A Review on Potential of Some Nigerian Local Food as ...

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*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Asian Food Science Journal

2(4): 1-15, 2018; Article no.AFSJ.41784

A Review on Potential of Some Nigerian Local Foodas Source of Functional Food and Their Health

Promoting Benefits

Israel Okpunyi Acham1*, Dorcas Nguemo Kundam1

and Abraham Tartenger Girgih1,2

1Centre for Food Technology and Research, Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria.2Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Nigeria.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Authors IOA and ATG designed thestudy. Author IOA wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Authors IOA and DNK managed the literature

searches. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/AFSJ/2018/41784Editor(s):

(1) Nelson Pérez Guerra, Professor, Department of Analytical and Food Chemistry, Faculty of Food Science and Technology,Ourense Campus, University of Vigo, Spain.

Reviewers:(1) Aigbogun, Ighodaro Edwin, Kaduna State University, Nigeria.(2) Shiamala Devi Ramaiya, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.

(3) Maria Cristina Gonzalez-Torres, Universidad Autonoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Mexico.Complete Peer review History: http://prh.sdiarticle3.com/review-history/25061

Received 24th March 2018Accepted 31st May 2018Published 9th June 2018

ABSTRACT

Functional food is a novel area that has occupied much interest in recent time among Foodscientists and consumers due to the health promoting attributes. These special foods containingredients that aid specific body functions and promote our wellbeing. Since, people are becomingconscious of their healthy lifestyle, the rich repository of these unique local functional food sourceswhich Nigeria has to offer can address these peculiar needs. This review therefore, was part ofeffort to compile and document some of Nigeria’s local functional food sources of plant/animalorigins and project some of the potentials that are inherent in them. The review gave the mostacceptable definition of functional food in view of the differing professional views on the subjectmatter. It highlighted the relationship between functional food and health as well as areas coveredby functional foods. Finally, this review welcomed more research that could ascertain the beliefs ofthe people as regards the health potentials of some of the identified local foods from Nigeria asfunctional food sources, which are affordable and could be consumed by all.

Review Article

Acham et al.; AFSJ, 2(4): 1-15, 2018; Article no.AFSJ.41784

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Keywords: Functional foods; local sources; animal-based sources; plant-based sources; nutritionalbenefits; health benefits.

1. INTRODUCTION

The statement “Let food be thy medicine andmedicine be thy food,” was coined over twomillennia ago by Hippocrates. This has receivedmuch interest from food scientists andconsumers in view of the fact that the healthbenefits of certain foods have come to be knownover time. These foods contain ingredients thataid specific body function and improve our healthand well-being [1]. Food is more than just been afuel or provider of energy required for carryingout normal metabolic processes and dailyfunctions in the body. It contains nutrients whichare essential in curbing the incidences ofdiseases, especially chronic degenerativediseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD),type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and some types ofcancer. In other words, a deficiency in theseessential nutrients could result in some healthcomplications. Scientific evidence and a growingawareness of the correlation between diet andhealth, coupled with sedentary lifestyles, anaging population, and an ever-increasinghealthcare costs have driven the interest inhealthier food products [2,3]. These productsinclude functional foods and natural healthproducts (also known as nutraceuticals or dietarysupplements) with positive health benefits toconsumers. Epidemiological evidence shows thatregular consumption of functional foods, value-added food products and nutraceuticals isassociated with a lowered risk of coronary heartdisease, obesity, diabetes, cancer, osteoporosisand other chronic age-related degenerativediseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer'sdiseases [4]. Their observed health benefits havebeen ascribed to the presence of bioactivecompounds [5]. These compounds are capableof acting either singly or in synergy to bring aboutthe much desired therapeutic effects in terms ofcurbing or addressing diabetic, carcinogenic,inflammatory, fungal and other health-relatedissues. The birthplace of the concept offunctional food is Japan, which was the onlycountry until 1998, which legally defined foodsbased on specified health need. Other parts ofthe world such as Europe and America soonembraced this concept and further developed it.The Japanese established what is known asFoods for Specified Uses (FOSHU) system. Theaim of this system is to introduce a legal categoryof foods with potential benefits as part of anational effort to control the escalating cost of

health care [6]. For a food to qualify as FOSHU,it must satisfy three nutritional requirements:effectiveness in clinical studies, safety in clinicaland non-clinical studies, and determination ofactive/effective components [7,8]. In Europe, theInternational Life Science Institute has developeda functional food project known as “FunctionalFood Science in Europe (FUFOSE)’’. TheFUFOSE system was developed as a strategyfor the identification and development offunctional foods and for scientific substantiationof their effects to justify health-related claims.There is no doubt that the interest of thesedeveloped countries in functional foods has ledto such similar interest of such products indeveloping nations like Nigeria who are takingadvantage of the trends in functional foods.Nigeria as a country is indeed endowed with arich reserve of local functional food sourceswhich offer both nutritional and therapeuticbenefits. This review therefore focuses ondefining in clear terms what functional foodmeans due to the divergent opinions manyprofessionals have about it. It also identifiessome plant/animal based local foods that arepeculiar to Nigeria and their potentials as sourceof functional food.

