APhilosophicalDictionaryinTenVolumes

Vol.III:Cannibals—Councils

By

Voltaire

CANNIBALS.

SectionI.

Wehavespokenof love. It ishard topass frompeoplekissing topeopleeatingoneanother.Itis,however,buttootruethattherehavebeencannibals.WehavefoundtheminAmerica;theyare,perhaps,stilltobefound;andtheCyclops were not the only individuals in antiquity who sometimes fed onhumanflesh.Juvenalrelates thatamongtheEgyptians—thatwisepeople,sorenownedfortheirlaws—thosepiousworshippersofcrocodilesandonions—the Tentyrites ate one of their enemieswho had fallen into their hands. Hedoesnottellthistaleonhearsay;thecrimewascommittedalmostbeforehiseyes; hewas then in Egypt, and not far from Tentyra. On this occasion hequotestheGasconsandtheSaguntines,whoformerlyfedonthefleshoftheircountrymen.

In1725foursavageswerebroughtfromtheMississippitoFontainebleau,withwhomIhad thehonorofconversing.Therewasamong thema ladyofthe country, whom I asked if she had eatenmen; she answered, with greatsimplicity that she had. I appeared somewhat scandalized; on which sheexcusedherselfby saying that itwasbetter to eatone'sdeadenemy than toleavehimtobedevouredbywildbeasts,andthattheconquerorsdeservedtohave thepreference.Wekillourneighbors inbattles,orskirmishes;and, forthemeanestconsideration,providemealsforthecrowsandtheworms.Thereisthehorror;thereisthecrime.Whatmattersit,whenamanisdead,whetherheiseatenbyasoldier,orbyadogandacrow?

Wehavemorerespectforthedeadthanfortheliving.Itwouldbebettertorespectboththeoneandtheother.Thenationscalledpolishedhavedonerightinnotputtingtheirvanquishedenemiesonthespit;forifwewereallowedtoeatourneighbors,weshouldsooneatourcountrymen,whichwouldberatherunfortunatefor thesocialvirtues.Butpolishednationshavenotalwaysbeenso; they were all for a long time savage; and, in the infinite number ofrevolutionswhich this globe has undergone,mankind have been sometimesnumerousandsometimesscarce.Ithasbeenwithhumanbeingsas itnowiswithelephants,lions,ortigers,theraceofwhichhasverymuchdecreased.Intimeswhenacountrywasbutthinlyinhabitedbymen,theyhadfewarts;theywere hunters. The customof eatingwhat they had killed easily led them totreat their enemies like their stags and their boars. It was superstition thatcausedhumanvictims tobe immolated; itwasnecessity thatcaused themtobeeaten.

Whichisthegreatercrime—toassemblepiouslytogethertoplungeaknife

intotheheartofagirladornedwithfillets,ortoeataworthlessmanwhohasbeenkilledinourowndefence?

Yetwehavemanymoreinstancesofgirlsandboyssacrificedthanofgirlsand boys eaten. Almost every nation of which we know anything hassacrificed boys and girls. The Jews immolated them. This was called theAnathema;itwasarealsacrifice;andinLeviticusitisordainedthatthelivingsoulswhichshallbedevotedshallnotbespared;but it isnot inanymannerprescribedthattheyshallbeeaten;thisisonlythreatened.MosestellstheJewsthatunlesstheyobservehisceremoniestheyshallnotonlyhavetheitch,butthemothers shall eat their children. It is true that in the timeofEzekiel theJewsmusthavebeenaccustomed to eat human flesh; for, inhis thirty-ninthchapter, he foretells to them that God will cause them to eat, not only thehorses of their enemies, but moreover the horsemen and the rest of thewarriors.And, indeed,whyshouldnot theJewshavebeencannibals?ItwastheonlythingwantingtomakethepeopleofGodthemostabominablepeopleuponearth.

SectionII.

Intheessayonthe"MannersandSpiritofNations"wereadthefollowingsingularpassage:"HerreraassuresusthattheMexicansatethehumanvictimswhom they immolated.Most of the first travellers andmissionaries say thattheBrazilians,theCaribbees,theIroquois,theHurons,andsomeothertribes,atetheircaptivestakeninwar;andtheydonotconsiderthisasthepracticeofsomeindividualsalone,butasanationalusage.Somanywriters,ancientandmodern,havespokenofcannibals,thatitisdifficulttodenytheirexistence.Ahunting people, like the Brazilians or the Canadians, not always having acertain subsistence, may sometimes become cannibals. Famine and revengeaccustomedthemtothiskindoffood;andwhileinthemostcivilizedageswesee the people of Paris devouring the bleeding remains ofMarshal d'Ancre,andthepeopleofTheHagueeatingtheheartofthegrandpensionary,DeWitt,we ought not to be surprised that amomentary outrage among us has beencontinualamongsavages.

"Themostancientbookswehaveleavenoroomtodoubtthathungerhasdriven men to this excess. The prophet Ezekiel, according to somecommentators, promises to the Hebrews from God that if they defendthemselveswellagainstthekingofPersia,theyshalleatof'thefleshofhorsesandofmightymen.'

"Marco Polo says that in his time in a part of Tartary themagicians orpriests—it was the same thing—had the privilege of eating the flesh ofcriminals condemned to death. All this is shocking to the feelings; but thepictureofhumanitymustoftenhavethesameeffect.

"Howcanithavebeenthatnationsconstantlyseparatedfromoneanotherhave united in so horrible a custom? Must we believe that it is not soabsolutelyopposedtohumannatureasitappearstobe?Itiscertainthatithasbeenrare,butitisequallycertainthatithasexisted.ItisnotknownthattheTartars and the Jews often ate their fellow creatures. During the sieges ofSancerre and Paris, in our religious wars, hunger and despair compelledmotherstofeedonthefleshoftheirchildren.ThecharitableLasCasas,bishopof Chiapa, says that this horror was committed in America, only by somenationsamongwhomhehadnottravelled.Dampierreassuresusthathenevermetwith cannibals; and at this day there are not, perhaps, any tribeswhichretainthishorriblecustom."

Americus Vespucius says in one of his letters that the Brazilians weremuch astonished when he made them understand that for a long time theEuropeanshadnoteatentheirprisonersofwar.

AccordingtoJuvenal'sfifteenthsatire,theGasconsandtheSpaniardshadbeen guilty of this barbarity.He himselfwitnessed a similar abomination inEgypt during the consulate of Junius. A quarrel happening between theinhabitantsofTentyraandthoseofOmbi,theyfought;andanOmbianhavingfallenintothehandsoftheTentyrians,theyhadhimcooked,andatehim,allbutthebarebones.Buthedoesnotsaythatthiswastheusualcustom;onthecontrary,hespeaksofitasanactofmorethanordinaryfury.

The Jesuit Charlevoix,whom I knew verywell, andwhowas aman ofgreat veracity, gives us clearly to understand in his "History ofCanada," inwhichcountryheresidedthirtyyears,thatallthenationsofnorthernAmericawerecannibals;sinceheremarks,asa thingveryextraordinary, that in1711theAcadiansdidnoteatmen.

The Jesuit Brebeuf relates that in 1640 the first Iroquois that wasconverted, having unfortunately got drunk with brandy, was taken by theHurons, then at war with the Iroquois. The prisoner, baptized by FatherBrebeuf by the name of Joseph,was condemned to death.Hewas put to athousand tortures,which he endured, singing all thewhile, according to thecustomofhiscountry.Theyfinishedbycuttingoffafoot,ahand,andlastlyhishead;afterwhichtheHuronsputallthemembersintoacauldron,eachonepartookofthem,andapiecewasofferedtoFatherBrebeuf.

Charlevoix speaks in another place of twenty-two Hurons eaten by theIroquois.Itcannot,then,bedoubted,thatinmorecountriesthanone,humannaturehasreachedthislastpitchofhorror;andthisexecrablecustommustbeofthehighestantiquity;forweseeintheHolyScripturesthattheJewswerethreatenedwitheatingtheirchildreniftheydidnotobeytheirlaws.TheJewsaretoldnotonlythattheyshallhavetheitch,andthattheirwivesshallgive

themselvesuptoothers,butalsothattheyshalleattheirsonsanddaughtersinanguish and devastation; that they shall contend with one another for theeatingoftheirchildren;andthatthehusbandwillnotgivetohiswifeamorselofherson,because,hewillsay,hehashardlyenoughforhimself.

SomeveryboldcriticsdoindeedassertthattheBookofDeuteronomywasnotcomposeduntilafterthesiegeofSamariabyBenhadad,duringwhich,itissaid in theSecondBookofKings, thatmothersate theirchildren.But thesecritics, in considering Deuteronomy as a book written after the siege ofSamaria,dobutverifythisterribleoccurrence.OthersassertthatitcouldnothappenasitisrelatedintheSecondBookofKings.Itistheresaid:"Andasthe king of Israelwas passing by upon thewall [of Samaria], there cried awomanuntohim,saying,'Help,mylord,Oking.'Andhesaid,'IftheLorddonothelp thee,whence shall I help thee?outof thebarn floor?oroutof thewine-press?'Andthekingsaiduntoher,'Whataileththee?'Andsheanswered,'Thiswomansaiduntome,givethyson,thatwemayeathimto-day,andweshalleatmysonto-morrow.Soweboiledmyson,anddideathim;andIsaiduntoheronthenextday,'Givethyson,thatwemayeathim,'andshehathhidherson.'"

These censors assert that it is not likely that while King BenhadadwasbesiegingSamaria,KingJorampassedquietlybythewall,oruponthewall,tosettledifferencesbetweenSamaritanwomen.Itisstilllesslikelythatonechildshould not have satisfied two women for two days. There must have beenenoughtofeedthemforfourdaysatleast.Butletthesecriticsreasonastheymay,wemust believe that fathers andmothers ate their children during thesiege of Samaria, since it is expressly foretold in Deuteronomy. The samething happened at the siege of JerusalembyNebuchadnezzar; and this, too,wasforetoldbyEzekiel.

Jeremiahexclaims,inhis"Lamentations":"Shallthewomeneattheirfruit,andchildrenofaspanlong?"Andinanotherplace:"Thehandsofthepitifulwomen have sodden their own children." Heremay be added the words ofBaruch:"Manhaseatenthefleshofhissonandofhisdaughter."

Thishorrorisrepeatedsooftenthatitcannotbutbetrue.Lastly,weknowthestory related inJosephus,of thewomanwhofedon the fleshofher sonwhenTituswasbesiegingJerusalem.Thebookattributed toEnoch,citedbySt.Jude,says that thegiantsbornfromthecommerceof theangelswith thedaughtersofmenwerethefirstcannibals.

In the eighthhomily attributed toSt.Clement,St.Peter,who ismade tospeakinit,saysthatthesesamegiantsquenchedtheirthirstwithhumanbloodand ate the flesh of their fellow creatures. Hence resulted, adds the author,maladies until then unknown;monsters of all kinds sprung up on the earth;

andthenitwasthatGodresolvedtodrownallhumankind.Allthisshowsushowuniversalwasthereigningopinionoftheexistenceofcannibals.

What St. Peter is made to say in St. Clement's homily has a palpableaffinitywiththestoryofLycaon,oneoftheoldestofGreekfables,andwhichwefindinthefirstbookofOvid's"Metamorphoses."

The"Relationsof theIndiesandChina,"written in theeighthcenturybytwo Arabs, and translated by the Abbé Renaudot, is not a book to whichimplicitcreditshouldbeattached;farfromit;butwemustnotrejectallthesetwotravellerssay,especiallywhentheir testimonyiscorroboratedby thatofotherauthorswhohavemeritedsomebelief.TheytellusthatthereareintheIndianSea islandspeopledwithblackswhoatemen; they call these islandsRamni.

MarcoPolo,whohadnotreadtheworksofthesetwoArabs,saysthesamething four hundred years after them. Archbishop Navarette, who wasafterwardsavoyagerinthesameseas,confirmsthisaccount:"LosEuropeosquecogen,esconstantequevivosselosvancomiendo."

TexeiraassertsthatthepeopleofJavaatehumanflesh,whichabominablecustomtheyhadnotleftoffmorethantwohundredyearsbeforehistime.Headds that they did not learn milder manners until they embracedMahometanism.

ThesamethinghasbeensaidofthepeopleofPegu,oftheKaffirs,andofseveralotherAfricannations.MarcoPolo,whomwehavejustnowcited,saysthatinsomeTartarhordes,whenacriminalhadbeencondemnedtodeaththeymade a meal of him: "Hanno costoro un bestiale e orribile costume, chequandoalcunoeguidicatoamorte,lotolgono,ecuocono,emangian'selo."

WhatismoreextraordinaryandincredibleisthatthetwoArabsattributedtotheChinesewhatMarcoPolosaysofsomeoftheTartars:that,"ingeneral,theChineseeatallwhohavebeenkilled."ThisabominationissorepugnanttoChinesemanners,thatitcannotbebelieved.FatherParenninhasrefuteditbysayingthatitisunworthyofrefutation.

Itmust,however,beobservedthattheeighthcentury,thetimewhentheseArabswrote their travels,was one of thosemost disastrous to theChinese.Two hundred thousand Tartars passed the great wall, plundered Pekin, andeverywherespreadthemosthorribledesolation.Itisverylikelythattherewasthenagreat famine, forChinawasaspopulousas it isnow;andsomepoorcreaturesamongthelowestofthepeoplemighteatdeadbodies.Whatinterestcould theseArabians have in inventing so disgusting a fable? Perhaps they,likemostothertravellers,tookaparticularinstanceforanationalcustom.

Nottogosofarforexamples,wehaveoneinourowncountry,inthevery

province inwhich Iwrite; it is attestedbyour conqueror, ourmaster, JuliusCæsar.HewasbesiegingAlexia,intheAuxois.Thebesiegedbeingresolvedto defend themselves to the last extremity, and wanting provisions, a greatcouncil was assembled, in which one of the chiefs, named Critognatus,proposed that the children should be eaten one after another to sustain thestrengthofthecombatants.Hisproposalwascarriedbyamajorityofvoices.Noristhisall;Critognatusinhisharanguetellsthemthattheirancestorshadhad recourse to thesamekindof sustenance in thewarwith theCimbriandTeutones.

WewillconcludewiththetestimonyofMontaigne.SpeakingofwhatwastoldhimbythecompanionsofVillegagnon,returnedfromBrazil,andofwhathehadseeninFrance,hecertifiesthattheBraziliansatetheirenemieskilledinwar,butmarkwhatfollows:"Isitmorebarbaroustoeatamanwhendeadthantohavehimroastedbyaslowfire,ortorntopiecesbydogsandswine,asis yet fresh in our memories—and that not between ancient enemies, butamong neighbors and fellow-citizens—and, which is worse, on pretence ofpietyandreligion?"WhataquestionforaphilosopherlikeMontaigne!Then,ifAnacreonandTibullushadbeenIroquois,theywouldhaveeatenmen!Alas!alas!

SectionIII.

Well;twoEnglishmenhavesailedroundtheworld.TheyhavediscoveredthatNewHolland isan island larger thanEurope,and thatmenstill eatoneanotherthere,asinNewZealand.Whencecomethisrace?supposingthattheyexist.AretheydescendedfromtheancientEgyptians,fromtheancientpeopleofEthiopia,fromtheAfricans,fromtheIndians—orfromthevultures,orthewolves? What a contrast between Marcus Aurelius, or Epictetus, and thecannibals of New Zealand! Yet they have the same organs, they are alikehumanbeings.Wehavealreadytreatedonthispropertyofthehumanrace;itmaynotbeamisstoaddanotherparagraph.

The following are St. Jerome's own words in one of his letters: "Quidloquar de cæteris nationibus, quum ipse adolescentulus in Gallia viderimScotos, gentem Britannicam, humanis vesci carnibus, et quum per silvasporcorumgregespecudumquereperiant,tamenpastorumnatesetfæminarumpapillassolereabscindereethassolasciborumdeliciasarbitrari?"—WhatshallI sayofothernations;whenImyself,whenyoung,haveseenScotchmen inGaul, who, though theymight have fed on swine and other animals of theforest,choserathertocutofftheposteriorsoftheyouthsandthebreastsoftheyoungwomen,andconsideredthemasthemostdeliciousfood."

Pelloutier,whosoughtforeverythingthatmightdohonortotheCelts,tookthe pains to contradict Jerome, and to maintain that his credulity had been

imposedon.But Jerome speaksverygravely, andofwhat he saw.Wemay,withdeference,disputewithafatherof thechurchaboutwhathehasheard;buttodoubtofwhathehasseenisgoingveryfar.Afterall,thesafestwayistodoubtofeverything,evenofwhatwehaveseenourselves.

One word more on cannibalism. In a book which has had considerablesuccessamongthewell-disposedwefindthefollowing,orwordstothesameeffect: "In Cromwell's time a woman who kept a tallow chandler's shop inDublinsoldexcellentcandles,madeofthefatofEnglishmen.Aftersometimeoneofhercustomerscomplainedthatthecandleswerenotsogood.'Sir,'saidthewoman,'itisbecauseweareshortofEnglishmen.'"

Iaskwhichwerethemostguilty—thosewhoassassinatedtheEnglish,orthepoorwomanwhomadecandlesoftheirfat?Andfurther,Iaskwhichwasthe greatest crime—to have Englishmen cooked for dinner, or to use theirtallowtogivelightatsupper?Itappearstomethatthegreatevilisthebeingkilled;itmatterslittletouswhether,afterdeath,weareroastedonthespitoraremade intocandles. Indeed,nowell-disposedmancanbeunwilling tobeusefulwhenheisdead.

CASTING(INMETAL).

Thereisnotanancientfable,notanoldabsurditywhichsomesimpletonwillnotrevive,andthatinamagisterialtone,ifitbebutauthorizedbysomeclassicalortheologicalwriter.

Lycophron(ifIrememberrightly)relatesthatahordeofrobberswhohadbeen justly condemned inEthiopia byKingActisanes to lose their ears andnoses, fled to the cataracts of the Nile and from thence penetrated into theSandyDesert,wheretheyatlengthbuiltthetempleofJupiterAmmon.

Lycophron,andafterhimTheopompus,tellsusthatthesebanditti,reducedto extremewant, having neither shoes, nor clothes, nor utensils, nor bread,bethought themselves of raising a statue of gold to an Egyptian god. Thisstatuewasorderedoneeveningandmadeinthecourseofthenight.Amemberof the university much attached to Lycophron and the Ethiopian robbersassertsthatnothingwasmorecommoninthevenerableagesofantiquitythanto cast a statue of gold in one night, and afterwards throw it into a fire toreduce it to an impalpable powder, in order to be swallowed by a wholepeople.

But where did these poor devils, without breeches, find so much gold?"What, sir!" says the man of learning, "do you forget that they had stolen

enough tobuyallAfricaand that theirdaughters' earringsalonewereworthninemillionsfivehundredthousandlivresofourcurrency?"

Be it so.But for casting a statue a little preparation is necessary.M.LeMoineemployednearly twoyears incastingthatofLouisXV."Oh!but thisJupiterAmmonwasatmostbut threefeethigh.Gotoanypewterer;willhenotmakeyouhalfadozenplatesinaday?"

Sir, a statue of Jupiter is harder tomake than pewter plates, and I evendoubtwhetheryourthieveshadwherewithtomakeplatessoquickly,cleverastheymight be at pilfering. It is not very likely that they had the necessaryapparatus; they had more need to provide themselves with meal. I respectLycophron much, but this profound Greek and his yet more profoundcommentators know so little of the arts—they are so learned in all that isuseless,andsoignorantinallthatconcernsthenecessariesandconveniencesof life, professions, trades, and daily occupations that we will take thisopportunityofinformingthemhowametalfigureiscast.Thisisanoperationwhich theywill find neither in Lycophron, nor inManetho, nor even in St.Thomas'sdream.

I omitmany other preparationswhich the encyclopædists, especiallyM.Diderot,haveexplainedmuchbetterthanIcoulddo,intheworkwhichmustimmortalizetheirgloryaswellasallthearts.Buttoformaclearideaoftheprocessofthisarttheartistmustbeseenatwork.Noonecaneverlearninabook toweavestockings,nor topolishdiamonds,nor towork tapestry.Artsandtradesarelearnedonlybyexampleandpractice.

CATO.

ONSUICIDE,ANDTHEABBEST.CYRAN'SBOOKLEGITIMATINGSUICIDE.

The ingeniousLaMotte says ofCato, in one of his philosophical ratherthanpoeticalodes:

Caton,d'uneâmepluségale,

Sousl'heureuxvainqueurdePharsale,

EûtsouffertqueRomepliât;

Mais,incapabledeserendre,

Iln'eutpaslaforced'attendre

Unpardonquil'humiliât.

SternCato,withmoreequalsoul,

HadbowedtoCæsar'swidecontrol—

WithRomehadtotheconquerorbowed—

Butthathisspirit,roughandproud,

Hadnotthecouragetoawait

Apardonedfoe'stoohumblingfate.

Itwas,Ibelieve,becauseCato'ssoulwasalwaysequal,andretainedtothelastitsloveforhiscountryandherlawsthathechoserathertoperishwithherthan to crouch to the tyrant. He died as he had lived. Incapable ofsurrendering!And towhom?To the enemy ofRome—to themanwho hadforcibly robbed the public treasury in order to make war upon his fellow-citizensandenslave thembymeansof theirownmoney.Apardoned foe! Itseems as if LaMotte-Houdartwere speaking of some revolted subjectwhomighthaveobtainedhismajesty'spardonbylettersinchancery.

It seems rather absurd to say that Cato slew himself through weakness.None but a strong mind can thus surmount the most powerful instinct ofnature. This strength is sometimes that of frenzy, but a frantic man is notweak.

Suicideisforbiddenamongstusbythecanonlaw.Butthedecretals,whichformthejurisprudenceofapartofEurope,wereunknowntoCato,toBrutus,toCassius, to thesublimeArria, to theEmperorOtho, toMarkAntony,andtherestoftheheroesoftrueRome,whopreferredavoluntarydeathtoalifewhichtheybelievedtobeignominious.

We, too,kill ourselves,but it iswhenwehave lostourmoney,or in thevery rare excess of foolish passion for an unworthy object. I have knownwomenkill themselves for themost stupidmen imaginable.And sometimeswekillourselveswhenweareinbadhealth,whichactionisarealweakness.

Disgustwithourownexistence,wearinessofourselvesisamaladywhichislikewiseacauseofsuicide.Theremedyisalittleexercise,music,hunting,theplay,oranagreeablewoman.Themanwho, ina fitofmelancholy,killshimselfto-day,wouldhavewishedtolivehadhewaitedaweek.

Iwasalmostaneye-witnessofasuicidewhichdeservestheattentionofallcultivatorsofphysicalscience.Amanofaseriousprofession,ofmatureage,of regularconduct,withoutpassions,andabove indigence,killedhimselfonOct.17,1769,andlefttothetowncounciloftheplacewherehewasborn,awritten apology for his voluntary death,which itwas thought proper not topublishlestitshouldencouragementoquitalifeofwhichsomuchillissaid.Thusfarthereisnothingextraordinary;suchinstancesarealmosteverydayto

bemetwith.Theastonishingpartofthestoryisthis:

Hisbrotherandhis fatherhadeachkilledhimselfat thesameage.Whatsecret disposition of organs, what sympathy, what concurrence of physicallaws,occasionsafatherandhistwosonstoperishbytheirownhands,andbythesamekindofdeath,preciselywhentheyhaveattainedsuchayear?Isitadiseasewhichunfoldsitselfsuccessivelyinthedifferentmembersofafamily—asweoftenseefathersandchildrendieofsmallpox,consumption,oranyothercomplaint?Threeorfourgenerationshavebecomedeaforblind,goutyorscorbutic,atapredeterminedperiod.

Physicalorganization,ofwhichmoralistheoffspring,transmitsthesamecharacter from father to son through a succession of ages. The Appii werealwayshaughtyandinflexible,theCatosalwayssevere.ThewholelineoftheGuiseswerebold,rash,factious;compoundedofthemostinsolentpride,andthemostseductivepoliteness.FromFrancisdeGuisetohimwhoaloneandinsilencewentandputhimselfattheheadofthepeopleofNaples,theywereall,in figure, in courage, and in turnofmind, aboveordinarymen. I have seenwholelengthportraitsofFrancisdeGuise,oftheBalafré,andofhisson:theyareallsixfeethigh,withthesamefeatures,thesamecourageandboldnessintheforehead,theeye,andtheattitude.

This continuity, this series of beings alike is still more observable inanimals, and if asmuch carewere taken to perpetuate fine races ofmen assomenationsstilltaketopreventthemixingofthebreedsoftheirhorsesandhounds thegenealogywouldbewritten in the countenanceanddisplayed inthemanners.Therehavebeenracesofcrookedandofsix-fingeredpeople,asweseered-haired,thick-lipped,long-nosed,andflat-nosedraces.

But that nature should so dispose the organs of a whole race that at acertain age each individual of that family will have a passion for self-destruction—this is a problem which all the sagacity of the most attentiveanatomistscannotresolve.Theeffectiscertainlyallphysical,butitbelongstooccultphysics.Indeed,whatprincipleisnotoccult?

We are not informed, nor is it likely that in, the time of Cæsar and theemperorstheinhabitantsofGreatBritainkilledthemselvesasdeliberatelyastheynowdo,whentheyhavethevaporswhichtheydenominatethespleen.

Ontheotherhand,theRomans,whoneverhadthespleen,didnothesitateto put themselves to death. They reasoned, theywere philosophers, and thepeople of the island of Britain were not so. Now, English citizens arephilosophersandRomancitizensarenothing.TheEnglishmanquits this lifeproudlyanddisdainfullywhenthewhimtakeshim,buttheRomanmusthaveanindulgentiainarticulomortis;hecanneitherlivenordie.

SirWilliamTemplesaysthatamanshoulddepartwhenhehasnolongerany pleasure in remaining. So died Atticus. Young women who hang anddrownthemselvesforloveshouldthenlistentothevoiceofhope,forchangesareasfrequentinloveasinotheraffairs.

An almost infallible means of saving yourself from the desire of self-destruction is always to have something to do.Creech, the commentator onLucretius,markeduponhismanuscripts:"N.B.MusthangmyselfwhenIhavefinished."Hekepthiswordwithhimself thathemighthave thepleasureofending like his author. If he had undertaken a commentary upon Ovid hewouldhavelivedlonger.

Whyhavewefewersuicidesinthecountrythaninthetowns?Becauseinthefieldsonlythebodysuffers;inthetownitisthemind.Thelaborerhasnottime to bemelancholy; none kill themselves but the idle—theywho, in theeyesofthemultitude,aresohappy.

I shall here relate some suicides that have happened in my own time,severalofwhichhavealreadybeenpublishedinotherworks.Thedeadmaybemadeusefultotheliving:

ABriefAccountofSomeSingularSuicides.

PhilipMordaunt,cousin-german to thecelebratedearlofPeterborough—sowell known in all the European courts, andwho boasted of having seenmorepostillionsandkingsthananyotherman—wasayoungmanoftwenty-seven, handsome, well made, rich, of noble blood, with the highestpretensions, and, which was more than all, adored by his mistress, yetMordauntwas seizedwith adisgust for life.Hepaidhisdebts,wrote tohisfriends, andevenmade someverseson theoccasion.Hedispatchedhimselfwithapistolwithouthavinggivenanyotherreasonthanthathissoulwastiredofhisbodyandthatwhenwearedissatisfiedwithourabodeweoughttoquitit. It seemed that hewished to die because hewas disgustedwith his goodfortune.

In1726RichardSmithexhibiteda strange spectacle to theworld fromavery different cause. Richard Smithwas disgustedwith realmisfortune.Hehadbeenrich,andhewaspoor;hehadbeeninhealth,andhewasinfirm;hehad a wife with whom he had naught but his misery to share; their onlyremaining property was a child in the cradle. Richard Smith and BridgetSmith,withcommonconsent,havingembracedeachothertenderlyandgiventheir infant the last kiss beganwith killing the poor child, afterwhich theyhangedthemselvestothepostsoftheirbed.

Idonotknowanyotheractofcold-bloodedhorrorsostrikingasthis.Buttheletterwhichtheseunfortunatepersonswrotetotheircousin,Mr.Brindley,

before theirdeath, isassingularas theirdeath itself."Webelieve,"say they,"that God will forgive us.... We quit this life because we are miserable—without resource,andwehavedoneouronlyson theserviceofkillinghim,lestheshouldbecomeasunfortunateasourselves...."Itmustbeobservedthatthese people, after killing their son through parental tenderness, wrote torecommendtheirdogandcattothecareofafriend.Itseemstheythoughtiteasiertomakeacatanddoghappyinthislifethanachild,andtheywouldnotbeaburdentotheirfriends.

LordScarboroughquitted this life in1727,with thesamecoolnessashehadquittedhisofficeofMasteroftheHorse.Hewasreproached,intheHouseofPeers,withtakingtheking'spartbecausehehadagoodplaceatcourt."Mylords,"saidhe,"toprovetoyouthatmyopinionisindependentofmyplace,Iresignitthismoment."Heafterwardsfoundhimselfinaperplexingdilemmabetween amistresswhomhe loved, but towhomhe had promised nothing,andawomanwhomheesteemed,andtowhomhehadpromisedmarriage.Hekilledhimselftoescapefromhisembarrassment.

ThesetragicalstorieswhichswarmintheEnglishnewspapers,havemadetherestofEuropethinkthat,inEngland,menkillthemselvesmorewillinglythanelsewhere.However,IknownotbutthereareasmanymadmenorheroestobefoundinParisasinLondon.Perhaps,ifournewspaperskeptanexactlistof all who had been so infatuated as to seek their own destruction, and solamentably courageous as to effect it,we should, in this particular, have themisfortunetorivaltheEnglish.Butourjournalsaremorediscreet.Insuchofthemas are acknowledgedby thegovernment private occurrences are neverexposedtopublicslander.

All I can venture to say with assurance is that there is no reason toapprehend that this rage for self-murder will ever become an epidemicaldisorder. Against this, nature has too well provided. Hope and fear are thepowerful agents which she often employs to stay the hand of the unhappyindividualabouttostrikeathisownbreast.CardinalDuboiswasonceheardtosaytohimself:"Killthyself!Coward,thoudarestnot!"

Itissaidthattherehavebeencountriesinwhichacouncilwasestablishedto grant the citizens permission to kill themselveswhen they had good andsufficientreasons.Ianswereitherthatitwasnotsoorthatthosemagistrateshadnotmuchtodo.

It might, indeed, astonish us, and does, I think, merit a seriousexamination,thatalmostalltheancientRomanheroeskilledthemselveswhentheyhadlostabattleinthecivilwars.ButIdonotfind,neitherinthetimeoftheLeague,norinthatoftheFrond,norinthetroublesofItaly,norinthoseofEngland,thatanychiefthoughtpropertodiebyhisownhand.Thesechiefs,it

istrue,wereChristians,andthereisagreatdifferencebetweentheprinciplesof aChristianwarrior and those of a Pagan hero.Butwhywere thesemenwhomChristianityrestrainedwhentheywouldhaveputthemselvestodeath,restrainedbynothingwhentheychosetopoison,assassinate,andbringtheirconquered enemies to the scaffold? Does not the Christian religion forbidthese murders much more than self-murder, of which the New Testamentmakesnomention?

Theapostlesofsuicidetellusthatitisquiteallowabletoquitone'shousewhenoneistiredofit.Agreed,butmostmenwouldprefersleepinginameanhousetolyingintheopenair.

IoncereceivedacircularletterfromanEnglishman,inwhichheofferedaprizetoanyonewhoshouldmostsatisfactorilyprovethatthereareoccasionsonwhichamanmightkillhimself.Imadenoanswer:Ihadnothingtoprovetohim.Hehadonlytoexaminewhetherhelikedbettertodiethantolive.

AnotherEnglishmancametomeatParisin1724;hewasill,andpromisedmethathewouldkillhimselfifhewasnotcuredbyJuly20.Heaccordinglygavemehisepitaphinthesewords:"Valetcuria!""Farewellcare!"andgavemetwenty-fivelouistogetasmallmonumenterectedtohimattheendoftheFaubourg St. Martin. I returned him his money on July 20, and kept hisepitaph.

InmyowntimethelastprinceofthehouseofCourtenai,whenveryold,and the last branch of Lorraine-Harcourt, when very young, destroyedthemselves almost without its being heard of. These occurrences cause aterribleuproar the firstday,butwhen thepropertyof thedeceasedhasbeendividedtheyarenolongertalkedof.

ThefollowingmostremarkableofallsuicideshasjustoccurredatLyons,in June, 1770: A young man well known, who was handsome, well made,clever,andamiable,fellinlovewithayoungwomanwhomherparentswouldnot give to him. So farwe have nothingmore than the opening scene of acomedy,theastonishingtragedyistofollow.

Theloverbrokeablood-vesseland thesurgeons informedhimtherewasno remedy. His mistress engaged to meet him, with two pistols and twodaggersinorderthat,ifthepistolsmissedthedaggersmightthenextmomentpierce theirhearts.Theyembracedeachother for the last time: rose-coloredribbonsweretiedtothetriggersofthepistols;theloverholdingtheribbonofhismistress's pistol,while she held the ribbon of his.Both fired at a signalgiven,andbothfellatthesameinstant.

OfthisfactthewholecityofLyonsiswitness.PætusandArria,yousettheexample, but youwere condemned by a tyrant,while love alone immolated

thesetwovictims.

LawsAgainstSuicide.

Has any law, civil or religious, ever forbidden aman to kill himself, onpainofbeinghangedafterdeath,oronpainofbeingdamned?It is truethatVirgilhassaid:

Proximo,deindetenentmæstiloca,quisibilethum

Insontespepereremanu,lucemqueperosi

Projecereanimas.Quamvellentæthereinalto

Nuncetpauperiemetdurosperferrelabores!

Fataobstant,tristiquepalusinamabilisunda

Alligat,etnoviesStyxinterfusacoercet.

—ÆNEIS,lib.vi.v.434etseq.

Thenextinplace,andpunishment,arethey

Whoprodigallythrowtheirsoulsaway—

Fools,whorepiningattheirwretchedstate,

Andloathinganxiouslife,suborntheirfate;

Withlaterepentancenowtheywouldretrieve

Thebodiestheyforsook,andwishtolive;

Theirpainsandpovertydesiretobear,

Toviewthelightofheavenandbreathethevitalair;—

Butfateforbids,theStygianfloodsoppose,

And,withninecirclingstreams,thecaptivesoulsinclose.

—DRYDEN.

Such was the religion of some of the pagans, yet, notwithstanding thewearinesswhichawaitedtheminthenextworlditwasanhonortoquitthisbykilling themselves—socontradictoryare thewaysofmen.Andamongus isnot duelling unfortunately still honorable, though forbidden by reason, byreligion,andbyeverylaw?IfCatoandCæsar,AntonyandAugustus,werenotduellistsitwasnotthattheywerelessbravethanourFrenchmen.Ifthedukeof Montmorency, Marshal de Marillac, de Thou, Cinq-Mars, and so manyothers,choserathertobedraggedtoexecutioninawagon,likehighwaymen,than to kill themselves like Cato and Brutus, it was not that they had lesscouragethanthoseRomans,norlessofwhatiscalledhonor.Thetruereasonis

thatatParisself-murderinsuchcaseswasnotthenthefashion;butitwasthefashionatRome.

ThewomenoftheMalabarcoastthrowthemselves,living,onthefuneralpilesoftheirhusbands.Havethey,then,morecouragethanCornelia?No;butinthatcountryitisthecustomforthewivestoburnthemselves.

InJapanitisthecustomforamanofhonor,whenhehasbeeninsultedbyanothermanofhonor,toripopenhisbellyinthepresenceofhisenemyandsay to him: "Do you likewise if thou hast the heart." The aggressor isdishonored forever ifhedoesnot immediatelyplungeagreatknife intohisbelly.

TheonlyreligioninwhichsuicideisforbiddenbyaclearandpositivelawisMahometanism.Inthefourthsuraitissaid:"Donotkillyourself,forGodismerciful unto you, and whosoever killeth himself through malice andwickednessshallassuredlybeburnedinhellfire."

Thisisaliteraltranslation.Thetext,likemanyothertexts,appearstowantcommonsense.Whatismeantby"DonotkillyourselfforGodismerciful"?Perhaps we are to understand—Do not sink under yourmisfortunes, whichGodmay alleviate: donot be so foolish as to kill yourself to-day sinceyoumaybehappyto-morrow.

"Andwhosoeverkillethhimself throughmaliceandwickedness."This isyetmoredifficulttoexplain.Perhaps,inallantiquity,thisneverhappenedtoanyonebutthePhrædraofEuripides,whohangedherselfonpurposetomakeTheseusbelievethatshehadbeenforciblyviolatedbyHippolytus.Inourowntimes a man shot himself in the head, after arranging all things to makeanothermansuspectedoftheact.

IntheplayofGeorgeDandin,hisjadeofawifethreatenshimwithkillingherselftohavehimhanged.Suchcasesarerare.IfMahometforesawthemhemaybesaidtohaveseenagreatway.ThefamousDuvergerdeHaurane,abbotof St. Cyran, regarded as the founder of Port Royal, wrote, about the year1608,atreatiseon"Suicide,"whichhasbecomeoneofthescarcestbooksinEurope.

"TheDecalogue," sayshe, "forbidsus tokill. In thisprecept self-murderseemsno less tobecomprised thanmurderofourneighbor.But if therearecasesinwhichit isallowabletokillourneighbortherelikewisearecasesinwhichitisallowabletokillourselves.

"We must not make an attempt upon our lives until we have consultedreason.Thepublicauthority,whichholdstheplaceofGod,maydisposeofourlives.ThereasonofmanmaylikewiseholdtheplaceofthereasonofGod:itisarayoftheeternallight."

St. Cyran extends this argument, which may be considered as a meresophism,togreatlength,butwhenhecomestotheexplanationandthedetailsit ismoredifficult toanswerhim.Hesays:"Amanmaykillhimself for thegoodofhisprince,forthatofhiscountry,orforthatofhisrelations."

Wedonot, indeed, seehowCodrusorCurtius couldbe condemned.Nosovereignwoulddaretopunishthefamilyofamanwhohaddevotedhimselftodeathforhim;nay,thereisnotonewhowoulddareneglecttorecompenseit.St.Thomas,beforeSt.Cyran,hadsaidthesamething.ButweneedneitherSt.Thomas,norCardinalBonaventura,norDuvergerdeHauranetotellusthatamanwhodiesforhiscountryisdeservingofpraise.

TheabbotofSt.Cyranconcludes that it is allowable todo forourselveswhatitisnobletodoforothers.AllthatisadvancedbyPlutarch,bySeneca,by Montaigne, and by fifty other philosophers, in favor of suicide issufficientlyknown;it isahackneyedtopic—awornoutcommonplace.Iseeknot to apologize for an act which the laws condemn, but neither the OldTestament,northeNewhaseverforbiddenmantodepartthislifewhenithasbecomeinsupportabletohim.NoRomanlawcondemnedself-murder;onthecontrary,thefollowingwasthelawoftheEmperorAntoine,whichwasneverrevoked:

"Ifyourfatheroryourbrothernotbeingaccusedofanycrimekillhimself,eithertoescapefromgrief,orthroughwearinessoflife,orthroughdespair,orthroughmentalderangement,hiswillshallbevalid,or,ifhedieintestatehisheirsshallsucceed."

Notwithstandingthishumanelawofourmasterswestilldragonasledgeanddriveastakethroughthebodyofamanwhohasdiedavoluntarydeath;wedoallwecantomakehismemoryinfamous;wedishonorhisfamilyasfarasweareable;wepunishthesonforhavinglosthisfather,andthewidowforbeingdeprivedofherhusband.

We even confiscate the property of the deceased, which is robbing thelivingofthepatrimonywhichofrightbelongstothem.Thiscustomisderivedfromourcanonlaw,whichdeprivesofChristianburialsuchasdieavoluntarydeath.Henceitisconcludedthatwecannotinheritfromamanwhoisjudgedto have no inheritance in heaven. The canon law, under the head "DePœnitentia," assures us that Judas committed a greater crime in stranglinghimselfthaninsellingourLordJesusChrist.

CELTS.

Amongthosewhohavehadtheleisure,themeans,andthecouragetoseekfor the origin of nations, there have been somewhohave found that of ourCelts,oratleastwouldmakeusbelievethattheyhadmetwithit.Thisillusionbeingtheonlyrecompenseoftheirimmensetravail,weshouldnotenvythemitspossession.

Ifwewish toknowanythingabout theHuns—who, indeed, are scarcelyworthknowinganythingabout,fortheyhaverenderednoservicetomankind—we find some slight notices of those barbarians among theChinese—thatmost ancient of all nations, after the Indians. From them we learn that, incertain ages, the Huns went like famishing wolves and ravaged countrieswhich,evenatthisdayareregardedasplacesofexileandofhorror.Thisisaverymelancholy, a verymiserable sort of knowledge. It is, doubtless,muchbetter tocultivateausefulartatParis,Lyons,orBordeaux, thanseriouslytostudythehistoryoftheHunsandthebears.NeverthelessweareaidedintheseresearchesbysomeoftheChinesearchives.

But for the Celts there are no archives. We know no more of theirantiquitiesthanwedoofthoseoftheSamoyedsortheAustralasians.

Wehave learnednothingaboutourancestorsexcept from the fewwordswhichtheirconqueror,JuliusCæsar,condescendedtosayofthem.Hebeginshis"Commentaries"bydividingtheGaulsintotheBelgians,Aquitanians,andCelts.

Whence some of the daring among the erudite have concluded that theCeltsweretheScythians,andtheyhavemadetheseScythio-CeltsincludeallEurope. Butwhy not include thewhole earth?Why stop short in so fine acareer?

WehavealsobeendulytoldthatNoah'sson,Japhet,cameoutoftheArk,andwentwithallspeedtopeopleallthosevastregionswithCelts,whomhegovernedmarvellouslywell.ButauthorsofgreatermodestyrefertheoriginofourCelts to the towerofBabel—to theconfusionof tongues—toGomer,ofwhomnooneeverhearduntiltheveryrecentperiodwhensomewisemenoftheWestreadthenameofGomerinabadtranslationoftheSeptuagint.

Bochart, inhis"SacredChronology"—whatachronology!—takesquiteadifferent turn. Of these innumerable hordes of Celts he makes an Egyptiancolony,skilfullyandeasilyledbyHerculesfromthefertilebanksoftheNileinto the forestsandmorassesofGermany,whither,nodoubt, thesecolonistscarriedtheartsandthelanguageofEgyptandthemysteriesofIsis,notraceofwhichhaseverbeenfoundamongthem.

Ithinktheyarestillmoretobecongratulatedontheirdiscoveries,whosaythat theCeltsof themountainsofDauphinywerecalledCottians,fromtheir

King Cottius; that the Bérichons were named from their King Betrich; theWelsh, orGaulish, from theirKingWallus, and theBelgians fromBalgem,whichmeansquarrelsome.

A still finer origin is that of the Celto-Pannonians, from the Latinwordpannus,cloth,for,wearetoldtheydressedthemselvesinoldpiecesofclothbadlysewntogether,muchresemblingaharlequin'sjacket.Butthebestoriginofallis,undeniably,thetowerofBabel.

CEREMONIES—TITLES—PRECEDENCE.

Allthesethings,whichwouldbeuselessandimpertinentinastateofpurenature,are,inourcorruptandridiculousstate,ofgreatservice.Ofallnations,theChinesearethosewhohavecarriedtheuseofceremoniestothegreatestlength;theycertainlyservetocalmaswellastowearythemind.TheChineseportersandcartersareobliged,whenevertheyoccasiontheleasthindranceinthestreets,tofallontheirkneesandaskoneanother'spardonaccordingtotheprescribedformula.Thispreventsilllanguage,blowsandmurders.Theyhavetimetogrowcoolandarethenwillingtoassistoneanother.

Themorefreeapeopleare, thefewerceremonies, the fewerostentatioustitles, the fewerdemonstrationsofannihilation in thepresenceofasuperior,they possess. To Scipio men said "Scipio"; to Cæsar, "Cæsar"; but in aftertimestheysaidtotheemperors,"yourmajesty,""yourdivinity."

The titles of St. Peter and St. Paul were "Peter" and "Paul." Theirsuccessors gave one another the title of "your holiness,"which is not to befoundintheActsoftheApostles,norinthewritingsofthedisciples.

WereadinthehistoryofGermanythatthedauphinofFrance,afterwardsCharlesV.,wenttotheEmperorCharlesIV.atMetzandwaspresentedafterCardinaldePérigord.

Therehassincebeenatimewhenchancellorswentbeforecardinals;afterwhichcardinalsagaintookprecedenceofchancellors.

InFrancethepeersprecededtheprincesoftheblood,goingintheorderoftheircreation,untiltheconsecrationofHenryIII.

Thedignityofpeerwas,untilthattime,soexaltedthatattheceremonyofthe consecration of Elizabeth, wife to Charles IX., in 1572, described bySimon Bouquet, échevin of Paris, it is said that the queen's dames anddemoiselles havinghanded to the damed'honneur the bread,wine andwax,withthesilver,fortheofferingtobepresentedtothequeenbythesaiddame

d'honneur,thesaiddamed'honneur,beingaduchess,commandedthedamestogo and carry the offering to the princesses themselves, etc. This damed'honneurwasthewifeoftheconstableMontmorency.

Thearmchair, thechairwithaback, thestool, therighthandandthe leftwere for several ages important politicalmatters. I believe thatwe owe theancientetiquetteconcerningarmchairstothecircumstancethatourbarbariansofancestorshadatmostbutoneinahouse,andeventhiswasusedonlybythesick.InsomeprovincesofGermanyandEnglandanarmchairisstillcalledasick-chair.

Long after the times ofAttila andDagobert,when luxury found itswayintoourcourtsand thegreatmenof theearthhad twoor threearmchairs intheirdonjons,itwasanobledistinctiontositupononeofthesethrones;andacastellainwouldplaceamonghis titleshowhehadgonehalf a league fromhometopayhiscourt toacount,andhowhehadbeenreceived inaneasy-chair.

Wesee in theMemoirsofMademoiselle that thataugustprincesspassedone-fourthofher lifeamidthemortalagoniesofdisputesfor theback-chair.Wereyoutositinacertainapartment,inachair,oronastool,ornottositatall?Herewasenoughtoinvolveawholecourt inintrigue.Mannersarenowmore easy; ladies may use couches and sofas without occasioning anydisturbanceinsociety.

WhenCardinaldeRichelieuwastreatingwiththeEnglishambassadorsforthemarriageofHenrietteofFrancewithCharlesI.,theaffairwasonthepointofbeingbrokenoffonaccountofademandmadebytheambassadorsoftwoorthreestepsmoretowardsadoor;butthecardinalremovedthedifficultybytaking to his bed. History has carefully handed clown this preciouscircumstance.Ibelievethat,ifithadbeenproposedtoScipiotogetbetweenthe sheets to receive the visit of Hannibal, he would have thought theceremonysomethinglikeajoke.

For a whole century the order of carriages and taking the wall weretestimonialsofgreatnessandthesourceofpretensions,disputes,andconflicts.Toprocure thepassingofonecarriagebeforeanotherwas lookeduponasasignal victory. The ambassadors went along the streets as if they werecontending for the prize in the circus; and when a Spanish minister hadsucceeded in making a Portuguese coachman pull up, he sent a courier toMadridtoapprisetheking,hismaster,ofthisgreatadvantage.

Our histories regale us with fifty pugilistic combats for precedence—asthatoftheparliamentwiththebishops'clerksatthefuneralofHenryIV.,thechambredes compteswith the parliament in the cathedralwhenLouisXIII.gaveFrance to theVirgin, thedukeofEpernonwith thekeeperof theseals,

DuVair,inthechurchofSt.Germain.ThepresidentsoftheenquêtesbuffetedSavare,thedoyenoftheconseillersdegrand'chambre,tomakehimquithisplaceofhonor(somuchishonorthesoulofmonarchicalgovernments!),andfour archers were obliged to lay hold of the President Barillon, who wasbeating thepoordoyenwithoutmercy.We findnocontests like these in theAreopagus,norintheRomansenate.

Inproportiontothebarbarismofcountriesortheweaknessofcourts,wefindceremonyinvogue.Truepowerandtruepolitenessareabovevanity.Wemayventure tobelieve that the customwill at last begivenupwhich someambassadorsstillretain,ofruiningthemselvesinordertogoalongthestreetsin procession with a few hired carriages, fresh painted and gilded, andprecededbyafewfootmen.Thisiscalled"makingtheirentry";anditisafinejoketomakeyourentryintoatownsevenoreightmonthsbeforeyouarrive.

This important affair of punctilio,which constitutes the greatness of themodernRomans—thisscienceofthenumberofstepsthatshouldbemadeinshowinginamonsignor,indrawingorhalfdrawingacurtain,inwalkinginaroomtotherightortotheleft—thisgreatart,whichneitherFabiusnorCatocouldeverimagine,isbeginningtosink;andthetrain-bearerstothecardinalscomplainthateverythingindicatesadecline.

AFrenchcolonel,beingatBrusselsayearafterthetakingofthatplacebyMarshal de Saxe, and having nothing to do, resolved to go to the townassembly."Itisheldataprincess',"saidonetohim."Beitso,"answeredtheother,"whatmattersittome?""Butonlyprincesgothere;areyouaprince?""Pshaw!"saidthecolonel,"theyareaverygoodsortofprinces;Ihadadozenoftheminmyanteroomlastyear,whenwehadtakenthetown,andtheywereverypolite."

In turningover the leavesof"Horace" Iobserve this line inanepistle toMæcenas, "Te, dulcis amice revisam."—"Iwill comeand seeyou,mygoodfriend."ThisMæcenaswasthesecondpersonintheRomanEmpire;thatis,aman of greater power and influence than the greatest monarch of modernEurope.

LookingintotheworksofCorneille,IobservedthatinalettertothegreatScuderi,governorofNotreDamedelaGarde,etc.,heusesthisexpressioninreference to Cardinal Richelieu: "Monsieur the cardinal, your master andmine." It is,perhaps, the first time that such languagehasbeenapplied toaminister,sincetherehavebeenministers,kingsandflatterersintheworld.ThesamePeterCorneille,theauthorof"Cinna,"humblydedicatesthatworktotheSieurdeMontauron,theking'streasurer,whomindirecttermshecomparestoAugustus.IregretthathedidnotgiveMontauronthetitleofmonseigneurormylord.

An anecdote is related of an old officer, but little conversant with theprecedentsandformulasofvanity,whowrotetotheMarquisLouvoisasplainmonsieur, but receiving no answer, next addressed him under the title ofmonseigneur,still,however,withouteffect, theunluckymonsieurcontinuingtorankleintheminister'sheart.Hefinallydirectedhisletter"tomyGod,myGodLouvois";commencingitbythewords,"myGod,myCreator."DoesnotallthissufficientlyprovethattheRomansweremagnanimousandmodest,andthatwearefrivolousandvain?

"Howd'yedo,mydearfriend?"saidadukeandpeertoagentleman."Atyour service, my dear friend," replied he; and from that instant his "dearfriend" became his implacable enemy. A grandee of Portugal was onceconversingwith aSpanishhidalgoandaddressinghimeverymoment in theterms,"yourexcellency."TheCastilianasfrequentlyreplied,"yourcourtesy"(vuestra merced), a title bestowed on those who have none by right. Theirritated Portuguese in return retorted "your courtesy" on the Spaniard,whothen called the Portuguese "your excellency." The Portuguese, at lengthwearied out, demanded, "How is it that you always call me your courtesy,when I call you your excellency, and your excellencywhen I call you yourcourtesy?" "The reason is," says theCastilianwithabow, "that all titles areequaltome,providedthatthereisnothingequalbetweenyouandme."

ThevanityoftitleswasnotintroducedintoournorthernclimesofEuropetilltheRomanshadbecomeacquaintedwithAsiaticmagnificence.Thegreaterpartof thesovereignsofAsiawere,andstill are,cousinsgermanof thesunand the moon; their subjects dare not make any pretension to such highaffinity; and many a provincial governor, who styles himself "nutmeg ofconsolation"and"roseofdelight"wouldbeempaledaliveifheweretoclaimtheslightestrelationshiptothesunandmoon.

Constantine was, I think, the first Roman emperor who overwhelmedChristianhumility inapageofpompous titles. It is true thatbeforehis timetheemperorsborethetitleofgod,butthetermimpliednothingsimilartowhatweunderstandbyit.DivusAugustus,DivusTrajanus,meantSt.Augustus,St.Trajan.ItwasthoughtonlyconformabletothedignityoftheRomanEmpirethat the soul of its chief should, after his death, ascend to heaven; and itfrequently even happened that the title of saint, of god, was granted to theemperorbya sortof anticipated inheritance.Nearly for the same reason thefirst patriarchsof theChristianchurchwere all called "yourholiness."Theywerethusnamedtoremindthemofwhatinfacttheyoughttobe.

Men sometimes take upon themselves very humble titles, provided theycanobtainfromothersveryhonorableones.Manyanabbéwhocallshimselfbrother exacts from his monks the title of monseigneur. The pope styleshimself "servant of the servants ofGod."An honest priest ofHolstein once

addressedaletter"toPiusIV.,servantoftheservantsofGod."Heafterwardswent toRometourgehissuit,andthe inquisitionputhiminprisonto teachhimhowtoaddressletters.

