriorCingulateCortexActivityinMeditators’Self-Report,”FrontiersinHumanNeuroscience7:440(August2013):1–9.

12.JudsonBreweretal.,“MindfulnessTrainingforSmokingCessation:ResultsfromaRandomizedControlledTrial,”DrugandAlcoholDependence119(2011b):72–80.

13.A.P.Weibleetal.,“RhythmicBrainStimulationReducesAnxiety-RelatedBehaviorinaMouseModelofMeditationTraining,”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,inpress,2017.Thephoticdrivingimpactofstrobelightscancreateadangerinhumansforthosewithepilepsy,becausetherhythmscansometimestriggeraseizure.

14.H.F.Iaccarinoetal.,“GammaFrequencyEntrainmentAttenuatesAmyloidLoadandModifiesMicroglia,”Nature540:7632(2016):230–35;doi:10.1038/nature20587.

15.Themouse’sbasicmammalianbiologymapssomewhatalonghumanlines,butnotentirely,andwhenitcomestothebrain,thedifferencesarefargreater.

16.Formoredetails,seeDanielGoleman,AForceforGood:TheDalaiLama’sVisionforOurWorld(NewYork:Bantam,2015);www.joinaforce4good.org.

17.Someevidenceforthisstrategy:C.Lundetal.,“PovertyandMentalDisorders:BreakingtheCycleinLow-IncomeandMiddle-IncomeCountries,”Lancet378:9801(2011):1502–14;doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60754-X.

Index

Thepagenumbersinthisindexrefertotheprintedversionofthisbook.Thelinkprovidedwilltakeyoutothebeginningofthatprintpage.Youmayneedtoscrollforwardfromthatlocationtofindthecorrespondingreferenceonyoure-reader.

Abhidhamma,41–42accessconcentration,36–37addiction,285,286adolescents,197AgencyforHealthcareResearchandQuality,195aging,135–36,180–81,226–27,251,274alerting,143AlexandertheGreat,53–54Alpert,Richard,21alteredstatesofconsciousness,25,30–31,236alteredtraits,6–7,42,53,236,247–74,288–92,302n19earlythinkingon,44,46meditation-induced,133

altruism,112,268,270,308n18Alzheimer’sdisease,287–88amygdala,87–88,96–98,109–12,199,250andemotions,127andlong-termmeditators,243–44,252andstickiness,162–63andstress,170andwomen,118

anteriorcingulatecortex(ACC),170–71anteriorinsula,179Antonova,Elena,125,309n3Antrobus,John,299n12anxiety,195,197,206–7,239,260–61,284,303n4apps,276–77,283–84arhant,260Aristotle,53attachment,158,162–63,252attention,66–67,123–45,132–34,152–53,243–44,264andamygdala,87–88andchildren,280–81andlong-termmeditators,252,273–74

attentionalblink,133–36,145,246,310n9

awakening,272–73awareness,141,230Ayurvedicmedicine,177–78

basalganglia,160Basili,Padre,120–21Beck,Aaron,118,191–92behavioralpsychology,27–28,298n8Bennett-Goleman,Tara,191–93Benson,Herbert,174,176–77bhakti,262,263bias,61,63–66,119,142biofeedback,10bloodpressure,96,173–75,187–89BodhGaya,19,22bodhi,55bodyscan,83,84,256brain,47–49,50–52,78,98–99,190.Seealsoneuroscience;researchactivityof,107–8,150,217–18,235andaging,226–27asymmetryof,184–87andempathy,222–23andheart,245andmeditationtype,260andmetabolicenergy,150oscillationsof,217,233sizeof,63,158,179–84

breathawarenessmeditation,198breathingrate,138,178–79,259,281–82Brewer,Judson,156–57,160–61,241–42,255,286–87Britton,Willoughby,203–4BrownUniversity,203–4Buddha,37,153,272Buddhistpsychology,41–42,205burnout,92,114Bush,Mirabai,297n3

cardiacconditions,167,173–75caring,118–21CarnegieMellonUniversity,155CenterforContemplativeMindinSociety,297n3CenterforHealthyMinds,3–4,9,76,97–98,183–87,276–82andalteredtraits,253andattentionalblink,135andbias,65–66andbreathingrateresearch,179andcomparisionconditions,72–73andepigeneticresearch,176andexperimentalprotocol,215

andinflammationresearch,169–72andnucleusaccumbensresearch,158andyogiresearch,209–16,222–48,254–55