2. PERSPECTIVES TO FUNCTIONALFOOD DEFINITION

Functional foods have been the topic ofconsiderable interest in the food and nutritionindustry for years, with many definitions broughtforward. In the United Kingdom, the Departmentof Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs definesfunctional food as a food that has a componentincorporated into it to give it a specific medical orphysiological benefit other than purely nutritionalbenefit [9]. The Australian National FoodAuthority defines the functional foods as: similarin appearance to conventional foods and areintended to be consumed as part of a usual diet,but have been modified to subserve physiologicalroles beyond the provision of simple nutritionalrequirements. Similarly, the Institute of FoodTechnologists (IFT) defines "functional foods" as:"Substances that provide essential nutrientsoften beyond quantities necessary for normalmaintenance, growth, and development, and/orother biologically active components that imparthealth benefits or desirable physiological effects"[10]. The American Dietetic Association (ADA), aprominent organisation of nutrition and dietetics


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experts, called "functional foods:" “whole,fortified, enriched or enhanced” that should beconsumed regularly and at effective amounts inorder to derive health benefits [10].

2.1 Consensus definition of FunctionalFood

In view of the undesirable divergent perspectivesto what constitutes functional food, a proposalwas made for a new definition for functionalfoods in a way that it has never been donebefore. An attempt was made in 2012 to have amore consensus or acceptable definition forfunctional food at the Functional Food Center(FFC)’s 10th International Conference in SantaBarbara, CA. Functional foods was defined to be‘‘Natural or processed foods that contains knownor unknown biologically-active compounds; whichin defined amounts provide a clinically provenand documented health benefit for theprevention, management, or treatment of chronicdisease” [10]. This definition was reviewed in2014 at the 17th international conference, whichwas jointly organized by United StatesDepartment of Agriculture (USDA) andAgriculture Research Service (ARS). A PanelDiscussion entitled, "The Definition of FunctionalFoods and Bioactive Compounds" was organizedand a new definition for “functional foods” wasrevised to: “Natural or processed foods thatcontains known or unknown biologically-activecompounds; which, in defined, effective non-toxicamounts, provide a clinically proven anddocumented health benefit for the prevention,management, or treatment of chronic disease”[11]. This present definition is unique in that itwill aid in understanding and improvingcommunication between food/nutrition experts,policymakers etc. Better communication willencourage the implementation of robust policiesand better enlightenment among non-foodexperts. Thus, there is no doubt that aconsensus definition will provide a useful guidethat can be used by both experts and non-experts on a sustainable basis. Functional foodsare very vital to the following crucial therapeuticareas: diabetes, GI health, oxidative stress,weight management, cardiovascular health,cognitive/mental health, and even joint and bonehealth.

2.2 Criteria used for the Developmentof Functional Foods

Foods which are called functional foods musthave any of the following features [12]:

1. Any food to which a constituent(s) hasbeen added at the processing period toprovide benefits. Such constituent(s) canbe an officially known nutrient (e.g.,calcium to contribute to bone health), anon-nutrient (e.g., probiotic bacteria toimprove GI health), or an herb (e.g.,Ginseng known to improve alertness).

2. Any food to which a constituent has beenremoved such that the food has reducedadverse health effects (e.g., the reductionin saturated fatty acids by substitution withmonounsaturated or polyunsaturated fattyacids or reduction in total fat).

3. Any natural food to which one of theconstituents has been naturally improvedupon via unique growing conditions.

4. Any natural food to which a newconstituent has been introduced throughunique growing conditions. For example,the European Lipgene project includeswork on the introduction of genes frommarine algae into rapeseed plants toenable the synthesis and accumulation ofEPA and DHA.

5. Any food to which the bioavailability orstability of one or more constituents hasbeen boosted to give enhancedbioavailability of a beneficial constituent.The raw materials need to be carefullyevaluated in order to enhance thebioactivity of proteins and peptides,retention of minerals, and beneficial effectsof components such as non-digestiblecarbohydrates, fat replacers and resistantstarch. In the same manner, the study offermentation processes in both foodconstituents and the GI tract is veryimportant to probiotics development withincreased resistance to the environmentwithin the GI tract.

6. Any food to which the nature of one ormore components has undergonechemical modification to improve health.An example is an Infant formula containinghydrolyzed protein to minimize the risk.

