APhilosophicalDictionaryinTenVolumes

Vol.II:Appearance—Calends

By

Voltaire

APPEARANCE.

Areallappearancesdeceitful?Haveoursensesbeengivenusonlytokeepus in continual delusion? Is everything error? Do we live in a dream,surroundedbyshadowychimeras?Weseethesunsettingwhenheisalreadybelowthehorizon;beforehehasyetrisenweseehimappear.Asquaretowerseemstoberound.Astraightstick,thrustintothewater,seemstobebent.

Youseeyourfaceinamirrorandtheimageappearstobebehindtheglass:itis,however,neitherbehindnorbeforeit.Thisglass,whichtothesightandthetouchissosmoothandeven,isnootherthananunequalcongregationofprojections and cavities. The finest and fairest skin is a kind of bristlednetwork,theopeningsofwhichareincomparablylargerthanthethreads,andenclose an infinite number of minute hairs. Under this network there areliquors incessantly passing, and from it there issue continual exhalationswhich cover the whole surface. What we call large is to an elephant verysmall,andwhatwecall small is to insectsaworld.Thesamemotionwhichwouldberapidtoasnailwouldbeveryslowintheeyeofaneagle.Thisrock,whichisimpenetrablebysteel,isasieveconsistingofmoreporesthanmatter,andcontainingathousandavenuesofprodigiouswidthleadingtoitscentre,inwhicharelodgedmultitudesofanimals,whichmay,foraughtweknow,thinkthemselvesthemastersoftheuniverse.

Nothingiseitherasitappearstobe,orintheplacewherewebelieveittobe.Severalphilosophers,tiredofbeingconstantlydeceivedbybodies,haveintheirspleenpronouncedthatbodiesdonotexist,andthatthereisnothingrealbutourminds.Aswellmighttheyhaveconcludedthat,allappearancesbeingfalse, and the nature of the soul being as little known as that of thematter,thereisnorealityineitherbodyorsoul.PerhapsitisthisdespairofknowinganythingwhichhascausedsomeChinesephilosophers tosay thatnothing isthe beginning and the end of all things. This philosophy, so destructive tobeing,waswell known inMolière's time.DoctorMacphurius represents theschool;whenteachingSganarelle,hesays,"Youmustnotsay,'Iamcome,'but'it seems tome that Iamcome'; for itmayseemtoyou,withoutsuchbeingreally the case." But at the present day a comic scene is not an argument,though it is sometimes better than an argument; and there is often asmuchpleasureinseekingaftertruthasinlaughingatphilosophy.

Youdonotseethenetwork, thecavities, thethreads, theinequalities, theexhalations of that white and delicate skin which you idolize. Animals athousand times less than amite discern all these objectswhich escape yourvision;theylodge,feed,andtravelaboutinthem,asinanextensivecountry,

and those on the right arm are perfectly ignorant that there are creatures oftheirownspecieson the left. Ifyouweresounfortunateas toseewhat theysee,yourcharmingskinwouldstrikeyouwithhorror.

Theharmonyofaconcert,towhichyoulistenwithdelight,musthaveoncertainclassesofminuteanimalstheeffectofterriblethunder;andperhapsitkillsthem.Wesee,touch,hear,feelthingsonlyinthewayinwhichtheyoughttobeseen,touched,heard,orfeltbyourselves.

Allisindueproportion.Thelawsofoptics,whichshowyouanobjectinthewaterwhereitisnot,andbreakarightline,areinentireaccordancewiththosewhichmakethesunappeartoyouwithadiameteroftwofeet,althoughitisamilliontimeslargerthantheearth.Toseeitinitstruedimensionswouldrequire an eye collecting his rays at an angle as great as his disk,which isimpossible.Oursenses,then,assistmuchmorethantheydeceiveus.

Motion, time, hardness, softness, dimensions, distance, approximation,strength,weakness, appearances, ofwhatever kind, all is relative.Andwhohascreatedtheserelations?

APROPOS.

All great successes, of whatever kind, are founded upon things done orsaidapropos.

ArnoldofBrescia, JohnHuss, and JeromeofPraguedidnot comequiteapropos; the peoplewere not then sufficiently enlightened; the invention ofprinting had not then laid the abuses complained of before the eyes ofeveryone. But when men began to read—when the populace, who weresolicitoustoescapepurgatory,butatthesametimewishednottopaytoodearfor indulgences, began to open their eyes, the reformers of the sixteenthcenturycamequiteapropos,andsucceeded.

IthasbeenelsewhereobservedthatCromwellunderElizabethorCharlestheSecond,orCardinaldeRetzwhenLouisXIV.governedbyhimself,wouldhavebeenveryordinarypersons.

HadCæsarbeenborn in the timeofScipioAfricanushewouldnothavesubjugated the Roman commonwealth; nor would Mahomet, could he riseagainatthepresentday,bemorethansheriffofMecca.ButifArchimedesandVirgilwererestored,onewouldstillbethebestmathematician,theotherthebestpoetofhiscountry.

ARABS;

AND,OCCASIONALLY,ONTHEBOOKOFJOB.

Ifanyonebedesirousofobtainingathoroughknowledgeoftheantiquitiesof Arabia, it may be presumed that he will gain nomore information thanabout those of Auvergne and Poitou. It is, however, certain, that the Arabswere of some consequence long beforeMahomet. The Jews themselves saythatMosesmarriedanArabianwoman,andhisfather-in-lawJethroseemstohavebeenamanofgreatgoodsense.

Mecca is considered, andnotwithout reason, asoneof themost ancientcities in the world. It is, indeed, a proof of its antiquity that nothing butsuperstitioncouldoccasionthebuildingofatownonsuchaspot,foritisinasandydesert,wherethewaterisbrackish,sothatthepeopledieofhungerandthirst.Thecountryafewmilestotheeastisthemostdelightfuluponearth,thebestwateredandthemostfertile.TheretheArabsshouldhavebuilt,andnotatMecca.Butitwasenoughforsomecharlatan,somefalseprophet,togiveouthis reveries, tomake ofMecca a sacred spot and the resort of neighboringnations.ThusitwasthatthetempleofJupiterAmmonwasbuiltinthemidstof sands. Arabia extends from northeast to southwest, from the desert ofJerusalemtoAdenorEden,aboutthefiftiethdegreeofnorthlatitude.Itisanimmensecountry,aboutthreetimesaslargeasGermany.Itisverylikelythatitsdesertsofsandwerebroughtthitherbythewatersoftheocean,andthatitsmarinegulfswereoncefertilelands.

Thebeliefinthisnation'santiquityisfavoredbythecircumstancethatnohistorian speaks of its having been subjugated. It was not subdued even byAlexander,norbyanykingofSyria,norby theRomans.TheArabs,on thecontrary, subjugatedahundrednations, from the Indus to theGaronne; and,havingafterwardslosttheirconquests,theyretiredintotheirowncountryanddidnotmixwithanyotherpeople.

Havingneverbeensubjecttonormixedwithothernationsitismorethanprobable that theyhavepreserved theirmanners and their language. Indeed,Arabicis,insomesense,themothertongueofallAsiaasfarastheIndus;orrather, the prevailing tongue, for mother tongues have never existed. Theirgeniushasneverchanged.Theystillcomposetheir"Nights'Entertainments,"astheydidwhentheyimaginedoneBacorBacchus,whopassedthroughtheRedSeawith threemillionsofmen,women, andchildren;who stopped thesunandmoon,andmadestreamsofwineissueforthwithablowofhisrod,which,whenhechose,hechangedintoaserpent.

Anationsoisolated,andwhosebloodremainsunmixed,cannotchangeits

character. The Arabs of the desert have always been given to robbery, andthose inhabiting the towns been fond of fables, poetry, and astronomy. It issaid, in thehistorical preface to theKoran, thatwhen anyoneof their tribeshadagoodpoet theother tribesnever failed tosenddeputies to thatoneonwhichGodhadvouchsafedtobestowsogreatagift.

The tribes assembled every year, by representatives, in an open placenamedOcad,where verseswere recited, nearly in the sameway as is nowdoneatRome in thegardenof theacademyof theArcadii, and this customcontinueduntilthetimeofMahomet.Inhistime,eachonepostedhisversesonthedoorofthetempleofMecca.Labid,sonofRabia,wasregardedastheHomer ofMecca; but, having seen the second chapter of theKoran,whichMahomethadposted,hefellonhiskneesbeforehim,andsaid,"OMahomet,sonofAbdallah,sonofMotalib,sonofAchem,thouartagreaterpoetthanI—thouartdoubtlesstheprophetofGod."

TheArabsofMaden,Naïd,andSanaawerenolessgenerousthanthoseofthedesertwereaddictedtoplunder.Amongthem,onefriendwasdishonoredifhehadrefusedhisassistancetoanother.Intheircollectionofverses,entitled"Tograid", it is related that, "one day, in the temple ofMecca, three Arabsweredisputingongenerosityandfriendship,andcouldnotagreeastowhich,amongthosewhothensetthegreatestexamplesofthesevirtues,deservedthepreference.SomewereforAbdallah,sonofGiafar,uncletoMahomet;othersforKais,sonofSaad;andothersforArabad,ofthetribeofAs.Afteralongdispute theyagreed to senda friendofAbdallah tohim, a friendofKais toKais,andafriendofArabadtoArabad,totrythemallthree,andtocomeandmaketheirreporttotheassembly.

"Then the friendofAbdallahwent and said to him, 'Sonof theuncle ofMahomet, I am on a journey and amdestitute of everything.'Abdallahwasmountedonhiscamelloadedwithgoldandsilk;hedismountedwithallspeed,gavehimhiscamel,andreturnedhomeonfoot.

"The secondwent andmade application to his friendKais, son of Saad.Kais was still asleep, and one of his domestics asked the traveller what hewanted.ThetravelleransweredthathewasthefriendofKais,andneededhisassistance.Thedomesticsaidtohim,'Iwillnotwakemymaster;buthereareseven thousand pieces of gold,which are all thatwe at present have in thehouse.Takealsoacamelfromthestable,andaslave; thesewill, I think,besufficientforyouuntilyoureachyourownhouse.'WhenKaisawoke,hechidthedomesticfornothavinggivenmore.

"The third repaired to his friendArabad, of the tribe ofAs.Arabadwasblind,andwascomingoutofhishouse,leaningontwoslaves,topraytoGodinthetempleofMecca.Assoonasheheardhisfriend'svoice,hesaidtohim,

'Ipossessnothingbutmytwoslaves;Ibegthatyouwilltakeandsellthem;IwillgotothetempleaswellasIcan,withmystick.'

"The three disputants, having returned to the assembly, faithfully relatedwhathadhappened.ManypraiseswerebestowedonAbdallah,sonofGiafar—onKais,sonofSaad—andonArabad,ofthetribeofAs,butthepreferencewasgiventoArabad."

TheArabs have several tales of this kind, but our western nations havenone.Ourromancesarenotinthistaste.Wehave,indeed,severalwhichturnupon trick alone, as those ofBoccaccio, "Guzman d'Alfarache," "Gil Bias,"etc.

OnJob,theArab.

ItisclearthattheArabsatleastpossessednobleandexaltedideas.Thosewho aremost conversantwith the oriental languages think that theBookofJob,whichisofthehighestantiquity,wascomposedbyanArabofIdumaea.ThemostclearandindubitableproofisthattheHebrewtranslatorhasleftinhis translationmore thanahundredArabicwords,which,apparently,hedidnotunderstand.

Job,theheroofthepiece,couldnotbeaHebrew,forhesays,intheforty-second chapter, that having been restored to his former circumstances, hedivided his possessions equally among his sons and daughters, which isdirectlycontrarytotheHebrewlaw.

It ismost likely that, if thisbookhadbeencomposedafter theperiodatwhichweplaceMoses,theauthor—whospeaksofsomanythingsandisnotsparing of examples—would have mentioned some one of the astonishingprodigiesworkedbyMoses,whichwere,doubtless,knowntoall thenationsofAsia.

IntheveryfirstchapterSatanappearsbeforeGodandaskspermissiontotemptJob.SatanwasunknowninthePentateuch;itwasaChaldæanword;afreshproofthattheArabianauthorwasintheneighborhoodofChaldæa.

IthasbeenthoughtthathemightbeaJewbecausetheHebrewtranslatorhas put Jehovah instead of El, or Bel, or Sadai. But whatman of the leastinformation does not know that the word Jehovah was common to thePhœnicians, theSyrians, theEgyptians,andeverypeopleof theneighboringcountries?

Ayetstrongerproof—onetowhichthereisnoreply—istheknowledgeofastronomywhich appears in the Book of Job.Mention is heremade of theconstellationswhichwecallArcturus,Orion,thePleiades,andevenofthoseof"thechambersof thesouth."Now, theHebrewshadnoknowledgeof the

sphere;theyhadnotevenatermtoexpressastronomy;buttheArabs,liketheChaldæans,havealwaysbeenfamedfortheirskillinthisscience.

It does, then, seem tobe thoroughlyproved that theBookof JobcannothavebeenwrittenbyaJew,and that itwasanterior toall theJewishbooks,PhiloandJosephuswere tooprudent tocount itamong thoseof theHebrewcanon.ItisincontestablyanArabianparableorallegory.

This isnotall.Wederive from it someknowledgeof thecustomsof theancient world, and especially of Arabia. Here we read of trading with theIndies;acommercewhichtheArabshaveinallagescarriedon,butwhichtheJewsneverevenheardof.

Here,too,weseethattheartofwritingwasingreatcultivation,andthattheyalreadymadegreatbooks.

It cannot be denied that the commentator Calmet, profound as he is,violatesalltherulesoflogicinpretendingthatJobannouncestheimmortalityofthesoulandtheresurrectionofthebody,whenhesays:

"ForIknowthatmyRedeemerliveth.Andthoughaftermyskin—wormsdestroy this body, yet inmy flesh shall I seeGod.But ye should say,Whypersecutewehim?—seeingtherootofthematterisfoundinme.Beyeafraidof the sword; forwrath bringeth the punishment of the sword, that yemayknowthereisajudgment."

Cananythingbeunderstoodbythosewords,otherthanhishopeofbeingcured?Theimmortalityofthesoul,andtheresurrectionofthebodyatthelastday,aretruthssoindubitablyannouncedintheNewTestament,andsoclearlyprovedby the fathers and the councils, that there is noneed to attribute thefirstknowledgeofthemtoanArab.Thesegreatmysteriesarenotexplainedinanypassageof theHebrewPentateuch;howthencan theybeexplained inasingle verse of Job and that in so obscure amanner? Calmet has no betterreason for seeing in the words of Job the immortality of the soul, and thegeneralresurrection,thanhewouldhavefordiscoveringadisgracefuldiseaseinthemaladywithwhichhewasafflicted.Neitherphysicsnorlogictakethepartofthiscommentator.