Formerlytheemperoralonehadthetitleofmajesty.Othersovereignswerecalled your highness, your serenity, your grace. Louis XI. was the first inFrancewhowasgenerallycalledmajesty,atitlecertainlynotlesssuitabletothedignityofapowerfulhereditarykingdomthantoanelectiveprincipality.ButlongafterhimthetermhighnesswasappliedtokingsofFrance;andsomeletterstoHenryIII.arestillextantinwhichheisaddressedbythattitle.ThestatesofOrleansobjectedtoQueenCatherinedeMedicibeingcalledmajesty.But this lastdenominationgraduallyprevailed.Thename is indifferent; it isthepoweralonethatisnotso.

The German chancery, ever unchangeable in its stately formalities, haspretendeddowntoourowntimes thatnokingshavearight toahigher titlethan serenity. At the celebrated treaty of Westphalia, in which France andSweden dictated the law to the holy Roman Empire, the emperor'splenipotentiaries continually presented Latinmemorials, in which "hismostsacredimperialmajesty"negotiatedwiththe"mostserenekingsofFranceandSweden";while,ontheotherhand,theFrenchandSwedesfailnottodeclarethat their "sacred majesties of France and Sweden" had many subjects ofcomplaintagainstthe"mostsereneemperor."Sincethatperiod,however,thegreat sovereigns have, in regard to rank, been considered as equals, and healonewhobeatshisneighborisadjudgedtohavethepre-eminence.

PhilipII.wasthefirstmajestyinSpain,fortheserenityofCharlesV.wasconvertedintomajestyonlyonaccountoftheempire.ThechildrenofPhilipII.werethefirsthighnesses;andafterwardstheywereroyalhighnesses.Theduke of Orleans, brother of Louis XIII., did not take up the title of royalhighness till 1631; then the prince of Condé claimed that the most serenehighness,whichtheDukesdeVendômedidnotventuretoassume.Thedukeof Savoy, at that time royal highness, afterwards substituted majesty. ThegranddukeofFlorencedidthesame,exceptingastomajesty;andfinallytheczar, who was known in Europe only as the grand duke, declared himselfemperor,andwasrecognizedassuch.

Formerly therewereonly twomarquises inGermany, two inFranceandtwoinItaly.ThemarquisofBrandenburghasbecomeaking,andagreatking.But atpresentour ItalianandFrenchmarquises areof a somewhatdifferentspecies.

If an Italian citizen has the honor of giving a dinner to the legate of hisprovince,andthelegate,whendrinking,saystohim,"Monsieurlemarquis,toyourgoodhealth,"hesuddenlybecomesamarquis,heandhisheirsafterhim,

forever. If the inhabitant of any province of France, whose whole estateconsistsofaquarterpartofalittledecayedcastle-ward,goestoParis,makessomethingofafortune,orcarriestheairofhavingmadeone,heisstyledinthe deeds and legal instruments inwhich he is concerned "high andmightyseigneur,marquisandcount,"andhissonwillbedenominatedbyhisnotary"veryhighandverymightyseigneur,"andasthisfrivolousambitionisinnowayinjurioustogovernmentorcivilsociety,itispermittedtotakeitscourse.SomeFrenchlordsboastofemployingGermanbaronsintheirstables;someGermanlordssaytheyhaveFrenchmarquisesintheirkitchens;itisnotalongtimesinceaforeigneratNaplesmadehiscoachmanaduke.Custominthesecaseshasmorepowerthanroyalauthority.IfyouarebutlittleknownatParis,you may there be a count or a marquis as long as you please; if you areconnectedwiththelawoffinance,thoughthekingshouldconferonyouarealmarquisate, youwill not, therefore, bemonsieur lemarquis. The celebratedSamuelBernardwas,intruth,moreacountthanfivehundredsuchasweoftensee not possessing four acres of land. The king had converted his estate ofCoubertintoafinecounty;yetifonanyoccasionhehadorderedhimselftobeannouncedasCountBernard,etc.,hewouldhaveexcitedburstsoflaughter.InEngland it is different; if the king confers the title of earl or baron on amerchant, all classes address himwith the designation suitable to itwithouttheslightesthesitation.Bypersonsofthehighestbirth,bythekinghimself,heis called my lord. It is the same in Italy; there is a register kept there ofmonsignori.Thepopehimselfaddressesthemunderthattitle;hisphysicianismonsignor,andnooneobjects.

InFrance the titleofmonseigneurormy lord is avery seriousbusiness.Before the time of Cardinal Richelieu a bishop was only "a most reverendfatherinGod."

Before the year 1635 bishops did not only not assume the title ofmonseigneurthemselves,buttheydidnotevengiveittocardinals.Thesetwocustomswere introducedbyabishopofChartres,who, in fullcanonicalsoflawn and purple, went to call Cardinal Richelieu monseigneur, on whichoccasion Louis XIII. observed that "Chartrain would not mind saluting thecardinalauderrière."

Itisonlysincethatperiodthatbishopshavemutuallyappliedtoeachotherthetitleofmonseigneur.

Thepublicmadenoobjectiontothisapplicationofit;but,asitwasanewtitle,notconferredonbishopsbykings,theycontinuedtobecalledsieursinedicts, declarations, ordinances and all official documents; and when thecouncilwrotetoabishoptheygavehimnohighertitlethanmonsieur.

The dukes and peers have encountered more difficulty in acquiring

possessionofthetitleofmonseigneur.Thegrandenoblesse,andwhatiscalledthe grand robe, decidedly refuse them that distinction. The highestgratificationofhumanprideconsistsinaman'sreceivingtitlesofhonorfromthose who conceive themselves his equals; but to attain this is exceedinglydifficult;pridealwaysfindspridetocontendwith.

When the dukes insisted on receiving the title of monseigneur from theclassofgentlemen, thepresidentsof theparliaments required thesamefromadvocatesandproctors.Acertainpresidentactuallyrefusedtobebledbecausehis surgeon asked: "In which arm will you be bled, monsieur?" An oldcounsellortreatedthismattersomewhatmoregayly.Apleaderwassayingtohim,"Monseigneur,monsieur,yoursecretary"....Hestoppedhimshort:"Youhave uttered three blunders," says he, "in as many words. I am notmonseigneur;mysecretaryisnotmonsieur;heismyclerk."

Toputanend to thisgrandconflictofvanity itwill eventuallybe foundnecessarytogivethetitleofmonseigneurtoeveryindividualinthenation;aswomen,whowereformerlycontentwithmademoiselle,arenowtobecalledmadame.InSpain,whenamendicantmeetsabrotherbeggar,hethusaccostshim: "Has your courtesy taken chocolate?" This politeness of languageelevatesthemindandkeepsupthedignityofthespecies.CæsarandPompeywerecalledinthesenateCæsarandPompey.Butthesemenknewnothingoflife.Theyendedtheirletterswithvale—adieu.We,whopossessmoreexaltednotions,weresixtyyearsago"affectionateservants"; then"veryhumbleandvery obedient"; and now we "have the honor to be" so. I really grieve forposterity,whichwill find itextremelydifficult toaddto theseverybeautifulformulas.TheDuked'Épernon,thefirstofGasconsinpride,thoughfarfrombeingthefirstofstatesmen,wroteonhisdeathbedtoCardinalRichelieuandended his letter with: "Your very humble and very obedient." Recollecting,however, that the cardinal had used only the phrase "very affectionate," hedespatched an express to bring back the letter (for it had been actually sentoff),beganitanew,signed"veryaffectionate,"anddiedinthebedofhonor.

Wehavemademanyoftheseobservationselsewhere.Itiswell,however,to repeat them,were itonly tocorrect somepompouspeacocks,whowouldstrutawaytheirlivesincontemptiblydisplayingtheirplumesandtheirpride.

CERTAIN—CERTAINTY.

Iamcertain;Ihavefriends;myfortuneissecure;myrelationswillneverabandonme; I shallhave justicedoneme;mywork isgood, itwillbewellreceived;whatisowingtomewillbepaid;myfriendwillbefaithful,hehas

swornit;theministerwilladvanceme—hehas,bytheway,promisedit—allthesearewordswhichamanwhohas livedashort timein theworlderasesfromhisdictionary.

When the judgescondemnedL'Anglade,LeBrun,Calas,Sirven,Martin,Montbailli, and somanyothers, since acknowledged to have been innocent,theywerecertain,or theyought tohavebeencertain, thatall theseunhappymen were guilty; yet they were deceived. There are two ways of beingdeceived;byfalse judgmentandself-blindness—thatoferring likeamanofgenius,andthatofdecidinglikeafool.

The judges deceived themselves like men of genius in the affair ofL'Anglade;theywereblindedbydazzlingappearancesanddidnotsufficientlyexaminetheprobabilitiesontheotherside.Theirwisdommadethembelieveit certain that L'Anglade had committed a theft, which he certainly had notcommitted; and on thismiserable uncertain certainty of the humanmind, agentleman was put to the ordinary and extraordinary question; subsequentthrown,withoutsuccor,intoadungeonandcondemnedtothegalleys,wherehe died.Hiswifewas shut up in another dungeon,with her daughter, agedseven years, who afterwards married a counsellor of the same parliamentwhichhadcondemnedherfathertothegalleysandhermothertobanishment.

It is clear that the judgeswould not have pronounced this sentence hadtheybeenreallycertain.However,evenat the timethissentencewaspassedseveral persons knew that the theft had been committed by a priest namedGagnat,associatedwithahighwayman,andtheinnocenceofL'Angladewasnotrecognizedtillafterhisdeath.

They were in the samemanner certain when, by a sentence in the firstinstance,theycondemnedtothewheeltheinnocentLeBrun,who,byanarrêtpronouncedonhisappeal,wasbrokenontherack,anddiedunderthetorture.

TheexamplesofCalasandSirvenarewellknown, thatofMartin is lessso. He was an honest agriculturist near Bar in Lorraine. A villain stole hisdressandinthisdressmurderedatravellerwhomheknewtohavemoneyandwhose route he had watched.Martin was accused, his dress was a witnessagainst him; the judges regarded this evidence as a certainty. Not the pastconduct of the prisoner, a numerous family whom he had brought upvirtuously,neitherthelittlemoneyfoundonhim,northeextremeprobabilityofhisinnocence—nothingcouldsavehim.Thesubalternjudgemadeameritof his rigor.He condemned the innocent victim to be broken on thewheel,and,byanunhappyfatalitythesentencewasexecutedtothefullextent.TheseniorMartinisbrokenalive,callingGodtowitnesshisinnocencetohislastbreath;hisfamilyisdispersed,his littlepropertyisconfiscated,andscarcelyarehisbrokenmembersexposedonthegreatroadwhentheassassinwhohad

committed the murder and theft is put in prison for another crime, andconfessesontherack,towhichheiscondemnedinhisturn,thatheonlywasguiltyofthecrimeforwhichMartinhadsufferedtortureanddeath.

Montbailli,whosleptwithhiswife,wasaccusedwithhaving, inconcertwithher,killedhismother,whohadevidentlydiedofapoplexy.ThecouncilofArrascondemnedMontbaillitoexpireontherack,andhiswifetobeburnt.Their innocencewas discovered, but not untilMontbailli had been tortured.Letusceaseadvertencetothesemelancholyadventures,whichmakeusgroanatthehumancondition;butletuscontinuetolamentthepretendedcertaintyofjudges,whentheypasssuchsentences.

There is no certainty, exceptwhen it is physicallyormorally impossiblethat the thingcanbeotherwise.What! is a strictdemonstrationnecessary toenableustoassertthatthesurfaceofasphereisequaltofourtimestheareaofits great circle; and is not one required towarrant taking away the life of acitizenbyadisgracefulpunishment?

Ifsuch is themisfortuneofhumanity that judgesmustbecontentedwithextreme probabilities, they should at least consult the age, the rank, theconductof theaccused—the interestwhichhecouldhave incommitting thecrime,andtheinterestofhisenemiestodestroyhim.Everyjudgeshouldsaytohimself:Willnotposterity,willnot entireEuropecondemnmysentence?ShallIsleeptranquillywithmyhandstaintedwithinnocentblood?Letuspassfromthishorriblepicturetootherexamplesofacertaintywhichleadsdirectlytoerror.

Whyartthouloadedwithchains,fanaticalandunhappySanton?Whyhastthou added a large iron ring on thy miserable scourge? It is because I amcertainof beingonedayplaced in the first heaven, by the sideof our greatprophet.Alas,myfriend,comewithmetotheneighborhoodofMountAthosandthouwiltseethreethousandmendicantswhoareascertainthatthouwiltgotothegulfwhichisunderthenarrowbridge,asthattheywillallgotothefirstheaven!

Stop,miserableMalabarwidow, believe not the foolwhopersuades youthatyoushallbereunitedtoyourhusbandinallthedelightsofanotherworld,if you burn yourself on his funeral pile! No, I persist in burning myselfbecauseIamcertainof living in felicitywithmyhusband;mybrahmin toldmeso.

Let us attend to less frightful certainties, and which have a little moreappearanceoftruth.WhatistheageofyourfriendChristopher?Twenty-eightyears. I have seen hismarriage contract, and his baptismal register; I knewhiminhisinfancy;heistwenty-eight—Iamcertainofit.

ScarcelyhaveIheardtheanswerofthisman,sosureofwhathesaid,andof twentyotherswhoconfirmed the same thing,when I learn that for secretreasons,andbyasingularcircumstancethebaptismalregisterofChristopherhasbeenantedated.ThosetowhomIhadspokenasyetknownothingofit,yettheyhavestillthesamecertaintyofthatwhichisnot.

If youhad asked thewhole earthbefore the timeofCopernicus: has thesun risen? has it set to-day? all men would have answered: We are quitecertainofit.Theywerecertainandtheywereinerror.

Witchcraft, divinations, and possessions were for a long time the mostcertainthingsintheworldintheeyesofsociety.Whataninnumerablecrowdofpeoplewhohave seenall these fine things andwhohavebeencertainofthem!Atpresentthiscertaintyisalittleshaken.

Ayoungmanwhoisbeginningtostudygeometrycomestome;heisonlyatthedefinitionoftriangles.Areyounotcertain,saidItohim,thatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles?Heansweredthatnotonlywas he not certain of it, but that he had not the slightest idea of theproposition.Idemonstratedit tohim.Hethenbecameverycertainofit,andwill remain so all his life.This is a certaintyverydifferent from theothers;they were only probabilities and these probabilities, when examined, haveturnedouterrors,butmathematicalcertaintyisimmutableandeternal.

I exist, I think, I feel grief—is all that as certain as a geometrical truth?Yes,skepticalasIam,Iavowit.Why?Itisthatthesetruthsareprovedbythesameprinciplethatitisimpossibleforathingtoexistandnotexistatthesametime.Icannotatthesametimefeelandnotfeel.Atrianglecannotatthesametime contain a hundred and eighty degrees,which are the sum of two rightangles,andnotcontain them.Thephysicalcertaintyofmyexistence,ofmyidentity, is of the same value as mathematical certainty, although it is of adifferentkind.

It is not the samewith the certainty founded on appearances, or on theunanimoustestimonyofmankind.

Buthow,youwillsay tome,areyounotcertain thatPekinexists?Haveyounotmerchandise fromPekin?Peopleofdifferentcountriesanddifferentopinions have vehemently written against one another while preaching thetruthatPekin;thenareyounotassuredoftheexistenceofthistown?IanswerthatitisextremelyprobablethattheremaybeacityofPekinbutIwouldnotwagermylifethatsuchatownexists,andIwouldatanytimewagermylifethatthethreeanglesofatriangleareequaltotworightangles.

In the "DictionnaireEncyclopédique" a verypleasant thing appears. It istheremaintainedthatamanoughttobeascertainthatMarshalSaxerosefrom

thedead, ifallParis tellshimso,ashe issure thatMarshalSaxegained thebattleofFontenoy,uponthesametestimony.Prayobservethebeautyofthisreasoning: as I believe all Pariswhen it tellsme a thingmorally possible, Iought to believe all Paris when it tells me a thing morally and physicallyimpossible.Apparentlytheauthorofthisarticlehasadispositiontoberisible;as to ourselveswho have only undertaken this little dictionary to ask a fewquestions,weareveryfarfrompossessingthisveryextensivecertainty.

CHAINOFCREATEDBEINGS.

ThegradationofbeingsrisingfromthelowesttotheGreatSupreme—thescale of infinity—is an idea that fills uswith admiration, butwhen steadilyregarded this phantomdisappears, as apparitionswerewont tovanish at thecrowingofthecock.

The imagination is pleased with the imperceptible transition from brutematter to organized matter, from plants to zoophytes, from zoophytes toanimals,fromanimalstomen,frommentogenii,fromthesegenii,cladinalight aërial body, to immaterial substances of a thousand different orders,rising frombeauty to perfection, up toGodHimself. This hierarchy is verypleasing to young men who look upon it as upon the pope and cardinals,followedby the archbishops andbishops, afterwhomare thevicars, curatesand priests, the deacons and subdeacons, then come the monks, and thecapuchinsbringuptherear.

But there is, perhaps, a somewhatgreaterdistancebetweenGodandHismostperfectcreaturesthanbetweentheholyfatherandthedeanofthesacredcollege.Thedeanmaybecomepope,butcanthemostperfectgeniicreatedbytheSupremeBeingbecomeGod?Istherenotinfinitybetweenthem?

Nordoesthischain,thispretendedgradation,anymoreexistinvegetablesandanimals; theproof is that somespeciesofplantsandanimalshavebeenentirelydestroyed.Wehavenomurex.TheJewswereforbiddentoeatgriffinand ixion, these two species, whatever Bochart may say, have probablydisappearedfromtheearth.Where,then,isthechain?

Supposingthatwehadnotlostsomespecies,itisevidentthattheymaybedestroyed.Lionsandrhinocerosesarebecomingveryscarce,andiftherestofthenationshad imitated theEnglish, therewouldnotnowhavebeenawolfleft.Itisprobablethattherehavebeenracesofmenwhoarenolongertobefound.Whyshouldtheynothaveexistedaswellasthewhites,theblacks,theKaffirs, towhomnaturehasgivenanapronof theirownskin,hangingfrom

thebellytothemiddleofthethigh;theSamoyeds,whosewomenhavenipplesofabeautifuljet.

Is there not amanifest void between the ape andman? Is it not easy toimagineatwo-leggedanimalwithoutfeathershavingintelligencewithoutourshapeor theuseofspeech—onewhichwecouldtame,whichwouldansweroursigns,andserveus?Andagain,betweenthisspeciesandman,cannotweimagineothers?

Beyond man, divine Plato, you place in heaven a string of celestialsubstances,insomeofwhichwebelievebecausethefaithsoteachesus.Butwhat reason had you to believe in them? It does not appear that you hadspokenwiththegeniusofSocrates,andthoughHeres,goodman,roseagainonpurpose to tellyou thesecretsof theotherworld,he toldyounothingofthese substances. In the sensible universe the pretended chain is no lessinterrupted.

Whatgradation,Iprayyou,isthereamongtheplanets?Themoonisfortytimes smaller than our globe. Travelling from themoon through space, youfindVenus,aboutaslargeastheearth.FromthenceyougotoMercury,whichrevolves in an ellipsis very different from the circular orbit of Venus; it istwenty-seven times smaller than the earth, the sun is amillion times larger,andMars is five times smaller. The latter goes his round in two years, hisneighborJupiterintwelve,andSaturninthirty;yetSaturn,themostdistantofall,isnotsolargeasJupiter.Whereisthepretendedgradation?

And then, how, in so many empty spaces, do you extend a chainconnectingthewhole?TherecancertainlybenootherthanthatwhichNewtondiscovered—thatwhichmakesalltheglobesoftheplanetaryworldgravitateonetowardsanotherintheimmensevoid.

Oh,muchadmiredPlato! I fear thatyouhave toldusnothingbut fables,thatyouhavespokentousonlyasasophist!Oh,Plato!youhavedonemoremischiefthanyouareawareof.Howso?youwillask.Iwillnottellyou.

CHAINORGENERATIONOFEVENTS.

Thepresent,wesay,ispregnantwiththefuture;eventsarelinkedonewithanotherbyaninvinciblefatality.Thisisthefatewhich,inHomer,issuperiorto Jupiter himself. The master of gods and men expressly declares that hecannotpreventhissonSarpedonfromdyingat thetimeappointed.Sarpedonwasborn at themomentwhen itwasnecessary that he shouldbeborn, andcouldnotbebornatanyother;hecouldnotdieelsewherethanbeforeTroy;he

couldnotbeburiedelsewherethaninLycia;hisbodymust,intheappointedtime,producevegetables,whichmustchangeintothesubstanceofsomeoftheLycians;hisheirsmustestablishaneworderofthingsinhisstates;thatneworder must influence neighboring kingdoms; thence must result a newarrangement inwar and inpeacewith theneighborsofLycia.So that, fromlink to link, the destiny of the whole earth depended on the elopement ofHelen,whichhadanecessaryconnectionwiththemarriageofHecuba,which,ascendingtohigherevents,wasconnectedwiththeoriginofthings.

Hadanyoneoftheseoccurrencesbeenorderedotherwise,theresultwouldhavebeenadifferentuniverse.Now,itwasnotpossiblefortheactualuniversenottoexist; thereforeitwasnotpossibleforJupiter,Joveashewas,tosavethelifeofhisson.Wearetoldthatthisdoctrineofnecessityandfatalityhasbeen invented in our own times by Leibnitz, under the name of sufficingreason.Itis,however,ofgreatantiquity.Itisnorecentdiscoverythatthereisno effect without a cause and that often the smallest cause produces thegreatesteffects.

LordBolingbrokeacknowledgesthathewasindebtedtothepettyquarrelsbetweentheduchessofMarlboroughandMrs.MashamforanopportunityofconcludingtheprivatetreatybetweenQueenAnneandLouisXIV.ThistreatyledtothepeaceofUtrecht;thepeaceofUtrechtsecuredthethroneofSpaintoPhilipV.;Philip tookNaplesandSicily fromthehouseofAustria.Thus theSpanish prince,who is nowking ofNaples, evidently owes his kingdom toMrs. Masham; he would not have had it, nor even have been born, if theduchess of Marlborough had been more complaisant towards the queen ofEngland; his existence atNaples depended on one follymore or less at thecourtofLondon.

Examinethesituationsofeverypeopleuponearth;theyareinlikemannerfounded on a train of occurrences seemingly without connection, but allconnected.Inthisimmensemachinealliswheel,pulley,cord,orspring.Itisthe same in physical order.Awind blowing from the southern seas and theremotest parts ofAfrica bringswith it a portion of theAfrican atmosphere,which,fallinginshowersinthevalleysoftheAlps,fertilizesourlands;ontheotherhandournorthwindcarriesourvaporsamongthenegroes;wedogoodtoGuinea,andGuineatous.Thechainextendsfromoneendoftheuniversetotheother.

Butthetruthofthisprincipleseemstometobestrangelyabused;foritisthence concluded that there is no atom, however small, the movement ofwhichhasnotinfluencedtheactualarrangementofthewholeworld;thatthemost trivial accident,whether amongmenor animals, is an essential link inthegreatchainofdestiny.

Let us understand one another. Every effect evidently has its cause,ascendingfromcausetocause,intotheabyssofeternity;buteverycausehasnot its effect, going down to the end of ages. I grant that all events areproducedonebyanother;ifthepastwaspregnantwiththepresent,thepresentis pregnantwith the future; everything is begotten, but everything does notbeget.It isagenealogical tree;everyhouse,weknow,ascendstoAdam,butmanyofthefamilyhavediedwithoutissue.

Theeventsofthisworldformagenealogicaltree.Itisindisputablethattheinhabitants ofSpain andGaul are descended fromGomer, and theRussiansfrom his younger brother Magog, for in how many great books is thisgenealogy tobe found! Itcannot thenbedenied that thegrandTurk,who isalsodescendedfromMagog,isobligedtohimforthegoodbeatinggivenhimin1769bytheEmpressCatherineII.Thisoccurrenceisevidentlylinkedwithother great events; but whetherMagog spat to the right or to the left nearMountCaucasus—madetwoorthreecirclesinawell—orwhetherhelayonhis right side or his left, I do not see that it could havemuch influence onpresentaffairs.

Itmustberemembered,becauseitisprovedbyNewton,thatnatureisnotaplenum,andthatmotionisnotcommunicatedbycollisionuntilithasmadethe tour of the universe. Throw a body of a certain density intowater, youeasilycalculatethatattheendofsuchatimethemovementofthisbody,andthatwhichithasgiventothewater,willcease;themotionwillbelostandrestwill be restored. So the motion produced byMagog in spitting into a wellcannot have influenced what is now passing in Moldavia and Wallachia.Present events, then, arenot theoffspringof all past events, theyhave theirdirectlines,butwithathousandsmallcollateralfinestheyhavenothingtodo.Oncemorebeitobservedthateverybeinghasaparentbuteveryonehasnotanoffspring.

CHANGESTHATHAVEOCCURREDINTHEGLOBE.

Whenwehaveseenwithourowneyesamountainadvancingintoaplain—that is, an immense rock detached from that mountain, and covering thefields, an entire castle buried in the earth, or a swallowed-up river burstingfrom below, indubitable marks of an immense mass of water having onceinundatedacountrynow inhabited,andsomany tracesofother revolutions,weareevenmoredisposedtobelieveinthegreatchangesthathavealteredthefaceoftheworldthanaParisianladywhoknowsthatthesquareinwhichherhouse standswas formerly a cultivated field, but a lady ofNapleswho has

seen the ruins of Herculaneum underground is still less enthralled by theprejudicewhichleadsustobelievethateverythinghasalwaysbeenasitnowis.

WasthereagreatburningoftheworldinthetimeofPhaethon?Nothingismore likely, but this catastrophe was no more caused by the ambition ofPhaethon or the anger of Jupiter theThunderer than atLisbon, in 1755, theDivinevengeancewasdrawndown,thesubterraneousfireskindled,andhalfthe city destroyed by the fires so often lighted there by the inquisition—besides, we know thatMequinez, Tetuan and considerable hordes of ArabshavebeentreatedevenworsethanLisbon,thoughtheyhadnoinquisition.Theisland of St. Domingo, entirely devastated not long ago, had no moredispleasedtheGreatBeingthantheislandofCorsica;allissubjecttoeternalphysicallaws.

Sulphur,bitumen,nitre,andiron,enclosedwithinthebowelsof theearthhaveoverturnedmanyacity,openedmanyagulf,andweareconstantlyliabletotheseaccidentsattachedtothewayinwhichthisglobeisputtogether,justas, in many countries during winter, we are exposed to the attacks offamishing wolves and tigers. If fire, which Heraclitus believed to be theprinciple of all, has altered the face of a part of the earth, Thales's firstprinciple,water,hasoperatedasgreatchanges.

One-halfofAmerica isstill inundatedby theancientoverflowingsof theMaranon,RiodelaPlata,theSt.Lawrence,theMississippi,andalltheriversperpetually swelled by the eternal snows of the highest mountains in theworld, stretching from one end of that continent to the other. Theseaccumulated floods have almost everywhere produced vast marshes. Theneighboringlandshavebecomeuninhabitable,andtheearth,whichthehandsofmanshouldhavemadefruitful,hasproducedonlypestilence.

ThesamethinghappenedinChinaandinEgypt:amultitudeofageswerenecessary todig canals anddry the lands.Add to these lengtheneddisastersthe irruptionsof thesea, the lands ithas invadedanddeserted, the islands ithasdetachedfromthecontinentandyouwillfindthatfromeasttowest,fromJapan to Mount Atlas, it has devastated more than eighty thousand squareleagues.

The swallowing up of the island Atlantis from the ocean may, with asmuch reason, be considered historical, as fabulous. The shallowness of theAtlanticasfarastheCanariesmightbetakenasaproofofthisgreateventandtheCanariesthemselvesforfragmentsoftheislandAtlantis.

Platotellsusinhis"Timæus,"thattheEgyptianpriests,amongwhomhehad travelled, had in their possession ancient registers which certified thatisland's going under water. Plato says that this catastrophe happened nine

thousandyearsbeforehistime.NoonewillbelievethischronologyonPlato'swordonly, butneither can anyone adduce against it anyphysical proof, norevenahistoricaltestimonyfromanyprofanewriter.

Pliny,inhisthirdbook,saysthatfromtimeimmemorialthepeopleofthesoutherncoastsofSpainbelieved that theseahad forcedapassagebetweenCalpeandAbila:"IndigenæcolumnasHerculisvocant,creduntqueperfossasexclusaanteaadmisissemaria,etrerumnaturæmutassefaciem."

An attentive traveller may convince himself by his own eyes that theCyclades and the Sporades were once part of the continent of Greece, andespeciallythatSicilywasoncejoinedtoApulia.ThetwovolcanosofEtnaandVesuviushavingthesamebasisinthesea,thelittlegulfofCharybdis,theonlydeep part of that sea, the perfect resemblance of the two soils areincontrovertible testimonies. The floods of Deucalion and Ogyges are wellknown,andthefablesfoundeduponthistrutharestillmorethetalkofalltheWest.

Theancientshavementionedseveraldeluges inAsia.TheonespokenofbyBerosushappened(ashetellsus)inChaldæa,aboutfourthousandthree,orfourhundredyearsbeforetheChristianera,andAsiawasasmuchinundatedwithfablesabout thisdelugeas itwasbytheoverflowingsof theTigrisandEuphrates,andalltheriversthatfallintotheEuxine.

Itistruethatsuchoverflowingscannotcoverthecountrywithmorethanafew feet ofwater, but the consequent sterility, thewashing away of houses,and the destruction of cattle are losseswhich it requires nearly a century torepair.We know howmuch they have cost Holland, more than the half ofwhichhasbeenlostsincetheyear1050.Sheisstillobligedtomaintainadailyconflict with the ever-threatening ocean. She has never employed so manysoldiers in resisting her enemies as she employs laborers in continuallydefendingheragainsttheassaultsofaseaalwaysreadytoswallowher.

The road fromEgypt toPhœnicia, along thebordersofLakeSerbo,wasoncequitepracticable,butithaslongceasedtobeso;itisnownothingbutaquicksand,moistenedbystagnantwater.Inshort,agreatportionoftheearthwouldbenootherthanavastpoisonousmarshinhabitedbymonsters,butfortheassiduouslaborofthehumanrace.

WeshallnotherespeakoftheuniversaldelugeofNoah.Letitsufficetoread the Holy Scriptures with submission. Noah's flood was anincomprehensiblemiraclesupernaturallyworkedbythe justiceandgoodnessof an ineffable Providence whose will it was to destroy the whole guiltyhuman race and form a new and innocent race. If the new race was morewicked than the former, and became more criminal from age to age, fromreformationtoreformation,thisisbutanothereffectofthesameProvidence,

of which it is impossible for us to fathom the depths, the inconceivablemysteries transmitted to thenationsof theWest formanyages, in theLatintranslationoftheSeptuagint.Weshallneverentertheseawfulsanctuaries;ourquestionswillbelimitedtosimplenature.

CHARACTER.

[From the Greek word signifying Impression, Engraving.—It is whatnaturehasengravedinus.]

Canwe change our character?Yes, ifwe change our body.Aman bornturbulent, violent, and inflexible,may, through falling inhisold age into anapoplexy,becomelikeasilly,weak,timid,pulingchild.Hisbodyisnolongerthesame,butsolongashisnerves,hisblood,andhismarrowremaininthesamestatehisdispositionwillnotchangeanymorethantheinstinctofawolforapolecat.TheEnglishauthorof"TheDispensary,"apoemmuchsuperiorto the Italian "Capitoli" and perhaps even to Boileau's "Lutrin", has, as itseemstome,wellobserved.

Howmatter,bythevariedshapeofpores,

Oridiotsframes,orsolemnsenators.

Thecharacterisformedofourideasandourfeelings.Nowitisquiteclearthat we neither give ourselves feelings nor ideas, therefore our charactercannotdependonourselves. If itdid sodepend,everyonewouldbeperfect.We cannot give ourselves tastes, nor talents, why, then, should we giveourselvesqualities?Whenwedonot reflectwe thinkwearemastersof all:whenwereflectwefindthatwearemastersofnothing.

Ifyouwouldabsolutelychangeaman'scharacterpurgehimwithdiluentstillheisdead.CharlesXII.,inhisillnessonthewaytoBender,wasnolongerthesameman;hewasas tractableasachild. If Ihaveawrynoseandcat'seyesIcanhidethembehindamask,andcanIdomorewiththecharacterthatnaturehasgivenme?

AmanbornviolentandpassionatepresentshimselfbeforeFrancisI.,kingof France, to complain of a trespass. The countenance of the prince, therespectfulbehaviorof thecourtiers, theveryplacehe is inmakeapowerfulimpression upon this man. He mechanically casts down his eyes, his rudevoiceissoftened,hepresentshispetitionwithhumility,youwouldthinkhimasmildas(atthatmomentatleast)thecourtiersappeartobe,amongwhomheisoftendisconcerted,butifFrancisI.knowsanythingofphysiognomy,hewilleasilydiscoverinhiseye,thoughdowncast,glisteningwithasullenfire,inthe

extendedmuscles of his face, in his fast-closed lips, that thisman is not somildashe isforcedtoappear.ThesamemanfollowshimtoPavia, is takenprisoner alongwith him and thrown into the same dungeon atMadrid. ThemajestyofFrancisI.nolongeraweshimasbefore,hebecomesfamiliarwiththe object of his reverence. One day, pulling on the king's boots, andhappeningtopullthemonill,theking,souredbymisfortune,growsangry,onwhich our man of courtesy wishes his majesty at the devil and throws hisbootsoutthewindow.

SixtusV.wasbynaturepetulant,obstinate,haughty,impetuous,vindictive,arrogant.Thischaracter,however,seemstohavebeensoftenedbythetrialsofhisnovitiate.Butseehimbeginningtoacquiresomeinfluenceinhisorder;hefliesintoapassionagainstaguardianandknockshimdown.Beholdhimaninquisitor at Venice, he exercises his office with insolence. Behold himcardinal; he is possessed della rabbia papale; this rage triumphs over hisnatural propensities; he buries his person and his character in obscurity andcounterfeitshumilityand infirmity.He iselectedpope,and thespringwhichpolicy had held back now acts with all the force of its long-restrainedelasticity;heistheproudestandmostdespoticofsovereigns.

Naturamexpellasfurea,tamenusquerecurret.

Howe'erexpelled,naturewillstillreturn.

Religionandmoralitycurbthestrengthofthedisposition,buttheycannotdestroy it.Thedrunkard inacloister, reduced toaquarterofapintofcidereachmealwillnevermoregetdrunk,buthewillalwaysbefondofwine.

Age weakens the character; it is as an old tree producing only a fewdegeneratefruits,butalwaysofthesamenature,whichiscoveredwithknotsandmossandbecomesworm-eaten,butiseverthesame,whetheroakorpeartree. If we could change our character we could give ourselves one andbecome the master of nature. Can we give ourselves anything? do not wereceive everything? To strive to animate the indolentmanwith perseveringactivity,tofreezewithapathytheboilingbloodoftheimpetuous,toinspireataste for poetry into himwho has neither taste nor ear were as futile as toattempttogivesighttoonebornblind.Weperfect,weameliorate,weconcealwhatnaturehasplacedinus,butweplacenothingthereourselves.

Anagriculturististold:"Youhavetoomanyfishinthispond;theywillnotthrive, here are toomany cattle in yourmeadows; theywillwant grass andgrowlean."Afterthisexhortationthepikescomeandeatone-halfthisman'scarps, the wolves one-half of his sheep, and the rest fatten. And will youapplaud his economy? This countryman is yourself; one of your passionsdevourstherestandyouthinkyouhavegainedatriumph.Dowenotalmostallresembletheoldgeneralofninety,who,havingfoundsomeyoungofficers

behavinginaratherdisorderlymannerwithsomeyoungwomen,saidtotheminanger:"Gentlemen,isthistheexamplethatIsetyou?"

CHARITY.

CHARITABLEANDBENEFICENTINSTITUTIONS,ALMS-HOUSES,HOSPITALS,ETC.

Cicerofrequentlyspeaksofuniversalcharity,charitashumanigeneris;butit does not appear that the policy or the beneficence of the Romans everinducedthemtoestablishcharitableinstitutions,inwhichtheindigentandthesickmightberelievedattheexpenseofthepublic.Therewasareceptacleforstrangers at the port of Ostia, called Xenodokium, St. Jerome renders thisjustice to the Romans. Almshouses seem to have been unknown in ancientRome.Amorenobleusageprevailed—thatofsupplyingthepeoplewithcorn.Therewere inRome three hundred and twenty-seven public granaries. Thisconstantliberalityprecludedanyneedofalms-houses.Theywerestrangerstonecessity.

NeitherwasthereanyoccasionamongtheRomansforfoundingcharities.Noneexposedtheirownchildren.Thoseofslavesweretakencareofbytheirmasters.Childbirthwasnot deemeddisgraceful to thedaughters of citizens.The poorest families, maintained by the republic and afterwards by theemperors,sawthesubsistenceoftheirchildrensecured.

The expression, "charitable establishment," maison de charité, implies astateofindigenceamongmodernnationswhichtheformofourgovernmentshasnotbeenabletopreclude.

The word "hospital," which recalls that of hospitality, reminds us of avirtueinhighestimationamongtheGreeks,nownolongerexisting;butitalsoexpressesavirtuefarsuperior.Thereisamightydifferencebetweenlodging,maintaining, and providing in sickness for all afflicted applicants whatever,andentertaininginyourownhousetwoorthreetravellersbywhomyoumightclaim a right to be entertained in return. Hospitality, after all, was but anexchange.Hospitalsaremonumentsofbeneficence.

ItistruethattheGreekswereacquaintedwithcharitableinstitutionsunderthenameofXenodokia, for strangers,Nosocomeia, for thesick,andPtokia,fortheindigent.InDiogenesLaertius,concerningBion,wefindthispassage:"He sufferedmuch from the indigence of thosewhowere chargedwith thecareofthesick."

Hospitality among friends was called Idioxenia, and among strangers

Proxenia. Hence, the person who received and entertained strangers in hishouse,inthenameofthewholecity,wascalledProxenos.Butthisinstitutionappearstohavebeenexceedinglyrare.Atthepresentdaythereisscarcelyacity in Europe without its hospitals. The Turks have them even for beasts,whichseemstobecarryingcharityrathertoofar,itwouldbebettertoforgetthebeastsandthinkmoreaboutmen.

This prodigious multitude of charitable establishments clearly proves atruthdeservingofallourattention—thatmanisnotsodepravedasheisstatedtobe,andthat,notwithstandingallhisabsurdopinions,notwithstandingallthehorrorsofwarwhichtransformhimintoaferociousbeast,wehavereasontoconsider him as a creature naturally well disposed and kind, and who, likeother animals, becomes vicious only in proportion as he is stung byprovocation.

Themisfortuneisthatheisprovokedtoooften.

ModernRomehasalmostasmanycharitableinstitutionsasancientRomehad triumphal arches and other monuments of conquest. The mostconsiderableof themall isabankwhich lendsmoneyat twopercent.uponpledge, and sells the property if the borrower does not redeem it by anappointed time. This establishment is called the Archiospedale, or chiefhospital.Itissaidalwaystocontainwithinitswallsnearlytwothousandsick,whichwouldbeaboutthefiftiethpartofthepopulationofRomeforthisonehouse alone, without including the children brought up, and the pilgrimslodgedthere.Wherearethecomputationswhichdonotrequireabatement?

HasitnotbeenactuallypublishedatRomethatthehospitaloftheTrinityhadlodgedandmaintainedforthreedaysfourhundredandfortythousandfivehundredmaleandtwenty-fivethousandfemalepilgrimsatthejubileein1600?HasnotMissonhimselftoldusthatthehospitaloftheAnnunciationatNaplespossesses a rental of two millions in our money? (About four hundredthousanddollars.)

However, to return, perhaps a charitable establishment for pilgrimswhoaregenerallymerevagabonds,isratheranencouragementtoidlenessthananact of humanity. It is, however, a decisive evidence of humanity thatRomecontains fifty charitable establishments including all descriptions. Thesebeneficentinstitutionsarequiteasusefulandrespectableastherichesofsomemonasteriesandchapelsareuselessandridiculous.

To dispense food, clothing, medicine, and aid of every kind, to ourbrethren, is truly meritorious, but what need can a saint have of gold anddiamonds? What benefit results to mankind from "our Lady of Loretto"possessingmoregorgeoustreasuresthantheTurkishsultan?Lorettoisahouseof vanity, and not of charity. London, reckoning its charity schools, has as

manybeneficentestablishmentsasRome.

ThemostbeautifulmonumentofbeneficenceevererectedistheHôteldesInvalides,foundedbyLouisXIV.

Ofallhospitals,thatinwhichthegreatestnumberofindigentsickaredailyreceivedistheHôtelDieuofParis.Itfrequentlycontainsfourorfivethousandinmatesatatime.Itisatoncethereceptacleofallthedreadfulillstowhichmankindaresubjectandthetempleoftruevirtue,whichconsistsinrelievingthem.

It is impossible to avoid frequently drawing a contrast between a fête atVersaillesoranoperaatParis,inwhichallthepleasuresandallthesplendorsoflifearecombinedwiththemostexquisiteart,andaHôtelDieu,whereallthatispainful,allthatisloathsome,andevendeathitselfareaccumulatedinonemassofhorror.Suchis thecompositionofgreatcities!Byanadmirablepolicypleasuresandluxuryarerenderedsubservienttomiseryandpain.Thetheatres of Paris pay on an average the yearly sum of a hundred thousandcrownstothehospital.Itoftenhappensinthesecharitableinstitutionsthattheinconveniences counterbalance the advantages. One proof of the abusesattachedtothemisthatpatientsdreadtheveryideaofbeingremovedtothem.

TheHôtelDieu,forexample,wasformerlywellsituated,inthemiddleofthecity,near thebishop'spalace.Thesituationnowisverybad, for thecityhasbecomeovergrown;fourorfivepatientsarecrowdedintoeverybed, thevictimofscurvycommunicatesittohisneighborandinreturnreceivesfromhim smallpox, and a pestilential atmosphere spreads incurable disease anddeath,notonly through thebuildingdestined to restoremen tohealthful lifebutthroughagreatpartofthecitywhichsurroundsit.

M. de Chamousset, one of themost valuable and active of citizens, hascomputed,fromaccurateauthorities,thatintheHôtelDieu,afourthpartofthepatients die, an eighth in the hospital of Charity, a ninth in the Londonhospitals, and a thirtieth in those of Versailles. In the great and celebratedhospitalofLyons,whichhaslongbeenoneofthebestconductedinEurope,theaveragemortalityhasbeenfoundtobeonlyone-fifteenth.IthasbeenoftenproposedtodividetheHôtelDieuofParis intosmallerestablishmentsbettersituated,moreairy,andsalubrious,butmoneyhasbeenwanting tocarry theplanintoexecution.

Curtaenescioquidsemperabestrei.

Moneyisalwaystobefoundwhenmenaretobesenttothefrontierstobedestroyed,butwhentheobjectis topreservethemit isnolongerso.YettheHôtelDieu of Paris has a revenue amounting tomore than amillion (fortythousandpounds), and every day increasing, and theParisians have rivalled

eachotherintheirendowmentsofit.

We cannot help remarking in this place that Germain Brice, in his"Description of Paris," speaking of some legacies bequeathed by the firstpresident, Bellievre, to the hall of theHôtelDieu, named St. Charles, says:"Everyoneought toreadthebeautiful inscription,engravedin lettersofgoldonagrandmarble tablet,andcomposedbyOliverPatru,oneof thechoicestspirits of his time, some of whose pleadings are extant and in very highesteem.

"Whoever thou art that enterest this sacred place thou wilt almosteverywherebeholdtracesofthecharityofthegreatPomponne.Thegoldandsilver tapestry and the exquisite furniture which formerly adorned hisapartments are now, by a happy metamorphosis, made to minister to thenecessitiesofthesick.Thatdivineman,whowastheornamentanddelightofhisage,eveninhisconflictwithdeath,consideredhowhemightrelievetheafflicted. The blood ofBellievrewasmanifested in every action of his life.Thegloryofhisembassiesisfullwellknown,"etc.

The useful Chamousset did better than Germain Brice, or than OliverPatru,"oneofthechoicestspiritsofhistime."Heofferedtoundertakeathisownexpense,backedbyaresponsiblecompany,thefollowingcontract:

Theadministratorsof theHôtelDieuestimated thecostof everypatient,whether killed or cured, at fifty livres. M. Chamousset and the companyoffered toundertake thebusiness,on receiving fifty livreson recoveryonly.Thedeathsweretobethrownoutoftheaccount,ofwhichtheexpensesweretobebornebyhimself.

The proposalwas so very advantageous that itwas not accepted. Itwasfearedthathewouldnotbeabletoaccomplishit.Everyabuseattemptedtobereformed is the patrimony of those who have more influence than thereformers.

A circumstance no less singular is that the Hôtel Dieu alone has theprivilege of sellingmeat in Lent, for its own advantage and it losesmoneythereby. M. Chamousset proposed to enter into a contract by which theestablishment would gain; his offer was rejected and the butcher, who wasthoughttohavesuggestedittohim,wasdismissed.

Ainsichezleshumains,parunabusfatal,

Lebienleplusparfaitestlasourcedumal.

Thusseriousill,iftaintedbyabuse,

Thenoblestworksofmanwilloftproduce.

CHARLESIX.

Charles IX., king of France, was, we are told, a good poet. It is quitecertain that while he lived his verses were admired. Brantôme does not,indeed,tellusthatthiskingwasthebestpoetinEurope,butheassuresusthat"hemadeverygenteelquatrainsimpromptu,withoutthinking(forhehadseenseveral of them), and when it was wet or gloomyweather, or very hot, hewouldsendforthepoetsintohiscabinetandpasshistimetherewiththem."

Had he always passed his time thus, and, above all, had hemade goodverses,we shouldnothavehadaSt.Bartholomew,hewouldnothave firedwithacarbinethroughhiswindowuponhisownsubjects,asiftheyhadbeenacoveyofpartridges.Isitnotimpossibleforagoodpoettobeabarbarian?Iampersuadeditis.

Theselines,addressedinhisnametoRonsard,havebeenattributedtohim:

Lalyre,quiravitpardesidouxaccords,

Tesoumetslesespritsdontjen'aiquelescorps;

Lemaîtreellet'enrend,ettefaitintroduire

Oùleplusfiertyrannepeutavoird'empire.

Thelyre'sdelightfulsoftlyswellinglay

Subduesthemind,Ibutthebodysway;

Maketheeitsmaster,thysweetartcanbind

Whathaughtytyrantscannotrule—themind.

Theselinesaregood.Butaretheyhis?Aretheynothispreceptor's?Herearesomeofhisroyalimaginings,whicharesomewhatdifferent:

Ilfautsuivretonroiquit'aimeparsurtous

Pourlesversquidetoicoulentbravesetdoux;

Etcrois,situneviensmetrouveràPontoise,

Qu'entrenousadviendraunetrès-grandenoise.

Know,thoumustfollowclosethyking,whooft

Hathheard,andlovestheefor,thyversesosoft;

UnlessthoucomeandmeetmeatPontoise,

Believeme,Ishallmakenolittlenoise.

TheseareworthytheauthorofthemassacreofSt.Bartholomew.Cæsar'slines on Terence are written with rather more spirit and taste; they breatheRomanurbanity.InthoseofFrancisI.andCharlesIX.wefindthebarbarismof the Celts.Would toGod that Charles IX. hadwrittenmore verses, eventhoughbadones!Forconstantapplicationtothefineartssoftensthemannersanddispelsferocity:

Emollitmores,necsinitesseferos.

Besides, theFrenchlanguagesscarcelybegantotakeanyformuntil longafterCharlesIX.SeesuchofFrancisI.'slettersashavebeenpreserved:"Toutest perdu hors l'honneur"—"All is lost save honor"—was worthy of achevalier. But the following is neither in the style of Cicero nor in that ofCæsar:

"Touta fleureynsique jemevoloismettreo lit est arrivéLavalquim'aaportélasertenetédulévementdusiege."

"Allwasgoingsowell that,whenIwasgoing tobedLavalarrived,andbroughtmethecertaintyofthesiegebeingraised."

WehavelettersfromthehandofLouisXIII.,whicharenobetterwritten.ItisnotrequiredofakingtowriteletterslikePliny,orverseslikeVirgil;butno one can be excused from expressing himself with propriety in his owntongue.Everyprincethatwriteslikealady'smaidhasbeenilleducated.

CHINA.

SectionI.

Wehavefrequentlyobservedelsewhere,howrashandinjudiciousit is tocontrovert with any nation, such as the Chinese, its authentic pretensions.ThereisnohouseinEurope,theantiquityofwhichissowellprovedasthatoftheEmpireofChina.LetusfiguretoourselvesalearnedMaroniteofMountAthosquestioningthenobilityoftheMorozini,theTiepolo,andotherancienthouses of Venice; of the princes of Germany, of the Montmorencys, theChatillons,ortheTalleyrands,ofFrance,underthepretencethattheyarenotmentioned in St. Thomas, or St. Bonaventure.Wemust impeach either hissenseorhissincerity.

Many of the learned of our northern climes have felt confounded at theantiquity claimed by the Chinese. The question, however, is not one oflearning.LeavingalltheChineseliterati,allthemandarins,alltheemperors,toacknowledgeFo-hiasoneof thefirstwhogave laws toChina,about two

thousand fivehundredyearsbeforeourvulgar era; admit that theremustbepeoplebefore there arekings.Allow that a longperiodof time isnecessarybeforeanumerouspeople,havingdiscoveredthenecessaryartsoflife,uniteinthechoiceofacommongovernor.Butifyoudonotmaketheseadmissions,it isnotof the slightest consequence.Whetheryouagreewithusornot,weshallalwaysbelievethattwoandtwomakefour.

Inawesternprovince,formerlycalledCeltica,theloveofsingularityandparadoxhasbeencarriedso faras to inducesome toassert that theChinesewereonlyanEgyptian,orratherperhapsaPhœniciancolony.Itwasattemptedtoprove,inthesamewayasathousandotherthingshavebeenproved,thatakingofEgypt,calledMenesbytheGreeks,wastheChineseKingYu;andthatAtoes was Ki, by the change of certain letters. In addition to which, thefollowingisaspecimenofthereasoningappliedtothesubject:

The Egyptians sometimes lighted torches at night. The Chinese lightlanterns:theChineseare,therefore,evidentlyacolonyfromEgypt.TheJesuitParenninwhohad,atthetime,residedfiveandtwentyyearsinChina,andwasmasterbothofitslanguageanditssciences,hasrejectedallthesefancieswitha happymixture of elegance and sarcasm. All themissionaries, and all theChinese, on receiving the intelligence that a country in the extremity of thewestwasdevelopinganewformationoftheChineseEmpire,treateditwithacontemptuous ridicule. Father Parennin replied with somewhat moreseriousness: "Your Egyptians," said he, "when going to people China,mustevidentlyhavepassedthroughIndia."WasIndiaatthattimepeopledornot?Ifitwas,woulditpermitaforeignarmytopassthroughit?Ifitwasnot,wouldnot the Egyptians have stopped in India?Would they have continued theirjourneythroughbarrendeserts,andoveralmostimpracticablemountains,tilltheyreachedChina,inordertoformcoloniesthere,whentheymightsoeasilyhaveestablishedthemonthefertilebanksoftheIndusortheGanges?

Thecompilersofauniversalhistory,printedinEngland,havealsoshownadisposition to divest theChinese of their antiquity, because the JesuitswerethefirstwhomadetheworldacquaintedwithChina.Thisisunquestionablyaverysatisfactoryreasonforsayingtoawholenation—"Youareliars."

It appears tome avery important reflection,whichmaybemadeon thetestimonygivenbyConfucius,totheantiquityofhisnation;andwhichis,thatConfuciushadnointerestinfalsehood:hedidnotpretendtobeaprophet;heclaimed no inspiration: he taught no new religion; he used no delusions;flatterednottheemperorunderwhomhelived:hedidnotevenmentionhim.In short,he is theonly founderof institutionsamongmankindwhowasnotfollowedbyatrainofwomen.Iknewaphilosopherwhohadnootherportraitthan that of Confucius in his study. At the bottom of it were written thefollowinglines:

Withoutassumptionheexploredthemind,

Unveiledthelightofreasontomankind;

Spokeasasage,andneverasaseer,

Yet,strangetosay,hiscountryheldhimdear.

I have read his bookswith attention; I havemade extracts from them; Ihavefoundinthemnothingbutthepurestmorality,withouttheslightesttingeofcharlatanism.Helivedsixhundredyearsbeforeourvulgarera.Hisworkswerecommentedonbythemostlearnedmenofthenation.Ifhehadfalsified,if he had introduced a false chronology, if he hadwritten of emperorswhoneverexisted,wouldnotsomeonehavebeenfound,inalearnednation,whowould have reformed his chronology? One Chinese only has chosen tocontradicthim,andhemetwithuniversalexecration.