7. A combination of any of the above.

2.3 Plant Based Local Functional FoodSources

2.3.1 Edible mushrooms

Mushrooms are fruit bodies of macroscopic,filamentous and epigeal fungi and they are madeup of hyphae which forms interwoven web oftissues known as mycelium in the substrate uponwhich the fungus feeds [13]. It is not all


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mushrooms that are edible; some are indeedpoisonous and may lead to death, if taken withinfew hours upon consumption. However, out ofthe over 14000 species that are reported to be inexistence, only at least 2000 species are said topossess various degrees of edibility.

2.3.1.1 Nutritional properties of ediblemushroom

Edible Mushrooms are regarded as healthy foodand nutrient sources because of their manybeneficial components, including CHOs, dietaryfibre, protein, vitamins and minerals, and lowlevels of calories, fat and toxic metals [14,15].

2.3.1.2 Health benefits of edible mushroom

Quite a large number of mushrooms haveoutstanding bioactivities, in addition to havinganti-inflammatory, anti-tumor, anti-oxidant,immune regulatory and antiviral functions.Similarly, consumption of edible mushroomregularly can treat breast cancer, prostrate,diabetes and high cholesterol levels [16]. Theycan also be applied in the control ofcardiovascular diseases. Mushrooms containedSelenium and produced Vitamin D whenexposed to sunlight. Selenium, it was observedcan help in losing weight of the body [16].Mushrooms are also reputed to be good sourcesof iron.

A study conducted by [17] on some edible andmedicinal mushrooms of Igala land origin inNorth-Central, Nigeria indicated that ‘‘ Polyporusofficinalus’’ (‘‘Oru Apayi’’ in Igala language) canbe used to treat hernia, cough and catarrh;Lepiota Sp. (‘‘Oru Ugba’’ in Igala language) canbe used to treat diabetes; Termitomyces letestui(‘‘Oru aberedodolo’’ or ‘‘Oru ogbagbejele’’ in

Igala language) can be used for malaria fever,stomach upset, eye problems and toothache.

2.3.2 Tigernuts (Cyperus esculentus L.)

This is known to be an under-utilized cropgathered from the wild in West Africa. Tigernut iscommonly known in Nigeria as ‘‘Aya’’ in Hausa,‘‘Ofio’’ in Yoruba, and ‘‘Akiausa’’ in Igbo, wherethe three varieties (black, brown and yellow) arecultivated [18]. Generally, the most commonvarieties that can be found in Nigerian marketsare the yellow and brown varieties. The yellowvariety yields more milk upon extraction, containslower fat and more protein and possesses lessanti-nutritional factors especially polyphenols[19]. Tigernut can be eaten raw, roasted, dried,baked or be made into a refreshing beveragecalled ‘‘Horchata De Chufas’’ or ‘‘Tigernut milk’’(nutritive and energy drink both for young andold). Despite the fact that a lot of research hasbeen carried out on Tigernut , yet its increasedutilization and awareness of its health benefitshave not been given the much neededliterature attention, hence the need to addressthat.

2.3.2.1 Nutritional properties of tigernuts

In terms of nutritional profile, Tigernut is said tohave an excellent amount of starch, glucose andproteins. In addition, it also has tremendousamounts of minerals such as phosphorus andpotassium as well as vitamins such as vitamin Cand E. The nut was found to be rich in linoleicacid and oleic acid [18]. Tigernut is said to havegood amount of essential amino acids which ismore than the protein standard proposed formeeting adult requirements by FAO/WHO(1985).

Table 1. Mushrooms used for medicinal purposes by the Igala people of Nigeria

Mushroom Local name Type of ailmentused against

Mode ofpreparation

Mode ofadministration

Polyporusofficinalis

Oru Akpayi Hernia, coughand catarrh

Boil together withother herbs

Drink it hot

Sclerotia ofPleurotustuberregium

Oru owo orOru akpanya

Hypertension,fever, diabetes

Boil in wrappedbanana leaves andadd spices

Eat when boiled

TermitomycesLetestui

Oru Aberedodolo orOru ogbagbajele

Malaria, fever,stomach upset

Dry and grind intopowder

Eat with rice, addto stew or pap

Termitomycesrobustus

Oru Obe orOru Okiti

Malaria fever Make into peppersoup

Eat and drink thesoup

Unidentified Oru Akwu Fever Cook with soup Eat and drink thesoup

Unidentified Oru Okpoli Fever Cook with soup Eat and drink thesoup

Source: Ayodele et al.[17]


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2.3.2.2 Health benefits of tigernuts