AsforthisallegoricalBookofJob:itbeingmanifestlyArabian,weareatliberty to say that it has neither justness, method, nor precision. Yet it isperhaps themost ancient book that has beenwritten, and themost valuablemonumentthathasbeenfoundonthissidetheEuphrates.

ARARAT.

ThisisamountainofArmenia,onwhichthearkrested.Thequestionhaslong been agitated,whether the delugewas universal—whether it inundatedthewholeearthwithoutexception,oronlytheportionoftheearthwhichwasthenknown.Thosewhohavethoughtthat itextendedonlytothetribesthenexisting, have founded their opinion on the inutility of flooding unpeopledlands,whichreasonseemsveryplausible.Asforus,weabidebytheScripturetext,without pretending to explain it.Butwe shall take greater libertywithBerosus,anancientChaldæanwriter,ofwhomtherearefragmentspreservedby Abydenus, quoted by Eusebius, and repeated word for word by GeorgeSyncellus.Fromthesefragmentswefind that theOrientalsof thebordersoftheEuxine, in ancient times,madeArmenia the abodeof their gods. In thistheywereimitatedbytheGreeks,whoplacedtheirdeitiesonMountOlympus.Men have always confounded humanwith divine things. Princes built theircitadelsonmountains;thereforetheywerealsomadethedwellingplaceofthegods,andbecamesacred.ThesummitofMountAraratisconcealedbymists;therefore the gods hid themselves in thosemists, sometimes vouchsafing toappeartomortalsinfineweather.

Agodofthatcountry,believedtohavebeenSaturn,appearedonedaytoXixuter, tenth king of Chaldæa, according to the computation ofAfricanus,Abydenus,andApollodorus,andsaidtohim:

"OnthefifteenthdayofthemonthOesi,mankindshallbedestroyedbyadeluge.ShutupcloseallyourwritingsinSipara,thecityofthesun,thatthememoryofthingsmaynotbelost.Buildavessel;enteritwithyourrelativesandfriends;takewithyoubirdsandbeasts;stockitwithprovisions,and,whenyouareasked,'Whitherareyougoinginthatvessel?'answer,'Tothegods,tobegtheirfavorformankind.'"

Xixuterbuilthisvessel,whichwastwostadiiwide,andfivelong;thatit,its width was two hundred and fifty geometrical paces, and its length sixhundredandtwenty-five.Thisship,whichwastogoupontheBlackSea,wasa slow sailer. The flood came.When it had ceasedXixuter let some of hisbirds fly out, but, finding nothing to eat, they returned to the vessel.A fewdays afterwards he again set some of his birds at liberty, and they returnedwithmudintheirclaws.Atlasttheywentandreturnednomore.Xixuterdidlikewise:hequittedhisship,whichhadpercheduponamountainofArmenia,andhewasseennomore;thegodstookhimaway.

Thereisprobablysomethinghistoricinthisfable.TheEuxineoverfloweditsbanks,and inundatedsomeportionsof territory,and thekingofChaldæahastened to repair thedamage.Wehave inRabelais talesno less ridiculous,founded on some small portion of truth. The ancient historians are, for themostpart,seriousRabelais.

AsforMountArarat,ithasbeenassertedthatitwasoneofthemountainsofPhrygia,andthatitwascalledbyanameansweringthatofark,becauseitwasenclosedbythreerivers.

There are thirty opinions respecting this mountain. How shall wedistinguishthetrueone?ThatwhichthemonksnowcallArarat,was,theysay,oneof the limitsof the terrestrialparadise—aparadiseofwhichwefindbutfew traces. It is a collection of rocks and precipices, covered with eternalsnows.TournefortwentthitherbyorderofLouisXIV.toseekforplants.Hesaysthatthewholeneighborhoodishorrible,andthemountainitselfstillmoreso;thathefoundsnowfourfeetthick,andquitecrystallized,andthatthereareperpendicularprecipicesoneveryside.

The Dutch traveller, John Struys, pretends that he went thither also. Hetells us that he ascended to the very top, to cure a hermit afflicted with arupture.

"His hermitage," says he, "was so distant from the earth thatwedid notreach it until the close of the seventh day, though each day we went fiveleagues." If, in this journey,hewasconstantly ascending, thisMountAraratmustbethirty-fiveleagueshigh.InthetimeoftheGiants'war,afewAraratspiledoneuponanotherwouldhavemade theascent to themoonquiteeasy.JohnStruys,moreover, assures us that the hermitwhomhe cured presentedhimwith a crossmade of the wood of Noah's ark. Tournefort had not thisadvantage.

ARIANISM.

Thegreat theologicaldisputes, for twelvehundredyears,wereallGreek.What would Homer, Sophocles, Demosthenes, Archimedes, have said, hadtheywitnessedthesubtlecavillingswhichhavecostsomuchblood.

Ariushas,evenatthisday,thehonorofbeingregardedastheinventorofhis opinion, asCalvin is considered to have been the founder ofCalvinism.Theprideinbeingtheheadofasectisthesecondofthisworld'svanities;forthatofconquestissaidtobethefirst.However,itiscertainthatneitherAriusnorCalvinisentitledtothemelancholygloryofinvention.ThequarrelabouttheTrinityexistedlongbeforeAriustookpartinit,inthedisputatioustownofAlexandria,whereithadbeenbeyondthepowerofEuclidtomakementhinkcalmly and justly. There never was a people more frivolous than theAlexandrians;inthisrespecttheyfarexceededeventheParisians.

Theremustalreadyhavebeenwarmdisputesabout theTrinity; since the

patriarch,who composed the "AlexandrianChronicle," preserved atOxford,assuresus that thepartyembracedbyAriuswassupportedby two thousandpriests.

Wewillhere,forthereader'sconvenience,givewhatissaidofAriusinasmall book which everyone may not have at hand: Here is anincomprehensible question,which, formore than sixteenhundredyears, hasfurnished exercise for curiosity, for sophistic subtlety, for animosity, for thespiritofcabal,forthefuryofdominion,fortherageofpersecution,forblindand sanguinary fanaticism, for barbarous credulity, andwhich has producedmore horrors than the ambition of princes, which ambition has occasionedverymany.IsJesustheWord?IfHebetheWord,didHeemanatefromGodintime or before time? If He emanated from God, is He coeternal andconsubstantialwithHim,orisHeofasimilarsubstance?IsHedistinctfromHim,orisHenot?IsHemadeorbegotten?CanHebegetinhisturn?HasHepaternity?orproductivevirtuewithoutpaternity?IstheHolyGhostmade?orbegotten?orproduced?orproceedingfromtheFather?orproceedingfromtheSon? or proceeding from both? Can He beget? can He produce? is Hishypostasisconsubstantialwith thehypostasisof theFatherandtheSon?andhowisitthat,havingthesamenature—thesameessenceastheFatherandtheSon,HecannotdothesamethingsdonebythesepersonswhoareHimself?

Thesequestions,sofarabovereason,certainlyneeded thedecisionofaninfallible church. The Christians sophisticated, cavilled, hated, andexcommunicatedoneanother,forsomeofthesedogmasinaccessibletohumanintellect,beforethetimeofAriusandAthanasius.TheEgyptianGreekswereremarkablyclever;theywouldsplitahairintofour,butonthisoccasiontheysplit it only into three.Alexandros, bishop ofAlexandria, thought proper topreach that God, being necessarily individual—single—a monad in thestrictestsenseoftheword,thismonadistriune.

The priest Arius, whom we call Arius, was quite scandalized byAlexandros's monad, and explained the thing in quite a different way. Hecavilled in part like the priest Sabellius,whohad cavilled like thePhrygianPraxeas, who was a great caviller. Alexandros quickly assembled a smallcouncilofthoseofhisownopinion,andexcommunicatedhispriest.Eusebius,bishopofNicomedia,tookthepartofArius.ThusthewholeChurchwasinaflame.

TheEmperorConstantinewasavillain;Iconfessit—aparricide,whohadsmothered hiswife in a bath, cut his son's throat, assassinated his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, and his nephew; I cannot deny it—aman puffed upwith pride and immersed in pleasure; granted—a detestable tyrant, like hischildren;transeat—buthewasamanofsense.Hewouldnothaveobtainedtheempire,andsubduedallhisrivals,hadhenotreasonedjustly.

Whenhesawtheflamesofcivilwarlightedamongthescholasticbrains,he sent the celebrated Bishop Osius with dissuasive letters to the twobelligerentparties."Youaregreatfools,"heexpresslytellstheminthisletter,"to quarrel about things which you do not understand. It is unworthy thegravityofyourministrytomakesomuchnoiseaboutsotriflingamatter."

By"sotriflingamatter,"ConstantinemeantnotwhatregardstheDivinity,but the incomprehensiblemanner inwhich theywere striving to explain thenature of the Divinity. TheArabian patriarch, whowrote the history of theChurchofAlexandria,makesOsius,onpresentingtheemperor'sletter,speakinnearlythefollowingwords:

"My brethren, Christianity is just beginning to enjoy the blessings ofpeace,andyouwouldplungeitintoeternaldiscord.Theemperorhasbuttoomuchreasontotellyouthatyouquarrelaboutaverytriflingmatter.Certainly,had the object of the dispute been essential, Jesus Christ, whom we allacknowledgeasourlegislator,wouldhavementionedit.GodwouldnothavesentHisSononearth,toreturnwithoutteachingusourcatechism.WhateverHe has not expressly told us is thework ofmen and error is their portion.Jesushascommandedyouto loveoneanother,andyoubeginbyhatingoneanother and stirringupdiscord in the empire.Pride alonehasgivenbirth tothesedisputes,andJesus,yourMaster,hascommandedyoutobehumble.Notone among you can knowwhether Jesus ismade or begotten.And inwhatdoesHisnatureconcernyou,providedyourownistobejustandreasonable?What has the vain science of words to do with the morality which shouldguideyouractions?Youcloudourdoctrineswithmysteries—you,whoweredesignedtostrengthenreligionbyyourvirtues.WouldyouleavetheChristianreligion a mass of sophistry? Did Christ come for this? Cease to dispute,humbleyourselves,edifyoneanother,clothethenaked,feedthehungry,andpacifythequarrelsoffamilies,insteadofgivingscandaltothewholeempirebyyourdissensions."

But Osius addressed an obstinate audience. The Council of Nice wasassembledandtheRomanEmpirewastornbyaspiritualcivilwar.Thiswarbroughtonothersandmutualpersecutionhascontinuedfromagetoage,untothisday.

The melancholy part of the affair was that as soon as the council wasendedthepersecutionbegan;butConstantine,whenheopenedit,didnotyetknowhowheshouldact,noruponwhomthepersecutionshouldfall.Hewasnot aChristian, though hewas at the head of theChristians.Baptism alonethenconstitutedChristianity,andhehadnotbeenbaptized;hehadevenrebuilttheTempleofConcordatRome.Itwas,doubtless,perfectlyindifferenttohimwhetherAlexander ofAlexandria, orEusebius ofNicomedia, and the priestArius,wererightorwrong;itisquiteevident,fromthelettergivenabove,that

hehadaprofoundcontemptforthedispute.

Buttherehappenedthatwhichalwayshappensandalwayswillhappenineverycourt.TheenemiesofthosewhowereafterwardsnamedAriansaccusedEusebiusofNicomediaofhavingformerlytakenpartwithLiciniusagainsttheemperor."Ihaveproofsofit,"saidConstantineinhislettertotheChurchofNicomedia,"fromthepriestsanddeaconsinhistrainwhomIhavetaken,"etc.

Thus, from the time of the first great council, intrigue, cabal, andpersecutionwereestablished, togetherwith the tenetsof theChurch,withoutthe power to derogate from their sanctity. Constantine gave the chapels ofthosewhodidnotbelieveintheconsubstantialitytothosewhodidbelieveinit; confiscated the property of the dissenters to his own profit, and used hisdespotic power to exile Arius and his partisans, who were not then thestrongest.IthasevenbeensaidthatofhisownprivateauthorityhecondemnedtodeathwhosoevershouldnotburnthewritingsofArius;butthisisnottrue.Constantine,prodigalashewasofhumanblood,didnotcarryhiscrueltytosomadandabsurdanexcessastoorderhisexecutionerstoassassinatethemanwhoshouldkeepanhereticalbook,whilehesufferedtheheresiarchtolive.

At court everything soon changes. Several non-consubstantial bishops,with some of the eunuchs and the women, spoke in favor of Arius, andobtained the reversal of the lettre de cachet. The same thing has repeatedlyhappenedinourmoderncourtsonsimilaroccasions.

ThecelebratedEusebius,bishopofCæsarea,knownbyhiswritings,whichevincenogreatdiscernment,stronglyaccusedEustatius,bishopofAntioch,ofbeing a Sabellian; and Eustatius accused Eusebius of being an Arian. AcouncilwasassembledatAntioch;Eusebiusgainedhiscause;Eustatiuswasdisplaced; and the See ofAntiochwas offered to Eusebius,whowould notacceptit;thetwopartiesarmedagainsteachother,andthiswasthepreludetocontroversialwarfare.Constantine,whohadbanishedAriusfornotbelievingin the consubstantialSon,nowbanishedEustatius forbelieving inHim;noraresuchrevolutionsuncommon.

St.AthanasiuswasthenbishopofAlexandria.HewouldnotadmitArius,whom the emperor had sent thither, into the town, saying that "Arius wasexcommunicated;thatanexcommunicatedmanoughtnolongertohaveeitherhomeorcountry;thathecouldneithereatnorsleepanywhere;andthatitwasbettertoobeyGodthanman."AnewcouncilwasforthwithheldatTyre,andnew lettres de cachet were issued. Athanasius was removed by the Tyrianfathers and banished to Trèves. Thus Arius, and Athanasius, his greatestenemy,werecondemnedinturnbyamanwhowasnotyetaChristian:

Thetwofactionsalikeemployedartifice,fraud,andcalumny,accordingtotheoldandeternalusage.Constantine left them todisputeandcabal, forhe

hadotheroccupations.Itwasatthattimethatthisgoodprinceassassinatedhisson,hiswife,andhisnephew,theyoungLicinius,thehopeoftheempire,whowasnotyettwelveyearsold.

Under Constantine, Arius' party was constantly victorious. The oppositeparty has unblushingly written that one day St. Macarius, one of the mostardent followers of Athanasius, knowing that Arius was on the way to thecathedral of Constantinople, followed by several of his brethren, prayed soardently to God to confound this heresiarch that God could not resist theprayer; and immediately all Arius' bowels passed through his fundament—whichisimpossible.ButatlengthAriusdied.

