A COMPARISON BETWEEN CHINESE BUDDHISM MEDITATION AND DAOIST

MEDITATION: TAKING CHANG LU ZONG ZE‘S ZUO CHAN YI AND COMPLETE

REALTY’S METHOD AS AN EXAMPLE.

TABLE OF CONTENT

1) INTRODUCTION

2) BREIFING ON CHINESE BUDDHIST MEDIATTION

3) BREIFING ON DAOIST MEDITATION

4) COMPARISON

5) SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

6) REFERENCES

1) INTRODUCTION

In Bible Isaiah 30:15, it said, “In quietness and trust is your strength”. So

there is no surprise that there is considerable interest lately in providing

mindfulness training to individual or to employees of corporations as a

tool to reduce stress and improve mental health. Individuals were taught

to meditate in a sitting posture, regulate their breathing, and distant

themselves from their anxieties and worries. Instead they should focus on

to here and now. This kind of mindfulness training can to a certain extent

reduce the psychological pressure on individuals, but the down side of

this is the individual may loss the enthusiasm of work as well as the

working efficiency. In a book published in 2015 called The Buddha Pill,

the writer claim that there is a possibility that mindfulness training might

lead to negative consequences. 1

The earliest record of meditation in China was found to be in 470BC,

where some meditative method was inscribed on a piece of Jade

unearthed 2. There were some discussions of meditation in varies Schools

of religions in the Chinese Culture.

Confucius top student Yan Hui reported his experience of meditation to

Confucius as follows: “take a sitting and relax composure, do not use

your intelligence, depart from you existing form and knowledge, unite

with the universe, this is Zuo Wang”. 3

In the classical text of Da Xue, it said, “Know your target then your mind

can be fixed, then you can be calm, your mind can be at ease, you can

then think, and get useful insights.” 4

As you can see, there is not much coverage on meditation in the

Confucius texts.

1 Murphy, James (2017), p1

2 袁康就, (2014), p142

3 陳鼓應, (2012), p168

4 劉桂標, (2012), p011

On the other hand, Buddhism and Daoism have more detailed description

of their meditation methods.

Meditation is a very important part of Buddhism because it is a vital step

to achieve awakening, following the example of the Buddha himself 5.

There exists various schools of Buddhism and their meditation practice

remains very different. Some employed the sitting posture and some

employed the walking posture. Still others employed both and

incorporated meditation into other activities. As directive for the

management of your thoughts during meditation, some school emphasis

the calmness and concentration while others impressed on the importance

of insight and wisdom. Another issue of the Buddhist meditation is that

formal instruction manuals are few and far between. For the purpose of

comparison under this paper, a manual of Buddhist Meditation issued by

Chang Lu Zong Ze (長蘆宗賾) is used. This manual was issued in

1103AD and is quite representative of the Buddhism sitting meditation

practices. 6

Meditation is an important part of Daoism practice because of the effect it

has on physical health, longevity and the eventual goal of becoming

immortal. Different sects of Daoism use different approach to practise

Meditation. There are different ways of conditioning the mind during

meditation, and there are also different instructions of focusing ones

attention to various parts inside one’s body and one can practice

individually or with a partner.

Lu Dong Bin (呂洞賓) was considered by many as the most important

person in the development of Daoist Meditation 7. One of his students

founded the Complete Reality School of Daoism, which still carries on

today. Lu was borned in the Tang Dynasty. He was teacher to Huang

Zhong-yang (黃重陽), who founded the Complete Reality School of

Daoism. One of his other students, taught a student called Zhang Bo-

duan(張百端), who later authored one of the most important text on

Daoist Meditation called Wu Zhen Pian(悟真篇). The Complete Reality

5 Bielefeldt, Carl, (1988), p3

6 Gregory, Peter N., (1986) p151

7 袁康就, (2009), p1

School of Daoism used a form of quiet sitting meditation method. It also

started in a period before the emergence of the neo-Confucius where the

teaching of Confucius, Buddhism and Daoism were merged together. The

Meditation teachings of this School will be used for comparison to the

Buddhism Meditation.