CenterforMindandBrain,93CenterforMindfulnessinMedicine,HealthCare,andSociety,166children,197,268,278–82ChoklingRinpoche,317n11ChokyiNyimaRinpoche,223Chomsky,Noam,298n10Christianhermits,101–2,307n1Christiantheologians,154cingulatecortex,180CityCollegeofNewYork,299n12clinicalpsychology,25cocktailpartyeffect,130Cognitive-BasedCompassionTraining(CBCT),117–18cognitivecontrol,128,138–40cognitivereappraisal,107–8cognitiveunconscious,140–41compassion,78,102–20,218,237–38,245–48compassionateaction,106,118,237compassionmeditation,87,104,177–79,236–38,250–52andPTSD,201–2andtakingaction,121

concentration,25,40,74,130,139access,36–37effortless,243,248asparamita,267andyogis,254

conflictofinterest,65connectivity,97,99,158,172,189,250–52,282consciousmind,140–41consciousness,31–32,44,148–49,233constructivemeditation,264constructvalidity,75–76controlgroups,94,175,239andactivecontrols,66,68–69,72,194,306n20,310n7

corticalgyrification,181corticalspecificity,130corticalthickness,179–98,183–84cortisol,170–72,216,252,257,273craving,285–86Creswell,David,155–56,172crises,202–4

Dahl,Cortland,261DalaiLama,14–15,162–63,244,265–66andbrainimagingdata,45andcompassion,104–5

anddestructiveemotions,8–9andeverydaylife,257andKhunuLama,20andmedicalconditions,188andscience,216andsuffering,309n30anduniversallove,119visionof,291andyogis,210

Dalhousie,32,147–49darknights,202–4,316n14Davidson,RichardJ.,3–4,32–35,127,209–28,258–59,288–92andamygdalaresponse,306n22andAntoineLutz,230–36andattentionalblinkresearch,135andDalaiLama,244,265–66dissertationof,5–6,29,66–67,130–31,303n6earlywritingof,44educationof,26–32,298nn9–10andEEGdemonstration,244–45andgeneresearch,175–76andGolemanresearch,215–16Harvardresearchby,143andmeditationcategories,216–20,261,264andMingyurRinpoche,224–28andpain,147–49andsociologists,49–50andStephenE.StrausLecture,188–89

Davidson,Susan,275–76Davis,Jake,285–86deafpeople,51–52,301n14decentering,192,196–97deconstructivemeditation,264defaultmodenetwork,150–52,156–58,163,247depression,185,192–99,201,284,307n5depressivethinking,117–18dereification,154deSales,Francis,255DesertFathers,101–2,307n1destructiveemotions,8–9,184,212,217devotion,271Dharamsala,41DiagnosticandStatisticalManual(DSM),199,206Diamond,Marion,48–59DilgoKhyentseRinpoche,212,238Dimidjian,Sona,197,284distractions,137,285Dōgen,154dorsolateralprefrontalcortex(DLPFC),142,152,156dose-responserelationship,71,250

down-regulation,92,176drugs,31,299n20Dunne,John,219,317n9Dzogchen,263

educationalsystem,280EEG,130,217,222,231,232,244–45,287effort,160,161,241–44,267Ekman,Paul,96,162–63EmoryUniversity,86–88,117–18,157–58,256,266,317n8emotions,2,114,127,162–63,186,240,248empathicconcern,105,113,121,281empathy,79,105–7,121,183–84,246braincircuitryfor,222–23andchildren,279andnovicemeditators,250–51researchon,113–15,237andsuffering,110andTenacitygame,282

emptiness,154Engle,Adam,15–16epigenetics,175–76Epstein,Mark,205–6equanimity,116,267Ericsson,Anders,258ethicalconduct,267,270eudaimonia,54,58expectations,62,115–16,148experimentsofnature,51–52extrasensoryperception,220–21