In terms of its health function, Tigernut wasreported to be high in dietary fibre content whichcould be effective in the treatment andprevention of many diseases including coloncancer, coronary health diseases, obesity,diabetes and gastro intestinal disorders [18]. It isalso an excellent source of some useful mineralssuch as iron and calcium which are essential forbody growth and development [20]. Tigernut flourhas a rich reservoir of quality oil and containsmoderate amount of protein. Oleic acid which isfound in large amount in tigernut milk is cardiacpreventive in function. Tigernut can indeed beconsidered to be a natural functional food due tothe fact that it has been reported to be used inthe control of flatulence and indigestion,excessive thirst and in the treatment of diarrheaand dysentery [21]. Without sugar consumption,Tigernut milk can offer a good alternative forthose who are diabetic, since it containscarbohydrates which are a base for sucrose andstarch (without glucose. It has been suggestedthat products derived from Tigernuts can help incurbing the incidences of protein-caloriemalnutrition in sub-Saharan Africa, especiallymore so that the prices of imported milk and milkproducts seems to be higher in addition to poormilk production in Nigeria particularly andAfrica in general. This has made consumers toshift their attention to milk derived from plantsources.

2.3.3 Melon seed (Citrullus colocynthis L.)

Citrullus colocynthis L. is commonly known asthe ‘‘colocynth’’, ‘‘bitter apple’’, ‘‘bitter cucumber’’,‘‘egusi’’, or ‘‘vine of Sodom’’ and almost allmelons have nutritional, therapeutic andeconomic value [22].

2.3.3.1 Nutritional properties of egusi

Egusi as it is so called in Nigeria is an excellentsource of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA),which is essential to the body and since the bodycannot manufacture them, they must be providedthrough the diet. A deficiency in PUFAs isimplicated as the cause of dermatitis. The oilexpressed from the melon seed provides asubstantial amount of linoleic acid and otheressential fatty acids.

2.3.3.2 Health benefits of egusi

Research has proven that the bioactivecompounds found in egusi have a protective

effect against coronary heart disease andpromote the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. Inaddition, the synergistic role performed byprotein content component (9 essential aminoacids present), vitamins (B1, B2 and Niacin),minerals (calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium,zinc, sulphur and manganese) provide thenecessary template for optimum health. In termsof health benefits, melon seeds otherwise knownas ‘‘Egusi’’, has been reported to exhibit,antioxidant, antiviral, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective [23] and cardio protective properties[24].

2.3.4 Soy milk

Soy milk, sometimes called soy drink or soybeverage, is a white emulsion which resemblescow milk (conventional milk) in both appearanceand consistency [25]. It is an inexpensive sourceof protein and calories for human consumptionwhich compares favorably with dairy milk andcan be used as a vital and cheaper substitute forcow milk for solving problems in developingcountries like Nigeria [26].

2.3.4.1 Nutritional properties of soy milk

Soy milk contains as much as 3.50% protein(about the same as cow milk), 2.00% fat, 0.50%ash and 2.90% carbohydrate [27]. As a result ofthe attendant difficulty and cost, it has beenrecommended that soy milk production beconsidered and substituted for cow milkproduction. It has lower fat content than cow milkand contains no cholesterol [28]. The absence oflactose in soy milk also positions it as a solutionto lactose intolerance for some consumers ofdairy milk, especially infants with suchbiochemical challenge [26]. It promotes growth inchildren who are allergic to cow milk and hasbeen used in solving protein deficiency problemsall over the world [29].

2.3.4.2 Health benefits of soy milk

Potential cholesterol-lowering effects

The judicious substitution of soy for animalprotein reduces saturated fat and cholesterolintakes, indirectly resulting in a more favorableblood cholesterol level and potentially reducingthe risk of coronary heart disease [30]. Replacingmilk with a soy beverage has been shown todecrease total serum cholesterol by 5% to 10%and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol by10% to 20% within four weeks [31]. It is believed


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that a very moderate change in the diet thatincludes soy products can have a measurableeffect on the blood lipid levels.

Potential anticarcinogenic effects

Reports from epidemiological studies have laidcredence to the fact, although not entirelyconsistent, that soybean-based products protectagainst breast, prostate and colon cancers. Cellculture experiments have also shown that soybean constituents completely prevent orsuppress the induction of tumors in variousorgans [32]. Epidemiological studies as well asanimal and cell culture experiments thereforeprovide evidence that suggests that the intake ofsoy beans lowers the risk of cancer [30].

2.3.5 Moringa

2.3.5.1 Nutritional properties of moringa

The most underutilized tropical shrubs areconsidered to be Moringa oleifera tree. Yet, interms of nutritional profile, no other plant cancompete favorably with it. For all age groups,leaves of M. oleifera serve as valuable source ofnutrient [33].They are particularly rich intocopherols, ß-carotene, protein, vitamins,minerals, and essential sulfur-containing aminoacids which are rarely found in daily diet [34].Vitamin C content of moringa leaves is seventimes higher than that of oranges, vitamin Acontent is four times to carrots, calcium is fourtimes, and protein content is two times to milk,and potassium is three times higher than that ofbananas [34]. The young leaves are said to beedible and can be consumed fresh, cooked andeaten like spinach or used for soups and salads.