Constantine followed him a year afterwards, and it is said he died ofleprosy. Julian, in his "Cæsars," says that baptism, which this emperorreceivedafewhoursbeforehisdeath,curednooneofthisdistemper.

As his children reigned after him the flattery of theRomanpeople,whohad long been slaves, was carried to such an excess that those of the oldreligionmadehimagod,andthoseofthenewmadehimasaint.Hisfeastwaslongkept,togetherwiththatofhismother.

After his death, the troubles caused by the single word "consubstantial"agitatedtheempirewithrenewedviolence.Constantius,sonandsuccessortoConstantine, imitatedallhis father'scruelties,and, likehim,heldcouncils—which councils anathematizedone another.Athanasiuswent over allEuropeand Asia to support his party, but the Eusebians overwhelmed him.Banishment, imprisonment, tumult,murder, and assassination signalized thecloseof the reignofConstantius. Julian, theChurch'smortal enemy,didhisutmosttorestorepeacetotheChurch,butwasunsuccessful.Jovian,andafterhimValentinian,gaveentirelibertyofconscience,butthetwopartiesaccepteditonlyasthelibertytoexercisetheirhatredandtheirfury.

TheodosiusdeclaredfortheCouncilofNice,buttheEmpressJustina,whoreigned in Italy, Illyria, and Africa, as guardian of the young Valentinian,proscribedthegreatCouncilofNice;andsoonafter theGoths,Vandals,andBurgundians, who spread themselves over so many provinces, findingArianismestablished in them, embraced it inorder togovern the conquerednationsbythereligionofthosenations.

But theNicæanfaithhavingbeenreceivedbytheGauls, theirconqueror,Clovis, followed that communion for the very same reason that the otherbarbarianshadprofessedthefaithofArius.

InItaly,thegreatTheodorickeptpeacebetweenthetwoparties,andatlasttheNicæanformulaprevailedintheeastandinthewest.Arianismreappearedabout themiddle of the sixteenth century, favored by the religious disputes

whichthendividedEurope;anditreappeared,armedwithnewstrengthandastill greater incredulity. Forty gentlemen ofVicenza formed an academy, inwhichsuchtenetsonlywereestablishedasappearednecessary tomakemenChristians.JesuswasacknowledgedastheWord,asSaviour,andasJudge;butHisdivinity,Hisconsubstantiality,andeventheTrinity,weredenied.

Of these dogmatizers, the principalwereLælius Socinus,Ochin, Pazuta,and Gentilis, who were joined by Servetus. The unfortunate dispute of thelatterwithCalviniswellknown;theycarriedonforsometimeaninterchangeofabuseby letter.Servetuswasso imprudentas topass throughGeneva,onhiswaytoGermany.Calvinwascowardlyenoughtohavehimarrested,andbarbarousenough tohavehimcondemned tobe roastedbya slowfire—thesame punishment which Calvin himself had narrowly escaped in France.Nearly all the theologians of that time were by turns persecuting andpersecuted,executionersandvictims.

ThesameCalvinsolicitedthedeathofGentilisatGeneva.Hefoundfiveadvocates to subscribe that Gentilis deserved to perish in the flames. Suchhorrorswereworthyof thatabominableage.Gentiliswasput inprison,andwasonthepointofbeingburnedlikeServetus,buthewasbetteradvisedthantheSpaniard;heretracted,bestowedthemostridiculouspraisesonCalvin,andwas saved. But he had afterwards the ill fortune, through not havingmadetermswithabailiffofthecantonofBerne,tobearrestedasanArian.Therewerewitnesseswhodeposed thathehadsaid that thewords trinity,essence,hypostasiswerenot tobefound in theScriptures,andon thisdeposition thejudges, who were as ignorant of the meaning of hypostasis as himself,condemnedhim,withoutatallarguingthequestion,tolosehishead.

Faustus Socinus, nephew to Lælius Socinus, and his companions weremorefortunateinGermany.TheypenetratedintoSilesiaandPoland,foundedchurches there, wrote, preached, and were successful, but at length, theirreligion being divested of almost every mystery, and a philosophical andpeaceful, rather than a militant sect, they were abandoned; and the Jesuits,whohadmoreinfluence,persecutedanddispersedthem.

TheremainsofthissectinPoland,Germany,andHollandkeepquietandconcealed; but inEngland the sect has reappearedwith greater strength andéclat.ThegreatNewtonandLockeembracedit.SamuelClarke,thecelebratedrectorofSt.James,andauthorofanexcellentbookontheexistenceofGod,openly declared himself an Arian, and his disciples are very numerous. Hewouldneverattendhisparishchurchon thedaywhentheAthanasianCreedwas recited. In the course of thisworkwill be seen the subtletieswhich allthese obstinate persons, who were not so much Christians as philosophers,opposedtothepurityoftheCatholicfaith.

Although among the theologians of London there was a large flock ofArians, the public mind there has been more occupied by the greatmathematical truthsdiscoveredbyNewton,and themetaphysicalwisdomofLocke. Disputes on consubstantiality appear very dull to philosophers. ThesamethinghappenedtoNewtoninEnglandastoCorneilleinFrance,whose"Pertharite,""Théodore,"and"RecueildeVers"wereforgotten,while"Cinna"was alone thought of.Newtonwas looked upon asGod's interpreter, in thecalculationoffluxions,thelawsofgravitation,andthenatureoflight.Onhisdeath,hispallwasbornebythepeersandthechancelloroftherealm,andhisremainswerelaidnearthetombsofthekings—thanwhomheismorerevered.Servetus, who is said to have discovered the circulation of the blood, wasroastedbyaslowfire,inalittletownoftheAllobroges,ruledbyatheologianofPicardy.

ARISTEAS.

Shallmenforeverbedeceivedinthemostindifferentaswellasthemostserious things?ApretendedAristeaswouldmakeusbelieve that hehad theOldTestamenttranslatedintoGreekfortheuseofPtolemyPhiladelphus—justastheDukedeMontausierhadcommentarieswrittenonthebestLatinauthorsforthedauphin,whomadenouseofthem.

AccordingtothisAristeas,Ptolemy,burningwithdesiretobeacquaintedwith the Jewish books, and to know those laws which the meanest Jew inAlexandria could have translated for fifty crowns, determined to send asolemn embassy to the high-priest of the Jews of Jerusalem; to deliver ahundredandtwentythousandJewishslaves,whomhisfather,PtolemySoter,hadmade prisoners in Judæa, and in order to assist them in performing thejourney agreeably, to give them about forty crowns each of our money—amounting in the whole to fourteen millions four hundred thousand of ourlivres,oraboutfivehundredandseventy-sixthousandpounds.

Ptolemydidnotcontenthimselfwiththisunheard-ofliberality.Hesenttothe temple a large table of massive gold, enriched all over with preciousstones,andhadengravedupon itachartof theMeander,a riverofPhrygia,thecourseofwhichriverwasmarkedwithrubiesandemeralds.ItisobvioushowcharmingsuchachartoftheMeandermusthavebeentotheJews.Thistablewasloadedwithtwoimmensegoldenvases,stillmorerichlyworked.Healsogavethirtyothergoldenandaninfinitenumberofsilvervases.Neverwasabooksodearlypaid for; thewholeVatican librarymightbehad fora lessamount.

Eleazar, the pretended high-priest of Jerusalem, sent ambassadors in histurn, who presented only a letter written upon fine vellum in characters ofgold. Itwasanactworthyof the Jews, togiveabitofparchment foraboutthirtymillionsof livres.PtolemywassomuchdelightedwithEleazar's stylethatheshedtearsofjoy.

TheambassadordinedwiththekingandthechiefpriestsofEgypt.Whengracewastobesaid,theEgyptiansyieldedthehonortotheJews.Withtheseambassadorscameseventy-twointerpreters,sixfromeachofthetwelvetribes,who had all learnedGreek perfectly at Jerusalem. It is really a pity that ofthesetwelvetribestenwereentirelylost,andhaddisappearedfromthefaceoftheearthsomanyagesbefore;butEleazar,thehigh-priest,foundthemagain,onpurposetosendtranslatorstoPtolemy.

Theseventy-twointerpreterswereshutupintheislandofPharos.Eachofthem completed his translation in seventy-two days, and all the translationswere found to be word for word alike. This is called the Septuagint ortranslationoftheseventy,thoughitshouldhavebeencalledthetranslationoftheseventy-two.

As soon as the king had received these books heworshipped them—hewassogoodaJew.Each interpreter received three talentsofgold,and thereweresenttothehigh-sacrificer—inreturnforhisparchment—tencouchesofsilver, a crownof gold, censers and cupsof gold, a vaseof thirty talents ofsilver—thatis,oftheweightofaboutsixtythousandcrowns—withtenpurplerobes,andahundredpiecesofthefinestlinen.

Nearly all this fine story is faithfully repeatedby thehistorian Josephus,whoneverexaggeratesanything.St.JustinimprovesuponJosephus.Hesaysthat Ptolemy applied toKingHerod, and not to the high-priest Eleazar. Hemakes Ptolemy send two ambassadors to Herod—which adds much to themarvellousnessof the tale, forweknow thatHerodwasnot bornuntil longafterthereignofPtolemyPhiladelphus.

It isneedless topointout theprofusionof anachronisms in theseandallsuch romances, or the swarm of contradictions and enormous blunders intowhichtheJewishauthorfallsineverysentence;yetthisfablewasregardedforagesasan incontestable truth;and, thebetter toexercise thecredulityof thehumanmind,everywriterwhorepeateditaddedorretrenchedinhisownway,so that, tobelieve itall, itwasnecessary tobelieve it inahundreddifferentways.Somesmileat theseabsurditieswhichwholenationshaveswallowed,whileotherssighovertheimposture.TheinfinitediversityofthesefalsehoodsmultipliesthefollowersofDemocritusandHeraclitus.

ARISTOTLE.

It isnot tobebelieved thatAlexander'spreceptor, chosenbyPhilip,waswrong-headedandpedantic.Philipwasassuredlyajudge,beinghimselfwellinformed,andtherivalofDemosthenesineloquence.

Aristotle'sLogic.

Aristotle's logic—his art of reasoning—is so much the more to beesteemed as he had to deal with theGreeks, whowere continually holdingcaptiousarguments, fromwhichfaulthismasterPlatowaseven lessexemptthanothers.

Take,forexample,thearticlebywhich,inthe"Phædon"Platoprovestheimmortalityofthesoul:

"Doyounotsaythatdeathistheoppositeoflife?Yes.Andthattheyspringfromeachother?Yes.What,then,isitthatspringsfromtheliving?Thedead.Andwhatfromthedead?Theliving.Itis,then,fromthedeadthatalllivingcreaturesarise.Consequently,soulsexistafterdeathintheinfernalregions."

Sure and unerring rules were wanted to unravel this extraordinarynonsense,which, throughPlato's reputation, fascinated theminds ofmen. ItwasnecessarytoshowthatPlatogavealoosemeaningtoallhiswords.

Death does not spring from life, but the livingman ceases to live. Thelivingspringsnotfromthedead,butfromalivingmanwhosubsequentlydies.Consequently, the conclusion that all living things spring fromdead ones isridiculous.

From thisconclusionyoudrawanother,which isnoway included in thepremises,thatsoulsareintheinfernalregionsafterdeath.Itshouldfirsthavebeen proved that dead bodies are in the infernal regions, and that the soulsaccompanythem.

Thereisnotacorrectwordinyourargument.Youshouldhavesaid—Thatwhichthinkshasnoparts;thatwhichhasnopartsisindestructible:therefore,thethinkingfacultyinus,havingnoparts,isindestructible.Or—thebodydiesbecause it isdivisible; thesoul is indivisible; therefore itdoesnotdie.Thenyouwouldatleasthavebeenunderstood.

It is the same with all the captious reasonings of the Greeks. A mastertaught rhetoric to his disciple on condition that he should pay him after thefirst cause that he gained. The disciple intended never to pay him. Hecommenced an action against his master, saying: "I will never pay youanything,for,ifIlosemycauseIwasnottopayyouuntilIhadgainedit,andifIgainitmydemandisthatImaynotpayyou."

Themaster retorted, saying: "If you lose youmust pay; if you gain youmustalsopay;forourbargainisthatyoushallpaymeafterthefirstcausethatyouhavegained."

It is evident that all this turns on an ambiguity.Aristotle teaches how toremoveit,byputtingthenecessarytermsintheargument:

A sum is not due until the day appointed for its payment. The dayappointedisthatwhenacauseshallhavebeengained.Nocausehasyetbeengained.Thereforethedayappointedhasnotyetarrived.Thereforethediscipledoesnotyetoweanything.

Butnotyetdoesnotmeannever.Sothatthediscipleinstitutedaridiculousaction. The master, too, had no right to demand anything, since the dayappointedhadnotarrived.Hemustwaituntil thedisciplehadpleadedsomeothercause.

Supposeaconqueringpeoplewere tostipulate that theywouldrestore totheconqueredonlyone-halfof their ships; then,having sawed them in two,and having thus given back the exact half, were to pretend that they hadfulfilled the treaty. It is evident that this would be a very criminalequivocation.

Aristotle did, then, render a great service to mankind by preventing allambiguity;forthisit iswhichcausesallmisunderstandingsinphilosophy,intheology, and in public affairs. The pretext for the unfortunatewar of 1756wasanequivocationrespectingAcadia.

It is true that natural good sense, combinedwith the habit of reasoning,maydispensewithAristotle'srules.Amanwhohasagoodearandvoicemaysingwellwithoutmusicalrules,butitisbettertoknowthem.

HisPhysics.

Theyarebut littleunderstood,but it ismore thanprobable thatAristotleunderstoodhimself,andwasunderstoodinhisowntime.Wearestrangerstothe language of the Greeks; we do not attach to the same words the sameideas.

For instance,whenhe says, in his seventh chapter, that the principles ofbodiesarematter,privation, and form,he seems to talkegregiousnonsense;butsuchisnotthecase.Matter,withhim,isthefirstprincipleofeverything—the subject of everything—indifferent to everything. Form is essential to itsbecoming any certain thing. Privation is thatwhich distinguishes any beingfromallthosethingswhicharenotinit.Mattermay,indifferently,becomearoseor an apple; but,when it is an appleor a rose it is deprivedof all thatwouldmake itsilveror lead.Perhaps this truthwasnotworth the troubleof

repeating;butwehavenothingherebutwhatisquiteintelligible,andnothingatallimpertinent.