Were itworthourwhile,wemightherecompare thegreatwallofChinawith themonumentsofothernations,whichhaveneverevenapproached it;and remark, that, in comparison with this extensive work, the pyramids ofEgyptareonlypuerileanduselessmasses.Wemightdwellonthethirty-twoeclipsescalculatedintheancientchronologyofChina,twenty-eightofwhichhavebeenverifiedbythemathematiciansofEurope.Wemightshow,thattherespectentertainedbytheChinesefortheirancestorsisanevidencethatsuchancestors have existed; and repeat the observation, so oftenmade, that thisreverential respect has in so small degree impeded, among this people, theprogressofnaturalphilosophy,geometry,andastronomy.

Itissufficientlyknown,thattheyare,atthepresentday,whatweallwerethreehundredyearsago,veryignorantreasoners.ThemostlearnedChineseislikeoneofthelearnedofEuropeinthefifteenthcentury,inpossessionofhisAristotle.But it is possible to be a very bad natural philosopher, and at thesametimeanexcellentmoralist.Itis,infact,inmorality,inpoliticaleconomy,inagriculture, in thenecessaryartsof life, that theChinesehavemadesuchadvancestowardsperfection.Alltheresttheyhavebeentaughtbyus:inthesewemightwellsubmittobecometheirdisciples.

OftheExpulsionoftheMissionariesfromChina.

Humanly speaking, independently of the servicewhich the Jesuitsmightconfer on the Christian religion, are they not to be regarded as an ill-fatedclass of men, in having travelled from so remote a distance to introducetrouble and discord into one of the most extended and best-governedkingdomsoftheworld?AnddoesnottheirconductinvolveadreadfulabuseoftheliberalityandindulgenceshownbytheOrientals,moreparticularlyafterthe torrents of blood shed, through theirmeans, in the empire of Japan?Asceneofhorror,topreventtheconsequenceofwhichthegovernmentbelieved

itabsolutelyindispensabletoshuttheirportsagainstallforeigners.

TheJesuitshadobtainedpermissionof theemperorofChina,Cam-hi, toteachtheCatholicreligion.Theymadeuseofit,toinstilintothesmallportionofthepeopleundertheirdirection,thatitwasincumbentonthemtoservenoothermasterthanhimwhowastheviceregentofGodonearth,andwhodweltinItalyonthebanksofasmallrivercalledtheTiber;thateveryotherreligiousopinion, every otherworship, was an abomination in the sight ofGod, andwhoeverdidnotbelievetheJesuitswouldbepunishedbyHimtoalleternity;thattheiremperorandbenefactor,Cam-hi,whocouldnotevenpronouncethename ofChrist, as theChinese language possesses not the letter "r,"wouldsuffer eternal damnation; that the Emperor Yontchin would experience,without mercy, the same fate; that all the ancestors, both of Chinese andTartars,wouldincurasimilarpenalty;thattheirdescendantswouldundergoitalso,aswellastherestoftheworld;andthatthereverendfathers,theJesuits,feltasincereandpaternalcommiserationforthedamnationofsomanysouls.

They,atlength,succeededinmakingconvertsofthreeprincesoftheTartarrace.Inthemeantime,theEmperorCam-hidied,towardsthecloseoftheyear1722.Hebequeathedtheempiretohisfourthson,whohasbeensocelebratedthroughthewholeworldforthejusticeandthewisdomofhisgovernment,fortheaffectionentertainedforhimbyhissubjects,andfortheexpulsionoftheJesuits.

They began by baptizing the three princes, and many persons of theirhousehold.These neophytes had themisfortune to displease the emperor onsomepointswhichmerelyrespectedmilitaryduty.Aboutthisveryperiodtheindignation of the whole empire against the missionaries broke out into aflame. All the governors of provinces, all the Colaos, presented memorialsagainst them.The accusations against themwere urged so far that the threeprinces,whohadbecomedisciplesoftheJesuits,wereputintoirons.

It is clear that theywerenot treatedwith this severity simply forhavingbeenbaptized, since the Jesuits themselvesacknowledge in their letters, thattheyexperiencednoviolence,andthattheywereevenadmittedtoanaudienceoftheemperor,whohonoredthemwithsomepresents.Itisevident,therefore,thattheEmperorYonchinwasnopersecutor;and,iftheprinceswereconfinedin a prison on the borders of Tartary, while thosewho had converted themwere treatedso liberally, it isadecidedproof that theywerestateprisoners,andnotmartyrs.

Theemperor,soonafterthis,yieldedtothesupplicationsofallhispeople.TheypetitionedthattheJesuitsmightbesentaway,astheirabolitionhasbeensinceprayedforinFranceandothercountries.AllthetribunalsofChinaurgedtheirbeingimmediatelysenttoMacao,whichisconsideredasaplacewithout

thelimitsoftheempire,andthepossessionofwhichhasalwaysbeenleft tothePortuguese,withaChinesegarrison.

Yonchinhadthehumanitytoconsultthetribunalsandgovernors,whetherany danger could result from conveying all the Jesuits to the province ofCanton.Whileawaitingthereply,heorderedthreeofthemtobeintroducedtohis presence, and addressed them in the following words, which FatherParennin,withgreatingenuousness,records:"YourEuropeans,intheprovinceof Fo-Kien, intended to abolish our laws, and disturbed our people. Thetribunals havedenounced thembeforeme. It ismypositiveduty to provideagainstsuchdisorders:thegoodoftheempirerequiresit....Whatwouldyousaywere I to sendover to your country a companyof bonzes and lamas topreachtheirlaw?Howwouldyoureceivethem?...Ifyoudeceivedmyfather,hopenotalsotodeceiveme....YouwishtomaketheChineseChristians:yourlaw,Iwellknow,requires thisofyou.But incaseyoushouldsucceed,whatshouldwe become? the subjects of your kings. Christians believe none butyou: ina timeofconfusion theywould listen tonovoicebutyours. Iknowthat, at present, there isnothing to fear; buton the arrival of a thousand,orperhapstenthousandvessels,greatdisturbancesmightensue.

"China,onthenorth, joinsthekingdomofRussia,whichisbynomeanscontemptible;tothesouthithastheEuropeans,andtheirkingdoms,whicharestillmoreconsiderable;andtothewest,theprincesofTartary,withwhomwehave been at war eight years.... Laurence Lange, companion of PrinceIsmailoff, ambassador from theczar, requested that theRussiansmighthavepermissiontoestablishfactoriesineachoftheprovinces.ThepermissionwasconfinedtoPekin,andwithinthelimitsofCalcas.InlikemannerIpermityouto remain here and at Canton as long as you avoid giving any cause ofcomplaint.Shouldyougiveany,IwillnotsufferyoutoremaineitherhereoratCanton."

In the other provinces their houses and churches were levelled to theground. At length the clamor against them redoubled. The charges moststrenuouslyinsisteduponagainstthemwere,thattheyweakenedtherespectofchildrenfortheirparents,bynotpayingthehonorsduetoancestors;thattheyindecently brought together youngmen andwomen in retired places,whichthey called churches; that theymade girls kneel before them, and enclosedthem with their legs, and conversed with them, while in this posture, inundertones.ToChinese delicacy, nothing appearedmore revolting than this.Theiremperor,Yonchin,evencondescendedtoinformtheJesuitsofthisfact;afterwhich he sent away the greater part of themissionaries toMacao, butwithall thatpoliteattentionwhichperhaps theChinesealonearecapableofdisplaying.

SomeJesuits,possessedofmathematical science,were retainedatPekin;

and amongothers, that sameParenninwhomwehavementioned; andwho,being a perfectmaster both of the Chinese and of the Tartar language, hadbeen frequently employed as an interpreter. Many of the Jesuits concealedthemselvesinthedistantprovinces;otherseveninCantonitself;andtheaffairwasconnivedat.

Atlength,after thedeathoftheEmperorYonchin,hissonandsuccessor,Kien-Lung, completed the satisfaction of the nation by compelling all themissionaries who were in concealment throughout his empire to remove toMacao:asolemnedictpreventedthemfromeverreturning.Ifanyappear,theyarecivillyrequestedtocarrytheirtalentssomewhereelse.Thereisnothingofseverity,nothingofpersecution.Ihavebeentoldthat,in1760,aJesuithavinggonefromRometoCanton,andbeeninformedagainstbyaDutchfactor,theColaogovernorofCantonhadhimsentaway,presentinghimatthesametimewithapieceofsilk,someprovisions,andmoney.

OfthepretendedAtheismofChina.

ThechargeofAtheism,allegedbyourtheologiansofthewest,againsttheChinese government at the other end of the world, has been frequentlyexamined,and is, itmustbeadmitted, themeanestexcessofour folliesandpedantic inconsistencies. Itwas sometimes pretended, in one of our learnedfaculties,thattheChinesetribunalsorparliamentswereidolatrous;sometimesthattheyacknowledgednodivinitywhatever:andthesereasonersoccasionallypushed their logic so far as tomaintain that the Chinesewere, at the sametime,atheistsandidolaters.

In themonth ofOctober, 1700, the Sorbonne declared every propositionwhich maintained that the emperor and the Colaos believed in God to beheretical. Bulky volumes were composed in order to demonstrate,conformably to the system of theological demonstration, that the Chineseadorednothingbutthematerialheaven.

Nilpraeternubesetcoelinumenadorant.

Theyworshipcloudsandfirmamentalone.

But if they did adore the material heaven, that was their God. TheyresembledthePersians,whoaresaidtohaveadoredthesun:theyresembledtheancientArabians,whoadoredthestars: theywereneitherworshippersofidolsnoratheists.Butalearneddoctor,whenitisanobjecttodenouncefromhistripodanypropositionashereticalorobnoxious,doesnotdistinguishwithmuchclearness.

Those contemptible creatures who, in 1700, created such a disturbanceabout the material heaven of the Chinese, did not know that, in 1689, theChinese, havingmade peacewith theRussians atNicptchou,which divides

thetwoempires,erected,inSeptemberofthesameyear,amarblemonument,onwhich thefollowingmemorablewordswereengravedin theChineseandLatinlanguages:

"Should any ever determine to rekindle the flames of war, we pray thesovereign reign of all things,whoknows the heart, to punish their perfidy,"etc.

Averysmallportionofmodernhistoryissufficienttoputanendtotheseridiculous disputes: but those who believe that the duty of man consists inwritingcommentariesonSt.Thomas,orScotus,cannotcondescendtoinformthemselvesofwhatisgoingonamongthegreatempiresoftheworld.

SectionII.

We travel to China to obtain clay for porcelain, as if we had noneourselves; stuffs, as if we were destitute of stuffs; and a small herb to beinfused inwater,as ifwehadnosimples inourowncountries. Inreturnforthese benefits, we are desirous of converting the Chinese. It is a verycommendablezeal;butwemustavoidcontroverting theirantiquity,andalsocallingthemidolaters.Shouldwethinkitwellofacapuchin,if,afterhavingbeen hospitably entertained at the château of the Montmorencys, heendeavored to persuade them that they were new nobility, like the king'ssecretaries;oraccusedthemofidolatry,becausehefoundtwoorthreestatuesofconstables,forwhomtheycherishedthemostprofoundrespect?

ThecelebratedWolf,professorofmathematics in theuniversityofHalle,oncedeliveredanexcellentdiscourseinpraiseoftheChinesephilosophy.Hepraisedthatancientspeciesofthehumanrace,differing,asitdoes,inrespectto the beard, the eyes, the nose, the ears, and even the reasoning powersthemselves; he praised the Chinese, I say, for their adoration of a supremeGod,andtheirloveofvirtue.HedidthatjusticetotheemperorsofChina,tothe tribunals, and to the literati. The justice done to the bonzes was of adifferentkind.

It is necessary to observe, that this ProfessorWolf had attracted aroundhima thousandpupilsofallnations. In thesameuniversity therewasalsoaprofessor of theology, who attracted no one. This man, maddened at thethoughtoffreezingtodeathinhisowndesertedhall,formedthedesign,whichundoubtedly was only right and reasonable, of destroying themathematicalprofessor.Hescruplednot,accordingtothepracticeofpersonslikehimself,toaccusehimofnotbelievinginGod.

SomeEuropeanwriters,whohadneverbeeninChina,hadpretendedthatthegovernmentofPekinwasatheistical.WolfhadpraisedthephilosophersofPekin; thereforeWolfwas an atheist. Envy and hatred seldom construct the

best syllogisms. This argument of Lange, supported by a party and by aprotector, was considered conclusive by the sovereign of the country, whodespatcheda formaldilemma to themathematician.ThisdilemmagavehimtheoptionofquittingHalleintwenty-fourhours,orofbeinghanged;andasWolfwas a very accurate reasoner, he did not fail to quit.Hiswithdrawingdeprivedthekingoftwoorthreehundredthousandcrownsayear,whichwerebrought into thekingdom inconsequenceof thewealthof thisphilosopher'sdisciples.

Thiscaseshouldconvincesovereignsthattheyshouldnotbeoverreadytolistentocalumny,andsacrificeagreatmantothemadnessofafool.ButletusreturntoChina.

Why should we concern ourselves, we who live at the extremity of thewest—why should we dispute with abuse and fury, whether there werefourteenprincesornotbeforeFo-hi,emperorofChina,andwhetherthesaidFo-hi lived three thousand, or two thousand nine hundred years before ourvulgarera?IshouldliketoseetwoIrishmenquarrellingatDublin,aboutwhowastheowner,inthetwelfthcentury,oftheestateIamnowinpossessionof.Is it not clear, that they should refer tome,whopossess thedocuments andtitlesrelatingtoit?Tomymind,thecaseisthesamewithrespecttothefirstemperorsofChina,andthetribunalsofthatcountryaretheproperresortuponthesubject.

Dispute as long as you please about the fourteen princes who reignedbeforeFo-hi,yourvery interestingdisputecannotpossibly fail toprove thatChinawasatthatperiodpopulous,andthatlawswereinforcethere.Inowaskyou, whether a people's being collected together, under laws and kings,involvesnottheideaofveryconsiderableantiquity?Reflecthowlongatimeis requisite, before by a singular concurrence of circumstances, the iron isdiscoveredinthemine,beforeit isappliedtopurposesofagriculture,beforetheinventionoftheshuttle,andalltheartsoflife.

Somewhomultiplymankind by a dash of the pen, have produced verycuriouscalculations.TheJesuitPetau,byaverysingularcomputation,givestheworld, twohundred and twenty-five years after the deluge, one hundredtimesasmanyinhabitantsascanbeeasilyconceivedtoexistonitatpresent.TheCumberlandsandWhistonshaveformedcalculationsequallyridiculous;had theseworthies only consulted the registers of our colonies inAmerica,theywouldhavebeenperfectlyastonished,andwouldhaveperceivednotonlyhow slowly mankind increase in number, but that frequently instead ofincreasingtheyactuallydiminish.

Let us then,who aremerelyof yesterday, descendants of theCelts,whohaveonlyjustfinishedclearingtheforestsofoursavageterritories,sufferthe

ChineseandIndianstoenjoyinpeacetheirfineclimateandtheirantiquity.Letus, especially, cease calling the emperor of China, and the souba of theDeccan, idolaters. There is no necessity for being a zealot in estimatingChinese merit. The constitution of their empire is the only one entirelyestablisheduponpaternalauthority; theonlyone inwhich thegovernorofaprovince is punished, if, on quitting his station, he does not receive theacclamations of the people; the only one which has instituted rewards forvirtue,while,everywhereelse,thesoleobjectofthelawsisthepunishmentofcrime;theonlyonewhichhascauseditslawstobeadoptedbyitsconquerors,whilewearestillsubjecttothecustomsoftheBurgundians,theFranks,andthe Goths, by whom we were conquered. Yet, we must confess, that thecommonpeople,guidedbythebonzes,areequallyknavishwithourown;thateverything is sold enormously dear to foreigners, as among ourselves; that,withrespecttothesciences,theChinesearejustwhereweweretwohundredyearsago;that,likeus,theylaborunderathousandridiculousprejudices;andthattheybelieveintalismansandjudicialastrology,aswelongdidourselves.

Wemustadmitalso,thattheywereastonishedatourthermometer,atourmethodoffreezingfluidsbymeansofsaltpetre,andatalltheexperimentsofTorricelliandOttovonGuericke;aswewerealso,onseeingforthefirsttimethose curious processes. We add, that their physicians do not cure mortaldiseases anymore than our own; and thatminor diseases, both here and inChina,arecuredbynaturealone.Allthis,however,doesnotinterferewiththefact,thattheChinese,forfourthousandyears,whenwewereunableeventoread,kneweverythingessentiallyusefulofwhichweboastatthepresentday.

Imustagainrepeat,thereligionoftheirlearnedisadmirable,andfreefromsuperstitions,fromabsurdlegends,fromdogmasinsultingbothtoreasonandnature,towhichthebonzesgiveathousanddifferentmeanings,becausetheyreally often have none. Themost simpleworship has appeared to them thebest,foraseriesoffortycenturies.Theyare,whatweconceiveSeth,Enoch,andNoah tohavebeen; theyarecontented toadoreoneGod incommunionwith the sages of the world, while Europe is divided between Thomas andBonaventure,betweenCalvinandLuther,betweenJanseniusandMolina.

CHRISTIANITY.

EstablishmentofChristianity,initsCivilandPoliticalState.—SectionI.

God forbid thatwe should dare tomix the sacredwith the profane!WeseeknottofathomthedepthsofthewaysofProvidence.Wearemen,andweaddressmenonly.

WhenAntony, and after himAugustus, hadgiven Judæa to theArabian,Herod—their creature and their tributary—that prince, a stranger among theJews, became the most powerful of all kings. He had ports on theMediterranean—PtolemaisandAscalon;hebuilttowns;heerectedatempletoApollo at Rhodes, and one to Augustus in Cæsarea; he rebuilt that ofJerusalem from the foundation, andconverted it intoa strongcitadel.Underhisrule,Palestineenjoyedprofoundpeace.Inshort,barbarousashewastohisfamily, and tyrannical towards his people,whose substance he consumed inthe execution of his projects, he was looked upon as a Messiah. HeworshippedonlyCæsar,andhewasalsoworshippedbytheHerodians.

The sect of the Jews had long been spread in Europe and Asia; but itstenets were entirely unknown. No one knew anything of the Jewish books,althoughwearetoldthatsomeofthemhadalreadybeentranslatedintoGreek,inAlexandria.TheJewswereknownonlyastheArmeniansarenowknowntotheTurksandPersians,asbrokersandtraders.Further,aTurknevertakesthetroubletoinquire,whetheranArmenianisaEutychian,aJacobite,oneofSt.John's Christians, or an Arian. The theism of China, and the much to berespectedbooksofConfucius,werestilllessknowntothenationsofthewest,thantheJewishrites.

TheArabians,whofurnished theRomanswith thepreciouscommoditiesof India,hadnomore ideaof the theologyof theBrahmins thanour sailorswho go to Pondicherry or Madras. The Indian women had from timeimmemorialenjoyedtheprivilegeofburningthemselvesonthebodiesoftheirhusbands; yet these astonishing sacrifices,which are still practised,were asunknowntotheJewsasthecustomsofAmerica.Theirbooks,whichspeakofGogandMagog,nevermentionIndia.

The ancient religion of Zoroaster was celebrated; but not therefore themoreunderstoodintheRomanEmpire.Itwasonlyknown,ingeneral,thatthemagi admitted a resurrection, a hell, and a paradise;which doctrinemust atthat time have made its way to the Jews bordering on Chaldæa; since, inHerod's time, Palestine was divided between the Pharisees, who began tobelievethedogmaoftheresurrection,andtheSadducees,whoregardeditonlywithcontempt.

Alexandria, the most commercial city in the whole world, was peopledwithEgyptians,whoworshippedSerapis,andconsecratedcats;withGreeks,who philosophized; with Romans, who ruled; andwith Jews, who amassedwealth.Allthesepeoplewereeagerlyengagedinmoney-getting,immersedinpleasure, infuriate with fanaticism, making and unmaking religious sects,especiallyduringtheexternaltranquillitywhichtheyenjoyedwhenAugustushadshutthetempleofJanus.

The Jews were divided into three principal factions. Of these, theSamaritans called themselves the most ancient, because Samaria (thenSebaste)hadsubsisted,whileJerusalem,withitstemple,wasdestroyedundertheBabyloniankings.But theseSamaritanswereamixtureof thepeopleofPersiawiththoseofPalestine.

The second, andmost powerful faction, was that of the Hierosolymites.TheseJews,properlysocalled,detestedtheSamaritans,andweredetestedbythem.Theirinterestswereallopposite.Theywishedthatnosacrificesshouldbe offered but in the temple of Jerusalem. Such a restriction would havebrought a deal of money into their city; and, for this very reason, theSamaritanswouldsacrificenowherebutathome.Asmallpeople, inasmalltown,mayhavebutonetemple;butwhenapeoplehaveextendedthemselvesover a country seventy leagues long, by twenty-threewide, as the Jewshaddone—when their territory is almost as largeandpopulousasLanguedocorNormandy,itwouldbeabsurdtohavebutonechurch.WhatwouldthegoodpeopleofMontpelliersay,iftheycouldattendmassnowherebutatToulouse?

The third faction were the Hellenic Jews, consisting chiefly of such aswereengagedintradeorhandicraftinEgyptandGreece.ThesehadthesameinterestswiththeSamaritans.Onias,thesonofahighpriest,wishingtobeahighpriestlikehisfather,obtainedpermissionfromPtolemyPhilometor,kingofEgypt,andinparticularfromtheking'swife,Cleopatra, tobuildaJewishtemplenearBubastis.HeassuredQueenCleopatrathatIsaiahhadforetoldthattheLordshouldonedayhaveatempleonthatspot;andCleopatra,towhomhemadeahandsomepresent, senthimword that, since Isaiahhadsaid it, itmust be. This temple was called the Onion; and if Onias was not a greatsacrificer,hecommandedatroopofmilitia.ItwasbuiltonehundredandsixtyyearsbeforetheChristianera.TheJewsofJerusalemalwaysheldthisOnionin abhorrence, as they did the translation called the Septuagint. They eveninstitutedanexpiatoryfeastforthesetwopretendedsacrileges.TherabbisoftheOnion,minglingwiththeGreeks,becamemorelearned(intheirway)thantherabbisofJerusalemandSamaria;and the threefactionsbegan todisputeon controversial questions, which necessarily make men subtle, false, andunsocial.

TheEgyptianJews,inordertoequaltheausterityoftheEssenes,andtheJudatesofPalestine,established,sometimebeforethebirthofChristianity,thesect of the Therapeutæ, who, like them, devoted themselves to a sort ofmonastic life,andtomortifications.Thesedifferentsocietieswere imitationsoftheoldEgyptian,Persian,Thracian,andGreekmysteries,whichhadfilledtheearth,fromtheEuphratesandtheNiletotheTiber.Atfirst,suchaswereinitiatedintothesefraternitieswerefewinnumber,andwerelookeduponasprivileged men; but in the time of Augustus, their number was very

considerable;sothatnothingbutreligionwastalkedof,fromSyriatoMountAtlasandtheGermanOcean.

Amidst all these sects andworships, the school of Plato had establisheditself, not inGreece alone,but also inRome, andespecially inEgypt.Platohad been considered as having drawn his doctrine from theEgyptians,whothought that, in turning Plato's ideas to account, his word, and the sort oftrinitydiscoverableinsomeofhisworks,theywerebutclaimingtheirown.

Thisphilosophicspirit,spreadatthattimeoveralltheknowncountriesofthewest, seems tohaveemitted, in theneighborhoodofPalestine, at least afewsparksof thespiritof reasoning. It iscertain that, inHerod's time, thereweredisputesontheattributesofthedivinity,ontheimmortalityofthesoul,andtheresurrectionofthebody.TheJewsrelate,thatQueenCleopatraaskedthemwhetherweweretoriseagaindressedornaked?

The Jews, then,were reasoners in theirway. The exaggerating Josephuswas,forasoldier,verylearned.Suchbeingthecasewithamilitaryman,theremust have beenmany a learnedman in civil life. His contemporary, Philo,would have had reputation, even among the Greeks. St. Paul's master,Gamaliel, was a great controversialist. The authors of the "Mishna" werepolymathists.

The Jewish populace discoursed on religion. As, at the present day, inSwitzerland, at Geneva, in Germany, in England, and especially in theCévennes,wefindeventhemeanestoftheinhabitantsdealingincontroversy.Nay,more;menfromthedregsof thepeoplehavefoundedsects:asFox, inEngland; Münzer, in Germany; and the first reformers in France. Indeed,Mahomet himself, setting apart his great courage, was nothingmore than acamel-driver.

Add to these preliminaries that, in Herod's time, it was imagined, as iselsewhere remarked, that theworldwassoon tobeatanend. In thosedays,preparedbydivineprovidence, itpleased theeternalFather to sendHisSonupon earth—an adorable and incomprehensiblemystery, whichwe presumenottoapproach.

Weonlysay, that ifJesuspreachedapuremorality; ifHeannounced thekingdomofheavenas the rewardof the just; ifHehaddisciplesattached toHis person and His virtues; if those very virtues drew upon Him thepersecutions of the priests; if, through calumny, He was put to a shamefuldeath;His doctrine, constantly preached byHis disciples,would necessarilyhaveagreateffectintheworld.Oncemoreletmerepeatit—Ispeakonlyafterthe manner of this world, setting the multitude of miracles and propheciesentirely aside. Imaintain it, thatChristianitywasmore likely to proceed byHis death, than ifHe had not been persecuted.You are astonished thatHis

disciplesmadeotherdisciples. I shouldhavebeenmuchmoreastonished, ifthey had not brought over a greatmany to their party. Seventy individuals,convincedoftheinnocenceoftheirleader,thepurityofHismanners,andthebarbarityofHisjudges,mustinfluencemanyafeelingheart.

St. Paul, alone, became (for whatever reason) the enemy of his masterGamaliel,musthavehaditinhispowertobringJesusathousandadherents,even supposing Jesus to have been only aworthy and oppressedman. Paulwas learned, eloquent, vehement, indefatigable, skilled in theGreek tongue,andsecondedbyzealotsmuchmoreinterestedthanhimselfindefendingtheirMaster'sreputation.St.LukewasanAlexandrianGreek,andamanofletters,forhewasaphysician.

The first chapter of Johndisplays aPlatonic sublimity,whichmust havebeen gratifying to the Platonists of Alexandria. And indeed there was evenformed in that city a school founded by Luke, or by Mark (either theevangelistorsomeother),andperpetuatedbyAthenagoras,Pantænus,Origen,andClement—all learnedandeloquent.This schoolonceestablished, itwasimpossibleforChristianitynottomakerapidprogress.

Greece, Syria, and Egypt, were the scenes of those celebrated ancientmysteries,whichenchantedthemindsofthepeople.TheChristians,too,hadtheirmysteries,inwhichmenwouldeagerlyseektobeinitiated;andifatfirstonlythroughcuriosity,thiscuriositysoonbecamepersuasion.Theideaoftheapproaching end of all things was especially calculated to induce the newdisciples to despise the transitory goods of this life,whichwere so soon toperish with them. The example of the Therapeutæ was an incitement to asolitaryandmortifiedlife.Allthesethings,then,powerfullyconcurredintheestablishmentoftheChristianreligion.

Thedifferentflocksof thisgreatrisingsocietycouldnot, it is true,agreeamong themselves. Fifty-four societies had fifty-four different gospels; allsecret, like theirmysteries; all unknown to theGentiles,whonever sawourfour canonical gospels until the end of two hundred and fifty years. Thesevarious flocks, though divided, acknowledged the same pastor. Ebionites,opposed to St. Paul; Nazarenes, disciples of Hymeneos, Alexandres, andHermogenes; Carpocratians, Basilidians, Valentinians, Marcionites,Sabellians,Gnostics,Montanists—ahundredsects,risingoneagainstanother,andcastingmutualreproaches,wereneverthelessallunitedinJesus;allcalledupon Jesus; allmade Jesus thegreat object of their thoughts, and rewardoftheirtravails.

TheRomanEmpire,inwhichallthesesocietieswereformed,atfirstpaidnoattentiontothem.TheywereknownatRomeonlybythegeneralnameofJews,aboutwhomthegovernmentgave itselfnoconcern.TheJewshad,by

their money, acquired the right of trading. In the reign of Tiberius fourthousandofthemweredrivenoutofRome;inthatofNerothepeoplechargedthemandthenewdemi-ChristianJewswiththeburningofRome.

TheywereagainexpelledinthereignofClaudius,buttheirmoneyalwaysprocuredthemre-admission;theywerequietanddespised.TheChristiansofRomewerenot sonumerous as thoseofGreece,Alexandria andSyria.TheRomans in theearlierageshadneither fathersof thechurchnorheresiarchs.The farther theywere from the birthplace ofChristianity, the fewer doctorsandwritersweretobefoundamongthem.ThechurchwasGreek;somuchso,thateverymystery,everyrite,everytenet,wasexpressedintheGreektongue.

All Christians, whether Greek, Syrian, Roman, or Egyptian, wereconsideredashalfJewish.Thiswasanotherreasonforconcealingtheirbooksfrom the Gentiles, that they might remain united and impenetrable. TheirsecretwasmoreinviolablykeptthanthatofthemysteriesofIsisorofCeres;theywerearepublicapart—astatewithinthestate.Theyhadnotemples,noaltars,nosacrifice,nopublicceremony.Theyelectedtheirsecretsuperiorsbya majority of voices. These superiors, under the title of ancients, priests,bishops, or deacons,managed the common purse, took care of the sick andpacifiedquarrels.Amongthemitwasashameandacrimetopleadbeforethetribunalsortoenlistinthearmedforce;andforahundredyearstherewasnotasingleChristianinthearmiesoftheempire.

Thus, retired in the midst of the world and unknown even when theyappeared, they escaped the tyranny of the proconsuls and prætors andwerefree amid the public slavery. It is not known who wrote the famous bookentitled "Τῶν Ἀποστόλων Διδαχαί" (the Apostolical Constitutions), as it isunknownwhoweretheauthorsofthefiftyrejectedgospels,oftheActsofSt.Peter, of the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and of so many otherwritingsof the firstChristians;but it is likely that the"Constitutions"areofthe second century. Though falsely attributed to the apostles, they are veryvaluable. They show us what were the duties of a bishop chosen by theChristians,howtheyweretoreverencehim,andwhattributetheyweretopayhim.Thebishopcouldhavebutonewife,whowas to takegoodcareofhishousehold: "Μιᾶς ἂνδρα γεγενόμενον γυναικὸς μονογάμου κάλόν τοῦ ὶδίουπροεστότα."

Rich Christians were exhorted to adopt the children of poor ones.Collectionsweremadeforthewidowsandorphans;butthemoneyofsinnerswasrejected;and,nominally,aninnkeeperwasnotpermittedtogivehismite.Itissaidthattheywereregardedascheats;forwhichreasonveryfewtavern-keeperswereChristians.ThisalsopreventedtheChristiansfromfrequentingthetaverns;thuscompletingtheirseparationfromthesocietyoftheGentiles.

The dignity of deaconess being attainable by the women, theywere themore attached to theChristian fraternity.Theywere consecrated; thebishopanointingthemontheforehead,asofoldtheJewishkingswereanointed.ByhowmanyindissolubletiesweretheChristiansboundtogether!

Thepersecutions,whichwerenevermorethantransitory,didbutservetoredouble their zeal and inflame their fervor; so that, under Diocletian, one-thirdoftheempirewasChristian.Suchwereafewofthehumancausesthatcontributed to the progress of Christianity. If to these we add the divinecauses,which are to the former as infinity to unity, there is only one thingwhichcansurpriseus;thatareligionsotruedidnotatonceextenditselfoverthetwohemispheres,notexceptingthemostsavageislet.

GodHimself came down from heaven and died to redeemmankind andextirpatesinforeverfromthefaceoftheearth;andyetheleftthegreaterpartof mankind a prey to error, to crime, and to the devil. This, to our weakintellects, appears a fatal contradiction. But it is not for us to questionProvidence;ourdutyistohumbleourselvesinthedustbeforeit.

SectionII.

Several learned men have testified their surprise at not finding in thehistorian,Flavius Josephus, anymentionof JesusChrist; forallmenof truelearningarenowagreed that theshortpassagerelative tohimin thathistoryhas been interpolated. The father of Flavius Josephus must, however, havebeenwitnesstoallthemiraclesofJesus.Josephuswasofthesacerdotalraceand akin to Herod's wife, Mariamne. He gives us long details of all thatprince'sactions,yetsaysnotawordofthelifeordeathofJesus;nordoesthishistorian,whodisguisesnoneofHerod'scruelties,sayonewordofthegeneralmassacreoftheinfantsorderedbyhimonhearingthattherewasbornakingoftheJews.TheGreekcalendarestimatesthenumberofchildrenmurderedonthis occasion at fourteen thousand. This is, of all actions of all tyrants, themosthorrible.Thereisnoexampleofitinthehistoryofthewholeworld.

Yetthebestwriter theJewshaveeverhad, theonlyoneesteemedbytheGreeks and Romans, makes no mention of an event so singular and sofrightful,hesaysnothingoftheappearanceofanewstarintheeastafterthebirth of our Saviour—a brilliant phenomenon, which could not escape theknowledge of a historian so enlightened as Josephus. He is also silentrespectingthedarknesswhich,onourSaviour'sdeath,coveredthewholeearthfor three hours at midday—the great number of graves that opened at thatmoment,andthemultitudeofthejustthatroseagain.

ThelearnedareconstantlyevincingtheirsurprisethatnoRomanhistorianspeaksoftheseprodigies,happeningintheempireofTiberius,undertheeyesof a Roman governor and a Roman garrison, who must have sent to the

emperorand thesenateadetailedaccountof themostmiraculousevent thatmankind had ever heard of. Rome itself must have been plunged for threehoursinimpenetrabledarkness;suchaprodigywouldhavehadaplaceintheannalsofRome,and in thoseofeverynation.But itwasnotGod'swill thatthesedivinethingsshouldbewrittendownbytheirprofanehands.

The same persons also find some difficulties in the gospel history. Theyremarkthat,inMatthew,JesusChristtellsthescribesandphariseesthatalltheinnocentbloodthathasbeensheduponearth,fromthatofAbeltheJustdowntothatofZachary,sonofBarac,whomtheyslewbetweenthetempleandthealtar,shallbeupontheirheads.

There is not (say they) in the Hebrew history any Zachary slain in thetemplebeforethecomingoftheMessiah,norinHistime,butinthehistoryofthesiegeofJerusalem,byJosephus,thereisaZachary,sonofBarac,slainbythefactionoftheZelotes.Thisisinthenineteenthchapterofthefourthbook.HencetheysuspectthatthegospelaccordingtoSt.MatthewwaswrittenafterthetakingofJerusalembyTitus.Buteverydoubt,everyobjectionofthiskind,vanisheswhenit isconsideredhowgreatadifferencetheremustbebetweenbooks divinely inspired and the books of men. It was God's pleasure toenvelopalike inawfulobscurityHisbirth,His life,andHisdeath.Hiswaysareinallthingsdifferentfromours.

ThelearnedhavealsobeenmuchtormentedbythedifferencebetweenthetwogenealogiesofJesusChrist.St.MatthewmakesJosephthesonofJacob,Jacob of Matthan, Matthan of Eleazar. St. Luke, on the contrary, says thatJosephwasthesonofHeli,HeliofMatthat,MatthatofLevi,LeviofMelchi,etc.Theywillnotreconcilethefifty-sixprogenitorsuptoAbraham,giventoJesusbyLuke,withtheforty-twootherforefathersuptothesameAbraham,givenhimbyMatthew;andtheyarequitestaggeredbyMatthew'sgivingonlyforty-one generations, while he speaks of forty-two. They start otherdifficulties about Jesus being the son, not of Joseph, but of Mary. Theymoreover raise some doubts respecting our Saviour's miracles, quoting St.Augustine. St. Hilary, and others, who have given to the accounts of thesemiraclesamysticorallegoricalsense;as, forexample, to thefig treecursedandblastedfornothavingbornefigswhenitwasnotthefigseason;thedevilssentintothebodiesofswineinacountrywherenoswinewerekept;thewaterchanged into wine at the end of a feast, when the guests were already toomuchheated.Butalltheselearnedcriticsareconfoundedbythefaith,whichisbut thepurer for their cavils.The soledesignof this article is to follow thehistorical threadandgiveaprecise ideaof the factsaboutwhich there isnodispute.

First, then, Jesus was born under the Mosaic law; He was circumcisedaccordingtothatlaw;Hefulfilledallitsprecepts;Hekeptallitsfeasts;Hedid

notrevealthemysteryofHisincarnation;HenevertoldtheJewsHewasbornof a virgin; He received John's blessing in the waters of the Jordan, aceremony to which various of the Jews submitted; but He never baptizedanyone; He never spoke of the seven sacraments; He instituted noecclesiasticalhierarchyduringHislife.HeconcealedfromHiscontemporariesthatHewastheSonofGod,begottenfromalleternity,consubstantialwithHisFather; and that theHolyGhostproceeded from theFather and theSon.Hedidnot say thatHispersonwascomposedof twonaturesand twowills.HeleftthesemysteriestobeannouncedtomeninthecourseoftimebythosewhoweretobeenlightenedbytheHolyGhost.SolongasHelived,HedepartedinnothingfromthelawofHisfathers.IntheeyesofmenHewasnomorethanajustman,pleasingtoGod,persecutedbytheenviousandcondemnedtodeathbyprejudicedmagistrates.HeleftHisholychurch,establishedbyHim,todoalltherest.

Letusconsider the stateof religion in theRomanEmpireat thatperiod.Mysteries and expiations were in credit almost throughout the earth. Theemperors, the great, and the philosophers, had, it is true, no faith in thesemysteries;butthepeople,who,inreligiousmatters,givethelawtothegreat,imposedonthemthenecessityofconforminginappearancetotheirworship.Tosucceedinchainingthemultitudeyoumustseemtowearthesamefetters.Cicero himselfwas initiated in the Eleusinianmysteries. The knowledge ofonly one God was the principal tenet inculcated in these mysteries andmagnificent festivals. It is undeniable that the prayers and hymns handeddown to us as belonging to these mysteries are the most pious and mostadmirableoftherelicsofpaganism.TheChristians,wholikewiseadoredonlyoneGod,hadtherebygreaterfacilityinconvertingsomeoftheGentiles.SomeofthephilosophersofPlato'ssectbecameChristians;hencein thethreefirstcenturiesthefathersofthechurchwereallPlatonists.

The inconsiderate zeal of some of them in no way detracts from thefundamental truths. St. Justin, one of the primitive fathers, has beenreproached with having said, in his commentary on Isaiah, that the saintsshould enjoy, during a reign of a thousand years on earth, every sensualpleasure.Hehasbeenchargedwithcriminalityinsaying,inhis"ApologyforChristianity,"thatGod,havingmadetheearth,leftitinthecareoftheangels,who, having fallen in love with the women, begot children, which are thedevils.

Lactantius,with other fathers, has been condemned for having supposedoracles of the sibyls. He asserted that the sibyl Erythrea made four Greeklines,whichrenderedliterallyare:

Withfiveloavesandtwofishes

Heshallfeedfivethousandmeninthedesert;

And,gatheringupthefragmentsthatremain,

Withthemheshallfilltwelvebaskets.

The primitive Christians have been reproached with inventing someacrostic verses on the name JesusChrist and attributing them to an ancientsibyl.TheyhavealsobeenreproachedwithforginglettersfromJesusChristtothekingofEdessa,datedat a timewhen therewasnoking inEdessa;withhaving forged letters ofMary, letters of Seneca to Paul, false gospels, falsemiracles,andathousandotherimpostures.

Wehave,moreover, thehistoryorgospelof thenativityandmarriageoftheVirginMary;whereinwe are told that shewas brought to the temple atthree years old andwalked up the stairs by herself. It is related that a dovecamedownfromheaventogivenoticethatitwasJosephwhowastoespouseMary.We have the protogospel of James, brother of Jesus by Joseph's firstwife. It is theresaid thatwhenJosephcomplainedofMary'shavingbecomepregnant in his absence, the priests made each of them drink the water ofjealousy,andbothweredeclaredinnocent.

WehavethegospeloftheInfancy,attributedtoSt.Thomas.Accordingtothisgospel,Jesus,atfiveyearsofage,amusedhimself,likeotherchildrenofthesameage,withmouldingclay,andmakingit,amongotherthings,intotheform of little birds.Hewas reproved for this, onwhich he gave life to thebirds,andtheyflewaway.Anothertime,alittleboyhavingbeatenhim,wasstruckdeadonthespot.WehavealsoanothergospeloftheInfancyinArabic,whichismuchmoreserious.

WehaveagospelofNicodemus.Thisoneseemsmoreworthyofattention,forwe find in it the names of thosewho accused Jesus before Pilate. Theywere the principal men of the synagogue—Ananias, Caiaphas, Sommas,Damat,Gamaliel,Judah,Nephthalim.Inthishistorytherearesomethingsthatare easy to reconcile with the received gospels, and others which are notelsewheretobefound.WeherefindthatthewomancuredofafluxwascalledVeronica.Wealso find all that Jesusdid inhellwhenHedescended thither.Then we have the two letters supposed to have been written by Pilate toTiberiusconcerningtheexecutionofJesus;buttheirbadLatinplainlyshowsthattheyarespurious.Tosuchalengthwasthisfalsezealcarriedthatvariousletterswere circulated attributed to JesusChrist. The letter is still preservedwhichhe is said tohavewritten toAbgarus,kingofEdessa;but, asalreadyremarked,therehadatthattimeceasedtobeakingofEdessa.

Fiftygospelswerefabricatedandwereafterwardsdeclaredapocryphal.St.Luke himself tells us thatmany persons had composed gospels. It has been

believedthattherewasonecalledtheEternalGospel,concerningwhichit issaidintheApocalypse,chap,xiv.,"AndIsawanotherangelflyinthemidstofheaven, having the everlasting gospel.".... In the thirteenth century theCordeliers,abusingthesewords,composedan"eternalgospel,"bywhichthereign of the HolyGhost was to be substituted for that of Jesus Christ. Butnever in the early ages of the church did any book appear with this title.LettersoftheVirginwerelikewiseinvented,writtentoIgnatiusthemartyr,tothepeopleofMessina,andothers.

Abdias,whoimmediatelysucceededtheapostles,wrotetheirhistory,withwhich he mixed up such absurd fables that in time these histories becamewhollydiscredited,althoughtheyhadatfirstagreatreputation.ToAbdiasweare indebted for the accountof the contestbetweenSt.Peter andSimon themagician. There was at Rome, in reality, a very skilful mechanic namedSimon,whonotonlymadethingsflyacrossthestage,aswestillseedone,butmoreover revived in his own person the prodigy attributed to Dædalus. Hemade himself wings; he flew; and, like Icarus, he fell. So say Pliny andSuetonius.

Abdias, who was in Asia and wrote in Hebrew, tells us that Peter andSimonmetatRomeinthereignofNero.Ayoungman,nearlyrelatedtotheemperor,died,andthewholecourtbeggedthatSimonwouldraisehimtolife.St.Peterpresentedhimselftoperformthesameoperation.Simonemployedallthe powers of his art, and he seemed to have succeeded, for the deadmanmovedhishead."Thisisnotenough,"criesPeter;"thedeadmanmustspeak;letSimonleavethebedsideandweshallseewhethertheyoungmanisalive."Simonwentasideandthedeceasednolongerstirred,butPeterbroughthimtolifewithasingleword.

SimonwentandcomplainedtotheemperorthatamiserableGalileanhadtakenuponhimself toworkgreaterwonders thanhe.SimonwasconfrontedwithPeterandtheymadeatrialofskill."Tellme,"saidSimontoPeter,"whatIamthinkingof?""If,"returnedPeter,"theemperorwillgivemeabarleyloaf,thoushaltfindwhetherornotIknowwhatthouhastinthyheart."Aloafwasgiven him; Simon immediately caused two large dogs to appear and theywantedtodevourit.Peterthrewthemtheloaf,andwhiletheywereeatingithesaid:"Well,didInotknowthythoughts?thouwouldsthavehadthydogsdevourme."

AfterthisfirstsittingitwasproposedthatSimonandPetershouldmakeaflying-match,andtrywhichcouldraisehimselfhighestintheair.Simontriedfirst;Petermade the signof the cross anddowncameSimonandbrokehislegs.This storywas imitated from thatwhichwe find in the "Sepher toldosJeschut,"whereitissaidthatJesusHimselfflew,andthatJudas,whowouldhave done the same, fell headlong. Nero, vexed that Peter had broken his

favorite,Simon's,legs,hadhimcrucifiedwithhisheaddownwards.HencethenotionofSt.Peter's residenceatRome, themannerofhisexecutionandhissepulchre.

ThesameAbdiasestablishedthebeliefthatSt.ThomaswentandpreachedChristianityinIndiatoKingGondafer,andthathewentthitherasanarchitect.Thenumberofbooksofthissort,writtenintheearlyagesofChristianity, isprodigious.

St.Jerome,andevenSt.Augustine,tellusthatthelettersofSenecaandSt.Paularequiteauthentic.In thefirstof theselettersSenecahopeshisbrotherPauliswell:"Benetevalere,frater,cupio."PauldoesnotwritequitesogoodLatin as Seneca: "I received your letters yesterday," says he, "withjoy."—"Litteras tuas hilaris accepi".—"And I would have answered themimmediatelyhadIhadthepresenceoftheyoungmanwhomIwouldhavesentwiththem."—"Sipræsentiamjuvenishabuissem."Unfortunatelytheseletters,inwhichonewouldlookforinstruction,arenothingmorethancompliments.

All these falsehoods, forged by ill-informed and mistakenly-zealousChristians, were in no degree prejudicial to the truth of Christianity; theyobstructed not its progress; on the contrary, they show us that theChristiansocietywasdailyincreasingandthateachmemberwasdesirousofhasteningitsgrowth.

The Acts of the Apostles do not tell us that the apostles agreed on asymbol.Indeed,iftheyhadputtogetherthesymbol(thecreed,aswenowcallit),St.Luke couldnot inhis historyhaveomitted this essential basis of theChristianreligion.Thesubstanceofthecreedisscatteredthroughthegospels;butthearticleswerenotcollecteduntillongafter.

Inshort,ourcreedis,indisputably,thebeliefoftheapostles;butitwasnotwrittenbythem.Rufinus,apriestofAquileia,isthefirstwhomentionsit;andahomilyattributedtoSt.Augustineisthefirstrecordofthesupposedwayinwhich this creed was made; Peter saying, when they were assembled, "IbelieveinGodtheFatherAlmighty"—Andrew,"andinJesusChrist"—James,"whowasconceivedbytheHolyGhost";andsooftherest.

ThisformulawascalledinGreeksymbolos;andinLatincollatio.OnlyitmustbeobservedthattheGreekversionhasit:"IbelieveinGodtheFather,maker of heaven and earth." In the Latin, maker, former, is rendered by"creatorem".Butafterwards,intranslatingthesymboloftheFirstCouncilofNice,itwasrenderedby"factorem".

Constantine assembled at Nice, opposite Constantinople, the firstecumenicalcouncil,overwhichOziuspresided.Thegreatquestion touchingthe divinity of Jesus Christ, which so much agitated the church, was there

decided.OnepartyheldtheopinionofOrigen,whosaysinhissixthchapteragainstCelsus, "Weoffer our prayers toGod throughChrist,whoholds themiddleplacebetweennaturescreatedanduncreated;wholeadsustothegraceofHisFatherandpresentsourprayerstothegreatGodinqualityofourhighpriest."These disputants also rest uponmany passages of St. Paul, some ofwhichtheyquote.TheydependparticularlyuponthesewordsofJesusChrist:"MyFather is greater than I"; and they regard Jesus as the first-born of thecreation;asapureemanationoftheSupremeBeing,butnotpreciselyasGod.

Theotherside,whowereorthodox,producedpassagesmoreconformabletotheeternaldivinityofJesus;as,forexample,thefollowing:"MyFatherandI are one";wordswhich their opponents interpret as signifying: "MyFatherandIhavethesameobject,thesameintention;IhavenootherwillthanthatofMy Father." Alexander, bishop of Alexandria, and after himAthanasius,were at the head of the orthodox; andEusebius, bishop ofNicomedia,withseventeenotherbishops,thepriestArius,andmanymorepriests,ledthepartyopposedtothem.Thequarrelwasatfirstexceedinglybitter,asSt.Alexandertreatedhisopponentsassomanyanti-christs.

Atlast,aftermuchdisputation,theHolyGhostdecidedinthecouncil,bythe mouths of two hundred and ninety-nine bishops, against eighteen, asfollows:"JesusistheonlySonofGod;begottenoftheFather;lightoflight;veryGodofveryGod;ofonesubstancewiththeFather.WebelievealsointheHolyGhost," etc.Suchwas thedecisionof thecouncil; andweperceivebythis fact how the bishops carried it over the simple priests. Two thousandpersons of the latter class were of the opinion of Arius, according to theaccount of two patriarchs of Alexandria, who have written the annals ofAlexandria in Arabic. Arius was exiled by Constantine, as was Athanasiussoon after, when Arius was recalled to Constantinople. Upon this event St.MacariusprayedsovehementlytoGodtoterminatethelifeofAriusbeforehecouldenterthecathedral,thatGodheardhisprayer—Ariusdyingonhiswaytochurch in330.TheEmperorConstantineendedhis life in337.Heplacedhis will in the hands of an Arian priest and died in the arms of the Arianleader, Eusebius, bishop of Nicomedia, not receiving baptism until on hisdeathbed, and leaving a triumphant, but divided church. The partisans ofAthanasius and of Eusebius carried on a cruel war; and what is calledArianismwasforalongtimeestablishedinalltheprovincesoftheempire.

Julian the philosopher, surnamed the apostate, wished to stifle theirdivisions, but could not succeed. The second general council was held atConstantinople in1381. Itwas there laiddownthat theCouncilofNicehadnot decidedquite correctly in regard to theHolyGhost; and it added to theNicenecreed that"theHolyGhostwas thegiverof lifeandproceededfromtheFather,andwiththeFatherandSonistobeworshippedandglorified."It

wasnotuntiltowardstheninthcenturythattheLatinchurchdecreedthattheHolyGhostproceededfromtheFatherandtheSon.

In the year 431, the third council-general, held at Ephesus, decided thatJesushad"twonaturesandoneperson."Nestorius,bishopofConstantinople,whomaintainedthattheVirginMaryshouldbeentitledMotherofChrist,wascalled Judasby the council; and the "twonatures"were again confirmedbythecouncilofChalcedon.

Ipass lightlyover the followingcenturies,whichare sufficientlyknown.Unhappily, all these disputes led to wars, and the church was uniformlyobligedtocombat.God,inordertoexercisethepatienceofthefaithful,alsoallowed the Greek and Latin churches to separate in the ninth century. Helikewisepermittedin theeastnoless thantwenty-ninehorribleschismswiththeseeofRome.

Iftherebeaboutsixhundredmillionsofmenuponearth,ascertainlearnedpersonspretend, theholyRomanCatholic churchpossesses scarcely sixteenmillionsof them—about a twenty-sixthpartof the inhabitantsof theknownworld.

CHRISTMAS.

Everyone knows that this is the feast of the nativity of Jesus. Themostancientfeastkeptinthechurch,afterthoseofEasterandPentecost,wasthatof the baptism of Jesus. There were only these three feasts, until St.ChrysostomdeliveredhishomilyonPentecost.Weheremakenoaccountofthe feasts of the martyrs, which were of a very inferior order. That of thebaptismof Jesuswas named theEpiphany, an imitation of theGreeks,whogavethatnametothefeastswhichtheyheldtocommemoratetheappearanceor manifestation of the gods upon earth—since it was not until after hisbaptismthatJesusbegantopreachthegospel.

Weknownotwhether,about theendof thefourthcentury, this feastwassolemnizedintheIsleofCyprusonthe6thofNovember;butSt.EpiphaniusmaintainedthatJesuswasbornonthatday.St.ClementofAlexandriatellsusthattheBasilidiansheldthisfeastonthe15thofthemonthtybi,whileothershelditonthe15thofthesamemonth;thatis,itwaskeptbysomeonthe10thofJanuary,andbyothersonthe6th;thelatteropinionistheonenowadopted.As for the nativity, as neither the day nor themonth nor the year of itwasknown,itwasnotcelebrated.

According to the remarks which we find appended to the works of the

same father, they who have been the most curious in their researchesconcerningthedayonwhichJesuswasborn,somesaidthatitwasonthe25thof theEgyptianmonthpachon, answering to the 20th ofMay; others that itwas the 24th or 25th of pharmuthi, corresponding to the 19th and 20th ofApril.ThelearnedM.deBeausobresaysthattheselatterwerethedaysofSt.Valentine.Bethisasitmay,EgyptandtheEastkeptthefeastofthebirthofJesuson the6thof January, the samedayas thatofHisbaptism;without itbeing known (at leastwith certainty)when, or forwhat reason, this customcommenced.

Theopinionandpracticeofthewesternnationswerequitedifferentfromthose of the east. The centuriators of Magdeburg repeat a passage inTheophilus of Cæsarea, whichmakes the churches of Gaul say: "Since thebirthofChristiscelebratedonthe25thofDecember,onwhateverdayoftheweekitmayfall,soalsoshouldtheresurrectionofJesusbecelebratedonthe25th ofMarch,whatever day of theweek itmay be, the Lord having risenagainonthatday."