Feniger,Siegmund,300n2fibromyalgia,167–68flourishing,53–56flow,152fMRIscanner,85,196,222–23,225focus,36,110,131,239,243–44,251FrenchNationalCenterforScientificResearch,14Freud,Sigmund,41functionaldecoupling,91funding,16

galvanicskinresponse,62,303n5gammaoscillations,232–34,247,248,253,287GarrisonInstitute,277GautamaBuddha,37,153generosity,266–67genomics,175–79Goenka,S.N.,23,32–35,83,103

Goldin,Philippe,85,198Goldstein,Joseph,22,23,104Goleman,Daniel,3–4,19–27,29,44,258–59,288–92andbloodpressure,187–89andDalaiLama’sTempletonPrize,265–66andDavidsonresearch,215–16dissertationof,5–6,27,59–64,303n7–8,304n9andJonKabat-Zinn,260–62andmeditationtypology,319n11andtranspersonalpsychology,299n15andUPandita,173

goodness,267–68grants,16grasping,154,159,285gratitude,279Greco-Romanphilosophicschools,53–55Gross,James,85,198groundedtheory,215Gueth,Anton,300n2guidebook,24,35–40

habitmastery,160habituation,124–26,132happiness,117–18,120Harris,Sam,140HarvardMedicalSchool,10,174,179–80HarvardUniversity,43–44,151–52,220–21Hasenkamp,Wendy,256,319n4Hawthorneeffect,71–74HealthEnhancementProgram(HEP),72–73,170,185HealthyMinds,276heart,62,178–79,244–48,303n8HourofStillness,147,149Hover,Robert,83–84

immunesystem,57,253impulseinhibition,139–40India,32–34.Seealsoindividualcitiesinflammation,169,171,172,189–90insight,24,38–40,83,104,131–32,135insightmeditation,35,38–40InsightMeditationSociety(IMS),83,104,131–32,135insula,109–10,180,196,245interoception,256

Jacob,Francois,317n1James,Williams,30,123–24,128,248JetsunMilarepa,249Jha,Amishi,128–29,143,277

jhana,36–37,39JohnsHopkinsUniversity,193–95JournalofTranspersonalPsychology,27,298n6

Kabat-Zinn,Jon,3,75,165–66,297n4backgroundof,82–86andDanielGoleman,260–62andMBSR,171,184,186–87

Kandy,SriLanka,41,43Kapor,Mitch,300n3kenosis,154KhunuLama,19–20,266kidneydisease,174,308n18kindness,278–81Kornfield,Jack,204–5KrishnaDas,22,297n3Kuhn,Thomas,289

Lazar,Sara,179–80,314n25Lazarus,Richard,60liberation,25LibraryofTibetanWorksandArchives,41lifepurpose,56,57,92–93,270limbicsystem,127loneliness,176longitudinalstudies,93–95,133,225–26,256love,101–21loving-kindness,102,109,112,116–17,237loving-kindnessmeditation,67–68,104–9,177–78,264andbrainactivity,238andimplicitbias,119–20andinflammation,172andlong-termmeditators,252andself,157andtrauma,199–202,207,316n12web-basedinstructionfor,284

Lutz,Antoine,230–36LyonNeuroscienceResearchCenter,231

Mahamudra,263Maharaji,20–22,297n3MaharishiUniversityofManagement,65,197mantra,6,74,177,193,263,264,307n1Maslow,Abraham,299n15maturation,280Maull,Fleet,277MaxPlanckInstituteforHumanCognitiveandBrainSciences,67–68,106–7,114,183–84MBCT,191–93,196,199,206–7,284MBSR,3,72–73,84–86,165–68,260

andamygdala,97,250andcortisollevels,172andloneliness,176andselectiveattention,129–30,144–45andsensoryawareness,131andsocialanxiety,198andteacherqualifications,186–87