2.3.5.2 Health benefits of moringa

Beta carotene is extremely beneficial in healingand bone development, control of cholesteroland anti-cancer protection [35]. Moringa oleiferaleaf powder prevents malnutrition in developingcountries that usually appear in children duringthe weaning period, between 1 and 3 years oldand is a fascinating dietary supplement forpregnant and lactating women to increase milkproduction and expel intestinal worms [35]. It canplay the role of a bio-enhancer of drugs andnutrients as a result of the ability of the leaves toexhibit antibiotic activity. Moringa leaves havealso found use in the treatment of commonailments for so many years. Some of suchailments that can be treated include; abnormalblood pressure, bronchitis, chest congestion,

impotency, joint pain, catarrh, eye and earinfections, pimples, hepatitis, infertility and lowsperm count, blood impurities, anaemia, anxiety,respiratory disorders and tuberculosis [35].

2.3.6 Bitter leaf (Vernonia amygdalina)

This green shrub has a leaf noted for itsdistinctive odour and bitter taste. It is a wellcultivated crop in Africa, especially Nigeria,where it is used in making a local delicacy knownas ‘‘bitter- leaf soup’’. It has both nutritionalproperties and health benefits.

2.3.6.1 Nutritional properties of bitter leaf

In terms of its nutritional properties, this leafyvegetable is a rich source of total carotenoid andascorbic acid.

2.3.6.2 Health benefits of bitter leaf

It is a laxative and fertility inducer in infertilewomen [36], its therapeutic constituents (quinine)cures malaria, cleanses the liver and lymphaticsystem and lungs for smokers [35]. It has alsofind use in patients implicated withhyperglycemia (excessive sugar) condition, to bespecific, Diabetes mellitus and Diabetesinsidipidus. The water extract serves as tonic forthe prevention of certain illnesses [37].Antinutritional factors such as saponins,glycoside, alkaloids and tannin are also presentin bitter leaf. It is a common practice to wash theyoung leaves as this eliminates the bitter taste.More so, processing can also contribute to a lossof some anti-nutritional factors and nutrients.

2.3.7 Kunun-Zaki

Kunun-Zaki is a fermented, non-alcoholic cerealbased beverage widely consumed in NorthernNigeria and is also popularly believed to enhancelactation in nursing mothers [38]. The traditionalprocess for the manufacture of kunun-zakiinvolves the steeping of millet grains, wet millingwith spices (ginger, cloves and pepper), wetsieving and partial gelatinization of the slurry,followed by the addition of sugar and bottling[39]. It was reported that this beverage isnutritionally, medically and economicallyimportant in the regions where it is widelyconsumed [38].

2.3.7.1 Nutritional properties of kunun-zaki

Kunun-zaki has fairly good amounts of valuablenutrients such as fats, carbohydrates, protein,


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minerals and vitamins which are essential forwellness.

2.3.7.2 Health benefits of kunun-zaki

The local people believe that Kunun-Zaki has thefollowing health benefits:

1. It is claimed that it helps in the preventionof chronic inflammatory diseases such as‘‘rheumatoid arthritis’’

2. It is said to be good for women who haveattained the stage of menopause as ithelps them to relax their muscles.

3. it is also suggested that it is capable ofreducing the risk associated with diabetes.

4. However, these beliefs need to be verifiedthrough research in other to prove beyondreasonable doubt that truly they offer thehealth benefits that are claimed.

2.3.8 Zobo Drink

This is a very popular local beverage consumedby large number of Nigerians regardless of theirsocio-economic status. It is produced from aplant known as Hibiscus sabdariffa, whichcontains the valuable dried calyces. The notableflavours that can be added during the preparationof Zobo drink is any of pineapple, orange or otheruseful flavours. The mixture of ginger and garlic,or just garlic or ginger can also serve as apreservative. Sorrel drink is also known as‘‘Zobo’’ or ‘‘yakwua’’ [40] or ‘‘Zoborodo’’ inHausa, ‘‘Iseipa’’ in Yoruba and ‘‘Sorrel’’ inEnglish [41].

2.3.8.1 Nutritional properties of zobo drink

Zobo drink contains Vitamin E, Polyphenol acidsand flavonoids, mainly anthocyanins [42]. Theuse of spices such as garlic and ginger duringthe preparation of Zobo drink boosts the proteinprofile and ascorbic acid content and mineralssuch as Calcium, Potassium and Zinc; pH(moves towards alkalinity), a noticeable totalsugar increase and a decrease in the Ironconcentration can be seen as well. This trendsuggests improvement in the nutritional content[43]. This could be attributed to the addition ofspices such as ginger and garlic which containgood reserve of nutrients.

