A STUDY ON READING COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH AMONG MATRICULATION STUDENTS IN PAKISTAN

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Table Of Contents 1. Imran Khan and Ambigapathy Pandian…………………………………………………...4 A study on reading comprehension performance in English among matriculation students in Pakistan 2. Frédérique M. A. Grim……………………………………………………………………15 Socio-cultural sensitivities and service-learning 3. Hamide Ghaemi…………………………………………………………………………...20 Reappraisal analysis of morphological awareness concerning reading accuracy, speed and comprehension of dyslexic students 4. Ambigathy A/L Pamdian and Ali Zahabi………………………………………………...30 The Assessment of young children 5. Dilek Altunay……………………………………………………………………………..38 Effect of Textual Enhancement and Textual Enhancement Techniques on Immediate Recognition 6. Nazar Ali Harati…………………………………………………………………………..53 Fostering Lecture Note Takers' Autonomy through Strategies-based Instruction 7. Maite Correa………………………………………………………………………………65 Academic dishonesty in the second language classroom: instructors‟ perspectives 8. Khodaverdi Alizadeh……………………………………………………………………...80 The advantages of active English teaching, emphasizing at active teaching to EFL child students



A STUDY ON READING COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE IN

ENGLISH AMONG MATRICULATION STUDENTS IN PAKISTAN

Imran Khan School of Languages, Literacies and Translation

Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800, Pulau Penang,

Malaysia Email: [email protected]

Ambigapathy Pandian School of Languages, Literacies and Translation

Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800, Pulau Penang,

Malaysia

ABSTRACT The paper discusses to what extent the benchmarks and reading competencies proposed in existing National Curriculum for English grade ten are achieved by the matriculation learners. To be more specific, the study was designed to examine and investigate learners‟ reading performance after receiving four months reading instruction. Consequently, this study was undertaken to investigate secondary school matriculation students‟ reading comprehension performance with a particular focus of „main idea‟ retrieval after completion of an academic program. In this study three private non-elitist secondary schools were selected from one town which was based on maximal variation sampling. To do so, only grade ten students‟ reading performance were investigated. All respondents of the selected schools were already formed in intact groups which were selected by the schools‟ principals. In order to assess respondents‟ main idea as a comprehension skill, discreet-point approach was adopted. To execute a comprehension test, ten short passages in conjunction with multiple choices were given as intensive reading tasks. The data were analyzed through a percentage study. Data analysis revealed that among three selected schools, 58.19% respondents were failed to retrieve main ideas from 10 given short texts, however, only 41.81% respondents were successful in intensive reading tasks.

KEY WORDS: Reading competencies, main idea in reading, reading performance, EFL and ESL context, matriculation students, secondary schools 1. INTRODUCTION “The man who doesn't read books has no

advantage over the man who can't read them."

- Mark Twain

Quality education is considered a base for social and economic growth and as well as a source for enhancing human potential. However, the current educational system in Pakistan is under criticism from educationist, policy makers, and government itself. The Economist Intelligence Unit (2007) currently documents in Ministry of Education (henceforth, MoE) (2009) that “Pakistan‟s education system is among the most deficient and backward in Asia” (p. 16). In a current scenario over six million children are out of school in Pakistan and out of those who attend, 45 per cent drop out before completing their primary education (UNESCO‟s EFA Global Report, 2008, as cited in Rahim, 2008). As a result, Pakistan‟s literacy is not only low but also very meager in terms of quality. Its adult literacy rate of total population is (49.9%) wherein; male (63%)



and female (36%). The World Bank (henceforth, TWB) in 2007 reports that this figure is lower than the literacy rate for countries such as: Sri Lanka (90.7%, Iran (82.4%), Indonesia (90.4%), Vietnam (90.3%), Egypt (71.4%) and India (61%). In addition, Education Sector Reform (2006; 2007) reports that 2.5% of the GDP utilizes on education i.e. for public sector, whereas, 0.5% is estimated to be the contribution of the private sector. The contribution of both private and public is 3% of the GDP which spends on education. This low priority on education sector is relatively less than the countries like: Iran (4.7%), Malaysia (6.2%), Thailand (4.2%), South Korea (4.6%), India (3.8%), and Bangladesh (2.5%) (as cited in TWB, 2007). Consequently, it is apparent that the low GDP i.e. 2.5% for public sector spends on education is not adequate and need to be increased in order to augment the literacy rate of the country. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Assessment Practices in Current Scenario Assessment and public examinations have been considered to play a central role in finding out what Gipps, 1994 & 1996 in Little and Wolf; Black, 1998; Greaney & Hasan 1998; Mirza, 1999; Assessment Reform Group, 1999; Kellaghal & Greaney 2001, public examinations are conducted all over the world and have been considered to play what goes on in the classroom “ in terms of „what‟ and „how‟ teachers teach and students learn, and can have an impact on both teaching and learning” (Rehmani, 2003, p. 3). In addition, the assessment systems can be used to evaluate the overall system‟s efficiency as well as student‟s performance. Above all, it provides feedback for improvements at all tiers “starting from changes in the classroom to improvements in the national systems” (p.41). According to crucial role in determining the impact of teaching as well as learning, public examinations in Pakistan have more demerits than merits (Rehmani, 2003). In this vein Madaus (1988) proposes that teacher-designed tests should be used in assessment. This would give teachers opportunities to think through objectives and identify explicit types of evidence that would demonstrate that the objectives had been met. Likewise, Black and William (1998) also recommend that teacher-designed assessment is extremely significant and acts as a magic bullet for student achievement. On the other hand, Neill, Guisbond, Schaeffer, Madden, and Legeros (2004) point out that any new accountability system provides teachers with high quality assessments that cover a variety of ways to demonstrate knowledge and that fit how children learn. Thus, in an educational setting, Alderson (1996) points out that:

The results of test can be used to assess how well your students can read. They can also tell you how successful your course has been, or how well you have taught the course. Depending upon your perspective, you can interpret test results as indicating students' strengths and weaknesses, the teacher's strengths and weakness, or the strengths and weaknesses of the course. (p.227) Accordingly, in Alderson‟s observation, the interpretation of test results not only exposes the weaknesses or strengths of student's comprehension but also reveals the teacher's and the particular course or program‟s strength and weaknesses. In addition, Imran (1998) cites Khan (1996) who observes that “The research in testing highlights the decline in examination system, its ineffectiveness, and unreliability in diagnosing students‟ weaknesses and assessing their abilities” (p.6). He (1996) goes on to reiterate that the “design and content of the test papers is such that students only have to rely on their memories, and do not have a beneficial effect, on syllabi and teaching practice” (p.6). Above all, in technical terms gives negative backwash effect and the tests lack validity and reliability (Khan, 1996 as cited in Imran, 1998). To be very specific to this issue under discussion Rehmani (2003) identifies that:

The present system of assessment is based on summative examination system that drives the curriculum rather than assesses achievement. It is mostly based on assessing factual knowledge rather than students‟ critical thinking and analytical skills as well as their understanding and comprehension. Thus teachers teach for testing, rather than for learning. The examination system reinforces approaches to teaching that reward memorization. The better the reproduction, the better and higher are the scores or marks awarded by the examiners. (p.3) Consequently, it is presumed from the aforesaid excerpt that in the current scenario learners‟ learning outcomes are completely ignored. However, testing of memorization is holistically measured. 2.2 National Curriculum’s Reading Benchmarks The national curriculum (MoE, 2006) identifies five „competencies‟ incorporated with eight „standards‟ for key learning areas, for instance; reading and thinking skills, writing skills, oral communication skills, formal and lexical aspects of language, appropriate ethical and social



development. However, this study merely focuses on reading skills, to ascertain grade ten matriculation students‟ reading performance after completion their academic program. According to the national curriculum (MoE, 2006), there are two „standards‟ for grade ten learners of English. These „standards‟ are associated to reading and thinking skills. In „standard‟ one, “All students will search for, discover and understand a variety of text types through tasks which require multiple reading and thinking strategies for comprehension, fluency and enjoyment.”(p.7). Moreover, in „standard‟ two, “All students will read and analyze literary text to seek information, ideas, enjoyment, and to relate their own experiences to those of common humanity as depicted in literature.” (p.7). In addition, according to national curriculum (MoE, 2006) the rationale of previously mentioned „standards‟ of reading is as follow: Better readers are the ones who are equipped with the skills of purposeful reading. These skills can be developed through awareness raising and practice activities. The aim should be to use the texts to teach reading, and not reading to teach texts. Written texts that deal with common human experiences, contemporary information and issues are proposed as the context for the learning of processes skills and strategies, but the approach of the curriculum goes beyond reading. In fact, the reading component serves as a spring board for the development of integrated language skills, and for enhancing cognitive and affective domains, enabling the students to think critically and creatively. (p.7) Accordingly, for purposeful reading, learners ought to develop their reading skills whereby they enhance their cognition in order to become independent and proficient readers. Therefore, the learners have to read and practice a lot with the intention to improve and increase their reading skills. Moreover, in terms of materials and text types in teaching English reading comprehension, the national curriculum (MoE, 2006) also points out: The chosen material should be contemporary and should reflect the specified themes. All reading material in the text book should require learners to work at a level slightly above their receptive ability, only then will they be stimulated enough to stretch themselves cognitively. The reading texts will comprise a variety of text types e.g. interpersonal and transactional, expository, descriptive, narrative and argumentative with literary texts comprising 25% of the reading material. (p.8) It is assumed that teachers use contemporary text and other reading material to stimulate their cognition and increase their background knowledge. Furthermore,

these text types should be of different genres, for instance, expository, narrative, expressive, argumentative, and descriptive and so on. To sum up the aforementioned discussion on „competencies‟ and „standards‟ pertinent to English reading MoE (2006) documents that “All students „will search for, discover and understand a variety of text types through tasks which require multiple reading and thinking strategies for comprehension, fluency and enjoyment.” (p.10). Secondly, “All students will read and analyze literary text to seek information, ideas, enjoyment, and to relate their own experiences to those of common humanity as depicted in literature” (p.10). Similarly, for grade ten learners, there are five „benchmarks‟ of English reading comprehension documented in national curriculum (MoE, 2006). These are as follows: Analyze patterns of text organization, and function of various devices used within and beyond a paragraph in a text. Analyze complex processes, procedures, events, issues, and various viewpoints, applying reading comprehension and thinking strategies. Analyze information from a visual cue or a graphic organizer to show complex processes, procedures, comparisons, contrasts, and cause and effect relationships. Gather, analyze, evaluate and synthesize information to use for a variety of purposes including a research project using various aids and study skills. Analyze short stories, poems, and essays; make connections between literary texts and their own lives. (Pp. 97-102) It is expected that secondary school teachers of grade ten incorporate the aforementioned benchmarks of teaching English reading comprehension in order to develop students‟ reading performance. 2.3 Reading Comprehension In general, psycholinguists, educational psychologists, reading researchers, and theorists viewed that comprehension is multifaceted and complex process which is directly related to readers‟ cognition. According to Bormuth (1969) cited in Harris and Sipay (1980) “… comprehension ability is thought to be a set of generalized knowledge-acquisition skills which permit people to acquire and exhibit information gained as a consequence of reading printed language” (p.50).Whereas, Dechant argue that



(1982) reading comprehension is a complex process and no one has yet been able to identify the components of reading comprehension. However, in comprehending a text a reader first needs to associate correctly meanings with words, organization and retention of meanings, and ability to grasp the entire meaning of the text. Ahuja and Ahuja (2007) in this nexus cite Hafner and Jolly‟s (1972) opinion about comprehension skills. They state that comprehension is happened when reader can: Identify the topic sentences, main ideas, and thesis statements in exposition. Likewise, Munby (1978), Burns, Roe and Ross (1999) also assert that in order to read effectively main idea inference skill play a vital role. In the same vein Dechant (1982) also enunciates that good comprehenders possess this skill so as to interact effectively with the text. On the other hand, Harris and Sipay (1980) define „main idea‟ in a following manner: [Main idea] One of the most valuable comprehension skills is the ability to find the main idea or central thought in what one reads. To be able to select the most important thought from a mass of words calls for an ability to distinguish between essentials and nonessentials, between the most important idea and subordinate details or illustrations. (p. 486) Consequently, in view of Harris and Sipay; Hafner and Jolly; Munby; Dechant and Burns et. al., main idea inference skill enables learners to read proficiently, competently and with understanding while interacting with a text. Moreover, in view of Yigiter, Saricoban and Gurses (2005) “language teachers should enhance students‟ ability to read with comprehension. Without comprehension, reading would be empty and meaningless” (p.124). 2.4 Methods of Comprehension Assessment There are various methods of testing reading comprehension whereby different skills can be tested. However, Alderson (1996; 2000) argues that there is no best method for testing reading and no single method can measure all skills in one particular test. Reading comprehension assessment has different purposes, however, Klingner, Vaughn, and Boardman (2007) distinguish three principal purposes:

One of these is to compare students‟ comprehension levels to those of students in a norming sample. Another is to find out if students have met preestablished criteria for their grade level. A third purpose is to inform instruction by determining when students understand what they read and how efficiently they use which comprehension strategies. (p.14) Therefore, it is presumed that teacher before employing assessment of reading comprehension determines some

purpose in their mind. According to Invernizzi, Landrum, Howell, and Warley (2005) “Assessment can be technically sound in ways that preserve the theoretical integrity of reading development and provide the flexibility and instructional transparence that teachers need” (p.610). In addition, Invernizzi et. al. (2005) state “Comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, so it is a skill that teachers want to assess accurately and quickly” (p.612). Moreover, in developing a test “Test developers are obligated to state the purpose of a given assessment tool, provide the theoretical framework … item analyses, field tests of revisions, and the validity of their scoring procedures” (p.612). Finally, “Test developers are also obligated to demonstrate that their test is fair and free of bias … This means that test should be free of bias in content, materials, and administration procedures that might differentially affect the performance of subgroups of test takers” ( Invernizzi et. al. 2005, p.613). Nevertheless, in testing reading comprehension, discrete-point approach whereby teacher intends to test one thing at a time, whereas integrative approach whereby teacher intends to know the overall performance of a reader (Alderson, 2000). In view of Weir (1990; 1993), Cohen (1998), Ur (1996) and Hughes (2003) multiple-choice is a common device used in testing text comprehension. Ur (1996) defines multiple-choice questions as consisting "... of a stem and a number of options (usually for), from which the testee has to select the right one" (p.38). Whereas, Alderson (1996; 2000) states that multiple-choice, short answer questions, yes/no questions, true or false, and wh-questions questions are commonly used for testing text comprehension. According to Alderson (1996; 2000) short-answer tests is an alternative approach to multiple-choice test whereby learner has to write a brief response to a question and by this technique teacher can interpret students' response whether he/she understood the subject. According to Alderson, (1996) and Cohen, (1998), short-answer questions are not easy to construct therefore, it is essential to put question in such a way that all answers are foreseeable. Hughes (2003) points out that the "best short-answer questions are those with a unique correct response" (p.144). However, he states that thorough consideration ought to be observed in preparing answer key, which is essential and on which the scoring depends. Another method for determining reading comprehension is known as



cloze technique. Alderson (2000) defines cloze test as "... typically constructed by deleting from selected text every nth word ... and simply requiring the test-taker to restore the word that has been deleted". According to Alderson nth refers to every fifth or every twelfth word; for McNamara (2000) nth refers to fifth and seventh; and according to Weir (1990) the nth number is either fifth or eleventh. As an alternative integrated approach C-test is introduced a derivative of the cloze test, in which the second half of every second word is deleted which has to be restored by the reader (Alderson, 1996). A different alternative technique is called the cloze-elide test. In 1960's this is known as 'intrusive word technique' but later relabeled as the 'cloze-elide' test (Alderson, 1996; 2000). According to Alderson (2000), this test is also called "... 'text retrieval', 'text interruption', 'doctored text', 'mutilated text,' and 'negative cloze'..." (p.225). He goes on to state that this type of test is not for comprehension but for a measure of comprehension for instance, "The number of correctly identified items was taken as a measure of reading speed" (p.226). Similarly, another test is also used to measure reading comprehension which is known as „Free-recall‟ test. In free-recall test, Alderson (1996) points out that, readers are simply asked to read a text and then put it aside. Next, the reader has to write down everything they can remember from the text. In addition, Alderson (1996) points out another test which is used to measure student's understanding of texts is the use of information-transfer techniques, often associated with figures, charts, tables and illustrations. In this procedure, test takers have to restore information deleted from a figure, chart, table and so on. Above all, each comprehension assessment technique is unique and distinctive in nature. Nevertheless, prior administering a comprehension test it is critical to note components such as text‟s genre, layout, constructs, timing, skill, vocabulary, familiarity of text, and so on in order to get reliable and valid outcomes from test-taker. 3. THE CURRENT STUDY The current study adopted a case study approach to ascertain matriculation students‟ reading performance. This case study is based on maximal variation sampling which is a purposeful sampling. In this nexus, Creswell (2002) states that the term purposeful sampling is used for the qualitative sampling approach wherein researchers intentionally select individuals and sites to learn or understand the central phenomenon. In defining maximal variation sampling, he further states that “Maximal variation sampling is a purposeful sampling strategy in which the researcher samples cases or individuals that differ on some characteristic” (p.194).

Consequently, three private secondary schools were drawn from the target population. All respondents of this study were Pakistan‟s citizens which belong to one city district i.e. Karachi and from one (urban) town recognized as Gulshan Iqbal. The purpose of the study was discussed with teachers and principals of the selected schools. Later, after getting approval and signing consent forms from the gatekeepers the study was carried out. To do this, the adopted reading comprehension tests were immediately administered upon completion of the ongoing academic session. These tests were employed in class with assistance of teachers and lasted for about 45 minutes. This study reports the answers to the following research questions: 1. What are the matriculation students‟ reading performances after completion of an academic session? 2. To what extent established benchmarks and competencies in English reading of National Curriculum are achieved by the matriculation students?

4. METHOD 4.1 Participants of the Study In this study three private non elitist schools were selected. School one had four sections of grade ten; however as a case, only one section (class) of grade ten was investigated wherein there were total forty-five students, n = 45 enrolled. Amongst, twenty-four were male and twenty-one were female students. The second school also had four sections of grade ten and there were total twenty-eight students, n = 28 enrolled in this class. Amongst, eleven were male and seventeen were female students.

Figure 1: Gender Distribution

69%

31% F

M



Figure 2: Participant’s Age

Finally, the third school had nine sections of grade ten; and similar to school 1 and school 2, in this school only one section as a case was investigated. In this section there were total forty-three students, n = 43 enrolled. All forty-three students were female. Further demographic factors of respondents are shown in the following graphs. The rationale of selecting three schools was kept into consideration as a triangulation method of the test data. In this accord, Brown and Rodgers (2002) state that "If you can examine your data from at least two points of view, you will maximize the possibility of getting credible findings by cross-validating those findings."(p.243). In the same nexus, Cohen and Manion (1994), McKay (2006), Fraenkel & Wallen (1993), and Tailor (2006) also stress that in order to increase the credibility of research findings, its validity, and reliability researchers have to triangulate their data.

Figure 3: Participants’ First Language

Figure 4: Participants’ Reading Habit

4.2 Instrument’s Reliability and Scoring Criteria In order to assess respondents‟ main idea as a comprehension skill, discreet-point approach is adopted. To do this, ten short passages in conjunction with multiple choices were taken and adopted from, „Five Hundred One Reading Comprehension Questions‟, Learning Express (2005) 3rd edition. Comprehensive readability statistics of the selected texts are shown in table 1 and 2. Test comprehension rubrics were established prior executing in the field; for instance, test's purpose, its difficulty level, length of the text, time management, instructions for each questions, layout, and familiarity. In order to ensure instrument‟s content and face validity these were disseminated among field experts who are affiliated with different universities and from Applied Linguistics discipline. To be more specific, the instrument was disseminated to five field experts for their comments and input. Secondly, to make sure that tests genuinely measure what it is supposed to measure in order to attain positive backwash effect. In addition, these five experts as coders also gave their agreement in accordance with each item of the instrument so as to compute the indices. The indices of inter-coder reliability of the instrument were computed and consequently, 0.80 and 0.89 value of Cohen‟s Kappa and Lin‟s Concordance were achieved respectively. There were total 10 objective type questions posed in the test. In context of objective marking, Alderson, Clapham, and Wall (1995) state that " … Objective marking is used for multiple-choice, true/false, error-recognition, and other item types where the candidate is required to produce a response which can be marked as either 'correct' or 'incorrect'" (Pp.106-107). Therefore, these 10 questions which were objective in setting were

14

Years

41%15

Years

56%

16

Years

3%

92.2%

2.6%

1.7%

2.6%

0.9%

0 50 100

Urdu

Punjabi

Sindhi

Gujrati

Others

0.9%

4.3%

94.8%

0 50 100

7-9 hours per

week

4-6 hours per

week

1-3 hours per

week



marked by means of an answer key having either 'right' or 'wrong' responses of respondents. In this vein, Alderson et. al. (1995) note that "…marking of tests which have keys is mechanical and may be carried out by clerical staff or by machine" (p. 107). Consequently, these 10 questions were measured and considered as either right or wrong selection of the choices given.

Table 1: Texts’ Descriptive Statistics

Pa

ssa

ges

Counts Averages

Wo

rds

Ch

ara

cter

s

Pa

rag

rap

hs

Sen

ten

ces

Sen

ten

ces

per

pa

rag

rap

h

Wo

rds

per

sen

ten

ces

Ch

ara

cter

s

per

wo

rd

Text 1 47 199 1 4 4.0 11.7 4.1

Text 2 54 289 1 3 3.0 18.0 5.2

Text 3 43 228 1 4 4.0 10.7 5.0

Text 4 52 264 1 3 3.0 17.3 5.0

Text 5 53 286 1 3 3.0 17.6 5.3

Text 6 43 241 1 4 4.0 10.7 5.4

Text 7 45 236 1 4 4.0 11.2 5.1

Text 8 75 350 1 5 5.0 15.0 4.5

Text 9 36 200 1 2 2.0 18.0 5.4

Text 10 46 232 1 3 3.0 15.3 4.9

Table 2: Texts’ Readability Statistics

Pa

ssa

ges

Texts‟ Readability

Pa

ssiv

e

sen

ten

ces

Fle

sch

Rea

din

g

Ea

se

Fle

sch

-

Kin

caid

Gra

de

Lev

el

Text 1 0% 83.3 4.5

Text 2 0% 35.0 12.8

Text 3 0% 60.1 7.5

Text 4 66% 63.9 8.6

Text 5 66% 46.8 11.1

Text 6 0% 46.3 9.4

Text 7 25% 54.4 8.4

Text 8 20% 70.9 7.0

Text 9 0% 24.0 14.3

Text 10 0% 53.3 9.6

Table 3: Inter-coder Reliability Results

5. DATA ANALYSIS The analysis of data was carried out using two softwares namely: Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 16 and Pram Alpha version 4.5. The respondents reading comprehension performances‟ scores were analysed using descriptive statistics and crosstabs. Percentages and frequencies of their scores were computed. In addition, cross case analysis was also computed among three schools. Besides, reading outcome percentages in conjunction with gender and age were also examined.

6. FINDINGS Data analysis revealed that among three selected schools, 58.19% respondents were failed to retrieve main ideas from 10 given short texts, however, only 41.81% respondents were successful. Moreover, from total respondents of three selected schools i.e. (N=116: male = 36 and female = 80), question one‟s MI was successfully retrieved by 52 respondents; q2 by 30; q3 by 63; q4 by 25; q5 by 55; q6 by 46; q7 by 76; q8 by 56; q9 by 66; and q10 MI was retrieved by 16 respondents. On the other hand, question 1 MI was incorrectly retrieved by 64 respondents; q2 by 86; q3 by 53; q4 by 91; q5 by 61; q6 by 70; q7 by 40; q8 by 60; q9 by 50; and q10 by 100 respondents. Similarly, in accordance with gender variable it was revealed that among three selected schools only 44.45 % male and 40.63% female respondents were successful to retrieve MI. Whereas, 55.56%

Coder Pair

Ag

reem

ent

an

d C

oh

en‟s

Ka

pp

a

Ag

reem

ent

an

d L

in‟s

Co

nco

rda

nce

1, 2 0.821 0.909

1, 3 1 1

1, 4 1 1

1, 5 0.688 0.839

2, 3 0.821 0.909

2, 4 0.821 0.909

2, 5 0.516 0.727

3, 4 1 1

3, 5 0.688 0.839

4, 5 0.688 0.839

Cohen‟s Kappa

= 0.804

Lin‟s

Concordance = 0.897



male and 59.38% female respondents were unsuccessful to retrieve MI. Furthermore, in terms of age variable 16.21% respondents of age 14, 24.14% of 15 and 1.47% of 16 years were sucessful to retrieve MI. While, 25.17% respondents of age 14, 31.90% of 15 and 1.12% of 16 years were unsuccessful to retrieve MI from the given texts. For comprehensive frequencies and percentages reading outcome of each text‟s main idea retrieval see table 4 and associated graphs.

Table 4: Reading Performance of Matriculation Students

Table 5: Reading Performance of Male Respondents

Table 6: Reading Performance of Female Respondents

Table 7: Reading Performance by Age

From the data analysis it was revealed that in school one, 57.11% students were failed to retrieve correct main ideas (henceforth, MI) from the given passages. Nevertheless, 42.89% were successful i.e. (Male = 24 and Female = 21). To be more specific, 43.33% male and 42.38% female were successful, whereas, 56.67% male and 57.62% female were unsuccessful to retrieve correct MIs. On the other hand, in school 2, 52.86% students were failed to retrieve correct MIs from the given passages. However, 47.14% were successful i.e. (Male = 12 and Female = 16). To be more specific, 46.67% male and 47.5% female students were successful, whereas, 53.33% male and 52.5% female students were unsuccessful to retrieve correct MIs. Finally, in school 3 it was found from the data analysis that

50%

25%

52.8%

27.8%

55.6%

44.4%

63.9%

47.2%

61.1%

16.7%

0 20 40 60 80

q1

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6

q7

q8

q9

q10

42.5%

26.2%

55%

18.8%

43.8%

37.5%

66.2%

48.8%

55%

12.5%

0 20 40 60 80

q1

q2

q3

q4

q5

q6

q7

q8

q9

q10

16.21%

24.14%

1.47%

0 10 20 30

14 Years

15 Years

16 Years

Qs.

1.

2.

3. 4.

5.

6. 7.

8.

9. 10.