McCleary,Joel,300n4McEwen,Bruce,48McLeodGanj,209meditation,9,14.Seealsomeditators;research;individualtypesattitudestoward,31benefitsof,69,73,173–77,186–89,195,247andclinicalpsychology,25anddefaultmodenetwork,163anddigitalplatforms,276–77andeffort,160–61,241–44,267goalsof,81guidebookfor,24,35–40healthaffectsof,187–89,193–94,273,277–78intensityof,259andlackoftime,275–76levelsof,3–4,73,250longitudinalstudiesof,93–95long-termimpactof,45,111,143–45,251–53asmetatherapy,204–7mindfulness(Seemindfulness)monetizationof,11–12andneuralprofiles,117–18andpain,84,88–91,147–49,238–41physiologicalimpactsof,178–79processof,23,37–38,255–56aspsychotherapy,191–207andPTSD,2,199–202andqualityoflife,187–88quantificationof,69–71,193,244,256andresilience,92inretreats,32–34,202–4,224,229,259short-termbenefitsof,250–51sitting,85andstatebytraitinteractions,235–36andstateeffects,44andstress,82–86andsustainedattention,132–33teachersof,258–60traiteffectsof,78typesof,67–68,110,116,181,183–84,186,261–65andunconsciousbias,142

meditators,209–48amygdalasof,96–98

beginner,235,242,249–50brainsof,158,179–84,242–43,312n13andbrainwavesurge,219–20experiencelevelof,69–71,243,257–60long-term,156–57,249–53,273andstress,259

memory,47,139,145,251MentalandPhysical(MAP)Training,283mentalfitness,282–85mentalillness,202–4Merton,Thomas,81meta-analysis,174,181–82,193–95meta-awareness,115,128,140–42,156–57,263metta,104Michaelson,Jay,202–4MindandLifeInstitute,8,14–16,86,159,212,256andDalaiLama,266anddesireresearch,285anddestructiveemotionsmeeting,217andSRI,93,129,155,179–80,197

mindfulattention,86–88MindfulMoodBalance,284mindfulness,14,37–38,74–77,85–86,156–57andanxiety,193andattentionalblink,136andbeginners,263andchildren,197,279andconcentration,139anddepression,197andfocus,131andgrasping,286andheartrate,178–79andinflammation,172,189andinsight,24andmeta-awareness,115andpain,167–68,193andPTSD,2andtelomereresearch,177andveterans,200

mindfulness-basedcognitivetherapy,191–93,196,199,206–7,207,284mindfulness-basedstressreduction.SeeMBSRmindfulnessmovement,166mind-wandering,151,152,251,252MingyurRinpoche,216–21,223,224,226,228,239,262monkeymind,36,156mood,185moralguidelines,270multitasking,136–38Munindra,Anagarika,22–23,35musicaltraining,301n12

NamgyalMonasteryInstituteofBuddhistStudies,244–45Nass,Clifford,138NationalCenterforComplementaryandIntegrativeHealth,188NationalInstituteofHealth,175,188,282,290NationalInstituteofMentalHealth(NIMH),198–99NeemKaroliBaba,20–22,262Neff,Kristin,105Negi,GesheLobsangTenzin,117–18,317n8neocortex,127neuralprofile,109–10,117neurofeedback,286–88neurogenesis,283neuromythology,184–87neuroplasticity,50–52,252,278–83,302n16neuroscience,7–8,29,47–49,127,129,265,268.Seealsobrain;research;researchmethodsneurotransmitters,32,299n17Neville,Helen,51–52,301n14NewYorkUniversity,27–28,298nn9–10nibbana,38,216Nisker,Wes,297n3nondualstance,263,264nonfindings,65,143NorlaLama,262NortheasternUniversity,116–17nucleusaccumbens,158,162–63,247,252,254nullfindings,61NyanaponikaThera,41,43,300n2NyanatilokaThera,300n2

