A Profile of the Future Manager, (A Humanistic Psychological Viewpoint) A Profile of the Future...

A Profile of the Future Manager, (A Humanistic Psychological Viewpoint) by Drewes E. Hielema

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A Profile of the Future manager

(A Humanistic Psychological Viewpoint)

by

Drewes E. Hielema

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of

Master of Business Administration

at the International Management Institute,

Geneva, Switzerland.

Geneva, March 18, 1983

Revised and corrected edition,

Breda, November 1986.

2nd revision and Correction

Breda, September 1988


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Life, at its best,

is a flowing, changing process

in which nothing is fixed.

(C. Rogers - On Becoming a Person)

To my son, Jac.


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Table of contents

Section Page

I INTRODUCTION

A: Definitions and Approaches 1 - 2

B: Preview 3

II POSITIONING OF THE FUTURE MANAGER

A: Concept 4 - 5

B: Limitations 6

III MODEL OF THE FUTURE MANAGER

A: Concept and Definition 7 - 9

B: A Gamesman 10 - 14

C: With a developed heart 15 - 18

D: To be on a level of Self-Actualization 19 - 22

E: At an optimal distance between 23 - 26

Head and Heart versus Goal

F: In order to use one's energies 27 - 29

in the most efficient manner

IV FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS 30 - 31

V BIBLIOGRAPHY 32 - 34


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SECTION I

INTRODUCTION

No one knows anything about

what lies ahead of him.

(Ecclesiastes 9-1)

A. Definitions and approaches

Embarkation on a study to describe a profile of the future manager, confronts us with an

enormous amount of material. For that reason, this study is subtitled:

"A Humanistic Psychological Viewpoint".

Being an engineer has its drawbacks in a study such as this, because many of the phrases

and the terminology used, will sound awkward to the ears of a professional psychologist.

Taking this into consideration, perhaps my hesitation to write this paper will be

appreciated; however, my admiration and respect for people like Maslow, Rogers, Fromm,

Maccoby and others forced me to proceed. Rogers' simple, easy to understand style, was

pointing the way and I hope that this paper will make its contribution to coming somewhat

closer to the truths. As Maslow says: "Our job is, to integrate these various truths, into the

whole truth, which should be our only loyalty.1 Before we continue, I will try to define the

word "Manager" or "to manage". Webster defines "to manage" as: "to control and direct as

a person or enterprise: to move or use in the manner desired"; a manager therefore is: "one

who manages", i.e. someone who is in action towards a given direction. My assumption in

this study is: that the manager is part of a flowing process, dynamic, with a desire to

achieve something. By connoting the "future" to the manager, we imply that the manager is

also part of a changing process, in other words, the manager now is different to the manager

1, A.H. Maslow :”Toward a Psychology of Being”, Von Nostrand Rheinhold Company, New York, 1968,

page VII


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tomorrow. This study tries to describe an "ideal" future manager, from a humanistic

psychological point of view. What is the meaning of Humanistic Psychology? It is very

hard to find the person who first used the term. We will therefore use the explanation of

Maslow which is clear enough, and in order to provide a better understanding will be quite

extensive. "Humanistic Psychology - that is what it is being called most frequently - is now

quite solidly established as a viable third alternative to objectivistic, behaviouristic

(mechanomorphic) psychology and to orthodox Freudianism. Its literature is large and is

rapidly growing. Furthermore, it is beginning to be used, especially in education, industry,

religion, organization and management, therapy and self-improvement. This psychology is

not purely descriptive or academic; it suggests action and implies consequences. It helps to

generate a way of life, not only for the person himself within his own private psyche, but also

for the same person as a social being, a member of society. As a matter of fact, it helps us to

realize how interrelated these two aspects of life really are. I should also say that I consider

Humanistic Third Force Psychology to be transitional, a Preparation for a still "higher" Fourth

Psychology, transpersonal, transhumance, centred in the cosmos, rather than in human needs

and interest, going beyond humanness, identity, self-actualization and the like."2 I later will

go somewhat deeper into this Third Psychology: see therefore Section III-D. My approach to

this study, is to start with a viewpoint, to compare this viewpoint with that of a number of

authors, and - where relevant - incorporate the ideas of those authors into a total picture and

thus finally emerge with a consistent theory. I am also aware that unconsciously my

viewpoints were formed by my reading Fromm, who influenced people such as McCoy,

Maslow, Rogers etc., and therefore I clearly state that my contribution is only a reshuffling, or

a different point of view.

2 A.H. Maslow: ibid, page III/IV.


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B. Preview

In section II, I will position our Future Manager in such a way, that it is clear what this study

will and will not cover and as such, will be an introduction to Section III. Section III is the

heart of this study. In sub-section A, I will lay down my complete model of the future

manager. One could say as a total "system". This "system" or "profile" or "model" , will be

divided into several "sub-systems".

In the remaining sub-sections of Section III, these sub-systems will be described, compared to

today's manager and compared with the viewpoints of a number of authors, and with each

other. Finally, I will try to "reassemble" the future manager, and I hope that the several inter-

faces will fit together, and that the Profile of the Future Manager will materialize.

I would like to point out, that during the preparation of this study the guidance by Prof. Dr.

Alden G. Lank resulted in many insights and a continuous process of recognition.

Unstructured theories slowly became structured and seemed to fit together.


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SECTION II

POSITIONING OF THE FUTURE MANAGER

When the best leader's work is done the people say,

("We did it ourselves!")."

Lao- Tsu

A. CONCEPT

In order to have no misunderstanding about the place and environment of the future manager I

describe, I have to explain the place and the environment.

My approach to this concept is well described by Petit3, see fig.: II-I.

I have positioned our manager, within his specialty, imbedded again within an organization

and depending on the level within the organization; he will come to the institutional level. The

institutional level is the level where the manager is exposed to the outside world, not protected

by the power and/or money of an organization, the harsh environment.4

This dynamic of growth can be recognized as the traditional role of the manager. Depending

on its specialism and maturity, he will be allowed to pass the boundaries imposed on him by

his superiors. By growing, he becomes a superior himself. By comparing society with an

organization and assuming that their goals are similar, one can say, that one is "working with

and through individuals and groups to accomplish organizational goals"5

By now saying that "organization" can be applied to every situation whether in business,

educational institutions, hospitals or even families, to be successful the manager needs

interpersonal skills to grow through its environment, to the outside world, through the several

layers of protection.