The"actofthatwhichisinpower"alsoseemsaridiculousphrase,thoughit isnomoresothantheonejustnoticed.Mattermaybecomewhateveryouwill—fire,earth,water,vapor,metal,mineral,animal,tree,flower.Thisisallthat is meant by the expression, act in power. So that there was nothingridiculous to the Greeks in saying that motion was an act of power, sincemattermaybemoved;and it isvery likely thatAristotleunderstood therebythatmotionwasnotessentialtomatter.

Aristotle'sphysicsmustnecessarilyhavebeenverybadindetail.Thiswascommontoallphilosophersuntil the timewhen theGalileos, theTorricellis,the Guerickes, the Drebels, and the Academy del Cimento began to makeexperiments.Naturalphilosophyisaminewhichcannotbeexploredwithoutinstrumentsthatwereunknowntotheancients.Theyremainedonthebrinkoftheabyss,andreasoneduponwithoutseeingitscontents.

Aristotle'sTreatiseonAnimals.

Hisresearchesrelativetoanimalsformed,onthecontrary,thebestbookofantiquity, because hereAristotlemade use of his eyes.Alexander furnishedhimwithalltherareanimalsofEurope,Asia,andAfrica.Thiswasonefruitofhis conquests. In thisway that hero spent immense sums,which at this daywould terrify all the guardians of the royal treasury, and which shouldimmortalizeAlexander'sglory,ofwhichwehavealreadyspoken.

At thepresentdayahero,whenhehas themisfortune tomakewar, canscarcelygiveanyencouragementtothesciences;hemustborrowmoneyofaJew,andconsultotherJewsinordertomakethesubstanceofhissubjectsflowinto his coffer of the Danaides, whence it escapes through a thousandopenings. Alexander sent to Aristotle elephants, rhinoceroses, tigers, lions,crocodiles, gazelles, eagles, ostriches, etc.; and we, when by chance a rareanimalisbroughttoourfairs,goandadmireitforsixpence,anditdiesbeforeweknowanythingaboutit.

OftheEternalWorld.

Aristotle expressly maintains, in his book on heaven, chap, xi., that theworld is eternal. This was the opinion of all antiquity, excepting theEpicureans.HeadmittedaGod—afirstmover—anddefinedHimtobe"one,eternal,immovable,indivisible,withoutqualities."

Hemust,therefore,haveregardedtheworldasemanatingfromGod,asthelight emanates from the sun, and is co-existent with it. About the celestialsphereshewasasignorantasalltherestofthephilosophers.Copernicuswasnotyetcome.

HisMetaphysics.

Godbeingthefirstmover,Hegivesmotiontothesoul.ButwhatisGod,andwhatisthesoul,accordingtohim?Thesoulisanentelechia."Itis,"sayshe,"aprincipleandanact—anourishing,feeling,andreasoningpower."Thiscanonlymeanthatwehavethefacultiesofnourishingourselves,offeeling,andofreasoning.TheGreeksnomoreknewwhatanentelechiawasthandotheSouthSeaislanders;norhaveourdoctorsanymoreknowledgeofwhatasoulis.

HisMorals.

Aristotle'smorals,likeallothers,aregood,fortherearenottwosystemsofmorality. Those of Confucius, of Zoroaster, of Pythagoras, of Aristotle, ofEpictetus, of Antoninus, are absolutely the same. God has placed in everybreasttheknowledgeofgood,withsomeinclinationforevil.

Aristotle says that to be virtuous three things are necessary—nature,reason,andhabit;andnothingismoretrue.Withoutagooddisposition,virtueis too difficult; reason strengthens it; and habit renders good actions asfamiliarasadailyexercisetowhichoneisaccustomed.

Heenumeratesallthevirtues,anddoesnotfailtoplacefriendshipamongthem.Hedistinguishesfriendshipbetweenequals,betweenrelatives,betweenguests,andbetweenlovers.Friendshipspringingfromtherightsofhospitalityisnolongerknownamongus.Thatwhich,amongtheancients,wasthesacredbondofsociety is,withus,nothingbutan innkeeper's reckoning;andas forlovers,itisveryrarelynowadaysthatvirtuehasanythingtodowithlove.Wethink we owe nothing to a woman to whom we have a thousand timespromisedeverything.

It is a melancholy reflection that our first thinkers have never rankedfriendship among the virtues—have rarely recommended friendship; but, onthecontrary,haveoftenseemedtobreatheenmity,liketyrants,whodreadallassociations.

Itis,moreover,withverygoodreasonthatAristotleplacesall thevirtuesbetweenthetwoextremes.Hewas,perhaps,thefirstwhoassignedthemthisplace. He expressly says that piety is the medium between atheism andsuperstition.

HisRhetoric.

ItwasprobablyhisrulesforrhetoricandpoetrythatCiceroandQuintilianhad in view. Cicero, in his "Orator" says that "no one had more science,sagacity,invention,orjudgment."Quintiliangoessofarastopraise,notonlytheextentofhisknowledge,butalsothesuavityofhiselocution—suavitatem

eloquendi.

Aristotle would have an orator well informed respecting laws, finances,treaties,fortresses,garrisons,provisions,andmerchandise.TheoratorsintheparliamentsofEngland,thedietsofPoland,thestatesofSweden,thepregadiofVenice,etc.,wouldnotfindtheselessonsofAristotleunprofitable;toothernations, perhaps, they would be so. He would have his orator know thepassionsandmannersofmen,andthehumorsofeverycondition.

I think there is not a singlenicetyof the artwhichhas escapedhim.Heparticularlycommendsthecitingofinstanceswherepublicaffairsarespokenof;nothinghassogreataneffectonthemindsofmen.

What he says on this subject proves that he wrote his "Rhetoric" longbefore Alexander was appointed captain-general of the Greeks against thegreatking.

"If,"sayshe,"anyonehadtoprovetotheGreeksthatitistotheirinterestto oppose the enterprises of the king of Persia, and to prevent him frommaking himself master of Egypt, he should first remind them that DariusOchus would not attack Greece until Egypt was in his power; he shouldremarkthatXerxeshadpursuedthesamecourse;heshouldaddthatitwasnottobedoubtedthatDariusCodomannuswoulddothesame;andthat,therefore,theymustnotsufferhimtotakepossessionofEgypt."

He even permits, in speeches delivered to great assemblies, theintroduction of parables and fables; they always strike the multitude. Herelates some ingeniousones,whichareof thehighestantiquity,as thehorsethatimploredtheassistanceofmantoavengehimselfonthestag,andbecameaslavethroughhavingsoughtaprotector.

Itmaybe remarked that, in the second book,where he treats of arguingfrom thegreater to the less, hegives an examplewhichplainly showswhatwastheopinionofGreece,andprobablyofAsia,respectingtheextentofthepowerofthegods.

"If,"sayshe,"itbetruethatthegodsthemselves,enlightenedastheyare,cannotknoweverything,muchlesscanmen."ThispassageclearlyprovesthatomnisciencewasnotthenattributedtotheDivinity.Itwasconceivedthatthegods could not knowwhatwas not; the futurewas not, therefore it seemedimpossiblethattheyshouldknowit.ThisistheopinionoftheSociniansatthepresentday.

ButtoreturntoAristotle's"Rhetoric."WhatIshallchieflyremarkoninhisbookonelocutionanddictionisthegoodsensewithwhichhecondemnsthosewhowouldbepoetsinprose.Hewouldhavepathos,buthebanishesbombast,and proscribes useless epithets. Indeed, Demosthenes and Cicero, who

followedhisprecepts,neveraffected thepoetic style in their speeches. "Thestyle,"saysAristotle,"mustalwaysbeconformabletothesubject."

Nothing can bemoremisplaced than to speak of physics poetically, andlavishfigureandornamentwherethereshouldbeonlymethod,clearness,andtruth. It is the quackery of a man who would pass off false systems undercover of an empty noise ofwords.Weakminds are caught by the bait, andstrongmindsdisdainit.

Amongus the funeral orationhas takenpossessionof thepoetic style inprose; but this branchof oratory, consisting almost entirely of exaggeration,seemsprivilegedtoborrowtheornamentsofpoetry.

Thewritersofromanceshavesometimestakenthislicence.LaCalprenèdewas,Ithink,thefirstwhothustransposedthelimitsofthearts,andabusedthisfacility.Theauthorof"Telemachus"waspardonedthroughconsiderationforHomer,whomheimitated,thoughhecouldnotmakeverses,andstillmoreinconsiderationofhismorality,inwhichheinfinitelysurpassesHomer,whohasnoneatall.ButheowedhispopularitychieflytothecriticismontheprideofLouis XIV. and the harshness of Louvois, which, it was thought, werediscoverablein"Telemachus."

Be thisas itmay,nothingcanbeabetterproofofAristotle'sgoodsenseandgoodtastethanhishavingassignedtoeverythingitsproperplace.

AristotleonPoetry.

Where, in our modern nations, shall we find a natural philosopher, ageometrician,ametaphysician,orevenamoralistwhohasspokenwellonthesubject of poetry? They teem with the names of Homer, Virgil, Sophocles,Ariosto, Tasso, and so many others who have charmed the world by theharmoniousproductionsoftheirgenius,buttheyfeelnottheirbeauties;oriftheyfeelthemtheywouldannihilatethem.

How ridiculous is it in Pascal to say: "As we say poetical beauty, weshouldlikewisesaygeometricalbeauty,andmedicinalbeauty.Yetwedonotsayso,andthereasonisthatwewellknowwhatistheobjectofgeometry,andwhatistheobjectofmedicine,butwedonotknowinwhatthepeculiarcharm—which is the object of poetry—consists. We know not what that naturalmodel is whichmust be imitated; and forwant of this knowledgewe haveinvented certain fantastic terms, as age of gold, wonder of the age, fatalwreath,fairstar,etc.Andthisjargonwecallpoeticbeauty."

Thepitifulnessofthispassageissufficientlyobvious.Weknowthatthereisnothingbeautifulinamedicine,norinthepropertiesofatriangle;andthatwe apply the term "beautiful" only to that which raises admiration in ourminds and gives pleasure to our senses. Thus reasons Aristotle; and Pascal

herereasonsveryill.Fatalwreath,fairstar,haveneverbeenpoeticbeauties.Ifhewishedtoknowwhatispoeticbeauty,hehadonlytoread.

Nicolewroteagainstthestage,aboutwhichhehadnotasingleidea;andwas seconded by one Dubois, who was as ignorant of the belles lettres ashimself.

EvenMontesquieu, inhisamusing"PersianLetters,"has thepettyvanityto think that Homer and Virgil are nothing in comparison with one whoimitateswithspiritandsuccessDufrénoy's"Siamois,"andfillshisbookwithboldassertions,withoutwhichitwouldnothavebeenread."What,"sayshe,"areepicpoems?Iknowthemnot.IdespisethelyricasmuchasIesteemthetragicpoets."Heshouldnot,however,havedespisedPindarandHoracequitesomuch.AristotledidnotdespisePindar.

Descartesdid,itistrue,writeforQueenChristinaalittledivertissementinverse,whichwasquiteworthyofhismatièrecannelée.

MalebranchecouldnotdistinguishCorneille's "Qu'ilmourût" froma lineofJodèle'sorGarnier's.

Whataman,then,wasAristotle,whotracedtherulesoftragedywiththesame hand with which he had laid down those of dialectics, of morals, ofpolitics,andlifted,asfarashefounditpossible,thegreatveilofnature!

TohisfourthchapteronpoetryBoileauisindebtedforthesefinelines:

Iln'estpointdeserpent,nidemonstreodieux

Qui,parl'artimité,nepuisseplaireauxyeux.

D'unpinceaudélicatl'artificeagréable

Duplusaffreuxobjectfaitunobjetaimable;

Ainsi,pournouscharmer,latragédieeutpleurs

D'Œdipetout-sanglantfitparlerlesdouleurs.

Eachhorridshape,eachobjectofaffright,

Niceimitationteachestodelight;

Sodoestheskilfulpainter'spleasingart

Attractionstothedarkestformimpart;

SodoesthetragicMuse,dissolvedintears.

Withtalesofwoeandsorrowcharmourears.

Aristotle says: "Imitation and harmony have produced poetry. We seeterribleanimals,deadordyingmen,inapicture,withpleasure—objectswhich

in nature would inspire us only with fear and sorrow. The better they areimitatedthemorecompleteisoursatisfaction."

This fourth chapter of Aristotle's reappears almost entire in Horace andBoileau. The lawswhich he gives in the following chapters are at this daythose of our good writers, excepting only what relates to the choruses andmusic. His idea that tragedy was instituted to purify the passions has beenwarmlycombated;butifhemeant,asIbelievehedid,thatanincestuouslovemight be subdued by witnessing the misfortune of Phædra, or anger berepressed by beholding themelancholy example ofAjax, there is no longeranydifficulty.

This philosopher expressly commands that there be always the heroic intragedyandtheridiculousincomedy.Thisisarulefromwhichitis,perhaps,nowbecomingtoocustomarytodepart.

ARMS—ARMIES.

It isworthy of consideration that there have been and still are, upon theearth societieswithout armies.TheBrahmins,who longgovernednearly allthe great IndianChersonesus; the primitives, calledQuakers,who governedPennsylvania; some American tribes, some in the centre of Africa, theSamoyedes,theLaplanders,theKamchadales,havenevermarchedwithcolorsflyingtodestroytheirneighbors.

TheBrahminswerethemostconsiderableofallthesepacificnations;theircaste,whichissoancient,whichisstillexisting,andcomparedwithwhichallother institutions are quite recent, is a prodigywhich cannot be sufficientlyadmired.Theirreligionandtheirpolicyalwaysconcurredinabstainingfromthesheddingofblood,evenofthatofthemeanestanimal.Wheresuchistheregime,subjugationiseasy;theyhavebeensubjugated,buthavenotchanged.

The Pennsylvanians never had an army; they always held war inabhorrence.

Severalof theAmerican tribesdidnotknowwhatanarmywasuntil theSpaniardscametoexterminatethemall.ThepeopleonthebordersoftheIcySea are ignorant alike of armies, of the god of armies, of battalions, and ofsquadrons.

Besidesthesepopulations,thepriestsandmonksdonotbeararmsinanycountry—atleastwhentheyobservethelawsoftheirinstitution.

It is only among Christians that there have been religious societies

establishedforthepurposeoffighting—astheKnightsTemplars,theKnightsof St. John, the Knights of the Teutonic Order, the Knights Swordbearers.ThesereligiousorderswereinstitutedinimitationoftheLevites,whofoughtliketherestoftheJewishtribes.

Neither armies nor arms were the same in antiquity as at present. TheEgyptianshardlyeverhadcavalry.Itwouldhavebeenoflittleuseinacountryintersected by canals, inundated during five months of the year, and miryduringfivemore.TheinhabitantsofagreatpartofAsiausedchariotsofwar.