Gender Total

N = (116)

44.8%

25.9%

54.3% 21.6%

47.4%

39.7% 65.5%

48.3%

56.9% 13.8%

Age

M=

(36)

50%

25%

52.8% 27.8%

55.6%

44.4% 63.9%

47.2% 61.1%

16.7%

F=

(80)

42.5%

26.2%

55% 18.8%

43.8%

37.5% 66.2%

48.8% 55%

12.5%

(14

Years)

29.2%

25%

41.7% 29.2%

52.1%

37.5% 60.4%

52.1% 47.9%

16.7%

(15

Years)

55.4%

26.2%

61.5% 16.9%

43.1%

41.5% 69.2%

43.1% 61.5%1

2.3%

(16

Years)

66.7%

33.3%

100% 0%

66.7%

33.3% 66.7%

100% 100%

0%



62.79% students were failed to retrieve correct MIs from the given passages i.e. (female = 43). On the other hand, 37.21% female students were successful to retrieve correct MIs. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The objective of the study was to investigate reading performance of the secondary Grade 10 EFL learners and to ascertain to what extent the established benchmarks and competencies in English reading of National Curriculum are achieved by the matriculation students. Based on the research findings it can be surmised from the foregoing data that secondary school matriculation learners‟ reading performance was meager and not up to the mark. To be more specific, the respondents of the study were considered as poor comprehenders when attempting intensive reading tasks. Holistically they were unsuccessful to retrieve MIs from the short given texts. The data revealed almost the same findings in all three cases. As a matter of fact, genders were also having the same problem and yield more or less the same results. The data indicated that male were (44.45%) somewhat better than female respondents (40.63%) in terms of reading performance. Whereas, (55.56%) male respondents as compare to female ones i.e. (59.38%) were unsuccessful in intensive reading. With respect to schools, we found that (43.33%) male respondents in case 1 and (46.67%) of case 2 were successful. Likewise, (42.38%) of female respondents in case 1, (47.5%) of case 2 and (37.21%) of case were successful. Nevertheless, in context of age (16.21%) of 14, (24.14%) of 15, and (1.47%) of 16 years were successful in all three schools. On the other hand, (25.17%) of 14, (31.90%) of 15 and (1.12%) of 16 years were unsuccessful. Since the age demographic factor was not equally distributed in all three cases, consequently, it cannot be presumed this very variable has any impact of reading performance in this study. Notwithstanding, it can be surmised that due to inadequate time i.e. merely 1-3 hours per week given to reading among (94.8%) respondents in three cases they were not good in reading performance. The findings of the study are useful for the language teachers either EFL or ESL context to consider MI as distinct and discrete variable in assessment of reading comprehension. In a Pakistan secondary school‟s context and at matriculation in particular, discrete point approach is not being in practice for determining students‟ reading performance. Accordingly, it is apparent from that assessment system suffers from multiple deficiencies such as fostering rote-learning, and not adopting critical or analytical approach of assessing learners. Unfortunately, the existing system of

assessment in Pakistan reward memorization to the learner. The better the reproduction the better and higher scores or marks awarded by the examiner (Rehmani, 2003). In this lieu, Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers (1986) also points out that textbook material are prescribed by the teacher for their learners “to be learnt and explained word by word and sentence by sentence” (p.12). Due to this approach of teaching and learning students become passive receivers of prescribed content knowledge of the textbooks. Secondly, it is also assumed that the ongoing English course textbook along with current reading instruction practices did not promote this very skill. Teachers did not focus and practice on assessing students‟ reading skills solely, whereas, MI is supposed to be the „most valuable comprehension skill‟ in words of Harris and Sipay (1980). In the same nexus, Dechant (1982) cites Lanier and Davis‟s (1972) taxonomy of comprehension levels and asserts that good comprehenders recognize, organize, recall facts, grasp details, know sequence, and identify main ideas in the text. Keeping the same vision, we incorporated these in our reading comprehension test. With good reading skills, learners of English make greater progress in other fields of language learning (Anderson, 2003). In this lieu, Ur (1996) points out, “Reading skills need to be fostered so that learners can cope with more and more sophisticated texts and tasks, and deal with them efficiently: quickly, appropriately and skillfully.” (p.147). With the same view, Leppanen, Niemi, Aunola and Nurmi (2004) assert that “ Children who encounter problems while learning to read, read less, and without practice they fall behind in reading skill development” (p.72). Albeit, Yigiter et. al. (2005) recommend and stress that “effective teaching of reading depends on a teacher who is enthusiastic about reading [thus] teachers should prepare students to reach a deeper level of understanding in reading process” (p.132). In conclusion, it is suggested that in order to develop learners‟ reading skills with a deep approach of reading, teachers of foreign and second language must foster and augment their reading instruction. Schools which are the learning foundation for learners should adopt collaborative strategic reading approach and be equipped their students with essential reading skills. If learners at the age of 14-15 are prepared according to this very perspective they will sure be not only become proficient and skilled readers



at the secondary level, on the other hand, they will be skillful and capable to cope up with their pre-university academic reading materials.

References

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Alderson, J. C. (1996). "The testing of reading."In C. Nuttall (Ed.) Teaching reading skills in a foreign language (pp.212-228). Oxford: Heinemann. Alderson, J. C. (2000). Assessing reading. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Anderson, N. J. (2003). Scrolling, clicking, and reading English: Online reading strategies in a second / foreign language. The Reading Matrix, 3, (3) 1-33. Retrieved March, 10, 2006,from http : // www. Readingmatrix. com/journal. html.

Ahuja, P. & Ahuja, P.C. (2007). How to read effectively and efficiently. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers. Black, P., & William, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessments. Phi Delta Kappan,79 (3),139-148.

Brown, J. D. & Rodgers, T. S. (2002). Doing second

language research. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Burns, P. C., Roe, B. D. & Ross, E. P. (1999). Teaching reading in today‟s elementary schools (7thed.). USA: Houghton Mifflin Company. Cohen, L., Manion, L. (1994). Research methods in education. 4th edition. London: Routledge.

Cohen, A. D. (1998). "Strategies and processes in test taking and SLA." In L. F. Bachman and A. D. Cohen (Eds.) Interfaces between second language acquisition and language testing research, (pp. 90-111). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dechant, E. V. (1982). Improving the teaching of reading (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Five Hundred One Reading Comprehension Questions (3rd ed.). (2005). Learning Express, LLC: USA.

Fraenkel, J. R. & Wallen, N. E. (1993). How to design and evaluate research in education. London: McGraw-Hill Inc.

Government of Pakistan Ministry of Education. (2006). National curriculum for English language grades I- XII. Islamabad: Author. From: http: // www. moe. gov. pk / Curriculum . html Harris, A. J. & Sipay, E. R. (1980). How to increase Reading ability: A guide to developmental and remedial methods (7th ed.). New York: Longman. Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Imran, E. (1998). English language teaching research in Pakistan: A baseline study. (A SPELT/British Council Research Project). SPELT House, Karachi, Pakistan. Invernizzi, M. A., Landrum, T. J., Howell, J. L. & Warley, H. P.et. al. (2005). Toward the peaceful coexistence of test developers, policymakers, and teachers in an era of accountability. The Reading Teacher, 58, (7), 610-618. Klingner, J. K., Vaughn, S. & Boardman, A. et. al. (2007). Teaching reading comprehension to students with learning difficulties. New York: The Guliford Press.

Leppanen, U., Niemi, P., Aunola, K. & Nurmi,. J. et. al. (2004). Development of reading skills among preschool and primary school pupils. Reading Research Quarterly, 39, (1), 72-93.

Madaus, G. F. (1988). "The influence of testing on curriculum." In L. N. Turner (Ed.),Yearbook of National Society for the Study of Education: Vol. 87. Critical issues in curriculum (Part 1, pp. 83-121). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. McKay, S. L. (2006). Researching second language classrooms. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

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Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design. Cambridge: CUP: Neill, M., Guisbond, L., Schaeffer, B., Madden, J., & Legeros, L. et. al. (2004). Failing our children: How No Child Left Behind undermines quality and equity in education. Cambridge, MA: The National Center for Fair and Open Testing..

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Rehmani, A. (2003). Impact of public examination system on teaching and learning in Pakistan. International Biannual Newsletter ANTRIEP, 8, 3-6. SPELT, (Society of Pakistan English Language Teachers). (1986). Testing in the ELT context in Pakistan. Karachi: Cyclostyled Seminar Report. Tailor, G. R. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative methods in research. Lanham: University Press of America.

The World Bank, (2007). World development indicators. (2007). Author. Ur, P. (1996). A course in language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Weir, C. J. (1990). Communicative language testing. New York: Prentice Hall. Weir, C. J. (1993). Understanding and developing language tests. New York: Prentice Hall. Yigiter, K. Saricoban, A. & Gurses, T. et. al. (2005). Reading strategies employed by ELT learners at the advanced level. The Reading Matrix, 5, (1) 124-139. Retrieved March, 10, 2006, from http://www.Readingmatrix.com/journal.html

http://www.readingmatrix.com/journal.html



SOCIO-CULTURAL SENSITIVITIES AND SERVICE-LEARNING

Frédérique M. A. Grim Colorado State University

Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures

C104 Clark – Fort Collins, CO 80523-1774 - USA

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Service-learning integrated with foreign languageteaching has drawn increasing interest in college departments. It provides opportunities for studentsto use their language skills in authentic situations, it increases community-service work, it boostsrésumés, and it opens doors to professionalopportunities. Through a deeper look at SL and itsimpact on learners of a second language, socio-cultural sensitivities emerge. This article willpresent how the socio-cultural theory and socio-cultural awareness emerge through the use of service-learning with learners of French.

KEY WORDS Service-learning, authenticity, socio-culturalawareness, scaffolding

1. Introduction Service-learning (SL) integrated with

foreign language (L2) teaching has drawn increasing interest in college departments (Bloom,2008; Gascoigne, 2001; AUTHOR, 2010,forthcoming). It provides opportunities for studentsto use their language skills in authentic situations, it increases community-service work, it boostsrésumés, and it opens doors to professionalopportunities. The nature of SL is to bring into life the instruction done in class and to apply it in thecommunity, in order to give it a meaningfulapplication.

Through an examination at SL and itsimpact on L2 learners, it becomes obvious that SL has an effect at a deeper level. Indeed, because ofthe personal involvement of L2 learners as well as their relationship with their peers and thecommunity, a socio-cultural sensitivity at two levelscan develop among learners. This article will present how the socio-cultural theory and a socio-cultural awareness emerge through the use of SLwith learners of French. After a review of literature

on those two aspects, the context for the study will be presented and analyzed through data collected in questionnaires and journals.

2. Review of Literature 2.1 A theoretical look From the writings of Vygotsky (1978, 1986) to those of Lantolf (2000, 2006), the socio-cultural theory and its role in L2 acquisition has been integrated in L2 methodologies. How a language is acquired through the influence of socio-cultural factors is an important discussion as learners are in contact with the envir-onment around them in and outside of the classroom. Indeed, the notion of zone of proximal development (defined as the “distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independ-ent problem solving and the level of potential devel-opment as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers”, Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86) reminds us that there is an important difference in the learning process between what the learner can do on their own and what he/ she can with the support of others. In other words, when learning an L2, a person will probably acquire additional linguistic knowledge and produce more elaborate structures when a more proficient speaker will work with them. This is what is also called “scaffolding”. Krashen (1981)‟s comprehensible hypothesis, i+1, is another interpretation to the scaffolding idea: provid-ing input beyond the learner‟s current knowledge will push for additional learning. Donato (1998), however, notes that when learners are at the same proficiency level, they can provide guided support and additional knowledge to one another. Similarly, Johnson (2004) sees the learners of similar levels as a positive situation because when learners build knowledge together, it provides additional input as well as knowledge development for both learners. So how can SL play a role with the general idea of socio-cultural theory? In some SL programs, particu-larly the one presented in this study, learners are pairedwith someone of similar or higher level. In this




case, learners might be able to make progress intheir linguistic or social knowledge. The concept of scaffolding becomes a stepping stone for a betterunderstanding of learning processes in this SLcontext.

2.2. An applied look

Beyond the socio-cultural theory, theapplied socio-cultural notion is the awareness oneacquires through processing knowledge. When L2are integrated to SL programs, students are potentially exposed to increased socio-culturalawareness. Little research has been done on culturalawareness in SL (AUTHOR, 2010), and the few studies primarily concern Hispanophone contextswithin the United States (Bloom, 2008; Diaz, 2009;Morris, 2001; Sommers, 2010; Wehling, 2008). Mostof these studies note that learners involved in SL acquire a greater awareness of a population withwho they are not familiar, equipping them with anunderstanding for others‟ needs in their community. Due to a lack of research on how L2learners are affected by SL on a socio-culturalplatform, it becomes evident that additional inquiryis necessary.

Research questions This brief discussion on theoretical and

applied socio-cultural perspectives generates the following questions:

1. How does SL implement the socio-cultural aspectsof L2 learning?

2. Can the SL experience change the perspectives SLteachers have of the L2?

3. What other factors seem to be influenced by the SLexperience?

3. Methods of Research The data for this study is based on a collection of questionnaires and journals from 9 college students of French. Those students were registered into a one-credit course in the spring of 2010 in order to participate in a SL program. This program sent college students of French, with a minimum of two semesters of the language, into preschools or elementary schools to teach the basics of the French language and Francophone cultures for an average of 30 minutes per week for 10 consecutive weeks. They volunteered to participate in the program in additional to their regular curriculum. The credit did not count towards any minor or major and was taken solely out of interest.

In this particular study, 3 of the participants were

sophomore, 5 juniors and 1 senior. In the remaining of the article, the college students will be called “SL teachers” to more easily differentiate from the children, their students.

The questionnaire asked SL teachers to reflect ontheir learning and experience with the children, with the community and with the teaching profession. In thejournals, they were encouraged to summarize the lessons, reflect on them, share ways to improve the nextlessons, and express themselves on their impressions.

4. Results and discussion Through questionnaires and journals, a

multitude of themes emerged in light of socio-cultural aspects and were categorized based on the frequency oftheir appearance. Only the most evocative quotes arepresented in this paper.

4.1 How does SL implement the socio-cultural aspects ofL2 learning?

One may wonder if the socio-cultural theory canindeed be justified in the context of SL. From answers tothe questionnaires and journals, it is found that SL teachers seem to grow in their knowledge throughpartnership and lesson preparations and through children‟s feedback. The learning in this area is not language based, but has rather a focus on professional development:lesson planning and partners can help learn how to betterhandle a classroom and become a more effective teacher;children‟s feedback can guide the content of the lessons.

The following quotes illustrate how lessonpreparations and the partner can help:

• One of the things I have realized each week is that you plan toomany activities for the 30-minute lesson. It is better to have toomany than not enough. We try to take more time for anactivity that engages the children, instead of going fast andsuperficially. (teacher 1)

• I was challenged learning how to teach to a younger group andthis was a very good experience for me because of that. It wasgreat to have to change the lesson plans to accommodate theyounger children and it made me think in very different ways.(teacher 5)

• At this point, I was very glad there were two of us because then M. could help the younger students and I could write out morecomplicated problems for C. (teacher 6)

Lesson planning was teaching the SL teachers to organizematerial, ideas and activities. They were learning that a lesson does not always go as projected and they needed

to improve its continuity. These situations illustrate theconcept of scaffolding – learning from an outside source– as they allow the SL teachers to build their knowledgeonto the planning and partnership support.



Children‟s feedback can also challenge SL teachers to develop new knowledge through theirquestions and requests. Indeed, some SL teacherswrote:

• The boys said they didn't like to sing and dance, and thetwo other girls said that they just didn't wantto. (teacher 1)

• Children have such a beautiful way of exuding sweet,pure unconditional love. The students were so genuinelyconcerned for L. that I can't help but be inspiredabout this. (teacher 4)

• From interacting with kids I think one gains a certaintype of „people‟ skills. (teacher 8) Here, SL teachers learned important lessons fromthe children. They learned how to work with children, listen to them, and appreciate theirlearning differences, excitement, interests, and care.This type of knowledge acquisition can be called “reverse” scaffolding as the idea of scaffoldingsuggests that someone at a similar or moreadvanced level support the learning of a lessproficient learner. However, in this case, the SL teachers, who are at more advanced cognitive andlinguistic levels, are still learning from the children.

The general concepts of scaffolding and„reverse‟ scaffolding seem facilitated through SL, particularly through the partnership, lessonplanning, and children‟s feedback. Before this study, no research seems to have looked at the application of scaffolding through SL. Donato (1998)noted that social interaction provides linguisticinput. SL supplies interactions through the partners and the children.

4.2. Can the SL experience change the perspect-ives SL teachers have of the L2?

SL teachers believed their experienceincreased their L2 linguistic knowledge and cultural awareness. Although the level of French they taughtwas at lower proficiency level than their own, itseems that most participants saw benefits inteaching through the program. Indeed, concerning an increased L2 linguistic knowledge, some said:

Yes … It‟s also a good review of basic information like body parts, which is vocabulary I am not able to useevery day. (teacher 3)

It has reinforced French vocabulary I have alreadylearned and helped in the retention process. (teacher 4)

Yes, it has helped to expand my vocabulary and it hasbeen a good review of words/concepts that I alreadyknew. (teacher 5) When asked about cultural awareness, some of theSL teachers commented as such:

It has helped me learn more about French cultural phenomena to teach the kids about culture. (teacher 1)

The planning and teaching allows me to research, supplementand reinforce my knowledge. (teacher 6) In most cases, SL teachers believed in benefits receivedthrough the SL program, by reviewing or learning vocabulary and cultural knowledge. This is an importantaspect of SL, as although the level of instruction is lowerthan SL teachers‟ proficiency, they are still able to benefit from their work. It comes in support to AUTHOR‟s (2010) study.

4.3. What other factors seem to be influenced bythe SL experience?

This third question brings a broader spectrum ofchanges, based on the SL experience. Indeed, from the questionnaires and journals, the following themes ofchanges emerged: teaching / professional inspirations,community, and children.

Thanks to SL, SL teachers acquired a better ornew understanding of what it means to teach, as shownin the following citations:

I have learned a great deal about the large amounts of time andthought that are put into preparation for each lesson. (teacher 1)

Yes, I understand what it is like to work with really youngchildren and how important it is to have impeccable lesson plans, just as it is important to have great lesson plans formore advanced and older students.(…) I have never thought ofhow much fun it might be to work in an emersion (sic) school that starts as young as preschool. It is amazing to me howmuch these younger students learn. (teacher 3).

I was challenged learning how to teach to a younger groupand this was a very good experience for me because of that.(teacher 5)

I think this is my favorite part of teaching--that the more experienceyou have, the more of a sense you acquire about strategies thatmight work. (teacher 6) In those examples, it is clear that SL teachers opened up to the teaching profession and seemed to get a better graspof what it means to teach, despite the fact that their teaching experience is very short. Similarly found inAUTHOR (2010, forthcoming), SL can guide SL teachersinto new professional opportunities. For those who were unsure about their future interests, they receive expos-ure to the profession of teaching; for those who did notknow what age group to teach, they are able to check anage group they will not teach during their teaching prac-ticum.

Another perspective that changes through SL is the perception of the community. Many college studentsattend a university away from their home community



and often do not intermingle with the communityhosting the university. SL gives this opportunity.

Yes, I came to realize how we, as young adults, can helpto shape future generations by setting a positive examples. (…) I really like the component of sharingsomething with the community because it helps you feelmore socially connected (teacher 4)

I think SL is a great liaison with the community. I feel Iunderstand the school and the potential of the youth inour community more. (teacher 6)

Yes, it has made me understand that the community nomatter where is very diverse and rich in people‟s image.(teacher 7) This look into the community brings collegestudents to a higher appreciation for those around them and those supporting their own education.The socio-cultural awareness is not only related tothe L2, but to those immediately around them.

Finally, a greater understanding of childrenwas possible through SL, as SL teachers viewed children in a different manner than before theirexperience.

It helped me realize what really appeals to kids and whatdoesn‟t → like group work + hand-on work. (teacher 2)

Absolutely! I now see that children are very open andcurious learners. (…) I love the interactions withchildren. (…) Children have such a beautiful way ofexuding sweet, pure unconditional love. (teacher 4)

I love getting to see their passion, not just for French butfor learning in general. It is encouraging! (teacher 5)

From interacting with kids, I think, one gains a certaintype of „people‟ skills. (teacher 8) Understanding children is a learning process for allinstructors and this experience is a first step toviewing learning styles and personalities in children. Interactions increase the socio-culturalawareness of others, particularly in a teachingenvironment. In most cases, SL initiates a greater understandingand new socio-cultural knowledge of the L2 and itsassociated cultures. It also opens doors to theprofessional world and to a deeper comprehension of those around oneself.

Conclusion Because language instructors are continuallyseeking for opportunities to find innovative ways to develop their students‟ cultural and global understanding of their environment, SL can be usedas an authentic tool to reach these goals. From the study, learners of French shared the benefitacquired from SL: an increased socio-cultural andlinguistic awareness, a scaffolding process from

partners and lesson preparation, and „reverse‟ scaffolding from children, pre-professional exposures, and personallearning of others (children, community).

SL, the 5Cs and 21st-century skills In addition to the benefits mentioned and as mentionedin AUTHOR (2010, forthcoming), SL is a foundation forthe Foreign Languages national standards (Communication, Cultures, Connections, Comparisons,Communities). More recently, the 21st-century skills wereimplemented at a national level for all content areas (See website of the Partnership for 21st Century Skills for de-tails) and SL furthers the objectives of this new frame-work, particularly with “life and career skills”, “learning and innovation skills”, “core subjects” and “information, media, and technology skills” for both the SL teachers and the children.

Pedagogical implications

Because SL exposes college students to new socio-cultural perspectives and provides for authentic applic-ation of the L2, language departments need to considerimplementing SL programs offered to most students. In-trinsic motivation and professional

accomplishments can be transformed through a SL ex-perience and learners can find meaningful goals to reachwith their L2.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank the students who actively particip-ated in this service-learning project. They have impactedmany children. Thank you also to the schools who haveseen our project and the teaching of foreign languages asimportant for the future of their children.

References

Bloom, M. (2008). From the classroom to the community:Building cultural awareness in first-semester Spanish. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 21, 2, 103-119.

Diaz, C. (2009). Service-learning and Spanish: Languageproficiency and cultural awareness. Dissertation AbstractsInternational, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 69,07, 2582.

Donato, R. (1998). Collective scaffolding in second lan-guage learning in Vygotskian Approaches to Second Language Research (ed. James Lantolf and Gabriela Ap-pel), pp. 33-56. Norwood, NJ: Ablex.



Gascoigne Lally, C. (2001). Service/Community Learning and Foreign Language Teaching Methods: An Application. Active Learning in Higher Education, 2, 1, July, 53-63. Grim, F. (2010). Giving authentic use to L2 learners: A look at a French service-learning project. Foreign Language Annals, 43, 4, 605-623. Grim, F. (forthcoming). J‟apprends et j‟enseigne le français: Etudiants de français dans leur communauté. The French Review, December 2011. Johnson, M. (2004). A Philosophy of Second Language Acquisition (p. 207). Yale University Press: New Haven and London. Krashen, S. (1981). Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. English Language Teaching series. London: Prentice-Hall International (UK) Ltd. 202 pages. Lantolf, J. (2000). Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lantolf, J. (2006). Sociocultural theory and L2. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 28, 67-109. Morris, F. (2001). Serving the community and learning a foreign language: Evaluating a service-learning programme. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 14, 3, 244–255. Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (n.d.). http://www.p21.org/ Sommers, D. (2010). The development of multicultural counseling competencies by utilizing service-learning. Dissertation Abstracts International, A: The Humanities and Social Sciences, 70, 09, 3357.

Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind and society: The

development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Vygotsky, L.S. (1986). Thought and Language. Translated by Alex Kozulin. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Wehling, S. (2008). Cross-cultural competency through service-learning. Journal of Community practice, 16, 3, 293-316.

http://0-csaweb110v.csa.com.catalog.library.colostate.edu/ids70/view_record.php?id=2&recnum=0&log=from_res&SID=rp6e9muu341s22pot81rl1qa81



http://www.p21.org/



REAPPRAISAL ANALYSIS OF MORPHOLOGICAL AWARENESS CONCERNING READING ACCURACY, SPEED AND COMPREHENSION

OF DYSLEXIC STUDENTS

Hamide Ghaemi

Department of Speech and Language Pathology, Mashhad University of Medical Science,

Mashhad,

Iran. [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present study compares the role of morphological awareness in reading speed, accuracy and comprehension of dyslexic and normal students. 27 dyslexic students and 57 normal ones in second grade of primary school participated in the study. Existence of dyslexia was confirmed through administrating a reading test of “NAMA”, and in order to be sure that none of the students of normal group has language deficit, the language development test “TOLD” was administrated on normal students. To assess morphological knowledge of participants, a morphological awareness test was administrated as well. The “NAMA” subtests were employed to determine the reading speed, accuracy and comprehension. The researchers found that dyslexic children enjoyed a limited level of morphological awareness, reading speed, accuracy and comprehension in comparison with normal children. However among the dyslexic students, whose difficulties were constrained to the word level, morphological awareness didn‟t have any influence on their reading skills. KEY WORDS Morphological awareness, reading speed, reading accuracy, reading comprehension, dyslexia 1. Introduction Dyslexia is a type of language learning disorder that leads to impairment in reading, spelling and can be sometimes in written language. Various statistics have been reported for the prevalence of dyslexia, but the one on which most researchers agree is 50-10 percent )Jason, Anthony & Francis 2004) . The

Researchers show that dyslexia can happen in all different groups of children, regardless of their gender ,social groups , intellectual levels and

geographic regions .( Doyle 1996) such kind of people usually suffer from syntax, morphology, Phonology, semantic and pragmatic (Larsen and Nippold 2007). 2. Defining reading comprehension Snow and Sweet (2003) believe that reading comprehension is a multidimensional and complicated process which requires higher-level cognitive abilities. They describe reading comprehension as “the process of simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning.” They recognize the two major challenges the reader faces in the act of reading as: (a) “figuring out how print represents words and engaging in the translation of print to sound accurately and efficiently”, while simultaneously, (b) “formulating a representation of the information being presented, which unavoidably needs building new meanings and integrating new with old information” (ibid). A range of variables have been acknowledged in the literature (e.g., vocabulary, listening comprehension, working memory; see e.g., Stanovich, 2000, for a review) as having prognostic value in relation to reading comprehension performance. Reading skill consists of the written language to linguistic form, which represent itself in form of phonological, syntactic and lexical unites. Thus orthography not only can transmit the phonological information, but it also can show morphological knowledge including word roots, inflective word




features, and morphological relations consisting of syntactic and grammatical units (Verhoeven and Perfetti 2003). In Alphabetic system, the written units include Phonological and morphological information. Recent evidence indicated that not only phonemes but morphemes are also processed in alphabetic systems. Morphological awareness related to organized level linguistic levels which contain shorter semantic units (morpheme) - (Clark and Berman 1984). Morpheme is the smallest syntactic and lexical unit that carrying meaning, so morphemes can be a complete word or part of the word (Pascoe, Stackhouse and Wells 2006). Many studies showed that skillful readers utilize morphemic information processing while reading single words (Cole, Sepui, & Taft, 1997). Ku and Anderson in 2003 argued that whether morphological awareness had any significant role in learning words and applying skills in reading or not. He carried out his research on American – Chinese student of 2nd, 4th and sixth grades. The result of his study demonstrated that morphological awareness gradually increased as linguistic experience of students developed, and such awareness was essential for learning English Chinese words as well as improving the reading skills. (Ku, & Anderson, 2003). Morphology awareness refers to student‟s knowledge of word structure as a combination of meaningful units, which are known as morphemes .( Kieffer and Lesaux 2008) in other words , morphological awareness involves knowledge and access morpheme which is an indicator of individuals ability in applying morphological knowledge in recognizing and creating new words. (Mc Bride, Change, Allise, Werbas & Retousaki 2005). If the effect of lexicon and phonological awareness is kept constant, a strong relationship between morphological awareness and reading comprehension would be expected. (Kieffer and Lesaux 2008). When the readers distinguishes morphologically the word form morphemes or recognizes the morphological relationship among words, the morphological awareness became remarkable. One of the main principles to study the language development among the students of higher grades such as high school is to assess the morphological awareness which is recognized through investigating the student's ability in manipulating derivative words, distinguishing among various morphological forms of one words and producing new derivative words. Being aware

of morphological relations can predict accuracy and speed of reading words, however. Since morphemes involve semantic features in word retrieval, we hypothesized that morphological awareness can explain the individual differences in reading comprehension. (Kieffer and Lesaux 2008), also it is believed that higher level of morphological awareness can lead to enhancement in reading speed and accuracy of words. (Kieffer and Lesaux 2008). There exist some evidences that show the dyslexics use less morphological analysis in reading and writing in comparison with normal children (Loeng and Parkinson 2005). 2.1. The Role of phonological Awareness in Reading Comprehension Developmental dyslexia is typically related with poor decoding skill, which is considered as the demonstration of a fundamental phonological deficit. Therefore, we may suppose that dyslexics who have difficulty recognizing the words of text will have trouble understanding the text. This holds true particularly for beginning readers in both L1 and L2 who are at risk of developing a reading disability (Lipka and Siegel, 2007), but it also applies to young non-dyslexic L2 learners (Gottardo and Mueller, 2009). Phonological processing skills have been regarded as the strongest predictor of reading comprehension performance (Ghelani, Sidhu, Jain and Tannock, 2004). Phonological awareness, the attention to the sounds of language, has been reported to be one of the areas where phonological processing problems connected with dyslexia most often occur. This kind of awareness is thought to be vital to understand that sounds making up a word are represented by combinations of letters. Therefore, dyslexics, who have poor phonological awareness, find it hard to apply grapheme-phoneme conversion rules, which allow individuals to recognize words that they have not faced in print before (Beaton, 2004; Catts and Kamhi, 2005). Deficits in phonological awareness repeatedly lead to poor skills in decoding, which in turn cause poor reading comprehension. Hence, reading comprehension difficulties in dyslexia are viewed as inferior, a consequence of poor word decoding (Høien and Lundberg, 2000). To sum up, phonological awareness comes out to be a significant requirement for the acquisition of decoding skills in both dyslexic and non-dyslexic individuals. Accordingly, reading comprehension ability is



influenced by phonological awareness through its impacts on word recognition. In other words, phonological awareness serves as an indirect prerequisite for reading comprehension. However, the importance of phonological awareness as a predictor of reading comprehension performance diminishes steadily during the course of development. Dyslexics, as they get older, build up strategies to compensate their decoding deficits and understand written texts within normal limits. Reading comprehension abilities of L1 and L2 students with and without reading disabilities seem to be influenced by similar fundamental constructs. However, the effect of each factor differs among various groups of students. 2.2. Morphological Awareness in Dyslexics During the last decades, abundant studies across languages have suggested evidence that morphological awareness skills in dyslexics are inferior in both oral and written language tasks when compared to same-age normal readers. This is the case in both L1 and L2 (e.g., Abu-Rabia, Share and Mansour, 2003; Carlisle, 1987; Casalis, Colé and Sopo, 2004; Champion, 1997; Chung et al., 2010; Coleman et al., 2009; Deacon, Parrila and Kirby, 2006; Fowler and Liberman, 1995; Helland and Kaasa, 2005; Joanisse et al., 2000; Leong, 1999; Rubin, Patterson and Kantor, 1991; Schiff and Raveh, 2006; Shankweiler et al., 1995; Siegel, 2008; Tsesmeli and Seymour, 2006; Vogel, 1977). For example, morphemic errors that the language-learning-disabled children in Rubin et al.‟s study made consisted of principally omissions of inflectional and derivational morphemes and occasional substitutions and additions. Similarly, in Coleman et al.‟s study most of the young adults with dyslexia spelt derivational suffixes incorrectly. These types of errors have been reported to be characteristic not only of poor writing but also of poor reading (Rubin et al., 1991). Apparently, the result that individuals with reading disabilities have morphological difficulties is not in disagreement. However, what is in argument is the role of phonological awareness in the morphological processing skills of such people, and the relative significance of these two constructs in reading success. There are primarily two distinct views concerning this issue. In one, limitation on doing morphological awareness tasks is assumed to be caused by deficient phonological abilities (e.g.,