Ifthisbetrue,itmustbeacknowledgedthatthebishopsofGaulwereveryprudent andvery reasonable.Beingpersuaded, as all the ancientswere, thatJesushadbeencrucifiedonthe23dofMarch,andhadrisenagainonthe25th,they commemoratedHis deathon the23d andHis resurrectionon the25th,without paying any regard to the observance of the full moon, which wasoriginally a Jewish ceremony, and without confining themselves to theSunday.Hadthechurchimitatedthem,shewouldhaveavoidedthelongandscandalousdisputeswhichnearlyseparatedtheEastfromtheWest,andwerenotterminateduntiltheFirstCouncilofNice.

Someofthelearnedconjecturethat theRomanschosethewintersolsticeforholdingthebirthofJesus,becausethesunthenbeginsagaintoapproachourhemisphere.InJuliusCæsar'stimethecivilandpoliticalsolsticewasfixedfor the25thofDecember.This atRomewas a festival in celebrationof thereturningsun.Plinytellsusthatitwascalledbruma;and,likeServius,placesit on the 8th of the calends of January. This association might have someconnectionwiththechoiceoftheday,butitwasnottheoriginofit.ApassageinJosephus(evidentlyforged),threeorfourerrorsoftheancients,andaverymystical explanation of a saying of St. John the Baptist, determined thischoice,asJosephScaligerisabouttoinformus.

It pleased the ancients (says that learned critic) to suppose—first, thatZachariaswassovereignsacrificerwhenJesuswasborn.Butnothingismoreuntrue; it is no longer believed by anyone, at least among those of anyinformation.

Secondly—theancientssupposedthatZachariaswasintheholyofholies,

offeringincense,whentheangelappearedtohimandannouncedthebirthofason.

Thirdly—asthesovereignsacrificerenteredthetemplebutonceayear,onthe day of expiation, which was the 10th of the Jewish month rifri, partlyanswering to themonth ofSeptember, the ancients supposed that itwas the27th;andthatafterwards,onthe23dor24th,Zachariashavingreturnedhomeafterthefeast,Elizabeth,hiswife,conceivedJohntheBaptist;whenthefeastoftheconceptionofthatsaintwasfixedforthosedays.Aswomenordinarilygowithchild for twohundredandseventyor twohundredandseventy-fourdays,itfollowedthatthenativityofJohnwasfixedforthe24thofJune.SuchwastheoriginofSt.John'sday,andofChristmasday,whichwasregulatedbyit.

Fourthly—itwassupposed that thereweresixentiremonthsbetween theconception of John theBaptist and that of Jesus; although the angel simplytells Mary that Elizabeth was then in the sixth month of her pregnancy;consequently the conception of Jesuswas fixed for the 25th ofMarch; andfrom thesevarious suppositions itwas concluded that Jesusmust havebeenbornonthe25thofDecember,preciselyninemonthsafterhisconception.

Therearemanywonderfulthingsinthesearrangements.Itisnotoneoftheleast worthy of admiration, that the four cardinal points of the year—theequinoxes and the solstices, as they were then fixed—were marked by theconceptions and births of John the Baptist and Jesus. But it is yet moremarvellousandworthyofremark,thatthesolsticewhenJesuswasbornisthatatwhichthedaysbegintoincrease;whilethatonwhichJohntheBaptistcameinto the world was the period at which they begin to shorten. The holyforerunner had intimated this in a verymystical manner, when speaking ofJesus,inthesewords:"Hemustgrow,andImustbecomeless."

Prudentius alludes to this in a hymnon the nativity of ourLord.YetSt.LeosaysthatinhistimetherewerepersonsinRomewhosaidthefeastwasvenerable,notsomuchonaccountofthebirthofJesusasofthereturn,and,astheyexpressed it, thenewbirthof the sun.St.Epiphanius assuresus itwasfullyestablishedthatJesuswasbornonthe6thofJanuary;butSt.ClementofAlexandria,muchmoreancientandmore learned thanhe, fixes thebirthonthe18thofNovember,ofthetwenty-eighthyearofAugustus.Thisisdeduced,accordingtotheJesuitPetau'sremarkonSt.Epiphanius,fromthesewordsofSt.Clement: "Thewhole time from thebirthof JesusChrist to thedeathofCommodus was a hundred and ninety-four years, one month and thirteendays."NowCommodusdied,accordingtoPetau,onthelastofDecember,intheyear192ofourera; therefore, according toSt.Clement, JesuswasbornonemonthandthirteendaysbeforethelastofDecember;consequently,onthe18th of November, in the twenty-eighth year of the reign of Augustus.

Concerning which it must be observed that St. Clement dates the reign ofAugustus only from the death of Antony and the capture of Alexandria,because it was not until then that Augustus was left the solemaster of theempire.Thuswearenomoreassuredoftheyearofthisbirththanweareofthe month or the day. Though St. Luke declares, "that He had perfectunderstandingofall thingsfromtheveryfirst,"heclearlyshows thathedidnotknowtheexactageofJesuswhenHesaysthat,whenbaptized,He"begantobeabout thirtyyearsold."Indeed, thisevangelistmakesJesusbornin theyear of the numbering which, according to him, was made by Cyrenus orCyrenius, governor of Syria;while, according toTertullian, itwasmade bySentiusSaturninus.ButSaturninushadquittedtheprovinceinthelastyearofHerod, and, as Tacitus informs us, was succeeded byQuintilius Varus; andPublius Sulpicius Quirinus or Quirinius, of whom it would seem St. Lukemeans to speak, didnot succeedQuintiliusVarusuntil about tenyears afterHerod'sdeath,whenArchelaus,kingofJudæa,wasbanishedbyAugustus,asJosephustellsusinhis"JewishAntiquities."

ItistruethatTertullian,andSt.Justinbeforehim,referredthepagansandthehereticsoftheirtimetothepublicarchivescontainingtheregistersofthispretended numbering; but Tertullian likewise referred to the public archivesfortheaccountofthedarknessatnoondayatthetimeofthepassionofJesus,aswillbeseeninthearticleon"Eclipse";wherewehaveremarkedthewantofexactnessinthesetwofathers,andinsimilarauthorities,inourobservationsonastatuewhichSt.Justin—whoassuresusthathesawitatRome—sayswasdedicatedtoSimonthemagician,butwhichwasinrealitydedicatedtoagodoftheancientSabines.

These uncertainties, however, will excite no astonishment when it isrecollected that Jesus was unknown to His disciples until He had receivedbaptismfromJohn.Itisexpressly,"beginningwiththebaptismofJesus,"thatPeterwillhavethesuccessorofJudastestifyconcerningJesus;and,accordingto the same Acts, Peter thereby understands the whole time that Jesus hadlivedwiththem.

CHRONOLOGY.

Theworldhaslongdisputedaboutancientchronology;buthasthereeverbeen any?Every considerable peoplemust necessarily possess and preserveauthentic,well-attested registers. But how few peoplewere acquaintedwiththeartofwriting?and,among thesmallnumberofmenwhocultivated thisveryrareart,areanytobefoundwhotookthetroubletomarktwodateswith

exactness?

Wehave,indeed,inveryrecenttimestheastronomicalobservationsoftheChinese and the Chaldæans. They only go back about two thousand years,moreor less,beyondourera.Butwhen theearlyannalsofanationconfinethemselvessimplytocommunicatingtheinformationthattherewasaneclipseinthereignofacertainprince,welearn,certainly,thatsuchaprinceexisted,butnotwhatheperformed.

Moreover, theChinese reckon theyear inwhich an emperor dies as stillconstitutingapartofhisreign,untiltheendofit;eventhoughheshoulddiethefirstdayoftheyear,hissuccessordatestheyearfollowinghisdeathwiththe name of his predecessor. It is not possible to show more respect forancestors;norisitpossibletocomputetimeinamannermoreinjudiciousincomparisonwithmodernnations.

Wemay add that the Chinese do not commence their sexagenary cycle,intowhichtheyhaveintroducedarrangement,tillthereignoftheEmperorIao,two thousand three hundred and fifty-seven years before our vulgar era.Profoundobscurityhangsover thewholeperiodof timewhichprecedesthatepoch.

Men are generally contented with an approximation—with the "prettynearly" in every case.For example, before the inventionofwatches, peoplecouldlearnthetimeofdayornightonlyapproximately.Inbuilding,thestoneswereprettynearlyhewntoacertainshape, the timberprettynearlysquared,andthelimbsofthestatueprettynearlychippedtoaproperfinish;amanwasonlyprettynearlyacquaintedwithhisnearestneighbors;and,notwithstandingtheperfectionwehaveourselvesattained,suchisthestateofthingsatpresentthroughoutthegreaterpartoftheworld.

Letusnot thenbeastonished that there isnowhere tobefoundacorrectancientchronology.

That which we have of the Chinese is of considerable value, whencomparedwiththechronologicallaborsofothernations.WehavenoneoftheIndians,norofthePersians,andscarcelyanyoftheancientEgyptians.Alloursystems formed on the history of these people are as contradictory as oursystemsofmetaphysics.

TheGreekOlympiads do not commence till seven hundred and twenty-eightyearsbeforeoureraofreckoning.Untilwearriveatthem,weperceiveonlyafewtorchestolightenthedarkness,suchastheeraofNabonassar,thewar between Lacedæmon and Messene; even those epochs themselves aresubjectsofdispute.

Livy took care not to state in what year Romulus began his pretended

reign.TheRomans,whowellknewtheuncertaintyofthatepoch,wouldhaveridiculedhimhadheundertakentodecideit.ItisprovedthatthedurationoftwohundredandfortyyearsascribedtothesevenfirstkingsofRomeisaveryfalsecalculation.Thefirst fourcenturiesofRomeareabsolutelydestituteofchronology.

If four centuries of the most memorable empire the world ever sawcompriseonlyanundigestedmassofevents,mixedupwithfables,andalmostwithoutadate,whatmustbethecasewithsmallnations,shutupinanobscurecorner of the earth, that have never made any figure in the world,notwithstanding all their attempts to compensate, byprodigy and imposture,fortheirdeficiencyinrealpowerandcultivation?

OftheVanityofSystems,ParticularlyinChronology.

The Abbé Condillac performed a most important service to the humanmindwhenhedisplayedthefalsepointsofallsystems.Ifwemayeverhopethat we shall one day find the road to truth, it can only be after we havedetectedallthosewhichleadtoerror.Itisatleastaconsolationtobeatrest,tobe no longer seeking, when we perceive that so many philosophers havesoughtinvain.

Chronology is a collectionof bladders ofwind.Allwho thought to passover it as solid ground have been immersed.We have, at the present time,twenty-foursystems,notoneofwhichistrue.

The Babylonians said, "We reckon four hundred and seventy-threethousand years of astronomical observations." A Parisian, addressing him,says,"Youraccountiscorrect;youryearsconsistedeachofasolarday;theyamount to twelvehundredandninety-sevenofours, from the timeofAtlas,thegreatastronomer,kingofAfrica,tillthearrivalofAlexanderatBabylon."

But, whatever our Parisian may say, no people in the world have everconfoundedadaywithayear; and thepeopleofBabylonstill less thananyother. This Parisian stranger should have contented himself with merelyobserving to theChaldæans: "You are exaggerators, and our ancestorswereignorant.Nationsareexposedtotoomanyrevolutionstopermittheirkeepinga series of four thousand seven hundred and thirty-six centuries ofastronomical calculations.And,with respect toAtlas,kingof theMoors,noone knows atwhat time he lived. Pythagorasmight pretend to have been acock,justasreasonablyasyoumayboastofsuchaseriesofobservations."

Thegreatpointofridiculeinallfantasticchronologiesisthearrangementof all the great events of a man's life in precise order of time, withoutascertainingthatthemanhimselfeverexisted.Lengletrepeatsafterothers,inhischronologicalcompilationofuniversalhistory,thatpreciselyinthetimeof

Abraham,andsixyearsafterthedeathofSarah,whowaslittleknowntotheGreeks, Jupiter, at the age of sixty-two, began to reign inThessaly; that hisreignlastedsixtyyears;thathemarriedhissisterJuno;thathewasobligedtocedethemaritimecoaststohisbrotherNeptune;andthattheTitansmadewaragainsthim.ButwasthereeveraJupiter?Itneveroccurredtohimthatwiththisquestionheshouldhavebegun.

CHURCH.

SummaryoftheHistoryoftheChristianChurch.

Weshallnotextendourviewsintothedepthsoftheology.Godpreserveusfrom such presumption. Humble faith alone is enough for us. We neverassumeanyotherpartthanthatofmerehistorians.

IntheyearsthatimmediatelyfollowedJesusChrist,whowasatonceGodandman,thereexistedamongtheHebrewsninereligiousschoolsorsocieties—Pharisees, Sadducees, Essenians, Judahites, Therapeutæ, Rechabites,Herodians, the disciples of John, and the disciples of Jesus, named the"brethren," the"Galileans," the"believers,"whodidnotassumethenameofChristianstillaboutthesixteenthyearofourera,atAntioch;beingdirectedtoitsadoptionbyGodhimself,inwaysunknowntomen.ThePhariseesbelievedinthemetempsychosis.TheSadduceesdeniedtheimmortalityofthesoul,andtheexistenceofspirits,yetbelievedinthePentateuch.

Pliny, the naturalist—relying, evidently, on the authority of FlaviusJosephus—calls the Essenians "gens æterna in qua nemo nascitur"—"aperpetualfamily,inwhichnooneiseverborn"—becausetheEsseniansveryrarelymarried.Thedescriptionhasbeensinceappliedtoourmonks.

ItisdifficulttodecidewhethertheEsseniansortheJudahitesarespokenofby Josephus in the followingpassage: "Theydespise the evils of theworld;theirconstancyenablesthemtotriumphovertorments;inanhonorablecause,theypreferdeathtolife.Theyhaveundergonefireandsword,andsubmittedto having their very bones crushed, rather than utter a syllable against theirlegislator,oreatforbiddenfood."

It would seem, from the words of Josephus, that the foregoing portraitappliestotheJudahites,andnottotheEssenians."Judaswastheauthorofanewsect,completelydifferentfromtheotherthree;"thatis,theSadducees,thePharisees, and theEssenians. "They are," hegoeson, "Jewsbynation; theylive in harmonywith one another, and consider pleasure to be a vice." Thenaturalmeaningofthislanguagewouldinduceustothinkthatheisspeaking

oftheJudahites.

Howeverthatmaybe,theseJudahiteswereknownbeforethedisciplesofChrist began to possess consideration and consequence in the world. Someweakpeoplehavesupposedthemtobeheretics,whoadoredJudasIscariot.

The Therapeutæ were a society different from the Essenians and theJudahites.TheyresembledtheGymnosophistsandBrahminsofIndia."Theypossess," says Philo, "a principle of divine love which excites in them anenthusiasmlike thatof theBacchantesandtheCorybantes,andwhichformsthemtothatstateofcontemplationtowhichtheyaspire.Thissectoriginatedin Alexandria, which was entirely filled with Jews, and prevailed greatlythroughoutEgypt."TheRechabitesstillcontinuedasasect.Theyvowednevertodrinkwine; and it is, possibly, from their example thatMahomet forbadethatliquortohisfollowers.

The Herodians regarded Herod, the first of that name, as a Messiah, amessengerfromGod,whohadrebuilt the temple. It isclear that theJewsatRomecelebrateda festival inhonorofhim, in the reignofNero,asappearsfromthelinesofPersius:"Herodisveneredies,"etc.(Sat.v.180.)

"KingHerod'sfeast,wheneachJudaæanvile,

Trimsuphislampwithtalloworwithoil."

ThedisciplesofJohntheBaptisthadspread themselvesa little inEgypt,but principally in Syria, Arabia, and towards the Persian gulf. They arerecognized,at thepresentday,under thenameof theChristiansofSt. John.There were some also in Asia Minor. It is mentioned in the Acts of theApostles(chap,xix.)thatPaulmetwithmanyofthematEphesus."Haveyoureceived,"heaskedthem,"theholyspirit?"Theyansweredhim."Wehavenotheard even that there is aholy spirit." "Whatbaptism, then," sayshe, "haveyoureceived?"Theyansweredhim,"ThebaptismofJohn."

In the meantime the true Christians, as is well known, were laying thefoundationof theonly true religion.'Hewhocontributedmost to strengthenthisrisingsociety,wasPaul,whohadhimselfpersecuted itwith thegreatestviolence.HewasbornatTarsusinCilicia,andwaseducatedunderoneofthemost celebrated professors among the Pharisees—Gamaliel, a disciple ofHillel.TheJewspretendthathequarrelledwithGamaliel,whorefusedtolethim have his daughter in marriage. Some traces of this anecdote are to befoundinthesequeltothe"ActsofSt.Thekla."Theseactsrelatethathehadalarge forehead, a baldhead, united eye-brows, an aquilinenose, a short andclumsyfigure,andcrookedlegs.Lucian,inhisdialogue"Philopatres,"seemstogiveaverysimilarportraitofhim. IthasbeendoubtedwhetherhewasaRomancitizen, for at that time the titlewasnotgiven to any Jew; theyhad

beenexpelled fromRomebyTiberius; andTarsusdidnotbecomeaRomancolony till nearly a hundred years afterwards, under Caracalla; as Cellariusremarks in his "Geography" (book iii.), andGrotius in his "CommentaryontheActs,"towhomaloneweneedrefer.

God,whocamedownuponearthtobeanexampleinitofhumanityandpoverty,gavetohischurchthemostfeebleinfancy,andconducteditinastateofhumiliationsimilartothatinwhichhehadhimselfchosentobeborn.Allthe firstbelieverswereobscurepersons.They laboredwith theirhands.TheapostleSt.Paulhimselfacknowledgesthathegainedhislivelihoodbymakingtents.St.PeterraisedfromthedeadDorcas,asempstress,whomadeclothesforthe"brethren."TheassemblyofbelieversmetatJoppa,at thehouseofatanner called Simon, as appears from the ninth chapter of the "Acts of theApostles."

The believers spread themselves secretly in Greece: and some of themwent from Greece to Rome, among the Jews, who were permitted by theRomanstohaveasynagogue.Theydidnot,atfirst,separatethemselvesfromtheJews.Theypractisedcircumcision;and,aswehaveelsewhereremarked,thefirstfifteenobscurebishopsofJerusalemwereallcircumcised,oratleastwerealloftheJewishnation.

When the apostle Paul took with him Timothy, who was the son of aheathen father, he circumcised him himself, in the small city ofLystra.ButTitus,hisotherdisciple,couldnotbeinducedtosubmittocircumcision.Thebrethren, or the disciples of Jesus, continued unitedwith the Jews until thetimewhenSt.PaulexperiencedapersecutionatJerusalem,onaccountofhishaving introducedstrangers into the temple.Hewasaccusedby the JewsofendeavoringtodestroythelawofMosesbythatofJesusChrist.Itwaswithaview to his clearing himself from this accusation that the apostle St. JamesproposedtotheapostlePaulthatheshouldshavehishead,andgoandpurifyhimselfinthetemple,withfourJews,whohadmadeavowofbeingshaved."Takethemwithyou,"saysJamestohim(ActsoftheApostlesxxi.),"purifyyourselfwiththem,andletthewholeworldknowthatwhathasbeenreportedconcerning you is false, and that you continue to obey the law ofMoses."Thus, then,Paul,whohadbeen at first themost summarypersecutor of theholysocietyestablishedbyJesus—Paul,whoafterwardsendeavoredtogovernthat rising society—Paul theChristian, Judaizes, "that theworldmay knowthatheiscalumniatedwhenheischargedwithnolongerfollowingthelawofMoses."

St.Paulwasequallychargedwithimpietyandheresy,andthepersecutionagainsthimlastedalongtime;butitisperfectlyclear,fromthenatureofthecharges, that he had travelled to Jerusalem in order to fulfil the rites ofJudaism.

Headdressed toFaustus thesewords: "Ihaveneveroffendedagainst theJewishlaw,noragainstthetemple."(Actsxxv.)TheapostlesannouncedJesusChristasajustmanwickedlypersecuted,aprophetofGod,asonofGod,senttotheJewsforthereformationofmanners.

"Circumcision,"saystheapostlePaul,"isgood,ifyouobservethelaw;butif you violate the law, your circumcision becomes uncircumcision. If anyuncircumcisedpersonkeepthelaw,hewillbeasifcircumcised.ThetrueJewisonethatissoinwardly."

WhenthisapostlespeaksofJesusChristinhisepistles,hedoesnotrevealtheineffablemysteryofhisconsubstantialitywithGod."Wearedeliveredbyhim,"sayshe,"fromthewrathofGod.ThegiftofGodhathbeensheduponusby thegracebestowedononeman,who is JesusChrist....Death reignedthrough the sin of oneman; the just shall reign in life by oneman,who isJesusChrist."(Romansv.)

And,intheeighthchapter:"WeareheirsofGod,andjoint-heirsofChrist;"and in the sixteenth chapter: "ToGod, who is the onlywise, be honor andglorythroughJesusChrist...YouareJesusChrist's,andJesusChristisGod's."(1Cor.chap.iii.)

And, in 1Cor. xv. 27: "Everything ismade subject to him, undoubtedly,exceptingGod,whomadeallthingssubjecttohim."

Some difficulty has been found in explaining the following part of theEpistleof thePhilippians: "Donothing throughvainglory.Leteachhumblythinkothersbetterthanhimself.BeofthesamemindwithJesusChrist,who,being in the likeness of God, assumed not to equal himself to God." Thispassageappearsexceedinglywell investigatedandelucidated ina letter, stillextant, of the churches of Vienna and Lyons, written in the year 117, andwhichisavaluablemonumentofantiquity.Inthisletterthemodestyofsomebelieversispraised."Theydidnotwish,"saystheletter,"toassumetheloftytitle ofmartyrs, in consequence of certain tribulations; after the example ofJesusChrist,who,beinginthelikenessofGod,didnotassumethequalityofbeing equal to God." Origen, also, in his commentary on John, says: "Thegreatness of Jesus shines out more splendidly in consequence of his self-humiliation than ifhehadassumedequalitywithGod." In fact, theoppositeinterpretation would be a solecism. What sense would there be in thisexhortation:"Thinkotherssuperior toyourselves; imitateJesus,whodidnotthink it an assumption to be equal to God?" It would be an obviouscontradiction;itwouldbeputtinganexampleoffullpretensionforanexampleofmodesty;itwouldbeanoffenceagainstlogic.

Thus did the wisdom of the apostles establish the rising church. Thatwisdomdidnotchangeitscharacterinconsequenceofthedisputewhichtook

placebetween theapostlesPeter, James,andJohn,ononeside,andPaulonthe other. This contest occurred at Antioch. The apostle Peter—formerlyCephas,orSimonBarJona—atewiththeconvertedGentiles,andamongthemdidnotobservetheceremoniesofthelawandthedistinctionofmeats.HeandBarnabas,andtheotherdisciples,ateindifferentlyofpork,ofanimalswhichhadbeenstrangled,orwhichhadclovenfeet,orwhichdidnotchewthecud;but many Jewish Christians having arrived, St. Peter joined with them inabstinencefromforbiddenmeats,andintheceremoniesoftheMosaiclaw.

Thisconductappearedveryprudent;hewishedtoavoidgivingoffencetotheJewishChristians,hiscompanions;butSt.Paulattackedhimonthesubjectwithconsiderableseverity."Iwithstoodhim,"sayshe,"tohisface,becausehewasblamable."(Gal.chap.ii.)

This quarrel appearsmost extraordinary on the part of St. Paul. Havingbeen at first a persecutor, hemight have been expected to have acted withmoderation;especiallyashehadgonetoJerusalemtosacrificeinthetemple,had circumcised his discipleTimothy, and strictly compliedwith the Jewishrites, for which very compliance he now reproached Cephas. St. JeromeimaginesthatthisquarrelbetweenPaulandCephaswasapretendedone.Hesays,inhisfirsthomily(vol.iii.)thattheyactedliketwoadvocates,whohadworkedthemselvesuptoanappearanceofgreatzealandexasperationagainsteach other, to gain creditwith their respective clients.He says that Peter—Cephas—beingappointedtopreachtotheJews,andPaultotheGentiles,theyassumedtheappearanceofquarrelling—PaultogaintheGentiles,andPetertogain the Jews. But St. Augustine is by no means of the same opinion. "Igrieve,"sayshe, inhisepistle toJerome,"thatsogreatamanshouldbe thepatronofalie."—(patronummendacii).

ThisdisputebetweenSt.JeromeandSt.Augustineoughtnot todiminishourveneration for them, and still less forSt.Paul andSt.Peter.As towhatremains,ifPeterwasdestinedfortheJews,whowere,aftertheirconversion,likely toJudaize,andPaulforstrangers, itappearsprobable thatPeterneverwenttoRome.TheActsoftheApostlesmakesnomentionofPeter'sjourneytoItaly.

However that may be, it was about the sixtieth year of our era thatChristians began to separate from the Jewish communion; and it was thiswhich drew upon them somany quarrels and persecutions from the varioussynagoguesofRome,Greece,Egypt,andAsia.Theywereaccusedofimpietyand atheism by their Jewish brethren, who excommunicated them in theirsynagogues three times every Sabbath-day. But in the midst of theirpersecutionsGodalwayssupportedthem.

Bydegreesmanychurcheswereformed,andtheseparationbetweenJews

and Christians was complete before the close of the first century. ThisseparationwasunknowntotheRomangovernment.NeitherthesenatenortheemperorsofRomeinterestedthemselvesinthosequarrelsofasmallflockofmankind,whichGodhadhithertoguidedinobscurity,andwhichheexaltedbyinsensiblegradations.

Christianity became established in Greece and at Alexandria. TheChristianshadtheretocontendwithanewsetofJews,who,inconsequenceofintercoursewiththeGreeks,hadbecomephilosophers.Thiswasthesectofgnosis, or gnostics. Among them were some of the new converts toChristianity. All these sects, at that time, enjoyed complete liberty todogmatize, discourse, and write, whenever the Jewish courtiers, settled atRome and Alexandria, did not bring any charge against them before themagistrates.But,underDomitian,Christianitybegantogivesomeumbragetothegovernment.

ThezealofsomeChristians,whichwasnotaccording toknowledge,didnotprevent theChurchfrommaking thatprogresswhichGoddestinedfromthe beginning. The Christians, at first, celebrated their mysteries insequesteredhouses, and in caves, andduring the night.Hence, according toMinuciusFelix,thetitlegiventhemoflucifugaces.PhilocallsthemGesséens.Thenamesmost frequentlyapplied to themby theheathens,during the firstfourcenturies,were"Galileans"and"Nazarenes";butthatof"Christians"hasprevailed above all others. Neither the hierarchy, nor the services of thechurch,were establishedall at once; the apostolic timesweredifferent fromthosewhichfollowed.

The mass now celebrated at matins was the supper performed in theevening; these usages changed in proportion as the church strengthened. Amore numerous society required more regulations, and the prudence of thepastors accommodated itself to times and places. St. Jerome and Eusebiusrelate that when the churches received a regular form, five different ordersmightbesoonperceivedtoexistinthem—superintendents,episcopoi,whenceoriginate the bishops; elders of the society, presbyteroi, priests, diaconoi,servantsordeacons;pistoi,believers,theinitiated—thatis,thebaptized,whoparticipatedinthesuppersoftheagape,orlove-feasts;thecatechumens,whowere awaiting baptism; and the energumens, who awaited their beingexorcisedofdemons.Inthesefiveorders,noonehadgarmentsdifferentfromtheothers,noonewasboundtocelibacy;witnessTertullian'sbook,dedicatedto his wife; and witness also the example of the apostles. No paintings orsculpturesweretobefoundintheirassembliesduringthefirsttwocenturies;no altars; and, most certainly, no tapers, incense, and lustral water. TheChristians carefully concealed their books from the Gentiles; they intrustedthemonlytotheinitiated.Eventhecatechumenswerenotpermittedtorecite

theLord'sprayer.

OfthePowerofExpellingDevils,GiventotheChurch.

That which most distinguished the Christians, and which has continuednearlytoourowntimes,wasthepowerofexpellingdevilswiththesignofthecross. Origen, in his treaties against Celsus, declares—at No. 133—thatAntinous,whohadbeendefiedbytheemperorAdrian,performedmiraclesinEgyptbythepowerofcharmsandmagic;buthesaysthatthedevilscameoutofthebodiesofthepossessedonthemereutteranceofthenameofJesus.

Tertulliangoesfarther;andfromtherecessesofAfrica,whereheresided,he says, in his "Apology"—chap. xxiii.—"If your gods do not confessthemselves tobedevils in thepresenceofa trueChristian,wegiveyou fullliberty to shed that Christian's blood." Can any demonstration be possiblyclearer?

In fact, Jesus Christ sent out his apostles to expel demons. The Jews,likewise, in his time, had the power of expelling them; for,when Jesus haddeliveredsomepossessedpersons,andsentthedevilsintothebodiesofaverynumerous herd of swine, and had performed many other similar cures, thePharisees said: "He expels devils through the power of Beelzebub." Jesusreplied:"Bywhomdoyoursonsexpelthem?"ItisincontestablethattheJewsboasted of this power. They had exorcists and exorcisms.They invoked thenameofGod,ofJacob,andofAbraham.Theyputconsecratedherbsintothenostrils of the demoniacs. Josephus relates a part of these ceremonies. Thispoweroverdevils,whichtheJewshavelost,wastransferredtotheChristians,whoseemlikewisetohavelostitintheirturn.

The power of expelling demons comprehended that of destroying theoperationsofmagic;formagichasbeenalwaysprevalentineverynation.Allthe fathers of the Church bear testimony to magic. St. Justin, in his"Apology"—bookiii.—acknowledgesthatthesoulsofthedeadarefrequentlyevoked,andthencedrawsanargumentinfavoroftheimmortalityofthesoul.Lactantius, in the seventh book of his "Divine Institutions," says that "ifanyoneventuredtodenytheexistenceofsoulsafterdeath,themagicianwouldconvincehimofitbymakingthemappear."Irenæus,ClementofAlexandria,Tertullian,Cyprianthebishop,allaffirmthesame.Itistruethat,atpresent,allis changed, and that there are now no more magicians than there aredemoniacs. But God has the sovereign power of admonishing mankind byprodigiesat someparticular seasons,andofdiscontinuing thoseprodigiesatothers.

OftheMartyrsoftheChurch.

When Christians became somewhat numerous, and many arrayed

themselves against the worship established in the Roman Empire, themagistrates began to exercise severity against them, and the people moreparticularly persecuted them.The Jews,whopossessedparticular privileges,andwhoconfinedthemselvestotheirsynagogues,werenotpersecuted.Theywerepermittedthefreeexerciseoftheirreligion,asisthecaseatRomeatthepresentday.Allthedifferentkindsofworshipscatteredovertheempireweretolerated,althoughthesenatedidnotadoptthem.ButtheChristians,declaringthemselves enemies to every other worship than their own, and moreespeciallysotothatoftheempire,wereoftenexposedtothesecrueltrials.

One of the first andmost distinguishedmartyrs was Ignatius, bishop ofAntioch,whowascondemnedbytheEmperorTrajanhimself,atthattimeinAsia,andsenttoRomebyhisorders,tobeexposedtowildbeasts,atatimewhenotherChristianswerenotpersecutedatRome.Itisnotknownpreciselywhat charges were alleged against him before that emperor, otherwise sorenowned for his clemency. St. Ignatiusmust, necessarily, have had violentenemies. Whatever were the particulars of the case, the history of hismartyrdom relates that the nameof JesusChristwas found engravedon hisheart in lettersofgold;and from thiscircumstance itwas thatChristians, insome places, assumed the name of Theophorus, which Ignatius had givenhimself.

A letter of his has been preserved in which he entreats the bishops andChristianstomakenooppositiontohismartyrdom,whetherat thetimetheymightbestrongenoughtoeffecthisdeliverance,orwhetheranyamongthemmight have influence enough to obtain his pardon. Another remarkablecircumstance is that when he was brought to Rome the Christians of thatcapitalwent tovisithim;whichwouldproveclearly that the individualwaspunishedandnotthesect.

The persecutions were not continued. Origen, in his third book againstCelsus, says: "The Christians who have suffered death on account of theirreligion may easily be numbered, for there were only a few of them, andmerelyatintervals."

GodwassomindfulofhisChurchthat,notwithstandingitsenemies,hesoorderedcircumstancesthatitheldfivecouncilsinthefirstcentury,sixteeninthesecond,andthirtyinthethird;thatis,includingbothsecretandtoleratedones.Thoseassembliesweresometimes forbidden,when theweakprudenceofthemagistratesfearedthattheymightbecometumultuous.Butfewgenuinedocuments of the proceedings before the proconsuls and prætors whocondemned the Christians to death have been delivered down to us. Suchwouldbetheonlyauthoritieswhichwouldenableustoascertainthechargesbroughtagainstthem,andthepunishmentstheysuffered.

We have a fragment of Dionysius of Alexandria, in which he gives thefollowingextractofa register,orof records,ofaproconsulofEgypt,underthe Emperor Valerian: "Dionysius, Faustus Maximus, Marcellus, andChæremon,havingbeenadmittedtotheaudience,theprefectÆmilianusthusaddressedthem:'YouaresufficientlyinformedthroughtheconferenceswhichIhavehadwithyou,andallthatIhavewrittentoyou,ofthegood-willwhichourprinceshaveentertainedtowardsyou.Iwishthustorepeatittoyouonceagain.Theymakethecontinuanceofyoursafetytodependuponyourselves,andplaceyourdestinyinyourownhands.Theyrequireofyouonlyonething,which reason demands of every reasonable person—namely, that you adorethe gods who protect their empire, and abandon that different worship, socontrarytosenseandnature.'"

Dionysiusreplied,"Allhavenotthesamegods;andalladorethosewhomtheythinktobethetrueones."TheprefectÆmilianusreplied:"Iseeclearlythatyouungratefullyabusethegoodnesswhichtheemperorshaveshownyou.Thisbeingthecase,youshallnolongerremaininthiscity;andInoworderyou to be conveyed to Cephro, in the heart of Libya. Agreeably to thecommandIhavereceivedfromyouremperor, thatshallbetheplaceofyourbanishment.Astowhatremains,thinknottoholdyourassembliesthere,norto offer up your prayers in what you call cemeteries. This is positivelyforbidden.Iwillpermitittonone."

Nothingbearsastrongerimpressoftruththanthisdocument.Weseefromitthatthereweretimeswhenassemblieswereprohibited.ThustheCalvinistswereforbiddentoassembleinFrance.Sometimesministersorpreachers,whoheldassemblies inviolationof the laws,havesufferedevenby thealtarandthe rack; and since 1745 six have been executed on the gallows. Thus, inEnglandandIreland,RomanCatholicsareforbiddentoholdassemblies;and,oncertainoccasions,thedelinquentshavesuffereddeath.

Notwithstanding these prohibitions declared by the Roman laws, Godinspiredmanyof theemperorswith indulgence towards theChristians.EvenDiocletian,whomtheignorantconsiderasapersecutor—Diocletian, thefirstyearofwhosereignisstillregardedasconstitutingthecommencementoftheeraofmartyrdom,was,formorethaneighteenyears,thedeclaredprotectorofChristianity,andmanyChristiansheldofficesofhighconsequenceabouthisperson. He even married a Christian; and, in Nicomedia, the place of hisresidence,hepermittedasplendidchurchtobeerectedoppositehispalace.

TheCæsarGaleriushavingunfortunatelytakenupaprejudiceagainsttheChristians, of whom he thought he had reason to complain, influencedDiocletiantodestroythecathedralofNicomedia.OneoftheChristians,withmore zeal thanprudence, tore the edict of the emperor topieces; andhencearosethatfamouspersecution,inthecourseofwhichmorethantwohundred

personswereexecutedintheRomanEmpire,withoutreckoningthosewhomtherageofthecommonpeople,alwaysfanaticalandalwayscruel,destroyedwithouteventheformoflaw.

Sogreathasbeenthenumberofactualmartyrsthatweshouldbecarefulhowweshakethetruthofthehistoryofthosegenuineconfessorsofourholyreligionbyadangerousmixtureoffablesandoffalsemartyrs.

The Benedictine Prior (Dom) Ruinart, for example, a man otherwise aswell informed as he was respectable and devout, should have selected hisgenuinerecords,his"actessinceres,"withmorediscretion.Itisnotsufficientthatamanuscript,whethertakenfromtheabbeyofSt.BenoitontheLoire,orfroma convent ofCelestines at Paris, correspondswith amanuscript of theFeuillans, to show that the record is authentic; the record should possess asuitableantiquity;shouldhavebeenevidentlywrittenbycontemporaries;and,moreover,shouldbearallthecharactersoftruth.

Hemighthavedispensedwithrelating theadventureofyoungRomanus,which occurred in 303. This young Romanus had obtained the pardon ofDiocletian, at Antioch. However, Ruinart states that the judge Asclepiadescondemned him to be burnt. The Jews who were present at the spectacle,deridedtheyoungsaintandreproachedtheChristians,thattheirGod,whohaddeliveredShadrach,Meshach,andAbednegooutof thefurnace, left themtobe burned; that immediately, although the weather had been as calm aspossible,atremendousstormaroseandextinguishedtheflames;thatthejudgethenorderedyoungRomanus'stonguetobecutout;thattheprincipalsurgeonoftheemperor,beingpresent,eagerlyactedthepartofexecutioner,andcutoffthe tongue at the root; that instantly the young man, who, before had animpediment inhisspeech,spokewithperfect freedom; that theemperorwasastonished that anyone could speak so well without a tongue; and that thesurgeon, to repeat the experiment, directly cut out the tongue of somebystander,whodiedonthespot.

Eusebius, fromwhom theBenedictineRuinartdrewhisnarrative, shouldhave so far respected the real miracles performed in the Old and NewTestament—which no one can ever doubt—as not to have associated withthemrelationssosuspicious,andsocalculatedtogiveoffencetoweakminds.Thislastpersecutiondidnotextendthroughtheempire.Therewasatthattimesome Christianity in England, which soon eclipsed, to reappear afterwardsunder the Saxon kings. The southern districts of Gaul and Spain aboundedwith Christians. The Cæsar Constantius Chlorus afforded them greatprotectioninallhisprovinces.HehadaconcubinewhowasaChristian,andwhowasthemotherofConstantine,knownunderthenameofSt.Helena;forno marriage was ever proved to have taken place between them; he evendivorced her in the year 292, when hemarried the daughter ofMaximilian

Hercules; but she had preserved great ascendency over his mind, and hadinspiredhimwithagreatattachmenttoourholyreligion.

OftheEstablishmentoftheChurchUnderConstantine.

Thus did divine Providence prepare the triumph of its church by waysapparentlyconformabletohumancausesandevents.ConstantiusChlorusdiedin306,atYork,inEngland,atatimewhenthechildrenhehadbythedaughterof a Cæsarwere of tender age, and incapable ofmaking pretensions to theempire.ConstantineboldlygothimselfelectedatYork,byfiveorsixthousandsoldiers, the greater part of whomwere French and English. There was noprobability that this election, effected without the consent of Rome, of thesenate and the armies, could stand; but God gave him the victory overMaxentius,whohadbeenelectedatRome,anddeliveredhimatlastfromallhis colleagues. It is not to be dissembled that he at first rendered himselfunworthyofthefavorsofheaven,bymurderingallhisrelations,andatlengthevenhisownwifeandson.

Wemay be permitted to doubtwhatZosimus relates on this subject.HestatesthatConstantine,underthetorturesofremorsefromtheperpetrationofso many crimes, inquired of the pontiffs of the empire, whether it werepossibleforhimtoobtainanyexpiation,andthattheyinformedhimthattheyknewofnone.ItisperfectlytruethatnonewasfoundforNero,andthathedidnot venture to assist at the sacred mysteries in Greece. However, theTauroboliawere still observed, and it is difficult tobelieve that an emperor,supremely powerful, could not obtain a priest whowouldwillingly indulgehim in expiatory sacrifices. Perhaps, indeed, it is less easy to believe thatConstantine, occupied as hewaswithwar, politic enterprises, and ambition,andsurroundedbyflatterers,hadtimeforremorseatall.ZosimusaddsthatanEgyptianpriest,whohadaccesstohisgate,promisedhimtheexpiationofallhiscrimesintheChristianreligion.IthasbeensuspectedthatthispriestwasOzius,bishopofCordova.

However this might be, God reserved Constantine for the purpose ofenlightening his mind, and to make him the protector of the Church. ThisprincebuiltthecityofConstantinople,whichbecamethecentreoftheempireandof theChristian religion.TheChurch then assumed a formof splendor.And we may hope that, being purified by his baptism, and penitent at hisdeath,hemayhavefoundmercy,althoughhediedanArian.Itwouldbenotalittlesevere,wereallthepartisansofboththebishopsofthenameofEusebiustoincurdamnation.

Intheyear314,beforeConstantineresidedinhisnewcity,thosewhohadpersecuted the Christians were punished by them for their cruelties. TheChristiansthrewMaxentius'swifeintotheOrontes;theycutthethroatsofall

his relations, and theymassacred, in Egypt and Palestine, thosemagistrateswho had most strenuously declared against Christianity. The widow anddaughter of Diocletian, having concealed themselves at Thessalonica, wererecognized,andtheirbodiesthrownintothesea.Itwouldcertainlyhavebeendesirable that the Christians should have followed less eagerly the cry ofvengeance;butitwasthewillofGod,whopunishesaccordingtojustice,that,assoonastheChristianswereabletoactwithoutrestraint,theirhandsshouldbedyedinthebloodoftheirpersecutors.

ConstantinesummonedtomeetatNice,oppositeConstantinople,thefirstecumenical council, of which Ozius was president. Here was decided thegrandquestionthatagitatedtheChurch,relatingtothedivinityofJesusChrist.It iswellknownhow theChurch,havingcontended for threehundredyearsagainsttherightsoftheRomanEmpire,atlengthcontendedagainstitself,andwasalwaysmilitantandtriumphant.

InthecourseoftimealmostthewholeoftheGreekchurchandthewholeAfrican church became slaves under the Arabs, and afterwards under theTurks,whoerectedtheMahometanreligionontheruinsoftheChristian.TheRoman church subsisted; but always reekingwith blood, throughmore thansixcenturiesofdiscordbetweenthewesternempireandthepriesthood.Eventhesequarrelsrenderedherverypowerful.ThebishopsandabbotsinGermanyall became princes; and the popes gradually acquired absolute dominion inRome, and throughout a considerable territory. Thus has God proved hischurch,byhumiliations,byafflictions,bycrimes,andbysplendor.

ThisLatinchurch,inthesixteenthcentury,losthalfofGermany,Denmark,Sweden,England,Scotland, Ireland, and thegreaterpart ofSwitzerlandandHolland. She gained more territory in America by the conquests of theSpaniards than she lost in Europe; but, with more territory, she has fewersubjects.

DivineProvidence seemed tocalluponJapan,Siam, India, andChina toplacethemselvesunderobediencetothepope,inordertorecompensehimforAsia Minor, Syria, Greece, Egypt, Africa, Russia, and the other lost stateswhichwementioned.St.FrancisXavier,whocarried theholygospel to theEast Indies and Japan, when the Portuguese went thither upon mercantileadventure,performedagreatnumberofmiracles,allattestedbytheR.R.P.P.Jesuits. Some state that he resuscitated nine dead persons. But R.P.Ribadeneira, inhis"Flowerof theSaints," limitshimself toassertingthatheresuscitatedonlyfour.Thatissufficient.Providencewasdesirousthat,inlessthan a hundred years, there should have been thousands ofCatholics in theislands of Japan. But the devil sowed his tares among the good grain. TheJesuits, according to what is generally believed, entered into a conspiracy,followedbyacivilwar,inwhichalltheChristianswereexterminatedin1638.

Thenation thenclosed itsportsagainstall foreignersexcept theDutch,whowere considered merchants and not Christians, and were first compelled totrampleonthecrossinordertogainleavetoselltheirwaresintheprisoninwhichtheyareshutup,whentheylandatNagasaki.

The Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion has become proscribed inChina in our own time, butwith circumstances of less cruelty.TheR.R.P.P.Jesuitshadnot,indeed,resuscitatedthedeadatthecourtofPekin;theywerecontented with teaching astronomy, casting cannon, and being mandarins.TheirunfortunatedisputeswiththeDominicansandothersgavesuchoffencetothegreatEmperorYonchinthatthatprince,whowasjusticeandgoodnesspersonified, was blind enough to refuse permission any longer to teach ourholyreligion,inrespecttowhichourmissionariessolittleagreed.Heexpelledthem, but with a kindness truly paternal, supplying them with means ofsubsistence,andconveyancetotheconfinesofhisempire.

AllAsia,allAfrica,thehalfofEurope,allthatbelongstotheEnglishandDutch in America, all the unconquered American tribes, all the southernclimes,which constitute a fifth portion of the globe, remain the prey of thedemon, in order to fulfil those sacredwords, "many are called, but few arechosen."—Matt.xx.,16.

Of the Signification of the Word "Church." Picture of the PrimitiveChurch. Its Degeneracy. Examination into those Societies which haveAttempted toRe-establish thePrimitiveChurch,andParticularly into thatofthePrimitivescalledQuakers.

Theterm"church"amongtheGreekssignifiedtheassemblyofthepeople.When the Hebrew books were translated into Greek, "synagogue" wasrenderedby"church",andthesametermwasemployedtoexpressthe"Jewishsociety," the "political congregation," the "Jewish assembly," the "Jewishpeople."Thus it is said in theBookofNumbers, "Whyhast thouconductedthe church into the wilderness;" and in Deuteronomy, "The eunuch, theMoabite,andtheAmmonite,shallnotenterthechurch;theIdumæansandtheEgyptiansshallnotenterthechurch,eventothethirdgeneration."

JesusChristsays,inSt.Matthew,"Ifthybrotherhavesinnedagainstthee[haveoffended thee] rebukehim,betweenyourselves.Takewithyouoneortwowitnesses,that,fromthemouthoftwoorthreewitnesses,everythingmaybe made clear; and, if he hear not them, complain to the assembly of thepeople, to thechurch;and, ifhehearnot thechurch, lethimbe to theeasaheathen or a publican. Verily, I say unto you, so shall it come to pass,whatsoeveryeshallbindonearthshallbeboundinheaven,andwhatsoeveryeshall loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven"—an illusion to the keys ofdoorswhichcloseandunclosethelatch.

Thecaseishere,thatoftwomen,oneofwhomhasoffendedtheother,andpersists. He could not be made to appear in the assembly, in the Christianchurch, as there was none; the person against whom his companioncomplained could not be judged by a bishop and priests who were not inexistence;besideswhich, it is tobeobserved, thatneitherJewishpriestsnorChristian priests ever became judges in quarrels between private persons. Itwasamatterofpolice.Bishopsdidnotbecomejudges tillabout the timeofValentinianIII.

Thecommentatorshavethereforeconcludedthat thesacredwriterof thisgospel makes our Lord speak in this passage by anticipation—that it is anallegory, a prediction of what would take place when the Christian churchshouldbeformedandestablished.

Seldenmakesanimportantremarkonthispassage,that,amongtheJews,publicans or collectors of the royalmoneyswere not excommunicated. Thepopulacemightdetestthem,butastheywereindispensableofficers,appointedbytheprince,theideahadneveroccurredtoanyoneofseparatingthemfromthe assembly. The Jews were at that time under the administration of theproconsulofSyria,whosejurisdictionextendedtotheconfinesofGalilee,andto the island of Cyprus, where he had deputies. It would have been highlyimprudent in any to showpublicly their abominationof the legalofficersoftheproconsul.Injustice,even,wouldhavebeenaddedtoimprudence,fortheRoman knights—equestrians—who farmed the public domain and collectedCæsar'smoney,wereauthorizedbythelaws.

St.Augustine, inhiseighty-firstsermon,mayperhapssuggestreflectionsfor comprehending this passage. He is speaking of those who retain theirhatred,whoareslowtopardon.

"Cepisti habere fratrem tuum tanquam publicanum. Ligas ilium in terra;sed ut juste alliges vide; nam injusta vincula dirsumpit justitia. Cum autemcorrexerisetconcordaveriscumfratretuosolvistieuminterra."Youbegantoregard your brother as a publican; that is, to bind him on the earth. But becautious that youbindhim justly, for justicebreaksunjust bonds.Butwhenyouhavecorrected,andafterwardsagreedwithyourbrother,youhaveloosedhimonearth.

FromSt.Augustine'sinterpretation,itseemsthatthepersonoffendedshutuptheoffenderinprison;andthatitistobeunderstoodthat,iftheoffenderisput inbondsonearth,he is also inheavenlybonds;but that if theoffendedperson is inexorable, he becomes bound himself. In St. Augustine'sexplanationthereisnothingwhateverrelatingtotheChurch.Thewholematterrelatestopardoningornotpardoninganinjury.St.Augustineisnotspeakinghereof thesacerdotalpowerof remittingsins in thenameofGod.That isa

right recognized in other places; a right derived from the sacrament ofconfession.St.Augustine,profoundasheisintypesandallegories,doesnotconsiderthisfamouspassageasalludingtotheabsolutiongivenorrefusedbytheministersoftheRomanCatholicChurch,inthesacramentofpenance.

Ofthe"Church"inChristianSocieties.

In the greater part of Christian states we perceive no more than fourchurches—the Greek, the Roman, the Lutheran, and the reformed orCalvinistic.ItisthusinGermany.ThePrimitivesorQuakers,theAnabaptists,the Socinians, the Memnonists, the Pietists, the Moravians, the Jews, andothers, do not form a church. The Jewish religion has preserved thedesignationof synagogue.TheChristian sectswhichare toleratedhaveonlyprivateassemblies,"conventicles." It is thesame inLondon.Wedonot findtheCatholicChurchinSweden,norinDenmark,norinthenorthofGermany,norinHolland,norinthreequartersofSwitzerland,norinthethreekingdomsofGreatBritain.

Of the Primitive Church, and of Those Who Have Endeavored to Re-establishIt.

The Jews, aswell as all the different people of Syria,were divided intomanydifferent congregations, aswehavealready seen.Allwereaimedat amysticalperfection.ArayofpurerlightshoneuponthedisciplesofSt.John,whostillsubsistnearMosul.Atlast,theSonofGod,announcedbySt.John,appeared on earth,whose discipleswere always on a perfect equality. Jesushad expressly enjoined them, "There shall not be any of you either first orlast.... I came to serve, not to be served. Hewho strives to bemaster overothersshallbetheirservant."

One proof of equality is that the Christians at first took no otherdesignation than that of "brethren." They assembled in expectation of thespirit.Theyprophesiedwhentheywereinspired.St.Paul,inhisfirstlettertotheCorinthians,says to them,"If, inyourassembly,anyoneofyouhave thegiftofapsalm,adoctrine,arevelation,alanguage,aninterpretation,letallbedone for edification. If any speak languages, as two or three may do insuccession,lettherebeaninterpreter.

"Lettwoorthreeprophetsspeak,andtheothersjudge;andifanythingberevealedtoanotherwhileoneisspeaking,letthelatterbesilent;foryoumayall prophesy one by one, that all may learn and all exhort; the spirit ofprophecy is subject to theprophets; for theLord is aGodofpeace....Thus,then,mybrethren,beallofyoudesirousofprophesying,andhindernot thespeakingoflanguages."

Ihavetranslatedliterally,bothoutofreverencefor the text,andtoavoid

any disputes aboutwords. St. Paul, in the same epistle, admits thatwomenmayprophesy;although,inthefourteenthchapter,heforbidstheirspeakinginthe assemblies. "Every woman," says he, "praying or prophesying withouthavingaveiloverherhead,dishonorethherhead,foritisthesameasifshewereshaven."

It is clear, from all these passages and from many others, that the firstChristianswereallequal,notmerelyasbrethreninJesusChrist,butashavingequalgifts.Thespiritwascommunicatedtothemequally.Theyequallyspokedifferent languages; they had equally the gift of prophesying, withoutdistinctionofrank,age,orsex.

The apostles who instructed the neophytes possessed over them,unquestionably, that natural pre-eminence which the preceptor has over thepupil; but of jurisdiction, of temporal authority, of what the world calls"honors,"ofdistinctionindress,ofemblemsofsuperiority,assuredlyneitherthey,northosewhosucceededthem,hadany.Theypossessedanother,andaverydifferentsuperiority,thatofpersuasion.

Thebrethrenputtheirmoneyintoonecommonstock.Sevenpersonswerechosenbythemselvesoutoftheirownbody,totakechargeofthetables,andtoprovideforthecommonwants.Theychose,inJerusalemitself,thosewhomwecallStephen,Philip,Procorus,Nicanor,Timon,Parmenas,andNicholas.Itisremarkablethat,amongsevenpersonschosenbyaJewishcommunity,sixwereGreeks.

After the time of the apostleswe find no example of anyChristianwhopossessed any other power over other Christians than that of instructing,exhorting,expellingdemonsfromthebodiesof"energumens,"andperformingmiracles.All isspiritual;nothingsavorsofworldlypomp.Itwasonlyin thethird century that the spirit of pride, vanity, and interest, began to bemanifestedamongthebelieversoneveryside.

Theagapæhadnowbecomesplendidfestivals,andattractedreproachfortheluxuryandprofusionwhichattendedthem.Tertullianacknowledgesit.