TheyarementionedintheannalsofChina.Confuciussaysthatinhistimeeachgovernorofaprovincefurnishedtotheemperorathousandwarchariots,eachdrawnbyfourhorses.TheGreeksandTrojansfoughtinchariotsdrawnbytwohorses.

Cavalry and chariotswere unknown to the Jews in amountainous tract,wheretheirfirstking,whenhewaselected,hadnothingbutshe-asses.ThirtysonsofJair,princesofthirtycities,accordingtothetext(Judges,x,4),rodeeachuponanass.Saul,afterwardskingofJudah,hadonlyshe-asses;andthesons of David all fled upon mules when Absalom had slain his brotherAmnon. Absalom was mounted on a mule in the battle which he foughtagainst his father's troops;whichproves, according to the Jewishhistorians,either thatmares were beginning to be used in Palestine, or that theywerealreadyrichenoughtheretobuymulesfromtheneighboringcountry.

The Greeks made but little use of cavalry. It was chiefly with theMacedonianphalanxthatAlexandergainedthebattleswhichlaidPersiaathisfeet.ItwastheRomaninfantrythatsubjugatedthegreaterpartof theworld.AtthebattleofPharsalia,Cæsarhadbutonethousandhorsemen.

It is not known atwhat time the Indians and theAfricans first began tomarchelephantsattheheadoftheirarmies.WecannotreadwithoutsurpriseofHannibal's elephants crossing theAlps,whichweremuch harder to passthenthantheyarenow.

There have long been disputes about the disposition of the Greek andRomanarmies,theirarms,andtheirevolutions.EachonehasgivenhisplanofthebattlesofZamaandPharsalia.

ThecommentatorCalmet,aBenedictine,hasprinted threegreatvolumesof his "Dictionary of the Bible," in which, the better to explain God'scommandments, are inserted a hundred engravings, where you see plans ofbattlesandsiegesincopper-plate.TheGodoftheJewswastheGodofarmies,butCalmetwasnotHis secretary;hecannothaveknown,butby revelation,how the armies of the Amalekites, the Moabites, the Syrians, and thePhilistines were arranged on the days of general murder. These plates of

carnage, designed at a venture, made his hook five or six louis dearer, butmadeitnobetter.

It is a great question whether the Franks, whom the Jesuit Daniel callsFrench by anticipation, used bows and arrows in their armies, and whethertheyhadhelmetsandcuirasses.

Supposingthattheywenttocombatalmostnaked,andarmed,astheyaresaidtohavebeen,withonlyasmallcarpenter'sax,asword,andaknife,wemust infer that theRomans,mastersofGaul,soeasilyconqueredbyClovis,hadlostalltheirancientvalor,andthattheGaulswereaswillingtobesubjectto a small number of Franks as to a small number of Romans. Warlikeaccoutrementshavesincechanged,aseverythingelsechanges.

Inthedaysofknights,squires,andvarlets,thearmedforcesofGermany,France,Italy,England,andSpainconsistedalmostentirelyofhorsemen,who,aswell as their horses,were coveredwith steel.The infantryperformed thefunctionsratherofpioneersthanofsoldiers.ButtheEnglishalwayshadgoodarchers among their foot, which contributed, in a great measure, to theirgainingalmosteverybattle.

Who would believe that armies nowadays do but make experiments innaturalphilosophy?Asoldierwouldbemuchastonishedifsomelearnedmanweretosaytohim:

"My friend, you are a better machinist than Archimedes. Five parts ofsaltpetre, one of sulphur, and one of carbo ligneus have been separatelyprepared. Your saltpetre dissolved, well filtered, well evaporated, wellcrystallized, well turned, well dried, has been incorporated with the yellowpurifiedsulphur.Thesetwoingredients,mixedwithpowderedcharcoal,have,bymeans of a little vinegar, or solution of sal-ammoniac, or urine, formedlargeballs,whichballshavebeenreducedinpulverempyriumbyamill.Theeffectofthismixtureisadilatation,whichisnearlyasfourthousandtounity;andtheleadinyourbarrelexhibitsanothereffect,whichistheproductofitsbulkmultipliedbyitsvelocity.

"The first who discovered a part of this mathematical secret was aBenedictinenamedRogerBacon.Theinventionwasperfected,inGermany,inthe fourteenthcentury,byanotherBenedictinenamedSchwartz.So thatyouowetotwomonkstheartofbeinganexcellentmurderer,whenyouaimwell,andyourpowderisgood.

"Du Cange has in vain pretended that, in 1338, the registers of theChambre desComptes, at Paris,mention a bill paid for gunpowder.Do notbelieve it. It was artillery which is there spoken of—a name attached toancientaswellastomodernwarlikemachines.

"Gunpowderentirely superseded theGreek fire,ofwhich theMoors stillmadeuse.Infine,youarethedepositaryofanart,whichnotonlyimitatesthethunder,butisalsomuchmoreterrible."

There is, however, nothingbut truth in this speech.Twomonkshave, inreality,changedthefaceoftheearth.

Beforecannonwereknown,thenorthernnationshadsubjugatednearlythewhole hemisphere, and could come again, like famishing wolves, to seizeuponthelandsastheirancestorshaddone.

In all armies, the victory, and consequently the fate of kingdoms, wasdecidedbybodilystrengthandagility—asortofsanguinaryfury—adesperatestruggle,mantoman.Intrepidmentooktownsbyscalingtheirwalls.Duringthe decline of the Roman Empire there was hardly more discipline in thearmiesoftheNorththanamongcarnivorousbeastsrushingontheirprey.

NowasinglefrontierfortresswouldsufficetostopthearmiesofGenghisorAttila.It isnotlongsinceavictoriousarmyofRussianswereunavailablyconsumed before Custrin, which is nothing more than a little fortress in amarsh.

In battle, the weakest in body may, with well-directed artillery, prevailagainstthestoutest.AtthebattleofFontenoyafewcannonweresufficienttocompeltheretreatofthewholeEnglishcolumn,thoughithadbeenmasterofthefield.

Thecombatantsnolongerclose.Thesoldierhasnolongerthatardor,thatimpetuosity,whichisredoubledintheheatofaction,whenthefightishandtohand.Strength,skill,andeventhetemperoftheweapons,areuseless.Rarelyisachargewiththebayonetmadeinthecourseofawar,thoughthebayonetisthemostterribleofweapons.

In a plain, frequently surrounded by redoubts furnished with heavyartillery, two armies advance in silence, each division taking with it flyingartillery. The first lines lire at one another and after one another: they arevictims presented in turn to the bullets. Squadrons at the wings are oftenexposed to a cannonadingwhilewaiting for the general's orders. Theywhofirsttireofthismanœuvre,whichgivesnoscopeforthedisplayofimpetuousbravery,disperseandquitthefield;andarerallied,ifpossible,afewmilesoff.The victorious enemies besiege a town, which sometimes costs them moremen, money, and time than they would have lost by several battles. Theprogressmadeisrarelyrapid;andat theendoffiveorsixyears,bothsides,beingequallyexhausted,arecompelledtomakepeace.

Thus,atallevents,theinventionofartilleryandthenewmodeofwarfarehave established among the respective powers an equality which secures

mankindfromdevastationslikethoseofformertimes,andtherebyrenderswarlessfatalinitsconsequences,thoughitisstillprodigiouslyso.

The Greeks in all ages, the Romans in the time of Sulla, and the othernations of the west and south, had no standing army; every citizen was asoldier, and enrolled himself in time of war. It is, at this day, precisely thesame inSwitzerland.Go through thewholecountry,andyouwillnot findabattalion,exceptat thetimeof thereviews.If itgoestowar,youallatonceseeeightythousandmeninarms.

ThosewhousurpedthesupremepowerafterSullaalwayshadapermanentforce,paidwiththemoneyofthecitizens, tokeepthecitizensinsubjection,muchmorethantosubjugateothernations.ThebishopofRomehimselfkeepsasmallarmyinhispay.Who,inthetimeoftheapostles,wouldhavesaidthatthe servantof the servantsofGodshouldhave regiments, andhave them inRome?

Nothing is so much feared in England as a great standing army. Thejanissaries have raised the sultans to greatness, but they have also strangledthem.Thesultanswouldhaveavoidedtherope,ifinsteadoftheselargebodiesoftroops,theyhadestablishedsmallones.

AROTANDMAROT.

WITHASHORTREVIEWOFTHEKORAN.

Thisarticlemay serve to showhowmuch themost learnedmenmaybedeceived, and to develop some useful truths. In the "DictionnaireEncyclopédique"thereisthefollowingpassageconcerningArotandMarot:

"Thesearethenamesoftwoangels,who,theimpostorMahometsaid,hadbeensent fromGod to teachman,and toorderhim toabstain frommurder,false judgments, and excesses of every kind. This false prophet adds that averybeautifulwoman,havinginvitedthesetwoangelstohertable,madethemdrink wine, with which being heated, they solicited her as lovers; that shefeignedtoyieldtotheirpassion,providedtheywouldfirstteachherthewordsbypronouncingwhichtheysaiditwaseasytoascendtoheaven;thathavingobtainedfromthemwhatsheasked,shewouldnotkeepherpromise;andthatshewas then taken up into heaven,where, having related toGodwhat hadpassed,shewaschangedinto themorningstarcalledLuciferorAurora,andtheangelswereseverelypunished.Henceitwas,accordingtoMahomet,thatGodtookoccasiontoforbidwinetomen."

Itwouldbe invain toseek in theKoranforasinglewordof thisabsurd

storyandpretendedreasonforMahomet'sforbiddinghisfollowerstheuseofwine.Heforbidsitonlyinthesecondandfifthchapters.

"Theywillquestiontheeaboutwineandstrongliquors:thoushaltanswer,that it is agreat sin.The just,whobelieveanddogoodworks,mustnotbereproachedwithhavingdrunk,andplayedatgamesofchance,beforegamesofchancewereforbidden."

It is averred by all theMahometans that their prophet forbadewine andliquors solely to preserve their health and prevent quarrels, in the burningclimateofArabia.Theuseofanyfermentedliquorsoonaffectsthehead,andmaydestroybothhealthandreason.

ThefableofArotandMarotdescendingfromheaven,andwantingto liewithanArabwoman,afterdrinkingwinewithher,isnotinanyMahometanauthor. It is tobe foundonlyamong the impostureswhichvariousChristianwriters,moreindiscreetthanenlightened,haveprintedagainsttheMussulmanreligion, throughazealwhich isnotaccording toknowledge.ThenamesofArotandMarotareinnopartoftheKoran.ItisoneSylburgiuswhosays,inan old book which nobody reads, that he anathematizes the angels Arot,Marot,Safah,andMerwah.

Observe, kind reader, that Safah and Merwah are two little hills nearMecca;sothatourlearnedSylburgiushastakentwohillsfortwoangels.Thusit was with every writer on Mahometanism among us, almost withoutexception,until the intelligentRelandgaveusclear ideasof theMussulmanbelief,andthelearnedSale,afterlivingtwenty-fouryearsinandaboutArabia,atlengthenlightenedusbyhisfaithfultranslationoftheKoran,andhismostinstructivepreface.

Gagnierhimself,notwithstandinghisArabicprofessorshipatOxford,hasbeenpleasedtoputforthafewfalsehoodsconcerningMahomet,asifwehadneedof lies tomaintain the truthofour religion against a falseprophet.Hegivesus at full lengthMahomet's journey through the sevenheavenson themare Alborac, and even ventures to cite the fifty-third sura or chapter; butneitherinthisfifty-thirdsura,norinanyother,istheresomuchasanallusiontothispretendedjourneythroughtheheavens.

This strange story is related by Abulfeda, seven hundred years afterMahomet.Itistaken,hesays,fromancientmanuscriptswhichwerecurrentinMahomet'stime.ButitisevidentthattheywerenotMahomet's;for,afterhisdeath,AbubekergatheredtogetheralltheleavesoftheKoran,inthepresenceofall thechiefsof tribes,andnothingwas inserted in thecollection thatdidnotappeartobeauthentic.

Besides, thechapterconcerning the journey toheaven,notonly isnot in

theKoran,butisinaverydifferentstyle,andisatleastfourtimesaslongasanyofthereceivedchapters.ComparealltheotherchaptersoftheKoranwiththis,andyouwillfindaprodigiousdifference.Itbeginsthus:

"Onenight,IfellasleepbetweenthetwohillsofSafahandMerwah.Thatnightwasverydark,butsostillthatthedogswerenotheardtobark,northecockstocrow.Allatonce,theangelGabrielappearedbeforemeintheforminwhichtheMostHighGodcreatedhim.Hisskinwaswhiteassnow.Hisfairhair,admirablydisposed,fellinringletsoverhisshoulders;hisforeheadwasclear,majestic, and serene,his teethbeautiful and shining, andhis legsof asaffronhue;hisgarmentswereglitteringwithpearls,andwiththreadofpuregold.Onhis foreheadwasaplateofgold,onwhichwerewritten two lines,brilliantanddazzlingwithlight;inthefirstwerethesewords,'ThereisnoGodbutGod';andinthesecondthese,'MahometisGod'sApostle.'Onbeholdingthis, I remained themost astonishedandconfusedofmen. Iobservedabouthim seventy thousand little boxesor bagsofmusk and saffron.Hehad fivehundredpairsofwings;and thedistance fromonewing toanotherwas fivehundredyears'journey.

"ThusdidGabrielappearbeforeme.Hetouchedme,andsaid,'Arise,thousleeper!' Iwas seizedwith fear and trembling, and starting up, said to him,'Whoart thou?'Heanswered, 'Godhavemercyupon thee! I am thybrotherGabriel.' 'O my dearly beloved Gabriel,' said I, 'I ask thy pardon; is it arevelationofsomethingnew,or is itsomeafflicting threat that thoubringestme?' 'It is somethingnew,' returnedhe; 'rise,mydearlybeloved, and tie thymantleoverthyshoulders;thouwilthaveneedofit,forthoumustthisnightpayavisit to thyLord.'Sosaying,Gabriel, takingmyhand, raisedmefromtheground,andhavingmountedmeonthemareAlborac,ledherhimselfbythebridle."

In fine, it is averred by theMussulmans that this chapter,which has noauthenticity, was imagined by Abu-Horaïrah, who is said to have beencontemporarywith the prophet.What shouldwe say of a Turkwho shouldcomeand insult our religionby tellingus thatwe reckon amongour sacredbooksthelettersofSt.PaultoSeneca,andSeneca'sletterstoSt.Paul;theactsofPilate;thelifeofPilate'swife;thelettersofthepretendedKingAbgarustoJesus Christ, and Jesus Christ's answer to the same; the story of St. Peter'schallengetoSimonthemagician;thepredictionsofthesibyls;thetestamentofthetwelvepatriarchs;andsomanyotherbooksofthesamekind?