2) BREIFING ON CHINESE BUDDHIST MEDITATION

It was said that Gotama Buddha sat under a bodhi tree to meditate and

achieved enlightenment (or awakening) before founding the religion of

Buddhism.

In Indian language, meditation is called jhana(pali)/dhyana(sankrite),

referring to a deep meditative mental state. However, there did not

appear to have a uniform method in regard to how to achieve the ultimate

goal of enlightenment through meditation. 8

Buddhism subsequently spread into the neighbouring Countries, and

meditation was given the name of Chan in China, Seon in Korea, and Zen

in Japan. Buddhist Sects such as Tiantai, Huayan, Chan and Pure Land

eventually established in China. Each of these Sects had their own

thoughts on how to carry out meditation under the Sutra they followed.

Tiantai(天台)

Founded by Zhiyi (智顗)(538-597), developed a meditation method

based on the Mahayana idea of emptiness. He is student of Hui-ssu. After

enlightenment, he went to Mt Tiantai and founded his own school. He

advocated two kinds of meditative practices: (a) in seclusion, and (b) as

part of daily activities. There are also four approaches to reach Samadhi

(concentration): (i) cultivating Samadhi using mainly sitting, (ii) through

constant walking, (iii) through part walking and part sitting, (iv) through

neither walking nor sitting.

8 Shaw, Sarah (2009), pxv

Huayan

An intellectually highly sophisticated Buddhist tradition, it advocates the

theory of emptiness and embryonic Buddha latent in all beings. These

throughs were further developed in China. The School did not fare well

during the 845 AD persecution of Buddhism in China.

Chan

Chan and Pure-land (Jingtu) are two others major schools in Chinese

Buddhism. Their meditative practices have survived well into the twenty-

first century. The word Chan is a translation from Indian literature

(jhana/dhyana), which means a deep meditative state of the mind and

concentration (Samadhi) (三昧) have been achieved. The Chan School do

not rely on the teaching of scriptures and doctrines. Teaching is based on

personal understanding as well as speech. The tradition was introduced

by Bodhidharma(達摩) to China in the sixth century. He has also initiated

the teaching of martial arts into the monastery system. Chan meditation

practitioners undertake the practice of containment of sexual energy and

diet. During meditation they pay particular attention to the keeping of the

breath to ensure the practice has a strong physical base. Some Chan

teachers like to ask absurd and sometimes violently inspired questions to

their students, resulting sometimes in a sudden, momentary experience of

awakening.

Pure-land (Jintu)

It was founded by Tanluan(曇鸞) (476-542) in China. This Sect promised

rebirth in Amitabha’s Pure-land (or Western Paradise) where

enlightenment was assured. It teaches meditation based on visualization.

The practice is called Nianfo, by repeating the mantra that evokes the

Amitabha Budda that associated with the Pure-land. As a secluded

quarter and monastic environment are not essential, this makes practical

appeal to Chinese peasants.

Despite of the fact that there are some printed matters on Meditation,

details of the practice itself are usually taught personally. Therefore, it is

essential to find a good teacher to learn the skill. 9

For the preparation of the meditation exercise, the practitioner would be

required to follow the Buddhist teaching of Eightfold Path 10

:

1) Right view

2) Right intention

3) Right speech

4) Right action

5) Right livelihood

6) Right effort

7) Right mindfulness

8) Right concentration

Text specifically written for meditation was not publicly available until a

respectable Pure-land monk of the Sung Dynasty by the name of Chang

Lu Zong Ze wrote a monastic code called Chan Yuan Qing Gui (禪苑清

規) in which one chapter was devoted to sitting meditation called Zuo

Chan Yi(坐禪儀). It soon became the most influential meditation manual

from the Northern Sung period, around the time of the beginning of the

twelve century. Zong Ze’s work in the form of an introductory manual of

meditation at 600-700 characters was the earliest known work of its kind

available to the Buddhist community, receiving wide support and

popularity.