Fowler and Liberman, 1995). Hence, the role of morphological awareness in reading is viewed as insignificant to phonological abilities. This view has been named as the “phonological” hypothesis of morphological deficit in dyslexia (Leikin and Zur Hagit, 2006). In the other, role of morphological awareness in reading achievement is seen as autonomous of the well-documented contribution of phonological awareness (e.g., Nagy et al., 2003; Casalis, Colé and Sopo, 2004; see also Deacon, Parrila and Kirby, 2008). The reading-disabled children in Fowler and Liberman‟s (1995) study had special trouble in the production of morphological forms which went through a phonological change within the base morpheme (e.g. five/fifth), but they performed better when the phonology of the base was preserved in the derived form (e.g. four/fourth). In Nagy et al.‟s (2003) research on second-grade at-risk readers, morphological awareness made a considerable exclusive contribution to reading comprehension when orthographic, phonological and oral vocabulary factors had been controlled. Moreover, a recent study of sixth-grade students with and without dyslexia showed that the tests assessing single-word decoding and reading comprehension had higher correlations with the morphological awareness tests than with the phonological awareness task (Siegel, 2008). In sum, given the results of the studies reviewed so far, it is apparent that both L1 and L2 readers of must have a certain amount of phonological awareness and morphological awareness to be able to read and comprehend written texts. Since the exact assessment of morphological awareness and removing the deficits in this field has a great impact on improving the reading ability and particularly reading speed, accuracy and comprehension of dyslexic children, the necessity of doing the present study is worth attending. 3. Method The participants consisted of two groups of second grade students (N=84). The first group included the normal students of 2nd grade of primary school (N=57). And the second group was dyslexic students from the same grade (27). Having coordinated and arranged with the national education office, the researches randomly selected some learning disorder centers across Tehran, Iran. In learning disorder centers, the target population, i.e, the subjects of the



study was selected. in order to be sure about the accuracy of subjects selection, in learning disorder centers, at first the documents, files and records of each subject was scrutinized and then they were sent to psychiatrist. Through applying these procedures, children were recognized attention deficit, discard from the study. The next step was to ask their teachers to fill out a questionnaire which is called Tilly Mortimer‟s teacher questionnaire. The rationale behind this questionnaire was to find out the student who were susceptible to dyslexia,( positive answer to more than three questions indicate the susceptible students). The purpose and the method of study were explained in details for parents of all subjects and they were invited to complete the parents' questionnaire. This questionnaire consisted of items regarding medical history, family history, speech and language development, sensory-motor development and educational deprivation of the subjects. Having completed the subject selection procedures, in order to administer the test in a calm and quiet environment, the researches established a primary relation with students and asked them to answer the criteria test which was developing to distinguish pure dyslexic children from the normal ones.” NAMA” reading test (to recognize the dyslexia) and morphological awareness test were administered in a separated session. Finally the researchers used subtest of “NAMA” reading test to evaluate the reading speed, accuracy and comprehension skills. Having administered the test on dyslexics subjects, based on the obtained information about the subjects, and to homogenize the 2 groups, the researches selected the normal students from the same school in which the dyslexic student were studying. And the same tests were administered on them as well. The obtained data were analyzed via using various statistical methods and procedures such as Pearson & spearman, correlation coefficient and T-test. The criteria of selection for dyslexic students were as follow: having normal IQ, not having visual and hearing deficiency, not being affected by cerebral palsy or remarkable sensory-motor deficiency, studying in the second grade of primary school, being recognized as dyslexic through “NAMA” reading test, not being bilingual, not being failed in the first or 2nd grade of primary school, not being deprived from natural education and not having associated disorder such as attention deficit. The criteria to selection for normal students were the same criteria

for dyslexics except follow: not being considered as dyslexic through “NAMA” reading test and not having any language deficit determined based on the “TOLD” test. 4. Results Since in the present study we aim at investigating the relationship between the morphological awareness and reading speed, accuracy and comprehension, at first the Pearson correlation coefficient was estimated between morphological awareness and reading speed, accuracy and comprehension. Concerning all subjects, then the subjects divided into 2 groups of normal and dyslexic student and the same statistical procedure were calculated for each group separately. 4.1. Relationship Morphological awareness and reading speed Now for exploring the relationship between Morphological awareness and reading speed among the all subjects (the mixture of normal and dyslexic children), the obtained correlation coefficient was -0.915, which is considered meaningful at 0.05 significant level. Since the correlation coefficient was negatively directed, we can conclude that the existed relationship is strong but inverse, i.e. (the higher the level of morphological awareness score the less time would be spent on reading predetermined words (table 1). However the correlation coefficient obtained for normal children was -0.113, considered meaningless at o.o5 significant level. (P-value = 0.402>α = 0.05). Interestingly enough, the same result was obtained for dyslexic student as well as, i.e., the correlation coefficient was estimated to be -0.068 which is not meaningful at 0.05 significant level (Table.1). Table 1: Correlation between morphological awareness and reading speed Test

probability value

correlation coefficient value between

morphological awareness and reading speed in both groups

0/0001

-0/9158

Morphological awareness and speed in normal group

0/402 -0/1133



Morphological awareness and speed in dyslexic

0/734 -0/0689

4.2. Relationship between morphological awareness and reading accuracy For both groups in general, a great correlation coefficient was obtained between morphological awareness and reading accuracy, i.e., 0.951 which is completely meaningful at 0.05 significant level. (Table 2).however for normal students, the correlation coefficient was calculated as 0.1001 and the P-value was 0.459, therefore it is not meaningful at 0.05 significant levels. (Table2). (P-value = 0.459> α = 0.05). Considering the dyslexic students, the calculated correlation coefficient was 0.140. Since the P-value here was 0.458, the obtained correlation coefficient is not meaningful at 0.05 significant level. (Table 2) Table 2: correlation between morphological awareness and reading accuracy Test

probability value


morphological awareness and reading accuracy in both groups

0/0001 0/9514

Morphological awareness and accuracy in normal groups

0/459 0/1001

Morphological awareness and accuracy in dyslexic groups

0/458 0/1403

4.3. Relationship between morphological awareness and reading comprehension For exploring the relationship between morphological awareness and reading comprehension among all subjects (the mixture of normal and dyslexic student), the obtained correlation coefficient was 0.9126, which is meaningful at 0.05 significant levels (Table 3).

Considering the normal students, the estimated correlation coefficient was 0.060, which was meaningless at 0.05 significant levels (Table 3). (P-value= 0.630> α = 0.05) Regarding the dyslexic children, the correlation coefficient was estimated to be -0.1062 and because P-value was 0.598, there is not any significant relationship between morphological awareness and reading comprehension at 0.05 significant levels (Table 3). Table 3: correlation between morphological awareness and reading comprehension Test

probability value


morphological awareness and reading comprehension in both group

0/0001 0/9260

Morphological awareness and comprehension in normal group

0/630 0/0605

Morphological awareness and comprehension in dyslexic

0/598 -0/1062

4.4. Comparison of morphological awareness between normal and dyslexic groups Here with the help of T-test, we investigate the morphological awareness scores in two groups of normal and dyslexic students. Table4. Comparison of morphological awareness between normal and dyslexic groups T Df S.SiS F P-Value MA* 30.8 82 0.001 4.62 0.0001

* MA: Morphological Awareness Table 5. Descriptive Statistics naeM

(Normal Grou

Mean (Dyslexic Group

NNo. (Normal Grou

No. (Dyslexic Group

SD (Normal Grou

SD (Dyslexics Group)



p) ) p) ) p)

51.03 15.22 57 27 5.728 2.665

So, as indicated in table 4, there is a meaningful difference at 0.05 significant levels between normal and dyslexic students concerning morphological awareness. 4.5. Comparison of reading speed between normal and dyslexic groups Now we compare the reading speed scores of normal and dyslexic groups. Table 6: Comparison of reading speed between normal and dyslexic groups T Df S.SiS F P-Value RS* -27.21 82 0.001 12.6 0.00001

* RS: Reading Speed Table 7. Descriptive Statistics naeM

(Normal Group)

Mean (Dyslexic Group)

NNo. (Normal Group)

No. (Dyslexic Group)

SD (Normal Group)


8.68 42.88 57 27 2.47 8.83

Similarly, the existence of a meaningful difference at 0.05 significant level was approved between the normal and dyslexic students considering their reading speed. 4.5. Comparison of reading accuracy between normal and dyslexic groups As mentioned in table 6, there is a meaningful difference at 0.05 significant level between normal and dyslexic groups regarding their reading accuracy. Table 8: Comparison of reading Accuracy between normal and dyslexic groups T Df S.SiS F P-Value RA* 58.92 82 0.001 19.3 0.0001

* RA: Reading Accuracy Table 9. Descriptive Statistics

naeM

(Normal Group)


NNo. (Normal Group)


SD (Normal Group)


95.69 48.48 57 27 1.31 5.77

4.6. Comparison of reading comprehension between normal and dyslexic groups Like the previous comparisons, the existence of a meaningful difference at 0.05 significant level was confirmed in reading comprehension between normal and dyslexic student (Table.7). Table 10: Comparison of reading comprehension between normal and dyslexic groups T Df S.SiS F P-Value RC* 31.76 82 0.001 2.01 0.053

*RC: Reading Comprehension Table 11. Descriptive Statistics naeM

(Normal Group)


NNo. (Normal Group)


SD (Normal Group)


0.84 0.17 57 27 0.09 0.06

5. Discussion The question of the relationship between phonological and morphological awareness is essential to the consideration of morphological awareness in developmental dyslexia. Dyslexia is conventionally defined as a reading disability, which may happen in spite of normal intelligence, good social and educational opportunities, in the dearth of emotional disturbance, neurological disease or sensory deficit (Olson, 1994); usually without any semantic deficit (Vellutino, Scanlon, & Spearing, 1995), but is strongly related with poor phonological abilities (Stanovich, 1988, 1996). Two dissimilar points of view may be distinguished regarding the development of morphological awareness in developmental dyslexia: the phonological deficiencies of most dyslexic individuals may possibly stop them from developing normal morphological abilities, or morphological awareness could develop autonomously in the context of



learning to read and the semantic units transmitted in oral language. Quite few studies have investigated morphological awareness in dyslexia. Compared with sequential age controls, dyslexics have been found to be poorer in the construction of a derived form in a sentence completion task, in particular when there is a phonological change in the derived form (Fowler & Liberman, 1995; Shankweiler et al., 1995). No significant difference was found between dyslexic and younger normal readers in tasks such as word derivation in a sentence context (Fowler & Liberman, 1995), production of derived, inflected and compound forms of pseudo-words (Elbro, 1989), and synthesis of morphemic element (Elbro, 1989). However, dyslexics were found to be weaker than younger children in reversing elements of compound words (mailbox to boxmail) and counting the number of words in sentences read aloud to them (Elbro, 1989). Additionally, in a derivation task with written sentences including phonological and orthographic changes, Leong (1989) found that the various subgroups of poor readers were differentially influenced by the kind of modification taking place between base and derived forms, signifying that some categories of poor readers could be predominantly affected by phonological or orthographic changes. As Joanisse, Manis, Keating, and Seidenberg (2000) pointed out, various cognitive and language skills are related to reading achievement. However, based on the reported results in Table 4 to 7, the mean score of morphological awareness test in two groups of normal and dyslexic students had a significant difference, which shows that dyslexic children had a great weakness in comparison with the normal ones concerning the morphological awareness. The finding of the present study confirms the results of studies carried out by Hertz, Rather and Meyer (2004) and Wagner (2004). They also stated that morphological awareness is much lower in dyslexic in comparison with normal students. Considering the reading speed, according to table 5, the dyslexic children had poor reading speed performance which could be predicted based on their difficulties in reading and writing. Reading accuracy skill was measured by calculating the number of correctly read words in three reading texts. Here also the researchers found a significant difference between 2 groups. Leach (2003) and Youwanof (2005) confirmed that reading speed of

normal children was much higher than that of dyslexic children. Reading comprehension skills were investigated between normal and dyslexic students. As indicated in table 7, there was a significant difference between them regarding their reading comprehension skills. In the case of relationship between morphological awareness on the one hand and reading speed, accuracy and comprehension on the other hand, a significant relationship was approved between them. Kieffer & leasux(2008) in their study on Spanish learners of English. Investigated the role of morphological awareness in reading comprehension and obtained the same results. The findings of their study showed that if the lexicon and phonological awareness kept constant, a strong relationship between morphological awareness and reading comprehension can be confirmed. (Hertz, Rather and Meyer, B.S 2009) Conclusion Hertz, rather and meyer (2008) studied the effect of morphological approach on the reading comprehension improvement and the results of their study showed that morphological awareness skill and reading component are strongly correlated. They concluded that after finishing the morphological training course the students were able to divide a word into different components without any hesitation and they also obtained the ability of making relationship between morpheme and the overall meaning of a word. These 2 finding led to rapid understanding of the complex words and as a result, individuals reading speed and accuracy were enhanced. The significant point of the study is that in each group of normal students and dyslexic students separately, there wasn‟t any meaningful relationship between morphological awareness and reading speed, accuracy and comprehension. According some of the researches carried on dyslexic students, (for example see Yuwanoff et al (2005), Leach et al (2003), Wanger(2004), Deakan & Kirby(2004), Ku & Anderson(2003), Elbro & Arenbek (1996), Joanis, Manis, Kitting & Sidenberg (1998), Kieffer & Leasux(2008) and Hertz , Rather &Meyer (2009) .The target population was selected from student studying at the secondary schools, so it can be argued that as a result of their intellectual growth, the ability of morphological awareness was developed to a great excellent that can have



information on the reading speed, accuracy and comprehension, however the target participant of the present study were chosen from student of second grade of primary school and so it can be said their intellectual ability has not developed yet, thus the relationship between morphological awareness on the one hands and the reading speed, accuracy and comprehension on the other hand was not confirmed. this hypothesis can be further examined in the further studied.

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THE ASSESSMENT OF YOUNG CHILDREN

Ambigapathy A/L Pandian Dean and Professor at School of Languages,

Literacies and Translation, University Science Malaysia,

Malaysia [email protected]

Ali Zahabi

PhD Candidate in Applied Linguistics, University Science Malaysia,

Malaysia [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The development of language skills is a fundamental area of learning for children in the early childhood years. During the first five years of life, children acquire much of what they need to know in order to become confident and capable communicators in their first, and possibly their second, language. Young children show dramatic gains in their articulation skills, their command of spoken grammar, and their understanding of an ever-expanding vocabulary (Abedi, 2004 and Alberts, Davis & Prentice, 1995). The successful development of language is crucial for facilitating other areas of cognitive development and for providing a foundation for children's literacy skills. Language development is also critical for social interaction and the formation of social relationships. By assessing children‟s learning, we gain insights into children‟s strengths, knowledge, interests and skills. We reflect on program routines and activities and make adaptations that enable children to overcome obstacles and build on what they know and do well. By using what we learn from assessment, we can foster each child‟s competence and success and create and maintain a high quality program for all children. The following article therefore, is going to focus on the assessment of young children by using a developmental approach (Administration for Children and Families, 2003).

KEY WORDS: Children's literacy, Early Childhood Assessment, Systematicity of Assessment, Developmental Approach

1. Introduction

The assessment of young children‟s development and learning has recently taken on new importance. Private and government organizations are developing programs to enhance the school readiness of all young children, especially children from economically disadvantaged homes and communities and children with special needs. These programs are designed to enhance social, language, and academic skills through responsive early care and education. Societal and government initiatives have also promoted accountability for these educational programs, especially those that are publicly funded. These initiatives focus on promoting standards of learning and monitoring children‟s progress in meeting those standards. In this atmosphere, School systems and government agencies are asked to set goals, track progress, analyze strengths and weaknesses in programs, and report on their achievements, with consequences for unmet goals. Likewise, early childhood education and intervention programs are increasingly being asked to prove their worth (American Educational Research Association1999 and American Psychological Association 1990).





Linking specific practices to children‟s learning is at the heart of good teaching, and doing so effectively requires us to combine different kinds of knowledge. It is important to recognize and understand the development, culture, temperament, and interests of each child as well as parents‟ expectations for their children (Baker, Linn, Herman & Koretz, 2002). It is also necessary to know about curriculum and types of activities that will contribute to children‟s optimal development and learning. Everyone who works with young children should think about child development milestones in the context of their developmental stage or phase in the preschool continuum. The use of assessment data in planning is a complex process. Understanding the link between Program‟s assessment system, curriculum, and expected child outcomes helps teachers/providers to navigate the process. When these connections are clear, we can more easily use assessment information to plan instruction (Bowman, Donovan, & Burns, 2000). To move from gathering child assessment information to using it for instructional planning, the following steps should be considered: Step 1. Looking at the assessment information as a whole. Does it come from a variety of sources over a period of time? Step 2. Examining the data and trying to find out what it tells you about children‟s development. Looking for patterns in a group of children. Looking for children who do not fit the pattern. For example, we might find that many children exhibit an emerging and varied expressive vocabulary but cannot engage in extended conversations. Step 3. Looking at differences in child assessment data. How does the child assessment data compare with the teachers‟ and parents‟ understanding and expectations? How do each child‟s preferences, skills and abilities vary across different developmental areas? Step 4. Making instructional decisions for the group and children based on multiple sources of information and thoughtful reflection. Reviewing assessment data regularly with staff. Using our knowledge about current development of the group and individual children to identify developmental goals and to plan instruction (Capps, Fixx, Ost, Reardon-Anderson, & Passel, 2004). Well-planned and effective assessment can inform teaching and program improvement, and contribute to better outcomes for children. Current assessment practices do not universally reflect the available

information about how to do assessment well. The following article is an attempt to show that assessments can make crucial contributions to the improvement of children‟s well-being, but only if they are well designed, implemented effectively, developed in the context of systematic planning, and are interpreted and used appropriately. Otherwise, assessment of children and programs can have negative consequences for both (Cole & Mills, 1997 & Crosnoe, 2004). The value of assessments therefore requires fundamental attention to their purpose and the design of the larger systems in which they are used. 2. Child Assessment Basics In the field of early childhood education, teachers of young children must find ways to show that children are growing, developing, and learning. Parents, as well as teachers, want to see proof of growth and development. Appropriate assessment methods can provide that proof. Assessment is defined as “taking stock of a situation”. It is important that teachers of young children understand the need for assessment in the classroom setting, evaluate children and take stock of their growth and development. Authentic Assessment is defined as the process of documenting and evaluating growth and development in real-life situations over time. It shows what children can do, what they know, and what they understand. Rather than attempting to explain a child„s performance based on one test, this type of assessment focuses on the progress and growth of a child over time. Authentic assessment helps to paint a more accurate picture of who the child is and how the child is growing and learning. The term assessment, when used in the context of early childhood education, is sometimes interchanged with the term observation. Observation is one method of assessing student growth and development and is probably the best-known, most widely used way that teachers evaluate the progress of the young children they teach (Crosnoe, & Lopez-Gonzalez, 2005 &

Garcia, 1993 & Garcia, 2003).

Teachers may wonder what to assess when working with young children. Using multiple forms of assessment allows a teacher to reveal an accurate picture of the child. Early childhood includes children from birth to age eight and is a very difficult period to assess because the rate of growth is so rapid. Also, growth is highly influenced by nurturing parents,



quality of care, and the learning environment (Garcia, 2005 & Hanson, & Lynch, 1995).

Parents want to be assured that their child is ready for school. In addition, teachers and administrators want to know if they are offering effective programs. Therefore, assessment information is critical to the child, the parent, and the success of the program.

Assessment is a hot topic in the field of early childhood education as accountability becomes more important for teachers and schools. As educators, we must find ways to show we are teaching and that children are learning. It is imperative to find methods that illustrate growth and development over time, allowing children to be evaluated in real-life, everyday settings (Goff, 2000 & Genesee, Raradis, & Crago,

2004).

It is the teacher‟s responsibility to find methods of documentation that report success of children. By understanding the basic developmental areas of the children you teach, assessment can be made simple. Easy-to-learn methods of assessment will help us document the developmental growth of young children over time.

3. The Challenge of Early Childhood Assessment The assessment of young children is very different from the assessment of older children and adults in several ways. The greatest difference is in the way young children learn. They construct knowledge in experiential, interactive, concrete, and hands-on ways rather than through abstract reasoning and paper and pencil activities alone. To learn, young children must touch and manipulate objects, build and create in many media, listen and act out stories and everyday roles, talk and sing, and move and play in various ways and environments (Hart & Risley, 1995). Consequently, the expression of what young children know and can do would best be served in ways other than traditional paper and pencil assessments. Assessment is also challenging during early childhood because a child‟s development is rapid, uneven, episodic, and highly influenced by the environment. A developing child exhibits periods of both rapid growth and frequent rest. Children develop in four domains––physical, cognitive, social, and emotional––and not at the same pace through each. No two children are the same; each child has a unique rate of development. In

addition, no two children have the same family, cultural, and experiential backgrounds. Clearly, these variables mean that a “one-size-fits-all” assessment will not meet the needs of most young children (Hills, T.W. (1992 & McLaughlin, Blanchard, & Osani, 1995). Another assessment challenge for young children is that it takes time to administer assessments properly. Assessments primarily should be administered in a one-on-one setting to each child by his or her teacher. In addition, a child‟s attention span is often very short and the assessment should therefore be administered in short segments over a period of a few days or even weeks. While early childhood educators demand developmentally appropriate assessments for children, they often complain about the time it takes to administer them and the resulting loss of instructional time in the classroom. However, when quality tests mirror quality instruction, assessment and teaching become almost seamless, complementing and informing one another. 4. Purposefulness and Systematicity of Assessment In the case of assessing young children, two key principles must be considered: First, the purpose of an assessment should guide assessment decisions. Second, assessment activity should be conducted within a coherent system of medical, educational, and family support services that promote optimal development for all children. Our focus on the need for purposefulness and systematicity is particularly important at this time, because young children are currently being assessed for a wide array of purposes, across a wide array of domains, and in multiple service settings. The increase in the amount of assessment raises understandable worries about whether assessments are selected, implemented, and interpreted correctly. Assessments of children may be used for purposes as diverse as determining the level of functioning of individual children, guiding instruction, or measuring functioning at the program, community, or state level. Different purposes require different types of assessments, and the evidentiary base that supports the use of an assessment for one purpose may not be suitable for another. As the consequences of assessment findings become weightier, the accuracy and quality of the instruments used to provide findings must be more certain. Decisions based on an assessment that is used to monitor the progress of one child can be important to that child and her family and thus must be taken with caution, but they can also be



challenged and revisited more easily than assessments used to determine the fate or funding for groups of children, such as those attending a local child care center, an early education program, or a nationwide program like Head Start (Hills, 1992 & McLaughlin, Blanchard, & Osani, 1995). When used for purposes of program evaluation and accountability, often called high stakes,

assessments can have major consequences

for large numbers of children and families, for the community served by the program, and for policy. The purpose and system principles apply as well to the interpretation, use, and communication of assessment data. Collecting data should be preceded by planning how the data will be used, who should have access to them, in what decisions they will play a role, and what stakeholders need to know about them. Ideally, any assessment activity benefits children by providing information that can be used to inform their caregivers and teachers, to improve the quality of their care and educational environments, and to identify child risk factors that can be remedied. But assessments may also have adverse consequences (Meisels, Pavri, & Fowler, 2005). Direct assessments may make children feel anxious, incompetent, or bored, and indirect assessments may constitute a burden on adults. An assessment activity may also deflect time and resources from instruction, and assessments cost money. It is therefore important to ensure that the value of the information gathered through assessments outweighs any negative effects on adults or children and that it merits the investment of resources. 5. A Developmental Approach to Assessment of Young Children For more than a decade, early childhood educators have been discussing issues of curriculum and teaching methods in terms of their developmental appropriateness (Pearson, Fernandez, & Oller, 1993). The concept of developmental appropriateness can also be extended to issues related to the assessment of children during the early years. 5.1. The Nature of Assessment Assessment can be defined as a sample taken from a larger domain of content and process skills that allows one to infer children understanding of a part of the larger domain being explored. The sample may include behaviors, products, knowledge, and performances. Assessment is a continuous, ongoing process that involves examining and observing children's behaviors, listening to their ideas, and

developing questions to promote conceptual understanding. The term authentic assessment is often referred to in any discussion of assessment and can be thought of as an examination of student performance and understanding on significant tasks that have relevancy to the student's life inside and outside of the classroom. The increasing focus on the development of conceptual understanding and the ability to apply science process skills is closely aligned with the emerging research on the theory of constructivism. This theory has significant implications for both instruction and assessment, which are considered by some to be two sides of the same coin. Constructivism is a key underpinning of the National Science Education Standards (Pew Hispanic Research Center, 2005). Constructivism is the idea that learning is an active process of building meaning for oneself. Thus, students fit new ideas into their already existing conceptual frameworks. Constructivists believe that the learners' preconceptions and ideas about science are critical in shaping new understanding of scientific concepts. Assessment based on constructivist theory must link the three related issues of student prior knowledge (and misconceptions), student learning styles (and multiple abilities), and teaching for depth of understanding rather than for breadth of coverage. Meaningful assessment involves examining the learner's entire conceptual network, not just focusing on discreet facts and principles. 5.2. The Purposes of Assessment Clarifying the main purpose for which young children are assessed can help determine what kinds of assessments would be most appropriate (Portes, & Schauffler, 1996). Assessment of individual children might serve one of the following purposes:

to determine progress on significant developmental achievements;

to make placement or promotion decisions;

to diagnose learning and teaching problems; to help in instruction and curriculum decisions;

to serve as a basis for reporting to parents; and to assist a child with assessing his or her own progress.