3 Thomas A. Petit: A Behavioral Theory of Management, Academy of Management Journal, December 1967, page

346 4 Added in November 1986. 5 Paul Kershey/Ken Blanchard: Management of Organizational Behavior, Prentice - Hall Inc., Englewood Cliff, New

York 1982, page 3.


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B. Limitations

We have now established that managers need interpersonal skills to grow.

Because of these required skills the manager should understand why people behave as they

do. This requires understanding past behavior. This understanding will result in better

predictability of behavior. By doing all this successfully, managers can become Applied

Behavioural Scientists.

This study, however, will deal only with what is within the manager. His drives and emotions,

his attachments and detachments, his growing to the level of self-actualization, together with

all his energies, blocked or unblocked to achieve growth. These forces are boundaries actions

and will cause reactions to which the manager is exposed during the achievement of his goals.

We will learn that during the growth stages of the manager he finally becomes skilled at

reacting effectively to the environment, being one with the "open system" organization he is

working in (see Section III F).

This study therefore will deal with what is within the manager.

The several positions of the manager:

Level 1: Start: The manager within his specialty

Level 2: Growing to: The organizational level

Level 3: Promotion to: The institutional level

Level 4: Operating at: The outside world

Level 5: Fully functioning at: The harsh environment


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Level 5:The harsh environment

Level 3: The Institutional Level

Level 4: The outside world

Level 2

The organizational level

Several positions of the manager

Figure II-I

Level 1.

The

manager

within his

specialty


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SECTION III

MODEL OF THE FUTURE MANAGER

"A person who is more open to all of the elements of his organic experience;

A person who is developing a trust in his own organism as an instrument of sensitive living;

A person who accepts the locus of evaluation as residing within himself;

A person who is learning to live in his life as a participant in a fluid, ongoing process, in which

he is continually discovering new aspects of himself in the flow of his experience."

(C. Rogers)6

A: Concept and Limitations

Coming to a concept of the Future Manager has been a long process of thinking and

comparing, but the start was triggered by reading Michael Maccoby’s book, "The

Gamesman".7

Maccoby concluded that all the managers he interviewed had only developed their heads but

not their hearts. (The words "head" and "heart" will become more and more defined

throughout this study). I asked myself, why is it possible that men, developed as described, can

reach such high positions? Or by reversing the question, is it a prerequisite that one can come

to such a high position only if one has an underdeveloped heart, also called a hardened heart?

One should realize that leaders of nations are selected from such positions, managers who

potentially can decide about the destruction of the planet Earth. Managers who are actually

incomplete persons.

6 Carl Rogers, On Becoming a Person, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1961, page 124. 7 Michael Maccoby, The Gamesman, Simon & Schuster Inc., New York, 1976.


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Another phenomenon observed, is that in our recession, many business concerns are going

bankrupt. Could it be that today's managers are not as good as they are supposed to be? Or

could there be a connection between an underdeveloped heart, a fast changing society, and

bankruptcy?

The above considerations made me look more closely at this phenomenon, and I decided to

"compose" an ideal manager. A model to strive after. One who can deal with his heart and

with a changing society.

Such a manager must have several attributes.

The first attribute the manager should have is that he should develop his head. We will learn

from Maccoby and others, that this is not enough.

The second attribute, next to this, is that the manager has to develop his heart. We will learn

that heart means: "Identity". Not developing one's identity - and a person must have an identity

means someone or something else's identity, that will take its place e.g. a firm or corporation,

a country or a strong leader etc. We will learn that such a person is close to a machine or a

robot. It can be programmed and switched off. Perhaps many bosses like this.

The third attribute the ideal manager should have is that he must be independent of his basic

needs and surroundings. That is to say, he has grown through the several levels of need to the

level of self-actualization, as defined by Maslow (see Section III-D).

The fourth attribute he should have, is the right mix of the first three. I have called it the

"optimal distance" between the head and heart versus goal. (Goal meaning: Freeing the

maximum amount of human energy).

In order to give an idea how the dynamics inside a person work, I have found in C.G. Jung's


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book, " About the Energies of the Spirit"8. An analogy to engineering and an explanation can

be derived how this flow of energies can be rearranged in such a way that one can apply one's

energies in the most efficient way. Taking all the above into consideration, I have attempted to

define a model of an ideal manager.

This definition is:

An ideal manager is a gamesman, with a developed heart, who has come to a level of self-

actualization, living in harmony with his head and heart, freeing the maximum amount of

energy and resulting in a person who uses this energy in the most efficient way.

I suggest calling the above a "manager-system" or just “system" and the following sections

describe several subsystems of the above system.

I will limit myself to the following:

Section B, called: "A Gamesman"

In this section I will try to prove, that the ideal manager should be a "Gamesman" as defined

by Maccoby.

Section C, called: "With a developed heart"

will deal with the necessity for developing one's heart.

Section D, called: "To be on a level of Self-Actualization"

is a prerequisite for the manager.

Section E, called: "At an optimal distance between head/heart and goal". 8C.G. Jung, "Über die Energetik der Seele", Rascher Cie AG Verlag, Zürich, Leipzig und Stuttgart, 1928.


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in this section we will compare several approaches, such as Maslow, Fromm etc.

Section F. called: "In order to use one's energies in the most efficient manner."

In this Section I will try to explain how the dynamics inside a person work, how his flow of

energies moves, all according to Jung's explanation as mentioned before.

Section IV, the final remarks and conclusions, several interfaces will be mentioned and a

conclusion will be drawn.


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A Gamesman

"Life must be lived as a play, playing certain games, making sacrifices, singing and dancing,

and then a man will be able to propitiate the gods and defend himself against his enemies, and

win in the contest". (Plato)

After six years of interviewing 250 corporate executives in twelve high-technology

companies, Dr. Michael Maccoby, director of the Harvard Project on Technology, Work and

Character; concluded that a new type of manager had emerged, the so-called "Gamesman"9.

We will first review how he came to this conclusion, and compare some of the conclusions to

those of Erich Fromm, in his book: "Man for Himself"10

.

To go a somewhat further in depth into the gamesman-model we compare this with the

conclusions of J. Huizinga in his book: "Homo Ludens"11

.

Some references to the next Section C, "With a developed heart", are unavoidable.

We can learn from history that if a culture changes the type of leader also changes. One of the

most significant examples is Winston Churchill. He was only allowed to govern during the

Second World War. The voters turned him down before and after the war. One can say, every

time needs its special type of manager.