We should answer theTurkby saying that hewas very ill informed andthatnotoneoftheseworkswasregardedasauthentic.TheTurkwillmakethesameanswertous,whentoconfoundhimwereproachhimwithMahomet'sjourneytothesevenheavens.Hewilltellusthatthisisnothingmorethanapiousfraudoflattertimes,andthatthisjourneyisnotintheKoran.Assuredly

Iamnotherecomparingtruthwitherror—ChristianitywithMahometanism—theGospelwiththeKoran;butfalsetraditionwithfalsetradition—abusewithabuse—absurditywithabsurdity.

This absurdity has been carried to such a length that Grotius chargesMahometwithhavingsaidthatGod'shandsarecold,forhehasfeltthem;thatGodiscarriedaboutinachair;andthat,inNoah'sark,theratwasproducedfromtheelephant'sdung,andthecatfromthelion'sbreath.

Grotius reproachesMahometwithhaving imagined that JesusChristwastakenupintoheaveninsteadofsufferingexecution.HeforgetsthattherewereentirehereticalcommunionsofprimitiveChristianswhospreadthisopinion,whichwaspreservedinSyriaandArabiauntilMahomet'stime.

Howmany times has it been repeated that Mahomet had accustomed apigeon to eat grain out of his ear, andmade his followers believe that thispigeonbroughthimmessagesfromGod?

Is itnotenoughforus thatwearepersuadedof thefalsenessofhissect,andinvinciblyconvincedbyfaithofthetruthofourown,withoutlosingourtimeincalumniatingtheMahometans,whohaveestablishedthemselvesfromMount Caucasus to Mount Atlas, and from the confines of Epirus to theextremities of India?We are incessantlywriting bad books against them, ofwhichtheyknownothing.Wecryoutthattheirreligionhasbeenembracedbysomanynationsonlybecauseitflattersthesenses.Butwhereisthesensualityinorderingabstinencefromthewineandliquorsinwhichweindulgetosuchexcess;inpronouncingtoeveryoneanindispensablecommandtogivetothepooreachyeartwoandahalfpercent,ofhisincome,tofastwiththegreatestrigor,toundergoapainfuloperationintheearlieststageofpuberty,tomake,overaridsandsapilgrimageofsometimesfivehundredleagues,andtopraytoGodfivetimesaday,evenwheninthefield?

But, say you, they are allowed fourwives in thisworld, and in the nexttheywillhavecelestialbrides.Grotiusexpresslysays:"Itmusthaverequiredagreatshareofstupiditytoadmitreveriessogrossanddisgusting."

We agree with Grotius that the Mahometans have been prodigal ofreveries. The man who was constantly receiving the chapters of his KoranfromtheangelGabrielwasworsethanavisionary;hewasanimpostor,whosupportedhisseductionsbyhiscourage;butcertainly there isnothingeitherstupidorsensualinreducingtofourtheunlimitednumberofwiveswhomtheprinces, the satraps, the nabobs, and the omrahs of the East kept in theirseraglios.ItissaidthatSolomonhadthreehundredwivesandsevenhundredconcubines. The Arabs, like the Jews, were at liberty to marry two sisters;Mahomet was the first who forbade these marriages. Where, then, is thegrossness?

Andwithregardtothecelestialbrides,whereistheimpurity?Certes,thereisnothingimpureinmarriage,whichisacknowledgedtohavebeenordainedon earth, and blessed by God Himself. The incomprehensible mystery ofgenerationisthesealoftheEternalBeing.ItistheclearestmarkofHispowerthatHe has created pleasure, and through that very pleasure perpetuated allsensiblebeings.

Ifweconsultour reasonalone itwill tellus that it isvery likely that theEternalBeing,whodoesnothinginvain,willnotcauseustoriseagainwithour organs to no purpose. Itwill not be unworthy of theDivineMajesty tofeed us with delicious fruits if he cause us to rise again with stomachs toreceive them. The Holy Scriptures inform us that, in the beginning, Godplacedthefirstmanandthefirstwomaninaparadiseofdelights.Theywerethen in a state of innocence and glory, incapable of experiencing disease ordeath. This is nearly the state in which the just will be when, after theirresurrection,theyshallbeforalleternitywhatourfirstparentswereforafewdays.Those, then,mustbepardoned,whohave thought that,havingabody,thatbodywillbeconstantlysatisfied.OurfathersoftheChurchhadnootherideaoftheheavenlyJerusalem.St.Irenæussays,"Thereeachvineshallbeartenthousandbranches,eachbranchtenthousandclusters,andeachclustertenthousandgrapes."

Several fathers of the Church have, indeed, thought that the blessed inheavenwouldenjoyalltheirsenses.St.Thomassaysthatthesenseofseeingwillbeinfinitelyperfect; thattheelementswillbesotoo;thatthesurfaceofthe earthwill be transparent as glass, thewater like crystal, the air like theheavens,andthefirelikethestars.St.Augustine,inhis"ChristianDoctrine,"says that the sense of hearing will enjoy the pleasures of singing and ofspeech.

OneofourgreatItaliantheologians,namedPiazza,inhis"DissertationonParadise,"informsusthattheelectwillforeversingandplaytheguitar:"Theywill have," says he, "three nobilities—three advantages, viz.: desirewithoutexcitement, caresses without wantonness, and voluptuousness withoutexcess"—"tresnobilitates;illecebrasinetitillatione,blanditiasinemollitudine,etvoluptassineexuberantia."

St.Thomasassuresusthatthesmelloftheglorifiedbodieswillbeperfect,and will not be diminished by perspiration. "Corporibus gloriosi serit odorultima perfectione, nullo modo per humidum repressus." This question hasbeenprofoundlytreatedbyagreatmanyotherdoctors.

Suarez,inhis"Wisdom,"thusexpresseshimselfconcerningtaste:"Itisnotdifficult for God purposely tomake some rapid humor act on the organ oftaste.""NonestDeodifficilefacereutsapidushumorsitintraorganumgustus,

quisensumillumintentionaliterafficere."

And, to conclude, St. Prosper, recapitulating the whole, pronounces thatthe blessed shall find gratificationwithout satiety, and enjoy healthwithoutdisease."Saturitassinefastidio,ettotasanitassinemorbo."

It is not then so much to be wondered at that the Mahometans haveadmitted the use of the five senses in their paradise. They say that the firstbeatitude will be the union with God; but this does not exclude the rest.Mahomet's paradise is a fable; but; oncemore be it observed, there is in itneithercontradictionnorimpurity.

Philosophy requires clear and precise ideas, which Grotius had not. Hequotesagreatdeal,andmakesashowofreasoningwhichwillnotbearacloseexamination.TheunjustimputationscastontheMahometanswouldsufficetomake a very large book. They have subjugated one of the largest andmostbeautifulcountriesuponearth;todrivethemfromitwouldhavebeenafinerexploitthantoabusethem.

The empress of Russia supplies a great example. She takes from themAzov and Tangarok, Moldavia, Wallachia, and Georgia; she pushes herconqueststotherampartsofErzerum;shesendsagainstthemfleetsfromtheremotestpartsoftheBaltic,andotherscoveringtheEuxine;butshedoesnotsayinhermanifestosthatapigeonwhisperedinMahomet'sear.

ARTOFPOETRY.

AMAN

A man of almost universal learning—a man even of genius, who joinsphilosophy with imagination, uses, in his excellent article "Encyclopedia,"theseremarkablewords:"Ifweexcept thisPerrault,andsomeothers,whosemeritstheversifierBoileauwasnotcapableofappreciating."

This philosopher is right in doing justice toClaude Perrault, the learnedtranslatorofVitruvius,amanuseful inmorearts thanone,andtowhomweare indebtedfor thefinefrontof theLouvreandforothergreatmonuments;butjusticeshouldalsoberenderedtoBoileau.Hadhebeenonlyaversifier,hewouldscarcelyhavebeenknown;hewouldnothavebeenoneofthefewgreatmenwhowillhanddowntheageofLouisXIV. toposterity.His tartsatires,hisfineepistles,andaboveall,hisartofpoetry,aremasterpiecesofreasoningaswell as poetry—"sapere est principium et fons."The art of versifying is,indeed,prodigiouslydifficult,especiallyinourlanguage,wherealexandrinesfollowoneanothertwobytwo;whereitisraretoavoidmonotony;whereitis

absolutely necessary to rhyme; where noble and pleasing rhymes are toolimited innumber;andwhereawordoutof itsplace,oraharshsyllable, issufficienttospoilahappythought.Itislikedancinginfettersonarope;thegreatestsuccessisofitselfnothing.

Boileau'sartofpoetry is tobeadmired,becausehealwayssays trueandusefulthingsinapleasingmanner,becausehealwaysgivesbothpreceptandexample,andbecauseheisvaried,passingwithperfectease,andwithouteverfailinginpurityoflanguage,"Fromgravetogay,fromlivelytosevere."

Hisreputationamongmenoftasteisprovedbythefactthathisversesareknown by heart; and to philosophers it must be pleasing to find that he isalmostalwaysintheright.

Aswehavespokenofthepreferencewhichmaysometimesbegiventothemodernsovertheancients,wewillhereventuretopresumethatBoileau'sartof poetry is superior to that of Horace. Method is certainly a beauty in adidactic poem; and Horace has no method. We do not mention this as areproach;forhispoemisafamiliarepistletothePisos,andnotaregularworklike the "Georgics": but there is this additionalmerit inBoileau, amerit forwhichphilosophersshouldgivehimcredit.

The Latin art of poetry does not seem nearly so finely labored as theFrench.Horaceexpresseshimself,almostthroughout,inthefreeandfamiliartoneofhisotherepistles.Hedisplaysanextremeclearnessofunderstandingandarefinedtaste,inverseswhicharehappyandspirited,butoftenwithoutconnection,andsometimesdestituteofharmony;hehasnottheeleganceandcorrectnessofVirgil.Hisworkisgood,butBoileau'sappearstobestillbetter:and, ifwe except the tragedies ofRacine,which have the superiormerit oftreating the passions and surmounting all the difficulties of the stage,Despréaux's"ArtofPoetry"is,indisputably,thepoemthatdoesmosthonortotheFrenchlanguage.

Itislamentablewhenphilosophersareenemiestopoetry.LiteratureshouldbelikethehouseofMæcenas—"estlocusunicuiquesuus."Theauthorofthe"PersianLetters"—so easy towrite and amongwhich some are very pretty,others very bold, others indifferent, and others frivolous—this author, I say,though otherwisemuch to be recommended, yet having never been able tomakeverses,althoughhepossessesimaginationandoftensuperiorityofstyle,makeshimselfamendsbysayingthat"contemptisheapeduponpoetry,"that"lyric poetry is harmonious extravagance." Thus do men often seek todepreciatethetalentswhichtheycannotattain.

"We cannot reach it," says Montaigne; "let us revenge ourselves byspeaking ill of it."ButMontaigne,Montesquieu's predecessor andmaster inimaginationandphilosophy,thoughtverydifferentlyofpoetry.

HadMontesquieubeenasjustashewaswitty,hecouldnotbuthavefeltthat severalofour fineodesandgoodoperasareworth infinitelymore thanthepleasantriesofRica toUsbeck, imitated fromDufrénoy's "Siamois,"andthedetailsofwhatpassedinUsbeck'sseraglioatIspahan.

Weshall speakmore fullyof this too frequent injustice, in thearticleon"Criticism."

ARTS—FINEARTS.

[ARTICLEDEDICATEDTOTHEKINGOFPRUSSIA.]

Sire:Thesmallsocietyofamateurs,apartofwhomarelaboringat theserhapsodies atMountKrapak,will say nothing to yourmajesty on the art ofwar.Itisheroic,or—itmaybe—anabominableart.Iftherewereanythingfineinit,wewouldtellyourmajesty,withoutfearofcontradiction,thatyouarethefinestmaninEurope.

Youknow,sire,thefouragesofthearts.Almosteverythingsprungupandwasbrought toperfectionunderLouisXIV.;afterwhichmanyof thesearts,banishedfromFrance,wenttoembellishandenrichtherestofEurope,atthefatal period of the destruction of the celebrated edict of Henry IV.—pronouncedirrevocable,yetsoeasilyrevoked.Thus,thegreatestinjurywhichLouisXIV.coulddotohimselfdidgoodtootherprincesagainsthiswill:thisisprovedbywhatyouhavesaidinyourhistoryofBrandenburg.

If that monarch were known only from his banishment of six or sevenhundredthousandusefulcitizens—fromhisirruptionintoHolland,whencehewassoonforcedtoretreat—fromhisgreatness,whichstayedhimatthebank,while his troops were swimming across the Rhine; if there were no othermonuments of his glory than the prologues to his operas, followed by thebattleofHochstet,hispersonandhisreignwouldgodowntoposteritywithbut little éclat. But the encouragement of all the fine arts by his taste andmunificence; theconferringofsomanybenefitson the literarymenofothercountries;theriseofhiskingdom'scommerceathisvoice;theestablishmentof so many manufactories; the building of so many fine citadels; theconstruction of so many admirable ports; the union of the two seas byimmenselabor,etc.,stillobligeEuropetoregardLouisXIV.andhisagewithrespect.

And,aboveall,thosegreatmen,uniqueineverybranchofartandscience,whom nature then produced at one time, will render his reign eternallymemorable.Theagewasgreater thanLouisXIV.,but it shed itsgloryupon

him.

Emulationinarthaschangedthefaceofthecontinent,fromthePyreneestotheicysea.ThereishardlyaprinceinGermanywhohasnotmadeusefulandgloriousestablishments.

What have theTurks done for glory?Nothing. They have ravaged threeempiresandtwentykingdoms;butanyonecityofancientGreecewillalwayshaveagreaterreputationthanalltheOttomancitiestogether.

See what has been done in the course of a few years at St. Petersburg,whichwasabogatthebeginningoftheseventeenthcentury.Alltheartsarethereassembled,whileinthecountryofOrpheus,Linus,andHomer,theyareannihilated.

ThattheRecentBirthoftheArtsdoesnotProvetheRecentFormationoftheGlobe.