Decisions regarding the purposes of assessment should begin with discussions among all the stakeholders--parents, educators, and other members of the community--as appropriate. The group may



want to keep in mind that (1) plans, strategies, and assessment instruments are differentially suited for each of the potential purposes of assessment; (2) an overall assessment should include the four categories of educational goals: knowledge, skills, dispositions, and feelings (Santos, 2004 & Scriven, 1991); and (3) assessments made during children's informal work and play are most likely to minimize the many potential errors of various assessment strategies. 5.3. The Risks of Assessing Young Children Young children are notoriously poor test-takers: perhaps because they are sometimes confused by being asked questions that they think the tester must already know the answers to! There is reason to suggest that the younger the child being evaluated, assessed, or tested, the more errors are made (Shadish, Cook, & Leviton, 1991). If this principle is sound, then the younger the children, the greater the risk of assigning false labels to them. Another principle may also be appropriate: the longer children live with a label (a true or false one), the more difficult it may become to discard it.

All methods of assessment make errors: the errors made by formal tests are different from those made by informal or anecdotal records and documentation notes; the errors made by specific checklists of behavioral items are different from those made by holistic impressionistic assessments. Awareness of the potential errors of each evaluation or assessment strategy can help minimize errors in interpretation. It is a good idea to strive for a balance between global or holistic evaluation and detailed specific assessments of young children. 6. Probable Outcomes of Assessing young children As they plan assessments of young children's learning, parents and educators can expect the following results: 6.1. Recognize The Limitations Of Report Cards And Grades. For several reasons, report cards with letter grades or achievement scores are not appropriate for children at and below the third grade. First, before third grade, the differences in developmental timetables and other factors that contribute to performance are still too unstable, malleable, and varied to achieve reliability. By third grade, however, children's abilities and aptitudes are likely to have stabilized and can be assessed with at least minimal reliability. Second, there

is little evidence that grades or scores listed on the report cards of young children contribute positively to those most in need of improvement. Third, while teachers need to know how well a young child is progressing on significant skills and knowledge, and to evaluate such progress, little is known about how parents use such information. 6.2. Assess Aspects Of Children's Functioning That Have Real Meaning. The items and behaviors assessed should have demonstrable relationships to significant human functioning. For example, the child's knowledge of the names of shapes or of the calendar at age4 or 5 has little or no practical significance or meaning beyond test performance itself. In addition to assessing young children's social competence, adults should include the assessment of individual children's progress in acquiring desirable dispositions, feelings, skills, and knowledge.

Documentation is a strategy for recording and presenting such assessments (Tabors, and Snow, 1994).

6.3. Encourage Children To Assess Their Own Work. Preschoolers and children in the primary grades can be encouraged to assess their own work according to specific criteria such as the clarity, inclusiveness, interest level, comprehensiveness, or aesthetic qualities of the work. They can also be encouraged to consider the standards to be met on these criteria. 6.4. Encourage Children To Assess Their Own Progress. From kindergarten on, most children can be encouraged to assess the general progress of their own learning. During teacher-child or teacher-parent-child conferences, children can be encouraged to indicate what mastery and learning they want to focus on during a given period (Wortham, 2001). From time to time, children can then be asked to judge their own progress, using three or four categories. For example, each child can be asked to discuss work she thinks she is making good progress on, what he thinks he needs to concentrate more on, what she wants help with, and other categories nominated by the child. Most children will be quite realistic and sensible when engaging in such self-evaluation. The teacher can help by expressing her own realistic evaluation in a serious and supportive way. In principle, unless children are consulted about their own views of their own



progress, they cannot learn to assume some responsibility for it (Zehler, Fleischman, Hosptock, Stephenson, Pendzick, and Sapru, 2003). 6.5. Involve Children In Evaluating The Class Community. Depending on their ages, children as a group can be encouraged to develop some criteria concerning what they want their classroom life to be like. These criteria are not simply lists of classroom rules. Rather they should be a thoughtful examination of what kind of community the class should be--e.g., the extent to which it is a caring, cooperative group, respectful of individual differences; the extent to which it is a helpful community of scholars; and the extent to which it meets any other dimensions of classroom life the children and their teacher think are important.

Periodically, the teacher or a child can lead the group in a discussion concerning how well they are doing on these criteria as a class, and what additions or modifications of the criteria might be tried. Such discussions should be directed toward the development of positive and constructive suggestions (Winsler, Diaz, Espinosa, & Rodriguez, 1999).

Conclusion Testing children is a difficult process in which many factors have to be taken into account. In the diverse societies in which many of us live, each and every child has to be closely examined for cultural and social differences. The examiner has a huge responsibility to both the parents and the child to make the test as fair as possible (Calderon, & Gutierrez, 2004). As assessment has a large role in society today in screening children for neurological impairment, mental retardation, and school readiness, it is essential that the examiner follows testing procedures properly and efficiently. Testing children is an arduous process where consent must be gained from the parents of the child, and all the information concerning the testing process, and results have to be carefully explained. Young children are so active an alert that the testing situation may become difficult, and drawn out

(Barrera, 1995, & Bondurant-Utz, 1994).

Testing a child is not as easy as many people might think, and requires patience, control and much persuasion (Calderon, Gonzalez & Lazarin, 2004). Children are constantly exploring their worlds, and an

examiner may not be an interesting part of this world, forcing the child to find more interesting stimuli. It is important for an assessor to choose a suitable test for each particular child, and to explore documents from parents and significant others that may aid the assessment situation.

Assessment is important if there is any sign that a child is not developing normally and at the correct pace (Pearson, 1988). Early detection of problems is critical and tests may aid in this detection.

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Effect of Textual Enhancement and Textual Enhancement Techniques on Immediate Recognition

Dilek Altunay Anadolu University

Open Education Faculty, Computer-Aided Education Unit, Yunus Emre Campus, Eskişehir,

Turkey [email protected]

Abstract This article presents two different studies that were carried out to investigate the effect of textual enhancement (TE) on the immediate recognition of target form. The subjects of the studies are low-intermediate level adult Turkish EFL learners. In the first study, the control group and experiment group read the Unenhanced and the enhanced versions of a text respectively. Then, they took two different recognition tests. The difference between the mean scores of the two groups is not significant for the first test whereas it is significant for the second test. In the second study, which TE technique can be more effective for recognition was investigated in addition to investigating whether TE has effect on recognition? The study reveals that students who read the enhanced texts outperformed the students who read the unenhanced texts. However, there is not a significant difference between the performances of the three groups of students who read the different versions of the enhanced texts. KEY WORDS: Textual enhancement, input enhancement, focus on form, immediate recognition, attention

1. INTRODUCTION Attention is the process that encodes language input, keeps it active in working and short-term memory, and retrieves it from long-term memory (Robinson, 2003). According to Schmidt (1990, 1993, 2001), learning cannot occur without attention. Broadbent (1958, 1971 cited in Robinson 2003) “assumed that attentional capacity is limited and that therefore auditory and visual information must be

channeled…” (Robinson 2003, p.634) Overtly drawing students‟ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication is called focus on form(Long, 1991, p.45-46). Many techniques such as input flood, typographical or intonational input enhancement, negotiation, recasting, output enhancement can be used for focus on form (Doughty &Williams, 1998). These techniques can be seen relatively implicit because they simply make forms perceptually salient without offering any explicit expectation as to what kind of processing should ensue ”(Doughty &Williams, 1998). One of those techniques, 'input enhancement', was firstly mentioned by Sharwood Smith (1991, 1993). Input enhancement allows learners to notice target forms and result in more intake which is defined as "part of the input that has been attended to by second language learners while processing the input. Intake represents stored linguistic data that may be used for immediate recognition and does not necessarily imply acquisition”(Leow, 1993). Input enhancement can be two types. It is auditory if there is intonational focus on learner errors (Doughty & Williams, 1998, p.236) .Another type of input enhancement is textual enhancement (TE) which is also called typographical enhancement (TE) (Alanen,1995; Jourdenais,1995; Shook, 1994, 1999; Leow, 1997, 2001; Overstreet, 1998; White, 1998, Wong, 2003). In TE, particular features of the written input are enhanced using typographical cues in order to direct learner attention to those features while they are reading the written input (Wong, 2003). TE is considered as an external attention-




drawing technique where the aim is increasing the salience of the target form. Various means can be used for TE such as changing the font style, underlining, bolding, using italics, highlighting with color, etc. Studies in the literature revealed different results regarding the effect of TE on noticing, acquisition, or comprehension of the target form. Some studies (Shook, 1994; Jourdenais et. al., 1995) revealed significant effects for TE whereas some of them showed no effect for TE (Overstreet, 1998; Shook, 1999; Leow, 2001) and the rest indicated partial effects for TE (Alanen,1995; Leow,1997; White, 1998; Wong, 2003). In addition, Simard (2009) found that different TE formats had different effects on intake.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Shook (1994) examined the effect of TE on acquisition of L2 Spanish past perfect and relative pronouns. The subjects were 125 adult learners of Spanish. Positive effect for the TE on the acquisition was found in this study. Alanen (1995) investigated the effects of TE and explicit rule presentation on the acquisition of semi-artificial locative suffixes and consonant gradation in Finnish. The study revealed that TE did not have a significant effect on learners' acquisition of the target form. Jourdenais, Ota, Stauffer, Boyson, & Doughty (1995) investigated the effects of TE on Spanish learners' ability to detect Spanish preterit and imperfect verbs. The subjects were fourteen English speaking participants. The analyses of a picture-based writing task where the participants were asked to give think-aloud reports of their language behavior while performing the writing task showed that participants in the enhanced group produced more target forms. Leow (1997) examined the impact of TE and text length on L2 Spanish learners' intake of the impersonal imperative forms of Spanish verbs and on their comprehension of text. The study revealed that TE did not have a significant effect on intake but it had positive effect on text comprehension. White (1998) investigated whether TE would have positive effect on 6th grade French speaking children's' ability to use possessive determiners in

English. It was found that although TE increased the frequency of use of the target forms, it could not promote the correct use of the target form by the subjects. Overstreet (1998) studied the effect of TE and content familiarity on L2 Spanish learners' intake of the preterit and imperfect tenses in Spanish and their text content comprehension. The researcher did not found a positive effect of TE or content familiarity on intake. The study showed that TE negatively affected comprehension. Shook (1999) examined the effect for TE on L2 Spanish learners' intake of the present perfect and the relative pronouns. Bolding was used to enhance the target forms. Results showed that subjects who read the text that contained the present perfect structure recalled significantly less idea units than the subjects who read the text containing the relative pronouns. Leow (2001) investigated the effect of TE on noticing and intake of the target form and text comprehension. The subjects were 38 first year college-level students and the target form was Spanish formal imperatives. The target form was enhanced using bolding and underlining at the same time. The analysis of the participants' performances on immediate and delayed recognition and written production assessment tasks showed that TE did not have any significant benefit over unenhanced input for the amount of noticing of the target form, comprehension of the text content and readers' intake of the target forms. Leow et. al. (2003) tried to find out the effect of TE on intake and reading comprehension. The subjects were 72 adult learners and the target form was subjunctives in Spanish. The study did not reveal any positive effect of TE on intake or comprehension. Wong (2003) investigated the effects of textual enhancement (TE) and simplified input (SI) on acquisition and text comprehension. The subjects were adult L2 French learners and the target form was past participle agreement in relative clauses. TE was made by bolding and italicizing the definite article and the agreement of the past participle. Then, the whole clause was underlined to show the



relationship. The results showed that TE did not have an effect on the acquisition of the past participle agreement. In addition, it did not have an effect on participants' recall of total idea units, but it had a positive effect on recall of the enhanced idea units. SI did not have an effect on the acquisition of the target form, but it had a positive effect on comprehension as measured by free recall tasks. The results of the study showed that the underlined clauses were comprehended better, but italicizing and bolding the agreement markers did not affect acquisition. Simard (2009) investigated the effect of textual enhancement formats on intake. The target form was plural markers in English and the subjects were around 11-12 years old French speaking ESL learners. Participants read the same text enhanced with different conditions. There were eight groups: 1) Italics group, 2) Underlined group, 3) Bold group, 4) Yellow highlighter (color group), 5) Capital group, 6) 5-cues group i.e., the preceding five typographical cues used at the same time, 7) 3-cues group i.e., plural markers enhanced with the use of three typographical cues, that is bold, capital and underlined, 8) Control group. Two versions of the multiple-choice recognition test were used as the instrument. In the study, subjects completed one of the two versions of the multiple-choice recognition task immediately after reading the text. The study confirms that the effect of TE varies according to the format and the use of capital letters and a combination of three cues promoted highest scores on tests. Those studies mentioned above did not reveal a generalisable result regarding the effect of TE. Moreover, most of them did not focus on which type of textual enhancement was more effective than the others. The latter issue was only investigated by Wong (2003) with adult L2 French learners and by Simard (2009) but only with young ESL learners. The current studies which will be mentioned in this article, however, were conducted with adult EFL learners. The aim of this article is to present those two different studies that investigate the effect of TE on the immediate recognition of target form. The first study investigates the effect of TE on the immediate recognition. The second study investigates both the

effect of textual enhancement on the immediate recognition and also tries to find out which TE technique can be more effective than the others.

3. STUDY I: This study investigates whether TE has an effect on immediate recognition.

3.1 Method 3.1.1 Subjects

The subjects of the study were 48 low-intermediate level adult Turkish EFL learners from two classes in English Language Preparatory Program at Anadolu University, Turkey. Students‟ proficiency level was already determined by using Michigan Placement Test at the beginning of the academic year. Students were from different majors and their LI was Turkish. Students did not receive instruction about the target form in the preparatory program till the time of the study. The experimental group (TE) involved 22 students and the control ( C ) group involved 26 students. The study was carried out with low-intermediate level students because higher level students were taught all grammatical structures and this could affect the results of the study. Elementary level students were not chosen because they were not probably ready for the new target form. The reading passage contained structures and vocabulary that they have not taught at the preparatory program and this would bring them additional cognitive load. In other words, we could not expect those students who cannot understand the general meaning of the text because they do not know sufficient amount of vocabulary and because they are not familiar with the target structure to focus their attention to the target form. Therefore, low-intermediate level students were the most appropriate student group for the study.

3.1.2 Materials The reading passage was the one that had been used in Park (2004) study. The passage was shown to the class teachers and they agreed that it was suitable to the students‟ level in terms of vocabulary and syntactic elements. Indirect speech was the target form. Two tests were administered to assess participants' intake of the target form i.e., a 10 item recognition test (test I) and a 10 item multiple choice test (test II). In test I, participants indicated whether



the sentence given, which included the target form, was grammatically correct or incorrect. The sentences were designed in such a way that the incorrectness of the incorrect sentences stemmed from only the incorrect use of the target form. In test II, participants selected one of the four answers in order to complete the incomplete statements with the correct target form. The assessment tasks were created by the researcher and piloted before the study in order to make the necessary adjustments.

3.1.3 Procedures The data was collected in regular class hours by the class teachers who were given instruction about the procedure of the study. Participants in both classes were divided into two groups as textual enhancement (TE) group and control group (C). All participants were given a set consisting of a reading passage and two tests. Participants in the TE group received the enhanced text whereas participants in the C group received the unenhanced text. All participants were asked to read the text and then answer the questions in the tests individually. The tests were the same for both groups. Before starting the reading activity, participants in each group were asked to have a look at the text very quickly and ask any unknown words though it was thought that they would not any problem with the vocabulary. The reason for doing this is VanPatten's (1990) conclusion which proposes that it is difficult for learners to notice content and form at the same time, and learners notice meaning before form. Therefore, if learners do not have any problem with the vocabulary used in the text, they will easily grasp the meaning of the text and the meaning of the target form easily. This means that learners are encouraged to focus on the target form as a result of the decrease in the cognitive load of the text. The study was carried out as a regular class activity and later the students were informed that the activity was done for research purposes after the activity.

3.1.4 Data Analysis The papers of the students were graded by the researcher and then checked by a colleague. The mean scores and whether there was a significant difference between the two groups were calculated by Levene's Test for Equality of Variances and t-test.

3.2 Results and Discussion For Test I, the group statistics show that the mean score for the TE group is 8,68 and the mean score for the C group is 8,00. As statistics show, the TE group obtained higher mean scores than the C group. Yet, the Levene's Test for Equality of Variances and t-test shows that this difference is not statistically significant. The same process was applied also for the Test II. The group statistics showed that the mean score of the for the TE group is 8,64 and the mean score of the C group is 7,73, which means that participants who read the enhanced text have on average higher scores than those who read the unenhanced text. The Levene's Test for Equality of Variances and t-test indicated that there was significant difference between the two groups (Sig.2-tailed=0,029<0,05). Therefore, it can be said that there is significant difference between the participants who read the enhanced text and those who read the unenhanced text, which means TE group participants' recognition of the target form was positively affected by textual enhancement. The aim of this study was to investigate whether TE has positive effect on immediate recognition of L2 learners. The two tests used in the study to assess immediate recognition revealed different results. The study showed that test I, which asked the participants to indicate whether the given sentence is grammatically correct and incorrect, revealed no significant difference between TE and C groups whereas test II revealed significant difference between the two groups. The reason for such a difference between the results of the test may be that since participants were given only two options and only one of them was correct in test I, participants had 50% chance to guess the correct answer even though they did not know the correct answer. In other words, this might have caused some participants in C group to guess the right answer by chance. On the other hand, test II was more challenging because participants had to recognize the correct answer from four different options. Since the first test of the study did not reveal significant difference, the results of the study were not found convincing. Therefore, a new study was designed and conducted in the following semester with a different group of students and using a



different form. In the new study, the effect of the three commonly used typographical enhancement techniques i.e., bolding, italicizing and underlining were also compared so that the one which is found the most effective will be used by teachers while preparing their course materials and course book writers in order to draw the learner' attention to the linguistic features of the second language. 4 STUDY II: This study aims to investigate whether TE is effective for immediate recognition and which one of the most frequently used TE techniques is the most effective for immediate recognition if TE contributes to immediate recognition. More specifically, the research questions of the study are:

1) Are learners who read the typographically enhanced input more successful in immediate recognition than the ones who read the unenhanced text?

2) Does italicizing, bolding or underlining the target form result in better immediate recognition?

4.1 Method

This study was conducted to find out whether TE positively affects intake and which TE technique i.e., italicizing, bolding, and underlining leads to more immediate recognition. 4.1.2 Subjects The subjects of the study were 42 adult low intermediate level EFL students in the English Language Preparatory Program at Anadolu University, Turkey. The students had different majors and their native language was Turkish. 4.1.3 Target Form Passive voice was selected as the target form. This form was chosen because it was in the curriculum of the low-intermediate level students in the program. It was assumed that the students were ready to learn the target form and they had not taken explicit instruction about the form when the study was conducted. 4.1.4 Materials A short reading passage was chosen in which the target form was embedded. The reading passage was chosen from a book written for low intermediate-level students which was not used as

the course book of the subjects in order to minimize the possibility of subjects' previous exposure to the text. Four different versions of the text were used (See Appendix). The text was modified by the researcher in terms of TE using the three textual enhancement techniques i.e., italicizing, bolding and underlining the target form. In other words, three different versions of the text were created in addition to the original unmodified one. No any other type of modification was made in the texts. A multiple choice test including 5 incomplete passive sentences was used to measure immediate recognition (See Appendix). Only the auxiliary verb and main verb of the sentences were missing in those sentences. The participants were asked to choose the correct answer from the four different options to complete the sentences correctly. 4.1.5 Procedure The participants were divided into four groups. Twelve participants read the text in which the target form was italicized; 9 participants read the text in which the target form was bolded; 11 participants read the text in which the target form was underlined; and 10 participants read the text in which no enhancement was made. Before starting the reading activity, participants in each group were asked to have a look at the text very quickly and ask any unknown words. Then, they were asked to read the text at their own pace. After finishing reading the text, the participants of the study took a multiple-choice test having 5 questions regarding the use of the target form-the Passive Voice- after reading only one of the following versions of the text. Participants in all groups were given the same test. In order to avoid providing some sort of input flood to the participants, no pre-test was conducted. The reading and testing were administered during the regular class hours. The tests were prepared by the researcher and views from another colleague were taken into consideration to make the necessary changes in the questions. Then, the tests were scored by the researcher. 4.1.6 Data Analysis Since the differences in test scores of the subjects in more than two groups were examined, the test scores were subjected to one-way ANOVA after



scoring each students‟ paper. When ANOVA revealed significant differences between the groups, a Tukey HSD was performed to see the source of the difference, α was accepted as 0.05. 4.2Results and Discussion For the first research question, "Are learners who read the typographically enhanced input more successful in intake than the ones who read the unenhanced text?", the results of the study shows

that participants who read the enhanced texts have higher mean scores than the participants who read the unenhanced text. The mean score of the participants who read the unenhanced version (M=3.90) is less than the participants who read the italicized version (M=4.91), who read the bolded version (M=4.33) and who read the underlined version (M=4.54). These results can be seen from Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1.

Table 1.1 Means for the test results of the participants who read the enhanced texts and the unenhanced text

VERSION Mean N

Italicized 4.91 12

Bolded 4.33 9

Underlined 4.54 11

Unenhanced 3.90 10

Figure 1.1. Means for the test results of the participants who read the enhanced texts and the unenhanced text

In order to find out whether the difference between the four groups is statistically significant, the data was subjected to ANOVA. Since more than two groups were included in the analysis, ANOVA was preferred rather than any other statistical analysis, α was accepted as 0.05. The analysis shows that there is significant difference between the groups (F=3.29, P=0.03<0.05). A Tukey HSD was conducted in order to find out where this difference stemmed from. Firstly, the

difference between the italicized version and bolded version, italicized version and underlined version, and italicized version and unenhanced version were calculated. The mean difference between the italicized version and the bolded version (MD=0-58, P=0.32>0.05) and the mean difference between the italicized version and the underlined version are n of significant (MD=0.37, P=0.65). On the other hand, the mean difference between the italicized version

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Italicized Bolded Underlined



and the unenhanced version is significant (MD=1.01,P=0.01<0.05). Secondly, the mean difference between the bolded version and italicized version, bolded version and underlined version, bolded version and unenhanced version were calculated. The Tukey test showed that the mean difference between the bolded version and the italicized version (MD=0.58, P=0.32>0.05), the difference between the bolded version and the underlined version (MD=0.21, P=0.92>0.05), and the difference between the bolded version and the unenhanced version (MD=0.43, P=0.61>0.05) are not significant. Thirdly, the mean difference between the underlined version and the italicized version, the underlined version and the bolded version, and the underlined version and the unenhanced version were calculated. The Tukey HSD showed that the mean difference between the underlined version and the italicized

version (MD=0.37, P=0.65>0.05), the mean difference between the underlined version and the bolded version (MD=0.21, P=0.92>0.05), and the mean difference between the underlined version and the unenhanced version (MD=0.64, P=0.23>0.05) are not significant. Finally, the mean difference between the unenhanced version and the italicized version, the unenhanced version and the bolded version, and the unenhanced version and the underlined version were calculated. The Tukey test revealed that the difference between the unenhanced version and the italicized version was significant (MD=1.01, P=0.01<0.05) whereas the difference between the unenhanced version of the text and the bolded version (MD=0.43, P=0.61>0.05) and the mean difference between the unenhanced version and the underlined version (MD=0.64, P=0.23>0.05) are not significant. Table 1.2. shows the results of the Tukey HSD.

Table 1.2.

Results of the Tukey HSD VERSION Mean Difference P

Italicized Bolded Underlined Unenhanced

0.58 0.37 1.01

0.32 0.65 0.01

Bolded Italicized Underlined Unenhanced

0.58 0.21 0.43

0.32 0.92 0.61

Underlined Italicized Bolded Unenhanced

0.37 0.21 0.64

0.65 0.92 0.23

Unenhanced Italicized Bolded Underlined

1.01 0.43 0.64

0.01 0.61 0.23

The Post Hoc Tukey shows significant differences only between the unenhanced version group and the italicized version. No significant differences were found between any of the other groups. These findings indicate that this difference stems from the fact that the mean scores of the participants reading the unenhanced version of the text is the lowest. Findings indicate that learners who read the

typographically enhanced input were more successful in immediate recognition than the ones who read the unenhanced text. For the second research question, "Does italicizing, bolding or underlining the target form result in better immediate recognition?", the mean scores of the participants in the each TE group i.e., italicized, bolded, and underlined group were calculated. Results show that the mean scores of the participants



who read the italicized version of the text is the highest (M=4.91), which means the participants who read the italicized version are the most successful in immediate recognition. This is followed by the mean score of the participants who read the underlined version (M=4.54) and then the mean score of the ones who read the bolded version of the text (M=4.33). These findings indicate that the participants who read the bolded version of the text are the least successful in recognition, and the success level of the ones who read the underlined

version of the text is between the ones who read the italicized text and who read the bolded text. Table 2.1 and Figure 2.1 show the results of the second research question.

Table 2.1. Means for the test results of the participants who read one of the three enhanced versions of

the text VERSION Mean N

Italicized 4.91 12

Bolded 4.33 9

Underlined 4.54 11

Figure 2.1. Means for the test results of the participants who read one of the three enhanced versions of

the text

4 4,1 4,2 4,3 4,4 4,5 4,6



An ANOVA was used in order to find out whether these differences were statistically significant. ANOVA revealed that there was no significant difference between the mean scores of the participants who read the italicized version, bolded version and the underlined version (F=1.97, P015>005) For the first question, "Are learners who read the typographically enhanced input more successful in immediate recognition than the ones who read the unenhanced text?", the study supports the previous studies (Shook,1994; Jourdenais et.al., 1995) in that it shows that participants who read the enhanced texts are more successful than the ones who read the unenhanced text. In other words, it can be stated that the enhanced versions of the text was successful in increasing the perceptual salience of the target form. One reason for this result may be the appropriateness of the target form for the language level of the participants; in other words, learner readiness was taken into consideration while choosing the target form. As stated by Corder (1967, cited in Park, 2004) it is the learner who controls the input, or more properly, his intake”. Corder claimed that what becomes intake is determined by internal factors i.e., the characteristics of the learners' language acquisition device. He argues that there is a built-in syllabus, and that the effectiveness of focus on form depends on matching the teachers' external behavior and learners' built in syllabus. It can be said that there was a match between the enhanced target form and the learners built- in syllabus in the current study. This was probably achieved by choosing a target form which is in the curriculum of the low-intermediate students. This ensured that those learners had already learned what they were supposed to learn to the date of the experiment such as the necessary vocabulary to understand the text as a whole, tenses, infinitive and past participle forms of verbs used in the study. All these made them ready to select the enhanced input. Another reason for obtaining such a result can be choosing a target form having semantic value. The study supports Shook's (1994) study and Jourdenais et. al.'s (1995) study in that forms having semantic values were used as the

target form in these studies and the studies revealed positive effect for TE. As for the second research question, "Does italicizing, bolding or underlining the target form result in more immediate recognition?", the study reveals that no significant difference exists between the performance of the participants who read the italicized, bolded and underlined versions of the text although some advantage was obtained for the participants who read the italicized version of the text. This result conflicts with Wong's (2003) study which proposed that learners may have processed the underlined clauses deeper for meaning but they did not process the italicized and bolded agreement markers in the study. The current study also supports Simard (2009) study in that use of bolding, underlining or capitalizing alone does not cause a significant difference on intake. Considering that Simard‟s (2009) study was conducted with young learners and that the current study was carried out with young adults, it can also be concluded that the effect of TE techniques does not vary depending on the age level.