In order to carry out the meditation, Zong Ze advised the student to seek

quiet quarters, regulate his eating and sleeping habits and avoid

deprivation and indulgence in other activities. He requested his student to

sit erected on a mat in standard crossed leg or semi-cross-leg position.

His hands would be in the traditional meditation mudra of the

Dharmadhatu (fa jie ding yin)(法界定印). His tongue will be touching

the upper jaw, with lips and teethes closed. His eyes are kept slightly

open and the breath should be regulated.

9 Shaw, Sarah (2009), p187-213

10 Shaw, Sarah (2009), p6

Mentally, the meditator is to relinquish all judgements and simply

observe his thoughts as it arises. Once observed, thoughts will cease and

eventually the mind will become unified. Such teaching was in line with

other Buddhist text like Zhi Guan (止觀).

On leaving Samadhi, Zong Ze requested his students to arise slowly and

calmly, try to maintain a meditative calm so as to develop the ability to

enter Samadhi at will.

Zong Ze offered the following benefits of meditation 11

:

(a) Happier, healthier, and peaceful;

(b) It will lead to wisdom;

(c) It will prepare one to face death.

Some critics argued that while Zong Ze’s manual teach students the way

to achieve the calm and concentrated state of Samadhi, but it did not

cover the generation of insight or wisdom as mentioned in Zhiyi’s Zhi

Guan teachings. 12

However, it cannot be disputed that Zong Ze’s writing on Buddhist

Meditation pioneered a serious of meditation writings both in China and

in Japan.

3) BREIFING ON DAOIST MEDITATION

Daoism can be looked at from its theory (Dao Jia) and its system and

practices (Dao Jiao).

The founder of Dao Jia was Laozi. He was born south of the Yang-tze

River at an area called Chu in China 13

. He existed in the same period of

Confucius around 500 BC but was slightly older. Laozi was the

government historian and was also in charge of the records. When he

11

Gregory, Peter N., (1986) p159 12

Gregory, Peter N., (1986) p133 13

Lau, D.C., (2001), px

retired, he was asked to write down his philosophy. He left 5000 words

and this is the Dao De Jing available today.

Dao Jiao has a long history and is deeply related to local customs in

China. Dao Jiao currently consists of two major Sects, Zheng Yi (正

一)and Complete Reality School(全真) of Daoism.

In 142AD, Zhang Dao-ling(張道陵) claimed he had received teaching

from Laozi himself and started to transform the Dao philosophy into a

Religion 14

. He started to use talismanic water to heal the sick and won a

large following in the Szechuan area. The practice was passed down to

his son and then to his grandson. The Dao Jiao was then developed into

an administrative practice. His grandson Chang Lu (張魯), eventually

surrendered to Cao Cao(曹操), leader of the Han army. He and his

followers moved north to Henan initially. The Zhing Yi group of Daoism

subsequently migrated to Jiangxi Mt Longhu (江西龍虎山) and

continued their heritage for another 1800 years. Zhing Yi (Tian Shi Dao)

(天師道) priests can get marry and have a family life. They will put on

the ceremonial globe and perform rituals as required.

The Complete Reality (Quanzhen) School was founded by Huang Zhong-

yang in 1159AD. Wang was originally a middle age local government

official. He met the Dao sage Lu Dung Bin and was taught five important

texts of the Dao practices. After which Huang became a hermit for three

years. He then travelled to Shandong province to start his Daoism

lectures. He took up seven core disciples and found the Complete Reality

School which carry on up to today 15

. Priest belong to this school mainly

stay and practice in monasteries and do not get marry.

The concept of longevity can be found very early in the Chinese culture.

As pointed out by Yu Ying-shih (余英時) in his book “Views of Life and

Death in Late Han China”, the philosophy of Daoism was deeply rooted

in life and longevity. In Laozi Dao De Jing(道德經) , the most important

concept of Daoism are Dao and De which are described as the creation

14

Wong, Eva (2011), p34 15

吳亞魁, (2006), p2

and nourishment forces of the universe. If one looks at another important

classical Daoism text un-earthed in East Han called Taiping Jing(太平經),

it said, “Dao means life, if Dao discontinued, then all living matters

cannot exist.” The Jing also said people can extent their life by doing

charity. Earlier on, in the Qin dynasty, the emperor was so concern for

eternal life that he sent search parties overseas for long living medicine. 16

Daoist priest started to work on refining minerals to produce ever living

pills from this period, but with little success. The pills produced poisoned

a considerable number of people using it. Therefore, the enthusiasm dies

down substantially 17

. Daoist priest turn to Internal Alchemy(內丹)

(Daoism meditation) to achieve Longevity.