Maccoby describes four character types of successful managers or leaders found in large

corporations. These four "arch"-types are: "The Craftsman", "the Jungle Fighter", "the

Company Man" and "the Gamesman".

Like all typologies, there are no pure examples. All managers are mixtures, with one type

tending to be dominant. And all types have positive and negative aspects, which results in the

manager being effective in some circumstances and ineffective in others.

9

M. Maccoby, op. cit. 10 Erich Fromm, Man for Himself, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, 1975. 11 J. Huizinga, Homo Ludens, Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, Boston and Henley, 1980.


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This typology is very helpful to understand the leaders and managers, and gives insight into

their strengths and weaknesses. Although we will mainly study the gamesman-model, in order

to gain a better understanding I will describe the character types of all four models.

These "Managerial Character Types" are:

"Type(and keyword) Positive Traits Negative Traits

- Craftsman Independent Uncooperative

(Quality) Exacting Inflexible

- Jungle Fighter Brave Ruthless

(Power) Protective Dominating

- Company Man Loyal Servile

(Service) Prudent Fearful

Caring Soft

- Gamesman Daring-risk taking Rash-gambling

(Competition) Dramatic-inspiring Manipulative-

seductive

Fair Unfeeling

Flexible Unprincipled"12

12

M. Maccoby, The Leader, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1981, page 19.


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Turning to history, we learn from Maccoby13

that in the late nineteenth century and in the

early twentieth century, the gamesman played a minor role in large organizations. These

organizations were run by autocratic jungle-fighters. The most famous are Frick and Carnegie,

the so-called "robber-barons".

Even in the 50's the gamesman was not accepted because of his independence and irreverence.

Increasingly however the positive traits of the gamesman have proved to be adaptive to the

fast changing markets and technologies. They fit the leadership needs of today's organizations

because of:

1. "Competition-internal, national and international.

2. Innovation - continual creation of new products or projects to gain an advantage over the

competitors.

3. Interdependent teams - experts who must think-up, develop and market products.

4. Fast-moving flexibility - the need to meet changing schedules and deadlines, requiring a

Manager who can motivate a team of craftsmen and can let the company man move at a

faster pace".14

All the above qualities are necessary in today's business. Their market value goes up. But is

it not strange to talk about people as about something you can buy and sell? In this

connection we refer to E. Fromm. He emphasizes that the "market concept" of value in

modern society where everything is "judged" by the 'exchange value' rather than the 'use

value', has led to a similar concept of value with regard to people and particularly to

oneself".15

If a person feels himself judged only as a commodity and his value as an

exchange value, then one can call this a marketing orientation. How has it come about that

human beings can be treated like that? Why has modern society adopted this approach? Did

it start much earlier than modern society? I believe that this approach to people in general

dates from a much earlier period, than the period we normally call "modern society".

13 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op.cit. page 99 14 ibid 15 E. Fromm, op.cit. page 68.


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I think that is goes back to Descartes (1596-1650), the father of modern rationalism. He

actually reduced man to a (working) tool, and said that all other concepts of life, perceived by

the imagination or senses should not be trusted. In my view, this is a very simplified system.

This shows a very frightening and narrow mind, which scales nature down to some

mathematical rules. In this context we also have to mention Immanuel Kant (1724-1804).

Kant thought that the "mathematics" of Descartes had gone too far, and tried to make a new

start. He changed not to philosophy, but from mathematics to physics. This was another

narrowing down of the human being.

Both Descartes and Kant had a tremendous impact on Western society, and we agree

with Schumacher when he writes: "this meant a very great impoverishment; entire regions of

human interest, which engaged the most intense efforts of earlier generations, simply ceased to

appear on the map.16

He continues to tell us that in the traditional wisdom or philosophy the world is presented

as a three-dimensional structure (as symbolized by the cross), and that the new way of

thinking wants to get rid of the vertical dimension, which symbolizes the difference between

"higher" and "lower" or different levels of being.

I now assume that the influence of the Enlightenment, as it is often called, where from

than on people only speak about sciences (things) which pay, which have exchange value,

now also speak about people as things, people who have exchange value and where the "self"

is gone.

16 E.F. Schumacher, A Guide for the Perplexed,Jonathan Cape Ltd., London 1977, page 20.


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This "self" is the "identity". Where the self is gone, the identity is lost. People without

identity can only be sure about themselves, if they live up to the expectations of others. In

other words, they are in constant need of confirmation by others, which makes it easy for

bosses to manipulate these human beings as they want to.

We have to realize that this is also a situation which will not encourage

initiative from these persons. I now return to the four models of Maccoby - all people who

developed their heads. No heart, no self, no identity is left, only people with a value, which

can be sold on the market. People, who received a substitute identity, from their company.

People, who are subject to the likes and dislikes of their environment. But is there in this

respect a difference between the four types?

Why should there be more hope for the gamesman to survive?

Let us look more closely. Perhaps the answer lies in Maccoby's definition of a

gamesman. "The modern gamesman is best defined as a person who loves change and wants

to influence its course. He likes to take calculated risks and is fascinated by technique and new

methods. He sees a developing project, human relations and his own career in terms of options

and possibilities as if they were a game".17

The gamesman is the most detached among the four models. The more detached a human

being is from his environment the more he develops the self, or his identity. From this point of

view, the gamesman is the one with the greatest possibility to develop his whole heart and

could grow to a fully functioning person. In this definition lies the "hope" for the gamesman. I

will try to prove, with Huizinga's18

book that it is the play-element that gives the gamesman

the possibility of detaching himself from the subject and the persons he is dealing with. This

results in his being least vulnerable to lost identity appearances. Huizinga's19

main message is,

that if we do not see life as a game, we will stop our mental growth, because we will freeze

ourselves too early by seriousness, before having found the truth, or the "fun" of life.

17 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op.cit., page 100. 18 J. Huizinga, op.cit. 19 J. Huizinga, ibid. page 19 etc.


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This implies that as long as we act as gamesmen, we can grow in whatever constellation.

But why then does Maccoby20

conclude that in the eighties the gamesman's style does not

work any more?

Because, to succeed, the cool and detached gamesman needs an economy of continual

growth. In an economy with zero growth, where there is no promise that everybody can win,

this style does not work any longer, the gamesman is thrown back on himself, but there is no

real self, because he has not developed his heart.