Conclusion The two studies investigated whether using TE was effective for immediate recognition, and if it was found effective, whether italicizing, bolding or underlining the target form was the most effective for immediate recognition. As a result of the two studies carried out with low-intermediate Turkish EFL learners using two different target forms, it can be concluded that TE has positive effect on the immediate recognition of the target forms. The study also reveals that different types of textual enhancement techniques do not have different affect on immediate recognition. This means textual enhancement should be used to focus on form, but whether the target form is bolded, underlined or italicized does not matter. In future research, a larger sample size could be used. Comprehension questions could also be asked in order to see whether the participants are able to make correct form-function mapping. It would also be interesting to examine once again the effect of TE, particularly the effect of different TE techniques on intake using computers which



recording the reaction time of the participants while they are taking recognition tests after reading texts in which the target form is enhanced using different techniques. Similar studies can be carried out by using subjects having different proficiency and age levels, and the results could be compared.

References Alanen, R. (1995). Input enhancement and rule presentation in second language acquisition. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 259-302) Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Doughty, C. & Williams, J. (1998). Pedagogical choices in Focus on Form. In C.Doughty & J.Williams (Eds). Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition (pp. 197-261). New York: Cambridge University Press. Leow, R.P. (1993). To simplify or not to simplify: A look at intake. Studies in Second Language Acquisition,15(3),333-355. Leow, R.P. (1997). The effects of input enhancement and text length on adult L2 readers‟ comprehension and intake in second language acquisition. Applied Language Learning, 8 (2), 151-182. Leow, R.P. (2001). Do learners notice enhanced forms while interacting with the L2? An on-line and off-line study of the role of written input enhancement in L2 reading. Hispania, 84, 496-509. Leow, R.P., Nuevo, M.A., & Tsai, Y. (2003). The roles of textual enhancement and type of linguistic item in adult L2 learners' comprehension and intake. Applied Language Learning, Vol. 13(2), 1-16. Long, M.H.(1991). Focus on form: A design feature in language teaching methodology. In K. de Bot, R. Ginsberg, & C. Kramsch (eds.), Foreign Language Research in Cross-cultural Perspective (pp.39-52). Amsterdam:John Benjamins. Jourdenais, R., Ota, M., Stauffer, S., Boyson, B., &Doughty, C. (1995). Does textual

enhancement promote noticing? A think-aloud protocol analysis. In R. Schmidt (Ed.), Attention and awareness in foreign language learning (pp. 183-216). Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Overstreet, M.H. (1998). Text enhancement and content familiarity: The focus of learner attention. Spanish Applied Linguistics,2 , 229-58. Park, E.S. (2004). Constraints of implicit focus on form: Insights from a study of input enhancement. Teachers College, Columbia University Working Papers in Tesol & Applied Linguistics,4(2). Retrieved May 5, 2005, from http://www.tc.columbia.edu/academic/tesol/Webiournal/EunSungPark2004.pdf Robinson, P.(2003): Attention and memory during SLA. In C.J. Doughty & M.H. Long (eds), The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition (pp. 631-678). Blackwell Publishing. Schmidt, R. (1990). The role of consciousness in second language learning. Applied Linguistics, 11(2), 129-158. Schmidt, R. (1993). Awareness and second language acquisition. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 206-226. Schmidt, R. (2001). Attention. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and second language instruction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sharwood Smith, M. (1991). Speaking to many minds: On the relevance of different types of language, information for the L2 learner. Second Language Research, 7(2), 118-132. Sharwood Smith, M. (1993). Input enhancement in instructed SLA: Theoretical bases. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 15(2), 165-179. Shook, D.J. (1994). FL/L2 reading, grammatical information, and the input to intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning, 5,57-93. Shook, J.D. (1999). What foreign language reading recalls reveal about the input-to-intake phenomenon. Applied Language Learning, 10(1/2), 39-76.

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Simard, D. (2002). La mise en evidence textuelle: d'ou venons-nous et ou allons-nous? Canadian Modern Language Review, 59 (2), 236-263. Simard, D. (2009). Differential effects of textual enhancement formats on intake. System, 37(1), 124-135. VanPatten,B.(1996). Input Processing and Grammar Instruction:Theory and Research. Ablex, Norwood,NJ. White, J. (1998). Getting the learners' attention: A typographical input enhancement study. In C. Doughty & J. Williams (Eds.). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 85-113). New York: Cambridge University Press. Wong, W. (2003). Textual enhancement and simplified input: Effects on L2 comprehension and acquisition of non-meaningful grammatical form. Applied Language Learning, 13 (2), 17-45.



APPENDIX Materials for Study 1: Reading Passages: Unenhanced Version Lying on the Job “Lying during a job interview is risky business,” says Martha Smith, director of the management consulting firm Maxwell Enterprises. According to Smith, the truth has a funny way of coming out. She tells the story of one woman applying for a job as an office manager. The woman told the interviewer that she had graduated with a B.A. degree in Economics. Actually, it was later found that she had majored in French Literature, not Economics. She also said that she had made $40,000 at her last job. However, the truth was about $8,000 less. “Many companies really do check facts,” warns Smith. In this case, a call to the applicant‟s company revealed all the lies. Smith relates a story about another job applicant, Gloria. During an interview, Gloria said that she had quit her last job, and added that she had been dissatisfied with her working hours in her previous job. Gloria did well on the interview, and landed the new job. She was doing well until the company hired another employee, Pete. It turned out that Gloria and Pete used to work at the same company. Pete eventually told his boss that his old company had fired Gloria. He also added that Gloria had been fired because of her lying habit. In spite of the fact that the new employer was very pleased with Gloria‟s job performance, he said that he just couldn‟t trust her anymore. He mentioned that he had lost all the trust he had. Not surprisingly, Gloria got fired – again. “It‟s a small world, and the truth always comes out sooner or later,” says Smith. Enhanced Version Lying on the Job “Lying during a job interview is risky business,” says Martha Smith, director of the management consulting firm Maxwell Enterprises. According to Smith, the truth has a funny way of coming out. She tells the story of one woman applying for a job as an Office manager. The woman told the interviewer that she had graduated with a B.A. degree in Economics. Actually, it was later found that she had majored in French Literature, not

Economics. She also said that she had made $40,000 at her last job. However, the truth was about $8,000 less.“Many companies really do check facts,” warns Smith. In this case, a call to the applicant‟s company revealed all the lies. Smith relates a story about another job applicant, Gloria. During an interview, Gloria said that she had quit her last job, and added that she had been dissatisfied with her working hours in her previous job. Gloria did well on the interview, and landed the new job. She was doing well until the company hired another employee, Pete. It turned out that Gloria and Pete used to work at the same company. Pete eventually told his boss that his old company had fired Gloria. He also added that Gloria had been fired because of her lying habit. In spite of the fact that the new employer was very pleased with Gloria‟s job performance, he said that he just couldn’t trust her anymore. He mentioned that he had lost all the trust he had. Not surprisingly, Gloria got fired – again. “It‟s a small world, and the truth always comes out sooner or later,” says Smith. Immediate recognition test: Read the sentences below and choose the best option depending on whether they sound OK or NOT OK. Once you have marked an item please do not turn back to change it.

1. They said they had bought a new car. OK NOT OK

2. She said she can swim under water for three minutes.

OK NOT OK 3. He said he have gone to the theatre.

OK NOT OK 4. Mark said his sister had gone with him

to the park. OK NOT OK

5. She said she had leave from New York.

OK NOT OK 6. Jane said that she had seen the movie.

OK NOT OK 7. They said that they had not gone to the

party. OK NOT OK

8. She said that she meets him in the street.



OK NOT OK 9. He said he had worked in the garden.

OK NOT OK 10. She said she could not believe him

anymore. OK NOT OK Multiple choice test: Choose one of the answers in order to complete the incomplete statements.

1. She said, „‟ The police knows the reality.”

She said that the police ………………. the reality.

a. knows b. had known c. knew d. have known

2. He said, “she is watching TV.” a. watched b. is watching c. watches d. was watching

3. They said,” They can come with him.” They said that they………… with him.

a. can come b. could come c. had come d. came

4. Tom said, “I played volleyball.” Tom said that he ………………… volleyball.

a. had played b. played c. has played d. plays

5. Jenny said, “he has to get up early.” Jenny said that he …… early.

a. has to get up b. has to got up c. had to get up d. got up

6. John said, “he can see the error. John said that…………..the error.

a. could see b. can see c. sees d. had seen

7. He said,” I may go to the campus.” He said that he………..to the campus.

a. may go

b. may gone c. might go d. went

8. Mike said, “I have already had my breakfast.” Mike said that he …………..his breakfast.

a. had already had b. already had c. have already had d. already have

9. Jack said, “I like my new bcycle.” Jack said that he………his new bicycle.

a. liked b. had liked c. likes d. has liked

10. She said, “I have learned French.” She said that she…………….French.

a. learned b. had learned c. learns d. have learned

Materials for Study 2: Reading Passages: Italicized Version of the Text CONCORDE'S BIRTHDAY CONCORDE, the world's fastest and most graceful passenger plane, will soon be 25 years old. It first flew on 2 March 1969, from Toulouse in France. Concorde was developed by both France and Britain. From 1956 these two countries had a dream of a supersonic passenger plane. In 1962 they started to work together on the project. The plane cost over £1.5 billion to develop. (I is the most tested plane in the history of aviation, it was given over 5,000 hours of testing. Concorde (lies at twice the speed of sound. This means that it takes only 3 hours 25 minutes to fly between London and New York, compared with 7-8 hours in other passenger jets. Because of the five hour time difference between the USA and Britain, it is possible to travel west on Concorde and arrive in New York before you leave London! You can catch the 10.30 a.m flight from London, Heathrow and start work in New York an hour earlier! Concorde is much used by business people and film stars. But its oldest passenger was Mrs. Ethel Lee from Leicestershire in England. She



was 99 years old when she took off from Heathrow on 24 February 1985. Each Concorde is built at a cost of £55 million. Twenty have been bull! so far. Air France and British Airways own the most. They each have seven planes. Bolded Version of the Text CONCORDE'S BIRTHDAY CONCORDE, the world's fastest and most graceful passenger plane, will soon be 25 years old. It first flew on 2 March 1969, from Toulouse in France. Concorde was developed by both France and Britain. From 1956 these two countries had a dream of a supersonic passenger plane. In 1962 they started to work together on the project. The plane cost over £1.5 billion to develop. It is the most tested plane in the history of aviation. It was given over 5,000 hours of testing. Concorde flies at twice the speed of sound. This means that it takes only 3 hours 25 minutes to fly between London and New York, compared with 7-8 hours in other passenger jets. Because of the five hour time difference between the USA and Britain, it is possible to travel west on Concorde and arrive in New York before you leave London! You can catch the 10.30 a.m flight from London, Heathrow and start work in New York an hour earlier! Concorde is much used by business people and film stars. Bui its oldest passenger was Mrs. Ethel Lee from Leicestershire in England. She was 99 years old when she took off from Heathrow on 24 February 1985. Each Concorde is built at a cost of £55 million. Twenty have been built so far. Air France and British Airways own the most. They each have seven planes. Underlined Version of the Text CONCORDE'S BIRTHDAY CONCORDE, the world's fastest and most graceful passenger plane, will soon be 25 years old. It first flew on 2 March 1969, from Toulouse in France. Concorde was developed by both France and Britain. From 1956 these two countries had a dream of a supersonic passenger plane. In 1962 they started to work together on the project. The plane cost over £1.5 billion to develop. It is the most tested plane in the history of aviation. It was given over 5,000 hours of testing.

Concorde flies at twice the speed of sound. This means that it takes only 3 hours 25 minutes to fly between London and New York, compared with 7-8 hours in other passenger jets. Because of the five hour time difference between the USA and Britain, it is possible to travel west on Concorde and arrive in New York before you leave London! You can catch the 10.30 a.m flight from London, Heathrow and start work in New York an hour earlier! Concorde is much used by business people and film stars. But its oldest passenger was Mrs. Ethel Lee from Leicestershire in England, She was 99 years old when she took off from Heathrow on 24 February 1985. Each Concorde is built at a cost of £55 million. Twenty have been built so far. Air France and British Airways own the most. They each have seven planes. Unenhanced Version of the Text CONCORDE'S BIRTHDAY CONCORDE, the world's fastest and most graceful passenger plane, will soon be 25 years old. It first flew on 2 March 1969, from Toulouse in France. Concorde was developed by both France and Britain. From 1956 these two countries had a dream of a supersonic passenger plane. In 1962 they started to work together on the project. The plane cost over £1.5 billion to develop. It is the most tested plane in the history of aviation, it was given over 5,000 hours of testing. Concorde flies at twice the speed of sound. This means that it takes only 3 hours 25 minutes to fly between London and New York, compared with 7-8 hours in other passenger jets. Because of the five hour time difference between the USA and Britain, it is possible to travel west on Concorde and arrive in New York before you leave London! You can catch the 10.30 a.rn flight from London, Heathrow and start work in New York an hour earlier! Concorde is much used by business people and film stars. But its oldest passenger was Mrs. Ethel Lee from Leicestershire in England. She was 99 years old when she took off from Heathrow on 24 February 1985. Each Concorde is built at a cost of £55 million. Twenty have been built so far. Air France and British Airways own the most. They each have seven planes.



Multiple choice test: Choose one of the four possible answers in order to complete the sentences. 1.Toys.…...in this factory. a. are make b. are made c. had made d. been made 2.That school ……..in 1950. a. was build b. is build c. be built d. was built 3.Her homework….. a. was finish b. has been finish c. has been finished d. is been finished 4.The refreshments………….. a. are prepare b. is prepared c. are prepared d. be prepared 5.Beethoven's fifth symphony……..yesterday. a. is played b. played c. was play d. was played.



Fostering Lecture Note Takers' Autonomy through Strategies-based

Instruction

Nazar Ali Harati

Imam Khomeini University of Maritime Sciences English Language Department- Faculty of Basic Sciences,

Imam Khomeini University of Maritime Sciences, Nowshahr- Mazandaran Province,

Iran [email protected]

ABSTRACT Much of classroom learning in the academic settings depends on the process of understanding and retaining information from lectures (Benson, 1989; Flowerdew, 1995), and note-taking, with its two functions of „encoding‟ and „external storage‟, has been considered as an invaluable means that facilitates this process (Ellis, 2003). This study investigates the relative effects of teaching note-taking strategies on the comprehension and recall of lecture information. A total of 66 undergraduate EFL students were selected and divided into two homogeneous groups. While the subjects of control and experimental groups practiced taking notes by listening to some authentic audio-taped lectures for 10 sessions, the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies was embedded in each session for the subjects of the latter group. The analysis of the results in two post-tests revealed that the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies, as is being increasingly done in other L2 environments (Carrier, 2003; Dunkel, 1988; Fajardo, 1996), might improve EFL students' recall, comprehension and retention of subject matter and, as a result, the incorporation of this strategies-based instruction into EFL curriculum might be promising.

KEY WORDS Listening comprehension, lecture note-taking, strategy instruction, learner autonomy 1. Introduction

The spread of English as a world language has been accompanied by ever growing numbers of students who enroll at universities to satiate their thirst for knowledge through the medium of English as a second or foreign language (L2). As students progress into higher

levels of education, the method of instruction becomes much more auditory in nature. Lecture becomes the primary mode of instruction (Benson, 1989; Dunkel, 1988; Flowerdew, 1995) and note-taking becomes the method in which students can record information presented by the instructors (Fajardo, 1996; Jordan, 1997; Najul and Marchi, 1994).

Taking lecture notes is widely accepted as a useful strategy for enhancing student attention and retention of academic discourse (Carrell, Dunkle, & Mollaun, 2002; Carrier, 2003; Dunkel, 1988; Kiewra, 2002; Piolat, Oliver, & Kellogg, 2005). Dunkel, Mishra, & Berliner 1989 state that "taking notes while listening to a lecture is a time-honored tradition in academe" (p. 543). Ellis 2003 considers lecture note-taking as a meaningful activity during which the learners are required "to focus primarily on meaning in order to achieve a clearly defined outcome, i.e. a set of notes" (p. 59). This activity is regarded as an indispensable and significant undertaking by students and instructors alike (Ferris and Tagg, 1996).

However, lecture note-taking is considered as a complex activity which involves combination of different skills of listening, reading, selecting, summarizing and writing (Fajardo, 1996). It puts a heavy burden on language learners who are still in the process of developing their English language proficiency via instruction in their EFL classes (Carrier, 2003). Jordan 1997 states that “note-taking as a skill is not easy in one‟s own language; in a foreign language, the difficulties can become very serious” (p. 188). On the one hand, students have to decode the ongoing oral information that is qualitatively different from conversational listening to which they are accustomed (Flowerdew, 1995). On the other,




they have to encode the significant points in the form of a set of notes within a very restricted time span.

Teachers are advised to equip their students with a set of learning strategies to make their learning be more effective and to increase their independence (Brown, 2001; Cohen and Weaver, 1998; Nunan, 2000; Oxford, 2002). Unfortunately, instruction in effective listening strategies is often not part of the L2 curriculum and teachers in listening courses tend to test students‟ ability to listen to oral information and answer comprehension questions, without providing any specific instruction in the skills and strategies necessary to accomplish this task (Carrier, 2003; Field, 2002; Nunan, 1999). Therefore, this exploratory study sought to determine whether the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies is effective in enhancing L2 learners' comprehension and retention of lecture information.

2. Background to the study 2.1. Theoretical Framework

During the past few decades, the focus of language instruction has been directed more towards the needs of the individual learners. Language teachers have been advised to incorporate strategy training into their courses and to instruct their learners how to learn a foreign language. Language learners have been considered as active participants who can self-direct their own language learning process (Brown, 2000; Cohen and Weaver, 1998; Kumaravadivelu, 2001; Littlewood, 1999; Mclaughlin and Robbins, 1999; Nunan, 2003). Accordingly, some new terms such as 'strategies-based instruction' (SBI) and 'learner autonomy' have come to the fore. This considerable departure from teacher-centered instruction, towards learner-centered one, stems from cognitive theory of language learning and teaching.

According to cognitive approach, learner is the central component in the learning process (Chastain, 1988). Mclaughlin and Robbins 1999 argue that language learner in cognitive approach is “active, constructive, and planful, rather than a passive recipient of environmental stimulation” (p. 544). It is believed that human beings have limited information-processing capacity and, as a result, the use of various techniques to overcome these limitations is

stressed in cognitive theory (Mclaughlin, 1987). For cognitive psychology, as Mclaughlin and Robbins 1999 state, “any complete account of human cognition must include an analysis of the plans or strategies people use for thinking, remembering, and understanding and producing language” (p. 544). Strategies are the thoughts and behaviors that learners use to help them comprehend, learn, or retain information. One of the ways learners become actively involved in controlling their own learning is by using strategies (O‟Malley and Chamot, 1990). As a result, the incorporation of SBI into the language teaching process has been considered quite fruitful. Brown 2001 states that “in an era of communicative, interactive, learner-centered teaching, SBI simply cannot be overlooked” (p. 208).

SBI is a learner-centered approach to teaching that, as Cohen and Weaver 1998 state, "extends classroom strategy training to include both explicit and implicit integration of strategies into the course content"(p. 8). The aim of SBI is to make students familiar with effective ways of language learning. These are "ways in which they can enhance their own comprehension and production of the target language, and ways in which they can continue to learn on their own and communicate in the target language after they leave the language classroom" (p. 9). SBI "is not specific to any given teaching methodology or culture" and it "is not prescriptive" either. It only provides a host of strategies and students must be trained to be able to "determine which to use, when, for what purpose, and how to use them" (pp. 9-10). In other words, it appears that the application of SBI in language courses is quite in line with promoting learner autonomy (Brown, 2001; Cohen and Weaver, 1998; Lynch and Mendelsohn, 2002).

Autonomy “implies a capacity to exercise control over one‟s own learning” (Nunan, 2000: 1). It has been argued that since it is not feasible for the teachers to accompany their learners throughout life and learners have the potentiality to carry out all learning, language teachers should encourage and assist their learners to take responsibility for their own learning so that they can develop the ability to continue learning after the end of their formal education (Brown, 2001; Littlewood, 1999). Autonomous learners have some valuable features. Nunan 2000 states that autonomous



learners are able to "self-determine the overall direction of their learning, become actively involved in the management of the learning process, [and] exercise freedom of choice in relation to learning resources and activities"(p. 1). 2.2. Lecture Note-taking

Notes can be considered as concise records of major points of the aural or written material. Piolat et al. 2005 define notes "as short condensations of a source material that are generated by writing them down while simultaneously listening, studying, or observing"(p. 292). Notes can be taken concurrently or after listening long enough to make sure the essence of the information is perceived. Fajardo 1996 states that the decision on which one to adopt "depends on the complexity of the task and the ability of the note-taker"(p. 22). She is of the view that "notes which require selection, summarizing, and organization ought to be taken later"(ibid).

Note-taking and note-making are sometimes distinguished from each other. Note-taking is considered as jotting down words verbatim and it is regarded as a passive procedure (Yorkey, 1970). Note-making, on the other hand, is viewed as the creation of one's own notes on the basis of written or oral information and this entails summarizing, paraphrasing, and making significant elements distinguishable by visual means (Jordan, 1997). In this paper, however, the more generally used term „note-taking‟ will be used for both.

Two functions have been considered for note-taking. First, the notes produced are useful when reviewing. Carrell and colleague 2002 state that "the notes taken serve as an external repository of information that permits later revision and review to stimulate recall of the information heard" (p. 3). This function is called 'external storage'. Second, the process of note-taking itself is thought to help students learn the material (Carrell et al. 2002; Dunkel, 1988; Ellis, 2003; Fajardo, 1996). This is usually explained in terms of encoding function of note-taking. Dunkel 1988 points out that encoding "supposedly aids learning and retention by activating attentional mechanisms and engaging the learner's cognitive processes of coding, integrating, synthesizing, and transforming the aurally received input into personally meaningful form" (p. 259).

Since remembering a great deal of new information without writing some of it down is usually difficult, note-taking can function as a facilitative aid to preserve relevant information for future use (Khan, 1999). The significance of note-taking becomes more evident in academic settings. Yorkey 1970 points out that "most of our real learning … will come from lectures, seminars, class recitations, and the give-and-take of classroom discussions" (p. 168). Accordingly, note-taking as an important skill should not be neglected by English language teachers and learners alike. Lecture comprehension and lecture note-taking have been considered challenging and problematic for L2 students (Benson, 1989; Ferris, 1998; Ferris and Tagg, 1996; Flowerdew, 1995; Jordan, 1997; Piolat et al., 2005). James 1977 enumerates the major problems as "(1) decoding, i.e. recognizing what has been said; (2) comprehending, i.e. understanding the main and subsidiary points; (3) taking notes, i.e. writing down quickly, briefly and clearly the important points for future use" (cited in Jordan, 1997: 179). Some studies show that even students who are highly proficient in English may still be in need of additional English language training in the area of lecture comprehension (Dunkel et al., 1989; Ferris and Tagg, 1996). These problems might stem from the distinctive features of lecture comprehension. A distinction is made between 'academic listening' and „conversational listening'. Flowerdew 1995 outlines these qualitative differences as follows:

• type of background knowledge required • ability to distinguish between what is

relevant and what is not relevant • application of the turn-taking

conventions • amount of implied meaning or number

of indirect speech acts • ability to concentrate on and understand

long stretches of talk without the opportunity of engaging in the facilitating functions of interactive discourse

• note-taking • ability to integrate the incoming message

with information derived from other media (e.g., textbook, handouts, overhead, chalkboard).



Lecture note takers have to deal with several problems related to the flow of information. They are constrained by the lecturers' rate of speech and the limited capacity of working memory. In other words, "note takers must maintain an active representation of what they are hearing in order to get sufficient time to exploit and to transcribe a portion, while being faced with a continuous updating of the message content as it is spoken". Since the "writing speed is about 0.2 to 0.3 words per second whereas speaking speed is about 2 to 3 words per second", lecture note takers might use abbreviating procedures to compensate their slow rate of writing. Even if, the application of abbreviating procedures reduces the load of working memory, the selection of information requires deliberate operations of working memory. In sum, Piolat et al. state that "note takers may deliberately regulate their activity to simultaneously comprehend, evaluate, sort, and write down the information that must be recorded (Piolat et al. 2005: 297).

To make good notes, one should be an active listener. Yorkey 1970 states that "this active involvement is what makes note-making difficult, it is also what makes note-making valuable"(p. 161). Good notes are characterized by their "brevity" (words, phrases, and topics are enough), "relevance" (only relevant information should be recorded), "clarity" (there should be no ambiguity and notes should be comprehensible at a later time), "note form" (information may be divided into different sections by the use of figures, letters, and dashes), and "abbreviations and symbols" (short forms and symbols should be used, for they accelerate the process of writing) (Khan, 1999: 18).

Rost 1990 provides a chart of notes classified into "topic–relation notes" (e.g. writing down a word or phrase, copying, translating, diagramming), "concept-ordering notes" (e.g. listing topics in order, labeling notes as main points, indenting), "focusing notes" (e.g. highlighting, parenthesizing), and "revising notes" (e.g. inserting, deleting) (cited in Jordan 1997: 187-188). The techniques used by note takers might affect three levels of language. First, abbreviating procedures may apply on lexical units. That is to say, words might be shortened in different ways. For example, writing down 'poss' for 'possibility' or 'recoged' for 'recognized'. Second, syntax can be

transformed by shortening statements. For this purpose, a telegraphic style might be adopted or substitutive techniques such as mathematical (+, >), iconic (→), and Greek-alphabetic ( β ) symbols can be used. Third, the physical formatting of the notes may be quite different from the usual linear formatting used when producing a text (Piolat et al., 2005).

It is believed that students develop their own methods and styles of note-taking. Jordan 1997 points out that "notes are personal to each student, and each student may be idiosyncratic in the way that the notes are taken"(p. 188). However, it might be fruitful if different methods of note-taking will be presented to the students so that students either revise their own methods or adopt more effective methods. There are five common types of note-taking methods. These methods are referred to as the Cornell Method, Outline Method, Mapping Method, Charting Method, and Sentence Method1. 2.3. Lecture Note-taking Research

There seems to be a general consensus among teachers and students about the significance of lecture note-taking. Out of 164 American and international students in a survey conducted by Dunkel and Davey 1989, 96.3% of the American and 89.4% of the international students believed that lecture note-taking was useful for organizing the information. Having surveyed 900 professors at four different universities in the United States, Ferris and Tagg 1996 pointed out that "respondents in all fields felt that effective lecture note-taking is very important" (p. 48).

Although there have been some studies focusing on note-taking and its impact on the students‟ comprehension and recall of lecture information (Benson, 1989; Carrell et al., 2002; Dunkel, 1988; Dunkel et al., 1989; Flowerdew, 1995; Piolat et al., 2005), it seems that very few studies have focused on the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies (Carrier, 2003).

Carrell et al. 2002 investigated the effect of note-taking on listening comprehension and recall of 234 ESL students. The study solely focused on the immediate effect of note-taking, i.e. the students were not allowed to review their notes. The results of the study revealed that the mere act of note-taking was



significantly effective only for short lectures which lasted for 2.5 minutes.

Dunkel 1988 examined the notes of 129 L1 and L2 students who took a post lecture quiz. The findings revealed that test achievement was not directly related to the quantity of notes taken but rather to the brevity and relevance of the notes. Effective L1 and L2 note takers were those who used abbreviations and symbols to transcribe more content words and less structure words.

Vidal 2003 investigated the role of EFL university students' bottom-up and top-down processing in academic listening. The 47 participants of the study listened to a mini-lecture and took notes concurrently. The results of their performances in the post lecture test revealed that both the high-proficiency and low-proficiency students were weaker in bottom-up than in top-down skills. That is, they could understand some of the recurring main points in the lecture by processing the linguistic input and integrating it with their prior knowledge and they failed to process examples, details and supporting ideas which were not recurring in the lecture and did not normally form part of their prior knowledge. Vidal is of the view that the instruction of lecture note-taking skills to the students might alleviate this problem.