Internal Alchemy is a collection of Daoist meditative methods used by

various branches of Daoist Sect to prolong life and eventually enable the

soul to depart from the body to re-unite with the Dao itself. Daoist priest

believed that before we were born we were part of the Dao. When we

enter the world as baby we carried with ourselves three components of

internal energies: (a) generative (Jing 精), vital (Qi 炁), and spirit energy

(Shen 神) 18

. As people grow to adulthood, Jing leaks out with sexual

desire, Qi is lost with emotions, and Shen is depleted with activity in the

mind. These are the causes of ill-health, old age and death. The purpose

of Internal Alchemy (meditation) is to reverse this process. Through the

practice of Dao Meditation, one try to recover energy that one were

endowed with before birth, as such we can achieve good health and

longevity and eventually re-united with Dao.

There were a number of important classical Dao texts on Internal

Alchemy19

:

(a) (Han) Wei Bo-yang Can Tong Qi (The Triple Unity)(參同契)

(b) (Han) Zhong Li-quan Complete Methods of the Sacred Jewel

(靈寶畢法)

(c) (Sung) Zhang Bo-duan Wu Zhen Pian(悟真篇)

16

余英時, (2008), p25-30 17

Wong, Eva (2011), p73 18

Kohn, Livia, (1989), p317 19

Wong, Eva (2011), p77

However, there are a substantial number of metaphors used in the text.

The learning of Internal Alchemy emphasis personal teaching and it will

be very difficult to get ahead without a good teacher. The theory of

Internal Alchemy provides a way for the average person to improve on

their longevity with the ultimate goal of achieving immortality.

By the time of Zhong Li-quan and Lu Dung-bin, the theory and practices

of Daoist meditation (Internal Alchemy) had reached maturity. Through

the Tang and Sung Dynasty, the number of practitioners continued to

increase. The influence of Daoism as a religion diminished in Ming and

Ching Dynasty, but the enthusiasm to practise Daoist Meditation

continued to grow.

The practitioners of Daoist Meditation acknowledged that there are a

system of Meridian (Jingluo)(經絡) and Acupoint (Xuewei)(穴位) within

the human body that the internal energy of a person travels. Such an

internal system was reported by the Scientific Reports in March 27 this

year 20

.

The overall meditative process can be broken down into three stages:

Microcosmic Circulation(小周天), Macrocosmic Circulation(大周天)

and the final stage of re-joining the internal energy with that of the

Cosmos. 21

Microcosmic Circulation means the circulation of energy through the

Microcosmic Orbit around the body. In this step, the generative energy is

refined to convert into vital energy. Through a meditative sitting posture

and regulated breathing using the abdomen, energy is gathered at the

lower tan-tien near the navel. The energy is directed to ascend the upper

part of the body through the Tu meridian which runs at the centre of the

back of the body. It continues to follow the Tu meridian which passed

through the top of the head and into the upper Jaw of the month. Then the

energy starts to follow the Jen meridian from the lower Jaw of the head

and descends the front of the body returning to the lower tan-tian to form

20

Scientific Reports March 27, p1 21

馬濟人, (1997), p179-213

a circular pathway. Circulation of energy in the Microcosmic Orbit is also

called the Lesser Celestial Movement.

The movement of energy under the Microcosmic Circulation transfers

energy between top and bottom in our main body using the Jen-Tu two

meridians. However, these two meridians actually connect to large

amount of other meridians going out to the limbs of the body.