I think we may now conclude, that in the gamesman, we have found a model open to

dynamics and change, because there is no fixation. No organization, or leaders in the

organization, can tie the gamesman down. The gamesman will only be content at the top,

where he determines the company's profile or identity. But, is it not dangerous to have a man

at the top with no developed heart? Should not these people be concerned with their own

fellow human beings?

In this section I have tried to prove that the future manager has to be a gamesman in

order to be detached enough for growing, but that he also has to develop his heart, in order to

be part of a flowing process, no fixation. I would like to conclude with the answer of a very

promising creative gamesman, Mr. Jack Wakefield, who, Maccoby thought, would enter top

management in the near future; He says: "Wakefield questioned one conclusion, viz. that he

would ever enter top management. 'It's like a club', he said, 'and maybe you can't enter it if you

are too concerned with humanization. I would like to feel it is true, but in fact those few

managers who do push hard for more social concern and responsibility on the part of their

companies are never quite fully trusted by their top level managers even though they may be

highly respected and liked in all other respects."21

20 M. Maccoby, The Leader, op.cit. page 19 21 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op.cit. page 180.


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C. WITH A DEVELOPED HEART

"The men of old, wanting to clarify and diffuse throughout the

empire that light which comes from looking straight into the heart and acting first set up good

government in their own states; wanting good government in their own states they first

established order in their families; wanting order in their families they first disciplined

themselves; desiring discipline in themselves they first rectified their hearts".22

- Mencius (Meng-Tse)

In Section B, I have tried to establish that we need gamesmen as managers in our fast

changing society, with changing technologies. However in a society with zero growth, - and

we will face that, - a gamesman without a developed heart is not equipped to bring out the

best.

Society and corporations, because of their own fast changes, have now even lost the

ability to substitute the identity of an undeveloped heart of their managers.

Today's leaders and managers are thrown back on themselves and realize their

uncertainty, their lack of acting smoothly in today's society, because the future is no longer as

predictable as it used to be.

How can we analyze today's society? We may say that Western society is interested in

return on investment (ROI), and when possible, it desires the return to be as quick and as high

as possible. All considerations about long term or even medium term disadvantages are not

regarded as important.

22 Quoted by Archibald MacLeish, "An Age of Adolescence", Washington Post, January 21, 1974.


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"Après nous le déluge" was often quoted. Only the most secure leaders with deep rooted

values of human development were willing to listen to criticism and make use of it while in a

position of power.

As Fortune points out, "MBA's looking at estimates of discounted cash flow don't like

improvements that take a long time to pay-off - even though the pay-off can ultimately be

enormous, as the Japanese have proved."23

Why is it that managers and leaders have come to such short-term behavior? Is this a

defect in our society? Or is there something wrong perhaps with the relationship of the

individual to society? It seems that improvements of personal gains in the short term, its social

drives, which are by nature weaker, slowly deteriorate. As Einstein writes24

: "All human

beings, whatever their position in society, are suffering from this process of deterioration" and

he continues "Man can find meaning in life, short and perilous as it is, only by devoting

himself to society".

I have learned much from Fromm25

, who poses the question: Can a society be

sick? He starts with the description of what men have done in the process of history to develop

its potentials and transform it to its own possibilities. Man should develop mental health. This

means that man should integrate his actions on the short-, medium- and long term with

society.

If such a thing is not achieved, mental illness can develop. The main goal of a person

should be to strive for freedom and spontaneity. If he fails in this, he may be considered to

have a severe defect. One could imagine that if this very defect is raised to a virtue by his

culture, he doesn't feel different and this may even give him a feeling of achievement. I

assume that this very defect is the lack of developing one's heart.

23 M. Maccoby, The Leader, op.cit., page 230. 24 A. Einstein, "Why Socialism" in Monthly Review, Volume I, 1949, pp 9-15. 25 E. Fromm, "The Sane Society", Rinehart and Co. Inc., New York Toronton, January 1960, pp 12-21.


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Men and managers in particular have forgotten to develop their whole personality, in

order not to become different from their surroundings and society, but the price they have paid

is losing their identity their selves. They are subject now to the likes and dislikes of their

environment.

This means that managers are not fully functioning persons, to use C. Rogers'26

phrase.

How can a manager develop his heart?

I am fully aware that this question can be answered in many ways. In my limited

knowledge, I appeal to the humanistic psychologists, people who developed their theories after

the Second World War, as a reaction I think, to the destructiveness of this war. They reacted

against the several religious institutions, which could not prevent a madman like Hitler from

coming to power -which on the contrary even appear to have helped him to power.27

From Section B it may be inferred that if one starts believing to have found the

truth, e.g. in a religion, and if one has not reached the level of self-actualization, this situation

becomes a fixation and one stops looking further. One has blocked the dynamics of growth

and also therefore criticism of oneself and society. In this context we refer to Fromm, who

taught us that: "Modern society, in spite of all the emphasis it puts upon happiness,

individuality and self-interest, has taught man to feel that not his happiness (or if we were to

use a theological term, his salvation) is the aim of life, but the fulfillment of his duty to work,

or his success."28

We all know the frightening phrase: an order is an order. We also refer to

Max Weber29

, who proved that the protestant urban middle class was the backbone of modern

capitalistic development, which treated success in worldly life as a sign of salvation.

26 C. Rogers, "On Becoming a Person", op.cit. page 183. 27 Karl Immer, Sonderheft 6, Neue Stimme, January 28, 1982. 28 E. Fromm, "Man for Himself", op.cit., page 19. 29 M. Weber. The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Charles Scribner's Sons, New York, 1930, page 65.


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The humanistic psychologists are concerned with all aspects of developing one's heart: as

seen in the aim of the Journal of Humanistic Psychology, which reads:

"The Journal of Humanistic Psychology is concerned with the publication of theoretical

and applied research, original contributions, papers, articles and studies in values, autonomy,

being, self, love, creativity, identity, growth, psychological health, organism. self-

actualization, basic needs gratification, and related concepts."30

That means, the development

of one's heart, as a continuous process in search for the self, till the real self becomes the

reflective self.

I would like to close this chapter and agree fully with Maccoby, who advises to explore

inner life, in particular the struggle to develop the human heart against ignorance, convention,

injustice, disappointment, betrayal and irrational passion. He advises us to study the Bible,

comparative religion, ethical philosophy, great literature and psychology to achieve this. An

education like that prepares one to grapple with fear, envy, pride and self-deception.