Carrier 2003 examined the effect of strategy instruction on ESL students‟ listening comprehension. The findings of the study showed that strategy instruction can positively affect students‟ listening comprehension. Based on the results of her study, Carrier states that note-taking strategy instruction aids students “to develop their own abbreviations and symbols for faster note-taking and to realize that meaning can be constructed from key word notes rather than entire sentences” (p. 395). 3. Purpose of the Study

In the light of increased pedagogical focus placed on 'learner autonomy' and almost dearth of research concerning the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies, this study was conducted to determine whether the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies has any effect on the students' comprehension and recall of lecture material as long as (a) the students are deprived of reviewing their notes, i.e. the immediate effect of the encoding hypothesis, and (b) the students are provided an opportunity to review

their notes, i.e. the delayed effect of the encoding hypothesis. 4. Methodology 4.1. Participants

The participants were 66 male senior students enrolled at the Imam Khomeini University of Maritime Sciences. These students were randomly selected out of 200 senior students. All students at this university are required to pass 24 credits of English conversation courses. Listening and speaking skills are the focus of this compulsory English program which lasts for two years. The participants of the study had passed their English conversational courses. 4.2. Materials

Four authentic audio-taped lectures were used at this study2. Three mini-lectures were used for the participants to practice note-taking during the 10 sessions of the study and one for the post-tests. The length of the post-test lecture was 28 minutes, 07 seconds, and it contained 3034 words, including verbal fillers, false start, and redundancies. The rate of presentation was 108 words per minute. (See Appendix for a transcript of the audio-taped lecture used for the post-tests) 4.3. Procedure 4.3.1. Pre-test

To establish initial proficiency levels, following Carrell et al. 2002, participants were administered the TOEFL listening comprehension component. The listening section of the test has three parts. In part A, examinees listen to 30 brief conversations, each followed by a multiple choice question. Parts B and C consist of five longer conversations or monologues followed by three to five questions. There are 20 items in parts B and C. Based on their performances in this test, participants were divided into two homogeneous groups, one as a control group and the other as the experimental group. 4.3.2. The Instruction of Lecture Note-taking Strategies

After the pre-test, the participants took part in 10 class sessions in which three authentic audio-taped mini-lectures were presented for note-taking. While the sessions for the experimental group focused on the instruction



of lecture note-taking strategies as well as practicing lecture note-taking, the participants of the control group did not receive such a treatment and they merely practiced taking lecture notes in accordance with their own methods.

On the basis of the growing number of scholars who advocate the parallel processing model for the listening comprehension, the emphasis in this study should have been placed both on bottom-up and top-down processing (Morley, 2001; Peterson, 2001). Rost 2001 argues that both of these processes are involved in listening comprehension and their interactions “serves to produce a „best match‟ that fills all of the levels” of cognitive organization (p. 7). However, due to the listening exercises that the students had during their conversational courses at the university, bottom-up processing was emphasized peripherally. Peterson 2001 states that top-down processes “are driven by listeners‟ expectations and understanding of the context, the topic, the nature of the text, and the nature of the world” (p. 88). Therefore, as Carrier 2003 states, “the focus is on the meaning of the oral input and the listener uses strategies such as guessing from context, prior knowledge, and inferencing”(p. 391).

Lecture note-taking strategies instructed in this study included conventional abbreviations and symbols, Cornell Method as one of the common methods of note-taking, listening for discourse markers, listening for gist, summarizing, paraphrasing, and making important elements stand out by visual means. Furthermore, students were trained how to pay attention to the lecturer‟s voice as a cue to find important meanings. Voice refers to varying the pace, pitch, and volume of speech to emphasize particular ideas. Yorkey 1970 is of the view that “a lecturer‟s voice can signal meanings as effectively as his words can” (p. 168). Note-taking strategies were instructed at the beginning of each session and lasted for 20 to 30 minutes. The strategy instruction was made explicit by defining for the students, explaining specifically how it would help them comprehend the lecture materials and modeling the use of the strategy by doing a think-aloud while listening to the audio-taped lecture.

4.3.3. Post-test Following the strategy training sessions, two post-tests were administered in two different

sessions. These two tests were constructed on the basis of the authentic audio-taped lecture. Since these two tests were constructed to measure the immediate and delayed effects of the encoding hypothesis, care was exercised to construct almost two parallel tests. Each of the two tests had 15 multiple choice cloze items for which a rational deletion procedure was used. Both of the tests were pilot-tested and revised before inclusion in the study on 30 senior students who had passed their two-year English conversational courses at the university and, like the subjects of the control group, practiced taking notes for 5 sessions.

Before the administration of the first post-test, students were asked to listen to the audio-taped lecture and to take notes concurrently on the information contained in the lecture. Since the first post-test was supposed to measure the immediate effect of the encoding hypothesis, the subjects were informed at the very outset that they would merely have the opportunity to review their notes for the second post-test and not for the first one. When the lecture ended, the first post-test was administered immediately following collection of the notes.

The second post-test was administered three days later. The aim of this test was to probe the delayed effect of the encoding hypothesis. In fact this delayed post-test provided this opportunity for the subjects to revise and review their lecture notes. In order to prevent the participants of the two groups from exchanging their lecture notes with each other, the post-tests for each group were administered in a separate week.

4.3.4. Data Analysis

The independent samples t-test was used to compare the participants' performances in the first and second post-tests. Brown and Rodgers 2002 state that "the t-test is the most frequently used measure in second language research when comparing mean scores for two groups" (p. 205). The data were analyzed with SPSS. 5. Results

Two independent samples t-tests were carried out in this study. The first one was used to compare the participants' performances in the first post-test. As the results in Table 1 show, the t-value exceeds the t-critical implying that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group.



Table 1: Independent samples t-test of the first post-test Variable

Mean

SD t-value

DF

2-tailed Sig.

Std. Error Difference

t-critical

Control group

7.6970

1.53062

2.970

64

.004

.42855

2.000

Experimental group

8.9697

1.92816

95% CI (.41660, 2.12885) p< .05

The second independent samples t-test was used for analyzing the results of the participants' performances in the second post-test. Results in Table 2 show that the t-value exceeds the t-critical implying that the experimental group performed significantly better than the control group. Table 2: Independent samples t-test of the second post-test Variable

Mean

SD t-value

DF

2-tailed Sig.

Std. Error Difference

t-critical

Control group

9.0303

1.21153

3.716

64

.000

.38331

2.000

Experimental group

10.4545

1.83866

95% CI (.65850, 2.18998) p< .05 6. Discussion

Although some of the past studies which aimed at testing the efficacy of the encoding hypothesis did not come to any significant result (Dunkel, 1988; Dunkel et al., 1989), this might be in part due to the fact that the instruction of note-taking strategies was not part of their studies. Dunkel (1988) is of the view that greater emphasis should be placed on teaching note-taking strategies. Carrier 2003 argues that note-taking strategy instruction helps students "to develop their own abbreviations and symbols for faster note-taking and to realize that meaning can be constructed

from key word notes rather than the entire sentence"(p. 395).

The results of the first post-test might indicate that the instruction of note-taking strategies can enhance students' comprehension and retention of lecture material even if they are not provided the opportunity to review their notes. In other words, it seems that the mere act of note-taking can help the skilful note takers comprehend and recall the key words and main ideas.

Since in the educational settings the students usually have the opportunity to review their lecture notes, the second post-test was included in this study to test the delayed effect of encoding hypothesis. The significant outperformance of the experimental group may show that good notes, which function as an external storage for later revision and review, can yield good results.

The finding of a significant effect for the instruction of note-taking strategies on the immediate and delayed recall of lecture material might suggest that this experiment, though exploratory in nature, supports the encoding hypothesis. In other words, the results of this study seem to indicate that the instruction of lecture note-taking strategies can augment the comprehension and recall of the lecture material.

7. Limitations of the Study and Suggestions for Further Research

There are some aspects that limit the generalizability of this study. In regard to the sample, the participants were only male. In addition, the sample was not large enough. As a result, another research can be conducted with a larger sample that includes both male and female participants so that findings would be more robust.

While the instruction of note-taking strategies had a significant effect on participants' comprehension and recall of lecture material, it is not known to what extend the different kinds of strategies contributed to the enhanced performances of the participants. Further research is needed to separate the different types of strategies so that their relative contributions to effective comprehension and recall of lecture material can be determined.

The authentic audio-taped lectures used in this study were not the same as the lectures delivered in educational settings. That is, the



participants were deprived of seeing the lecturer in person and taking advantage of the lecturer's body language communication or the points that might be written on the blackboard. Accordingly, another research can be conducted in which either a native speaker presents a lecture or a video-taped lecture would be used instead.

The content of the participants' notes was not analyzed in this study. Another research can probe the quality of the participants' notes.

Conclusion In the wake of recent pedagogical

emphasis on learner autonomy and the increasing attention devoted to SBI in this regard, this study aimed at investigating the impact of the instruction of note-taking strategies on students' comprehension and recall of lecture material. Flowerdew 1995 states that research into lecture comprehension process is valuable in applied linguistics because its understanding can both "suggest appropriate ways to encourage second language learners to listen to lectures" and "guide content lecturers in how to present their lectures to ensure optimal comprehension". It can also "feed into ESL teaching methodology, on the one hand, and learner strategy training, on the other" (p. 9).

The results of this study revealed that the instruction of note-taking strategies had a significant effect on the students' comprehension and recall of lecture material. It might be concluded that this SBI can equip the language learners with a set of skills that are required for tackling the overwhelming task of comprehension and recall of lecture material. This strategy instruction has a central role in listening courses and it "can contribute significantly to learner autonomy" (Lynch and Mendelsohn, 2002: 206). Therefore, it seems that the incorporation of this strategy-based instruction into EFL curriculum might render fruitful results. Notes 1- For more detailed explanations and

illustrations of note-taking methods, one can refer to the Academic Skills Center- Study Skills Library available at http://sas.calpoly.edu/asc/ssl.html.

2- The audio-taped lectures used at this study were retrieved September 2005 from the World Wide Web: http://www.uefap.com/listen/listfram.htm

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Kumaravadivelu, B. (2001). Toward a postmethod pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 537-560. Littlewood, W. (1999). Defining and developing autonomy in East Asian Contexts. Applied Linguistics, 20, 71-94. Mclaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of second-language learning. London, Edward Arnold. Mclaughlin, B. & Robbins, S. (1999). Second language learning. In B. Spolsky (Ed.), Concise encyclopedia of educational linguistics (pp. 540-552). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Morley, J. (2001). Aural comprehension instruction: Principles and practices. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd Ed. pp. 69-85). USA: Heinle and Heinle. Najul, M. & Marchi, G. (1994). Note-taking: The link between oral and written production. English Teaching Forum, 32, 46-48. Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching and learning. Boston, MA: Heinle and Heinle. Nunan, D. (2000). Autonomy in language learning. Retrieved September 2005 from the World Wide Web: http:// ec.hku.hk/autonomy. Nunan, D. (2003). Practical English Language Teaching. McGraw-Hill Companies. O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A. U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Oxford R. L. (2002). Language learning strategies in a nutshell: Update and ESL suggestions. In J. C Richards W. A. Renandya (Eds.), Methodology in teaching: An anthology of current practice (pp. 124-132). Peterson, P. W. (2001). Skills and strategies for proficient listening. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign language (3rd Ed. pp. 87-100). USA: Heinle and Heinle. Piolat A. , Oliver T. , & Kellogg, R. T. (2005). Cognitive effort during note taking. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 19, 291-312.

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Rost, M. (2001). Listening. In R. Carter & D. Nunan (Ed.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages (pp. 7-13). Vidal, K. (2003). EFL university students' cognitive processing of spoken academic discourse as evidenced by lecture notes. Retrieved November 2005 from the World Wide Web: http: www.publications.ub.es/revistes/bells12/articulos.asp?codart=105. Yorkey, R. C. (1970). Study skills for students of English as a second language. New York: McGraw-Hill. Appendix Taxes, Quality of Life and Happiness

Good afternoon ladies and gentlemen. The title of this little talk is taxes that are taxes not taxis, quality of life and happiness. Now, that's a rather odd bunch of things but I think you'll see the connections as we go. So by way of introduction, let me just indicate the structure of the talk. It's in five parts, roughly. First, I'll talk about politics and the so-called quality of life. Secondly, I'll contrast this new language with traditional economic views of so-called rational economic man. Thirdly, we'll have a discussion about the connection between money and happiness. Then, I'll make some remarks about human welfare and what it is. So, you see, the topics are not too narrow or too small. At the risk of silliness, we'll press on, though, with a summary of some of these things and the discussion. And finally, I'll suggest something by way of conclusion and a concluding question.

OK. Back to the first point then now: politicians and the quality of life. Now, in 1999, some really quite remarkable things have happened. Let's start with William Hague, here in the UK. He is of course the Conservative party leader of the opposition in parliament, leader of the Conservative party, leader of the organization. Well, he recently admitted that the Conservative party in the past had made mistakes and that in future the Conservative party should broaden its appeal and pay more attention to the quality of life. There we have that phrase, the quality of life. Well, what is this quality of life? William Hague defined it so that to include in particular protecting the

environment from pollution and so on. So the quality of life obviously includes, if it's any good, a good environment. Again, and perhaps even more important in practice, because he is the Chancellor of the Exchequer in the government, Gordon Brown, again in 1999 in the budget, the budget of the Labor government, changed the declared aims of taxation. He changed the aims of taxation. And so environmental protection again figured very prominently and taxes were to be the means of raising the quality of life. So there's a finance minister, the finance minister, in the Labor government, saying that he would deliberately use taxes to protect the environment.

Well, a comment on Labor's budget. For example, the Friends of the Earth, the environmental pressure group, is very much in favor of the so-called greening of the tax system. It is been lobbying, campaigning, for the greening of the tax system. And they commented that this was the most significant transformation of the economy since the foundation of the Welfare State just after the Second World War. Well, what taxes are proposed in Labor's recent budget? First, increased taxes on petrol, diesel, and on company cars. Again, there would be a rise in taxation on dumping rubbish in landfills. The UK has a fairly poor record compared with many other countries in the so-called advanced world of rubbish disposal. We tend to dump it in large holes in the ground, where it produces methane, a dangerous gas, and other nasties. Again, in a Labor budget, there would be tax relief on commuting to work by public transport rather than by private car. And there would be subsidies to public transport. Finally, the tax on small cars, small engine cars, would be less than the tax on big cars.

So, there's a package of measures, not all of them completely new, but some of them new, which are designed to protect the environment through taxation. Now, the treasury, the government finance wing, that is, the treasury commented that the aim of this budget was to shift taxation from good things such as work, savings and investment and so on to bad things such as environmental pollution. Again, there would be a new tax on business use of energy. This would be offset by lower national insurance contributions and a resulting rise in employment, other things being equal. So the treasury has thought of these things and thinks



that environmental fiscal policy, taxation policy, can make sense.

Now, one of two other comments on this budget is financial statement. Again, Friends of the Earth. They thought the government was surprisingly serious and they applauded this new term. They thought the government was serious to put the environment at the heart of public policy making. Or again, the Sunday independent quoted studies showing that a shifting burden of taxation from jobs to resources would cut pollution and in fact raise employment, for example, in service industries. Or again the IPPR, the Institute of Public policy Research, proposed creation of investment in jobs in sustainable enterprises. Revenue from green taxes, it is estimated, could rise from 775 million pounds sterling in the year 1999 to 2000 to as high as 3000 million pounds in the year 2001 to 2002. So, it seems, then, that quality of life is not here just an empty slogan but represents a real shift in economic and environmental policy.

We come now to the second part of this little talk. I want to contrast this new talk then with traditional economic values or at least traditional values of some economists. Now, the point here is that traditionally, economic growth has been thought good. The new green tax policy then can be seen as a new constraint on how economic growth is to be achieved. There's a new term here, which we hear every day, these days and that is sustainability. A rather ugly word, what does it mean? It means growth, or economic life not growth, which can be sustained indefinitely over time without destroying its own basis. Now, there are, it is true, international influences on Labor's policy, on the Labor government's policy. This policy hasn't simply arisen through lobbying and public opinion shifts, focus groups and so on, in one country. There is, first of all, of course the European Union, of which the UK is a member, and its environmental policies historically have been rather more favorable to environmental protection than those of the UK. Again, there are such international bodies as the IPCC, the intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, which investigates and monitors so-called global warming, which is, of course, the result of the burning of fossil fuels, in so far as it's a man made change. Thirdly of course, there are the great international environmental summit, such as the one a few years ago in Rio de

Janeiro, in Brazil, and more recently in Kyoto in Japan.

Now, what is this traditional economic thought that I referred to. Well, some economists have maintained that there is such a thing as rational economic man. OK. How does rational economic man go about his business? How does rational economic woman go about her business? Well, they try to maximize their income. They are individuals who try to make as much money as possibly for themselves. Now, this rather oversimplified model of what a human being is has come under increasing challenge, and indeed, from economists, of course, as well as from others. So that the picture that emerges now is of a rather less predictable, rather more complex, from an economist's point of view, rather less understandable person. So that voters have shown, for example, that they're not interested in maximizing their income once they have what they regard as enough to live on decently. But, they are concerned, or at least they say they are concerned in public opinion polls and so on, with such things as health, education and the environment. So then, it's not true that human beings simply are concerned to maximize their income and spend all their energies on that. Or at least, this is not what they say they do.

Now, a point about quality of life. This is rather important, surely. We need not be thinking only of our own quality of life. Or I not, I need not be thinking only of my own private personal quality of life. But of course the environment is a shared thing and it's shared, not only with other people here and now, but it's shared in important respects with future generations. And this raises then the question, always in the back of one's mind when one thinks of sustainability, the question of whether and why we ought to care of future generations of human beings. There's yet another twist. And that is that we might broaden our interest, the widening circle as Peter Singer, the Australian philosopher, has called it, we might broaden our interest, our circle of concerns to include not only human beings and their welfare, then environment, but non-human entities and even the non-living world. So, that's quite a big agenda. We are now looking then in some at large scale present and future concerns with the environment as opposed to a no holds barred simplified view of man as an income maximizer.



We come now to the third part of this little talk. I call it what price happiness. The point here is that there has been a tendency among many economists and others to link income with happiness. So, and happiness clearly sounds important. Ask parents what they want for their children and they say we want them to be happy. But what is this happiness and is there a direct link with cash? Is there a direct link between lack of cash, poverty, on the one hand, and unhappiness, misery, on the other hand? Again, can we express happiness in terms of money? Can it be cashed out in cash terms? Well, let's raise a couple or so of objections to the view that we simply try to maximize our income. Surely the obvious objection is that most people desire things which can't be bought. They desire things like friendship. Again, we don't as a matter of fact try to get as much money as possible, although that may be one of our main concerns. We value other things. For example, we value our spare time, our time for leisure activities, checking up on who's winning the cup, being with friends and family, whatever it is. So what can we conclude from this? Surely, not to over-conclude about anything, we can simply say that while money may be a means to happiness, it is certainly not the only means. It may not be the main means.

Now interestingly enough, some research published recently from Warwick University by an economist tends to support this view. The findings, I'll summarize them, are as follows. Incomes, as we know in recent years, have risen, for example, in European Union countries. But happiness, which the research attempted to quantify, happiness, well, guess what, it's not increased in proportion with income increase. For example, the Belgians are picked out in this research as, having done surprisingly well, anyway they've done well in the income stakes, they've increased their income, but, wait for it, they haven't got much happier, or indeed any happier. Well, this suggests, then, that there's not a direct link between happiness and wealth, income. What the research did find was that there were one or two factors which did seem to contribute quite strongly to happiness. Let's talk about happiness rather than unhappiness. So, the personal characteristics that seem to contribute to happiness are that one is well educated, female, and young or old but not middle aged and with few children. That's interesting. I mean, this is on the basis of what

people say they feel about things. There we go. There are these personal characteristics then, at least in western society, which tend to promote happiness. But the remarkable think here, in our present context, is that far and away the most important factor in unhappiness is unemployment. People, presumably people of working age, who are unemployed, are unhappy at a very marked degree. Why that should be so we can think about, that according to this research it is so. So what seems to follow from this is that if unemployment is such a main factor in unhappiness, then the government should work towards high employment rather than high incomes, for example, if these two goals conflict. High employment, if happiness, or whatever it is, matters, high employment then, according to this research, is a key factor in happiness.

OK. So that was one question: Is there a direct link between cash and happiness? And we have seen that there are some grounds for doubting it. The second question is whether happiness itself is a worthwhile goal. Well, let's turn to one or two philosopher on this. Happiness is not as simple a term as it seems. Let's go back to Bentham. Jeremy Bentham, the utilitarian philosopher, whose introduction to the principles of morals of legislation was published in 1789, the year of the French revolution. He claimed that what is morally good, right, is what gives pleasure and he tended to equate pleasure and happiness. His follower, John Stuart Mill, in the middle of the nineteenth century, in his essay on utilitarianism, which is the name given at this sort of view, raised an objection really that all pleasures, in his view, were not equally valuable. So he divided pleasures into higher pleasures, such as intellectual pleasures. It might be the sort of thing Mill himself enjoyed doing, philosophy. It might be attention to the serious arts such as certain sorts of music. These higher pleasure, he thought, were qualitatively different from, and better than, the lower pleasures. You know, better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a pig satisfied. So, to sum up, pleasures of the mind may be held to be better than certain pleasures of the body, for example.

To follow on from Mill's point, we might say we're not in a non-stop tour of Disneyland, just seeking cheap thrills. And we might conclude that happiness, even if it is equated with pleasure, should not be seen only in cash



terms, and that it may not, in any case, itself be worth pursuing. Aristotle, in ancient times, had argued that what is translated as happiness was something that we shouldn't try to seek; if we seek it we don't find it. But it comes as a bonus if we live a good life.

Well, this brings us then to the even broader question of what a good life is. So let's start here with a suggestion from Aristotle. His view is that, at least on the moral plane, we should live a life in accordance with the virtues, in accordance with virtue. Now virtue is a rather stuffy sounding, Victorian sounding, word, but what Aristotle meant by it was good qualities of character. Courage is an example he takes in his book on the ethics. And then happiness will come. If we train children to have a disposition to virtue then they will, in fact, be happy. But not in the shallow sense of happiness, in the sense of fulfillment, and having lived a worthwhile life. We might look to other philosophers. What about Emmanuel Kant, in the 18th century? He thought that from a modern point of view again, what the good life was living in accordance with moral duty. Well, what's moral duty? It is, for Kant, revealed by hard rational thought. So that we choose principles to live by which we would wish everybody else to live by, for example.

Now, we seem to be getting quite a long way away from budgets and into philosophy, but let's come back to quote another philosopher with a taste of common sense, to some extent. I refer to present day philosopher Ted Honderich at University College London. And he wrote, a few years ago, a little article about a philosophical journal, trying to analyze what human welfare is. Human welfare. And of course the implication of such an article, surely, in terms of practical policy, is that if the article gets it right, then human welfare is what we want to seek to maximize rather than to minimize. Well, not surprisingly, perhaps, Honderich went over the old ground of distinguishing basic aspects of human welfare

from non-basic aspects. The basic aspects are what we need as animals, as biological beings. We need food, water, shelter, warmth and so on. But where this article gets interesting is in its discussion of the non-basic aspects of human welfare and, what sticks in my mind from Honderich's list, for example, is self-respect and the respect of others. These surely are key items in what I might call human dignity, which is quite a different concept from the satisfaction of pleasures.

Well now, we've gone over some ground about taxation, so-called quality of life, various suggestions as to what happiness is and so on and so on and so on. And then we've had a look at some traditional answers to rather large questions. What can we summarize or conclude from all this? Well, let's note that politicians have recognized in the UK recently a concept called the quality of life, which is to a considerable extent, though not wholly, environmental in its nature. In trying to examine what this quality of life is, we've come, as you've seen, across notions such as happiness. Well, let's just raise a question, perhaps, by way of conclusion. We might, as I've mentioned this before, we might interpret quality of life and so on, and even human welfare if we're some sort of egoist, as the satisfaction of individual self interests. But surely also, human beings are social beings. We're centers of network of relationships and so on so that even as individuals we can't escape the larger group even if we wanted to and could we not think then in terms of the quality of life as hope for humanity and indeed the nonhuman systems. The quality of life offers hope for humanity and for non-human systems. And so, back to taxation, well, perhaps a good thing that the governments are taking a broader view and the longer term. Thank you very much.



ACADEMIC DISHONESTY IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE CLASSROOM: INSTRUCTORS’ PERSPECTIVES

Maite Correa Colorado State University,

Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures

Fort Collins, CO [email protected]

ABSTRACT Academic dishonesty (or “cheating”) is a serious, yet common problem in educational institutions across all age levels (Anderman and Murdock, 2007). Research has focused mainly on how many students cheat, why and how they go about it, as well as how to prevent them from doing it (Beasley, 2004; Berry, Thornton, and Baker, 2006; McCabe, 1993; Park, 2003; Staats, Hupp, Wallace, and Gresley, 2009). Additionally, there is an interest in how faculty deal with this problem and why many do not take the required judicial measures expected by their institutions (Keith-Spiegel, Tabachnick, Whitley, and Washburn, 1998; McCabe, 1993). In the Second Language (SL) classroom unique and specific types of academic dishonesty occur that are not found in other disciplines, for example 1) assignments initially written in the native language (original or copied from a website) are translated into the target language with the help of online translators, or 2) help provided by native or proficient speakers (anything from asking for a single word, an expression, or a complete review, i.e. “going over the paper”). For this study an online survey was administered to 81 SL instructors across 22 US colleges and universities. The questionnaire, among other questions, asked teachers to list the types of cheating they have encountered and rate the seriousness of the offense. It also asked what procedures, if any, they follow when encountering acts of academic dishonesty, how they decide the penalties to be imposed and what they do to promote academic integrity. Results show that, although almost all instructors have encountered several cases of cheating, as many as a third decide to deal with students one-on-one rather than

following the institution‟s procedures, because: 1) they are not familiar with them 2) they consider them to be too cumbersome, 3) they think procedures or penalties are too harsh on students, or 4) they believe that first-time offenses can be handled “locally”. KEY WORDS Academic dishonesty, cheating, second language, online translators, academic integrity, plagiarism, unauthorized help. 1. Introduction Academic dishonesty in higher education is a problem that has been studied quite extensively for almost a century. With the advent of technology in the 90‟s, cheating is easier than ever: anyone with an internet connection can easily access thousands of websites where they find innumerable opportunities to access all sorts of “unauthorized help”. Research has focused mainly on how many students cheat, why and how they go about it, as well as how to prevent them from doing it (Beasley, 2004; Berry, Thornton, and Baker, 2006; McCabe, 1993; Park, 2003; Staats, Hupp, Wallace, and Gresley, 2009). Additionally, there is an interest in how faculty deal with this problem and why many do not take the required judicial measures expected by their institutions (Keith-Spiegel, Tabachnick, Whitley, and Washburn, 1998; McCabe, 1993). In this paper I focus on academic dishonesty in Second Language (SL) classrooms. Given the specific nature of the type of plagiarism that can be carried out in the SL classroom (use of online translators, help from native or proficient speakers) and the lack of research




on this topic, the purpose of this paper is to analyze: 1) what constitutes academic dishonesty from the SL instructor‟s perspective as well as the degree of seriousness attributed to each case, 2) which procedures are commonly followed when encountering a case, and 3) how academic integrity is promoted in the SL classroom.

1.1 Traditional and New Types of Academic Dishonesty Although each academic institution is usually responsible of providing their own definition of what constitutes an act of academic dishonesty, most divide it in at least five categories (for more categories refer to Baker, Berry, and Thornton, 2008 or Gehring and Pavela, 1994):

Plagiarism: deliberate use of “someone else‟s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without acknowledging its source” (CWPA, 2003).

Falsification/fabrication: the false creation of data or documents.

Unauthorized possession or disposition of materials: possessing or using materials that are unauthorized by the instructor (such as previous exams, answer books, etc.).

Cheating: Intentionally using or attempting to use unauthorized materials, information, or study aids in any academic exercise.

Facilitating academic dishonesty: Intentionally or knowingly helping or attempting to help another to commit an act of academic dishonesty.