Allphilosophershavethoughtmattereternal;buttheartsappeartobenew.Eventheartofmakingbreadisofrecentorigin.ThefirstRomansateboiledgrain; those conquerors of so many nations had neither windmills norwatermills. This truth seems, at first sight, to controvert the doctrine of theantiquity of the globe as it now is, or to suppose terrible revolutions in it.Irruptions of barbarians can hardly annihilate arts which have becomenecessary. Suppose that an army of negroes were to come upon us, likelocusts, from the mountains of southern Africa, through Monomotapa,Monoëmugi,etc.,traversingAbyssinia,Nubia,Egypt,Syria,AsiaMinor,andallEurope, ravagingandoverturningeverything in itsway; therewouldstillbe a few bakers, tailors, shoemakers, and carpenters left; the necessary artswouldrevive;luxuryalonewouldbeannihilated.Suchwasthecaseatthefallof the Roman Empire; even the art of writing became very rare; nearly allthose arts which contributed to render life agreeable were for a long timeextinct.Now,weareinventingnewoneseveryday.

From all this, no well-grounded inference can be drawn against theantiquityof theglobe.For, supposing thata floodofbarbarianshadentirelysweptawaytheartsofwritingandmakingbread;supposingeventhatwehadhad bread, or pens, ink, and paper, only for ten years—the country whichcould exist for ten years without eating bread or writing down its thoughtscouldexistforanage,orahundredthousandages,withoutthesehelps.

It is quite clear that man and the other animals can very well subsistwithout bakers, without romance-writers, and without divines, as witnessAmerica, andaswitnessalso three-fourthsofourowncontinent.The recentbirthoftheartsamongusdoesnotprovetherecentformationoftheglobe,aswaspretendedbyEpicurus,oneofourpredecessorsinreverie,whosupposed

that, by chance, the declination of atoms one day formed our earth.Pomponatiusused to say: "Se ilmondononé eterno,per tutti santi émoltovecchio"—"Ifthisworldbenoteternal,byallthesaints,itisveryold."

SlightInconveniencesAttachedtotheArts.

Thosewhohandleleadandquicksilveraresubjecttodangerouscolics,andveryseriousaffectionsofthenerves.Thosewhousepenandinkareattackedbyvermin,which theyhavecontinually toshakeoff; theseverminaresomeex-Jesuits,whoemploythemselvesinmanufacturinglibels.You,Sire,donotknowthis raceofanimals; theyaredrivenfromyourstates,aswellas fromthoseoftheempressofRussia,thekingofSweden,andthekingofDenmark,myotherprotectors.Theex-JesuitsPolianandNonotte,wholikemecultivatethe fine arts, persecutemeevenuntoMountKrapak, crushingmeunder theweight of their reputation, and that of their genius, the specific gravity ofwhichisstillgreater.Unlessyourmajestyvouchsafetoassistmeagainstthesegreatmen,Iamundone.

ASMODEUS.

NooneatallversedinantiquityisignorantthattheJewsknewnothingofthe angels but what they gleaned from the Persians and Chaldæans, duringcaptivity. It was they,who, according to Calmet, taught them that there aresevenprincipalangelsbeforethethroneoftheLord.Theyalsotaughtthemthenamesofthedevils.HewhomwecallAsmodeus,wasnamedHashmodaïorChammadaï."Weknow,"saysCalmet,"thattherearevarioussortsofdevils,someofthemprincesandmaster-demons,therestsubalterns."

How was it that this Hashmodaï was sufficiently powerful to twist thenecksofsevenyoungmenwhosuccessivelyespoused thebeautifulSarah,anativeofRages, fifteen leagues fromEcbatana?TheMedesmusthavebeenseven times as great as thePersians.Thegoodprinciple gives a husband tothismaiden;andbehold! thebadprinciple, thiskingofdemons,Hashmodaï,destroystheworkofthebeneficentprincipleseventimesinsuccession.

ButSarahwasaJewess,daughteroftheJewRaguel,andacaptiveinthecountry of Ecbatana. How could a Median demon have such power overJewishbodies?IthasbeenthoughtthatAsmodeusorChammadaïwasaJewlikewise;thathewastheoldserpentwhichhadseducedEve;andthathewaspassionatelyfondofwomen,sometimesseducingthem,andsometimeskillingtheirhusbandsthroughanexcessofloveandjealousy.

IndeedtheGreekversionoftheBookofTobitgivesustounderstandthat

Asmodeuswasin lovewithSarah—"otidaimonionphileiautein."Itwastheopinionofallthelearnedofantiquitythatthegenii,whethergoodorevil,hada great inclination for our virgins, and the fairies for our youths. Even theScriptures,accommodatingthemselvestoourweakness,andcondescendingtospeakinthelanguageofthevulgar,say,figuratively,that"thesonsofGodsawthe daughters ofmen, that theywere fair; and they took themwives of allwhichtheychose."

But theangelRaphael, theconductorofyoungTobit,giveshimareasonmore worthy of his ministry, and better calculated to enlighten the personwhomheisguiding.HetellshimthatSarah'ssevenhusbandsweregivenuptothecrueltyofAsmodeus,onlybecause,likehorsesormules,theyhadmarriedher for their pleasure alone. "Her husband," says the angel, "must observecontinencewithherforthreedays,duringwhichtimetheymustpraytoGodtogether."

This instruction would seem to have been quite sufficient to keep offAsmodeus;butRaphaeladdsthatitisalsonecessarytohavetheheartofafishgrilledoverburningcoals.Why,then,wasnotthisinfalliblesecretafterwardsresortedtoinordertodrivethedevilfromthebodiesofwomen?Whydidtheapostles,whoweresentonpurposetocastoutdevilsneverlayafish'sheartupon the gridiron?Whywas not this expedientmadeuse of in the affair ofMarthaBrossier; thatof thenunsofLoudun; thatof themistressesofUrbanGandier; that of LaCadière; that of FatherGirard; and those of a thousandotherdemoniacsinthetimeswhenthereweredemoniacs?

TheGreeks andRomans,who had somany philterswherewith tomakethemselvesbeloved,hadothers tocure love; theyemployedherbsandroots.The agnus castushadgreat reputation.Themodernshave administered it toyoungnuns,onwhomithashadbutlittleeffect.Apollo,longago,complainedtoDaphnethat,physicianashewas,hehadneveryetmetwithasimplethatwouldcurelove:

Heumihi!quodnullisamorestmedicabilisherbis.

Whatbalmcanhealthewoundsthatlovehasmade?

The smoke of sulphur was tried; but Ovid, who was a great master,declaresthatthisrecipewasuseless:

Necfugiatvirosulphurevictusamor.

Sulphur—believeme—drivesnotloveaway.

Thesmokefromtheheartor liverofa fishwasmoreefficaciousagainstAsmodeus.ThereverendfatherCalmetisconsequentlyingreattrouble,beingunabletocomprehendhowthisfumigationcouldactuponapurespirit.Buthe

might have taken courage from the recollection that all the ancients gavebodies to theangelsanddemons.Theywereveryslenderbodies;as lightasthesmallparticlesthatrisefromabroiledfish;theywerelikesmoke;andthesmokefromafriedfishacteduponthembysympathy.

NotonlydidAsmodeusflee,butGabrielwentandchainedhiminUpperEgypt,wherehestillis.HedwellsinagrottonearthecityofSaataorTaata.Paul Lucas saw and spoke to him. They cut this serpent in pieces, and thepieces immediately joined again. To this fact Calmet cites the testimony ofPaulLucas,which testimony Imustalsocite. It is thought thatPaulLucas'stheorymaybejoinedwiththatofthevampires,inthenextcompilationoftheAbbéGuyon.

ASPHALTUS.

ASPHALTICLAKE.—SODOM.

AsphaltusisaChaldæanword,signifyingaspeciesofbitumen.ThereisagreatdealofitinthecountrieswateredbytheEuphrates;itisalsotobefoundinEurope,butofabadquality.Anexperimentwasmadebycoveringthetopsofthewatch-housesoneachsideofoneofthegatesofGeneva;thecoveringdidnotlastayear,andtheminehasbeenabandoned.However,whenmixedwith rosin, it may be used for lining cisterns; perhaps it will some day beappliedtoamoreusefulpurpose.

The realasphaltus is thatwhichwasobtained in thevicinityofBabylon,andwithwhichitissaidthattheGreekfirewasfed.Severallakesarefullofasphaltus,orabitumenresemblingit,asothersarestronglyimpregnatedwithnitre.ThereisagreatlakeofnitreinthedesertofEgypt,whichextendsfromlakeMœris to the entrance of theDelta; and it has no other name than theNitreLake.

TheLakeAsphaltites,knownbythenameofSodom,waslongfamedforits bitumen; but the Turks nowmake no use of it, either because themineunderthewaterisdiminished,becauseitsqualityisaltered,orbecausethereistoomuchdifficultyindrawingitfromunderthewater.Oilyparticlesofit,andsometimeslargemasses,separateandfloatonthesurface;thesearegatheredtogether,mixedup,andsoldforbalmofMecca.

Flavius Josephus, who was of that country, says that, in his time, therewerenofishinthelakeofSodom,andthewaterwassolightthattheheaviestbodieswould not go to the bottom. It seems that hemeant to say so heavyinsteadofsolight.Itwouldappearthathehadnotmadetheexperiment.After

all, a stagnantwater, impregnatedwithsaltsandcompactmatter, its specificmatterbeingthengreaterthanthatofthebodyofamanorabeast,mightforceittofloat.Josephus'serrorconsistsinassigningafalsecausetoaphenomenonwhichmaybeperfectlytrue.

Asforthewantoffish,it isnotincredible.It is,however,likelythatthislake, which is fifty or sixty miles long, is not all asphaltic, and that whilereceivingthewatersoftheJordanitalsoreceivesthefishesofthatriver;butperhapstheJordan, too, iswithoutfish,andtheyaretobefoundonlyintheupperlakeofTiberias.

Josephusadds, that the treeswhichgrowon thebordersof theDeadSeabear fruits of themost beautiful appearance, butwhich fall into dust if youattempt to taste them.This is lessprobable;anddisposesone tobelieve thatJosephuseitherhadnotbeenonthespot,forhasexaggeratedaccordingtohisownandhiscountrymen'scustom.Nosoilseemsmorecalculatedtoproducegood aswell as beautiful fruits than a salt and sulphurous one, like that ofNaples,ofCatania,andofSodom.

The Holy Scriptures speak of five cities being destroyed by fire fromheaven.On this occasionnatural philosophybears testimony in favorof theOldTestament,althoughthelatterhasnoneedofit,andtheyaresometimesatvariance. We have instances of earthquakes, accompanied by thunder andlightning,whichhavedestroyedmuchmoreconsiderable towns thanSodomandGomorrah.

ButtheRiverJordannecessarilydischargingitselfintothislakewithoutanoutlet,thisDeadSea,inthesamemannerastheCaspian,musthaveexistedaslongastherehasbeenaRiverJordan;therefore,thesetownscouldneverstandon the spot now occupied by the lake of Sodom. The Scripture, too, saysnothing at all about this groundbeing changed into a lake; it says quite thecontrary:"ThentheLordraineduponSodomanduponGomorrahbrimstoneand fire, from the Lord out of heaven. And Abraham got up early in themorning,andhelookedtowardSodomandGomorrah,andtowardallthelandof the plain, and beheld; and lo, the smoke of the country went up as thesmokeofafurnace."

These five towns, Sodom,Gomorrah, Zeboin,Adamah, and Segor,mustthenhavebeensituatedonthebordersoftheDeadSea.How,itwillbeasked,inadesert souninhabitableas itnow is,where thereare tobe foundonlyafewhordesofplunderingArabs,couldtherebefivecities,soopulentastobeimmersed in luxury,andeven in thoseshamefulpleasureswhichare the lasteffectoftherefinementofthedebaucheryattachedtowealth?

Itmaybeansweredthatthecountrywasthenmuchbetter.

Othercriticswillsay—howcouldfive townsexistat theextremitiesofalake, the water of which, before their destruction, was not potable? TheScriptureitselfinformsusthatallthislandwasasphalticbeforetheburningofSodom: "And the vale of Sodom was full of slime-pits; and the kings ofSodomandGomorrahfledandfellthere."

Anotherobjection isalsostated. IsaiahandJeremiahsay thatSodomandGomorrah shall never be rebuilt; but Stephen, the geographer, speaks ofSodomandGomorrahon thecoastof theDeadSea;and the"Historyof theCouncils"mentionsbishopsofSodomandSegor.TothisitmaybeansweredthatGod filled these towns,when rebuilt,with lessguilty inhabitants; foratthattimetherewasnobishopinpartibus.

But, itwill be said,withwhatwater could thesenew inhabitantsquenchtheirthirst?Allthewellsarebrackish;youfindasphaltusandcorrosivesaltonfirststrikingaspadeintotheground.

It will be answered that some Arabs still subsist there, and may behabituated todrinkingverybadwater; that theSodomandGomorrahof theEasternEmpirewerewretchedhamlets,andthatatthattimethereweremanybishopswhosewholedioceseconsistedinapoorvillage.Itmayalsobesaidthat the people who colonized these villages prepared the asphaltus, andcarriedonausefultradeinit.

The arid and burning desert, extending from Segor to the territory ofJerusalem, produces balm and aromatic herbs for the same reason that itsuppliesnaphtha,corrosivesaltandsulphur.

It is said that petrifaction takes place in this desert with astonishingrapidity; and this, according to some natural philosophers, makes thepetrifactionofLot'swifeEdithaveryplausiblestory.

But it is said that this woman, "having looked back, became a pillar ofsalt."This,then,wasnotanaturalpetrifaction,operatedbyasphaltusandsalt,butanevidentmiracle.FlaviusJosephussaysthathesawthispillar.St.JustinandSt.Irenæusspeakofitasaprodigy,whichintheirtimewasstillexisting.

These testimonies have been looked upon as ridiculous fables. Itwould,however, beverynatural for some Jews to amuse themselveswith cutting aheap of asphaltus into a rude figure, and calling it Lot's wife. I have seencisternsofasphaltus,verywellmade,whichmaylastalongtime.Butitmustbeowned thatSt. Irenæusgoes a little too farwhenhe says thatLot'swiferemained in the country of Sodom no longer in corruptible flesh, but as apermanent statue of salt, her feminine nature still producing the ordinaryeffect:"UxorremansitinSodomis,jamnoncarocorruptibilissedstatuasalissempermanens,etpernaturaliaeaquæsuntconsuetudmishominisostendens."

St. Irenæus does not seem to express himselfwith all the precision of agoodnaturalistwhenhesaysLot'swifeisnolongerofcorruptibleflesh,butstillretainsherfemininenature.

InthepoemofSodom,attributedtoTertullian,thisisexpressedwithstillgreaterenergy:

Dicituretvivensaliosubcorporeseus,

Mirificesolitodispungeresanguinemenses.

ThiswastranslatedbyapoetofthetimeofHenryII.,inhisGallicstyle:

LafemmeàLoth,quoiqueseldevenue,

Estfemmeencore;carelleasamenstrue.