Maybe Mr. Maccoby touches the real heart of the matter by saying: "It raises questions

about the nature of human destructiveness and the legitimate use of force. Without it, a would-

be leader tends to confuse his or her character with human nature, guts with courage, worldly

success with integrity, the thrill of winning with happiness."31

30 Anthony J. Sutich and Miles A. Vich, "Readings in Humanistic Psychology, The Free Press, New York, 1969, page

7. 31 M. Maccoby, "The Leader", op.cit., page 232.


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D. TO BE ON A LEVEL OF SELF-ACTUALIZATION

Let each become all that he was created capable of being: expand, if possible, to his full

growth; and show himself at length in his own shape and stature.

Thomas Carlyle

As already mentioned in Section A, the future manager must be independent of his basic

needs, and his surroundings. He therefore must be of the level of Self-Actualization. What

does this mean, and why?

I will first explain the term "Self-Actualization" and then I will examine the different

levels of need. It will become clearer that when the manager stays on a level of lower needs,

he is "fixing" himself and becomes dependent on his environment. I will also compare the

points of view of other humanistic psychologists (Rogers, Watts, Fromm, etc.) in regard to

these levels of needs or "fixations".

Because this chapter deals with the third attribute of the future manager, and the term

"Self-Actualization" has become a well-known concept, I will often refer to the promoter of

this word, Dr. Abraham H. Maslow. The term itself was coined by Kurt Goldstein. Maslow

explains: "A much better term is 'Self-Actualization' as I have used it. It stresses 'full

humanness', the development of the biologically based nature of man, and therefore is

(empirically) normative for the whole species rather than for particular times and places, i.e. it

is less culturally relative."32

32 A.H. Maslow, "Toward a Psychology of being", Van Nostrand Rheinhold Co., New York, 2nd ed.,

1968,

page VI.


25

I will also try to explain in Section IV that because of the above explanation, the future

manager is able to cope with his environment in different cultures. But before doing so, an

explanation of the "need" levels is necessary. Maslow33

developed a hierarchy of needs. These

needs are:

1. Physiological need

2. Safety need

3. Social need

4. Esteem need

5. Self-Actualization need.

The above needs have a tendency to arrange34

themselves. When the human being is

deprived of the physiological needs - his prime needs, of food, clothing and shelter - then these

needs are strongest.

When these needs are satisfied to a certain extent, he will strive to secure this situation

and enjoy this first need in a safe environment (second need).

After both these needs are satisfied, the human being will become more social and will

establish meaningful relations with others. After having satisfied this need, the human being

wants to be more than just a member of the group, he feels the need for esteem; self-esteem as

well as recognition from others. This results in feelings of self-confidence, prestige, power and

control. There is a feeling of usefulness and the human being feels he has some effect on his

environment. Once the esteem need is satisfied to a certain extent, the self-actualization need

becomes more pre-potent. One can say, once the first four needs are satisfied, the so-called

"animal" needs35

, the human being reaches the level of "human" need.

33 A.H. Maslow, "Motivation and Personality", Harper and Row Publishers. New York, Evanston and London 1970. 34 Paul Hersey/Ken Blanchard, op.cit., page 26. 35 E. Fromm, "The Sane Society", op.cit., page 28.


26

This is the start of growing to "full-humanness". The above hierarchy of needs also has

an analogy with what Fromm calls: "being torn between two conflicting tendencies: one to

emerge from the womb, from the animal form of existence into a more human existence, from

bondage to freedom; another to return to the womb, to nature, to certainty and security,"36

Further on in this section, we will see that Maslow37

also elaborates on this analogy of

Frorm and one may say, that C. Rogers38

, when he compares life to a flowing process, also

thinks in these terms.

It is understandable that as long as human beings are subject to animal needs, they are

dependent as mentioned above. One could argue that if one reaches the level of human need,

one is still dependent on one's animal needs.

In Section E, I will elaborate on this thought. Maslow39

compares the head as the

motivator for animal needs and the heart as motivator for human needs. If these conflicting

tendencies occur, the human being will be torn between them. I now return to Maslow, who

asks: "What prevents growth forward? Why is it so hard and painful to grow forward."40

Here I think, we have touched on one of the "basics" of human inner life: on one hand

the "cramped" attitude toward safety and security, the defensive function and protection

against pain, fear, loss and threat and on the other hand the courage in order to grow.

This basic thought is worth elaborating. If we really do recognize these inner forces, then

we have started to grow, to quote Maslow, and this is the main message of this section.

36 Ibid, page 27 37 A.H. Maslow, "Toward a Psychology of Being", op.cit., page 46/47. 38 C. Rogers, "On Becoming a Person", op.cit., page 27. 39 A.H. Maslow, "Notes on Being - Psychology", Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 1962, Fall. 40 A.H. Maslow, "Toward a Psychology of Being", op.cit., page 46.


27

"One set (of forces) tends to regress backward, afraid to grow away from the primitive

communication with the mother's uterus and breast, afraid to take chances, afraid to jeopardize

what he already has, afraid of independence, freedom and separateness. The other set of forces

impels it forward toward wholeness of self and uniqueness of self, toward full functioning of

all his capacities, toward confidence in the face of the external world at the same time he can

accept his deepest, real, unconscious self."41

I hope that we now see that there is a dynamic flow in both directions. The flow could be

compared with a flow of energy. Depending on the intensity, say pressure, the energy will be

used against or for growth. In Section E, I will come back to this analogy.

Maslow42

explains that in this growth process (we would call this the "unblocking" of the

psycho-process, to be initiated by psychotherapy, or motivation, or whatever we like), that we

are enhancing the attractions for growing and minimizing the fear of growing. I do not intend

to go into more detail, but by this "dynamic" it is possible to understand that a human being

can grow to a level of self-actualization, which makes him capable of reacting in a fast and

secure manner to a changing environment.

Maslow43

has called people who are on this self-actualization level, "Being-people".

"Being"- people, living on a "Being"- level, with "Being"- values or "B"- values. I hope

that we will now agree that the third attribute of the Future Manager exists on the level of self-

actualization, where, "he should learn to search for and develop his own potential, his own

individuality, and his own uniqueness".44

41 Ibid page 46 42 Ibid page 47 43 Ibid page 42 44 Charles A. Reich, "The Greening of America", Random House, New York, 1970, page 360.