To these traditional forms of academic dishonesty we have to add new forms that have emerged in the last years as a result of the advent of technology:

Cyber-plagiarism: submitting papers downloaded from the internet (free or paid for), in whole or in part as an original work (Oliphant, 2002, p. 78).

Cut & paste plagiarism: copying many or a few sentences of material

from the Internet without citing the source (Beasley, 2004, p. 2).

Patchwriting: paraphrasing from a source by altering some grammatical structures or using synonyms (Howard, 1999).

For the purposes of this research, and following Burke (1997), among others, academic dishonesty will be defined as any of the above mentioned behaviors and will be used interchangeably with the term “cheating”.

1.2 Types of Cheaters: Motivation and Intentionality Many reasons for why students plagiarize have been reported (see Beasley, 2004, pp. 7-8 and Park, 2003, pp. 479-80 for complete typologies):

Ignorance: Because of disorganization, information overload, or “ethical lapses”. Cryptomnesia (Park, 2003, p. 476) takes place when the student does not remember that the idea was someone else‟s.

Personal gain: To get a better grade. Time management or laziness: To save

time or because they find themselves with less time than they originally planned (procrastination, poor time management).

Personal reasons or thrill seeking: Some students do not see why they should not cheat and might find excitement in breaking the rules.

Defiance: Students who are not satisfied with the content of the course in general or the assignments in particular see cheating as a way of showing a lack of respect for authority.

Temptation and opportunity: As information becomes more accessible through the internet, it is easier to plagiarize from home with the click of a mouse.

Cost-benefit: Some students think that the risk is too low (low chance of getting caught or little or no penalty if caught).



Fear: Some students cheat to overcome the pressure from parents, institutions, programs, classmates, etc.

Following this typology, Beasley (2004, p. 9) divides plagiarists in three broad categories: accidental, opportunistic and committed. While committed and opportunistic plagiarists (those who do it intentionally regardless of their motivations) should be made aware of the significant implications that such acts have on themselves and others, accidental (unintentional) plagiarists could immensely benefit from guidance and assistance from their instructors on proper ways of quoting, paraphrasing, referencing and organizing their sources in an efficient manner. However we choose to look at this problem, it seems that instructors can contribute greatly to the promotion of academic honesty in their classrooms.

1.3 Academic Dishonesty in Second Languages Even though cheating at the college level has been widely studied in the last decades, there is a lack of research dealing with academic dishonesty in the SL classroom and how it is different from other disciplines. The main difference between SL and other disciplines is that in SL classrooms, the mode of delivery (language) is a substantial part of most if not all assignments: any unauthorized help that the student can get in order to put their thoughts into words can become an act of academic dishonesty. This means that, even if the source is cited or the ideas are original, the process from idea to language has potential for cheating. The use of online translators, native speakers or tutors, in addition to other types of academic dishonesty found in other disciplines discussed above, seems to be widespread in the SL classroom, which means that we are faced with a potentially dangerous situation when it comes to academic dishonesty. It has been noted that some students in other disciplines “retrieve documents in a different language, translate it into their native language, and hand it in as original work” (Oliphant, 2002, p. 80). These translations can be carried out using an online translator or, if

the student is proficient in the language, translating the traditional way. Another technique that has been pointed out by Berry et al. (2006) consists of getting papers online in another language (paying or for free) and translating them into the native language. In these cases, antiplagiarism software used in other disciplines (such as Turnitin.com, EVE2 or WordCHECK) will not detect plagiarism, which makes gathering proof of academic dishonesty almost impossible. In the SL classroom it is common to find papers that have been written in English (original or copied from a website) that are translated into the target language with the help of an online translator. Every translator gives slightly different results, which makes gathering evidence of cheating quite challenging. Most of the times, a (very bad) word-by-word translation (with a dictionary) and a translation rendered by an online translator are very difficult to discern from each other. Luckily for teachers, online translators are still primitive enough to raise red flags, but there is always the chance of mistaking bad use of a dictionary (non-dishonest) for deliberate use of an online translator (dishonest). As McCarthy (2004) points out, one of the possible ways to deal with papers that have been (poorly) translated using an online translator is to grade it as any other paper. However, and although the low quality of these translations would almost automatically result in a low grade, it would be not only a waste of time to correct, but also “unfair to those students who have invested the intellectual effort and time into producing an original translation” (np) regardless of the grade. In fact, many students do not realize that they are usually far better at translating than any of these online applications. This can be easily proven if they are asked to compare a translation that they do on their own with a machine-generated one and analyze what the machine is capable of doing and not doing (what McCarthy calls “gisting”). He then proposes some strategies to accommodate the use of this “forbidden software”:

Give students only „tricky‟ texts.



Eliminate assignments altogether and either require all translations to be done under exam conditions, or have only one exam translation at the end of session.

Have regular lessons based on the deficiencies of machine translation.

Impose severe penalties on mistakes that are patently machine-generated.

Require students to submit a draft of their translation prior to submitting the final version.

Use a machine translation as the starting point for all translation assignments and only award marks for improvements made to it (np).

Another common form of cheating that is specific to second languages is that of getting help from native/advanced speakers of the target language. As the outcomes of these assignments are far better than the ones generated by machines, these pieces of work can easily pass undetected by the instructor‟s radar unless there is some kind of “native-like-error” or colloquial expressions uncommon for L2 learners. Only when the instructor already knows the capabilities and level of the student can they suspect that someone else has been involved in the assignment. Lastly, another controversial type of “help” that might be regarded as cheating in second language classrooms but not in other disciplines is that of the “editor” or tutor. Many instructors in other disciplines already have problems drawing the line that separates “legal assistance” from “too much outside help” when writing a paper or assignment (Harris, 2001; Lathrop and Foss, 2000). Can someone read someone else‟s paper and give suggestions on how to improve it? Should those suggestions be about content or form? How much is acceptable? If peer-review is accepted within the classroom setting, is it also accepted outside of class? What if it is a classmate who does it? The issue of the tutor falls within a gray area, because students are allowed to have a tutor to help them study and learn, but how much help they can get from them is not very clear (for the student, the tutor, or the instructor himself). Obviously, tutors cannot do the student‟s work, but can they go “over their

paper” and signal mistakes or make suggestions on possible improvements to it without necessarily correcting the mistakes? The difference lies on what students can do with scaffolding and what they are expecting their tutor to do for (and not with) them.

1.4 The responsibility of the instructor: prevent, enforce and report In the following sections I propose three steps that second language instructors can follow from the first day of class in order to promote academic honesty in their classrooms: 1) prevention; 2) enforcement; and 3) report. 1.4.1 Prevent: lay out the rules, design

cheating-proof assignments and guide the students

The difference between committed/opportunistic and accidental plagiarists lies on the intention with which students cheat. Even though it is never unnecessary to remind committed and opportunistic cheaters of the consequences of their actions, what instructors must work on with the greatest effort is minimizing the number of accidental cheaters. In fact, and as previous research shows (Baker et al., 2008), many students lack an understanding of what constitutes cheating and how serious many academic dishonesty violations are, which brings us to the following question: Who is ultimately responsible for students‟ knowledge of the “rules”? McCabe, Trevino, and Butterfield (2001) remark that the approach many instructors take towards prevention of cheating is limited to showing the students “where in the student handbook they can find the school‟s policy on academic integrity” (p. 230). However, those university-wide policies are broad and might not include specific cases within the discipline in which a student might find herself having “accidentally cheated” (not to mention that the chance of a student actually referring to the student handbook to learn about the school‟s policy on academic dishonesty before an act has occurred is close to zero). Additionally, and as I will discuss in the results of this study, different instructors at the same institution might have different policies and penalties. For this reason, it is imperative that they state



from the very beginning: 1) what constitutes academic dishonesty in that particular classroom, and 2) how it will be dealt with. In addition to laying out the rules from the beginning or holding students accountable for their actions, academic dishonesty can be prevented by “making it difficult to cheat”. By avoiding recycling assignments, requesting drafts in progress or annotated bibliographies, asking for very specific information…in sum, by being creative with assignments, we are not only minimizing the chances of academic dishonesty in our classrooms, but we are also sending the message to our students that we care. It should be mentioned in this section that education is a key component of prevention: we cannot expect our students to come to class already knowing the rules about proper quotation and referencing; we need to spend some time not only telling them what is wrong/unethical, but also how to do it correctly, which includes some clear instructions on, among others: 1) looking for materials, 2) deciding whether materials are reliable or not; 3) organizing those materials; 4) understanding the difference between referencing, paraphrasing and direct quoting; and 5) using specific guidelines (for example APA or MLA). Doing so will ensure that ignorance is not an excuse and help eradicate “chronic cryptomnesia” (see definition in the introduction). 1.4.2 Enforce After prevention, the second step an instructor should take in order to prevent subsequent cheating in the classroom is enforcement. It is not surprising to see that students tend to cheat less when instructors make clear that detection and punishment are operational (Maramark & Maline, 1993; McCabe and Trevino, 1993) the same way we slow down while driving when we see a police car. Moreover, when instructors encounter an act of academic dishonesty, they must professionally enforce the “laws” they had previously set forth (Roig and Ballew, 1994) in order to avoid the risk of being considered too lenient (which might, again, lead to more cheating). As Taylor (2003) points out:

[H]aving a policy that is not enforced or that is not enforced in a consistent manner is often more precarious than not having a policy. In addition, having a policy that does not contain clearly articulated consequences for violations can create unnecessary conflict. (p. 76) Braumoeller and Gaines (2001) confirmed that “in deterrence, actions speak louder than words” when they found that the effect that written/verbal warnings had on cheating prevention was negligible when compared to the effect that imposing grade penalties for plagiarism had on the amount of cheating in a subsequent assignment. Students were shown the grading curves before and after cheaters were awarded grade penalties and realized that: 1) measures were actually being taken to catch cheaters, and 2) plagiarism also hurt honest students (up to 1/3 of a grade, in this study). On the following assignment, the rate of “problematic papers” decreased exponentially. As this study shows, it is not until the low risk factor is eliminated that students think twice before cheating. However, the responsibility to enforce this kind of policies should not only and ultimately fall on individual instructors: enforcement must be a consistent, campus-wide effort that has to be backed up by supervisors and the institution itself: [A]n institution‟s failure to emphasize for its students the high value it places on academic integrity sends the message that it is not a high priority [….] Each campus must send a consistent message to its students that academic integrity is expected and that cheating will result in negative consequences, and more than just a slap on the wrist. To do this, campuses must support faculty who raise allegations of student dishonesty and must be willing to employ sanctions that have both significant educational and deterrence value. In short, the institution must convince students that cheating will be met with strong disapproval and that cheating is the exception on campus, not the rule. To do this, the institution must be prepared to hold students accountable for any cheating in which they engage (McCabe et al., 2001, p. 231)



1.4.3 Report vs. “keeping it local”. First-time offenders and accidental cheaters.

Ideally, any accusation of any kind should be accompanied of evidence and all defendants should have the right to defend themselves. In order to keep this process as fair and objective as possible, the institution (or the appropriate office) must get involved. Most, if not all institutions, have some uniform, institution-wide regulations on the procedure to be followed when an instructor finds an act of academic dishonesty. Usually, the instructor needs to: 1) set up an interview with the student where the student is given the opportunity to explain herself, and 2) report (if the student admits to having cheated) or arrange a formal hearing (if the student does not agree on the penalty or denies the accusation). Previous research on instructors‟ perspectives on academic dishonesty concludes quite unanimously, that “dealing with instances of academic dishonesty [is] among the most onerous aspects of their profession” (Keth-Spiegel et al., 1998, p. 215). As a consequence many instructors who observe students cheating regularly fail to get involved in the designated campus judicial process preferring, instead “to keep the problem local" (Burke, 1997; McCabe, 1993). There are multiple studies that look at how many students cheat, ranging from 50% (Staats et al., 2009) to 90% (Berry et al., 2006). However, what seems more alarming is the percentage of those cases that are actually reported (15%-40%, reported by McCabe, 1993). What happens with the rest? Are they simply ignored or are they dealt with on a one-on-one basis between the instructor and the student? Is such a practice appropriate and/or legal? Among the reasons instructors give to "to keep the problem local" and deal directly with the student without involving the appropriate office at the institution (or just ignoring it) are the following (McCabe, 1993, p. 653-4; Keith-Spiegel et al., 1998, p. 215; Burke, 1997, p 29):

belief that it was first time or unintentional

the penalties being too mild/too severe

the effort required of faculty

the effort required to generate proof / insufficient evidence

the time required to deal with the process

emotional reasons (stress, lack of courage)

fear (concern about retaliation or a legal challenge)

Although absence of intent is or should be a mitigating factor (Park, 2003), students can and should still be held accountable for their actions. In fact, and even if they are first time offenders, reporting them (with or without penalty) might be the best deterrent for a second, hypothetical, occurrence. Moreover, dealing with the student one-on-one, which some instructors think might be a better approach (for them or for the students), can turn out to be an act of “facilitation” on the part of the instructor (see definition above): “cheating begets cheating” and that those students who feel that the penalty is not severe enough or that the cost-benefit is fairly low will be more prone to cheat again (McCabe et al., 2001). 2. Present Study

2.1 Research questions The present study examines what second language instructors consider academic dishonesty in their discipline as well as the degree of seriousness that they attribute to each specific instance. Additionally, I look at the procedures, if any, they follow when encountering acts of academic dishonesty, how they decide the penalties to be imposed and what they do to promote academic integrity. The following research questions were addressed:

1. What do second language instructors consider academic dishonesty in their discipline? 2. How do second language instructors deal with cases of academic dishonesty and what is their rationale? 3. How do second language instructors prevent academic dishonesty or promote academic integrity?

2.2 Materials An online survey was administered to L2 instructors at different U.S. Higher Education



institutions. The investigator sent announcements via e-mail to several (Applied) Linguistics electronic mailing lists and asked participants to forward the announcement to other lists they might know. The questionnaire was divided in six parts:

1. Consent Form 2. Background information 3. Definitions and seriousness 4. Procedures and enforcement 5. Reporting 6. Prevention and Promotion

2.3 Participants Although 110 participants started the survey, the total number of participants who completed and reported having experience teaching in the US at the college level was 81 at 22 different institutions. Demographic information is illustrated in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Demographics

Rank

Teaching Assistant Lecturer/Adjunct

Professor

28.4% 33.4%

29.9%

Gender

Female Male

80.2% 19.8%

Age Range

18-30 31-45

46-54 55 or older

21.3% 57.5%

10.0% 11.3%

Teaching Experience

0-3 4-8

9-15

15 or more

25.9% 30.9%

24.7%

18.5%

Language Taught

(more than one

possible)

English as a Second Language (ESL)

German French

Italian Chinese

Japanese

Arabic Spanish

Russian ASL

Latin Other

20.3% 8.9%

27.8% 5.1%

1.3% 2.5%

1.3%

44.3% 1.3%

1.3% 2.5%

2.5%

3. Results and analysis

3.1 Research Question 1. What do second language instructors consider academic dishonesty in their discipline? As Table 2 shows below, instructors show great variability when defining academic dishonesty or rate the seriousness of each instance. Although it is not striking to see that submitting work entirely written by another person or using unauthorized materials during an exam have the highest rates of unacceptability, it is remarkable to notice how the use of an online translator is considered as a non-serious case of academic dishonesty (1.58 where the maximum would be a 3). In fact, use of online translators is considered less serious than failing to quote a source due to ignorance (1.64) or self-translating something taken from another source without proper acknowledgment (2.08). This suggests that instructors value more the acknowledgement of the sources (or content) than putting thoughts into form (or language). It is also important to note that self-plagiarism (handing in the same piece of work for two different assignments) is considered as a serious case of academic dishonesty (2.06). Other cases of academic dishonesty mentioned by instructors in the “additional comments” section were: asking a previous instructor to write compositions, turning in a composition written at home instead of the composition written in class, “making stuff up on a paper”, use of answer keys, making up excuses for absences, use of online translators, or asking for outside help to complete assignments, which is discussed below.

TABLE 2 Do you consider the following examples academic

dishonesty and if so, how serious?

Turning in a paper that was purchased online

Turning in a paper that was written by another student

Copying from another student during a quiz or exam

Giving the answers to another student during an exam

Using information (textbook, notes, ....)

without the approval of the instructor during an exam

Purposely failing to quote a source Completing an assignment for another student

Copying a few sentences of material from a source without giving credit to the author

Using old copies of an exam or quiz to study

2.97

2.95 2.79

2.74

2.72 2.66

2.60

2.46

2.27

2.08



when the instructor DOES NOT permit

students to keep copies of exams or quizzes

Finding information on the web (in English), self-translating (without help), and not

stating where the original information was taken from

Turning in the same paper in two or more classes without the instructor‟s knowledge

or consent

Adding a source to a bibliography when the student hasn‟t read the source

Failing to quote/cite a source due to ignorance on quoting/citing

Using an online translator for one or more sentences (if use of dictionaries is

permitted)

Asking another student (from an earlier section) "‟What was on the test?"

Reading a condensed version of a novel, play, or other type of literature instead of

reading the assigned full-length version Reading a translated version of a novel, play,

or other type of literature instead of

reading the assigned version in the assigned language

Using old copies of an exam or quiz to study when the instructor DOES permit students

to keep copies of exams or quizzes Getting into an online forum (like the ones in

WordReference) to clarify/ask for a single

expression Using an online dictionary for unknown words

(if use of dictionaries is permitted)

2.06

1.65

1.64

1.58 1.50

1.40

1.40

0.45

0.31

0.17

0=No academic dishonesty (AD); 1=Non-

serious case of AD; 2= Serious case of AD; 3= Very serious case of AD.

N=81

Use of Outside Help When instructors were asked about the seriousness of different kinds of “outside help” they did not seem to consider any of the possibilities given as completely unacceptable (see Table 3 below). Even “writing the paper with a tutor” scored a 1.88 (maximum was 3). Additionally, asking another instructor, a native speaker or a tutor to “go over paper” had scores between 1.07 and 1.55 (being a 1.0 “mostly acceptable”). It is worthy of note how having another instructor go over the paper is considered less acceptable (1.55) than asking the same from a native speaker (1.43) or a tutor (1.07). The same rank of unacceptability (instructor>native speaker>tutor) seems to apply when students ask for specific words or grammar doubts, although they are all considered acceptable cases of “outside help” (below 1.0).

TABLE 3 What is acceptable/unacceptable “outside help” for assignments done outside of class?

Writing the paper with a tutor

Asking another instructor to "go over paper"

Asking a native speaker to "go over paper" Asking a tutor to "go over paper"

Asking another instructor for help with specific words, phrases or grammar

doubts Asking a native speaker for help with specific

words, phrases or grammar doubts

Asking a tutor for help with specific words, phrases or grammar doubts

1.88

1.55

1.43 1.07

0.65

0.53

0.35

0 Acceptable - 3 Completely unacceptable N=81

When instructors were asked to provide additional comments to this question, some pointed out why help from a tutor might be different from other types of help. While one of them said that “asking for help is not cheating”, most of the other comments were related to the nature of that “outside help”:

- “When asking someone to „go over‟ a paper, giving only comments for improvement on content is very different than giving specific error corrections.”;

- “It also depends on what the tutor, native speaker or instructor responds with. If they give general advice or suggestions such as check your verb conjugations, or watch agreement between adjectives and nouns I think it is mostly acceptable. If the feedback is just correcting mistakes with no explanation it would be mostly unacceptable”;

- “The person being asked needs to be someone who understands that if they do it for the student, the student will learn nothing--thus a native speaker without other accreditation might just take the paper and re-write it.”;

- “The tutors tend to correct students as opposed to telling students why the item is wrong and helping the students figure out how to correct it. Also, neither tutors nor natives should feed students phrases that the student does not yet know and that clearly are not of the student's level, which can be seen due to all other common mistakes of students in that same level.”



Still, none of the comments provided in this section can explain why help from another instructor is ranked as the highest of the three types of “outside help”. Should not another instructor have the knowledge of how he or she is allowed to help another instructor‟s student with their assignments? Should not other instructors know how far they can go when “going over” a student‟s paper? These questions need further clarification. Victims of cheating There was an almost unanimous opinion that cheating hurts the student who commits cheating (98.8%). There was a high rate of instructors who said that it also hurts the institution, the original author, the classmates and the instructor (between 76.5% and 80.2% of respondents). It is worth mentioning that, even though participants could select multiple options, only 65.4% thought that cheating hurts the future employer.

TABLE 4 Victims of cheating (more than one possible answer)

The student who commits cheating

The institution The original author (if any)

The classmates The instructor

The future employer

Cheating is a victimless offense

98.8%

80.2% 80.2%

76.5% 74.1%

65.4%

4.9%

N=81

While some instructors remarked that cheating “goes against the whole purpose of learning”, that it is a “no win situation” or that “instructors who don't come down on cheating hard are doing their students a disservice”, other alleged: “Most types of cheating that I have marked as "non-serious" only hurt the student, which is why, even though I consider it cheating, I do not consider it to be a serious offense to the teacher or other students. If students want to cheat themselves, that's not my problem with which to deal. I choose to become involved only if the cheating involved is unfair to other students in the class.”

3.2 Research Question 2. How do second language instructors deal with cases of academic dishonesty and what is their rationale? Knowledge of procedure Out of the 78 instructors who answered the question “what is the procedure to follow when encountering academic dishonesty at your institution?”, 18 (23%) admitted that they did not know. Although it is difficult to determine how many of the remaining 77% actually know the procedure at their institution (versus what they think the procedure is or what they do when they encounter a case), all of them seem to have a plan that ranges from contacting their supervisor for further instructions to knowing the whole procedure. Paradoxically, one of the participants decided to copy and paste the procedure from the institution‟s website, which does not necessarily mean that they did or did not know it. Penalty imposed and rationale Results in Table 5 below show that, although 92% of respondents who have found a case of academic dishonesty do something (other than ignoring it), only 64% report it to their supervisor and 42.6% directly report to the appropriate authority. This percentage has to be interpreted with caution, given that it is possible that those instructors who report to a supervisor also report to the appropriate office (more than one answer is possible) and it is also possible that those cases which are reported to the supervisor are taken to the appropriate office in the long run (or not). However, it seems that more instructors prefer to give a zero for the assignment or a verbal warning than taking matters outside of the classroom.

TABLE 5 Procedure Followed When Caught Someone Cheating or Plagiarizing (more than one possible answer)

Zero for the assignment/exam

Verbal Warning for Student

Report to a Supervisor Re-doing assignment

Lower Grade on Assignment Report to Appropriate Office (usually outside

of department) Written Warning to Student

Lower Grade in Course

Negative Credit for Assignment Failing Grade in Course

70.6%

68.0%

64.0% 58.6%

42.6% 42.6%

36.0% 20.0%

14.6%

14.6% 8.0%



Nothing/Ignore It

Academic Probation

Expulsion/Forced Drop of Course

6.66%

4.0%

N=75

Report to appropriate office

Table 6 below shows how instructors who have caught students cheating (86.4% of the total instructors surveyed) fall quite homogeneously in one of three groups: 34.2% report some cases but not others, 34.2% report all students, and 31.4% have never reported any student. Of course, and as we have seen in the previous section, not reporting does not necessarily mean that the student does not get penalized (only 8% of instructors choose to ignore it), although it suggests that they choose to deal with the problem “locally” (see next section for further discussion).

TABLE 6 Students Reported

All students reported

Some students reported

No students reported (although some caught)

34.2%

34.2%

31.4%

N=70

The most stated reasons for reporting some students and not others are (Table 7): time (50%), anxiety and stress (45%), belief that a one-on-one approach is enough (36.4%), and concern about how the situation will escalate if student denies charges (31.8%).

TABLE 7 Reasons For Reporting Some Students and Not Others (More Than One Possible answer)

Insufficient time to try to track down source/find evidence

Anxiety and stress involved in accusing

and/or following through is too intense A warning/grade penalty without involving

anyone else is enough A concern about how situation will escalate if

student denies charges A reluctance to harm a young person‟s

opportunity for the future

Feel sorry for student Process of reporting is too time-consuming

Lack of courage There is no need to report because students

who cheat do poorly in the course anyway To avoid possible retaliation by students

Fear of low teaching evaluations by student(s)

who was (were) accused Reporting student is useless

„Policing‟ is not a legitimate aspect of a professor‟s role

50.0%

45.5%

36.4% 31.8%

22.7% 18.2%

13.6% 13.6%

9.1% 9.1%

9.1% 9.1%

4.5%

N=22

While some instructors feel that reporting is “hard” and “an awful feeling” but “definitely a necessary, critical step”, others believe that it is an “extreme measure” that can be dealt with without involving anyone else. In the additional comments section of this question, several instructors clarified that they feel afraid to accuse students because of “yelling, mad students”, “ignorance of academic dishonesty policies” or “lack of backup on the part of supervisors/coordinators”: “[my department] does not take [cheating] seriously. The policy on campus is that a student will „fail‟ a class if they plagiarize. However, the department has never backed me up on this. Most of the time the only power I have is to make the student rewrite the assignment. If I even try to give a zero I get crying students complaining that I am a „bad‟ teacher. Not to mention that no one at the University is really prepared to fail every student who plagiarizes. I know because when I have had cheating students I have not been given support.” Among the mitigating factors that instructors take into consideration when deciding whether to report a student or not, we can find: motive and intent to cheat, current academic record/attendance in the course, proof of violation, self-esteem of the student, personal or medical conditions, cultural differences, or confessing when confronted. However, the reason most mentioned was “prior offenses”. Instructors in this group seem to agree that repeat offenders deserve to be reported, while first-time offenders deserve the benefit of the doubt (I will come back to this point later). Instructors who have never reported any student (instructors who have never caught any student cheating were excluded from this group) indicate reasons quite different from those of the group analyzed previously on Table 7. The most stated reasons for not having reported anyone yet are (Table 8): a one-on-one approach is enough (70%), reluctance to harm a student‟s future (40%), and a concern about how the situation will escalate if the student denies the charges (35%). In this case, lack of time is a concern for



only 20% (versus 50% of those who report only some students).

TABLE 8 Reasons For Not Reporting Any Students Yet (More Than One Possible answer)

A warning/grade penalty without involving anyone else is enough

A reluctance to harm a young person‟s opportunity for the future

A concern about how situation will escalate if

student denies charges Anxiety and stress involved in accusing

and/or following through is too intense Process of reporting is too time-consuming

There is no need to report because students who cheat do poorly in the course anyway

Insufficient time to try to track down source/find evidence

Lack of courage

Fear of low teaching evaluations by student(s) who was (were) accused

Feel sorry for student To avoid possible retaliation by students

Reporting student is useless „Policing‟ is not a legitimate aspect of a

professor‟s role

70.0% 40.0%

35.0%

30.0%

30.0%

25.0% 20.0%

20.0% 15.0%

15.0% 10%

10%

10%

N=20

It is interesting, yet reasonable, how instructors who have reported some students and those who have never reported anyone differ on the belief that a one-on-one approach (with or without penalty) is enough (36.4% and 70%, respectively). In the comments section, several pointed out the fact that warning the student had resulted in “fixing” the problem (“so far I have only had to warn once”, “I would report it if a second cheating instance would happen with the same student”, “[they] did not repeat after first-time warning”). Some others minimized the problem by saying that the instances of cheating they had encountered in their classes did not “seem important enough to report” and others said that they use reporting only as a threat (“accept the zero and know that I can report you”). Benefit of the doubt (regarding “first time”) Because the belief that a warning is enough to prevent a second instance of cheating seems widespread, there was an additional question on the survey regarding giving first-time offenders the benefit of the doubt. Quite surprisingly, the majority of instructors pointed out those first-time offenders are often repeat offenders and that they have to be

penalized and reported from the beginning to prevent future incidents:

- “First, you can't be sure if it is their first time cheating. Second, it sets a dangerous precedent, especially when we typically see students only for one semester.”;

- “No, all instances have to be reported. Otherwise it will continue to seem a „first time‟”;

- “Maybe they should be punished the first time more strictly in order to discourage the behavior in the future”;

- “No, because it is not possible to know if a student has never cheated before in another class.”