"Yes," says he, "wemake splendid and plentiful entertainments, butwasnotthesamedoneatthemysteriesofAthensandofEgypt?Whateverlearningwedisplay, it isusefulandpious,as thepoorbenefitby it."Quantiscumquesumptibus constet, lucrum est pietatis, si quidem inopes refrigerio istojuvamus.

About this very period, certain societies of Christians, who pronouncedthemselves more perfect than the rest, the Montanists, for example, whoboastedofsomanypropheciesandsoaustereamorality;whoregardedsecondnuptials as absolute adulteries, and flight frompersecution as apostasy;who

hadexhibitedinpublicholyconvulsionsandecstasies,andpretendedtospeakwithGodfacetoface,wereconvicted,itwassaid,ofmixingthebloodofaninfant,ayearold,withthebreadoftheeucharist.TheybroughtuponthetrueChristiansthisdreadfulreproach,whichexposedthemtopersecutions.

Their method of proceeding, according to St. Augustine, was this: theyprickedthewholebodyoftheinfantwithpinsand,kneadingupflourwiththeblood,madebreadof it. If anyone died by eating it, they honored him as amartyr.

Manners were so corrupted that the holy fathers were incessantlycomplainingofit.HearwhatSt.Cypriansays,inhisbookconcerningtombs:"Every priest," says he, "seeks forwealth and honorwith insatiable avidity.Bishops are without religion; women without modesty; knavery is general;profaneswearingandperjuryabound;animositiesdivideChristiansasunder;bishopsabandon theirpupils toattend theexchange,andobtainopulencebymerchandise;inshort,wepleaseourselvesalone,andexcitethedisgustofalltherestoftheworld."

Beforetheoccurrenceofthesescandals,thepriestNovatianhadbeenthecauseofaverydreadfulonetothepeopleofRome.Hewasthefirstanti-pope.The bishopric of Rome, although secret, and liable to persecution, was anobjectofambitionandavarice,onaccountof the liberalcontributionsof theChristians,andtheauthorityattachedtothathighsituation.

Wewill not here describe againwhat is contained in somany authenticdocuments,andwhatweeverydayhearfromthemouthsofpersonscorrectlyinformed—theprodigiousnumberofschismsandwars;thesixhundredyearsof fierce hostility between the empire and the priesthood; the wealth ofnations, flowing through a thousand channels, sometimes into Rome,sometimesintoAvignon,whenthepopes,fortwoandseventyyearstogether,fixed their residence in that place; the blood rushing in streams throughoutEurope,eitherfortheinterestofatiarautterlyunknowntoJesusChrist,oronaccountofunintelligiblequestionswhichHenevermentioned.Ourreligionisnotlesssacredorlessdivineforhavingbeensodefiledbyguiltandsteepedincarnage.

Whenthefrenzyofdomination,thatdreadfulpassionofthehumanheart,hadreacheditsgreatestexcess;whenthemonkHildebrand,electedbishopofRomeagainstthelaws,wrestedthatcapitalfromtheemperors,andforbadeallthebishopsofthewestfrombearingthenameofpope,inordertoappropriateit to himself alone; when the bishops of Germany, following his example,made themselves sovereigns, which all those of France and England alsoattempted;fromthosedreadfultimesdowneventoourown,certainChristiansocieties have arisen which, under a hundred different names, have

endeavoredtore-establishtheprimitiveequalityinChristendom.

But what had been practicable in a small society, concealed from theworld, was no longer so in extensive kingdoms. The church militant andtriumphantcouldnolongerbethechurchhumbleandunknown.Thebishopsand the large, rich, and powerful monastic communities, uniting under thestandardsofthenewpontificateofRome,foughtatthattimeproarisetfocis,for theirhearthsandaltars.Crusades,armies,sieges,battles,rapine, tortures,assassinationsby thehandof theexecutioner,assassinationsby thehandsofpriests of both the contending parties, poisonings, devastations by fire andsword—allwereemployedtosupportandtopulldownthenewecclesiasticaladministration;andthecradleoftheprimitivechurchwassohiddenastobescarcelydiscoverableunderthebloodandbonesoftheslain.

OfthePrimitivescalledQuakers.

The religious and civil wars of Great Britain having desolated England,Scotland,andIreland,intheunfortunatereignofCharlesI.,WilliamPenn,sonof a vice-admiral, resolved to go and establishwhat he called the primitiveChurchontheshoresofNorthAmerica,inaclimatewhichappearedtohimtobe mild and congenial to his own manners. His sect went under thedenominationof"Quakers,"a ludicrousdesignation,butwhichtheymerited,by the tremblingof thebodywhich theyaffectedwhenpreaching, andbyanasalpronunciation,suchaspeculiarlydistinguishedonespeciesofmonksintheRomanChurch,theCapuchins.Butmenmaybothsnuffleandshake,andyet be meek, frugal, modest, just, and charitable. No one denies that thissocietyofPrimitivesdisplayedanexampleofallthosevirtues.

Penn saw that the English bishops and the Presbyterians had been thecauseofadreadfulwaronaccountofasurplice,lawnsleeves,andaliturgy.Hewouldhaveneither liturgy, lawn, nor surplice.The apostles hadnoneofthem. Jesus Christ had baptized none. The associates of Penn declinedbaptism.

Thefirstbelieverswereequal;thesenewcomersaimedatbeingso,asfaraspossible.Thefirstdisciplesreceivedthespirit,andspokeintheassembly;they had no altars, no temples, no ornaments, no tapers, incense, orceremonies.Pennandhisfollowersflatteredthemselvesthattheyreceivedthespirit,andtheyrenouncedallpompandceremony.Charitywasinhighesteemwith thedisciplesof theSaviour; thoseofPennformedacommonpurseforassisting thepoor.Thus these imitatorsof theEsseniansand firstChristians,although in error with respect to doctrines and ceremonies, were anastonishingmodeloforderandmoralstoeveryothersocietyofChristians.

At length this singularmanwent,with five hundred of his followers, toform an establishment in what was at that time the most savage district of

America.QueenChristinaofSwedenhadbeendesirousoffoundingacolonythere,which,however,hadnotprospered.ThePrimitivesofPennweremoresuccessful.

Itwason thebanksof theDelaware,near the fortiethdegreeof latitude.This country belonged to the king of England only because there were nootherswhoclaimedit,andbecausethepeoplewhomwecallsavages,andwhomighthavecultivatedit,hadalwaysremainedfardistantintherecessesoftheforests. If England had possessed this countrymerely by right of conquest,Penn and his Primitives would have held such an asylum in horror. Theylookeduponthepretendedrightofconquestonlyasaviolationoftherightofnature,andasabsoluterobbery.

KingCharlesII.madePennsovereignofallthiswildcountrybyachartergrantedMarch4,1681. In the followingyearPennpromulgatedhiscodeoflaws. The first was complete civil liberty, in consequence of which everycolonistpossessingfiveacresoflandbecameamemberofthelegislature.Thenextwasanabsoluteprohibitionagainstadvocatesandattorneysever takingfees.Thethirdwastheadmissionofallreligions,andeventhepermissiontoeveryinhabitanttoworshipGodinhisownhouse,withoutevertakingpartinpublicworship.

This is the law lastmentioned, in the termsof itsenactment: "Libertyofconsciencebeingarightwhichallmenhavereceivedfromnaturewith theirverybeing,andwhichallpeaceablepersonsoughttomaintain,itispositivelyestablishedthatnopersonshallbecompelledtojoininanypublicexerciseofreligion.

"But everyone is expressly allowed full power to engage freely in thepublicorprivateexerciseofhisreligion,withoutincurringtherebyanytroubleorimpediment,underanypretext;providedthatheacknowledgehisbeliefinone only eternal God Almighty, the creator, preserver, and governor of theuniverse,andthathefulfilallthedutiesofcivilsocietywhichheisboundtoperformtohisfellowcitizens."

Thislawisevenmoreindulgent,morehumane,thanthatwhichwasgivento thepeopleofCarolinabyLocke, thePlatoofEngland, so superior to thePlatoofGreece.Lockepermittednopublicreligionsexceptsuchasshouldbeapprovedbysevenfathersoffamilies.ThisisadifferentsortofwisdomfromPenn's.

But that which reflects immortal honor on both legislators, and whichshould operate as an eternal example to mankind, is, that this liberty ofconsciencehasnotoccasionedtheleastdisturbance.Itmight,onthecontrary,besaidthatGodhadshowereddownthemostdistinguishedblessingsonthecolonyofPennsylvania.Itconsisted,in1682,offivehundredpersons,andin

less than a century its population had increased to nearly three hundredthousand. One half of the colonists are of the primitive religion; twentydifferent religions comprise the other half. There are twelve fine chapels inPhiladelphia, and in other places every house is a chapel. This city hasdeserved its name: "Brotherly Love." Seven other cities, and innumerablesmalltowns,flourishunderthislawofconcord.Threehundredvesselsleavetheportinthecourseofeveryyear.

This state, which seems to deserve perpetual duration, was very nearlydestroyedinthefatalwarof1755,whentheFrench,withtheirsavagealliesononeside,andtheEnglish,withtheirs,ontheother,beganwithdisputingaboutsomefrozendistrictsofNovaScotia.ThePrimitives, faithful to theirpacificsystemofChristianity,declinedto takeuparms.Thesavageskilledsomeoftheir colonists on the frontier; the Primitives made no reprisals. They evenrefused,foralongtime,topaythetroops.TheyaddressedtheEnglishgeneralinthesewords:"Menarelikepiecesofclay,whicharebrokentopiecesoneagainstanother.Whyshouldweaidinbreakingoneanothertopieces?"

At last, in the general assembly of the legislature of Pennsylvania, theother religions prevailed; troops were raised; the Primitives contributedmoney,butdeclinedbeingarmed.Theyobtainedtheirobject,whichwaspeacewith their neighbors. These pretended savages said to them, "Send us adescendantofthegreatPenn,whoneverdeceivedus;withhimwewilltreat."Agrandsonofthatgreatmanwasdeputed,andpeacewasconcluded.ManyofthePrimitiveshadnegroslaves tocultivate theirestates.But theyblushedathaving, in this instance, imitatedotherChristians.Theygave liberty to theirslavesin1769.

Atpresentalltheothercolonistsimitatetheminlibertyofconscience,andalthoughthereareamongthemPresbyteriansandpersonsofthehighchurchparty, no one ismolested about his creed. It is thiswhich has rendered theEnglishpowerinAmericaequaltothatofSpain,withallitsminesofgoldandsilver. If any method could be devised to enervate the English colonies itwouldbetoestablishinthemtheInquisition.

The example of the Primitives, called "Quakers," has given rise inPennsylvaniatoanewsociety,inadistrictwhichitcallsEuphrates.ThisisthesectofDunkersorDumpers,asectmuchmoresecludedfromtheworldthanPenn's;asortofreligioushospitallers,allclotheduniformly.MarriedpersonsarenotpermittedtoresideinthecityofEuphrates:theyresideinthecountry,which theycultivate.Thepublic treasurysuppliesall theirwants in timesofscarcity.Thissocietyadministersbaptismonlytoadults.Itrejectsthedoctrineoforiginalsinasimpious,andthatoftheeternityofpunishmentasbarbarous.ThepurityoftheirlivespermitsthemnottoimaginethatGodwilltormentHiscreatures cruelly or eternally.Gone astray in a corner of the newworld, far

fromthegreatflockoftheCatholicChurch,theyare,uptothepresenthour,notwithstanding this unfortunate error, themost just andmost inimitable ofmen.

QuarrelbetweentheGreekandLatinChurchesinAsiaandEurope.

It has been amatter of lamentation to all goodmen for nearly fourteencenturiesthattheGreekandLatinChurcheshavealwaysbeenrivals,andthattherobeofJesusChrist,whichwaswithoutaseam,hasbeencontinuallyrentasunder. This opposition is perfectly natural.Rome andConstantinople hateeachother.Whenmasterscherishamutualaversion,theirdependentsentertainnomutual regard.The twocommunionshavedisputedon the superiorityoflanguage,theantiquityofsees,onlearning,eloquence,andpower.

It iscertain that, fora long time, theGreekspossessedall theadvantage.Theyboastedthat theyhadbeenthemastersof theLatins,andthat theyhadtaughtthemeverything.TheGospelswerewritteninGreek.Therewasnotadoctrine, a rite, a mystery, a usage, which was not Greek; from the word"baptism" to the word "eucharist" all was Greek. No fathers of the ChurchwereknownexceptamongtheGreekstillSt.Jerome,andevenhewasnotaRoman,butaDalmatian.St.Augustine,whoflourishedsoonafterSt.Jerome,was an African. The seven great ecumenical councils were held in Greekcities: the bishops of Romewere never present at them, because theywereacquainted only with their own Latin language, which was alreadyexceedinglycorrupted.

ThehostilitybetweenRomeandConstantinoplebrokeout in452, at theCouncil of Chalcedon, which had been assembled to decide whether JesusChrist had possessed two natures and one person, or two persons with onenature. Itwas theredecided that theChurchofConstantinoplewas in everyrespectequaltothatofRome,astohonors,andthepatriarchoftheoneequalineveryrespecttothepatriarchoftheother.Thepope,St.Leo,admittedthetwonatures,butneitherhenorhissuccessorsadmittedtheequality.Itmaybeobservedthat,inthisdisputeaboutrankandpre-eminence,bothpartieswereindirectoppositiontotheinjunctionofJesusChrist,recordedintheGospel:"Thereshallnotbeamongyoufirstor last."Saintsaresaints,butpridewillinsinuateitselfeverywhere.Thesamedispositionwhichmadeamason'sson,who had been raised to a bishopric, foam with rage because he was notaddressed by the title of "my lord," has set the whole Christian world inflames.

TheRomanswerealwayslessaddictedtodisputation,lesssubtle,thantheGreeks,buttheyweremuchmorepolitic.Thebishopsoftheeast,whiletheyargued, yet remained subjects: the bishop of Rome, without arguments,contrivedeventuallytoestablishhispowerontheruinsofthewesternempire.

AndwhatVirgilsaidoftheScipiosandCæsarsmightbesaidofthepopes:

"Romanosrerumdominosgentemquetogatam"—Æneid,i.286.

Thismutualhatredled,atlength,toactualdivision,inthetimeofPhotius,papaoroverseeroftheByzantineChurch,andNicholasI.,papaoroverseeroftheRomanChurch.As,unfortunately, anecclesiasticalquarrel scarcely everoccurswithout something ludicrousbeingattached to it, it happened, in thisinstance, that the contestbeganbetween twopatriarchs,bothofwhomwereeunuchs:IgnatiusandPhotius,whodisputedthechairofConstantinople,werebothemasculated.Thismutilationdepriving themof thepowerofbecomingnatural fathers, theycouldbecomefathersonlyof theChurch.It isobservedthat persons of this unfortunate description are meddling, malignant, andplotting. Ignatius and Photius kept the whole Greek court in a state ofturbulence.

TheLatin,NicholasI.,havingtakenthepartofIgnatius,Photiusdeclaredhimaheretic,onaccountofhisadmittingthedoctrinethatthebreathofGod,or the Holy Spirit, proceeded from the Father and the Son, contrary to theunanimousdecisionofthewholeChurch,whichhaddecidedthatitproceededfromtheFatheronly.

Besidesthishereticaldoctrinerespectingtheprocession,Nicholasate,andpermittedtobeeaten,eggsandcheeseinLent.Infine,astheveryclimaxofunbelief, theRomanpapa hadhis beard shaved,which, to theGreek papas,wasnothinglessthandownrightapostasy;asMoses,thepatriarchs,andJesusChristwerealways,bytheGreekandLatinpainters,picturedwithbeards.

When,in879,thepatriarchPhotiuswasrestoredtohisseatbytheeighthecumenical council—consisting of four hundred bishops, three hundred ofwhomhadcondemnedhim in theprecedingcouncil—hewasacknowledgedbyPopeJohnashisbrother.Twolegates,despatchedbyhimtothiscouncil,joined theGreekChurch,anddeclared thatwhoeverasserted theHolySpiritproceeded from the Father and the Son was a Judas. But the practice ofshavingthechinandeatingeggsinLentbeingpersistedin,thetwochurchesalwaysremaineddivided.

The schismwas completed in 1053 and 1054,whenMichaelCerularius,patriarchofConstantinople,publiclycondemnedthebishopofRome,LeoIX.,andall theLatins,adding toall thereproachesagainst thembyPhotius that,contrarytothepracticeoftheapostles,theydaredtomakeuseofunleavenedbreadintheeucharist;thattheywickedlyatebloodpuddings,andtwistedthenecks, insteadofcuttingoff theheads,ofpigeonsintendedfor the table.AlltheLatinchurchesintheGreekempirewereshutup,andallintercoursewiththosewhoatebloodpuddingswasforbidden.

Pope Leo IX. entered into serious negotiation on this matter with theEmperor Constantine Monomachus, and obtained some mitigations. It waspreciselyat thisperiod that thosecelebratedNormangentlemen, the sonsofTancred de Hauteville, despising at once the pope and the Greek emperor,plundered everything they could in Apulia and Calabria, and ate bloodpuddingswiththeutmosthardihood.TheGreekemperorfavoredthepopeasmuchashewasable;butnothingcouldreconciletheGreekswiththeLatins.The Greeks regarded their adversaries as barbarians, who did not know asingle word of Greek. The irruption of the Crusaders, under pretence ofdeliveringtheHolyLand,butinrealitytogainpossessionofConstantinople,completedthehatredentertainedagainsttheRomans.

But the power of the Latin Church increased every day, and theGreekswere at length gradually vanquished by the Turks. The popes, long since,became powerful andwealthy sovereigns; thewholeGreek Church becameslaves from the time of Mahomet II., except Russia, which was then abarbarouscountry,andinwhichtheChurchwasofnoaccount.

WhoeverisbutslightlyinformedofthestateofaffairintheLevantknowsthat the sultan confers the patriarchate of theGreeks by a cross and a ring,withoutanyapprehensionofbeingexcommunicated,assomeof theGermanemperorswerebythepopes,forthissameceremony.

It is certainly true that the church of Stamboul has preserved, inappearance,thelibertyofchoosingitsarchbishop;butnever,infact,choosesanyotherthanthepersonpointedoutbytheOttomancourt.Thisprefermentcosts, at present, about eighty thousand francs, which the person chosencontrives to get refunded from the Greeks. If any canon of influence andwealth comes forward, and offers the grand vizier a large sum, the titularpossessor isdeprived,andtheplacegivento the lastbidder;preciselyas theseeofRomewasdisposedof,inthetenthcentury,byMaroziaandTheodora.Ifthetitularpatriarchresists,hereceivesfiftyblowsonthesolesofhisfeet,and is banished. Sometimes he is beheaded, as was the case with LucasCyrille,in1638.

TheGrandTurkdisposesofall theotherbishoprics, in thesamemanner,formoney; and the price charged for every bishopric underMahomet II. isalwaysstatedinthepatent;buttheadditionalsumpaidisnotmentionedinit.ItisnotexactlyknownwhataGreekpriestgivesforhisbishopric.

These patents are rather diverting documents: "I grant to N——, aChristianpriest,thisorder,fortheperfectionofhisfelicity.Icommandhimtoresideinthecityhereinnamed,asbishopoftheinfidelChristians,accordingtotheirancientusage,andtheirvainandextravagantceremonies,willingandordainingthatallChristiansofthatdistrictshallacknowledgehim,andthatno

monk or priest shallmarrywithout his permission." That is to say, withoutpayingforthesame.

TheslaveryofthisChurchisequal toits ignorance.ButtheGreekshaveonlywhattheydeserve.TheywerewhollyabsorbedindisputesaboutthelightonMount Tabor, and the umbilical cord, at the very time of the taking ofConstantinople.

While recording these melancholy truths we entertain the hope that theEmpress Catherine II. will give the Greeks their liberty. Would she couldrestoretothemthatcourageandthatintellectwhichtheypossessedinthedaysofMiltiadesandThemistocles;andthatMountAthossuppliedgoodsoldiersandfewermonks.

OfthePresentGreekChurch.

The Greek Church has scarcely deserved the toleration which theMussulmansgranted it.The followingobservations are fromMr.Porter, theEnglishambassadorinTurkey:

"Iaminclinedtodrawaveilover,thosescandalousdisputesbetweentheGreeksandRomans,on thesubjectofBethlehemand theholy land,as theydenominate it. The unjust and odious proceedings which these haveoccasionedbetweenthemareadisgracetotheChristianname.Inthemidstofthese debates the ambassador appointed to protect the Romish communionbecomes,withallhighdignity,anobjectofsincerecompassion.

"Ineverycountrywhere theRomanCatholicprevails, immensesumsarelevied in order to support against the Greek's equivocal pretensions to theprecariouspossessionofacorneroftheworldreputedholy;andtopreserveinthehandsofthemonksoftheLatincommuniontheremainsofanoldstableatBethlehem, where a chapel has been erected, and where on the doubtfulauthorityoforaltradition,itispretendedthatChristwasborn;asalsoatomb,whichmaybe,andmostprobablymaynotbe,whatiscalledhissepulchre;fortheprecisesituationof these twoplaces isas littleascertainedas thatwhichcontainstheashesofCæsar."

WhatrenderstheGreeksyetmorecontemptibleintheeyesoftheTurksisthe miracle which they perform every year at Easter. The poor bishop ofJerusalemisinclosedinasmallcave,whichispassedoffforthetombofourLordJesusChrist,withpacketsofsmallwaxtapers;hestrikesfire,lightsoneoftheselittletapers,andcomesoutofhiscaveexclaiming:"Thefireiscomedownfromheaven,andtheholytaperislighted."AlltheGreeksimmediatelybuyupthesetapers,andthemoneyisdividedbetweentheTurkishcommanderandthebishop.ThedeplorablestateofthisChurch,underthedominionoftheTurk,maybejudgedfromthissingletrait.

TheGreekChurchinRussiahasoflateassumedamuchmorerespectableconsistency,since theEmpressCatherine II.hasdelivered it fromits secularcares;shehastakenfromitfourhundredthousandslaves,whichitpossessed.It is now paid out of the imperial treasury, entirely dependent on thegovernment,andrestrictedbywiselaws;itcaneffectnothingbutgood,andiseverydaybecomingmore learned anduseful. It possesses apreacherof thenameofPlato,whohascomposedsermonswhichthePlatoofantiquitywouldnothavedisdained.

CHURCHOFENGLAND.

England is the country of sects; "multæ sunt mansiones in domo patrismei:"anEnglishman,likeafreeman,goestoheavenwhichwayhepleases.However, although everyone can serve God in his own way, the nationalreligion—that in which fortunes are made—is the Episcopal, called theChurch of England, or emphatically, "The Church." No one can haveemploymentofanyconsequence,eitherinEnglandorIreland,withoutbeingmembersoftheestablishment.Thisreasoning,whichishighlydemonstrative,hasconvertedsomanynonconformiststhatatpresentthereisnotatwentiethpartofthenationoutofthebosomofthedominantchurch.

TheEnglishclergyhaveretainedmanyCatholicceremonies,andaboveallthatofreceivingtithes,withaveryscrupulousattention.Theyalsopossessthepious ambition of ruling the people, forwhat village rectorwould not be apopeifhecould?

Withregard tomanners, theEnglishclergyaremoredecorous than thoseofFrance,chieflybecausetheecclesiasticsarebroughtupintheuniversitiesofOxfordandCambridge,farfromthecorruptionofthemetropolis.Theyarenot called to thedignitiesof theChurchuntil very late, andat anagewhenmen, having no other passion than avarice, their ambition is less aspiring.Employmentsare, inEngland, therecompenseof longservice in thechurch,aswell as in the army.Youdonot there seeyoungmenbecomebishopsorcolonelsonleavingcollege;and,moreover,almostallthepriestsaremarried.Thepedantryandawkwardnessofmanners,acquired in theuniversities,andthe little commerce they havewithwomen, generally oblige a bishop to becontentedwiththeonewhichbelongstohim.Theclergygosometimestothetavern,becausecustompermitsit,andiftheyget"Bacchiplenum"itisinthecollegestyle,gravelyandwithduedecorum.

That indefinable character which is neither ecclesiastical nor secular,which we call abbé, is unknown in England. The ecclesiastics there are

generallyrespected,andforthegreaterpartpedants.Whenthelatterlearnthatin France youngmen distinguished by their debaucheries, and raised to theprelacybytheintriguesofwomen,publiclymakelove;viewitheachotherinthecompositionoflovesongs;giveluxurioussupperseveryday,fromwhichtheyarise to implore the lightof theHolySpirit,andboldlycall themselvestheapostles'successors—theythankGodtheyareProtestants.Butwhatthen?They arc vile heretics, and fit only for burning, asmaster Francis Rabelaissays,"withallthedevils."HenceIdropthesubject.

CHURCHPROPERTY.

TheGospelforbidsthosewhowouldattainperfectiontoamasstreasures,and to preserve their temporal goods: "Lay not up for yourselves treasuresupon earth, where moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves breakthroughandsteal.""Ifthouwiltbeperfect,goandsellthatthouhast,andgivetothepoor.""Andeveryonethathathforsakenhouses,orbrethren,orsisters,orfather,ormother,orwife,orchildren,or lands, formyname'ssake,shallreceiveanhundred-fold,andshallinheriteverlastinglife."

Theapostlesandtheirfirstsuccessorswouldnotreceiveestates;theyonlyaccepted the value, and, after having providedwhatwas necessary for theirsubsistence, they distributed the rest among the poor. Sapphira andAnaniasdidnotgivetheirgoodstoSt.Peter,buttheysoldthemandbroughthimtheprice:"Vendequæhabesetdapauperibus."

The Church already possessed considerable property at the close of thethirdcentury,sinceDiocletianandMaximianhadpronouncedtheconfiscationofit,in302.

AssoonasConstantinewasuponthethronehepermittedthechurchestobe endowed like the temples of the ancient religion, and from that time theChurchacquiredrichestates.St.JeromecomplainsofitinoneofhisletterstoEustochium: "Whenyou see them," sayshe, "accost the richwidowswhomtheymeetwithasoftandsanctifiedair,youwouldthinkthattheirhandswereonlyextendedtogivethemtheirblessing;butitis,onthecontrary,toreceivethepriceoftheirhypocrisy."

Theholypriestsreceivedwithoutclaiming.ValentinianI. thought itrighttoforbidtheecclesiasticsfromreceivinganythingfromwidowsandwomen,bywill or otherwise.This law,which is found in theTheodosian code,wasrevokedbyMarcianandJustinian.

Justinian, to favor the ecclesiastics, forbade the judges, by his new code

xviii. chap. ii., to annul the wills made in favor of the Church, even whenexecutedwithouttheformalitiesprescribedbythelaws.

Anastasiushadenacted, in471, thatchurchpropertyshouldbeheldbyaprescription,ortitle,offortyyears'duration.Justinianinsertedthislawinhiscode; but this prince, who was continually changing his jurisprudence,subsequently extended this proscription to a century. Immediately severalecclesiastics,unworthyoftheirprofession,forgedfalsetitles,anddrewoutofthedustold testaments,voidby theancient laws,butvalidaccording to thenew.Citizenswere deprived of their patrimonies by fraud; and possessions,whichuntil thenwereconsideredinviolable,wereusurpedbytheChurch.Inshort, the abuse was so crying that Justinian himself was obliged to re-establish thedispositionsof the lawofAnastasius,byhisnovelcxxxi.chap.vi.

The possessions of the Church during the first five centuries of our erawereregulatedbydeacons,whodistributedthemtotheclergyandtothepoor.This community ceased at the endof the fifth century, andChurchpropertywas divided into four parts—one being given to the bishops, another to theclergy,a third to theplaceofworship,andthefourth to thepoor.Soonafterthisdivisionthebishopsalonetookchargeofthewholefourportions,andthisisthereasonwhytheinferiorclergyaregenerallyverypoor.

MonkspossessingSlaves.

Whatisstillmoremelancholy,theBenedictines,Bernardines,andeventheChartreuxarepermittedtohavemortmainsandslaves.Undertheirdominationin several provinces of France and Germany are still recognized: personalslavery,slaveryofproperty,andslaveryofpersonandproperty.Slaveryofthepersonconsistsintheincapacityofaman'sdisposingofhispropertyinfavorof his children, if they have not always lived with their father in the samehouse, and at the same table, in which case all belongs to the monks. Thefortune of an inhabitant of Mount Jura, put into the hands of a notary,becomes, even in Paris, the prey of those who have originally embracedevangelicalpovertyatMountJura.Thesonasksalmsatthedoorofthehousewhichhisfatherhasbuilt;andthemonks,farfromgivingthem,evenarrogatetothemselvestherightofnotpayinghisfather'screditors,andofregardingasvoidallthemortgagesonthehouseofwhichtheytakepossession.Invainthewidowthrowsherselfat theirfeettoobtainapartofherdowry.Thisdowry,thesedebts, thispaternalproperty, all belong,bydivine right, to themonks.Thecreditors,thewidow,andthechildrenarealllefttodieinbeggary.

Real slavery is thatwhich is effected by residence.Whoever occupies ahouse within the domain of these monks, and lives in it a year and a day,becomestheirserfforlife.IthassometimeshappenedthataFrenchmerchant,

and father of a family, led by his business into this barbarous country, hastaken a house for a year. Dying afterwards in his own country, in anotherprovinceofFrance,hiswidowandchildrenhavebeenquiteastonishedtoseeofficers, armedwithwrits, comeand take away their furniture, sell it in thenameofSt.Claude, anddrive awayawhole family from thehouseof theirfather.

Mixed slavery is that which, being composed of the two, is, of all thatrapacity has ever invented, the most execrable, and beyond the conceptioneven of freebooters. There are, then, Christian people groaning in a tripleslaveryundermonkswhohave taken thevowof humility andpoverty.Youwillaskhowgovernmentssuffer these fatalcontradictions? It isbecause themonksarerichandthevassalsarepoor.Itisbecausethemonks,topreservetheirHunnishrights,makepresentstotheircommissariesandtothemistressesofthosewhomightinterposetheirauthoritytoputdowntheiroppression.Thestrongalwayscrushtheweak;butwhymustmonksbethestronger?

CICERO.

Itisatatimewhen,inFrance,thefineartsareinastateofdecline;inanageofparadox,andamidst thedegradationandpersecutionof literatureandphilosophy,thatanattemptismadetotarnishthenameofCicero.Andwhoisthemanwho thus endeavors to throw disgrace upon hismemory? It is onewho lends his services in defence of persons accused like himself; it is anadvocate,who has studied eloquence under that greatmaster; it is a citizenwhoappearstobe,likeCicero,animatedbydevotiontothepublicgood.

In a book entitled "Navigable Canals," a book abounding in grand andpatrioticratherthanpracticalviews,wefeelnosmallastonishmentatfindingthe followingphilippic againstCicero,whowasnever concerned in diggingcanals:

"The most glorious trait in the history of Cicero is the destruction ofCatiline'sconspiracy,which,regardedinitstruelight,producedlittlesensationat Rome, except in consequence of his affecting to give it importance. Thedangerexistedmuchmoreinhisdiscoursesthanintheaffairitself.Itwasanenterpriseofdebaucheeswhichitwaseasytodisconcert.Neithertheprincipalnor theaccompliceshad taken theslightestmeasure to insure thesuccessoftheirguiltyattempt.Therewasnothingastonishinginthissingularmatterbuttheblusteringwhichattendedalltheproceedingsoftheconsul,andthefacilitywithwhich hewas permitted to sacrifice to his self-love somany scions ofillustriousfamilies.

"Besides, the lifeofCiceroabounds in traitsofmeanness.Hiseloquencewasasvenalashissoulwaspusillanimous. Ifhis tonguewasnotguidedbyinterest itwas guidedby fear or hope.Thedesire of obtainingpartisans ledhim to the tribune, to defend,without a blush,menmore dishonorable, andincalculably more dangerous, than Catiline. His clients were nearly allmiscreants,and,byasingularexerciseofdivine justice,heat lastmetdeathfromthehandsofoneof thosewretcheswhomhisskillhadextricated fromthefangsofhumanjustice."

We answer that, "regarded in its true light," the conspiracy of CatilineexcitedatRomesomewhatmorethana"slightsensation."Itplungedherintothe greatest disturbance and danger. It was terminated only by a battle sobloody that there isnoexampleof equal carnage, and scarcelyanyof equalvalor. All the soldiers of Catiline, after having killed half of the army ofPetrius,werekilled,tothelastman.Catilineperished,coveredwithwounds,uponaheapof theslain;andallwere foundwith theircountenancessternlyglaringupontheenemy.Thiswasnotanenterprisesowonderfullyeasyastobedisconcerted.Cæsarencouragedit;Cæsarlearnedfromittoconspireonafuturedaymoresuccessfullyagainsthiscountry.

"Cicero defended, without a blush, men more dishonorable, andincalculablymoredangerousthanCatiline!"WasthiswhenhedefendedinthetribuneSicilyagainstVerres,andtheRomanrepublicagainstAntony?Wasitwhen he exhorted the clemency of Cæsar in favor of Ligarius and KingDeiotarus?orwhenheobtainedtherightofcitizenshipforthepoetArchias?or when, in his exquisite oration for the Manilian law, he obtained everyRomansuffrageonbehalfofthegreatPompey?

Hepleaded forMilo, themurdererofClodius;butClodiushaddeservedthetragicalendhemetwithbyhisoutrages.ClodiushadbeeninvolvedintheconspiracyofCatiline;Clodiuswashismortalenemy.HehadirritatedRomeagainst him, and had punished him for having saved Rome. Milo was hisfriend.

What! is it in our time that anyoneventures to assert thatGodpunishedCicero forhavingdefendedamilitary tribunecalledPopiliusLena, and thatdivine vengeance made this same Popilius Lena the instrument of hisassassination?NooneknowswhetherPopiliusLenawasguiltyofthecrimeofwhichhewas acquitted, afterCicero's defenceof himuponhis trial; but allknow that themonsterwas guilty of themost horrible ingratitude, themostinfamousavarice,andthemostdetestablecrueltytoobtainthemoneyofthreewretches like himself. It was reserved for our times to hold up theassassination ofCicero as an act of divine justice. The triumvirswould nothavedaredtodoit.Everyage,beforethepresent,hasdetestedanddeploredthemannerofhisdeath.

CiceroisreproachedwithtoofrequentlyboastingthathehadsavedRome,and with being too fond of glory. But his enemies endeavored to stain hisglory. A tyrannical faction condemned him to exile, and razed his house,becausehehadpreservedeveryhouseinRomefromtheflameswhichCatilinehad prepared for them.Men are permitted and even bound to boast of theirservices, when they meet with forgetfulness or ingratitude, and moreparticularlywhentheyareconvertedintocrimes.

Scipio is still admired for having answered his accusers in thesewords:"ThisistheanniversaryofthedayonwhichIvanquishedHannibal;letusgoand return thanks to the gods." The whole assembly followed him to theCapitol, and our hearts follow him thither also, as we read the passage inhistory; though, after all, itwould have been better to have delivered in hisaccountsthantoextricatehimselffromtheattackbyabonmot.

Cicero, in thesamemanner,excited theadmirationof theRomanpeoplewhen,on theday inwhichhisconsulshipexpired,beingobliged to take thecustomary oaths, and preparing to address the people aswas usual, hewashinderedby the tribuneMatellus,whowasdesirousof insultinghim.Cicerohad begun with these words: "I swear,"—the tribune interrupted him, anddeclared thathewouldnotsufferhim tomakeaspeech.Agreatmurmuringwas heard. Cicero paused a moment, and elevating his full and melodiousvoice,heexclaimed,asashortsubstituteforhisintendedspeech,"IswearthatI have saved the country." The assembly cried out with delight andenthusiasm, "We swear that hehas spoken the truth."Thatmomentwas themostbrilliantofhis life.This is the truewayof lovingglory.IdonotknowwhereIhavereadtheseunknownverses:

Romains,j'aimelagloire,etneveuxpointm'entaire

Destravauxdeshumainsc'estledignesalaire,

Cen'estqu'envousqu'illafautacheter;

Quin'oselavouloir,n'oselamériter.

Romans,IownthatgloryIregard

Ofhumantoiltheonlyjustreward;

Placedinyourhandstheimmortalguerdonlies,

Andhewillne'erdeservewhoslightstheprize.

Canwe despiseCicero ifwe consider his conduct in his government ofCilicia,whichwas then one of themost important provinces of theRomanEmpire, in consequence of its contiguity to Syria and the Parthian Empire.Laodicea, one of themost beautiful cities of theEast,was the capital of it.Thisprovincewasthenasflourishingasitisatthepresentdaydegradedunder

thegovernmentoftheTurks,whoneverhadaCicero.

HebeginsbyprotectingAriobarzanes,kingofCappadocia,andherefusesthe presents which that king desires tomake him. The Parthians come andattackAntioch inastateofperfectpeace.Cicerohastilymarches towards it,comesupwiththeParthiansbyforcedmarchesatMountTaurus,routsthem,pursuesthemintheirretreat,andArsaces,theirgeneral,isslain,withapartofhisarmy.

ThenceherushesonPendenissum,thecapitalofacountryinalliancewiththe Parthians, and takes it, and the province is reduced to submission. HeinstantlydirectshisforcesagainstthetribesofpeoplecalledTiburanians,anddefeats them, and his troops confer on him the title of Imperator,which hepreserved all his life. He would have obtained the honors of a triumph atRomeifhehadnotbeenopposedbyCato,whoinducedthesenatemerelytodecreepublicrejoicingsandthankstothegods,when,infact,theywereduetoCicero.

IfwepicturetoourselvestheequityanddisinterestednessofCiceroinhisgovernment;hisactivity,hisaffability—twovirtuessorarelycompatible;thebenefitswhichheaccumulateduponthepeopleoverwhomhewasanabsolutesovereign; it will be extremely difficult to withhold from such a man ouresteem.

IfwereflectthatthisisthesamemanwhofirstintroducedphilosophyintoRome; that his "Tusculan Questions," and his book "On the Nature of theGods," are the two noblest works that ever were written by mere humanwisdom, and that his treatise, "DeOfficiis," is themost useful one that wepossess inmorals;we shall find it stillmore difficult to despiseCicero.Wepitythosewhodonotreadhim;wepitystillmorethosewhorefusetodohimjustice.

To the French detractor we may well oppose the lines of the SpanishMartial,inhisepigramagainstAntony(bookv.,epig.69,v.7):

Quidprosuntsacræpretiosasilentialinguae?

IncipientomnesproCiceroneloqui.

Whystillhistonguewithvengeanceweak,

ForCiceroalltheworldwillspeak!

See,likewise,whatissaidbyJuvenal(sat.iv.,v.244):

RomapatrempatriaeCiceronemliberadixit.

FreedRome,himfatherofhiscountrycalled.

CIRCUMCISION.

WhenHerodotusnarrateswhathewastoldbythebarbariansamongwhomhe travelled, he narrates fooleries, after the manner of the greater part oftravellers.Thus,itisnottobesupposedthatheexpectstobebelievedinhisrecitaloftheadventureofGygesandCandaules;ofArion,carriedonthebackof adolphin; of theoraclewhichwas consultedonwhatCrœsuswas at thetimedoing,thathewasthengoingtodressatortoiseinastew-pan;ofDarius'horse, which, being the first out of a certain number to neigh, in factproclaimed his master a king; and of a hundred other fables, fit to amusechildren,andtobecompiledbyrhetoricians.Butwhenhespeaksofwhathehasseen,ofthecustomsofpeoplehehasexamined,oftheirantiquitieswhichhehasconsulted,hethenaddresseshimselftomen.

"Itappears,"sayshe,inhisbook"Euterpe,""thattheinhabitantsofColchissprang from Egypt. I judge so frommy own observations rather than fromhearsay; for I found that, at Colchis, the ancient Egyptians were morefrequentlyrecalledtomymindthantheancientcustomsofColchiswerewhenIwasinEgypt.

"TheseinhabitantsoftheshoresoftheEuxineSeastatedthemselvestobeacolonyfoundedbySesostris.Asformyself,Ishouldthinkthisprobable,notmerelybecausetheyaredarkandwoolly-haired,butbecausetheinhabitantsofColchis,Egypt,andEthiopiaaretheonlypeopleintheworldwho,fromtimeimmemorial,havepractisedcircumcision;forthePhœnicians,andthepeopleofPalestine, confess that they adopted the practice from theEgyptians.TheSyrians,whoatpresentinhabitthebanksofThermodon,acknowledgethatitis,comparatively,butrecentlythattheyhaveconformedtoit.ItisprincipallyfromthisusagethattheyareconsideredofEgyptianorigin.

"WithrespecttoEthiopiaandEgypt,asthisceremonyisofgreatantiquityinbothnations,Icannotbyanymeansascertainwhichhasderiveditfromtheother. It is, however, probable that the Ethiopians received it from theEgyptians;while,onthecontrary,thePhœnicianshaveabolishedthepracticeof circumcising new-born children since the enlargement of their commercewiththeGreeks."

FromthispassageofHerodotusitisevidentthatmanypeoplehadadoptedcircumcision from Egypt, but no nation ever pretended to have received itfromtheJews.Towhom,then,canweattributetheoriginofthiscustom;toanationfromwhomfiveorsixothersacknowledgetheytookit,or toanothernation, much less powerful, less commercial, less warlike, hid away in acornerofArabiaPetræa,andwhichnevercommunicatedanyoneofitsusages

toanyotherpeople?

TheJewsadmitthattheywere,manyagessince,receivedinEgyptoutofcharity.Isitnotprobablethatthelesserpeopleimitatedausageofthesuperiorone,andthattheJewsadoptedsomecustomsfromtheirmasters?

ClementofAlexandriarelatesthatPythagoras,whentravellingamongtheEgyptians, was obliged to be circumcised in order to be admitted to theirmysteries. It was, therefore, absolutely necessary to be circumcised to be apriest in Egypt. Those priests existed when Joseph arrived in Egypt. Thegovernmentwasofgreatantiquity,andtheancientceremoniesofthecountrywereobservedwiththemostscrupulousexactness.

TheJewsacknowledgethattheyremainedinEgypttwohundredandfiveyears.Theysaythat,duringthatperiod,theydidnotbecomecircumcised.Itisclear,then,thatfortwohundredandfiveyearstheEgyptiansdidnotreceivecircumcisionfromtheJews.Wouldtheyhaveadoptedit fromthemafter theJewshadstolenthevesselswhichtheyhadlentthem,and,accordingtotheirownaccount,fledwiththeirplunderintothewilderness?Willamasteradopttheprincipalsymbolofthereligionofarobbingandrunawayslave?Itisnotinhumannature.

It is stated in theBook of Joshua that the Jewswere circumcised in thewilderness."IhavedeliveredyoufromwhatconstitutedyourreproachamongtheEgyptians."Butwhat could this reproachbe, to apeople livingbetweenPhœnicians, Arabians, and Egyptians, but something which rendered themcontemptibletothesethreenations?Howeffectuallyisthatreproachremovedbyabstractingasmallportionoftheprepuce?Mustnotthisbeconsideredthenaturalmeaningofthepassage?

TheBookofGenesis relates thatAbrahamhadbeencircumcisedbefore.ButAbrahamtravelledinEgypt,whichhadbeenlongaflourishingkingdom,governedbyapowerfulking.Thereisnothingtopreventthesuppositionthatcircumcision was, in this very ancient kingdom, an established usage.Moreover, thecircumcisionofAbrahamled tonocontinuation;hisposteritywasnotcircumcisedtillthetimeofJoshua.

But, before the timeof Joshua, the Jews, by their ownacknowledgment,adoptedmanyof thecustomsof theEgyptians.They imitated theminmanysacrifices, inmanyceremonies;as, forexample, in thefastsobservedon theevesof thefeastsofIsis; inablutions; inthecustomofshavingtheheadsofthepriests;intheincense,thebranchedcandle-stick,thesacrificeofthered-hairedcow,thepurificationwithhyssop,theabstinencefromswine'sflesh,thedreadofusing thekitchenutensilsof foreigners;everything testifies that thelittle people of Hebrews, notwithstanding its aversion to the great Egyptiannation, had retained a vast number of the usages of its formermasters. The

goatAzazel,whichwasdespatchedintothewildernessladenwiththesinsofthe people, was a visible imitation of an Egyptian practice. The rabbis areagreed, even, that thewordAzazel is notHebrew.Nothing, therefore, couldexist to have prevented the Hebrews from imitating the Egyptians incircumcision,astheArabs,theirneighbors,did.

It is by no means extraordinary that God, who sanctified baptism, apractice so ancient among the Asiatics, should also have sanctifiedcircumcision,notlessancientamongtheAfricans.Wehavealreadyremarkedthathehasasovereignrighttoattachhisfavorstoanysymbolthathechooses.

Astowhatremainssincethetimewhen,underJoshua,theJewishpeoplebecamecircumcised, ithas retained thatusagedown to thepresentday.TheArabs,also,havefaithfullyadheredtoit;buttheEgyptians,who,intheearlierages, circumcised both their males and females, in the course of timeabandonedthepracticeentirelyastothelatter,andatlastapplieditsolelytopriests,astrologers,andprophets.ThiswelearnfromClementofAlexandria,and Origen. In fact, it is not clear that the Ptolemies ever receivedcircumcision.

TheLatinauthorswho treat the Jewswithsuchprofoundcontemptas toapply to them in derision the expressions, "curtus Apella", "credat JudæusApella,""curtiJudæi"neverapplysuchepithetstotheEgyptians.ThewholepopulationofEgyptisatpresentcircumcised,butforanotherreasonthanthatwhichoperatedformerly;namely,becauseMahometanismadoptedtheancientcircumcisionofArabia.ItisthisArabiancircumcisionwhichhasextendedtotheEthiopians,amongwhommalesandfemalesarebothstillcircumcised.

Wemust acknowledge that this ceremony appears at first a very strangeone;butweshouldrememberthat,fromtheearliesttimes,theorientalpriestsconsecrated themselves to their deities by peculiar marks. An ivy leaf wasindentedwith a graver on the priests ofBacchus. Lucian tells us that thosedevoted to the goddess Isis impressed characters upon theirwrist and neck.ThepriestsofCybelemadethemselveseunuchs.

It is highly probable that the Egyptians, who revered the instrument ofhumanproduction,andboreitsimageinpompintheirprocessions,conceivedtheideaofofferingtoIsisandOsiristhroughwhomeverythingonearthwasproduced,asmallportionofthatorganwithwhichthesedeitieshadconnectedthe perpetuation of the human species. Ancient oriental manners are soprodigiously different from our own that scarcely anything will appearextraordinary to a man of even but little reading. A Parisian is excessivelysurprisedwhenheistoldthattheHottentotsdeprivetheirmalechildrenofoneof the evidences of virility. The Hottentots are perhaps surprised that theParisianspreserveboth.

CLERK—CLERGY.

There may be something perhaps still remaining for remark under thishead, even afterDuCange's "Dictionary" and the "Encyclopædia."Wemayobserve,forinstance,thatsowonderfulwastherespectpaidtolearning,abouttheeleventhandtwelfthcenturies,thatacustomwasintroducedandfollowedin France, in Germany, and in England, of remitting the punishment of thehaltertoeverycondemnedcriminalwhowasabletoread.Sonecessarytothestatewaseverymanwhopossessedsuchanextentofknowledge.WilliamtheBastard, the conquerorofEngland, carried thither this custom. Itwas calledbenefitofclergy—"beneficumclericorumautclergicorum."

Wehaveremarked,inmoreplacesthanone,thatoldusages,lostinothercountries, are found again in England, as in the island of SamothracewerediscoveredtheancientmysteriesofOrpheus.TothisdaythebenefitofclergysubsistsamongtheEnglish,inallitsvigor,formanslaughter,andforanytheftnot exceeding a certain amount of value, and being the first offence. Theprisonerwhoisabletoreaddemandshis"benefitofclergy,"whichcannotberefused him. The judge refers to the chaplain of the prison,who presents abooktotheprisoner,uponwhichthejudgeputsthequestiontothechaplain,"Legit?""Doesheread?"Thechaplainreplies:"Legitutclericus.""Hereadslikeaclergyman."Afterthisthepunishmentoftheprisonerisrestrictedtotheapplicationofahotbrandingirontothepalmofhishand.

OftheCelibacyoftheClergy.

Itisaskedwhether,inthefirstagesoftheChurch,marriagewaspermittedtotheclergy,andwhenitwasforbidden?ItisunquestionablethattheclergyoftheJewish religion, far frombeingbound tocelibacy,were,on thecontrary,urged tomarriage,notmerelyby theexampleof theirpatriarchs,butby thedisgraceattachedtonotleavingposterity.

In the times, however, that preceded the first calamitieswhichbefell theJews, certain sects of rigorists arose—Essenians, Judaites, Therapeutæ,Herodians;insomeofwhich—theEsseniansandTherapeutæ,forexamples—themostdevoutofthesectabstainedfrommarriage.Thiscontinencewasanimitationof thechastityof thevestals, institutedbyNumaPompilius;of thedaughterofPythagoras,whofoundedaconvent;ofthepriestsofDiana;ofthePythiaofDelphos;and,inmoreremoteantiquity,ofthepriestessesofApollo,andevenofthepriestessesofBacchus.ThepriestsofCybelenotonlyboundthemselvesbyvowsofchastity,but, topreclude theviolationof theirvows,becameeunuchs.Plutarch,intheeighthquestionofhis"Table-talk,"informs

usthat,inEgypt,therearecollegesofpriestswhichrenouncemarriage.

ThefirstChristians,althoughprofessingtoleadalifeaspureasthatoftheEsseniansandTherapeutæ,didnotconsidercelibacyasavirtue.Wehaveseenthatnearlyalltheapostlesanddisciplesweremarried.St.PaulwritestoTitus:"Choose for a priest himwho is the husband of onewife, having believingchildren, and not under accusation of dissoluteness." He says the same toTimothy: "Let the superintendentbe thehusbandofonewife."He seems tothinksohighlyofmarriagethat,inthesameepistletoTimothy,hesays:"Thewife,notwithstandingherprevarication,shallbesavedinchild-bearing."

TheproceedingsoftheCouncilofNice,onthesubjectofmarriedpriests,deservegreatattention.Somebishops,accordingtotherelationsofSozomenandSocrates,proposedalawcommandingbishopsandprieststhenceforwardtoabstainfromtheirwives;butSt.PaphnuciustheMartyr,bishopofThebes,inEgypt,strenuouslyopposedit;observing,"thatmarriagewaschastity";andthecounciladoptedhisopinion.Suidas,Gelasius,Cesicenus,Cassiodorus,andNicephorus Callistus, record precisely the same thing. The council merelyforbadetheclergyfromlivingwithagapetæ,orfemaleassociatesbesidestheirownwives,except theirmothers, sisters,aunts,andotherswhoseagewouldprecludesuspicion.

After that time, the celibacy of the clergy was recommended, withoutbeingcommanded.St.Jerome,adevoutrecluse,was,ofallthefathers,highestinhiseulogiumsofthecelibacyofpriests;yetheresolutely,supportsthecauseofCarterius,aSpanishbishop,whohadbeenmarriedtwice."WereI,"sayshe,"toenumerateallthebishopswhohaveenteredintosecondnuptials,Ishouldnameasmanyaswerepresent at theCouncilofRimini"—"TantusnumeruscongregabiturutRiminensissynodussuperetur."

The examples of clergymen married, and living with their wives, areinnumerable.Sydonius,bishopofClermont,inAuvergne,inthefifthcentury,marriedPapianilla,daughteroftheEmperorAvitus,andthehouseofPolignacclaims descent from this marriage. Simplicius, bishop of Bourges, had twochildrenbyhiswifePalladia.St.GregoryofNazianzenwasthesonofanotherGregory,bishopofNazianzen,andofNonna,bywhomthatbishophadthreechildren—Cesarius,Gorgonia,andthesaint.

IntheRomandecretals,underthecanonOsius,wefindaverylonglistofbishopswhowerethesonsofpriests.PopeOsiushimselfwasthesonofasub-deaconStephen;andPopeBonifaceI.,sonofthepriestJocondo.PopeFelixIII.wasthesonofFelix,apriest,andwashimselfoneofthegrandfathersofGregory the Great. The priest Projectus was the father of John II.; andGordian,thefatherofAgapet.PopeSylvesterwasthesonofPopeHormisdas.Theodore I. was born of amarriage of Theodore, patriarch of Jerusalem; a

circumstancewhichshouldproducethereconciliationofthetwoChurches.

Atlength,afterseveralcouncilshadbeenheldwithouteffectonthesubjectof the celibacy, which ought always to accompany the priesthood, PopeGregoryexcommunicatedallmarriedpriests;eithertoaddrespectabilitytotheChurch,bythegreaterrigorofitsdiscipline,ortoattachmorecloselytothecourtofRomethebishopsandpriestsofothercountries,whowouldthushavenoother family than theChurch.This lawwasnotestablishedwithoutgreatopposition.

It is a very remarkable circumstance that the Council of Basel, havingdeposed, at least nominally, Pope Eugenius IV., and elected Amadeus ofSavoy, many bishops having objected against that prince that he had beenmarried,ÆneasSylvius,whowasafterwardspope,underthenameofPiusII.,supported the election ofAmadeus in thesewords: "Non solumqui uxoremhabuit, seduxoremhabens,potest assumere"—"Notonlymayhebemadeapopewhohasbeenmarried,butalsohewhoisso."