28

E. AT AN OPTIMAL DISTANCE BETWEEN:

HEAD AND HEART VERSUS GOAL

"The perfect way is without difficulty, Save that it avoids picking and choosing.

Only when you stop liking and disliking will all be clearly understood.

A split hair's difference, and heaven and earth are set apart!

If you want to get the plain truth,

Be not concerned with right and wrong.

The conflict between right and wrong is the sickness of the mind."

Hsin-hsin Ming45

The fourth attribute of the future manager is the right mix of the three former attributes.

It is generally understood that if we are all "head" we become like a cool and calculating

machine. If we should be all "heart", we cannot exist in this world without being cared for by

someone in our surroundings. Only with these two attributes combined, do we have the

possibility of growing to our full personality.

In this section I would like to approach the subject from several viewpoints. I will start

with some data Maccoby46

collected during his research on 250 managers concerning the

relationship between head and heart. After this I would like to compare Maslow's47

approach

to this subject - Maslow's "Head"-values, he called them Deficiency-values, or D-values

versus "Heart"-values or Being-values, shortened to B-values - to see if he comes to a balance.

I also think Fromm's48

view is valuable to compare in this context.

45 Alan W. Watts, The Way of Zen, Pantheon Book Inc., New York, 1957, page 116. 46 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op cit. 47 A.H. Maslow, Toward a Psychology of Being, op cit. 48 E. Fromm, The Crisis of Psychoanalysis, Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex, England, 1978.


29

During his survey of middle- and top level executives, Maccoby49

also asked some

questions about character traits, and he asked these managers to list those traits important for

the work, or those stimulated or reinforced by the work. He observed that in advanced- and

high-technology companies, the work of the managers stimulates and reinforces attitudes

which are essential for intellectual innovation and teamwork - qualities of the head. Because

there is not a strong need for qualities of the heart such as, compassion, generosity and

idealism, such qualities remain underdeveloped.

Maccoby and his assistants tried to rate these managers on their level of production in

both work and love (agape), this kind of love, also-called "giving love" is different to the love,

(Eros), or "taking love".

It was, as can be expected, a group much more productive in terms of work than of love.

He found: "80 percent expressed at least moderate interest in their work to 45 percent

expressing moderate interest in another human person."50

One could conclude that those who

moved up the ladder the most rapidly appeared to be not the most loving.

It is a hopeful sign, however, that when these managers were faced with the results of the

survey, they were touched and worried. They asked themselves; "How they could change their

work or institute new programs to develop their heart."51

Maccoby really tried to find an

answer to this basic question.

In the chapter on the Psychology of Development52

, he compares Maslow=s theory of

needs to his underdeveloped heart.

49 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op. cit., p. 184-195. 50 Ibid, page 187 51 Ibid, page 188. 52 Ibid, page 225


30

I am fully convinced, that if in our society, children were brought up with more tolerance

and agape, we could emerge to a type of human being who learns to be more open with

development of the heart, also at later stages in life. Maccoby's balance between head and

heart is more an appeal than a statement, which needs continuous attention but: "This requires

creating the structures and process that further human and economic development, that involve

people in solving problems equitably, understanding themselves and the universe, in a spirit of

disciplined play and informed benevolence."53

In Maslow's Notes on "Being"- Psychology, he compares the B-values with the D-

values. Maslow explains that if a human being has come to a level of self-actualization, he has

the tendency to become richer and more complete as a person, but he perceives the world

without judgment, comparison, condemnation or evaluation. The B-people have also a

B(eing)-cognition, and as such they are without decision-making ability. They act without

thinking, because B-cognition is passive contemplation, appreciation, and non-interfering. We

should be aware that these values make a person inactive. Maslow explains: "It is only when

the cognition shifts to D-(efficiency-need-motivation)-cognition of the head, that action,

decision, judgment, punishment, condemnation, and planning for the future become

possible."54

In this paper, I will not go into more detail about the balance between B-cognition vs. D-

cognition - the balance, according to Maslow, between heart and head, but will finish by

quoting Maccoby when he speaks about Maslow: "Despite his conscious attempt to develop a

modern humanistic psychology, Maslow ends up by supporting, even celebrating some values

- hierarchy, mechanistic thought, idealization of success, careerism - that block the

development of the heart."55

53 M. Maccoby, The Leader, op.cit., page 237. 54 A.H. Maslow, Notes on Being - Psychology, op.cit., page 70. 55 M. Maccoby, The Gamesman, op.cit., page 251.


31

I would now like to turn to Fromm56

. In his essay on Humanistic Planning he suggests

many useful things concerning the interrelation between work and human interest, or the head

and the heart.

Fromm talks about "industrial psychologists", who as their profession implies, work to

achieve a kind of harmony between human and industrial interests. This harmony assumes that

what is best for man is best for industry. I agree with Fromm that the fundamental question is

camouflaged, namely: "What are we really concerned with? Are we primarily concerned with

the growth of man, or are we concerned with production or machines, or the organization"57

.

Fromm then analyzes that man has two different sets of values, one set he believes in, and one

set in which he acts in a different direction. This "split-level" saps his energy, makes him

defensive. The final result with only head, will lead to a technological society in which the

"credo" is, "one ought to do, whatever is technically possible to do."58

This will lead to an unavoidable collision between the norms of humanism and the

commands of technical progress. Fromm's view of two extremes, the head and the heart. Is

there an optimum? His suggestion to come to a solution is : "What is conducive to the full

growth of the total man, of all his capacities and potentialities, what is good for the attainment

of his optimal human maturity."59

If we assess the above views, we will find no ready solution, and I do realize that in the

Middle ages the humanist Erasmus already remarked: "The final wisdom is the balance

between heart and head, and every disturbance of this harmony is related to folly,"60

(own

translation).

56 E. Fromm, The Crisis of Psychoanalysis, op.cit. 57 Ibid,page 87 58 Ibid, page 89 59 Ibid, page 90 60 D. van Damme, Erasmus, Het Spectrum NV, Utrecht/Antwerpen, 1960, p. 114


32

F. IN ORDER TO USE ONE'S ENERGY IN THE MOST EFFICIENT MANNER

"The principal injury they inflict lies in the expense of mental energy they entail, besides this,

in the energy needed to combat them. Where the symptoms are extensively developed, these

two kinds of effort may exact such a price that the person suffers a very serious

impoverishment in available mental energy, which consequently disables him for all the

important tasks in life."