The second stage of the Daoist Meditation, called Macrocosmic

Circulation, is to transfer the energy out to the limbs and back. The

energy is transferred using meridians connected to the Jen-Tu meridian

and at the same time going out to the limbs. While the Microcosmic

Circulation’s concentration is the lower tan-tien near the navel, the

Macrocosmic Circulation’s concentration is the middle tan-tien in the

middle of the body, or the heart region. This stage involves regulating

emotions and moods. The qi energy is being refined into spirit energy at

this stage and accumulates.

The Final stage of the Daoist Meditation involves activity at the upper

tan-tien in the head. The spiritual energy is refined at this area to return to

their original state, so as to merge with the Dao. On successful

completion of the process, the immortal fetus (yuan-shen) (元神) will

emerge. Eventually the yuan-shen rises to the top of the head, and start to

travel outside the body. The yuan-shen will take longer and longer

journals, as it prepares for the moment that it will leave the body

permanently. This is the final part of the Daoist Meditation, returning to

the state before we were born. 22

4) COMPARISON

As mentioned earlier, the Zuo Chan Yi manual issued by Chang Lu Zong

Ze was the first detailed written description of sitting meditation available

to the Chinese Buddhism community. It was issued in the early 12

century before the arrival of the neo-Confucianism where the teachings of

22

Wong, Eva (2011), p172-183

Confucius, Buddhism and Daoism would merge together. It was quite

representative as a model form of sitting meditation of Chinese Buddhism.

For Daoism, the Complete Realty School also start to operate around the

twelve century. Their sitting meditation method is also well document by

the sage of Daoism and can be considered the main stream of Daoism

sitting meditation. Therefore, using the above two sitting meditation

methods to compare the differences between the Chinese Buddhism

meditation and Daoism meditation would be valid and meaningful.

The following table was prepared for the easy comparison of the

differences in approach between the Chinese Buddhist Meditation and the

Daoist Meditation:

COMPARISON TABLE

Items BUDDHIST TSO CHAN I DAOIST COMPLETE REALITY

METHOD

Preparation Have Buddhist Mahayana

thoughts in mind, i.e. have

mercy for all beings, pledge

to deliver everyone from

adversity to Pure Land.

Teachings in Dao De Jing, Shang Qing

Jing, Xiao Jing and Heart Sutra are used

as guiding principle. Practitioners are

requested to eradicate desires and empty

the mind from thoughts. The practice of

Daoist Meditation would require

commitment, patience and discipline.

Since a relaxed body and strong spine will

facilitate the Meditation process,

stretching exercise may be carried out as

preparation for the Meditation.

Environment A mat and a quiet place,

loosen your robe and belt

Meditation is preferred to be carried out at

a regular period of the day, at the same

location, with a low level of illuminance.

Posture In a crossed legged position,

with a straight back, ears in

line with shoulder, nose in

line with navel, eyes should

remain slightly open, prevent

drowsiness.

Practitioners normally sit cross-legged or

half-lotus yoga posture

Thoughts Relax your abdomen and

regulate your breathing, if

thoughts occur be aware of it,

it will vanish. In case demons

occurred, ref to Surangama

Sutra and Tiantai Zhi Guan.

Empty the mind of thoughts and focus on

the breath initially, accumulate energy in

the belly (lower tan- tien)

Internal-

Circulation

Not Applicable Internal Circulation:

Stage 1: circulate energy through the Jen-

tu meridians

Stage 2: In addition to stage 1, extend the

circulation to involve other meridians

going out to the limbs.

Stage 3: energy will be refined in the head

for preparation to travel outside the body.

Ultimate

Achievement

Initially:

-happier, healthier and

peaceful

-will lead to wisdom

-will prepare one to face

death

Finally:

-achieve awakening

Initially: Internal circulation of energy can

improve health.

Finally: The conditioned energy (spirit)

can unite with the operation of the Dao.

For the purpose of pre-meditation preparation, meditators from both the

Chinese Buddhism practice and Daoist practice are required to condition

themselves with their religious philosophies. It would be mercifulness for

Buddhist and eradication of desires for Daoist. Physical exercises are

mentioned in the Daoist practices to create a relaxed meditative posture.