This Pius II. was consistent. Peruse his letters to his mistress, in thecollectionofhisworks.Hewasconvinced,thattodefraudnatureofherrightswasabsolute insanity, and that itwas thedutyofmannot todestroy,but tocontrolher.

Howeverthismaybe,sincetheCouncilofTrenttherehasnolongerbeenanydisputeaboutthecelibacyoftheRomanCatholicclergy;therehavebeenonly desires.All Protestant communions are, on this point, in opposition toRome.

IntheGreekChurch,whichatpresentextendsfromthefrontiersofChinato Cape Matapan, the priests may marry once. Customs everywhere vary;disciplinechangesconformablytotimeandplace.Wehereonlyrecordfacts;weenterintonocontroversy.

Of Clerks of the Closet, Since Denominated Secretaries of State andMinisters.

Clerks of the closet, clerks of the king, more recently denominatedsecretaries of state, in France and England, were originally the "king'snotaries."Theywereafterwardscalled"secretariesoforders"—secrétairesdescommandemens. This we are informed of by the learned and laboriousPasquier.Hisauthority isunquestionable, ashehadunderhis inspection theregisters of the chamber of accounts, which, in our own times, have beendestroyedbyfire.

AttheunfortunatepeaceofCateau-Cambrésis,aclerkofPhilipII.,havingtaken the title of secretary of state, de l'Aubespine, who was secretary oforders to thekingofFrance,andhisnotary, took that title likewise, that the

honors of both might be equal, whatever might be the case with theiremoluments.

InEngland,beforethereignofHenryVIII., therewasonlyonesecretaryof the king, who stood while he presented memorials and petitions to thecouncil.HenryVIII.appointedtwo,andconferredonthemthesametitlesandprerogativesasinSpain.Thegreatnoblesdidnot,atthatperiod,acceptthesesituations;but,intime,theyhavebecomeofsomuchconsequencethatpeersof the realm and commanders of armies are now investedwith them. Thuseverythingchanges.ThereisatpresentnorelicinFranceofthegovernmentofHughCapet,norinEnglandoftheadministrationofWilliamtheBastard.

CLIMATE.

It is certain that the sun and atmosphere mark their empire on all theproductions of nature, fromman to mushrooms. In the grand age of LouisXIV.,theingeniousFontenelleremarked:

"Onemightimaginethatthetorridandtwofrigidzonesarenotwellsuitedtothesciences.DowntothepresentdaytheyhavenottravelledbeyondEgyptandMauritania,ontheoneside,norontheotherbeyondSweden.Perhapsitisnotowing tomerechance that theyare retainedwithinMountAtlasand theBaltic Sea.We know notwhether thesemay not be the limits appointed tothem by nature, or whether we may ever hope to see great authors amongLaplandersornegroes."

Chardin, one of those travellers who reason and investigate, goes stillfurther thanFontenelle,whenspeakingofPersia. "The temperatureofwarmclimates,"sayshe,"enervatesthemindaswellasthebody,anddissipatesthatfirewhich the imagination requires for invention. In such climatesmen areincapableof the long studies and intense applicationwhich arenecessary totheproductionoffirst-rateworksintheliberalandmechanicarts,"etc.

ChardindidnotconsiderthatSadiandLokmanwerePersians.HedidnotrecollectthatArchimedesbelongedtoSicily,wheretheheatisgreaterthaninthree-fourthsofPersia.HeforgotthatPythagorasformerlytaughtgeometrytotheBrahmins.TheAbbéDubossupportedanddeveloped,aswellashewasable,theopinionofChardin.

Onehundredandfiftyyearsbeforethem,Bodinmadeitthefoundationofhissysteminhis"Republic,"and inhis"MethodofHistory";heasserts thatthe influence of climate is the principle both of the government and thereligion of nations.Diodorus ofSicilywas of the sameopinion long before

Bodin.

Theauthorofthe"SpiritofLaws,"withoutquotinganyauthority,carriedthisideafartherthanChardinandBodin.Acertainpartofthenationbelievedhimtohavefirstsuggestedit,andimputedittohimasacrime.Thiswasquiteincharacterwiththatpartofthenationalludedto.Thereareeverywheremenwhopossessmorezealthanunderstanding.

Wemight ask thosewhomaintain that climate does everything,why theEmperor Julian, in his "Misopogon" says that what pleased him in theParisianswasthegravityoftheircharactersandtheseverityoftheirmanners;andwhytheseParisians,withouttheslightestchangeofclimate,arenowlikeplayful children, at whom the government punishes and smiles at the samemoment,andwhothemselves,themomentafter,alsosmileandsinglampoonsupontheirmasters.

WhyaretheEgyptians,whoaredescribedashavingbeenstillmoregravethantheParisians,atpresentthemostlazy,frivolous,andcowardlyofpeople,after having, as we are told, conquered the whole world for their pleasure,underakingcalledSesostris?WhyaretherenolongerAnacreons,Aristotles,or Zeuxises atAthens?Whence comes it that Rome, instead of its Ciceros,Catos,andLivys,hasmerelycitizenswhodarenotspeak theirminds,andabrutalized populace,whose supreme happiness consists in having oil cheap,andingazingatprocessions?

Cicero, in his letters, is occasionally very jocular on the English. HedesireshisbrotherQuintus,Cæsar'slieutenant,toinformhimwhetherhehasfound any great philosophers among them, in his expedition to Britain. Helittle suspected that that country would one day produce mathematicianswhomhecouldnotunderstand.Yettheclimatehasnotatallchanged,andtheskyofLondonisascloudynowasitwasthen.

Everything changes, both in bodies and minds, by time. Perhaps theAmericanswillinsomefutureperiodcrosstheseatoinstructEuropeansinthearts.Climatehassomeinfluence,governmentahundredtimesmore;religionandgovernmentcombinedmorestill.

InfluenceofClimate.

Climate influences religion in respect to ceremonies and usages. AlegislatorcouldhaveexperiencednodifficultyininducingtheIndianstobatheintheGangesatcertainappearancesofthemoon;itisahighgratificationtothem.Hadanyoneproposedalikebathtothepeoplewhoinhabitthebanksofthe Dwina, near Archangel, he would have been stoned. Forbid pork to anArab,who after eating this species of animal food (themostmiserable anddisgustinginhisowncountry)wouldbeaffectedbyleprosy,hewillobeyyou

with joy; prohibit it to aWestphalian, andhewill be tempted to knockyoudown.Abstinence fromwine is a goodprecept of religion inArabia,whereorange,citron,andlemonwatersarenecessarytohealth.MahometwouldnothaveforbiddenwineinSwitzerland,especiallybeforegoingtobattle.

There are usages merely fanciful. Why did the priests of Egypt devisecircumcision?Itwasnotforthesakeofhealth.Cambyses,whotreatedastheydeserved both them and their bullApis, the courtiers ofCambyses, and hissoldiers, enjoyedperfectlygoodhealthwithout suchmutilation.Climatehasnopeculiarinfluenceoverthisparticularportionofthepersonofapriest.Theoffering inquestionwasmade to Isis,probablyon thesameprincipleas thefirstlingsofthefruitsoftheearthwereeverywhereoffered.Itwastypicalofanofferingofthefirstfruitsoflife.

Religions have always turned on two pivots—forms of ceremonies, andfaith. Forms and ceremonies depend much on climate; faith not at all. Adoctrinewillbereceivedwithequalfacilityundertheequatorornearthepole.ItwillbeafterwardsequallyrejectedatBataviaandtheOrcades,whileitwillbemaintained, unguibus et rostro—with tooth andnail—atSalamanca.Thisdepends not on sun and atmosphere, but solely upon opinion, that fickleempressoftheworld.

Certainlibationsofwinewillbenaturallyenjoinedinacountryaboundinginvineyards;anditwouldneveroccurtothemindofanylegislatortoinstitutesacred mysteries, which could not be celebrated without wine, in such acountryasNorway.

Itwillbeexpresslycommanded toburn incense in thecourtof a templewhere beasts are killed in honor of theDivinity, and for the priests' supper.This slaughter-house, called a temple, would be a place of abominableinfection,ifitwerenotcontinuallypurified;andwithouttheuseofaromatics,thereligionoftheancientswouldhaveintroducedtheplague.Theinteriorofthetemplewasevenfestoonedwithflowerstosweetentheair.

The cow will not be sacrificed in the burning territory of the Indianpeninsula,becauseitsuppliesthenecessaryarticleofmilk,andisveryrareinarid and barren districts, and because its flesh, being dry and tough, andyielding but little nourishment, would afford the Brahmins but miserablecheer.Onthecontrary,thecowwillbeconsideredsacred,inconsequenceofitsrarenessandutility.

ThetempleofJupiterAmmon,wheretheheatisexcessive,willbeenteredonlywithbarefeet.ToperformhisdevotionsatCopenhagen,amanrequireshisfeettobewarmandwellcovered.

It isnot thuswithdoctrine.Polytheismhasbeenbelieved inallclimates;

and it is equally easy for a Crim Tartar and an inhabitant of Mecca toacknowledgeoneonlyincommunicableGod,neitherbegottennorbegetting.Itisbydoctrine,morethanbyrites,thatareligionextendsfromoneclimatetoanother. The doctrine of the unity of God passed rapidly from Medina toMountCaucasus.Climate,then,yieldstoopinion.

TheArabssaidtotheTurks:"Wepracticedtheceremonyofcircumcisionin Arabia without very well knowing why. It was an ancient usage of thepriests of Egypt to offer toOshiret, orOsiris, a small portion ofwhat theyconsideredmostvaluable.Wehadadopted this custom three thousandyearsbefore we becameMahometans. Youwill become circumcised like us; youwillbindyourself tosleepwithoneofyourwiveseveryFriday,and togivetwoandahalfpercent.ofyourincomeannuallytothepoor.Wedrinknothingbutwaterandsherbet;allintoxicatingliquorsareforbiddenus.InArabiatheyarepernicious.Youwill embrace thesame regimen,althoughyoushouldbepassionatelyfondofwine;andevenalthough,onthebanksofthePhasisandAraxes, it should often be necessary for you. In short, if youwish to go toheaven, and to obtain good places there, you will take the road throughMecca."

The inhabitants north of the Caucasus subject themselves to these laws,andadopt,inthefullestextent,areligionwhichwasneverframedforthem.

InEgypt theemblematicalworshipofanimalssucceededtothedoctrinesofThaut.ThegodsoftheRomansafterwardssharedEgyptwiththedogs,thecats, and the crocodiles. To theRoman religion succeededChristianity; thatwas completely banished by Mahometanism, which will perhaps besupersededbysomenewreligion.

In all these changes climate has effected nothing; government has doneeverything.Wearehereconsideringonlysecondcauses,without raisingourunhallowed eyes to that Providence which directs them. The Christianreligion,whichreceiveditsbirthinSyria,andgrewuptowardsitsfulnessofstatureinAlexandria,inhabitsnowthosecountrieswhereTeutatandIrminsul,FreyaandOdin,wereformerlyadored.

Therearesomenationswhosereligionisnottheresulteitherofclimateorof government.What causedetached thenorthofGermany,Denmark, threeparts of Switzerland, Holland, England, Scotland, and Ireland, from theRomish communion? Poverty. Indulgences, and deliverance from purgatoryfor the souls of thosewhose bodieswere at that time in possession of verylittlemoney,weresoldtoodear.Theprelatesandmonksabsorbedthewholerevenue of a province. People adopted a cheaper religion. In short, afternumerouscivilwars,itwasconcludedthatthepope'sreligionwasagoodonefor nobles, and the reformed one for citizens. Time will show whether the

religionoftheGreeksoroftheTurkswillprevailonthecoastsoftheEuxineandÆgeanseas.

COHERENCE—COHESION—ADHESION.

The power by which the parts of bodies are kept together. It is aphenomenonthemostcommon,buttheleastunderstood.Newtonderidesthehookedatoms,bymeansofwhichithasbeenattemptedtoexplaincoherence;foritstillremainedtobeknownwhytheyarehooked,andwhytheycohere.Hetreatswithnogreaterrespectthosewhohaveexplainedcohesionbyrest."Itis,"sayshe,"anoccultquality."

He has recourse to an attraction. But is not this attraction, which mayindeed exist, but is by no means capable of demonstration, itself an occultquality? The grand attraction of the heavenly bodies is demonstrated andcalculated.Thatofadheringbodies is incalculable.Buthowcanweadmitaforce that is immeasurable to be of the same nature as one that can bemeasured?

Nevertheless,itisdemonstratedthattheforceofattractionactsuponalltheplanetsandallheavybodiesinproportiontotheirsolidity;butitactsonalltheparticlesofmatter;itis,therefore,veryprobablethat,whileitexistsineverypart in reference to the whole, it exists also in every part in reference tocohesion;coherence,therefore,maybetheeffectofattraction.

This opinion appears admissible till a better one can be found, and thatbetterisnoteasilytobemetwith.

COMMERCE.

SincethefallofCarthage,nopeoplehadbeenpowerfulincommerceandarmsat the same time,untilVenice set theexample.ThePortuguesehavingpassedtheCapeofGoodHope,were,forsometime,greatlordsonthecoastofIndia,andevenformidableinEurope.TheUnitedProvinceshaveonlybeenwarriorsinspiteofthemselves,anditwasnotasunitedbetweenthemselves,butasunitedwithEnglandthattheyassistedtoholdthebalanceofEuropeatthecommencementoftheeighteenthcentury.

Carthage,Venice,andAmsterdamhavebeenpowerful;buttheyhaveactedlikethosepeopleamongus,who,havingamassedmoneybytrade,buylordly

estates.NeitherCarthage,Venice,Holland,noranypeople,havecommencedby being warriors, and even conquerors, to finish by beingmerchants. TheEnglishonlyanswerthisdescription;theyhadfoughtalongtimebeforetheyknew how to reckon. They did not know, when they gained the battles ofAgincourt,Crécy,andPoitiers,thattheywereabletodeallargelyincorn,andmake broadcloth, which would be of much more value to them than suchvictories. The knowledge of these arts alone has augmented, enriched, andstrengthenedthenation.ItisonlybecausetheEnglishhavebecomemerchantsthat London exceeds Paris in extent and number of citizens; that they canspreadtwohundredshipsofwarovertheseas,andkeeproyalalliesinpay.

WhenLouisXIV.made Italy tremble,andhisarmies,alreadymastersofSavoyandPiedmont,werereadytotakeTurin,PrinceEugenewasobligedtomarchtotheskirtsofGermany,tothesuccorofthedukeofSavoy.Havingnomoney,withoutwhichhecouldneithertakenordefendtowns,hehadrecoursetotheEnglishmerchants.Inhalfanhourtheyadvancedhimthesumoffivemillionsoflivres,withwhichhedeliveredTurin,beat theFrench,andwrotethislittlebillettothosewhohadlentithim:"Gentlemen,Ihavereceivedyourmoney,andI flattermyself that Ihaveemployedit toyoursatisfaction."Allthis excites just pride in an English merchant, and makes him venture tocompare himself, and not without reason, to a Roman citizen. Thus theyounger sons of a peer of the realm disdain not to be merchants. LordTownsend,minister of state, had a brotherwhowas contentedwith being amerchant in the city. At the time that Lord Orford governed England, hisyounger brother was a factor at Aleppo, whence he would not return, andwhere he died. This custom—which, however, begins to decline—appearedmonstroustothepettyGermanprinces.TheycouldnotconceivehowthesonofapeerofEnglandwasonlyarichandpowerful trader,whileinGermanytheyareallprinces.Wehaveseennearlythirtyhighnessesofthesamename,havingnothingfortheirfortunesbutoldarmoriesandaristocraticalhauteur.InFrance, anybodymay be amarquis that likes; andwhoever arrives at Parisfromaremoteprovince,withmoneytospend,andanameendinginacorille,maysay:"Amanlikeme!""Amanofmyquality!"andsovereignlydespiseamerchant; while the merchant so often hears his profession spoken of withdisdain thathe isweakenough toblushat it.Which is themoreuseful toastate—awell-powderedlord,whoknowspreciselyatwhathourthekingrisesandretires,andwhogiveshimselfairsofgreatness,whileplayingthepartofaslave in the antechamber of a minister; or a merchant who enriches hiscountry,sendsordersfromhisofficetoSuratandAleppo,andcontributestothehappinessoftheworld?

COMMONSENSE.

There issometimes invulgarexpressionsan imageofwhatpasses in theheart of allmen. "Sensus communis" signified among theRomans not onlycommonsense,butalsohumanityandsensibility.AswearenotequaltotheRomans,thiswordwithusconveysnothalfwhatitdidwiththem.Itsignifiesonly good sense—plain, straightforward reasoning—the first notion ofordinary things—amediumbetweendulnessand intellect.Tosay, "thatmanhasnotcommonsense,"isagrossinsult;whiletheexpression,"thatmanhascommonsense,"isanaffrontalso;itwouldimplythathewasnotquitestupid,butthathewantedintellect.Butwhatisthemeaningofcommonsense,ifitbenotsense?Men,whentheyinventedthisterm,supposedthatnothingenteredthe mind except by the senses; otherwise would they have used the word"sense"tosignifytheresultofthecommonfacultyofreason?

It is said, sometimes, that common sense is very rare. What does thisexpression mean? That, in many men, dawning reason is arrested in itsprogressbysomeprejudices;thatamanwhojudgesreasonablyononeaffairwilldeceivehimselfgrosslyinanother.TheArab,who,besidesbeingagoodcalculator, was a learned chemist and an exact astronomer, neverthelessbelievedthatMahometputhalfofthemoonintohissleeve.

Howisitthathewassomuchabovecommonsenseinthethreesciencesabovementioned,andbeneathitwhenheproceededtothesubjectofhalfthemoon? It is because, in the first case, he had seen with his own eyes, andperfected his own intelligence; and, in the second, he had used the eyes ofothers,byshuttinghisown,andpervertingthecommonsensewithinhim.

Howcouldthisstrangeperversionofmindoperate?Howcouldtheideaswhichhadsoregularandfirmafootinginhisbrain,onmanysubjects,haltonanother a thousand timesmorepalpable andeasy to comprehend?Thismanhadalwaysthesameprinciplesofintelligenceinhim;hemusthavethereforepossessed a vitiated organ, as it sometimes happens that the most delicateepicurehasadepravedtasteinregardtoaparticularkindofnourishment.

HowdidtheorganofthisArab,whosawhalfofthemooninMahomet'ssleeve, becomedisordered—By fear. It had been told him that if he did notbelieveinthissleevehissoul,immediatelyafterhisdeath,inpassingoverthenarrowbridge,wouldfallforeverintotheabyss.Hewastoldmuchworse—ifeveryoudoubtthissleeve,onedervishwilltreatyouwithignominy;anotherwillproveyoumad,because,havingallpossiblemotivesforcredibility,youwillnot submityour superb reason toevidence;a thirdwill referyou to thelittledivanofasmallprovince,andyouwillbelegallyimpaled.

AllthisproducesapanicinthegoodArab,hiswife,sister,andallhislittle

family. They possess good sense in all the rest, but on this article theirimagination is diseased like that of Pascal,who continually saw a precipicenearhiscouch.ButdidourArabreallybelieveinthesleeveofMahomet?No;heendeavoredtobelieveit;hesaid,"Itisimpossible,buttrue—IbelievethatwhichIdonotcredit."Heformedachaosofideasinhisheadinregardtothissleeve,whichhefearedtodisentangle,andhegaveuphiscommonsense.

CONFESSION.

Repentance for one's faults is the only thing that can repair the loss ofinnocence;andtoappeartorepentofthem,wemustbeginbyacknowledgingthem.Confession, therefore, isalmostasancientascivil society.Confessionwaspractisedinall themysteriesofEgypt,Greece,andSamothrace.Wearetold,inthelifeofMarcusAurelius,thatwhenhedeignedtoparticipateintheEleusinianmysteries,heconfessedhimselftothehierophant, thoughnomanhadlessneedofconfessionthanhimself.

This might be a very salutary ceremony; it might also become verydetrimental; for such is the case with all human institutions.We know theanswer of theSpartanwhoma hierophantwould have persuaded to confesshimself:"TowhomshouldIacknowledgemyfaults?toGod,ortothee?""ToGod,"saidthepriest."Retire,then,Oman."

ItishardtodetermineatwhattimethispracticewasestablishedamongtheJews, who borrowed a great many of their rites from their neighbors. TheMishna, which is the collection of the Jewish laws, says that often, inconfessing,theyplacedtheirhanduponacalfbelongingtothepriest;andthiswascalled"theconfessionofcalves."

It issaid, in thesameMishna, thateveryculpritundersentenceofdeath,wentandconfessedhimselfbeforewitnesses,insomeretiredspot,ashorttimebeforehisexecution.Ifhefelthimselfguiltyhesaid,"Maymydeathatoneforall my sins!" If innocent, he said, "May my death atone for all my sins,exceptingthatofwhichIamnowaccused."

On the day of the feast which was called by the Jews the solemnatonement,thedevoutamongthemconfessedtooneanother,specifyingtheirsins.Theconfessorrepeatedthreetimesthirteenwordsoftheseventy-seventhPsalm, at the same time giving the confessed thirty-nine stripes, which thelatterreturned,andtheywentawayquits.Itissaidthatthisceremonyisstillinuse.

St.John'sreputationforsanctitybroughtcrowdstoconfesstohim,asthey

came to be baptized by him with the baptism of justice; but we are notinformed thatSt. Johngavehispenitents thirty-nine stripes.Confessionwasnot thena sacrament; for this thereare several reasons.The first is, that theword "sacrament" was at that time unknown, which reason is of itselfsufficient.TheChristianstooktheirconfessionfromtheJewishrites,andnotfromthemysteriesofIsisandCeres.TheJewsconfessedto theirassociates,and theChristiansdidalso. Itafterwardsappearedmoreconvenient that thisshouldbetheprivilegeofthepriests.Norite,noceremony,canbeestablishedbut in process of time. It was hardly possible that some trace should notremainoftheancientusageofthelaityofconfessingtooneanother.

InConstantine'sreign,itwasatfirstthepracticepubliclytoconfesspublicoffences. In the fifth century, after the schism of Novatus and Novatian,penitentiaries were instituted for the absolution of such as had fallen intoidolatry. This confession to penitentiary priests was abolished under theEmperor Theodosius. A woman having accused herself aloud, to thepenitentiary of Constantinople, of lying with the deacon, caused so muchscandal and disturbance throughout the city that Nectarius permitted all thefaithfultoapproachtheholytablewithoutconfession,andtocommunicateinobedience to their consciences alone. Hence these words of St. JohnChrysostom, who succeeded Nectarius: "Confess yourselves continually toGod; I do not bring you forward on a stage to discover your faults to yourfellow-servants; show your wounds to God, and ask of Him their cure;acknowledgeyoursinstoHimwhowillnotreproachyoubeforemen;itwerevaintostrivetohidethemfromHimwhoknowsallthings,"etc.

Itissaidthatthepracticeofauricularconfessiondidnotbegininthewestuntil about the seventh century, when it was instituted by the abbots, whorequiredtheirmonkstocomeandacknowledgetheiroffencestothemtwiceayear. These abbots it waswho invented the formula: "I absolve thee to theutmostofmypowerandthyneed."Itwouldsurelyhavebeenmorerespectfultowards the SupremeBeing, aswell asmore just, to say: "MayHe forgiveboththyfaultsandmine!"

The good which confession has done is that it has sometimes procuredrestitutionfrompettythieves.Theillis,that,intheinternaltroublesofstates,it has sometimes forced the penitents to be conscientiously rebellious andblood-thirsty.TheGuelphpriestsrefusedabsolutiontotheGhibellines,andtheGhibellinestotheGuelphs.

Thecounsellorofstate,Lénet,relates,inhis"Memoirs,"thatallhecoulddoinBurgundytomakethepeopleriseinfavorofthePrinceCondé,detainedat Vincennes by Cardinal Mazarin, was "to let loose the priests in theconfessionals"—speakingofthemasbloodhounds,whoweretofantheflameofcivilwarintheprivacyoftheconfessional.

At the siege of Barcelona, the monks refused absolution to all whoremainedfaithfultoPhilipV.InthelastrevolutionofGenoa,itwasintimatedtoallconsciencesthattherewasnosalvationforwhosoevershouldnottakeuparms against the Austrians. This salutary remedy has, in every age, beenconvertedintoapoison.WhetheraSforza,aMedici,aPrinceofOrange,oraKingofFrancewastobeassassinated,theparricidealwayspreparedhimselfbythesacramentofconfession.LouisXI.,andtheMarchionessdeBrinvilliersalways confessed as soon as they had committed any great crime; and theyconfessedoften,asgluttonstakemedicinestoincreasetheirappetite.

TheDisclosureofConfessions.

Jaurigini and Balthazar Gérard, the assassins of William I., Prince ofOrange,thedominicanJacquesClément,JeanChâtel,theFeuillantRavaillac,and all the other parricides of that day, confessed themselves beforecommitting theircrimes.Fanaticism, in thosedeplorableages,hadarrivedatsuch a pitch that confession was but an additional pledge for theconsummationofvillainy.Itbecamesacredforthisreason—thatconfessionisasacrament.

Strada himself says: "Jaurigni non ante facinus aggredi sustinuit, quamexpiatam noxis animam apud Dominicanum sacerdotem cœlesti panefirmaverit". "Jaurigini did not venture upon this act until he had purged hissoulbyconfessionatthefeetofaDominican,andfortifieditbythecelestialbread."

Wefind,intheinterrogatoryofRavaillac,thatthewretchedman,quittingthe Feuillans, and wishing to be received among the Jesuits, applied to theJesuitd'Aubignyand, after speakingof several apparitions thathehad seen,showedhimaknife,onthebladeofwhichwasengravedaheartandacross,andsaid,"Thisheart indicates that theking'sheartmustbebrought tomakewarontheHuguenots."

Perhaps, if this d'Aubignyhadbeen zealous andprudent enough tohaveinformedthekingofthesewords,andgivenhimafaithfulpictureofthemanwhohadutteredthem,thebestofkingswouldnothavebeenassassinated.

On August 20, 1610, three months after the death of Henry IV., whosewounds yet bleed in the heart of every Frenchman, the Advocate-GeneralSirvin,stillofillustriousmemory,requiredthattheJesuitsshouldbemadetosignthefourfollowingrules:

1.Thatthecouncilisabovethepope.2.Thatthepopecannotdeprivethekingofanyofhisrightsbyexcommunication.3.Thatecclesiastics,likeotherpersons, are entirely subject to the king. 4. That a priest who is madeacquainted, by confession,with a conspiracy against the king and the state,

mustdiscloseittothemagistrates.

On the 22nd, the parliament passed a decree, by which it forbade theJesuits to instruct youth before they had signed these four articles; but thecourt ofRomewas then sopowerful, and that ofFrance so feeble, that thisdecreewasofnoeffect.Afactworthyofattentionis,thatthissamecourtofRome, which did not choose that confession should be disclosed when thelivesofsovereignswereendangered,obligeditsconfessorstodenouncetotheinquisitorsthosewhomtheirfemalepenitentsaccusedinconfessionofhavingseducedandabusedthem.PaulIV.,PiusIV.,ClementVIII.,andGregoryXV.,orderedthesedisclosurestobemade.

Thiswasaveryembarrassingsnareforconfessorsandfemalepenitents;itwasmakingthesacramentaregisterof informations,andevenofsacrileges.For, by the ancient canons, and especially by the Lateran Council underInnocentIII.,everypriestthatdisclosedaconfession,ofwhatevernature,wastobeinterdictedandcondemnedtoperpetualimprisonment.

But this is not the worst; here are four popes, of the sixteenth andseventeenth centuries, ordering the disclosure of a sin of impurity, but notpermitting that of a parricide. A woman, in the sacrament, declares, orpretends,beforeacarmelite,thatacordelierhasseducedher;andthecarmelitemustdenouncethecordelier.Afanaticalassassin,thinkingthatheservesGodby killing his prince, comes and consults a confessor on this case ofconscience;andtheconfessorcommitsasacrilegeifhesaveshissovereign'slife.

Thisabsurdandhorriblecontradiction isoneunfortunateconsequenceoftheconstantoppositionexisting for somanycenturiesbetween thecivil andecclesiastical laws. The citizen finds himself, on fifty occasions, placedwithoutalternativebetweensacrilegeandhightreason;therulesofgoodandevil being not yet drawn from beneath the chaos underwhich they have solong been buried. The Jesuit Coton's reply to Henry IV. will endure longerthanhisorder."Wouldyourevealtheconfessionofamanwhohadresolvedtoassassinateme?""No;butIwouldthrowmyselfbetweenhimandyou."

Father Coton's maxim has not always been followed. In some countriestherearestatemysteriesunknowntothepublic,ofwhichrevealedconfessionsformnoinconsiderablepart.Bymeansofsubornedconfessors thesecretsofprisonersarelearned.Someconfessors,toreconciletheirconsciencewiththeirinterest,makeuseofasingularartifice.Theygiveanaccount,notpreciselyofwhat the prisoner has told them, but of what he has not told them. If, forexample,theyareemployedtofindoutwhetheranaccusedpersonhasforhisaccompliceaFrenchmanoranItalian,theysaytothemanwhoemploysthem,"the prisoner has sworn tome that no Italianwas informedof his designs;"

whenceitisconcludedthatthesuspectedFrenchmanisguilty.

Bodinthusexpresseshimself,inhisbook,"DelaRépublique":"Normustitbeconcealed,iftheculpritisdiscoveredtohaveconspiredagainstthelifeofthesovereign,oreventohavewilleditonly;asinthecaseofagentlemanofNormandy,whoconfessedtoamonkthathehadamindtokillFrancisI.Themonk apprised the king,who sent the gentleman to the court of parliament,wherehewascondemnedtodeath,asIlearnedfromM.Canage,anadvocateinparliament."

Thewriter of this articlewashimself almostwitness to adisclosure stillmoreimportantandsingular.It isknownhowtheJesuitDaubentonbetrayedPhilipV.,kingofSpain,towhomhewasconfessor.Hethought,fromaverymistakenpolicy,thatheshouldreportthesecretsofhispenitenttothedukeofOrleans,regentofthekingdom,andhadtheimprudencetowritetohimwhathe should not, even verbally, communicate to anyone. The duke ofOrleanssenthislettertothekingofSpain.TheJesuitwasdiscarded,anddiedashorttimeafter.Thisisanauthenticatedfact.

Itisstillagraveandperplexingquestion,inwhatcasesconfessionsshouldbe disclosed. For, if we decide that it should be in cases of human hightreason, this treason may be made to include any direct offence againstmajesty, even the smuggling of salt or muslins. Much more should hightreasonsagainsttheDivineMajestybedisclosed;andthesemaybeextendedtothesmallestfaults,ashavingmissedeveningservice.

Itwould,then,beveryimportanttocometoaperfectunderstandingaboutwhat confessions should be disclosed, and what should be kept secret. Yetwould such a decision be very dangerous; for how many things are therewhichmustnotbeinvestigated!

Pontas,who, in three folio volumes, decides on all the possible cases ofconscienceinFrance,andisunknowntotherestoftheworld,saysthatonnooccasion should confession be disclosed. The parliaments have decided thecontrary.Whicharewetobelieve?Pontas,ortheguardiansofthelawsoftherealm,whowatchoverthelivesofprincesandthesafetyofthestate?

WhetherLaymenandWomenHaveBeenConfessors?

As,intheoldlaw,thelaityconfessedtooneanother;so, inthenewlaw,theylonghadthesameprivilegebycustom.Inproofof this, let itsufficetocitethecelebratedJoinville,whoexpresslysaysthat"theconstableofCyprusconfessedhimselftohim,andhegavehimabsolution,accordingtotherightwhich he had so to do." St. Thomas, in his dream, expresses himself thus:"Confessioexdefectusacerdotislaicofacta,sacramentalisestquodammodo.""Confession made to a layman, in default of a priest, is in some sort

sacramental."

Wefind in the lifeofSt.Burgundosarius,and in the ruleofanunknownsaint,thatthenunsconfessedtheirverygrossestsinstotheirabbess.TheruleofSt.Donatusordainsthatthenunsshalldiscovertheirfaultstotheirsuperiorthree times a day. The capitulars of our kings say that abbesses must beforbidden the exercise of the right which they have arrogated against thecustomoftheholychurch,ofgivingbenedictionandimposinghands,whichseems tosignify thepronouncingofabsolution,andsupposes theconfessionofsins.Marcus,patriarchofAlexandria,asksBalzamon,acelebratedcanonistof his time, whether permission should be granted to abbesses to hearconfessions, to which Balzamon answers in the negative. We have, in thecanon law,adecreeofPope Innocent III., enjoining thebishopsofValenciaand Burgos, in Spain, to prevent certain abbesses from blessing their nuns,fromconfessing,andfrompublicpreaching:"Although,"sayshe,"theblessedVirginMarywassuperior toall theapostles indignityand inmerit,yet it isnot to her, but to the apostles, that the Lord has confided the keys of thekingdomofheaven."

So ancient was this right, that we find it established in the rules of St.Basil. He permits abbesses to confess their nuns, conjointly with a priest.Father Martène, in his "Rights of the Church," says that, for a long time,abbessesconfessedtheirnuns;but,addshe,theyweresocurious,thatitwasfoundnecessarytodeprivethemofthisprivilege.

The ex-Jesuit Nonnotte should confess himself and do penance; not forhavingbeenoneofthemostignorantofdaubersonpaper,forthatisnocrime;notforhavinggiventhenameoferrorstotruthswhichhedidnotunderstand;butforhaving,withthemostinsolentstupidity,calumniatedtheauthorofthisarticle, and called his brother raca (a fool),while he denied these facts andmanyothers,aboutwhichheknewnotoneword.Hehasputhimselfindangerofhellfire;letushopethathewillaskpardonofGodforhisenormousfolly.Wedesirenotthedeathofasinner,butthatheturnfromhiswickednessandlive.

Ithas longbeendebatedwhymen,veryfamous in thispartof theworldwhereconfessionisinuse,havediedwithoutthissacrament.SuchareLeoX.,Pélisson,andCardinalDubois.ThecardinalhadhisperineumopenedbyLaPeyronie's bistoury; but hemight have confessed and communicated beforethe operation. Pélisson, who was a Protestant until he was forty years old,became a convert that he might be made master of requests and havebenefices. As for Pope Leo X., when surprised by death, he was so muchoccupied with temporal concerns, that he had no time to think of spiritualones.

ConfessionTickets.

In Protestant countries confession is made to God; in Catholic ones, toman.TheProtestantssayyoucanhidenothingfromGod,whereasmanknowsonlywhatyouchoosetotellhim.Asweshallnevermeddlewithcontroversy,weshallnotenterhereintothisolddispute.OurliterarysocietyiscomposedofCatholicsandProtestants,unitedbytheloveofletters;wemustnotsufferecclesiasticalquarrelstosowdissensionamongus.WewillcontentourselveswithoncemorerepeatingthefineansweroftheGreekalreadymentioned,tothepriestwhowouldhavehadhimconfessinthemysteriesofCeres:"IsittoGod, or to thee, that I am to address myself?" "To God." "Depart then, Oman."

In Italy, and in all the countries of obedience, everyone, withoutdistinction,mustconfessandcommunicate.Ifyouhaveastockofenormoussins on hand, you have also grand penitentiaries to absolve you. If yourconfessionisworthnothing,somuchtheworseforyou.Ataveryreasonablerate,youget aprinted receipt,whichadmitsyou tocommunion; andall thereceiptsarethrownintoapix;suchistherule.

These bearers' tickets were unknown at Paris until about the year 1750,when an archbishop of Paris bethought himself of introducing a sort ofspiritual bank, to extirpate Jansenism and insure the triumph of the bullUnigenitus.Itwashispleasurethatextremeunctionandtheviaticumshouldbe refused to every sick personwhodid not produce a ticket of confession,signedbyaconstitutionarypriest.

This was refusing the sacrament to nine-tenths of Paris. In vain was hetold: "Think what you are doing; either these sacraments are necessary, toescapedamnation,orsalvationmaybeobtainedwithoutthembyfaith,hope,charity,goodworks,and themeritsofourSaviour. Ifsalvationbeattainablewithoutthisviaticum,yourticketsareuseless;ifthesacramentsbeabsolutelynecessary, youdamn allwhomyoudeprive of them; you consign to eternalfire seven hundred thousand souls, supposing you live long enough to burythem;thisisviolent;calmyourself,andleteachonedieaswellashecan."

Inthisdilemmahegavenoanswer,butpersisted.Itishorribletoconvertreligion,whichshouldbeman'sconsolation,intohistorment.Theparliament,inwhosehandsisthehighpolice,findingthatsocietywasdisturbed,opposed—accordingtocustom—decreestomandaments.Butecclesiasticaldisciplinewouldnotyieldtolegalauthority.Themagistracywasunderthenecessityofusing force, and to send archers to obtain for the Parisians confession,communion,andinterment.

By this excess of absurdity, men's minds were soured and cabals wereformed at court, as if there had been a farmer-general to be appointed, or a

minister to be disgraced. In the discussion of a question there are alwaysincidentsmixedupthathavenoradicalconnectionwithit;andinthiscasesomuchso,thatallthemembersoftheparliamentwereexiled,aswasalsothearchbishopinhisturn.

Theseconfessionticketswould,inthetimespreceding,havecausedacivilwar, but happily, in our days, they produced only civil cavils. The spirit ofphilosophy,which isnoother thanreason,hasbecome,withallhonestmen,theonlyantidoteagainsttheseepidemicdisorders.

CONFISCATION.

It is well observed, in the "Dictionnaire Encyclopédique," in the article"Confiscation," that the fisc, whether public, or royal, or seignorial, orimperial,ordisloyal,wasasmallbasketofreedsorosiers,inwhichwasputthelittlemoneythatwasreceivedorcouldbeextorted.Wenowusebags;theroyalfiscistheroyalbag.

In several countries of Europe it is a received maxim, that whosoeverconfiscates thebody,confiscates thegoodsalso.Thisusage isestablished inthosecountries inparticularwherecustomholds theplaceof law;and inallcases,anentirefamilyispunishedforthefaultofonemanonly.

Toconfiscatethebody,isnottoputaman'sbodyintohissovereignlord'sbasket. This phrase, in the barbarous language of the bar, means to getpossessionofthebodyofacitizen,inordereithertotakeawayhislife,ortocondemnhimtobanishmentforlife.Ifheisputtodeath,orescapesdeathbyflight,hisgoodsareseized.Thusitisnotenoughtoputamantodeathforhisoffences;hischildren,too,mustbedeprivedofthemeansofliving.

Inmorecountriesthanone,therigorofcustomconfiscatesthepropertyofamanwhohasvoluntarilyreleasedhimselffromthemiseriesofthislife,andhis children are reduced to beggary because their father is dead. In someRomanCatholicprovinces, theheadofafamilyiscondemnedtothegalleysforlife,byanarbitrarysentence,forhavingharboredapreacherinhishouse,orforhavingheardoneofhissermonsinsomecavernordesertplace,andhiswifeandfamilyareforcedtobegtheirbread.

Thisjurisprudence,whichconsistsindeprivingorphansoftheirfood,wasunknown to the Roman commonwealth. Sulla introduced it in hisproscriptions, and it must be acknowledged that a rapine invented by Sullawasnot anexample tobe followed.Norwas this law,which seems tohavebeendictatedby inhumanityandavaricealone, followedeitherbyCæsar,or

by the good Emperor Trajan, or by the Antonines, whose names are stillpronounced in every nation with love and reverence. Even under Justinian,confiscations took place only in cases of high treason. Those who wereaccusedhavingbeen,forthemostpart,menofgreatpossessions,itseemsthatJustinianmadethisordinancethroughavaricealone.Italsoappearsthat,inthetimesof feudal anarchy, the princes and lords of lands, beingnot very rich,sought to increase their treasureby thecondemnationof theirsubjects.Theywereallowed todrawa revenue fromcrime.Their lawsbeingarbitrary, andthe Roman jurisprudence unknown among them, their customs, whetherwhimsicalorcruel,prevailed.Butnowthatthepowerofsovereignsisfoundedonimmenseandassuredwealth,theirtreasureneedsnolongertobeswollenbytheslenderwreckofthefortunesofsomeunhappyfamily.Itistruethatthegoodssoappropriatedareabandonedtothefirstwhoasksforthem.Butisitforonecitizentofattenontheremainsofthebloodofanothercitizen?

Confiscation is not admitted in countries where the Roman law isestablished, except within the jurisdiction of the parliament of Toulouse. Itwas formerly established at Calais, where it was abolished by the Englishwhen they were masters of that place. It appears very strange that theinhabitants of the capital live under a more rigorous law than those of thesmaller towns; so true is it, that jurisprudencehasoftenbeenestablishedbychance, without regularity, without uniformity, as the huts are built in avillage.

The following was spoken by Advocate-General Omer Talon, in fullparliament, at the most glorious period in the annals of France, in 1673,concerning the property of oneMademoiselle de Canillac, which had beenconfiscated. Reader, attend to this speech; it is not in the style of Cicero'soratory,butitiscurious:

"In the thirteenthchapterofDeuteronomy,Godsays, 'If thoushalt findacitywhereidolatryprevails,thoushaltsurelysmitetheinhabitantsofthatcitywith theedgeof thesword,destroying itutterly,andall that is therein.Andthoushaltgatherallthespoilofitintothemidstofthestreetthereof,andshaltburnwith fire thecityandall thespoil thereof,everywhit, for theLord thyGod.'

"So, in the crime of high treason, the king seized the property, and thechildren were deprived of it. Naboth having been proceeded against, 'quiamaledixeratregi,'KingAhabtookpossessionofhisinheritance.David,beingapprisedthatMephiboshethhadtakenpartintherebellion,gaveallhisgoodsto Sheba, who brought him the news—'Tibi sunt omnia quæ fueruntMephibosheth.'"

Thequestionherewas,whoshould inherit thepropertyofMademoiselle

deCanillac—propertyformerlyconfiscatedfromherfather,abandonedbythekingtoakeeperoftheroyaltreasure,andafterwardsgivenbythiskeeperoftheroyaltreasuretothetestatrix.AndinthiscaseofawomanofAuvergnealawyerrefersustothatofAhab,oneofthepettykingsofapartofPalestine,whoconfiscatedNaboth'svineyard,afterassassinatingitsproprietorwiththeponiardofJewishjustice—anabominableact,whichhasbecomeaproverbtoinspiremenwithahorrorforusurpation.Assuredly,Naboth'svineyardhasnoconnectionwithMademoiselle deCanillac's inheritance.Nor do themurderandconfiscationof thegoodsofMephibosheth,grandsonofKingSaul, andsonofDavid'sfriendJonathan,bearamuchgreateraffinitytothislady'swill.

With thispedantry, thisrageforcitationsforeign to thesubject;with thisignoranceofthefirstprinciplesofhumannature;withtheseill-conceivedandill-adaptedprejudices,hasjurisprudencebeentreatedonbymenwho,intheirsphere,havehadsomereputation.

CONSCIENCE.

SectionI.

OftheConscienceofGoodandofEvil.

Locke has demonstrated—if we may use that term in morals andmetaphysics—thatwehaveno innate ideasorprinciples.Hewasobliged todemonstrate this position at great length, as the contrary was at that timeuniversallybelieved.Ithenceclearlyfollowsthatit isnecessarytoinstil justideas andgoodprinciples into themindas soonas it acquires theuseof itsfaculties.

Locke adduces the example of savages, who kill and devour theirneighbors without any remorse of conscience; and of Christian soldiers,decentlyeducated,who,onthetakingofacitybyassault,plunder,slay,andviolate, notmerelywithout remorse, butwith rapture, honor, andglory, andwiththeapplauseofalltheircomrades.

Itisperfectlycertainthat,inthemassacresofSt.Bartholomew,andinthe"autos-da-fé"theholyactsoffaithoftheInquisition,nomurderer'sconscienceeverupbraidedhimwithhavingmassacredmen,women,andchildren,orwiththeshrieks,faintings,anddyingtorturesofhismiserablevictims,whoseonlycrime consisted in keeping Easter in a manner different from that of theinquisitors. It results, therefore, fromwhat has been stated, thatwehave noother conscience than what is created in us by the spirit of the age, byexample,andbyourowndispositionsandreflections.

Manisbornwithoutprinciples,butwiththefacultyofreceivingthem.Hisnatural disposition will incline him either to cruelty or kindness; hisunderstandingwillintimeinformhimthatthesquareoftwelveisahundredand forty-four, and thatheoughtnot todo tootherswhathewouldnot thatothers should do to him; but hewill not, of himself, acquire these truths inearly childhood. He will not understand the first, and he will not feel thesecond.

Ayoungsavagewho,whenhungry,hasreceivedfromhisfatherapieceofanother savage to eat, will, on the morrow, ask for the like meal, withoutthinkingaboutanyobligationnottotreataneighborotherwisethanhewouldbetreatedhimself.Heacts,mechanicallyandirresistibly,directlycontrarytotheeternalprinciple.

Naturehasmadeaprovisionagainstsuchhorrors.Shehasgiventomanadispositiontopity,andthepowerofcomprehendingtruth.ThesetwogiftsofGod constitute the foundation of civil society. This is the reason there haveeverbeenbutfewcannibals;andwhichrenderslife,amongcivilizednations,alittle tolerable. Fathers and mothers bestow on their children an educationwhich soon renders them social, and this education confers on them aconscience.

Purereligionandmorality,earlyinculcated,sostronglyimpressthehumanheartthat,fromtheageofsixteenorseventeen,asinglebadactionwillnotbeperformed without the upbraidings of conscience. Then rush on thoseheadlong passionswhichwar against conscience, and sometimes destroy it.During the conflict, men, hurried on by the tempest of their feelings, onvariousoccasions consult the adviceofothers; as, inphysicaldiseases, theyaskitofthosewhoappeartoenjoygoodhealth.

Thisitiswhichhasproducedcasuists;thatis,personswhodecideoncasesofconscience.OneofthewisestcasuistswasCicero.Inhisbookof"Offices,"or "Duties" of man, he investigates points of the greatest nicety; but longbeforehimZoroasterhadappearedintheworldtoguidetheconsciencebythemost beautiful precept, "If you doubt whether an action be good or bad,abstainfromdoingit."Wetreatofthiselsewhere.

WhetheraJudgeShouldDecideaccordingtohisConscience,oraccordingtotheEvidence.

Thomas Aquinas, you are a great saint, and a great divine, and noDominicanhasagreatervenerationforyouthanIhave;butyouhavedecided,in your "Summary," that a judge ought to give sentence according to theevidenceproducedagainstthepersonaccused,althoughheknowsthatpersontobeperfectlyinnocent.Youmaintainthatthedepositionofwitnesses,whichmustinevitablybefalse,andthepretendedproofsresultingfromtheprocess,

whichareimpertinent,oughttoweighdownthetestimonyofhisownsenses.Hesawthecrimecommittedbyanother;andyet,accordingtoyou,heoughtinconscience tocondemntheaccused,althoughhisconscience tellshimtheaccused is innocent.According to your doctrine, therefore, if the judge hadhimselfcommittedthecrimeinquestion,hisconscienceought toobligehimtocondemnthemanfalselyaccusedofit.

Inmyconscience,great saint, I conceive thatyouaremostabsurdlyandmostdreadfullydeceived.Itisapitythat,whilepossessingsuchaknowledgeofcanonlaw,youshouldbesolittleacquaintedwithnaturallaw.Thedutyofamagistrate to be just, precedes that of being a formalist. If, in virtue ofevidencewhichcanneverexceedprobability,IweretocondemnamanwhoseinnocenceIwasotherwiseconvincedof,Ishouldconsidermyselfafoolandanassassin.

Fortunately all the tribunals of the world think differently from you. Iknow not whether Farinaceus and Grillandus may be of your opinion.However that may be, if ever you meet with Cicero, Ulpian, Trebonian,Demoulin,theChancellordel'Hôpital,ortheChancellord'Aguesseau,intheshades,besuretoaskpardonofthemforfallingintosuchanerror.

OfaDeceitfulConscience.

Thebestthingperhapsthatwaseversaiduponthisimportantsubjectisinthewittyworkof"TristramShandy,"writtenbyaclergymanof thenameofSterne, the second Rabelais of England. It resembles those small satires ofantiquity,theessentialspiritofwhichissopiquantandprecious.

An old half-pay captain and his corporal, assisted byDoctor Slop, put anumberofveryridiculousquestions.InthesequestionstheFrenchdivinesarenot spared. Mention is particularly made of a memoir presented to theSorbonnebya surgeon, requestingpermission tobaptizeunbornchildrenbymeans of a clyster-pipe, whichmight be introduced into thewombwithoutinjuring either themother or the child.At length the corporal is directed toreadtothemasermon,composedbythesameclergyman,Sterne.

Amongmanyparticulars,superioreventothoseofRembrandtandCalot,itdescribesagentleman,amanoftheworld,spendinghistimeinthepleasuresofthetable,ingaming,anddebauchery,yetdoingnothingtoexposehimselfto the reproaches of what is called good company, and consequently neverincurring his own. His conscience and his honor accompany him to thetheatres, to the gaming houses, and are more particularly present when heliberallypayshisladyunderprotection.Hepunishesseverely,wheninoffice,the petty larcenies of the vulgar, lives a life of gayety, anddieswithout theslightestfeelingofremorse.

Doctor Slop interrupts the reading to observe that such a case wasimpossible with respect to a follower of the Church of England, and couldhappenonlyamongpapists.AtlastthesermonadducestheexampleofDavid,who sometimes possessed a conscience tender and enlightened, at othershardenedanddark.

Whenhehasitinhispowertoassassinatehiskinginacavern,hescruplesgoingbeyondcuttingoffacornerofhisrobe—hereisthetenderconscience.He passes an entire year without feeling the slightest compunction for hisadultery with Bathsheba and his murder of Uriah—here is the sameconscienceinastateofobduracyanddarkness.

Such,saysthepreacher,arethegreaternumberofmankind.Weconcedetothisclergymanthatthegreatonesoftheworldareveryofteninthisstate;thetorrentofpleasuresandaffairsurgesthemalmostirresistiblyon;theyhavenotime to keep a conscience.Conscience is proper enough for the people; buteventhepeopledispensewithit,whenthequestionishowtogainmoney.Itisjudicious, however, at times, to endeavor to awaken conscience both inmantua-makersandinmonarchs,bytheinculcationofamoralitycalculatedtomake an impression upon both; but, in order tomake this impression, it isnecessarytopreachbetterthanmodernpreachersusuallydo,whoseldomtalkeffectivelytoeither.

LibertyofConscience.

[TranslatedfromtheGerman.]

[We do not adopt the whole of the following article; but, as it containssometruths,wedidnotconsiderourselvesobligedtoomit it;andwedonotfeelourselvescalledupontojustifywhatmaybeadvancedinitwithtoogreatrashnessorseverity.—Author.]

"The almoner of Prince——, who is a Roman Catholic, threatened ananabaptist that hewould get himbanished from the small estateswhich theprincegoverned.Hetoldhimthattherewereonlythreeauthorizedsectsintheempire—that which eats Jesus Christ, by faith alone, in a morsel of bread,whiledrinkingoutofacup;thatwhicheatsJesusChristwithbreadalone;andthatwhicheatsJesusChristinbodyandinsoul,withouteitherbreadorwine;andthatasfortheanabaptistwhodoesnotinanywayeatGod,hewasnotfitto live in monseigneur's territory. At last, the conversation kindling intogreaterviolence,thealmonerfiercelythreatenedtheanabaptistthathewouldgethimhanged.'Somuchtheworseforhishighness,'repliedtheanabaptist;'Iam a large manufacturer; I employ two hundred workmen; I occasion theinfluxof twohundred thousandcrownsayear intohis territories;myfamilywill go and settle somewhere else; monseigneur will in consequence be aloser.'

"'Butsupposemonseigneurhangsupyourtwohundredworkmenandyourfamily,'rejoinedthealmoner,'andgivesyourmanufactorytogoodCatholics?'

"'Idefyhimtodoit,'saystheoldgentleman. 'Amanufactoryisnottobegivenlikeafarm;becauseindustrycannotbegiven.Itwouldbemoresillyforhim to act so than to order all his horses to be killed, because, being a badhorseman,onemayhavethrownhimoffhisback.Theinterestofmonseigneurdoesnotconsistinmyswallowingthegodheadinawafer,butinmyprocuringsomethingtoeatforhissubjects,andincreasingtherevenuesbymyindustry.Iamagentleman;andalthough Ihad themisfortunenot tobebornsuch,myoccupationwouldcompelme tobecomeone; formercantile transactionsareofaverydifferentnaturefromthoseofacourt,andfromyourown.Therecanbenosuccessinthemwithoutprobity.OfwhatconsequenceisittoyouthatIwasbaptizedatwhatiscalledtheageofdiscretion,andyouwhileyouwereaninfant?OfwhatconsequenceisittoyouthatIworshipGodafterthemannerofmyfathers?Wereyouabletofollowupyourwisemaxims,fromoneendoftheworldtotheother,youwillhanguptheGreek,whodoesnotbelievethatthe spirit proceeds from the Father and the Son; all the English, all theHollanders, Danes, Swedes, Icelanders, Prussians, Hanoverians, Saxons,Holsteiners, Hessians, Würtembergers, Bernese, Hamburgers, Cossacks,Wallachians,andRussians,noneofwhombelievethepopetobeinfallible;alltheMussulmans,whobelieveinoneGod,andwhogivehimneitherfathernormother; theIndians,whosereligion ismoreancient than theJewish;and theletteredChinese,who,for thespaceoffour thousandyears,haveservedoneonlyGodwithoutsuperstitionandwithoutfanaticism.This,then,iswhatyouwouldperformhadyoubut thepower!' 'Mostassuredly,' says themonk, 'forthezealofthehouseoftheLorddevoursme.''Zelusdomussuæcomeditme.'