Freud61

This chapter is perhaps the most daring one. For a long time, the dynamics of the human

body in relation to the human mind and soul, have intrigued me. I have always thought that

there must be a common denominator between human beings, which is expressed in the

amount of energy, which can be applied.

If one assumes that human beings more or less generate the same amount of energy, why

does the effective energy vary so much from person to person? If performance is a result of

applied energy, why is there such a tremendous difference between people? If we could find a

reasonable explanation in this field, it would clear up a lot of misunderstandings.

It would also be relatively simple to explain the dynamics and interrelations between

head and heart and the dynamics of achieving the level of self-actualization. After thorough

research I found that Carl Gustav Jung, the famous soul-searcher, wrote a book about this

subject.62

.

Although the book is written in old-fashioned German, several thoughts and

explanations by Jung simplify the understanding of what is going on within a human being.

61 Freud, S., General Introduction to Psycho- Analysis. XXIII 62 C.G. Jung, op.cit.


33

After reading this book, and reviewing sections III-B, C and D, I decided to ventilate

Jung's views, because they bring us perhaps closer to the understanding of the harmony

between head and heart. I do not know if there exists an official English translation of this

book, and therefore I apologize for any distortion in translation.

I will first go through several ideas of Jung, and after that I will try to apply them to the

above mentioned sections, in order to arrive at a better understanding. In all the literature I

studied, I have found no reference to this book. On the contrary, I think that many scientists

have not read it. We will see that Jung claims the general application of the idea "libido", as

the source of energy, but it is always attributed to Freud.

In the introduction Jung63

explains that the conception of the "libido", as he (Jung) has

suggested, has generated many misunderstandings, even complete rejection. What, according

to Jung, is this "libido"? Jung states64

that the potential difference between instinct and

character generates the psychical energy. He65

also states that he does not connect any sexual

definition with the word "libido". He states "That the libido, with which we operate, is not

even concrete or known, but flatly is an 'X' a pure hypothesis, a 'picture' or a 'counting'

principle (Rechenpfennig) exactly as incomprehensible, as the energy of physical science."66

Having made that clear, he continues to explain the principle of equivalence67

.

That means that for all energy applied and used to achieve something, somewhere else

an exact amount of the same or a different form of energy appears.

63 Ibid, pages 9 64 Ibid, pages 88-89 65 Ibid, page 51 66 Ibid, page 52 67 Ibid, page 32


34

He declares68

that this definition is basic to all the rest of his publication. He then

explains69

the phenomenon of the use of energy by neurosis, which is absorbed in the

unconscious.

Jung70

then sees the human being without culture as a natural phenomenon, not

generating anything. Culture however, is like a machine which generates energy by using this

natural phenomenon's descent. He says71

, as the power station transforms the waterfall and

generates energy, so the psychical machine transforms the spiritual driving force and generates

energy.

Jung then compares the method of psychoanalysis to relocate the power station. He

says: "The power station which is situated too high and is therefore become unsuitable to

operate, has to be dismantled and rebuilt in the appropriate place, in order to generate energy

in the most efficient way."72

The above analogy makes it possible for us to get a better understanding of the

dynamics of a human being.

We could also compare the "libido" with the tension between instinct (heart) and culture

(head) and the shifting of head and heart with the progression and regression of the libido. To

come to the level of self-actualization means, we have mastered a continuous, progressive

shifting of the libido, without disturbing the balance too much.

One may imagine that with a continuous observing of one's power station, and changing

of "spiritual technologies" it could be possible to generate more energy and by observing the

harmony of our head and heart, we could free more energy, which could be used for better

adaptation to the environment.

68 Ibid, page 33 69 Ibid, pages 34-35 70 Ibid, page 70 71 Ibid, page 71 72 Ibid, page 83


35

Translated to modern times Jung's analogy has been the introduction to the 'Dynamic

Equilibrium' idea, also called: 'Steady State', as explained by Emery and Trist: "In

contradiction to physical objects, any living entity survives by importing into itself certain

types of material from its environment, transforming these in accordance with its own system

characteristics, and exporting other types back into the environment.

By this process the organism obtains the additional energy that renders it "negentropic";

it becomes capable of attaining stability in a time-independent steady state, a necessary

condition of adaptability to environmental variance".73

With the above views and thoughts in

mind, one can visualize the energy process within oneself leading to a realization of the

necessity for balance in human relationships and ultimately, to an optimalization of this energy

through the process of 'Equal Exchange'.

73 F.E. Emery and E.L. Trist, The Casual Texture of Organizational Environments, Human Relations,

February 1965, page 21.


36

SECTION IV

FINAL REMARKS AND CONCLUSIONS

In section B, "The Gamesman", lies a part of our ideal model. A detached

human being, who sees life as "fun", as a game. As he is not tied down, his personality can

grow and develop, not to his full personality however. It needs an interrelation with the heart.

As a remark we could say, if one wants to achieve material wealth, as the main objective, the

above model would apply. In this study however we look for a fully developed human being.

In section C, "With a developed heart", I have tried to draw attention to the fact that the

heart is the residence of the natural human being. The heart reacts to all forces which are

dangers to human beings in the short-, medium- and long term: pollution, destructiveness etc.

In this context, I would like to quote Fromm again, when he concludes his masterpiece: "The

situation of mankind today is too serious to permit us to listen to the demagogues. Least of all

demagogues who are attracted to destruction - or even to the leaders who use only their brains

and whose hearts have hardened. Critical and radical thought will only bear fruit when it is

blended with the most precious quality man is endowed with - the love of life."74

I would conclude this section by stating that if man fails to develop his heart, he misses

the "limit switches" or the "early warning system" which keeps his brain (head) in control.

This applies to mankind generally and therefore also to managers in particular.

In section D, "To be on a level of self-actualization", I hope I have explained where the

starting point for further growth is. To be fixed at the level of animal needs means, no further

growth and therefore an incapacity to function fully.

74 E. Fromm, The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness, Jonathan Cape, London, 1974.


37

Section E. "At an optimal distance between head and heart versus goal", is an attempt to

find the balance between the three former attributes.

While it is impossible to say what the right mix should be, as long as the interrelation

between head and heart, on the right level, is there, undisturbed, life will adjust this balance

continuously. It is a flowing process. Above the 'whole' manager system is a manager in a

'steady state' or Dynamic Equilibrium75

, in tune with his environment.