2.3.8.2 Health benefits of zobo drink

The increased intake of Calcium, Magnesium,Potassium alone and decrease in the intake of

Sodium alone reduces the risk of hypertensioni.e. high blood pressure [43]. Potassiumalongside Sodium helps to regulate the waterbalance and the acid-base balance in the bloodand tissues [44]. Roselle is used in traditionalmedicine as a diuretic mild laxative treatment forcardiac and nerve diseases and cancer [45],hypolipidemic effect [46,47] and has promisingactivities against atheroscierosis, liver disease,cancer, diabetes and other metabolic syndromes[48], antioxidant effects [43], alloxan-diabetic(hypoglycaemic and hypolipidaemic) [49]. Thepresence of phytochemicals in Zobo treated withCinnamon, nutmeg, garlic and ginger couldcontribute in the medicinal properties [43].

2.4 Animal Based Local FunctionalFood Sources

2.4.1 African Giant snail (Archachatinamarginata)

In Nigeria, the major source of animal protein hasalways come from beef, poultry, pork andmutton. Unfortunately, there has been asignificant high cost of feed, drought, diseasesand out-dated animal husbandry practices inaddition to low production associated with localanimal breeds. There is need to look atalternative, non-conventional source of meatprotein such as the ‘‘African Giant Snail’’, in orderto meet up with the increasing growth of humanpopulation as well as the rising standard of living.Snails meat is popularly referred to as ‘‘Congomeat’’ in Nigeria [50].

2.4.1.1 Nutritional properties of African Giantland snail

Snail meat has been described as a high qualityfood that is rich in protein, iron, contain highlevels of magnesium, phosphorous andpotassium but low levels of sodium, fat andcholesterol [51]. They are also said to be rich inhealth beneficial fatty acids such as linoleic acidsand linolenic acids.

Today, our world is faced with the problems ofmineral deficiencies, including iodine. Every year,60,000 still births, abortions and infant deathsoccur within days of delivery as a result of iodinedeficiency [52]. Iodine deficiency constitutes theworld’s major cause of preventable mentalretardation ranging from mild intellectual bluntingto overt cretinism [53]. A practical way to includeiodine richly in the body is through theconsumption of snails in our diets [54]. Because


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of its nutritional value, nutritionists recommendedsnail meat for astronauts and athletes [55].

2.4.1.2 Health benefits of African Giant landsnail

In some parts of Africa, the land snail plays a rolein native medicine in the preparation of remediesagainst, whooping cough, asthma, hypertensionetc. [57]. It is believed by some people that theglandular substances from edible snails causeswhat is known as ‘‘agglutination’’ of certainbacteria, however, this claim has not beensubstantiated yet with any scientific research.Snails have also been recommended for thetreatment of anaemia, asthma, high bloodpressure, and other related ailments due to theirlow cholesterol levels [58].

2.4.2 Edible insects

The most commonly eaten insect groups arebeetles, caterpillars, bees, wasps, ants,grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, cicades, leaf andplanthoppers, scale insects and true bugs,termites, dragon flies and flies [60]. Amongthese, the most popular in Africa are reputed tobe caterpillars and termites. Nigeria is wellknown to be among the countries that practiceentomophagy (consumption of insects).Interestingly, edible insect’s proteins haveprovided Nigeria and indeed the world, a costeffective way of managing protein shortage in theworld. In other words, most edible insects arecheap, available and can provide a good sourceof protein and minerals needed to complementcereal based foods consumed by developing

Table 2. Nutritional value of Snail meat compared to meats of other animal origin

Food Items Carbohydrate Protein Fat Ash Water1.Snail Meat 2.93 20.7 1.21 1.49 73.72.(a) Beef 17.5 22.0 0.9 60.0

(b) Pork - 11.9 45.0 0.6 42.0(c) Lamb - 15.7 27.7 0.8 56.03. Poultry(a) Chicken - 20.2 12.6 1.0 81.8(b) Duck - 16.2 30.0 1.0 68.6(c) Turkey - 20.2 20.2 1.0 79.3(d) Dried fish - 60.0 21.0 15.0 4.04. Milk(a) Cow (whole milk) 5.0 3.5 3.8 0.7 87.3(b) Goat 4.5 3.8 4.8 0.8 86.45. Eggs(a)white of egg small amount 10.5 Small amount 1.0 88.0(b) Yolk of egg small amount 15.5 33.5 1.0 49.5

*Note: Ash contains the mineralsSource:Olaleye [56]

Table 3. Medicinal uses of the African Giant Snail among rural people in Ghana

Part of Snail used Preparation Conditions used forMeat Soup Suppression of hypertension

Curtails aggressionMalformation of bone structureNourishment of lactation mothersPromotion of easy child labourCures anaemiaSuppression of convulsionStops bleeding from cutsHealing of amputated fingersTreatment of eye problems

Fluid Soup Circumcision of male childrenSuppression of small poxAnti-rheumatic

Source: Antwi [59]


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countries [61]. Some edible insects havenutritional value that can be compared with thatof meat and fish, while others have higherproportion of proteins, fat and energy value [62].Insects are indeed highly nutritious and healthyfood source required by humans and animals[63].