openawareness,135–36openpresence,221,236,239orbitofrontalcortex,180orienting,129–30,143OxfordUniversity,195–97

pain,147–49,166–67,238–41andmeditation,88–91,193,195neuralnetworksfor,114andyogis,248,253–54

panchakarma,177–78parafovealvision,51,301nn13–14paramitas,266–67patience,257,267peakexperiences,299n15peripheralvision,51,301nn13–14personality,302n16photicdriving,287,321n13physiologicalmeasures,29,62

Pinger,Laura,278–80positivefeelings,114Posner,Michael,153postcingulatecortex(PCC),150–51,156,160,189,238,285–86post-traumaticstressdisorder,1–2,52,199–202prefrontalcortex,127–28,179,180activationof,185,243andamygdala,97andearlymeditationstages,160andlong-termmeditators,252andPCC,238

primaryauditorycortex,302n14PrisonMindfulnessInstitute,277psychedelics,299n17psychoanalysis,205–6psychologicalsymptoms,167–68,202–4psychologybehavioral,27–28,298n8Buddhist,41–42clinical,25earlydaysof,31

psychologyofconsciousnesscourse,43,205psychotherapy,191–207purpose,56,57,92–93,270

questionnaires,75–77

Raichle,Marcus,149–50RamDass,21,297n3reactivitylevel,97refractoryperiod,134relaxation,68,176–77religions,25,320n18renunciation,159replication,61,65,198research.Seealsoresearchmethodsoncognitivecontrol,138–40oncompassion,102,115designof,72–73,79,198,214–216,221–22,304n13,314n25onempathy,106–7evaluationof,78historyof,14oninflammation,169–72onlifepurpose,57onloving-kindness,109onMBSR,131andmeditationtype,67–68,181–82,264–65onmeta-awareness,142andmindfulness,58

in1970s,124normsof,221–22oversimplificationof,182onselectiveattention,129–30subjectsfor,66,182–83onZenmeditators,157–58

researchmethods,11–12,59–79,107–8,142andcontrols,72–73,94,175,194,239anddepressionstudy,196andmeditationexpertise,214,244andmeditationtype,181–83andpain,89–91andself-selection,172andstress,95–98andyogis,229–31

resilience,92ReSourceProject,114,256responseinhibition,139–40reticularactivatingsystem(RAS),125retreats,32–34,202–4,224,229,259Ricard,Matthieu,113–14,212–15,228,236–37,246,317n2RockefellerUniversity,48Rodin,Judith,28,299n11Rosenkranz,Melissa,169–72,306n20rumination,151–52Ryff,Carol,56–57,92

Sacks,Oliver,299n20Sahn,Seung,82Salzberg,Sharon,103–4,297n3samadhi,25,39Saron,Cliff,93–95,111,209–11,256andimpulseinhibition,139–40researchby,133,144andtelomerasebenefit,177

Sasaki,Ruth,90sati,74Sayadaw,Ledi,23Sayadaw,Mahasi,24,173,300n2Sayadaw,UPandita,173,192Schumpeter,Joseph,47Segal,Zindel,192,196–97selectiveattention,128–32,144–45self,151–55,161–62self-circuitry,163self-compassion,104–5,307n5self-efficacy,167selflessness,155–63self-referencing,161

self-reports,62,75–77self-talk,172,198sensoryawareness,130–31shamatha,256Shantideva,266Shapiro,David,297n4Shors,Tracy,283Simon,Herbert,136Singer,Tania,113–15,178,183–84,256skeptics,65–66skin,168–72Skinner,B.F.,298nn8–10sleep,318n2sleepereffect,256socialanxietydisorder,85–86,198social/emotionallearning(SEL),281SocietyforNeuroscience,47,301n9SriLanka,41StanfordUniversity,85–86,137–38,198statebytraitinteraction,235–36,246,253–54stateeffects,35,44,231,242State-TraitAnxietyMeasure,303n4StateUniversityofNewYorkatPurchase,93–95,215Stendl-Rast,David,113stickiness,154,161–63,306n22stress,73,81–82,92,95–99,303n4arousalof,62andinflammation,168–72reactivityto,85,252recoveryfrom,78,250–51