"'Just tellmenow,mygoodalmoner,' resumed the anabaptist, 'areyou aDominican,or a Jesuit, or adevil?' 'I ama Jesuit,' says theother. 'Alas,myfriend,ifyouarenotadevil,whydoyouadvancethingssoutterlydiabolical?''Because the reverend father, the rector, has commandedme to do so.' 'Andwho commanded the reverend father, the rector, to commit such anabomination?' 'The provincial.' 'From whom did the provincial receive thecommand?''Fromourgeneral,andalltopleasethepope.'

"The poor anabaptist exclaimed: 'Ye holy popes, who are at Rome inpossession of the throne of the Cæsars—archbishops, bishops, and abbés,becomesovereigns,Irespectandflyyou;butif,intherecessesofyourheart,youconfessthatyouropulenceandpowerarefoundedonlyontheignoranceandstupidityofour fathers,at leastenjoy themwithmoderation.Wedonotwish to dethrone you; but do not crush us. Enjoy yourselves, and let us bequiet.Ifotherwise,tremble,lestatlastpeopleshouldlosetheirpatience,andreduce you, for the good of your souls, to the condition of the apostles, of

whomyoupretendtobethesuccessors.'

"'Wretch!youwouldwishthepopeandthebishopofWürtembergtogainheavenbyevangelicalpoverty!''You,reverendfather,wouldwishtohavemehanged!'"

CONSEQUENCE.

What is our real nature, and what sort of a curious and contemptibleunderstandingdowepossess?Amanmay, itappears,drawthemostcorrectand luminousconclusions,andyetbedestituteofcommonsense.This is, infact,tootrue.TheAthenianfool,whobelievedthatallthevesselswhichcameintotheportbelongedtohim,couldcalculatetoanicetywhatthecargoesofthosevesselswereworth,andwithinhowmanydaystheywouldarrivefromSmyrnaatthePiræus.

We have seen idiots who could calculate and reason in a still moreextraordinary manner. They were not idiots, then, you tell me. I ask yourpardon—they certainly were. They rested their whole superstructure on anabsurd principle; they regularly strung together chimeras. Amanmaywalkwell,andgoastrayatthesametime;and,then,thebetterhewalksthefartherastrayhegoes.

The Fo of the Indians was son of an elephant, who condescended toproduceoffspringbyanIndianprincess,who,inconsequenceofthisspeciesof left-handed union, was brought to bed of the god Fo. This princess wassistertoanemperoroftheIndies.Fo,then,wasthenephewofthatemperor,and the grandson of the elephant and the monarch were cousins-german;therefore, according to the laws of the state, the race of the emperor beingextinct,thedescendantsoftheelephantbecometherightfulsuccessors.Admittheprinciple,andtheconclusionisperfectlycorrect.

It is said that the divine elephant was nine standard feet in height. Youreasonably suppose that the gate of his stable should be above nine feet inheight,inordertoadmithisenteringwithease.Heconsumedtwentypoundsofriceeveryday,andtwentypoundsofsugar,anddranktwenty-fivepoundsof water. You find, by using your arithmetic, that he swallows thirty-sixthousandfivehundredpoundsweightinthecourseofayear;itisimpossibletoreckonmorecorrectly.Butdidyourelephantever,infact,exist?Washetheemperor'sbrother-in-law?Hadhiswifeachildbythisleft-handedunion?Thisisthemattertobeinvestigated.Twentydifferentauthors,wholivedinCochinChina, have successivelywritten about it; it is incumbent on you to collate

thesetwentyauthors,toweightheirtestimonies,toconsultancientrecords,toseeifthereisanymentionofthiselephantinthepublicregisters;toexaminewhether the whole account is not a fable, which certain impostors have aninterest insanctioning.Youproceeduponanextravagantprinciple,butdrawfromitcorrectconclusions.

Logic is not so much wanting to men as the source of logic. It is notsufficient for a madman to say six vessels which belong to me carry twohundred tons each; the ton is two thousandpoundsweight; I have thereforetwelve hundred thousand pounds weight of merchandise in the port of thePiræus.Thegreatpointis,arethosevesselsyours?Thatistheprincipleuponwhich your fortune depends; when that is settled, you may estimate andreckonupafterwards.

Anignorantman,whoisafanatic,andwhoatthesametimestrictlydrawshisconclusionsfromhispremises,oughtsometimestobesmotheredtodeathas amadman.He has read that Phineas, transported by a holy zeal, havingfound a Jew in bed with a Midianitish woman, slew them both, and wasimitatedby theLevites,whomassacredeveryhousehold that consistedone-halfofMidianitesandtheotherofJews.HelearnsthatMr.——,hisCatholicneighbor,intriguedwithMrs.——,anotherneighbor,butaHuguenot,andhewill kill both of them without scruple. It is impossible to act in greaterconsistencywithprinciple;butwhatistheremedyforthisdreadfuldiseaseofthe soul? It is to accustom children betimes to admit nothingwhich shocksreason, to avoid relating to them histories of ghosts, apparitions, witches,demoniacal possessions, and ridiculous prodigies. A girl of an active andsusceptible imagination hears a story of demoniacal possessions; her nervesbecomeshaken,shefallsintoconvulsions,andbelievesherselfpossessedbyademonordevil. I actually sawoneyoungwomandie inconsequenceof theshockherframereceivedfromtheseabominablehistories.

CONSTANTINE.

SectionI.

TheAgeofConstantine.

AmongtheageswhichfollowedtheAugustan,thatofConstantinemeritsparticulardistinction.Itisimmortalizedbythegreatchangeswhichitusheredinto theworld. It commenced, it is true,with bringing back barbarism.Notmerelywere therenoCiceros,Horaces, andVirgils, any longer tobe found,buttherewasnotevenaLucanoraSeneca;therewasnotevenaphilosophic

andaccuratehistorian.Nothingwas tobeseenbutequivocalsatiresormererandompanegyrics.

ItwasatthattimethattheChristiansbegantowritehistory,buttheytooknotTitusLivy, orThucydides as theirmodels. The followers of the ancientreligionwrotewithnogreatereloquenceortruth.Thetwoparties,inastateofmutualexasperation,didnotveryscrupulouslyinvestigatethechargeswhichtheyheapedupon theiradversaries;andhence it arises that thesameman issometimesrepresentedasagodandsometimesasamonster.

Thedeclineofeverything,inthecommonestmechanicalarts,aswellasineloquenceandvirtue, tookplaceafter the reignofMarcusAurelius.Hewasthe last emperor of the sect of stoics, who elevated man above himself byrenderinghimseveretohimselfonly,andcompassionatetoothers.After thedeathofthisemperor,whowasagenuinephilosopher,therewasnothingbuttyranny and confusion. The soldiers frequently disposed of the empire. Thesenatehadfallen intosuchcompletecontempt that, in the timeofGallienus,anexpresslawwasenactedtopreventsenatorsfromengaginginwar.Thirtyheadsofpartieswereseen,atonetime,assumingthetitleofemperorinthirtyprovincesof theempire.Thebarbariansalreadypoured in,oneveryside, inthemiddleof the thirdcentury,on this rentand laceratedempire.Yet itwasheldtogetherbythemeremilitarydisciplineonwhichithadbeenfounded.

During all these calamities, Christianity gradually established itself,particularly in Egypt, Syria, and on the coasts of Asia Minor. The RomanEmpireadmittedallsortsofreligions,aswellasallsectsofphilosophy.TheworshipofOsiriswaspermitted,andeventheJewswereleftintheenjoymentofconsiderableprivileges,notwithstandingtheirrevolts.Butthepeopleintheprovinces frequently rose up against the Christians. The magistratespersecuted them, and edictswere frequently obtained against them from theemperors.ThereisnogroundforastonishmentatthegeneralhatredinwhichChristianswereatfirstheld,whilesomanyotherreligionsweretolerated.Thereason was that neither Egyptians nor Jews, nor the worshippers of thegoddess of Syria and so many other foreign deities, ever declared openhostilitytothegodsoftheempire.Theydidnotarraythemselvesagainsttheestablishedreligion;butoneofthemostimperiousdutiesoftheChristianswastoexterminatetheprevailingworship.Thepriestsofthegodsraisedaclamoronperceivingthediminutionofsacrificesandofferings;andthepeople,everfanatical and impetuous,were stirred up against theChristians,while in themeantime many emperors protected them. Adrian expressly forbade thepersecution of them. Marcus Aurelius commanded that they should not beprosecutedonaccountofreligion.Caracalla,Heliogabalus,Alexander,Philip,andGallienus left them entire liberty.They had, in the third century, publicchurchesnumerouslyattendedandveryopulent;andsogreatwastheliberty

theyenjoyedthat,inthecourseofthatcentury,theyheldsixteencouncils.TheroadtodignitieswasshutupagainstthefirstChristians,whowerenearlyallofobscurecondition,andtheyturnedtheirattentiontocommerce,andsomeofthemamassedgreataffluence.Thisistheresourceofallsocietiesthatcannothaveaccesstoofficesinthestate.SuchhasbeenthecasewiththeCalvinistsin France, all theNonconformists in England, theCatholics inHolland, theArmenians in Persia, theBanians in India, and the Jews all over theworld.However, at last the toleration was so great, and the administration of thegovernment somild, that theChristians gained access to all the honors anddignities of the state.Theydid not sacrifice to the gods of the empire; theywerenotmolested,whethertheyattendedoravoidedthetemples;therewasatRome themostperfect libertywith respect to theexercisesof their religion;nonewerecompelledtoengageinthem.TheChristians,therefore,enjoyedthesamelibertyasothers.Itissotruethattheyattainedtohonors,thatDiocletianandGaleriusdeprivednofewerthanthreehundredandthreeofthemofthosehonors,inthepersecutionofwhichweshallhavetospeak.

It is our duty to adore Providence in all its dispensations; but I confinemyself topoliticalhistory.Manes,under the reignofProbus, about theyear278, formed a new religion in Alexandria. The principles of this sect weremade up of some ancient doctrines of the Persians and certain tenets ofChristianity.Probus,andhissuccessor,Carus,leftManesandtheChristiansinthe enjoyment of peace. Numerien permitted them entire liberty. Diocletianprotected theChristians,and tolerated theManichæans,during twelveyears;butin296heissuedanedictagainsttheManichæans,andproscribedthemasenemiestotheempireandadherentsofthePersians.TheChristianswerenotcomprehended in the edict; they continued in tranquillity under Diocletian,andmadeopenprofessionoftheirreligionthroughoutthewholeempireuntilthelatteryearsofthatprince'sreign.

Tocomplete the sketch, it isnecessary todescribeofwhatat thatperiodthe Roman Empire consisted. Notwithstanding internal and foreign shocks,notwithstandingtheincursionsofbarbarians,itcomprisedallthepossessionsof the grand seignor at the present day, exceptArabia; all that the house ofAustriapossessesinGermany,andalltheGermanprovincesasfarastheElbe;Italy, France, Spain, England, and half of Scotland; all Africa as far as thedesert ofSahara, and even theCanary Isles.All thesenationswere retainedundertheyokebybodiesofmilitarylessconsiderablethanwouldberaisedbyGermanyandFranceatthepresentday,wheninactualwar.

This immense power becamemore confirmed and enlarged, fromCæsardown toTheodosius, aswellby laws,police, and real services conferredonthepeople,asbyarmsandterror.Itisevenyetamatterofastonishmentthatnoneoftheseconquerednationshavebeenable,sincetheybecametheirown

rulers, to form such highways, and to erect such amphitheatres and publicbaths,astheirconquerorsbestoweduponthem.Countrieswhichareatpresentnearlybarbarousanddeserted,werethenpopulousandwellgoverned.Such,wereEpirus,Macedonia,Thessaly,Illyria,Pannonia,withAsiaMinor,andthecoasts of Africa; but it must also be admitted that Germany, France, andBritainwerethenverydifferentfromwhattheyarenow.Thesethreestatesarethose which have most benefited by governing themselves; yet it requirednearlytwelvecenturiestoplacethosekingdomsintheflourishingsituationinwhichwenowbeholdthem;butitmustbeacknowledgedthatalltheresthavelost much by passing under different laws. The ruins of Asia Minor andGreece, the depopulation of Egypt and the barbarism of Africa, are stillexisting testimonials of Roman greatness. The great number of flourishingcitieswhichcoveredthosecountrieshadnowbecomemiserablevillages,andthesoilhadbecomebarrenunderthehandsofabrutalizedpopulation.

SectionII.

CharacterofConstantine.

Iwillnotherespeakoftheconfusionwhichagitatedtheempireaftertheabdication of Diocletian. There were after his death six emperors at once.Constantinetriumphedoverthemall,changedthereligionoftheempire,andwasnotmerelytheauthorofthatgreatrevolution,butofallthosewhichhavesince occurred in the west. What was his character? Ask it of Julian, ofZosimus,ofSozomen,andofVictor; theywill tellyou thatheactedat firstlikeagreatprince,afterwardsasapublicrobber,andthatthelaststageofhislifewasthatofasensualist,atrifler,andaprodigal.Theywilldescribehimasever ambitious, cruel, and sanguinary. Ask his character of Eusebius, ofGregoryNazianzen,andLactantius;theywillinformyouthathewasaperfectman.Betweenthesetwoextremesauthenticfactsalonecanenableustoobtainthetruth.Hehadafather-in-law,whomheimpelledtohanghimself;hehadabrother-in-lawwhomheordered tobestrangled;hehadanephewtwelveorthirteen years old,whose throat he ordered to be cut; he had an eldest son,whom he beheaded; he had awife, whom he ordered to be suffocated in abath.AnoldGallicauthorsaidthat"helovedtomakeaclearhouse."

Ifyouaddtoallthesedomesticactsthat,beingonthebanksoftheRhinein pursuit of some hordes of Frankswho resided in those parts, and havingtaken their kings, who probably were of the family of our Pharamond orClodion le Chevelu, he exposed them to beasts for his diversion; youmayinfer fromall this,withoutanyapprehensionofbeingdeceived, thathewasnotthemostcourteousandaccommodatingpersonageintheworld.

Letusexamine,inthisplace,theprincipaleventsofhisreign.Hisfather,Constantius Chlorus, was in the heart of Britain, where he had for some

monthsassumedthetitleofemperor.ConstantinewasatNicomedia,withtheemperorGalerius.Heaskedpermissionoftheemperortogotoseehisfather,whowas ill.Galerius granted it,without difficulty.Constantine set offwithgovernmentrelays,calledveredarii.Itmightbesaidtobeasdangeroustobeapost-horseastobeamemberofthefamilyofConstantine,forheorderedallthehorsestobehamstrungafterhehaddonewiththem,fearfullestGaleriusshouldrevokehispermissionandorderhimtoreturntoNicomedia.Hefoundhisfatheratthepointofdeath,andcausedhimselftoberecognizedemperorbythesmallnumberofRomantroopsatthattimeinBritain.

AnelectionofaRomanemperoratYork,byfiveorsixthousandmen,wasnotlikelytobeconsideredlegitimateatRome.Itwantedatleasttheformulaof"SenatuspopulusqueRomanus."Thesenate,thepeople,andtheprætorianbandsunanimouslyelectedMaxentius,sonoftheCæsarMaximilianHercules,who had been alreadyCæsar, and brother of that FaustawhomConstantinehadmarried,andwhomheafterwardscausedtobesuffocated.ThisMaxentiusis called a tyrant and usurper by our historians, who are uniformly thepartisansofthesuccessful.HewastheprotectorofthepaganreligionagainstConstantine,who alreadybegan to declare himself for theChristians.Beingbothpaganandvanquished,hecouldnotbutbeanabominableman.

EusebiustellsusthatConstantine,whengoingtoRometofightMaxentius,saw in the clouds, as well as his whole army, the grand imperial standardcalledthelabarum,surmountedwithaLatinP.oralargeGreekR.withacrossin"saltier,"andcertainGreekwordswhichsignified,"Bythissignthoushaltconquer."Some authors pretend that this sign appeared to himatBesancon,othersatCologne,someatTrierandothersatTroyes.Itisstrangethatinallthese places heaven should have expressed its meaning in Greek. It wouldhaveappearedmorenaturaltotheweakunderstandingsofmenthatthissignshouldhaveappearedinItalyonthedayofthebattle;butthenitwouldhavebeen necessary that the inscription should have been in Latin. A learnedantiquary,ofthenameofLoisel,hasrefutedthisnarrative;buthewastreatedasareprobate.

Itmight,however,beworthwhiletoreflectthatthiswarwasnotawarofreligion, thatConstantinewasnotasaint, thathediedsuspectedofbeinganArian, after having persecuted the orthodox; and, therefore, that there is noveryobviousmotivetosupportthisprodigy.

Afterthisvictory,thesenatehastenedtopayitsdevotiontotheconqueror,andtoexpressitsdetestationofthememoryoftheconquered.ThetriumphalarchofMarcusAureliuswasspeedilydismantledtoadornthatofConstantine.Astatueofgoldwaspreparedforhim,anhonorwhichhadneverbeenshownexcepttothegods.Hereceivedit,notwithstandingthelabarum,andreceivedfurther the titleofPontifexMaximus,whichheretainedallhis life.Hisfirst

care,according toZosimus,was toexterminate thewhole raceof the tyrant,andhisprincipalfriends;afterwhichheassistedverygraciouslyatthepublicspectaclesandgames.

The aged Diocletian was at that time dying in his retreat at Salonica.Constantine should not have been in such haste to pull down his statues atRome; he should have recollected that the forgotten emperor had been thebenefactor of his father, and that he was indebted to him for the empire.Although he had conquered Maxentius, Licinius, his brother-in-law, anAugustus like himself, was still to be got rid of; and Licinius was equallyanxious to be rid of Constantine, if he had it in his power. However, theirquarrelsnothavingyetbrokenoutinhostility,theyissuedconjointlyatMilan,in313,thecelebratededictoflibertyofconscience."Wegrant,"theysay,"toall the liberty of following whatever religion they please, in order to drawdown the blessing of heaven upon us and our subjects; we declare that wehave granted to the Christians the free and full power of exercising theirreligion; it being understood that all others shall enjoy the same liberty, inorder to preserve the tranquillity of our government." A volume might bewrittenonsuchanedict,butIshallmerelyventureafewlines.

Constantine was not as yet a Christian; nor, indeed, was his colleague,Licinius,one.Therewasstillanemperorora tyrant tobeexterminated; thiswasadeterminedpagan,of thenameofMaximin.Licinius foughtwithhimbefore he foughtwithConstantine.Heavenwas stillmore favorable to himthan to Constantine himself; for the latter had only the apparition of astandard, but Licinius that of an angel. This angel taught him a prayer, bymeansofwhichhewouldbesuretovanquishthebarbarianMaximin.Liciniuswroteitdown,orderedittoberecitedthreetimesbyhisarmy,andobtainedacompletevictory.IfthissameLicinius,thebrother-in-lawofConstantine,hadreigned happily, we should have heard of nothing but his angel; butConstantinehavinghadhimhanged,andhissonslain,andbecomeabsolutemasterofeverything,nothinghasbeentalkedofbutConstantine'slabarum.

ItisbelievedthatheputtodeathhiseldestsonCrispus,andhisownwifeFausta, the same year that he convened the Council of Nice. Zosimus andSozomenpretendthat,theheathenpriestshavingtoldhimthattherewerenoexpiationsforsuchgreatcrimes,hethenmadeopenprofessionofChristianity,and demolished many temples in the East. It is not very probable that thepaganpontiffsshouldhaveomittedsofineanopportunityofgettingbacktheirgrand pontiff, who had abandoned them. However, it is by no meansimpossiblethattheremightbeamongthemsomeseveremen;scrupulousandaustere persons are to be found everywhere.What ismore extraordinary is,that Constantine, after becoming a Christian, performed no penance for hisparricide. Itwas at Rome that he exercised that cruelty, and from that time

residenceatRomebecamehateful tohim.Hequitted it forever,andwent tolay the foundations of Constantinople. How dared he say, in one of hisrescripts, that he transferred the seat of empire to Constantinople, "by thecommandofGodhimself?" Is it anythingbut an impudentmockeryofGodandman?IfGodhadgivenhimanycommand,woulditnothavebeen—nottoassassinatehiswifeandson?

Diocletian had already furnished an example of transferring the empiretowards Asia. The pride, the despotism, and the general manners of theAsiaticsdisgustedtheRomans,depravedandslavishastheyhadbecome.Theemperorshadnotventuredtorequire,atRome,thattheirfeetshouldbekissed,nor to introduce a crowd of eunuchs into their palaces.Diocletian began inNicomedia, and Constantine completed the system at Constantinople, toassimilate theRoman court to the courts of the Persians. The city ofRomefrom that time languished in decay, and the oldRoman spirit declinedwithher.Constantinethuseffectedthegreatestinjurytotheempirethatwasinhispower.

Of all the emperors, hewas unquestionably themost absolute.Augustushadleftanimageofliberty;Tiberius,andevenNero,hadhumoredthesenateandpeopleofRome;Constantinehumorednone.Hehadat first establishedhis power inRomebydisbanding thosehaughtyprætorianswho consideredthemselvesthemastersoftheemperors.Hemadeanentireseparationbetweenthe gown and the sword. The depositories of the laws, kept down undermilitarypower,wereonlyjuristsinchains.Theprovincesoftheempireweregoverneduponanewsystem.

ThegrandobjectofConstantinewastobemasterineverything;hewassointheChurch,aswellasintheState.Webeholdhimconvokingandopeningthe Council of Nice; advancing into the midst of the assembled fathers,coveredoverwithjewels,andwiththediademonhishead,seatinghimselfinthe highest place, and banishing unconcernedly sometimes Arius andsometimes Athanasius. He put himself at the head of Christianity withoutbeing a Christian; for at that time baptism was essential to any person'sbecoming one; he was only a catechumen. The usage of waiting for theapproach of death before immersing in the water of regeneration, wasbeginning to decline with respect to private individuals. If Constantine, bydelayinghisbaptismtillnearthepointofdeath,entertainedthenotionthathemightcommiteveryactwithimpunityinthehopeofacompleteexpiation,itwas unfortunate for the human race that such an opinion should have eversuggesteditselftothemindofamaninpossessionofuncontrolledpower.

CONTRADICTIONS.

SectionI.

The more we see of the world, the more we see it abounding incontradictions and inconsistencies.To beginwith theGrandTurk: he orderseveryheadthathedislikesstruckoff,andcanveryrarelypreservehisown.IfwepassfromtheGrandTurktotheHolyFather,heconfirmstheelectionofemperors,andhaskingsamonghisvassals;butheisnotsopowerfulasadukeofSavoy.HeexpeditesordersforAmericaandAfrica,yetcouldnotwithholdtheslightestof itsprivileges fromtherepublicofLucca.Theemperor is thekingoftheRomans;buttherightoftheirkingconsistsinholdingthepope'sstirrup,andhandingthewatertohimatmass.TheEnglishservetheirmonarchupontheirknees,buttheydepose,imprison,andbeheadhim.

Menwhomakeavowofpoverty,gaininconsequenceanincomeofabouttwo hundred thousand crowns; and, in virtue of their vow of humility, theybecomeabsolute sovereigns.Thepluralityofbeneficeswith careof souls isseverely denounced at Rome, yet every day it despatches a bull to someGerman,toenablehimtoholdfiveorsixbishopricsatonce.Thereason,wearetold,isthattheGermanbishopshavenocureofsouls.ThechancellorofFranceisthefirstpersonintheState,buthecannotsitattablewiththeking,atleasthecouldnottill lately,althoughacolonel,whoisscarcelyperhapsagentleman—gentil-homme—may enjoy that distinction. The wife of aprovincialgovernor isaqueenin theprovince,butmerelyacitizen'swifeatcourt.

Personsconvictedofthecrimeofnonconformityarepubliclyroasted,andinallourcollegesthesecondeclogueofVirgilisexplainedwithgreatgravity,including Corydon's declarations of love to the beautiful Alexis; and it isremarked to the boys that, althoughAlexis be fair andAmyntas brown, yetAmyntasmaystilldeservethepreference.

If an unfortunate philosopher, without intending the least harm, takes itintohisheadthattheearthturnsround,ortoimaginethatlightcomesfromthesun,or to suppose thatmattermaycontain someotherproperties than thosewith which we are acquainted, he is cried down as a blasphemer, and adisturberofthepublicpeace;andyettherearetranslationsinusumDelphiniof the "Tusculan Questions" of Cicero, and of Lucretius, which are twocompletecoursesofirreligion.

Courts of justice no longer believe that persons are possessed by devils,and laughat sorcerers; butGauffredi andGrandierwereburned for sorcery;andone-halfofaparliamentwantedtosentencetothestakeamonkaccusedofhavingbewitchedagirlofeighteenbybreathinguponher.

The skeptical philosopher Bayle was persecuted, even in Holland. LaMotteleVayer,moreofaskeptic,butlessofaphilosopher,waspreceptorofthekingLouisXIV.,andoftheking'sbrother.GourvillewashangedineffigyatParis,whileFrenchministerinGermany.

The celebrated atheist Spinoza lived and died in peace.Vanini,whohadmerely written against Aristotle, was burned as an atheist; he has, inconsequence,obtainedthehonorofmakingonearticleinthehistoriesofthelearned, and in all the dictionaries, which, in fact, constitute immenserepositoriesof lies,mixedupwithavery smallportionof truth.Open thesebooks,andyouwilltherefindnotmerelythatVaninipubliclytaughtatheisminhiswritings,butthattwelveprofessorsofhissectwentwithhimtoNapleswith the intention of everywhere making proselytes. Afterwards, open thebooksofVanini,andyouwillbeastonishedtofindinthemnothingbutproofsof the existence of God. Read the following passage, taken from his"Amphitheatrum,"aworkequallyunknownandcondemned;"GodisHisownoriginal andboundary,without end andwithout beginning, requiringneithertheonenortheother,andfatherofallbeginningandend;Heeverexists,butnot in time; toHimtherehasbeennopast,andwillbenofuture;Hereignseverywhere, without being in any place; immovable without rest, rapidwithoutmotion;Heisall,andoutofall;Heisinall,withoutbeingenclosed;out of everything,without being excluded fromanything; good, butwithoutquality; entire, but without parts; immutable, while changing the wholeuniverse;Hiswill isHispower;absolute, there isnothingofHimofwhat ismerely possible; all inHim is real;He is the first, themiddle, and the last;finally,althoughconstitutingall,He isaboveallbeings,outof them,withinthem, beyond them, before them, and after them." It was after such aprofession of faith that Vanini was declared an atheist. Uponwhat groundswashecondemned?SimplyuponthedepositionofamannamedFrancon.Invaindidhisbooksdeposeinfavorofhim;asingleenemydeprivedhimoflife,andstigmatizedhisnamethroughoutEurope.

The little book called "Cymbalum Mundi," which is merely a coldimitationofLucian,andwhichhasnot the slightestor remotest reference toChristianity, was condemned to be burned. But Rabelais was printed "cumprivilegio";andafreecoursewasallowedto the"TurkishSpy,"andeven tothe"PersianLetters";thatvolatile,ingenious,anddaringwork,inwhichthereisonewholeletterinfavorofsuicide;anotherinwhichwefindthesewords:"Ifwesupposesuchathingasreligion;"athird,inwhichitisexpresslysaidthat"thebishopshavenootherfunctionsthandispensingwiththeobservanceofthelaws";and,finally,anotherinwhichthepopeissaidtobeamagician,whomakespeoplebelievethatthreeareone,andthatthebreadweeatisnotbread,etc.

TheAbbéSt.Pierre,amanwhocouldfrequentlydeceivehimself,butwhoneverwrotewithoutaviewtothepublicgood,andwhoseworkswerecalledbyCardinalDubois,"Thedreamsofanhonestcitizen";theAbbéSt.Pierre,Isay,wasunanimouslyexpelledfromtheFrenchAcademyforhaving,insomepoliticalwork, preferred the establishment of councils under the regency tothatofsecretariesofstateunderLouisXIV.;andforsaying that towards theclose of that glorious reign the finances were wretchedly conducted. Theauthor of the "Persian Letters" has not mentioned Louis XIV. in his book,excepttosaythathewasamagicianwhocouldmakehissubjectsbelievethatpaper wasmoney; that he liked no government but that of Turkey; that hepreferredamanwhohandedhimanapkintoamanwhogainedhimbattles;thathehadconferredapensiononamanwhohadrunawaytwoleagues,andagovernmentuponanotherwhohadrunawayfour;thathewasoverwhelmedwith poverty, although it is said, in the same letter, that his finances areinexhaustible.Observe,then,Irepeat,allthatthiswriter,intheonlyworkthenknowntobehis,hassaidofLouisXIV., thepatronof theFrenchAcademy.Wemayadd,too,asaclimaxofcontradiction,thatthatsocietyadmittedhimas a member for having turned them into ridicule; for, of all the books bywhichthepublichavebeenentertainedattheexpenseofthesociety,thereisnotoneinwhichithasbeentreatedmoredisrespectfullythaninthe"PersianLetters."Seethatletterwhereinhesays,"Themembersofthisbodyhavenootherbusinessthanincessantlytochatter;panegyriccomesandtakesitsplaceasitwerespontaneouslyintheireternalgabble,"etc.Afterhavingthustreatedthis society, they praise him, on his introduction, for his skill in drawinglikenesses.

WereIdisposedtocontinuetheresearchintothecontrariestobefoundintheempireofletters,Imightgivethehistoryofeverymanoflearningorwit;just in the same manner as, if I were inclined to detail the contradictionsexistinginsociety,itwouldbenecessarytowritethehistoryofmankind.AnAsiatic,whoshould travel toEurope,mightwell considerusaspagans;ourweek days bear the names of Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, and Venus; and thenuptialsofCupidandPsychearepaintedinthepope'spalace;but,particularly,werethisAsiatictoattendatouropera,hewouldnothesitateinconcludingittobea festival inhonorof thepagandeities. Ifheendeavored togainmorepreciseinformationrespectingourmanners,hewouldexperiencestillgreaterastonishment;hewouldsee,inSpain,thataseverelawforbidsanyforeignerfrom having the slightest share, however indirect, in the commerce ofAmerica; and that, notwithstanding, foreigners—through the medium ofSpanishfactors—carryonacommercewithittotheextentoffifteenmillionsa year. Thus Spain can be enriched only by the violation of a law alwayssubsisting and always evaded. He would see that in another country thegovernment establishes and encourages a company for trading to the Indies,

while the divines of that country have declared the receiving of dividendsuponthesharesoffensiveinthesightofGod.Hewouldseethattheofficesofajudge,acommander,aprivycounsellor,arepurchased;hewouldbeunabletocomprehendwhy it is stated in thepatentsappointing to suchoffices thattheyhavebeenbestowedgratisandwithoutpurchase,whilethereceiptforthesumgivenforthemisattachedtothecommissionitself.WouldnotourAsiaticbe surprised, also, to see comedians salaried by sovereigns, andexcommunicated by priests? He would inquire why a plebeian lieutenant-general,whohadwonbattles, shouldbe subject to the taille, likeapeasant;andasheriffshouldbeconsidered,atleastinreferencetothispoint,asnobleasaMontmorency;why,whileregulardramasareforbiddentobeperformedduring a week sacred to edification,merry-andrews are permitted to offendeven the leastdelicateearswith their ribaldry.Hewouldalmosteverywhereseeourusages inopposition toour laws;andwerewe to travel toAsia,weshoulddiscovertheexistenceofexactlysimilarcontradictions.

Men are everywhere inconsistent alike. They have made laws bypiecemeal, as breaches are repaired in walls. Here the eldest sons takeeverything they are able from the younger ones; there all share equally.Sometimes the Church has ordered duels, sometimes it has anathematizedthem. The partisans and the opponents of Aristotle have been bothexcommunicatedintheirturn;ashavealsothewearersoflonghairandshorthair.Therehasbeenbutoneperfectlawintheworld,andthatwasdesignedtoregulateaspeciesoffolly—thatistosay,play.Thelawsofplayaretheonlyoneswhichadmitofnoexception,relaxation,changeortyranny.Amanwhohas been a lackey, if he plays at lansquenetwith kings, is paidwith perfectreadinesswhenhewins. Inothercases the law iseverywherea sword,withwhichthestrongestpartycutsinpiecestheweakest.

In themeantimetheworldgoesonas ifeverythingwaswiselyarranged;irregularity is part of our nature.Our socialworld is like the natural globe,rude and unshapely, but possessing a principle of preservation; it would befolly to wish that mountains, seas, and rivers were traced in regular andfinished forms; it would be a still greater folly to expect from man theperfectionofwisdom;itwouldbeasweakastowishtoattachwingstodogsorhornstoeagles.

Examples Taken from History, from Sacred Scripture, from NumerousAuthors,etc.

Wehavejustbeeninstancingavarietyofcontradictionsinourusages,ourmanners,andourlaws,butwehavenotsaidenough.Everything,particularlyinEurope,hasbeenmadeinthesamemannerasHarlequin'shabit.Hismaster,whenhewantedtohaveadressmadeforhim,hadnotapieceofcloth,andthereforetookoldcuttingsofallsortsofcolors.Harlequinwaslaughedat,but

thenhewasclothed.

TheGermansareabravenation,whomneithertheGermanicusesnortheTrajanswereeverablecompletely tosubjugate.All theGermannations thatdweltbeyondtheElbewereinvincible,althoughbadlyarmed;andfromthesegloomyclimes issuedforth, inpart, theavengersof theworld.Germany, farfromconstitutingtheRomanEmpire,hasbeeninstrumentalindestroyingit.

This empire had found a refuge at Constantinople, when aGerman—anAustrasian—wentfromAix-la-ChapelletoRome,tostriptheGreekCæsarsofthe remainder of their possessions in Italy. He assumed the name of CæsarImperator;butneitherhenorhissuccessorsevenventuredtoresideatRome.ThatcapitalcouldnoteitherboastorregretthatfromthetimeofAugustulus,the finalexcrementof thegenuineRomanEmpire,a singleCæsarhad livedandbeenburiedwithinitswalls.

It is difficult to suppose the empire can be "holy," as it professes threedifferentreligions,ofwhichtwoaredeclaredimpious,abominable,damnable,anddamned,bythecourtofRome,whichthewholeimperialcourtconsidersinsuchcasestobesupreme.ItiscertainlynotRoman,sincetheemperorhasnotanyresidenceatRome.

In England peoplewait upon the king kneeling. The constantmaxim is,"Thekingcandonowrong";hisministersonlycandeserveblame;he isasinfallibleinhisactionsasthepopeinhisjudgments.Suchisthefundamental,the "Salic" law of England.Yet the parliament sat in judgment on its king,EdwardII.,whohadbeenvanquishedandtakenprisonerbyhiswife;hewasdeclaredtohavedoneallpossiblewrong,anddeprivedofallhisrightstothecrown.SirWilliamTresselwenttohiminprison,andmadehimthefollowingcomplimentaryaddress:

"I, William Tressel, as proxy for the parliament and the whole Englishnation, revoke the homage formerly paid you; I put you to defiance, anddeprive you of royal power, and from this time forth we will hold noallegiancetoyou."

TheparliamenttriedandsentencedKingRichardII.,grandsonofthegreatEdwardIII.Thirty-onearticlesofaccusationwerebroughtagainsthim,amongwhich two are not a little singular—that he had borrowed money and notrepaidit;andthathehadassertedbeforewitnessesthathewasmasterofthelivesandpropertiesofhissubjects.

The parliament deposed Henry VI., who, undoubtedly, was exceedinglywrong,butinasomewhatdifferentsense:hewasimbecile.

Theparliament declaredEdward IV. a traitor, and confiscatedhis goods;andafterwards,onhisbeingsuccessful,restoredhim.AsforRichardIII.,he

undoubtedlycommittedmorewrongthanalltheothers;hewasaNero,butaboldone;andtheparliamentdidnotdeclarehiswrongstillafterhewasslain.

TheHouse ofCommons imputed toCharles I.morewrong than hewasjustlychargeablewith,andbroughthimtothescaffold.ParliamentvotedthatJamesII.hadcommittedverygrossandflagrantwrongs,andparticularlythatofwithdrawinghimselffromthekingdom.Itdeclaredthethronevacant;thatis,itdeposedhim.Inthepresentday,JuniuswritestothekingofEnglandthatheisfaultyinbeinggoodandwise.Ifthesearenotcontradictions,Iknownotwheretofindthem.

ContradictionsinCertainRites.

Next to those great political contradictions, which are subdivided intoinnumerable little ones, nothing more forcibly attracts our notice than thecontradictionapparentinreferencetosomeofourrites.WehateJudaism.NolongerthanfifteenyearsagoJewswerestillburnedatthestake.Weconsiderthemasmurderers of ourGod, andyetwe assemble everySunday to chantJewishpsalmsandcanticles;itisonlyowingtoourignoranceofthelanguagethatwedonotrecitetheminHebrew.Butthefifteenfirstbishops,thepriests,deaconsandcongregationofJerusalem,whichwasthecradleoftheChristianreligion, always recited the Jewishpsalms in the Jewish idiomof theSyriaclanguage;and,tillthetimeoftheCaliphOmar,almostalltheChristians,fromTyre toAleppo,prayed in that Jewish idiom.Atpresent anyone reciting thepsalms as they were originally composed, or chanting them in the Jewishlanguage, would be suspected of being a circumcised Jew, and might beburnedasone;atleast,notmorethantwentyyearssince,thatwouldhavebeenhisfate,althoughJesusChristwascircumcised,aswerealsohisapostlesanddisciples.Isetasidethemysteriousdoctrinesofourholyreligion—everythingthatisanobjectoffaith—everythingthatweoughttoapproachonlywithaweandsubmission.Ilookonlyatexternals;Irefersimplytoobservances;Iaskifanythingwasevermorecontradictory?

ContradictionsinThingsandMen.

Ifanyliterarysocietyisinclinedtoundertakeahistoryofcontradictions,Iwill subscribe for twenty folio volumes. The world displays nothing butcontradictions.Whatwouldbenecessarytoputanendtothem?Toassemblethe states-general of the human race. But, according to the nature andconstitutionofmankind, itwouldbeanewcontradictionweretheytoagree.Bring together all the rabbits in the world, and there would not be twodifferentmindsamongthem.

I know only two descriptions of immovable beings in the world—geometricians and brute animals; they are guided by two invariable rules—demonstration and instinct. Some disputes, indeed, have occurred between

geometricians,butbruteshavenevervaried.

The contrasts, the lights and shades, in which men are represented inhistory, are not contradictions; they are faithful portraits of human nature.EverydaybothcensureandadmirationareappliedtoAlexander,themurdererofClitus,buttheavengerofGreece;theconquerorofPersia,andthefounderof Alexandria; to Cæsar, the debauchee, who robbed the public treasury ofRometoenslavehiscountry,butwhoseclemencywasequaltohisvalor,andwhosegeniuswasequaltohiscourage;toMahomet,theimpostorandrobber,but the only legislator of religion that ever displayed courage, or founded agreat empire; to the enthusiast, Cromwell, at once knave and fanatic, themurdererofhiskingbyformoflaw,butequallyprofoundasapolitician,andvaliant as a warrior. A thousand contrasts frequently present themselves atonce to the mind, and these contrasts are in nature. They are not moreastonishingthanafinedayfollowedbyatempest.

ApparentContradictionsinBooks.

Wemustaccuratelydistinguishinbooks,andparticularlythesacredones,between apparent and real contradictions. It is said in the Pentateuch thatMoseswas themeekest ofmen, and that he ordered twenty-three thousandHebrews to be slain who had worshipped the golden calf, and twenty-fourthousand more, who had, like himself, married Midianitish women. Butsagacious commentators have adduced solid proofs thatMoses possessed amost amiable temper, and that he only executed the vengeance of God inmassacringtheseforty-seventhousandIsraelites,asjuststated.

Some daring critics have pretended to perceive a contradiction in thenarrative inwhich it is said thatMoseschangedall thewatersofEgypt intoblood, and that the magicians of Pharaoh afterwards performed the sameprodigy—theBookofExodusleavingnointervaloftimebetweenthemiracleofMosesandthemagicaloperationoftheenchanters.

Itappears,atfirstview,impossiblethatthesemagiciansshouldchangetoblood thatwhichwasalreadymadesuch;but thedifficultymayberemovedby supposing that Moses had allowed the waters to resume their originalnature, in order to give Pharaoh time for reflection. This supposition is themoreplausible,inasmuchas,ifnotexpresslyfavoredbythetext,thelatterisnotcontrarytoit.

Thesameskepticsinquirehow,afterallthehorsesweredestroyedbyhail,inthesixthplague,PharaohwasabletopursuetheJewishnationwithcavalry.Butthiscontradictionisnotevenanapparentone,sincethehailwhichkilledallthehorsesthatwereoutinthefields,couldnotfallonthosewhichwereinthestables.

Oneofthegreatestcontradictionswhichhasbeensupposedtobefoundinthehistoryof thekings is theutter scarcityofoffensive anddefensive armsamongtheJewsatthetimeoftheaccessionofSaul,comparedwiththearmyof three hundred and thirty thousand men, whom he conducted against theAmmoniteswhowerebesiegingJabeshGilead.

It is a fact related that, then, and even after that battle, therewas not alance, not even a single sword, among the whole Hebrew people; that thePhilistinespreventedtheHebrewsfrommanufacturingswordsandlances;thattheHebrewswereobliged tohave recourse to thePhilistines for sharpeningandrepairingtheirplowshares,mattocks,axes,andpruning-hooks.

ThisacknowledgmentseemstoprovethattheHebrewsconsistedofonlyavery small number, and that the Philistines were a powerful and victoriousnation,whokepttheIsraelitesundertheyoke,andtreatedthemasslaves;inshort, that it was impossible for Saul to collect three hundred and thirtythousandfightingmen,etc.

The reverend Father Calmet says it is probable "that there is a littleexaggerationinwhatisstatedaboutSaulandJonathan";butthatlearnedmanforgets that the other commentators ascribe the first victories of Saul andJonathantooneofthosedecidedmiracleswhichGodsooftencondescendedtoperform in favorofhismiserablepeople. Jonathan,withhisarmor-beareronly, at the very beginning, slew twenty of the enemy; and the Philistines,utterly confounded, turned their arms against each other. The author of theBookofKingspositivelydeclaresthatitwasamiracleofGod:"AcciditquasimiraculumaDeo."Thereis,therefore,nocontradiction.

TheenemiesoftheChristianreligion,theCelsuses,thePorphyrys,andtheJulians,haveexhaustedthesagacityoftheirunderstandingsuponthissubject.TheJewishwritershaveavailedthemselvesofalltheadvantagestheyderivedfrom their superior knowledge of the Hebrew language to explain theseapparentcontradictions.TheyhavebeenfollowedevenbyChristians,suchasLord Herbert, Wollaston, Tindal, Toland, Collins, Shaftesbury, Woolston,Gordon,Bolingbroke,andmanyothersofdifferentnations.Fréret,perpetualsecretary of theAcademy of Belles Lettres in France, the learned Le Clerchimself,andSimonoftheOratorythoughttheyperceivedsomecontradictionswhichmightbeascribedtothecopyists.Animmensenumberofothercriticshaveendeavoredtoremoveorcorrectcontradictionswhichappearedtotheminexplicable.

Wereadinadangerouslittlebook,composedwithmuchart:"St.MatthewandSt.LukegiveeachagenealogyofChristdifferentfromtheother;andlestit should be thought that the differences are only slight, such as might beimputedtoneglectoroversight,thecontrarymayeasilybeshownbyreading

the first chapter of Matthew and the third of Luke.We shall then see thatfifteengenerationsmoreareenumeratedintheonethanintheother;that,fromDavid, they completely separate; that they join again at Salathiel; but that,afterhisson,theyagainseparate,anddonotreuniteagainbutinJoseph.

"In the same genealogy, St. Matthew again falls into a manifestcontradiction, for he says that Uzziah was the father of Jotham; and in the"Paralipomena,"bookI,chap.iii.,v.II,12,wefindthreegenerationsbetweenthem—Joas, Amazias, and Azarias—of whom Luke, as well as Matthew,makenomention.Further,thisgenealogyhasnothingtodowiththatofJesus,since,accordingtoourcreed,JosephhadhadnointercoursewithMary."

In order to reply to this objection, urged from the time of Origen, andrenewed from age to age, we must read Julius Africanus. See the twogenealogiesreconciledinthefollowingtable,aswefinditintherepositoryofecclesiasticalwriters:

DAVID.

Solomonandhisdescendants,enumeratedbySaintMathew.

Nathanandhisdescendants,enumeratedbySaintLuke.

ESTHER.

Mathan,herfirsthusband.

Melchi,orratherMathat,hersecondhusband.

Thewifeofthesetwopersonssuccessively,marriedfirsttoHeli,bywhomshehadnochild,andafterwardstoJacob,hisbrother.

Jacob,sonofMathan,thefirsthusband.

Joseph,naturalofJacob.

There is another method to reconcile the two genealogies, by St.Epiphanius.Accordingtohim,JacobPanther,descendedfromSolomon,isthefatherofJosephandofCleophas.Josephhassixchildrenbyhisfirstwife—James,Joshua,Simeon,Jude,Mary,andSalome.HethenespousestheVirginMary,themotherofJesus,andthedaughterofJoachimandAnne.

There aremany othermethods of explaining these two genealogies. Seethe "Dissertation" of Father Calmet, inwhich he endeavors to reconcile St.MatthewwithSt.Luke,on thegenealogyof JesusChrist.The same learnedskeptics,whomake it theirbusiness tocomparedates, toexplorebooksandmedals, to collate ancient authors, and to seek for truth by human skill andstudy,andwholoseintheirknowledgethesimplicityoftheirfaith,reproachSt. Luke with contradicting the other evangelists, and in beingmistaken inwhat he advances on the subject of our Lord's birth. The author of the

"Analysis of the Christian Religion" thus rashly expresses himself on thesubject(p.23):

"St. Luke says thatCyreniuswas the governor of Syria,whenAugustusordered the numbering of all the people of the empire.We will show howmanydecidedfalsehoodsarecontainedinthesefewwords.First,TacitusandSuetonius, the most precise of historians, say not a single word of thepretendednumberingofthewholeempire,whichcertainlywouldhavebeenavery singular event, since there never had been one under any emperor—atleast, no authormentions such a case. Secondly, Cyrenius did not arrive inSyria till tenyearsafter the timefixedbySt.Luke; itwas thengovernedbyQuintiliusVarus,asTertullianrelates,andasisconfirmedbymedals."

WecontendthatinfactthereneverwasanumberingofthewholeRomanempire,butonlyacensusofRomancitizens,accordingtousage;althoughitispossible that the copyistsmay havewritten "numbering" for "census."WithregardtoCyrenius,whomthecopyistshavemadeCirinus,itiscertainthathewasnotgovernorofSyriaatthetimeofthebirthofJesusChrist,thegovernorbeingQuintiliusVarus;butitisveryprobablethatQuintiliusmightsendintoJudæa this same Cyrenius, who ten years after succeeded him in thegovernmentofSyria.Wecannotdissemble,however,thatthisexplanationstillleavessomedifficulties.

Inthefirstplace,thecensusmadeunderAugustusdoesnotcorrespondintimewiththebirthofJesusChrist.Secondly,theJewswerenotcomprisedinthatcensus.JosephandhiswifewerenotRomancitizens.Mary,therefore,itissaid,beingundernonecessity,wasnotlikelytogofromNazareth,whichisattheextremityofJudæa,withinafewmilesofMountTabor,inthemidstofthedesert,tolieinatBethlehem,whichiseightymilesfromNazareth.

But itmighteasilyhappen thatCirinus,orCyrenius,havingbeensent toJerusalem by Quintilius Varus to impose a poll-tax, Joseph andMary weresummonedbythemagistrateofBethlehemtogoandpaythetaxinthetownofBethlehem, theplaceof their birth. In this there is nothing contradictory.Thecriticsmayendeavor toweakenthissolutionbyrepresenting that itwasHerodonlywhoimposedtaxes;thattheRomansatthattimeleviednothingonJudæa; that Augustus left Herod completely his own master for the tributewhich that Idumean paid to the empire. But, in an emergency, it is notimpossibletomakesomearrangementwithatributaryprince,andsendhimanintendanttoestablishinconcertwithhimthenewtax.

Wewill not here say, like somanyothers, that copyists have committedmany errors, and that in the versionwe possess there are to be foundmorethan ten thousand;wehadrathersaywith thedoctorsof theChurchand themostenlightenedpersons,thattheGospelsweregivenusonlytoteachusto

liveholily,andnottocriticiselearnedly.

These pretended contradictions produced a dreadful impression on themuchlamentedJohnMeslier,rectorofEtrepigniandButinChampagne.Thistruly virtuous and charitable, but at the same time melancholy, man, beingpossessedofscarcelyanyotherbooksthantheBibleandsomeofthefathers,readthemwithastudiousnessofattentionthatbecamefataltohim.Althoughboundbythedutiesofhisofficetoinculcatedocilityuponhisflock,hewasnot sufficientlydocilehimself.He sawapparent contradictions, and shuthiseyes to the means suggested for reconciling them. He imagined that heperceived themost frightful contradictions between Jesus being born a JewandafterwardsbeingrecognizedasGod;inregardtothatGodknownfromthefirstasthesonofJosephthecarpenterandthebrotherofJames,yetdescendedfromanempyreanwhichdoesnotexist,todestroysinuponearththatisstillcoveredwithcrimes;inregardtothatGod,thesonofacommonartisanandadescendantofDavidonthesideofhisfather,whowasnotinfacthisfather;between the creator of all worlds, and the descendant of the adulterousBathsheba, theprurientRuth, the incestuousTamar, theprostituteofJericho,thewifeofAbraham,sosuspiciouslyattractivetoakingofEgypt,andagainattheageofninetyyearstoakingofGerar.

Meslier expatiates with an impiety absolutely monstrous on thesepretended contradictions, as they struck him, for which, however, hemighteasily have found an explanation, had he possessed only a small portion ofdocility.Atlengthhisgloomsogrewuponhiminhissolitudethatheactuallybecamehorror-stricken at that holy religionwhich itwashis duty to preachandlove;and,listeningonlytohisseducedandwanderingreason,heabjuredChristianitybyawillwritten inhisownhand,ofwhichhe left threecopiesbehindhimathisdeath,whichtookplacein1732.Thecopyofthiswillhasbeen often printed, and exhibits, in truth, a most cruel stumbling-block. Aclergyman,whoatthepointofdeath,askspardonofGodandhisparishionersfor having taught the doctrines ofChristianity; a charitable clergyman,whoholds Christianity in execration becausemanywho profess it are depraved;who is shocked at the pomp and pride of Rome, and exasperated by thedifficultiesofthesacredvolume;aclergymanwhospeaksofChristianitylikePorphyry,Jamblichus,Epictetus,MarcusAurelius,andJulian!AndthisjustasheistomakehisappearancebeforeGod!Howfatalacaseforhim,andforallwhomaybeledastraybyhisexample!

In a similar manner the unfortunate preacher Antony, misled by theapparent contradictionswhichhe imaginedhe sawbetween thenewand theold law, between the cultivated olive and the wild olive, wretchedlyabandoned theChristian religion for the Jewish; and,more courageous thanJohnMeslier,preferreddeathtorecantation.

ItisevidentfromthewillofJohnMeslierthattheapparentcontradictionsof the gospel were the principal cause of unsettling the mind of thatunfortunate pastor,whowas, in other respects, aman of the strictest virtue,andwhomitisimpossibletothinkofwithoutcompassion.Meslierisdeeplyimpressedbythetwogenealogies,whichseemindirectopposition;hehadnotseen themethod of reconciling them; he feels agitated and provoked to seethatSt.Matthewmakes thefatherandmotherof thechild travel intoEgypt,afterhavingreceivedthehomageofthethreeeasternmagiorkings,andwhileoldKingHerod,undertheapprehensionofbeingdethronedbyaninfantjustborn at Bethlehem, causes the slaughter of all the infants in the country, inordertopreventsucharevolution.HeisastonishedthatneitherSt.Luke,norSt.Mark,norSt.Johnmakeanymentionofthismassacre.Heisconfoundedat observing that St. Lukemakes Joseph, and the blessedVirginMary, andJesus our Saviour, remain at Bethlehem, after which they withdraw toNazareth. He should have seen that the Holy Father might at first go intoEgypt,andsometimeafterwardstoNazareth,whichwastheircountry.

If St. Matthew alone makes mention of the three magi, and of the starwhichguidedthemtoBethlehemfromtheremoteclimesof theEast,andofthemassacreof thechildren; if theother evangelists takenonoticeof theseevents,theydonotcontradictSt.Matthew;silenceisnotcontradiction.