Edible insects have the potential for providing themost desired health benefits that meat canprovide. It is believed in some rural communitiesthat the consumption of termites can enhancefertility. A scientific data will however be neededto validate this knowledge. World HealthOrganization (WHO) has considered insects as asuitable food to meet the protein needs ofstarving individuals, including HIV-positivesubjects who require higher quality nutrition tocounteract immunological impairment [64].

2.4.2.1 Nutritional properties and healthbenefits of edible insects

Crude Protein and Fibre: Edible insects havebeen shown to have higher protein content, on amass basis, than other animal and plant foodssuch as beef, chicken, fish, soybeans and maize[65]. The health benefits that can be gained fromproteins cannot be over emphasized. It is muchneeded as an important component of antibodiesto improve the immunity function of the body.The presence of lysine in Rhychophorusphoenicis was reported in a study [66], whiletryptophan was said to be found in Oryctesmonoceros [61]. The inclusion of these insectspecies in diet could be of immense benefitin complementing lysine-poor staple cereals[67].

Carbohydrates and Fats: Insects are notregarded as good source of carbohydrate forman, since a human adult needs about 400 to500g carbohydrate intakes as starch. Theresearch effort of [68] proved that termite; M.nigeriensis is rich in oleic acid, palmitic acid andlinoleic acid, an essential fatty acid, but poor inmyristic acid, lauric acid and palmitoleic acid.The total saturated fatty acid content of termite is39.35%, while that of unsaturated fatty acids is60.64%, with monounsaturated fatty acids(MUFA) comprising 53.07% and polyunsaturatedfatty acids (PUFA) making up 7.57% only [68]. Itis noteworthy that saturated fatty acids are notgood for human consumption because they havebeen implicated in certain cardiovasculardisorders such as atherosclerosis, cancer andaging [69]. However, the low saturated fatty acidand high desirable unsaturated fatty acid

contents of M. nigeriensis may consider it animportant food component for those who havehigh blood cholesterol content and probably atrisk of cardiovascular disease [67].

Vitamins and Minerals: The vitamin profile of allthe orders of insects contains an appreciablehigh contents of vitamins, A, B2 (Riboflavin) andC. The termite, M. nigeriensis has appreciableamounts of vitamins B3 (Niacin) and B1(thiamine) in addition to vitamins A and C [68].Vitamin C maintains blood vessels flexibility andimproves circulation in the arteries of peopleincluding smokers [67]. One of the mostimportant benefits derived from vitamins A and Cis their role as antioxidants, oxygen free radicalscavengers, while that of the B- vitamins is theirrole as co enzymes in several enzyme systemsof the body [67]. The presence of high vitaminsamount in edible insects show that it has a greatprospect of being considered as a good sourceof food supplement for people who aremalnourished.

2.4.3 Fura da nunu

Fura da nunu is a local food drink derived from ablend of nunu and a cereal ‘‘fura’’ made frommillet. While, Nunu (noo-noo) is a locallyfermented Nigerian milk product used as a staplefood amongst the Saharan tribes of West Africansub- region, and is also popular amongst theinhabitants of the Mediterranean region and theMiddle East, where it is known as ‘‘ dahi’’ or‘‘lassi’’ [70]. Nunu looks and tastes (has a sharpacid taste) like a yoghurt and as a result, it isaccompanied with sugar and ‘‘fura’’ which ismade up of millet flour compressed in balls andcooked for about 20-40 minutes. The fura danunu is the resulting product obtained bycrumbling the cooked fura in a bowl of nunu.

2.4.3.1 Nutritional properties of fura da nunu

Nunu is an excellent source of protein, rich inessential amino acids and a good source ofcalcium, phosphorus and Vitamin A, C, E and Bcomplex [70]. Fura da nunu can be regarded asalmost a complete food, since the milk serves asa protein source and the cooked, spiced milletprovides energy. It has a refreshing taste andcan also be consumed as a weaning food forinfants. The major limitation of this food drink isits apparent unhygienic conditions under which itis prepared and its poor shelf life stability, since itis prone to microbial proliferation. Not only doesfura da nunu has some nutritional attributes, butalso offers some health benefits.