3.3 Research Question 3. How do second language instructors prevent academic dishonesty or promote academic integrity? It has already been mentioned that the instructors‟ responsibility starts by setting clear boundaries on what they consider academic dishonesty or not in that particular classroom and transmitting their expectations and rules to students in a clear, non-ambiguous way. The surveyed instructors do this through different means that mainly fall into five categories:

- Reminding students: stating in the syllabus that cheating will not be tolerated; reiterating rules verbally the first day of classes and when explaining assignments; establishing clear penalties to be imposed and consequences in case of violation.

- Setting parameters: outlining what will or will not be considered as cheating (e.g., use of online dictionaries vs. online translators); clarifying obscure cases of cheating (specially the “going over the paper” issue); having students take online tutorials; giving examples of online translations in their native language.

- Educating students on effective ways to quote, paraphrase or keeping sources organized : offering assistance.

- Designing cheat-proof assignments: use of process writing (multiple drafts); in-class assignments; strict monitoring; changing exams every



semester; adding components that require personal experience; designing unique writing topics and assignments that cannot be found online.

- Positive reinforcement: encouraging and praising individual language growth; showing interest on the personal, subjective components of their writings; telling students that they have the tools to succeed without having to cheat.

Some instructors pointed out that the best way to promote academic integrity is by showing students that some have already been caught: “[I]ts effect is immense. Students watch to

see how you handle cheating in the class. If you are fair, but firm, they know that you are not messing around...but you are indeed fair about it. So students who do their own work and do not cheat feel that the teacher has their back, and for the students that are toying with the idea of maybe indulging will realize that you are serious and it is not worth trying to cheat. My integrity as a teacher and rule maker is on the line”

Future prevention When asked what they could do in the future to promote academic integrity more effectively, instructors acknowledged that they could do better. While some of them believe that they should be stricter (less second chances) and have more courage to confront students, others consider that reminding students more often of ways to avoid cheating or designing better assignments is a better approach. As in the previous point, some of them believe that positive reinforcement is also a possibility: “I'd like to find a way to look at this in a positive way. Perhaps give bonus points for particularly original assignments that show a lot of work was put into an assignment.” 4. Discussion and Implications The results of this study are educationally important because they call to our attention the great variability second language instructors show when it comes to defining academic dishonesty or rating the seriousness of each instance. If instructors do not agree on

what is allowed or not in their classroom and do not take the time to explain “the rules of the game” to our students, how can we expect them to be academically upright? Can we penalize students for (unintentional) plagiarism if we (wrongly) assume that they know something we have not even stopped to think about? In order to address this issue, it is not enough to warn students that cheating will not be tolerated. We have to go beyond the “policing” and “penalizing” approach and decide as a department what our “second language special policy” is. While we might assume that students know that they cannot bring unauthorized materials to the class, buy a paper online or look at a classmate‟s responses during a test, we might have to explain not only that having someone go over their paper is not allowed, but also why. We also need to point out the difference between an online dictionary and an online translator, which, for many students might not be as clear as we think. An additional concern that the results of this survey point to is that at least 23% of second language faculty do not know the procedure to be followed at their institution. This means that either faculty do not do anything when they encounter academic dishonesty (which technically would become an act of facilitation by the instructor), or they violate the institution‟s procedure and, with this, students‟ rights. This is clearly a no-win situation that could be easily avoided with institutional and departmental training/support. But if we look at the design of our classes and assignments, we might find that there is much more to prevention than following procedure. It has been noted that students tend to cheat when they view assignments as “unimportant or unparticularized” (CWPA, 2003) or when they get the impression that the instructor does not read papers because of lack of feedback (Harris, 2001). If this is so, it is in the instructor‟s hands to make sure that the student understands the rationale of each assignment and that they know their papers will be returned with constructive feedback. Finally, when course/assignment design, training, and prevention do not work, we still have to face students and impose the



appropriate penalties, which should not be unexpected: If a school has a sound policy in place and has educated students about what constitutes cheating, then a knowing violation of such previously acknowledged rules helps to substantiate certain penalties (Taylor, 2003, p. 75). It has already been discussed that the strongest disincentives for cheating are the chances of being caught and the severity of the penalties (McCabe and Trevino, 1993), which means that we need to be ready to be vigilant and enforce the penalties or students will view it as a “minor matter” (Harris, 2001, p. 22). Moreover, as we can see from the responses in this survey (and consistent with McCabe, 1993), there is an alarming number of instructors who prefer giving a zero for the assignment and/or a verbal warning than following instructions and taking matters to the appropriate office. Although the reason some instructors give for not reporting students is that “a warning is enough for first-timers”, many others affirm that first-timers should be punished harshly to prevent future incidents, which is confounding. As this last group of instructors indicate in this survey, there is no way for an instructor to know whether a first instance is actually the first. Additionally, and in the case it is the first, only if there is institutional record of such infringement can we make sure it does not happen a “second first time”. 5. Conclusion and Limitations Dealing with academic dishonesty is not pleasant for anyone. Instructors feel that they do not have the time to work as forensic linguists and that their job is not to police their students: “There isn't much that will prevent cheating, besides raising morally upright children, which is not my job. Parent's need to be aware of the possibility that their „precious child‟ might be capable of cheating, and take steps to ensure that they know it's wrong and is not a victimless crime.” However, the responsibility to maintain academic integrity is not only the students‟ (or their parents‟): Faculty are “the most critical persons on campus in preventing academic

dishonesty [and] they are in the best position to communicate and enforce standards and expectations” (Kibler, 1994, p. 101). Prevention starts by getting to an agreement with other instructors on what is or is not academic dishonesty. Special cases such as excessive outside help or the use of online translators have to be carefully discussed among faculty in order for students who are taking multiple classes not to get confused. The next step would be to be clear in explaining ways of avoiding unintentional cheating and offering help in becoming academically upright. When prevention and education do not work, instructors have the duty to enforce the „law‟ by imposing the appropriate penalties and reporting students to make sure that it does not occur again. Failing to do so harms students, faculty, and the institution (among others): Word seems to travel quickly among students as to who these faculty are, and student comments suggest their courses become particular targets for cheating. As noted earlier, students report that many faculty simply look the other way when they see cheating occur in their courses. When more than a few faculty behave this way, it is hard to convince students that an ethic of integrity exists on campus and cheating can easily become the campus norm. (McCabe et al., 2001, p. 226) However, instructors cannot and should not do this alone. While Kiebler (1994) noticed that “less than half the institutions offered training on academic dishonesty to faculty, staff, or teaching assistants” (p. 99), in this study we have seen how at least 23% of SL instructors do not know the procedure to be followed at their institutions. Moreover, if instructors are not in agreement of what is or is not academic dishonesty, how can we transmit this to our students? It is only through training that we can attack the problem at its roots (Harris, 2001). Training at the institutional level, though helpful, would still not be enough because, in other disciplines, use of an editor is not „illegal‟ and online translators or reading foreign literature in the native language are not even considered a possibility. For this reason, training has to come from within the



language department and it should include not only directions on how to detect cheating and apply penalties, but also on how to design cheating-proof assignments and guide students to avoid unintentional plagiarism or cryptomnesia. Lastly, it is worth mentioning that instructors can tackle this problem from a positive stand point. Instead of using an “us against them” approach (Kibler, 1994, p. 101), we should look at this as an opportunity for us to guide our students to be better, more responsible researchers who take ownership of what they do and who will become independent workers in the future.

This study is subject to the methodological limitations that affect any research based on anonymous, voluntary answers to survey questions. While I do not expect a sample of 81 second language instructors at 22 institutions to be representative of all second language instructors across the U.S., it serves as a starting point and a call for attention to language departments, institutions and instructors alike to consider this problem.

References Anderman, E. M., & Murdock, T. B. (2006). Psychology of Academic Cheating (1st ed.). Academic Press. Baker, R., Berry, P., & Thornton, B. (2008). Student attitudes on academic integrity violations. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 5(1), 5–13. Beasley, J. D. (2004). The impact of technology on plagiarism prevention and detection: Research process automation, a new approach for prevention. Retrieved from http://www.powerresercher.com/download/plagiarism_tech_impact. pdf [2006, Feb. 16]. Berry, P., Thornton, B., & Baker, R. (2006). Demographics of digital cheating: Who cheats, and what we can do about it. Proceedings of the ninth annual conference of the Southern Association for Information Systems (pp. 82–87). Braumoeller, B. F., & Gaines, B. J. (2002). Actions do speak louder than words: Deterring plagiarism with the use of plagiarism-detection software. PS: Political Science and Politics, 34(04), 835–839.

Burke, J. L. (1997, May 27). Faculty Perceptions of and Attitudes toward Academic Dishonesty at a Two-Year College. PhD Dissertation, University of Georgia. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED431486 Chance, Z., Norton, M. I., Gino, F., & Ariely, D. (2011). Temporal view of the costs and benefits of self-deception. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010658108 Council of Writing Program Administrators. (2003). Defining and Avoiding Plagiarism: The WPA Statement on Best Practices. Retrieved from http://wpacouncil.org/positions/WPAplagiarism.pdf Gehring, D. D., & Pavela, G. (1994). Issues and perspectives on academic integrity (2nd ed.). National Association of Student Personnel Administrators. Harris, R. A. (2001). The Plagiarism Handbook: Strategies for Preventing, Detecting, and Dealing With Plagiarism (1st ed.). Pyrczak Publishing. Howard, R. M. (1999). Standing in the shadow of giants: Plagiarists, authors, collaborators. Ablex Publishing Corporation. Keith-Spiegel, P., Tabachnick, B. G., Whitley, B. E., & Washburn, J. (1998). Why professors ignore cheating: Opinions of a national sample of psychology instructors. Ethics & Behavior, 8(3), 215–227. Kibler, W. L. (1994). Addressing Academic Dishonesty: What Are Institutions of Higher Education Doing and Not Doing?. NASPA Journal, 31(2), 92–101. Lathrop, A., Foss, K., & Foss, K. E. (2000). Student cheating and plagiarism in the Internet era: A wake-up call. Libraries Unltd Inc. Maramark, S., & Maline, M. B. (1993). Academic Dishonesty Among College



Students. Issues in Education. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED360903 McCabe, D. L. (1993). Faculty responses to academic dishonesty: The influence of student honor codes. Research in Higher Education, 34(5), 647–658. McCabe, D. L, & Trevino, L. K. (1993). Academic Dishonesty: Honor Codes and Other Contextual Influences. Journal of Higher Education, 64(5). McCabe, Donald L., Trevino, Linda Klebe, & Butterfield, K. D. (2001). Cheating in Academic Institutions: A Decade of Research. Ethics & Behavior, 11(3), 219. doi:10.1207/S15327019EB1103_2 McCarthy, B. (2004). Does Online Machine Translation Spell the End of Take-Home Translation Assignments? CALL-EJ Online, 6(1), 6–1.

Oliphant, T. (2002). Cyber-plagiarism: Plagiarism in a digital world. Feliciter, 48(2), 78–80. Park, C. (2003). In Other (Peopleʼs) Words: plagiarism by university students–literature and lessons. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28(5), 471–488. Roig, M., & Ballew, C. (1994). Attitudes toward Cheating of Self and Others by College Students and Professors. The Psychological Record, 44(1). Staats, S., Hupp, J. M., Wallace, H., & Gresley, J. (2009). Heroes Don‟t Cheat: An Examination of Academic Dishonesty and Students‟ Views on Why Professors Don‟t Report Cheating. Ethics & Behavior, 19(3), 171. doi:10.1080/10508420802623716 Taylor, K. R. (2003). Cheater, cheater. Principal Leadership, 3(8), 74–77.



THE ADVANTAGES OF ACTIVE ENGLISH TEACHING,

EMPHASIZING AT ACTIVE TEACHING TO EFL CHILD STUDENTS

Khodaverdi Alizadeh, MA

Islamic Azad University, Ahar Branch,

Ahar,

Iran.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Teaching English is one of the most challenging efforts of teachers in today's world. English is taught

all over the world and scholars in different parts of the world are devising new methods to enhance learning in different levels and for different students. Teaching English to children has undergone a lot of reforms and these days the attentions towards communicative language teaching in which the

preparation of the students to get the ability to communicate in real life situations has become a must. As students are considered as a whole human and their joys and discomforts play an important role in their success towards a better learning of the foreign

language, the teacher should try to cope with all wants, likes and dislikes of them. Thus, as a human being needs different things in different situations, the teaching of a teacher should be active enough to be changed easily, according to the needs of his/her students.

The above mentioned facts are considered to be more serious, when the target students are children. Children are more sensitive to successes and failures during their study period, they pay more attention to their teacher's behaviors, and also they are affected more by their teacher's teaching methods. So,

children's teachers should not only be the providers of new materials to be learned, but also they should act as performers who invoke learning by their facilitating behaviors in classrooms. In this study, the researcher intends to find the advantages of active English language teaching methods, especially

emphasizing at teaching to EFL child learners and give suggestions to be used while teaching to children.

KEYWORDS

Communicative language teaching, teaching English to children, active Teaching, facilitating behavior

1- Introduction:

Teachers often strive to create positive learning environments in the classroom, promote engagement with material to help students better understand

international politics, and encourage responsible global citizenship. Such commitment to effective teaching techniques has been reflected in the dynamic and expanding scholarly studies published on active teaching and learning in international studies.

Active teaching involves the use of instructional techniques designed for meaningful student engagement in the discovery of knowledge. Philosophically, the approach has a long history, from Socrates to John Dewey to the teaching case method refined at Harvard University. The conscious

selection of goals for the classroom and methods for teaching helps create a sense of purpose in the educational process. It also represents collaboration – a commitment on the part of instructors and students to enliven the educational environment. Active learning means that students are working together,

and with the instructor, to achieve educational objectives. Research consistently has shown that traditional lecture methods, in which teachers talk and students listen, dominate school, college and university classrooms. It is therefore important to know the

nature of active learning, the empirical research on its use, the common obstacles and barriers that give rise to teachers' resistance to interactive instructional techniques, and how teachers, education developers, administrators, and educational researchers can make real the promise of active learning.

Active teaching and learning involves the use of strategies which maximize opportunities for interaction. Our main focus here is on the kinds of strategies that are frequently put in opposition to so-

called transmission methods. By transmission methods, I mean formal, didactic, expository and teacher-centered approaches, such as the fifty minute lecture that most of us in higher education are so




familiar with. In contrast, active teaching and learning offers opportunities for interaction between teachers and students, amongst the students themselves, as well as between students and the materials, the topic itself or the academic discipline.

Typically, the kinds of strategies we would employ in order to promote active learning are small group work, research based projects, case studies, discussions, role play, field trips and so on. Below is a diagram borrowed from Huddleston & Unwin

(1997).

Figure 1: A continuum of strategies

The main point to notice here is that this diagram

represents, as it says, a „continuum‟ and not a hard and fast division of strategies into those that are teacher-centered and those that are learner-centered. Degree of teacher involvement varies across the continuum but even the most learner-centered of activities can become teacher-centered in the wrong

hands! In other words, much depends on the approach taken by the teacher, how much she/he chooses to control the activity, how much facilitation is needed and so on.

2- How children and youth learn?

Youth like action! They like to go places, feel things, meet people and have new experiences. Young people will be more active and interested learners if you use a variety of methods to teach project skills and knowledge. The amount of information a learner

retains varies from method to method. Active involvement of the young learners is a key. Teaching knowledge and skills by using a variety of tools and techniques will provide good learning experiences for all students. "When I only hear, I forget. When I hear and see, I

remember a little. When I hear, see, and ask questions, and discuss with someone else, I begin to understand. When I hear, see, question, discuss, and do, I acquire knowledge and skill. When I teach someone else, I master the subject." (Mel Silberman, The active learning credo)

Learners have the ability to retain:

10% of what they read

20% of what they hear

30% of what they see

50% of what they see and hear

70% of what they say as they talk

90% of what they say as they do a thing

Active teaching and learning exercises can promote student learning and retention. Retention studies show that student sensory experience during the

learning process will increase long-term memory of experiences (Schachter 1996). Retention is also directly related to learning styles and information processing capabilities, which have been shown to vary by personality type and learning stage (Fox and Ronkowski 1997; Brock and Cameron 1999). Thus,

Jensen (1998) emphasizes the importance of designing a classroom environment “with the brain in mind.” Paivio (1975) shows that a combination of approaches (both visual and verbal) will promote greater retention of knowledge, for example. According to Stice (1987:296), “students retain

merely 10% of what they read, 20% of what they hear, and 30% of what they see.” Combining methods for presentation of information in the classroom may boost retention rates to around 50 percent, while team projects that include presentations to other students appear to increase

retention to as much as 90 percent (Stice 1987).

3- What is active learning and why is it

important?

Surprisingly, educators' use of the term "active learning" has relied more on intuitive understanding

than a common definition. Consequently, many faculty members assert that all learning is inherently active and that students are therefore actively involved while listening to formal presentations in the classroom. Analysis of the research literature (Chickering and Gamson 1987), however, suggests

that students must do more than just listen: They must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems. Most important, to be actively involved, students must engage in such higher-order thinking tasks as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Within this context, it is proposed that strategies promoting

active learning be defined as instructional activities involving students in doing things and thinking about what they are doing.



Use of these techniques in the classroom is vital because of their powerful impact upon students' learning. For example, several studies have shown that students prefer strategies promoting active learning to traditional lectures. Other research studies evaluating students' achievement have demonstrated

that many strategies promoting active learning are comparable to lectures in promoting the mastery of content but superior to lectures in promoting the development of students' skills in thinking and writing. Further, some cognitive research has shown that a significant number of individuals have learning

styles best served by pedagogical techniques other than lecturing. Therefore, a thoughtful and scholarly approach to skillful teaching requires that teachers become knowledgeable about the many ways strategies promoting active learning have been successfully used across the disciplines. Further,

each teacher should engage in self-reflection, exploring his or her personal willingness to experiment with alternative approaches to instruction. Scholars argue that techniques that engage students in collaborative learning practices can help achieve

key educational objectives. The dynamic of collaboration can be fostered both among students themselves and between students and the instructor. Instructors who are able to establish strong connections and dialogue in the classroom effectively empower students in the learning

enterprise. Key educational objectives of collaborative learning include: (1) promoting a deeper understanding of the concepts being taught; (2) allowing students to make conceptual linkages between theory and real world examples; and (3) increasing retention of knowledge. First,

collaborative learning has been shown to promote a deeper understanding of key concepts in international affairs (Kolb 1984). This often can be achieved through “framing pedagogic content in ways that enable students to discover the relationship of academic concepts to their own life experiences”

(Chandler and Adams 1997:24). Teacher-scholars contend that active teaching and learning approaches can create powerful and effective learning environments by challenging students to take risks and express their views on complex and controversial issues (Lamy 2000).

Educational objectives associated with their use in the classroom include enhancing the teaching of theory and ambiguous concepts, improving student understanding of global issues, building knowledge of historical, religious, and cultural dynamics, learning about primary actors, institutions, and

processes in international relations, and enhancing critical thinking skills. Alternative texts can include film and video (Haney 2000; Kuzma and Haney 2001; 2002), television (Beavers 2002), music (Albers and Bach 2003), cartoons and political

humor (Dougherty 2002; Symposium 2007; Baumgartner and Morris 2008), novels (Lang and Lang 1998; Morgan 2006; Nexon and Newmann 2006; Pappas 2007), memoirs (Deibel 2002), plays (Ciliotta-Rubery 2008), and news articles or editorials (Cusimano 2000).

4- Comparing a directive teacher and a

facilitative one:

A good teacher has many characteristics. If we assume a continuum of characteristics for teachers, on one end there is a directive or autocratic leader, at

the other end there is a nondirective style, and in the middle there is a democratic style. The teacher's teaching approach is probably related to his/her leadership style. He/she may use a directive teaching approach or a facilitative teaching approach. He/she may even use a combination of both approaches.

A directive teaching approach is similar to the classic model of a classroom teacher. The teacher informs or trains students on how to complete an activity or task. A facilitative teacher serves as a coach and believes that students have something to bring to their learning experience.

4-1- Characteristics of a directive teacher:

- Uses mostly a lecture style of teaching- one-way communication from teacher to participants.

- Gives solutions to problems rather than encouraging participants to discover their

own solutions. - The teacher is the 'expert'. - Discourages discussion.

4-2- Characteristics of a facilitative teacher:

- Plans fun, interactive learning activities.

- Shares information and then lets participants practice what they have learned.

- Encourages questions and discussion. - Serves as a 'coach' rather than the expert. - Motivates participants by helping them

understand how they can use what they have

learned. - Uses questions to help participants express

themselves.

Good (1983) has recognized the inadequacy of direct

instruction as an all-purpose tool and has recommended active teaching as a broader term that

describes the ideal way to teach. Teachers whose students learn effectively

- are active in presenting concepts, providing

appropriate engagement and practice activities, and monitoring those activities carefully;



- actively look for ways to determine whether

their students understand what they are doing;

- Actively assume partial responsibility for

their students' learning and are prepared to re-teach when it is necessary to do so.

5- Planning an Active Learning Activity

When planning an active learning activity, answering

the following questions will help you clarify your goals and structure.

What are your objectives for the activity?

Who will be interacting? Will students pair up with someone beside them or someone sitting behind/in front of them? Should they pair up with someone with a different

background? Someone they don't know yet?

When does the activity occur during the class? Beginning? Middle? End? How much time are you willing to spend on it?

Will students write down their

answers/ideas/questions or just discuss them?

Will students turn in the responses or not? If they are asked to turn them in, should they

put their names on them?

Will you give individuals a minute or so to reflect on the answer before discussing it or will they just jump right into a discussion?

Will you grade their responses or not?

How will students share the paired work with the whole class? Will you call on individuals randomly or will you solicit volunteers?

If students are responding to a question you pose, how are you going to ensure that they leave with confidence in their understanding? (Often, if various student

answers are discussed without the instructor explicitly indicating which ones are "right," students become frustrated. Even with a question that has no absolute "right" answer, students want to know what the instructor's stand on the question is.)

What preparation do you need to use the activity? What preparation do the students need in order to participate fully?

6- Five Ways to Increase Participation

1. Create the opportunity for "pre-discussion."

• Pose a question and invite students to discuss it with someone seated next to them.

• Next, ask the question again for a total group discussion.

2. Obtain a commitment to participate.

• Pose a question and ask: How many of you have some thoughts about this? • Encourage several people to raise their hands. • Call on students who have not participated so far, or if time is available, call on all the

hands rose.

3. Specify how many you wish to participate.

• Ask a question and open it up to the entire group.

• Say: I'd like to ask four or five people to

give me their opinions.

4. Establish a "new" participant rule.

• Pose a question.

• Say: I'd like volunteers to raise their

hands.

5. Use the "call on the next speaker" format.

• Ask students to raise their hands when they want to share their views and request that the present speaker in the group call on the next speaker (rather than the instructor performing this role).

• Say: When you are the speaker, please talk to your classmates rather than addressing me.

7- The main advantages of active teaching

and learning approaches are, amongst

other things that they may allow for, or

encourage:

High levels of participation

Students usually find such activities energizing and are likely to engage more with the subject matter as a

result. When students talk about a topic, whether answering a teacher's question or explaining a point to another student, they organize and reinforce what



they've learned. When they listen, we want to ensure that it's meaningful listening, relating what they hear to what they already know.

Use of prior experience or knowledge

All students have previous experiences and knowledge of some kind and active strategies offer them the opportunity to make informal connections

with things they have already learned.

Adoption of new perspectives and

positions

The opportunity to discuss topics with others and to listen to or address other points of view (as in small group work or role play, for example) may often lead

to the revision of existing perspectives and to enhanced learning opportunities. The new learning paradigm sees learning as a process of discovery and places students in the position of generators of knowledge in an active classroom. Innovations in international studies education are also related to the ongoing transformation of the content and goals of

global education (Applegate and Sarno 1997; Fischer and Suleiman 1997).

Contestation of values and assumptions

from different disciplines

Many of these strategies are appropriate in inter-disciplinary contexts where students may need to

address a problem from a range of view points. In collaborating with each other, they are more likely to have the opportunity to learn to debate and challenge basic assumptions and values.

Openness with respect to learning

outcomes

Active teaching and learning approaches will often

yield unanticipated outcomes; there will be some learning that takes place, in other words, that has not been (and could not have been) planned for and this can be rewarding for both students and teachers. Experts emphasize that instructors need to have clear procedures in place in advance and must be fully

engaged in the process, since paying “simultaneous attention to process (the flow of activities that make up a discussion) and content (the material discussed) requires emotional as well as intellectual engagement” (Christensen et al. 1991:159).

Peer support and peer learning

Collaborative activities (such as group work or simulations) provide students with opportunities to learn from and support each other in ways that are not facilitated by more formal, teacher-centered approaches.

Critical reflection on action and

experience

By sharing knowledge and experiences, by being encouraged to take a different perspective on a particular topic (e.g. in a debate) students may learn to reflect critically on the things they do and say. Simulations, games, and role-play represent a set of active teaching and learning approaches. Educational

objectives include deepening conceptual understandings of a particular phenomenon, sets of interactions, or socio-political processes by using student interaction to bring abstract concepts to life. They provide students with a real or imaginary environment within which to act out a given situation

(Crookall 1995; Kaarbo and Lantis 1997; Kaufman 1998; Jefferson 1999; Flynn 2000; Newmann and Twigg 2000; Thomas 2002; Shellman and Turan 2003; Hobbs and Moreno 2004; Wheeler 2006; Kanner 2007; Raymond and Sorensen 2008). The aim is to enable students to actively experience,

rather than read or hear about, the “constraints and motivations for action (or inaction) experienced by real players” (Smith and Boyer 1996:691), or to think about what they might do in a particular situation that the instructor has dramatized for them. As Sutcliffe (2002:3) emphasizes, “Remote theoretical concepts

can be given life by placing them in a situation with which students are familiar.” Such exercises capitalize on the strengths of active learning techniques: creating memorable experiential learning events that tap into multiple senses and emotions, by utilizing visual and verbal stimuli.

Greater ownership of and responsibility

for learning

Active teaching and learning approaches may encourage students to become more self-directed and self-motivated. By taking on a more enquiring and autonomous role, they are more likely to develop a sense of „ownership‟ in relation to their learning and

to be able to build on this independently in later life.

Development of generic communicative

skills (e.g. listening, debating,

collaborating)

Strategies like the ones shown in the diagram above (see Figure 1) afford many opportunities for students to develop interpersonal and communicative skills;



as well as being important in any search for employment; these skills are essential to personal effectiveness in a range of contexts. For example, film and video are viewed as the most widely used form for teaching international relations. The literature on their use in the classroom has expanded

over the last decade (Gregg 1998; 1999; Kiasatpour 1999; Lindley 2001; Weber 2001; Pollard 2002; 2005; Waalkes 2003; Weber 2005; Lieberfeld 2007).

8- Conclusion:

In this paper first the researcher tried to describe

what is meant by active teaching/learning. It is stated that: active teaching involves the use of instructional techniques designed for meaningful student engagement in the discovery of knowledge. Next, a discussion was posed about how do children and youth learn a language actively and what are the

important factors which should be taken into consideration in teaching to children. Then, the importance of active learning was explained by referring to scholars' ideas in the field. A directive and a facilitative teaching method were explored and the characteristics of teachers of both

kinds were explained. Teachers of the two camps mentioned above were compared and it was stated that the second one (a facilitative teacher) is more favored. Some questions were posed in next section to explain how an active learning activity should be planned. After that the ways to increase participation

in activities were explored. And finally 9 advantages of using active teaching/learning approaches were discussed which are as follows: (1) high levels of participation, (2) use of prior experience or knowledge, (3) adoption of new perspectives and positions, (4) contestation of values and assumptions

from different disciplines, (5) openness with respect to learning outcomes, (6) peer support and peer learning, (7) critical reflection on action and experience, (8) greater ownership of and responsibility for learning, and (9) development of generic communicative skills.

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A STUDY ON READING COMPREHENSION PERFORMANCE IN ENGLISH AMONG MATRICULATION STUDENTS IN PAKISTAN

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