Ifthethreefirstevangelists—St.Matthew,St.Mark,andSt.Luke—makeJesusChristtohavelivedbutthreemonthsfromhisbaptisminGalileetillhiscrucifixionatJerusalem;and ifSt.Johnextends that timeto threeyearsandthreemonths,itiseasytoapproximateSt.Johntotheotherevangelists,ashedoesnotexpresslystate that JesusChristpreached inGalilee for threeyearsandthreemonths,butonlyleavesittobeinferredfromhisnarrative.Shouldamanrenouncehisreligionuponsimpleinferences,uponpointsofcontroversy,upondifficultiesinchronology?

It is impossible,saysMeslier, toharmonizeSt.MarkandSt.Luke;sincethefirstsaysthatJesus,whenheleftthewilderness,wenttoCapernaum,andthesecondthathewenttoNazareth.St.JohnsaysthatAndrewwasthefirstwhobecameafollowerofJesusChrist;thethreeotherevangelistssaythatitwasSimonPeter.

Hepretends, also, that theycontradict eachotherwith respect to thedaywhenJesuscelebratedthePassover,thehourandplaceofHisexecution,thetime ofHis appearance and resurrection.He is convinced that bookswhichcontradict each other cannot be inspired by theHoly Spirit; but it is not anarticleoffaithtobelievethattheHolySpiritinspiredeverysyllable;itdidnotguidethehandofthecopyist;itpermittedtheoperationofsecondarycauses;itwassufficientthatitcondescendedtorevealtheprincipalmysteries,andthatin the course of time it instituted a church for explaining them. All those

contradictions, with which the gospels have been so often and so bitterlyreproached, are explained by sagacious commentators; far from beinginjurious, theymutuallyclearupeachother; theypresent reciprocalhelps intheconcordancesandharmonyofthefourgospels.

Andiftherearemanydifficultieswhichwecannotsolve,mysterieswhichwecannotcomprehend,adventureswhichwecannotcredit,prodigieswhichshocktheweaknessofthehumanunderstanding,andcontradictionswhichitisimpossibletoreconcile,itisinordertoexerciseourfaithandtohumiliateourreason.

ContradictionsinJudgmentsUponWorksofLiteratureorArt.

Ihavesometimesheard it saidofagood judgeon thesesubjects,andofexquisite taste, that man decides according to mere caprice. He yesterdaydescribed Poussin as an admirable painter; to-day he represents him as anordinaryone.Thefactis,thatPoussinhasmeritedbothpraiseandcensure.

ThereisnocontradictioninbeingenrapturedbythedeliciousscenesoftheHoratiiandCuriatii,oftheCid,ofAugustusandofCinna,andafterwardsinseeing, with disgust and indignation, fifteen tragedies in succession,containingnointerest,nobeauty,andnotevenwritteninFrench.

It is the author himself who is contradictory. It is he who has themisfortunetodifferentirelyfromhimself.Thecriticwouldcontradicthimself,if he equally applaudedwhat is excellent and detestable.Hewill admire inHomer the description of the girdle of Venus; the parting of Hector andAndromache; the interviewbetweenAchillesandPriam.Butwillheequallyapplaudthosepassageswhichdescribethegodsasabusingandfightingwithoneanother;theuniformityinbattleswhichdecidenothing;thebrutalferocityoftheheroes,andtheavaricebywhichtheyarealmostallactuated;inshort,apoemwhichterminateswithatruceofelevendays,unquestionablyexcitinganexpectation of the continuation of the war and the taking of Troy, which,however,arenotrelated?

Agood criticwill frequently pass from approbation to censure, howeverexcellenttheworkmaybewhichheisperusing.

CONTRAST.

Contrast,oppositionoffigures,situations,fortune,manners,etc.Amodestshepherdessformsabeautifulcontrast inapaintingwithahaughtyprincess.The part of the impostor and that of Aristes constitute a very admirablecontrastin"Tartuffe."

Thelittlemaycontrastwiththegreatinpainting,butcannotbesaidtobecontrarytoit.Oppositionofcolorscontrasts;buttherearealsocolorscontrarytoeachother; thatis,whichproduceanilleffectbecausetheyshocktheeyewhenbroughtverynearit.

"Contradictory" is a term tobeusedonly in logic. It is contradictory foranythingtobeandnottobe;tobeinmanyplacesatonce;tobeofacertainnumberorsize,andnottobeso.Anopinion,adiscourse,oradecree,wemaycallcontradictory.Thedifferent fortunesofCharlesXII.havebeencontrary,butnotcontradictory;theyforminhistoryabeautifulcontrast.

Itisastrikingcontrast—andthetwothingsareperfectlycontrary—butitisnotcontradictory,thatthepopeshouldbeworshippedinRome,andburnedinLondononthesameday;thatwhilehewascalledGod'svicegerentinItaly,heshouldberepresentedinthestreetsofMoscowasahog,fortheamusementofPetertheGreat.

Mahomet, stationed at the right hand of God over half the globe, anddamnedover theotherhalf, is thegreatestofcontrasts.Travelfarfromyourowncountry,andeverythingwillbecontrastforyou.Thewhitemanwhofirstsawanegrowasmuchastonished;butthefirstwhosaidthatthenegrowastheoffspringofawhitepairastonishesmemuchmore;Idonotagreewithhim.Apainter who represents white men, negroes, and olive-colored people, maydisplayfinecontrasts.

CONVULSIONARIES.

Abouttheyear1724thecemeteryofSt.Médardaboundedinamusement,and many miracles were performed there. The following epigram by theduchessofMainegivesatolerableaccountofthecharacterofmostofthem:

UndécrotteuràlaRoyale,

Dutalongaucheestropié,

Obtint,pourgrâcespeciale,

D'êtretortueuxdel'autrepied.

APort-Royalshoe-black,whohadonelameleg,

TomakebothaliketheLord'sfavordidbeg;

Heavenlistened,andstraightwayamiraclecame,

Forquicklyheroseup,withbothhislegslame.

Themiracles continued, as iswellknown,until aguardwas stationedatthecemetery.

Deparleroi,défenseàDieu

Defairemiraclesencelieu.

LouistoGod:—Tokeepthepeace,

Heremiraclesmusthenceforthcease.

It is also well known that the Jesuits, being no longer able to performsimilar miracles, in consequence of Xavier having exhausted their stock ofgraceandmiraculouspower,by resuscitatingninedeadpersonsatone time,resolvedinordertocounteractthecreditoftheJansenists,toengraveaprintofJesusChristdressedasaJesuit.TheJansenists,ontheotherhand,inordertogivea satisfactoryproof that JesusChristhadnot assumed thehabit of aJesuit, filledPariswith convulsions, and attractedgreat crowdsof people towitness them. The counsellor of parliament, Carré de Montgeron, went topresent to the king a quarto collection of all these miracles, attested by athousandwitnesses.Hewasveryproperlyshutupinachâteau,whereattemptsweremade to restore his senses by regimen; but truth always prevails overpersecution, and the miracles lasted for thirty years together, withoutinterruption. Sister Rose, Sister Illuminée, and the sisters Promise andComfitte,werescourgedwithgreatenergy,without,however,exhibitinganyappearance of the whipping next day. They were bastinadoed on theirstomachswithoutinjury,andplacedbeforealargefire;but,beingdefendedbycertainpomadesandpreparations,werenotburned.Atlength,aseveryartisconstantly advancing towards perfection, their persecutors concluded withactually thrusting swords through their chairs, and with crucifying them. Afamousschoolmasterhadalsothebenefitofcrucifixion;allwhichwasdonetoconvince theworld that a certainbullwas ridiculous, a fact thatmighthavebeeneasilyprovedwithoutsomuchtrouble.However,JesuitsandJansenistsall united against the "Spirit of Laws," and against, and against.... andagainst....and....AndafterallthiswedaretoridiculeLaplanders,Samoyeds,andnegroes!

CORN.

Theymustbeskepticsindeedwhodoubtthatpaincomesfrompanis.Buttomakebreadwemusthavecorn.TheGaulshadcorninthetimeofCæsar;butwhencedidtheytakethewordblé?Itispretendedthatitisfrombladum,aword employed in the barbarousLatin of themiddle age by theChancellor

Desvignes,orDeErneis,whoseeyes,itissaid,weretornoutbyorderoftheEmperorFrederickII.

But theLatinwords of these barbarous ageswere only ancientCeltic orTeutonicwords Latinized. Bladum then comes from our blead, and not ourbleadfrombladum.TheItalianscall itbioda,and thecountries inwhich theancientRomanlanguageispreserved,stillsayblia.

Thisknowledgeisnotinfinitelyuseful;butwearecurioustoknowwheretheGaulsandTeutonsfoundcorntosow?WearetoldthattheTyriansbroughtitintoSpain,theSpaniardsintoGaul,andtheGaulsintoGermany.AndwheredidtheTyriansgetthiscorn?ProbablyfromtheGreeks,inexchangefortheiralphabet.

Whomade thispresent to theGreeks? Itwas thegoddessCeres,withoutdoubt; and having ascended toCeres,we can scarcely go any higher.Ceresmusthavedescendedfromheavenexpresslytogiveuswheat,rye,andbarley.However, as the credit of Ceres, who gave corn to the Greeks, and that ofIshet, or Isis, who gratified the Egyptianswith it, are at present verymuchdecayed,wemaystillbesaidtoremaininuncertaintyastotheoriginofcorn.

Sanchoniathon tells us that Dagon or Dagan, one of the grandsons ofThaut,had thesuperintendenceof thecorn inPhœnicia.NowhisThautwasnearthetimeofourJared;fromwhichitappearsthatcornisveryancient,andthatitisofthesameantiquityasgrass.PerhapsthisDagonwasthefirstwhomadebread,butthatisnotdemonstrated.

WhatastrangethingthatweshouldknowpositivelythatweareobligedtoNoah forwine, and thatwedonotknow towhomweowe the inventionofbread.Andwhatisstillmorestrange,wearestillsoungratefultoNoahthat,while we have more than two thousand songs in honor of Bacchus, wescarcelysingoneinhonorofourbenefactor,Noah.

AJewassuredmethatcorncamewithoutcultivationinMesopotamia,asapples,wildpears,chestnuts,andmedlars,inthewest.Itisaswelltobelievehim,untilwearesureofthecontrary;foritisnecessarythatcornshouldgrowspontaneously somewhere. It has become the ordinary and indispensablenourishmentinthefinestclimates,andinallthenorth.

The great philosophers whose talents we estimate so highly, and whosesystemswe do not follow, have pretended, in the natural history of the dog(page195),thatmencreatedcorn;andthatourancestors,bymeansofsowingtaresandcow-grasstogether,changedthemintowheat.Asthesephilosophersare not of our opinionon shells, theywill permit us to differ from themoncorn.Wedonotthinkthattulipscouldeverhavebeenproducedfromjasmine.Wefindthatthegermofcornisquitedifferentfromthatoftares,andwedo

not believe in any transmutation. When it shall be proved to us, we willretract.

Wehaveseen,inthearticle"Breadtree,"thatinthree-quartersoftheearthbreadisnoteaten.ItispretendedthattheEthiopianslaughedattheEgyptians,who livedonbread.But since corn is our chief nourishment, it hasbecomeone of the greatest objects of commerce and politics. So much has beenwrittenonthissubject,thatifalaborersowedasmanypoundsofwheataswehavevolumesonthiscommodity,hemightexpectamoreampleharvest,andbecomericherthanthosewho,intheirpaintedandgildedsaloons,areignorantoftheexcessofhisoppressionandmisery.

Egyptbecamethebestcountryintheworldforwheatwhen,afterseveralages,whichitisdifficulttoreckonexactly,theinhabitantsfoundthesecretofrendering a destructive river—which had always inundated the country, andwas only useful to the rats, insects, reptiles, and crocodiles of Egypt—serviceable to the fecundityof the soil. Itswaters,mixedwith ablackmud,wereneitherusefultoquenchthethirstoftheinhabitants,norforablution.Itmust have required a long time and prodigious labor to subdue the river, todivideitintocanals,tofoundtownsonlandsformerlymovable,andtochangethecavernsoftherocksintovastbuildings.

All this ismore astonishing than the pyramids; for being accomplished,behold a people sure of the best corn in theworld,without the necessity oflabor! It is the inhabitant of this country who raises and fattens poultrysuperior to that of Caux, who is habited in the finest linen in the mosttemperateclimate,andwhohasnoneoftherealwantsofotherpeople.

Towards the year 1750, the French nation, surfeited with tragedies,comedies, operas, romances, and romantic histories—withmoral reflectionsstill more romantic, and with theological disputes on grace and onconvulsionaries, began to reason upon corn. They even forgot the vine, intreating of wheat and rye. Useful things were written on agriculture, andeverybodyreadthemexceptthelaborers.Thegoodpeopleimagined,astheywalkedoutofthecomicopera,thatFrancehadaprodigiousquantityofcorntosell,andthecryofthenationatlastobtainedofthegovernment,in1764,thelibertyofexportation.

Accordinglytheyexported.TheresultwasexactlywhatithadbeeninthetimeofHenryIV., theysolda little toomuch,andabarrenyearsucceeding,MademoiselleBernardwasobliged,forthesecondtime,tosellhernecklacetogetlinenandchemises.Nowthecomplainantspassedfromoneextremetotheother, and complained against the exportation that they had so recentlydemanded,whichshowshowdifficultitistopleasealltheworldandhiswife.

Able and well-meaning people, without interest, have written, with as

muchsagacityascourage,infavoroftheunlimitedlibertyofthecommerceingrain.Others,ofasmuchmind,andwithequallypureviews,havewrittenintheideaoflimitingthisliberty;andtheNeapolitanAbbéGaglianaamusedtheFrenchnationontheexportationofcorn,byfindingoutthesecretofmaking,eveninFrench,dialoguesasamusingasourbestromances,andasinstructiveasourgoodseriousbooks.Ifthisworkdidnotdiminishthepriceofbread,itgave great pleasure to the nation, which was what it valued most. Thepartisansofunlimitedexportationansweredhimsmartly.Theresultwas thatthe readers no longer knew where they were, and the greater part took toreading romances, expecting that the three or four following years ofabundance would enable them to judge. The ladies were no longer able todistinguishwheat from rye,while honest devotees continued to believe thatgrainmustlieandrotinthegroundinordertospringupagain.

COUNCILS.

MeetingsofEcclesiastics,CalledTogethertoResolveDoubtsorQuestionsonPointsofFaithorDiscipline.

The use of councils was not unknown to the followers of the ancientreligionofZerdusht,whomwecallZoroaster.Abouttheyear200ofourera,Ardeshir Babecan, king of Persia, called together forty thousand priests, toconsultthemtouchingsomeofhisdoubtsaboutparadiseandhell,whichtheycallthegehen—atermadoptedbytheJewsduringtheircaptivityatBabylon,astheydidthenamesoftheangelsandofthemonths.Erdoviraph, themostcelebratedofthemagi,havingdrunkthreeglassesofasoporificwine,hadanecstasywhichlastedsevendaysandsevennights,duringwhichhissoulwastransportedtoGod.Whentheparoxysmwasover,hereassuredthefaithoftheking,by relating tohim thegreatmanywonderful thingshehadseen in theotherworld,andhavingthemwrittendown.

WeknowthatJesuswascalledChrist,aGreekwordsignifyinganointed;and his doctrineChristianity, or gospel, i.e., good news, because having, aswashiscustom,enteredoneSabbathdaythesynagogueofNazareth,wherehewasbroughtup,Heapplied toHimself thispassageofIsaiah,whichHehadjust read: "The spirit of theLord isonme,becauseHehathanointedme topreach thegospel to thepoor."Theyof the synagoguedid, tobe sure,driveHimoutof their town,andcarryHimtoapointof thehill,onwhichitwasbuilt, inordertothrowHimheadlongfromit;andHisrelatives"wentouttolay hold on Him," for they were told, and they said, "that He was besideHimself."NorisitlesscertainthatJesusconstantlydeclaredHehadcomenot

todestroythelawortheprophecies,buttofulfilthem.

But, as He left nothing written, His first disciples were divided on thefamousquestion,whethertheGentilesweretobecircumcisedandorderedtokeep the Mosaic law. The apostles and the priests, therefore, assembled atJerusalem to examine this point, and, aftermanyconferences, theywrote tothebrethrenamongtheGentiles,atAntioch,inSyria,andinCilicia,aletterofwhichwegivethesubstance:"IthasseemedgoodtotheHolyGhostandtous,nottoimposeuponyouanyobligationsbutthosewhicharenecessary,viz.,toabstainfrommeatsoffereduptoidols,fromblood,fromthefleshofchokedanimals,andfromfornication."

ThedecisionofthiscouncildidnotpreventPeter,whenatAntioch,fromcontinuingtoeatwiththeGentiles,beforesomeofthecircumcised,whocamefromJames,hadarrived.ButPaul,seeingthathedidnotwalkstraightinthepathofgospeltruth,resistedhimtotheface,sayingtohimbeforethemall."Ifthou,beingaJew,livestafterthemannerofGentiles,andnotasdotheJews,whycompellest thou theGentiles to live as do the Jews?" IndeedPeter hadlivedliketheGentileseversincehehadseen,inatrance,"heavenopened,andacertainvesseldescendinguntohim,asithadbeenagreatsheet,knitatthefourcorners,andletdowntotheearth;whereinwereallmanneroffour-footedbeastsoftheearth,andwildbeasts,andcreepingthings,andfowlsoftheair.Andtherecameavoicetohim,Rise,Peter,killandeat."

Paul,who so loudly reprovedPeter for using this dissimulation tomakethembelievethathestillobservedthe law,hadhimselfrecourse toasimilarfeintat Jerusalem.Beingaccusedof teaching theJewswhowereamong theGentiles to renounceMoses, hewent andpurified himself in the temple forsevendays,inorderthatallmightknowthatwhattheyhadheardofhimwasfalse, and that he continued to observe the law; this, too, was done by theadviceofallthepriests,assembledatthehouseofJames—whichpriestswerethesamewhohaddecidedwiththeHolyGhost,thattheseobservationswereunnecessary.

Councils were afterwards distinguished into general and particular.Particularcouncilsareof threekinds—national, convokedby theprince, thepatriarch, or the primate; provincial, assembled by the metropolitan orarchbishop;anddiocesan,orsynodsheldbyeachbishop.ThefollowingisadecreeofoneofthecouncilsheldatMacon:

"Wheneveralaymanmeetapriestoradeaconontheroad,heshallofferhimhisarm; if thepriestand the laymanarebothonhorseback, the laymanshallstopandsalutethepriestreverently;andifthepriestbeonfoot,andthelaymanonhorseback, the laymanshalldismount, and shallnotmountagainuntiltheecclesiasticbeatacertaindistance;allonpainofinterdictionforas

longatimeasitshallpleasethemetropolitan."

The list of the councils, in Moréri's "Dictionary," occupies more thansixteenpages,butasauthorsarenotagreedconcerningthenumberofgeneralcouncils,weshallhereconfineourselves to the resultsof the first eight thatwereassembledbyorderoftheemperors.

Two priests of Alexandria, seeking to know whether Jesus was God orcreature, not only did the bishops and priests dispute but the whole peopleweredivided,andthedisorderarrivedatsuchapitchthatthePagansridiculedChristianityonthestage.TheemperorConstantinefirstwrote inthesetermstoBishopAlexanderandthepriestArius,theauthorsofthedissension:"Thesequestions,whichareunnecessary,andspringonlyfromunprofitableidleness,may be discussed in order to exercise the intellect; but they should not berepeatedinthehearingofthepeople.Beingdividedonsosmallamatter,itisnot just that you should govern, according to your thoughts, so great amultitudeofGod'speople.Suchconductismeanandpuerile,unworthyofthepriestlyoffice,andofmenofsense.Idonotsaythistocompelyouentirelytoagree on this frivolous question, whatever it is. You may, with a privatedifference, preserve unity, provided these subtleties and different opinionsremainsecretinyourinmostthoughts."

Theemperor,havinglearnedthathisletterwaswithouteffect,resolved,bytheadviceofthebishops,toconvokeanecumenicalcouncil—i.e.,acouncilofthe whole habitable earth, and chose for the place of meeting the town ofNicæa,inBithynia.Therecamethithertwothousandandforty-eightbishops,who,asEutychiusrelates,wereallofdifferentsentimentsandopinions.Thisprince,havinghadthepatiencetohearthemdisputeonthispoint,wasmuchsurprised at finding among them so little unanimity; and the author of theArabicprefacetothiscouncilsaysthattherecordsofthesedisputesamountedtofortyvolumes.

This prodigious number of bishopswill not appear incrediblewhen it isrecollectedthatUsher,quotedbySelden,relatesthatSt.Patrick,wholivedinthefifthcentury,foundedthreehundredandsixty-fivechurches,andordainedthelikenumberofbishops;whichprovesthattheneachchurchhaditsbishop,thatis,itsoverlooker.

IntheCouncilofNicetherewasreadaletterfromEusebiusofNicomedia,containingmanifest heresy, and discovering the cabal ofArius's party. In itwassaid,amongotherthings,thatifJesuswereacknowledgedtobetheSonofGoduncreated,HemustalsobeacknowledgedtobeconsubstantialwiththeFather.Therefore itwas thatAthanasius, a deaconofAlexandria, persuadedthe fathers to dwell on theword consubstantial,which had been rejected asimproper by theCouncil ofAntioch, held against Paul of Samosata; but he

took it in a gross sense,marking division; aswe say, that several pieces ofmoney are of the same metal: whereas the orthodox explained the termconsubstantialsowell,thattheemperorhimselfcomprehendedthatitinvolvedno corporeal idea—signified no division of the absolutely immaterial andspiritual substance of the Father—butwas to be understood in a divine andineffablesense.TheymoreovershowedtheinjusticeoftheAriansinrejectingthiswordonpretencethat itwasnot in theScriptures—theywhoemploysomanywordswhicharenottheretobefound;andwhosaythattheSonofGodwasbroughtoutofnothing,andhadnotexistedfromalleternity.

Constantinethenwrotetwolettersatthesametime,togivepublicitytotheordinancesofthecouncil,andmakethemknowntosuchashadnotattendedit.Thefirst,addressedtothechurchesingeneral,says,insomanywords,thatthequestionof the faithhasbeenexamined,andsowell clearedup, thatnodifficulty remains. In the second, amongothers, the churchofAlexandria isthusaddressed: "What threehundredbishopshaveordained isnoother thantheseedoftheonlySonofGod;theHolyGhosthasdeclaredthewillofGodthrough these greatmen,whomhe inspired.Now, then, let none doubt—letnonedispute,buteachonereturnwithallhisheartintothewayoftruth."

Theecclesiasticalwritersarenotagreedastothenumberofbishopswhosubscribed to the ordinances of this council. Eusebius reckons only twohundredandfifty;EustathiusofAntioch,citedbyTheodoret,twohundredandseventy; St. Athanasius, in his epistle to the Solitaries, three hundred, likeConstantine;while, in his letter to theAfricans, he speaks of three hundredandeighteen.Yetthesefourauthorswereeye-witnesses,andworthyofgreatfaith.

Thisnumber318,whichPopeSt.Leocallsmysterious,hasbeenadoptedbymostofthefathersofthechurch.St.Ambroseassuresusthatthenumberof 318 bishopswas a proof of the presence of our Lord JesusChrist in hisCouncilofNicæa,becausethecrossdesignatesthreehundred,andthenameofJesuseighteen.St.Hilary,inhisdefenceofthewordconsubstantial,approvedin the Council of Nice, though condemned fifty-five years before in theCouncil of Antioch, reasons thus: "Eighty bishops rejected the wordconsubstantial, but three hundred and eighteen have received it. Now thislatter number seems to me a sacred number, for if is that of the men whoaccompaniedAbraham,when,afterhisvictoryovertheimpiouskings,hewasblessedbyhimwhoisthetypeoftheeternalpriesthood."AndSeldenrelatesthatDorotheus,metropolitanofMonembasis, said therewereprecisely threehundred and eighteen fathers at this council, because three hundred andeighteenyearshadelapsedsincetheincarnation.Allchronologistsplacethiscouncilintheyear325ofourmodernera;butDorotheusdeductssevenyears,tomakehiscomparisoncomplete; this,however, isamere trifle.Besides, it

was not until the Council of Lestines, in 743, that the years began to becountedfromthe incarnationofJesus.Dionysius theLesshad imagined thisepoch inhissolarcycleof theyear526,andBedehadmadeuseof it inhis"EcclesiasticalHistory."

It will not be a subject of astonishment that Constantine adopted theopinionofthethreehundredorthreehundredandeighteenbishopswhoheldthedivinityofJesus,whenitisborneinmindthatEusebiusofNicomedia,oneof the principal leaders of the Arian party, had been an accomplice in thecrueltyofLicinius,inthemassacresofthebishops,andthepersecutionsoftheChristians.Ofthistheemperorhimselfaccuseshim,intheprivateletterwhichhewrotetothechurchofNicomedia:

"Hesentspiesaboutme,"sayshe,"inthetroubles,anddideverythingbuttakeuparmsforthetyrant.Ihaveproofsofthisfromthepriestsanddeaconsofhistrain,whomItook.DuringtheCouncilofNicæa,withwhateagernessandwhat impudencehemaintained,against the testimonyofhisconscience,the error exploded on every side! repeatedly imploring my protection, lest,beingconvictedofsogreatacrime,heshouldlosehisdignity.Heshamefullycircumvented and tookme by surprise, and carried everything as he chose.Again,seewhathasbeendonebutlatelybyhimandTheogenes."

Constantine here alludes to the fraudwhich Eusebius ofNicomedia andTheogenesofNicæaresortedtoinsubscribing.Intheword"omoousios,"theyinsertedaniota,makingit"omoiousios,"meaningoflikesubstance;whereasthe first means of the same substance. We hereby see that these bishopsyielded to the fear of being displaced or banished; for the emperor hadthreatenedwith exile suchas shouldnot subscribe.TheotherEusebius, too,bishopofCæsarea,approvedthewordconsubstantial,aftercondemningitthedaybefore.

However, Theonas of Marmarica, and Secundus of Ptolemais continuedobstinatelyattachedtoArius;and,thecouncil,havingcondemnedthemwithhim, Constantine banished them, and declared by an edict that whosoevershould be convicted of concealing any of the writings of Arius instead ofburningthem,shouldbepunishedwithdeath.Threemonthsafter,EusebiusofNicomedia and Theogenes were likewise exiled into Gaul. It is said that,havinggainedovertheindividualwho,bytheemperor'sorder,kepttheactsofthecouncil,theyhaderasedtheirsignatures,andbeguntoteachinpublicthattheSonmustnotbebelievedtobeconsubstantialwiththeFather.

Happily, to replace their signatures and preserve entire the mysteriousnumber three hundred and eighteen, the expedient was tried of laying thebook, in which the acts were divided into sessions, on the tomb ofChrysanthus andMysonius,whohaddiedwhile the councilwas in session;

thenightwaspassed inprayerand thenextmorning itwas found that thesetwobishopshadsigned.

Itwasbyanexpedientnearlysimilar,thatthefathersofthesamecouncildistinguished the authentic from the apocryphal books of Scripture. Havingplacedthemaltogetheruponthealtar,theapocryphalbooksfelltothegroundofthemselves.

Two other councils, assembled by the emperor Constantine, in the year359,theone,ofupwardsoffourhundredbishops,atRimini,theother,ofmorethan a hundred and fifty, at Seleucia; after long debates, rejected the wordconsubstantial, alreadycondemned, aswehavebefore said,byaCouncil ofAntioch.ButthesecouncilsarerecognizedonlybytheSocinians.

TheNicenefathershadbeensomuchoccupiedwiththeconsubstantialityoftheSon,thattheyhadmadenomentionofthechurchintheirsymbol,butcontentedthemselveswithsaying,"WealsobelieveintheHolyGhost."Thisomission was supplied in the second general council, convoked atConstantinople,in381,byTheodosius.TheHolyGhostwastheredeclaredtobetheLordandgiveroflife,proceedingfromtheFather,whowiththeFatherandSonisworshippedandglorified,whospakebytheprophets.AfterwardstheLatinchurchwouldhavetheHolyGhostproceedfromtheSonalso;andthe"filioque"wasaddedtothesymbol:firstinSpain,in447;theninFrance,at the Council of Lyons, in 1274; and lastly at Rome, notwithstanding thecomplaintsmadebytheGreeksagainstthisinnovation.

ThedivinityofJesusbeingonceestablished, itwasnatural togivetohismother the title of Mother of God. However, Nestorius, patriarch ofConstantinople,maintained in his sermons that this would be justifying thefollyofthePagans,whogavemotherstotheirgods.Theodosiustheyounger,to have this great question decided, assembled the third general council atEphesus,intheyear431,andinitMarywasacknowledgedtobethemotherofGod.

AnotherheresyofNestorius,likewisecondemnedatEphesus,wasthatofadmitting two persons in Jesus. Nevertheless, the patriarch Photiussubsequently acknowledged two natures in Jesus.Amonk namedEutyches,who had already exclaimed loudly againstNestorius, affirmed, the better tocontradict them both, that Jesus had also but one nature. But this time themonkwaswrong;although,in449,hisopinionhadbeenmaintainedbyblowsinanumerouscouncilatEphesus.Eutycheswasneverthelessanathematized,twoyears afterwards, by the fourth general council, held under the emperorMarcianatChalcedon,inwhichtwonatureswereassignedtoJesus.

Itwasstilltobedetermined,withonepersonandtwonatures,howmanywills Jesus was to have. The fifth general council, which in the year 553

quelled, by Justinian's order, the contentions about the doctrine of threebishops,hadnoleisuretosettlethisimportantpoint.Itwasnotuntiltheyear680 that the sixth general council, also convened at Constantinople byConstantinePogonatus, informedus that Jesushadprecisely twowills.Thiscouncil, in condemning theMonothelites, who admitted only one,made noexception from the anathema in favor of PopeHonorius I., who, in a lettergivenbyBaronius,hadsaidtothepatriarchofConstantinople:

"Weconfess in JesusChrist oneonlywill.Wedonot see that either thecouncilsor theScripturesauthorizeus tothinkotherwise.Butwhether,fromtheworksofdivinityandofhumanitywhichareinhim,wearetolookfortwooperations, is a point of little importance, and one which I leave it to thegrammarianstodecide."

Thus, in this instance, with God's permission, the account between theGreekandLatinchurcheswasbalanced.AsthepatriarchNestoriushadbeencondemned for acknowledging two persons in Jesus, so PopeHonoriuswasnowcondemnedforadmittingbutonewillinJesus.

Theseventhgeneralcouncil,orthesecondofNice,wasassembledin787,byConstantine, sonofLeoand Irene, to re-establish theworshipof images.The readermustknow that twoCouncilsofConstantinople, the first in730,under the emperorLeo, theother twenty-four years after, underConstantineCopronymus, had thought proper to proscribe images, conformably to theMosaic law and to the usage of the early ages ofChristianity. So, also, theNicenedecree,inwhichitissaidthat"whosoevershallnotrenderserviceandadoration to the images of the saints as to the Trinity, shall be deemedanathematized," at first encountered some opposition. The bishops whointroducedit,inaCouncilofConstantinople,heldin789,wereturnedoutbysoldiers. The same decree was also rejected with scorn by the Council ofFrankfort in 794, and by the Caroline books, published by order ofCharlemagne. But the second Council of Nice was at length confirmed atConstantinople under the emperorMichael and hismother Theodora, in theyear 842, by a numerous council,which anathematized the enemies of holyimages.Be ithereobserved, itwasby twowomen, theempresses IreneandTheodora,thattheimageswereprotected.

We pass on to the eighth general council. Under the emperor Basilius,Photius, ordained patriarch of Constantinople in place of Ignatius, had theLatinchurchcondemnedforthe"filioque"andotherpractices,byacounciloftheyear866:but Ignatiusbeing recalled the followingyear, anothercouncilremovedPhotius;andintheyear869theLatins,intheirturn,condemnedtheGreekchurch inwhat theycalled theeighthgeneralcouncil—while those intheEast gave this name to another council,which, ten years after, annulledwhattheprecedingonehaddone,andrestoredPhotius.

ThesefourcouncilswereheldatConstantinople;theothers,calledgeneralby the Latins, having been composed of the bishops of theWest only, thepopes, with the aid of false decretals, gradually arrogated the right ofconvoking them. The last of thesewhich assembled at Trent, from 1545 to1563,neitherservedtoconverttheenemiesofpapacynortosubduethem.Itsdecrees, in discipline, have been scarcely admitted into anyone Catholicnation: its only effect has been to verify these words of St. GregoryNazianzen:"Ihavenotseenonecouncilthathasactedwithgoodfaith,orthathasnotaugmentedtheevilscomplainedofratherthancuredthem.Ambitionand the loveof disputation, beyond thepowerofwords to express, reign ineveryassemblyofbishops."

However, the Council of Constance, in 1415, having decided that acouncil-general receives its authority immediately from Jesus Christ, whichauthorityeveryperson,ofwhateverrankordignity,isboundtoobeyinallthatconcernsthefaith;andtheCouncilofBaselhavingafterwardsconfirmedthisdecree, which it holds to be an article of faith which cannot be neglectedwithoutrenouncingsalvation,itisclearhowdeeplyeveryoneisinterestedinpayingsubmissiontocouncils.

SectionII.

NoticeoftheGeneralCouncils.

Assembly, council of state, parliament, states-general, formerly signifiedthe same thing. In the primitive ages nothing was written in Celtic, nor inGerman,norinSpanish.ThelittlethatwaswrittenwasconceivedintheLatintongue by a few clerks, who expressed everymeeting of lendes, herren, orricohombres, by the word concilium. Hence it is that we find in the sixth,seventh,andeighthcenturiessomanycouncilswhichwerenothingmorethancouncilsofstate.

Weshallherespeakonlyofthegreatcouncilscalledgeneral,whetherbytheGreekorbytheLatinchurch.AtRometheywerecalledsynods,astheywereintheEastintheprimitiveages—fortheLatinsborrowednamesaswellasthingsfromtheGreeks.

In 325 there was a great council in the city of Nicæa, convoked byConstantine.Theformofitsdecisionwasthis:"WebelievethatJesusisofonesubstancewiththeFather,GodofGod,lightoflight,begotten,notmade.WealsobelieveintheHolyGhost."

Nicephorusaffirmsthattwobishops,ChrysanthusandMysonius,whohaddiedduringthefirstsittings,roseagaintosignthecondemnationofArius,andincontinentlydiedagain,asIhavealreadyobserved.Baroniusmaintainsthisfact,butFleurysaysnothingofit.

In359theemperorConstantiusassembledthegreatcouncilsofRiminiandofSeleucia, consistingof sixhundredbishops,with aprodigiousnumberofpriests.Thesetwocouncils,correspondingtogether,undoallthattheCouncilof Nice did, and proscribe the consubstantiality. But this was afterwardsregardedasafalsecouncil.

In381washeld, byorder of the emperorTheodosius, a great council atConstantinople, of one hundred and fifty bishops, who anathematize theCouncilofRimini.St.GregoryNazianzenpresides,and thebishopofRomesendsdeputies to it.Now is added to theNicene symbol: "JesusChristwasincarnate, by the Holy Ghost, of the VirginMary. He was crucified for usunder Pontius Pilate. He was buried, and on the third day he rose again,according to theScriptures.He sits at the right hand of theFather.We alsobelieveintheHolyGhost,theLordandgiveroflife,whoproceedsfromtheFather."

In 431 a great council was convoked at Ephesus, by the emperorTheodosius II. Nestorius, bishop of Constantinople, having violentlypersecuted allwhowerenot of his opinionon theological points, undergoespersecution in his turn, for having maintained that the Holy Virgin Mary,motherofJesusChrist,wasnotmotherofGod;becausesaidhe,JesusChristbeing theword, theSonofGod,consubstantialwithHisFather,Marycouldnot, at the same time,bemotherofGod theFatherandofGod theSon.St.Cyrilexclaimsloudlyagainsthim.Nestoriusdemandsanecumenicalcouncil,and obtains it. Nestorius is condemned; but Cyril is also displaced by acommitteeofthecouncil.Theemperorreversesallthathasbeendoneinthiscouncil, thenpermits it to re-assemble.Thedeputies fromRomearriveverylate.Thetroublesincreasing,theemperorhasNestoriusandCyrilarrested.Atlast he orders all the bishops to return, each to his church, and after all noconclusionisreached.SuchwasthefamousCouncilofEphesus.

In 449 another great council, afterward called "the banditti," met atEphesus. The number of bishops assembled is a hundred and thirty; andDioscorus, bishop ofAlexandria, presided. There are two deputies from thechurchofRome,andseveralabbots.Thequestionis,whetherJesusChristhastwo natures.The bishops and all themonks ofEgypt exclaim that "allwhowould divide Jesus Christ ought themselves to be torn in two." The twonaturesareanathematized;and there isa fight in fullcouncil,asat the littleCouncilofCirtain355,andattheminorCouncilofCarthage.

In452, thegreatCouncilofChalcedonwasconvokedbyPulcheria,whomarried Marcian on condition that he should be only the highest of hersubjects.St.Leo,bishopofRome,havinggreatinfluence,takesadvantageofthe troubles which the quarrel about the two natures has occasioned in theempire, and presides at the council by his legates—of which we have no

formerexample.Butthefathersofthecouncil,apprehendingthatthechurchoftheWestwill,fromthisprecedent,pretendtothesuperiorityoverthatoftheEast,decidebytheirtwenty-eighthcanon,thattheseeofConstantinople,andthatofRome,shallenjoyalikethesameadvantagesandthesameprivileges.This was the origin of the long enmity which prevailed, and still prevails,between the two churches. This Council of Chalcedon established the twonaturesinoneonlyperson.

Nicephorus relates that, at this same council, the bishops, after a longdisputeonthesubjectofimages,laideachhisopinioninwritingonthetombof St. Euphemia, and passed the night in prayer. The next morning theorthodoxwritingswerefoundinthesaint'shand,andtheothersatherfeet.

In553,agreatcouncilatConstantinoplewasconvokedbyJustinian,whowas an amateur theologian, to discuss three small writings, called the threechapters,ofwhichnothingisnowknown.TherewerealsodisputesonsomepassagesofOrigen.

Vigilius,bishopofRome,wouldhavegonethitherinperson;butJustinianhad him put in prison, and the Patriarch of Constantinople presided. Nomember of theLatin church attended; for at that timeGreekwas no longerunderstoodintheWest,whichhadbecomeentirelybarbarous.

In 680, another general council at Constantinople was convoked byConstantine the bearded. This was the first council called by the Latins intrullo, because it was held in an apartment of the imperial palace. Theemperor, himself, presided; on his right hand were the patriarchs ofConstantinople and Antioch; on his left, the deputies from Rome andJerusalem. It was there decided that Jesus Christ had two wills; and PopeHonoriusI.,wascondemnedasaMonothelite,i.e.,aswishingJesusChristtohavebutonewill.

In787,thesecondCouncilofNicewasconvokedbyIrene,inthenameofthe emperor Constantine, her son,whom she had deprived of his eyes.Herhusband, Leo, had abolished the worship of images, as contrary to thesimplicity of theprimitive ages, and leading to idolatry. Irene re-establishedthisworship;sheherselfspokeinthecouncil,whichwastheonlyoneheldbyawoman.TwolegatesfromPopeAdrianV.,attended,butdidnotspeak,fortheydidnotunderstandGreek:thepatriarchdidall.

Sevenyearsafter,theFranks,havingheardthatacouncilatConstantinoplehadordained theadorationof images, assemble,byorderofCharles, sonofPepin,afterwardsnamedCharlemagne,averynumerouscouncilatFrankfort.HerethesecondCouncilofNiceisspokenofas"animpertinentandarrogantsynod,heldinGreecefortheworshippingofpictures."

In 842, a great council at Constantinople was convoked by the empressTheodora.Theworshipofimageswassolemnlyestablished.TheGreekshavestilla feast inhonorof thiscouncil,called theorthodoxia.Theodoradidnotpreside.In861,agreatcouncilatConstantinople,consistingofthreehundredand eighteen bishops, was convoked by the emperor Michael. St. Ignatius,patriarchofConstantinople,isdeposed,andPhotiuselected.

In 866, another great councilwas held atConstantinople, inwhichPopeNicholas III. is deposed for contumacy, and excommunicated. In 869 wasanothergreatcouncilatConstantinople,inwhichPhotius,inturn,isdeposedandexcommunicated,andSt.Ignatiusrestored.

In 879, another great council assembled at Constantinople, in whichPhotius,alreadyrestored,isacknowledgedastruepatriarchbythelegatesofPope John VIII. Here the great ecumenical council, in which Photius wasdeposed,receivestheappellationof"conciliabulum."PopeJohnVIII.declaresallthosetobeJudaseswhosaythattheHolyGhostproceedsfromtheFatherandtheSon.

In1122-3,agreatcouncilatRomewasheld in thechurchofSt.JohnofLateranbyPopeCalixtus II.Thiswas the firstgeneral council convokedbythepopes.TheemperorsoftheWesthadnowscarcelyanyauthority;andtheemperorsoftheEastpressedbytheMahometansandbytheCrusaders,heldnonebutwretchedlittlecouncils.

ItisnotpreciselyknownwhatthisLateranwas.Somesmallcouncilshadbeforebeenassembled in theLateran.Somesay that itwasahousebuiltbyoneLateraninNero'stime;others,thatitwasSt.John'schurchitself,builtbyBishop Sylvester. In this council, the bishops complained heavily of themonks. "They possess," said they, "the churches, the lands, the castles, thetithes,theofferingsofthelivingandthedead;theyhaveonlytotakefromustheringandthecrosier."Themonksremainedinpossession.

In1139was another greatCouncil ofLateran, byPope Innocent II. It issaidtherewerepresentathousandbishops.Agreatmany,certainly.Heretheecclesiastical tithes are declared to be of divine right, and all laymenpossessing any of them are excommunicated. In 1179 was another greatCouncilofLateran,byPopeAlexanderIII.Therewerethreehundredbishopsand one Greek abbot. The decrees are all on discipline. The plurality ofbeneficesisforbidden.

In 1215was the last general Council of Lateran, by Pope Innocent III.,composedoffourhundredandtwelvebishops,andeighthundredabbots.Atthis time,which is that of theCrusades, the popes have established a LatinpatriarchatJerusalem,andoneatConstantinople.Thesepatriarchsattendthecouncil. This great council says that, "God having given the doctrine of

salvationtomenbyMoses,atlengthcausedHissontobebornofavirgin,toshowthewaymoreclearly,"andthat"noonecanbesavedoutoftheCatholicchurch."

Thetransubstantiationwasnotknownuntilafterthiscouncil.Itforbadetheestablishmentofnewreligiousorders;but,sincethattime,nolessthaneightyhavebeeninstituted.ItwasinthiscouncilthatRaymond,countofToulouse,wasstrippedofallhislands.In1245agreatcouncilassembledattheimperialcityofLyons.InnocentIV.bringsthithertheemperorofConstantinople,JohnPalæologus,andmakeshimsitbesidehim.HedeposestheemperorFrederickasafelon,andgivesthecardinalsredhats,asasignofhostilitytoFrederick.Thiswasthesourceofthirtyyearsofcivilwar.

In1274anothergeneralcouncilwasheldatLyons.Fivehundredbishops,seventy great and a thousand lesser abbots. The Greek emperor, MichaelPalæologus, that he may have the protection of the pope, sends his Greekpatriarch,Theophanes, to unite, in his name,with theLatin church.But theGreekchurchdisownsthesebishops.

In1311,PopeClementV.assembledageneralcouncilinthesmalltownofVienne, inDauphiny, inwhichhe abolishes theOrderof theTemplars. It ishereordainedthattheBégares,Beguins,andBéguinesshallbeburned.Thesewerea speciesofheretics, towhomwas imputedall thathad formerlybeenimputed to theprimitiveChristians. In1414, thegreatCouncilofConstancewas convoked by an emperor who resumes his rights, viz.: by Sigismund.HerePopeJohnXXIII.,convictedofnumerouscrimes,isdeposed;andJohnHuss and Jerome of Prague, convicted of obstinacy, are burned. In 1431, agreatcouncilwasheldatBasel,wheretheyinvaindeposePopeEugeneIV.,whoistoocleverforthecouncil.

In 1438, a great council assembled at Ferrara, transferred to Florence,wheretheexcommunicatedpopeexcommunicatesthecouncil,anddeclaresitguiltyofhigh treason.Herea feignedunion ismadewith theGreekchurch,crushedbytheTurkishsynodsheldswordinhand.PopeJuliusII.wouldhavehadhisCouncilofLateran,in1512,passforanecumenicalcouncil.InitthatpopesolemnlyexcommunicatedLouisXII.,kingofFrance,laidFranceunderan interdict, summoned the whole parliament of Provence to appear beforehim, and excommunicated all the philosophers, because most of them hadtakenpartwithLouisXII.Yetthiscouncilwasnot,likethatofEphesus,calledtheCouncilofRobbers.

In1537,theCouncilofTrentwasconvoked,firstatMantua,byPaulIII.,afterwardsatTrentin1543,andterminatedinDecember,1561,underPiusVI.Catholicprincessubmittedtoitonpointsofdoctrine,andtwoorthreeoftheminmattersofdiscipline.Itisthoughtthathenceforwardtherewillbenomore

general councils than therewill be states-general in France or Spain. In theVatican there is a fine picture, containing a list of the general councils, inwhichareinscribedsuchonlyasareapprovedbythecourtofRome.Everyoneputswhathechoosesinhisownarchives.

SectionIII.

InfallibilityofCouncils.

All councils are, doubtless, infallible, being composed of men. It is notpossible that the passions, that intrigues, that the spirit of contention, thathatred or jealousy, that prejudice or ignorance, should ever influence theseassemblies.Butwhy,itwillbesaid,havesomanycouncilsbeenopposedtooneanother?Toexerciseourfaith.Theywereallright,eachinitstime.Atthisday,theRomanCatholicsbelieveinsuchcouncilsonlyasareapprovedintheVatican;theGreekCatholicsbelieveonlyinthoseapprovedatConstantinople;andtheProtestantsmakeajestofboththeoneandtheother:sothateveryoneoughttobecontent.

We shall here examine only the great councils: the lesser ones are notworththetrouble.ThefirstwasthatofNice,assembledintheyear325ofthemodernera,afterConstantinehadwrittenandsentbyOsiushisnoblelettertothe rather turbulent clergy ofAlexandria. Itwas debatedwhether Jesuswascreated or uncreated. This in noway concernedmorality,which is the onlythingessential.WhetherJesuswasintimeorbeforetime,itisnotthelessourdutytobehonest.Aftermuchaltercation, itwasat lastdecidedthat theSonwasasoldastheFather,andconsubstantialwiththeFather.Thisdecisionisnot very easy of comprehension, which makes it but the more sublime.Seventeen bishops protested against the decree; and an old Alexandrianchronicle, preserved at Oxford, says that two thousand priests likewiseprotested. But prelatesmake notmuch account ofmere priests, who are ingeneral poor. However, there was nothing said of the Trinity in this firstcouncil.The formula runs thus: "Webelieve Jesus tobe consubstantialwiththeFather,GodofGod,lightoflight,begotten,notmade;wealsobelieveintheHolyGhost." Itmust be acknowledged that theHolyGhostwas treatedverycavalierly.

Wehavealreadysaid, that in thesupplement to theCouncilofNice it isrelated that the fathers, being much perplexed to find out which were theauthenticandwhichtheapocryphalbooksoftheOldandtheNewTestament,laidthemalluponanaltar,andthebookswhichtheyweretorejectfelltotheground.Whatapitythatsofineanordealhasbeenlost!

AfterthefirstCouncilofNice,composedofthreehundredandseventeeninfalliblebishops,anothercouncilwasheldatRimini;onwhichoccasionthenumber of the infallible was four hundred, without reckoning a strong

detachment, at Seleucia, of about two hundred. These six hundred bishops,after four months of contention, unanimously took from Jesus hisconsubstantiality.Ithassincebeenrestoredtohim,exceptbytheSocinians:sonothingisamiss.

Oneof thegreat councilswas thatofEphesus, in431.There, as alreadystated,Nestorius,bishopofConstantinople,agreatpersecutorofheretics,washimself condemned as a heretic, for havingmaintained that, although JesuswasreallyGod,yetHismotherwasnotabsolutelymotherofGod,butmotherofJesus.St.CyrilprocuredthecondemnationofNestorius;butthepartisansofNestoriusalsoprocuredthedepositionofSt.Cyril,inthesamecouncil;whichputtheHolyGhostinconsiderableperplexity.

Here,gentlereader,carefullyobserve,thattheGospelsaysnotonesyllableof the consubstantialityof theWord,norofMary'shavinghad thehonorofbeingmotherofGod,nomorethanoftheotherdisputedpointswhichbroughttogethersomanyinfalliblecouncils.

Eutycheswasamonk,whohadcriedoutsturdilyagainstNestorius,whoseheresywasnothing less thansupposing twopersons inJesus;which isquitefrightful.Themonk,thebettertocontradicthisadversary,affirmedthatJesushadbutonenature.OneFlavian,bishopofConstantinople,maintainedagainsthim, that there must absolutely be two natures in Jesus. Thereupon, anumerouscouncilwasheldatEphesusin449,andtheargumentmadeuseofwas the cudgel, as in the lesser council of Cirta, in 355, and in a certainconference held at Carthage. Flavian's nature was well thrashed, and twonatureswereassignedtoJesus.AttheCouncilofChalcedon,in451,Jesuswasagainreducedtoonenature.

Ipassbycouncilsheldon lessweightyquestions, andcome to the sixthgeneralCouncil ofConstantinople, assembled to ascertainpreciselywhetherJesus—who, after having for a long period had but one nature, was thenpossessed of two—had also two wills. It is obvious how important thisknowledgeistodoingthewillofGod.

ThiscouncilwasconvokedbyConstantine theBearded,asall theothershad been by the preceding emperors. The legates from the bishop ofRomewereonthelefthand,andthepatriarchsofConstantinopleandAntiochontheright. The train-bearers at Romemay, for aught I know, assert that the lefthand is theplaceof honor.However, the resultwas that Jesusobtained twowills.

TheMosaic law forbade images. Painters and sculptors had nevermadetheirfortunesamongtheJews.WedonotfindthatJesuseverhadanypictures,exceptingperhaps thatofMary,paintedbyLuke. It is,however,certain thatJesus Christ nowhere recommends the worship of images. Nevertheless the

primitive Christians began to worship them about the end of the fourthcentury, when they had become familiar with the fine arts. In the eighthcentury this abuse had arrived at such a pitch thatConstantineCopronymusassembled,atConstantinople,acouncilofthreehundredandtwentybishops,whoanathematizedimage-worship,anddeclaredittobeidolatry.

Theempress Irene, thesamewhoafterwardshadherson'seyes tornout,convoked the secondCouncil ofNice in787,when the adorationof imageswas re-established. But in 794 Charlemagne had another council held atFrankfort,whichdeclaredthesecondofNiceidolatrous.PopeAdrianIV.senttwolegatestoit,buthedidnotconvokeit.

The first great council convoked by a pope was the first of Lateran, in1139; therewereabouta thousandbishopsassembled;but scarcelyanythingwasdone,exceptthatallthosewereanathematizedwhosaidthattheChurchwastoorich.In1179,anothergreatcouncilofLateranwasheldbyAlexanderIII.,inwhichthecardinals,forthefirsttime,tookprecedenceofthebishops.The discussions were confined to matters of discipline. In another greatcouncilofLateran,in1215,PopeInnocentIII.strippedthecountofToulouseofallhispossessions,byvirtueofhisexcommunication.Itwasthenthatthefirstmentionwasmadeoftransubstantiation.

In 1245, was held a general council at Lyons, then an imperial city, inwhich Pope Innocent IV. excommunicated the emperor Frederick II., andconsequentlydeposedhim,andforbadehimtheuseoffireandwater.Onthisoccasion,aredhatwasgiventothecardinals,toremindthemthattheymustimbrue theirhands in thebloodof theemperor'spartisans.Thiscouncilwasthe cause of the destruction of the house of Suabia, and of thirty years ofanarchyinItalyandGermany.

InageneralcouncilheldatVienne,inDauphiny,in1311,theOrderoftheTemplarswasabolished:itsprincipalmembershavingbeencondemnedtothemost horrible deaths, on charges most imperfectly established. The greatCouncil of Constance, in 1414, contented itself with dismissing Pope JohnXXIII., convicted of a thousand crimes, but had John Huss and Jerome ofPrague burned for being obstinate; obstinacy being a much more grievouscrimethaneithermurder,rape,simony,orsodomy.In1430washeldthegreatcouncilofBasel,not recognizedatRomebecause itdeposedPopeEugeniusIV., who would not be deposed. The Romans reckon among the generalcouncils the fifth Council of Lateran, convoked against Louis XII., king ofFrance, by Pope Julius II.; but that warlike pope dying, the council had noresult.

Lastly,wehavethegreatCouncilofTrent,whichisnotreceivedinFranceinmatters of discipline; but its doctrine is indisputable, since, as Fra Paolo

Sarpitellsus, theHolyGhostarrivedatTrentfromRomeeveryweekinthecourier'sbag.ButFraPaoloSarpiwasalittletaintedwithheresy.

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