One could also say this to be in 'congruence'76

with his 'steady state' organization. For

better understanding, Rogers' definition of this congruence is: "The greater the congruence of

experience, awareness and communication on the part of one individual, the more the ensuing

relationship will involve; a tendency toward reciprocal communication with a quality of

increasing congruence: a tendency toward more mutually accurate understanding of the

communications; improved psychological adjustment and functioning in both parties; mutual

satisfaction in the relationship and vice versa."77

Section F, " In order to use one's energy in the most efficient manner", is an attempt to

visualize the energy flows within a human being. It is also an attempt to explain the term

"Equal Exchange" between human beings. When a relationship is an unequal exchange, it will

become a frustration, people will get disillusioned etc. - no balance.

By "recomposing" our ideal manager with the above sub-systems, my tentative

definition of the ideal manager, becomes more definite.

75 F.E. Kast and J.F. Rosenzweig, The Modern View: "A Systems Aproach", in Organization and Management,

McGraw Hill,

New York, 1970, page 125. 76 C. Rogers, On Becoming a Person, op. cit., page 344 77 Ibid, pages 344-345


38

BIBLIOGRAPHY BERN, Eric : Games People Play, Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex, England, 1967.

BLAKE, R.R. and : The New Managerial Grid, Gulf MOUTON, J.S.Publishing

Company, Houston, Texas, 1978.

DAMME, D. van : Erasmus, Het Spectrum N.V., Utrecht, 1960.

DRUCKER, Peter F. : The Effective Executive, Pan Books Ltd., London, England, 1960.

IMMER, K. : Sonderheft 6, Neue Stimme, Bonn, January 28, 1982.

FROMM, E. : The Crisis of Psychoanalysis, Penguin Books Ltd., Middlesex,

England, 1978.

FROMM, E. : Man for Himself, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, England,

\1975.

FROMM, E. : Escape from Freedom, Rinehart and Co. Inc., New York/Toronto,

1941.

FROMM, E. : The Sane Society, Rinehart and Co. Ltd., New York/Toronto, 1960.

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England, 1974.

FOREM, J. : Transcendental Meditation, George Allen and Unwin Ltd., London,

England, 1974.

HARRIS, T.A. : I'm O.K. - You're O.K., Pan Books Ltd., London, England, 1973.

HERSEY, P. and

BLANCHARD, K. : Management of Organizational Behaviour, Prentice-

Hall Inc., Inglewood Cliffs, New York, 1982.

HUIZINGA, J. : Homo Ludens, Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd., London, Boston and

Henley, 1980.

JONGEWAARD, D. : Everybody Wins: Transactional Analysis Applied to Organizations,

Addison - Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Ma., Menlo Park, Cal.,

London, Amsterdam - Don Mills, Out., Sydney, 1976.

JUNG, C.G. : Über die Energetik der Seele, Rascher & Cie A.G., Verlag, Zürich,

Leipzig und Stuttgart, 1928.

KAST, F.F. and. : "The Modern View: A Systems Approach", in

ROSENZWEIG, J.F Organization and Management, McGraw Hill, New York, 1970.

LASCH, Christ. : The Culture of Narcissism, W.W. Norton and Co. Inc., New York,

1978.

LEAVITT, H.J. : Managerial Psychology, 3rd Edition, The University of Chicago

Press, Chicago and London, 1972.

LIKERT, R. : The Human Organization, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New

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MCGREGOR, D. : The Human Side of Enterprise, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc.,

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MACCOBY, M. : The Gamesman, Bantam Books, Inc., New York, 1978.


39

MACCOBY, M. : The Leader, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1981.

MASLOW, A.H. : Toward a Psychology of Being, Von Nostrand Reinhold Co., New

York, Cincinnati, Toronto, London, Evanston and London, 1970.

OUCHI, W.G. : Theory Z, Avon Books, New York, 1982.

PETIT, Th.A. : A Behavioral Theory of Management, Academy of Management

Journal, December 1967.

ROGERS, C.R. : On Becoming a Person, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1961.

REICH, Ch. A. : The Greening of America, Random House, New York, 1970.

SCHUMACHER, E.F. : Small is Beautiful, Blond and Briggs Ltd., London, 1976.

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A Guide for the Perplexed, Jonathan Cape, London, 1977.

SIMON, H.A. : The New Science of Management Decision, Prentice-Hall Inc.,

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SUTICH, A.J. and

VICH, M.A. : Readings in Humanistic Psychology, The Free Press, New York,

1969.

TOFFLER, A. : The Third Wave, William Collins Sons and Co. Ltd., London,

Glasgow, Sydney, Auckland, Toronto, Johannesburg, 1980.

WALTON, C. : The Ethics of Corporate Conduct, Prentice-Hall Inc., Englewood

Cliffs, New York, 1977.

WATTS, A.W. : The Way of Zen, The New American Library of World Literature

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: The Wisdom of Insecurity, Pantheon Books, New York, 1951.

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40

Post Scriptem

This study has been typed in 1983 in a hurry and for that reason many errors etc. were not

corrected in the first issue.

During 2 periods above has been corrected while simultaneously the study was introduced in a

word processor. No essential things have been changed.

For reason of completeness, the judging and grading by Dr. Alden G. Lank has been added to

this study.

Some effort has been given to incorporate the comments of AGL.


41

19-04-1983

Drewes,

I have spent more time reading your elective than anyone else's - particularly because I was

forced to do so (its hard going for the reader in places) but also because of my considerable

interest in what you had set out to do.

Grading the output is an enormously difficult task for me. On one side (as you will see in my

marginal comments), there are several passages which are extremely hard to understand -

ambiguities, internal inconsistencies and less than perfect bridge-building between ideas. On

the other side, you have undertaken a most challenging task - to try to make sense out of a

huge mass of humanistic psychological literature, showing both consistencies and

inconsistencies and relating the whole to your major thesis. On top of it, you start (as you

admit) from a position of non-expert which is either courage or stupidity. And yet, you have

pulled it off in a way which is understandable to me and which, frankly, I find exciting - as I'm

sure Michael Maccoby would.

So, after a lot of thought and after admitting there are quite a few weaknesses, I have

concluded it would be unfair to give you anything less than a grade:

very good - excellent (4.5)

You deserve a lot of credit for undertaking such a task and for having succeeded as well as

you did. Congratulations.

Alden G. Lank.

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