The requirements on the practicing environment and postures are very

similar for the Chinese Buddhism and Daoism Meditation Methods. Both

of which mentioned a quiet and secluded location.

On the treatment of the thoughts arising during meditation, the Buddhist

method has a more detailed description on the handling of thoughts arose,

while the Daoist required the practitioner to concentrate on their breath

and their lower tan-tien initially.

There is an extensive requirement (in three stages) on the circulation of

internal energy around the human body in the Daoism method. There is

no corresponding requirement in the Buddhism practice under

comparison.

It was claimed that both the Buddhism and Daoism Meditation would

lead to improvement in health.

The Buddhist meditation has enlightenment (awakening) as its ultimate

goal. The Daoist meditation’s final goal would be to enable the

conditioned energy of the human body to return to a state where it can be

re-united with nature (Dao).

5) SUMMARY

Buddhist meditation is originated from the mercifulness of the Buddha

himself. He meditated under the Bodhi tree to find a way to deliver the

average person from the hardship of elderly, sickness and death. His

teaching emphasis on personal awakening, the wellness of the personal

physical body is not his primary concern. Therefore the Buddhist

meditation has a lot of teaching on the conditioning and treatment of the

thoughts arising as a result of carrying out meditation.

Critics to Zuo Chan Yi pointed to the insufficient details included for the

conditioning of the thoughts arising, such as description on details of

samatha and vipasyana (calm and wisdom), and demoniacal thoughts, and

methods to engage these thoughts. Instead, Zong Ze requested his reader

to further their studies on Zhi Guan on the demoniacal thoughts arising.

One would think he refers to the Tientai book of Mo He Zhi Guan where

detailed treatment of demoniacal thoughts was laid out. There is also

another text called Xiao Zhi Guan, where more detailed description was

included. 23

Daoist meditation has a long history in the Chinese culture. It emerges

from the desire for longevity and the ability to re-connect with the

operation of the universe (Dao). Apart from the conditioning of the

thoughts, the method entails circulation of energy around the meridians of

the practitioner. The meridians routings are results of studies by

Traditional Chinese Medicine practitioners. It was believed that human is

born with wisdom. Even under influence of material desire, it can seek

23

Gregory, Peter N., (1986) p133

self- improvement and conditioning to return to a healthier and wiser

state, and ultimately be united with the environment and nature. 24

The meditation exercise in Daoism does not limit itself as a mental

process only, on the contrary, it emphasis on both spiritual and body

improvement and conditioning, so it is considered as meditation for mind

and body together. 25

Although the two types of meditation under examination have similar

postures, the differences in the objectives of the Chinese Buddhism

Meditation and the Daoism Meditation have resulted in major differences

in the emphases in the operation of the mind and body during the

Meditation Process.

24

黎志添 (2017), p12 25

黎志添 (2017), px

6) REFERENCES

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Interstitium in Human Tissues” Scientic Reports, March 27.

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of California Press.

Gregory, Peter N., (1986) “Traditions of Meditation in Chinese

Buddhism”, Kuroda Institute.

Kohn, Livia, (1989), “Taoist Meditation and Longevity Techniques”, The

University of Michigan.

Lau, D.C., (2001), “Tao Te Chung”, The Chinese University Press.

Murphy, James (2017), Book Review, “The Buddha Pill: Can Meditation

Change you?” Secularism & Nonreligion, Ubiquity Press.

Shaw, Sarah (2009), “Introduction to Buddhist Meditation”, Routledge.

Wong, Eva (2011), “Taoism an Essential Guide”, Shambhala.

余英時, (2008), “東漢生死觀”, 聯經出版事業股份有限公司。

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袁康就, (2014), “丹學氣貫動静”, 資本雜綕。

吳亞魁,( 2006), “江南全真道教” , 中華書局(香港)有限公司。

馬濟人, (1997), “道教與煉丹”, 文津出版社。

陳鼓應, (2012), 莊子 , 中華書局。

劉桂標, (2012), “大學、中庸”, 中華書局。

黎志添 ,(2017), “修心煉性”, 中文大學出版社。