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Table 4. Some edible insects in Nigeria

Scientificname

Commonname

Order Family Plant/foodhost

Seasonal Consumption

Macrotermesnigeriensis

Termite Isoptera Termitdae TimberWoods

May-June Winged adult,queen

Macrotermesbellicosus


May-June Winged adult,queen

Macrotermesnatalensis


May-June Winged adultqueen

Brachytrupesmembranaceus

Giant AfricanCricket

Orthoptera Gryllidae Yam July-September

Adult

Gymnogrylluslucens

Cricket Orthoptera Gryllidae Yam July-September

Adult

Cytacanthacrisnaeruginosus

Short hornedgrasshopper

Orthoptera Acrididae Grasses May-October

Adult

Zonocerusvariegatus

Grasshopper Orthoptera Pygomorphidae Cassava November-April

Adult

GryllotalpaAfricana

Mole Cricket Orthoptera Gryllotalpidae Rice Year round Adult

Analeptestrifasciata

Stem girdler Coleoptera Cerambycidae Cashew October-Febuary

Larva

Source Alamu et al. [67]

Fig. 1. Edible Insects as local sources of protein

2.4.3.2 Health benefits of fura (from millet)

Gall stones: There is a popular view byscientists that consumption of food high ininsoluble fibre (e.g. millet) can prevent theincidences of gallstones in women. Researchersthink that insoluble fibre not only speedsintestinal transit time (how quickly food movesthrough the intestines), but reduces the secretionof bile acids (excessive amounts contribute to

gallstone formation), increases insulin sensitivityand lower triglycerides (blood fats) [71].

Health Protective Properties: Whole grainssuch as millet contain Plant lignans (a type ofphytonutrient) which can be transformed in thehuman intestine from a friendly flora intomammalian lignans, in addition to one called‘‘enterolactone’’ which is believed to haveprotective effect against breast and other

3. EDIBLE CRICKETS 4. EDIBLE GRASSHOPPERS

1. EDIBLE TERMITES 2. EDIBLE CATERPILLAR


11

hormone- dependent cancers as well as heartdisease.

2.4.3.3 Health benefits of fermented Milk(Nunu)

Alleviation of Lactose Intolerance: Somepeople lack sufficient amounts of lactase (adigestive enzyme) to process lactose (sugarfound in milk and dairy products) into simplesugars. When unprocessed lactose passes intothe gut undigested, it can lead to gastrointestinaldisorders, such as diarrhoea, cramps andbloating. Yoghurt has a characteristic attribute ofpromoting the digestion of lactose by theactivities of live microorganisms found in yoghurtwhich act on lactose, where it undergoespredigestion and finally converting it to a moredigestible state. This explains why those whosuffer from lactose intolerance are able toconsume this local fermented milk as milk andother dairy products substitute and thus obtainingthe rich nutrients they would have missed. S.thermophilus, L. acidophilus and L. bulgaricusare some of the probiotics that can assist withlactose intolerance condition [72].

A healthy mouth and better breath:The presence of malodorous compoundsuch as Hydrogen sulfide in the mouth cancause undesirable ‘‘bad breath’’, althoughcan be caused by a number of other reasons aswell. The live bacteria found in yoghurt,Lactobacillus bulgaricus and Streptococcusthermophilus reduce the levels ofhydrogen sulfide and other compounds on thetongue [71].

Alleviation of Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS):Abnormal gut bacteria have been implicated tobe majorly responsible for incidences of IBSamong sufferers. IBS is a gastrointestinalbowel disorder that can lead to severeabdominal pain, constipation, diarrhoea, andexcessive gas bloating. Probiotics has beenidentified to be capable of playing a crucialfunction as a barrier against pathogenic bacteria[73].

3. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDA-TIONS

3.1 Conclusion

This review shows that in our modern world,there is a growing interest towards theconsumption of foods that have, not only

nutritious benefits attached to them but have alsohealth-promoting applications in order to curb theincidences of various ailments and diseaseswhich continue to affect the young and the old.Nigeria indeed has a rich repository of its ownunique local functional food resources which ifwell exploited can be a huge potential source ofrevenue to the people who are now increasinglybecoming conscious of their lifestyles or healthstatus. It is well documented that functional foodscan be a vehicle for achieving prevention andtreatment of chronic diseases and healthyageing. Thus, attention has now been shifted toproper regulations and legislation in order toensure that the health claims ascribed tofunctional foods, in general, are based on strongscientific evidence.

3.2 Recommendations

A platform should be provided so that consumerscan be enlightened about the health-promotingroles of these local functional foods, so they canhave sufficient information to make informed,wise choices about the plant and animal-basedfood sources they drink/eat and enjoy. Moreresearch should be carried out in other toelucidate the nutritional and health benefits ofsome local food sources, especially those thatare very much still underutilized or relativelyunknown. Some of these local functional foodsshould receive more attention, particularly onhow to manage their sustained use as a healthyfood source in the interest of food security andwealth creation.

COMPETING INTERESTS

Authors have declared that no competinginterests exist.

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