StressReductionandRelaxationProgram,165suffering,108–10,162–63,192,202–4,238,240Sufi,154SummerResearchInstitute(SRI),15–16,93,129,155,179–80,197,256Surwit,Richard,297n4Suzuki,D.T.,132SuzukiRoshi,56

Tart,Charles,31teachers,186–87,259–60,271Teasdale,John,192,195–97teenagers,197telomerase,177temporoparietaljunction(TPJ),184Tenacity,281–82TheravadaBuddhism,3Tibetanyogis.SeeyogisTibet-EmoryScienceProject,317n8Tourette’ssyndrome,297n1

traiteffect,91,96,172,189.Seealsoalteredtraitstranscendentalmeditation(TM),3,65,193transpersonalpsychology,299n15trauma,197,199–202,277Travis,John,297n3Treisman,Anne,143TrierSocialStressTest(TSST),95TsikeyChoklingRinpoche,223TsoknyiRinpoche,223TulkuUrgyenRinpoche,223,317n11

UBaKhin,23,83,215UniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeley,49,60UniversityofCaliforniaatDavis,93UniversityofCaliforniaatLosAngeles,180,181UniversityofCaliforniaatSantaBarbara,139,142UniversityofColorado,115UniversityofMassachusettsMedicalCenter,84,165UniversityofMassachusettsMedicalSchool,83,286UniversityofMiami,129–30UniversityofMontreal,158UniversityofOregon,287UniversityofOxford,192UniversityofPennsylvania,128UniversityofTexasatAustin,105UniversityofWisconsin.SeeCenterforHealthyMinds

vairagya,159Vajrayanapractice,263Varela,Francisco,14–15,214,215,245VarietiesoftheContemplativeExperience,203veterans,199–202,316n12videogames,281–82vigilance,128,132–33,145vipassana,22–23,83,103,110,192andamygdalareactivity,127andattentionalblink,135andepigeneticresearch,176andinflammationresearch,171–72andlong-termpractice,250,263andselectiveattention,131–32,144–45

visualization,215,220Visuddhimagga,35–40,41,202,260,261

WaismanCenter,3–4.SeealsoCenterforHealthyMinds;Davidson,RichardJ.Wallace,Alan,86–88,93–96,117,133WashingtonUniversity,149–50well-being,55–57,276–77Williams,Mark,192,195–96

Winnicott,Donald,206wisdom,267workplaces,277

YaleUniversity,119–20,156–57yoga,83,300n5yogis,177,186,209–50,270andalteredtraits,253–54,274andcortisolactivity,254,257meditationtypeof,263andsleep,318n2traditionof,268–71

Young,Jeffrey,192

Zajonc,Arthur,159Zenmeditation,90–91,124–26,132,154,157–58,263Zuboff,Shoshanah,300n4

AbouttheAuthors

DanielGoleman,PhD,knownforhisbestsellingbooksonemotionalintelligence,hasalong-standinginterestinmeditationdatingbacktohistwoyearsinIndiaasagraduatestudentatHarvard.HeisapsychologistwhoformanyyearsreportedonthebrainandbehavioralsciencesforTheNewYorkTimes.

RichardJ.Davidson,PhD,istheWilliamJamesandVilasResearchProfessorofPsychologyandPsychiatry,directsabrainlab,andfoundedtheCenterforHealthyMindsattheUniversityofWisconsin,Madison.Hehaspublishedmorethan320articlesandeditedfourteenbooks.

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