The land of aromatics was also the land of fables. Into the deserts ofArabia Petræa the ancient mythologists pretend that Myrrha, thegranddaughterofastatue,fledaftercommittingincestwithherfather,asLot'sdaughtersdidwith theirs,and thatshewasmetamorphosed into the tree thatbearsmyrrh.OtherprofoundmythologistsassureusthatshefledintoArabiaFelix;andthisopinionisaswellsupportedastheother.

Bethisasitmay,notoneofourtravellershasyetthoughtfit toexaminethesoilofSodom,withitsasphaltus,itssalt,itstreesandtheirfruits,toweighthe water of the lake, to analyze it, to ascertain whether bodies of greaterspecific gravity than commonwater float upon its surface, and to give us afaithful account of the natural history of the country. Our pilgrims toJerusalemdonotcaretogoandmaketheseresearches;thisdeserthasbecomeinfestedbywanderingArabs,who rangeas far asDamascus, and retire intothecavernsofthemountains,theauthorityofthepashaofDamascushavinghitherto been inadequate to repress them. Thus the curious have but littleinformationaboutanythingconcerningtheAsphalticLake.

AstoSodom,it isamelancholyreflectionforthelearnedthat,amongsomanywhomaybedeemednatives,notonehasfurnisheduswithanynotionwhateverofthiscapitalcity.

ASS.

Wewilladdalittletothearticle"Ass"inthe"Encyclopædia,"concerningLucian'sass,whichbecamegoldeninthehandsofApuleius.Thepleasantestpartoftheadventure,however,isinLucian:Thataladyfellinlovewiththisgentlemanwhilehewasanass,butwouldhavenothingmore to say tohim

whenhewasbutaman.Thesemetamorphoseswereverycommonthroughoutantiquity. Silenus's ass had spoken; and the learned had thought that heexplainedhimselfinArabic;forhewasprobablyamanturnedintoanassbythepowerofBacchus,andBacchus,weknow,wasanArab.

VirgilspeaksofthetransformationofMœrisintoawolf,asathingofveryordinaryoccurrence:

SaepelupumfieriMœrim,etseconderesilvis.

Oftchangedtowolf,heseekstheforestshade.

WasthisdoctrineofmetamorphosesderivedfromtheoldfablesofEgypt,whichgaveoutthatthegodshadchangedthemselvesintoanimalsinthewaragainstthegiants?

The Greeks, great imitators and improvers of the Oriental fables,metamorphosed almost all the gods into men or into beasts, to make themsucceed thebetter in their amorousdesigns. If thegods changed themselvesintobulls,horses,swans,doves,etc.,whyshouldnotmenhaveundergonethesameoperation?

Several commentators, forgetting the respect due to theHoly Scriptures,havecitedtheexampleofNebuchadnezzarchangedintoanox;butthiswasamiracle—adivinevengeance—athingquiteoutofthecourseofnature,whichoughtnottobeexaminedwithprofaneeyes,andcannotbecomeanobjectofourresearches.

Othersofthelearned,perhapswithequalindiscretion,availthemselvesofwhat is related in the Gospel of the Infancy. An Egyptian maiden havingentered the chamber of somewomen, saw there amulewith a silken clothoverhisback,andanebonypendantathisneck.

Thesewomenwereintears,kissinghimandgivinghimtoeat.Themulewas their own brother. Some sorceresses had deprived him of the humanfigure;buttheMasterofNaturesoonrestoredit.

Althoughthisgospelisapocryphal,theverynamethatitbearspreventsusfromexaminingthisadventureindetail;onlyitmayservetoshowhowmuchmetamorphoses were in vogue almost throughout the earth. The Christianswhocomposedtheirgospelwereundoubtedlyhonestmen.Theydidnotseektofabricatearomance;theyrelatedwithsimplicitywhattheyhadheard.Thechurch,whichafterwardsrejectedtheirgospel,togetherwithforty-nineothers,did not accuse its authority of impiety and prevarication; those obscureindividuals addressed the populace in language comformable with theprejudicesoftheageinwhichtheylived.Chinawasperhapstheonlycountryexemptfromthesesuperstitions.

TheadventureofthecompanionsofUlysses,changedintobeastsbyCirce,wasmuchmoreancient than thedogmaof themetempsychosis,broached inGreeceandItalybyPythagoras.

Onwhatcantheassertionbefoundedthatthereisnouniversalerrorwhichisnottheabuseofsometruth;thattherehavebeenquacksonlybecausetherehave been true physicians; and that false prodigies have been believed onlybecausetherehavebeentrueones?

Were there any certain testimonies that men had become wolves, oxen,horses,orasses?Thisuniversalerrorhadforitsprincipleonlytheloveofthemarvellousandthenaturalinclinationtosuperstition.

Oneerroneousopinion is enough to fill thewholeworldwith fables.AnIndiandoctorsees thatanimalshave feelingandmemory.Heconcludes thattheyhaveasoul.Menhaveone likewise.Whatbecomesof thesoulofmanafter death?What becomes of that of the beast? Theymust go somewhere.Theygo into thenearestbody that isbeginning tobe formed.ThesoulofaBrahmintakesupitsabodeinthebodyofanelephant,thesoulofanassisthatofalittleBrahmin.Suchisthedogmaofthemetempsychosis,whichwasbuiltuponsimplededuction.

Butitisawidestepfromthisdogmatothatofmetamorphosis.Wehavenolonger a soulwithout a tenement, seeking a lodging; but one body changedinto another, the soul remaining as before. Now, we certainly have not innatureanyexampleofsuchlegerdemain.

Let us then inquire into the origin of so extravagant yet so general anopinion.Ifsomefatherhadcharacterizedhisson,sunkinignoranceandfilthydebauchery,asahog,ahorse,oranass,andafterwardsmadehimdopenancewithanass'scaponhishead,andsomeservantgirloftheneighborhoodgaveitoutthatthisyoungmanhadbeenturnedintoanassasapunishmentforhisfaults, her neighborswould repeat it to other neighbors, and frommouth tomouththisstory,withathousandembellishments,wouldmakethetouroftheworld.Anambiguousexpressionwouldsufficetodeceivethewholeearth.

Herethenletusconfess,withBoileau,thatambiguityhasbeentheparentofmostofour ridiculousfollies.Add to this thepowerofmagic,whichhasbeenacknowledgedas indisputable inallnations,andyouwillno longerbeastonishedatanything.

Onewordmoreonasses. It issaid that inMesopotamia theyarewarlikeandthatMervan,thetwenty-firstcaliph,wassurnamed"theAss"forhisvalor.

ThepatriarchPhotiusrelates,intheextractfromtheLifeofIsidorus,thatAmmoniushadanasswhichhadagreattasteforpoetry,andwouldleavehismanger to go and hear verses. The fable ofMidas is better than the tale of

Photius.

Machiavelli'sGoldenAss.

Machiavelli'sassisbutlittleknown.Thedictionarieswhichspeakofitsaythatitwasaproductionofhisyouth;itwouldseem,however,thathewasofmatureage;forhespeaksinitofthemisfortuneswhichhehadformerlyandforalongtimeexperienced.Theworkisasatireonhiscontemporaries.Theauthor sees a number of Florentines, of whom one is changed into a cat,anotherintoadragon,athirdintoadogthatbaysthemoon,afourthintoafoxwhodoesnotsufferhimself tobecaught;eachcharacter isdrawnunder thenameofananimal.ThefactionsofthehouseofMedicisandtheirenemiesaredoubtlessfiguredtherein;andthekeytothiscomicapocalypsewouldadmitustothesecretsofPopeLeoandthetroublesofFlorence.Thispoemisfullofmoralityandphilosophy. It endswith thevery rational reflectionsofa largehog,whichaddressesmaninnearlythefollowingterms:

Yenakedbipeds,withoutbeaksorclaws.

Hairless,andfeatherless,andtender-hided,

Weepingyecomeintotheworld—because

Yefeelyourevildestinydecided;

Naturehasgivenyouindustriouspaws;

You,liketheparrots,arewithspeechprovided;

Buthaveyehonesthearts?—Alas!alas!

Inthisweswineyourbipedshipssurpass!

Manisfarworsethanwe—morefierce,morewild—

Cowardormadman,sinningeveryminute;

Byfrenzyandbyfearinturnbeguiled,

Hedreadsthegrave,yetplungesheadlonginit;

Ifpigsfallout,theysoonarereconciled;

Theirquarrel'sendederetheywellbeginit.

Ifcrimewithmanhoodalwaysmustcombine,

GoodLord!letmeforeverbeaswine.

ThisistheoriginalofBoileau's"SatireonMan,"andLaFontaine'sfableofthe"CompanionsofUlysses";butitisquitelikelythatneitherLaFontainenorBoileauhadeverheardofMachiavelli'sass.

TheAssofVerona.

Imustspeak the truth,andnotdeceivemyreaders. Idonotveryclearlyknow whether the Ass of Verona still exists in all his splendor; but thetravellerswhosawhimfortyorfiftyyearsagoagreeinsayingthattherelicswereenclosedinthebodyofanartificialassmadeonpurpose,whichwasinthe keeping of fortymonks of Our Lady of theOrgan, at Verona, andwascarriedinprocessiontwiceayear.Thiswasoneofthemostancientrelicsofthe town.According to the tradition, thisass,havingcarriedourLord inhisentryintoJerusalem,didnotchoosetoabideanylongerinthatcity,buttrottedoverthesea—whichforthatpurposebecameashardashishoof—bywayofCyprus, Rhodes, Candia, Malta, and Sicily. There he went to sojourn atAquilea;andatlasthesettledatVerona,wherehelivedalongwhile.

This fable originated in the circumstance thatmost asses have a sort ofblack cross on their backs. There possibly might be an old ass in theneighborhoodofVerona,onwhosebackthepopulaceremarkedafinercrossthanhisbrethrencouldboastof;somegoodoldwomanwouldbeathandtosay that this was the ass on which Christ rode into Jerusalem; and the asswouldbehonoredwithamagnificentfuneral.ThefeastestablishedatVeronapassed into other countries, andwas especially celebrated in France. In themasswassung:

Orientispartibus

Adventabitasinus,

Pulcheretfortissimus.

Therewasalongprocession,headedbyayoungwomanwithachildinherarms,mountedonanass, representing theVirginMarygoingintoEgypt.Atthe end of themass the priest, instead of saying Itemissa est, brayed threetimeswithallhismight,andthepeopleansweredinchorus.

Wehavebooksonthefeastoftheass,andthefeastoffools;theyfurnishmaterialtowardsauniversalhistoryofthehumanmind.

ASSASSIN—ASSASSINATION.

SectionI.

AnamecorruptedfromthewordEhissessin.Nothingismorecommontothose who go into a distant country than to write, repeat, and understandincorrectlyintheirownlanguagewhattheyhavemisunderstoodinalanguageentirelyforeigntothem,andafterwardstodeceivetheircountrymenaswellasthemselves.Errorfliesfrommouthtomouth,frompen,topen,andtodestroy

itrequiresages.

In the time of the Crusades there was a wretched little people ofmountaineers inhabiting the caverns near the road to Damascus. Thesebrigandselectedachief,whomtheynamedCheikElchassissin.Itissaidthatthis honorific title of cheik originally signified old, as with us the title ofseigneur comes from senior, elder, and theword graf, a count, signifies oldamong theGermans; for, inancient timesalmosteverypeopleconferred thecivil commandupon theoldmen.Afterwards, thecommandhavingbecomehereditary, the title of cheik, graf, seigneur, or count has been given tochildren;andtheGermanscallalittlemasteroffouryearsold,thecount—thatis,theoldgentleman.

TheCrusadersnamedtheoldmanoftheArabianmountains,theOldManof theHill,and imaginedhim tobeagreatprince,becausehehadcausedacount of Montserrat and some other crusading nobles to be robbed andmurderedon the highway.These peoplewere called the assassins, and theircheikthekingofthevastcountryoftheassassins.Thisvastterritoryisfiveorsixleagueslongbytwoorthreebroad,beingpartofAnti-Libanus,ahorriblecountry, full of rocks, like almost all Palestine, but intersected by pleasantmeadowlands, which feed numerous flocks, as is attested by all who havemadethejourneyfromAleppotoDamascus.

Thecheikorsenioroftheseassassinscouldbenothingmorethanachiefof banditti; for there was at that time a sultan of Damascus who was verypowerful.

Our romance-writers of that day, as fond of chimeras as the Crusaders,thoughtpropertorelatethatin1236thisgreatprinceoftheassassins,fearingthatLouisIX.,ofwhomhehadneverheard,wouldputhimselfattheheadofacrusade,andcomeandtakefromhimhisterritory,senttwogreatmenofhiscourt from thecavernsofAnti-Libanus toParis toassassinate thatking;butthathavingthenextdayheardhowgenerousandamiableaprinceLouiswas,he immediately sent out to sea two more great men to countermand theassassination.Isayouttosea,forneitherthetwoemissariessenttokillLouis,northetwootherssenttosavehim,couldmakethevoyagewithoutembarkingatJoppa,whichwas then in thepowerof theCrusaders,which rendered theenterprise doubly marvellous. The two first must have found a Crusaders'vessel ready to convey them in an amicablemanner, and the two lastmusthavefoundanother.

However,ahundredauthors,oneafteranother,haverelatedthisadventure,thoughJoinville,acontemporary,whowasonthespot,saysnothingaboutit—"Etvoilàjustementcommeonécritl'histoire."

The Jesuit Maimbourg, the Jesuit Daniel, twenty other Jesuits, and

Mézeray—though he was not a Jesuit—have repeated this absurdity. TheAbbé Véli, in his history of France, tells it over again with perfectcomplaisance,without any discussion,without any examination, and on theword of oneWilliamofNangis,whowrote about sixty years after this fineaffair is said to have happened at a timewhen historywas composed fromnothingbuttowntalk.

Ifnonebut true anduseful thingswere recorded,our immensehistoricallibrarieswould be reduced to a very narrow compass; butwe should knowmore,andknowitbetter.

Forsixhundredyears thestoryhasbeentoldoverandoveragain,of theOld Man of the Hill—le vieux de la montagne—who, in his delightfulgardens, intoxicated his young elect with voluptuous pleasures, made thembelieve that theywere inparadise, and sent them to theendsof theearth toassassinatekingsinordertomeritaneternalparadise.

NeartheLevantineshorestheredweltofold

Anagedruler,fearedineveryland;

Notthatheownedenormousheapsofgold,

Notthatvastarmiesmarchedathiscommand,—

Butonhispeople'smindshethingsimpressed,

Whichfilledwithdesperatecourageeverybreast

Theboldestofhissubjectsfirsthetook,

Ofparadisetogivethemaforetaste—

Theparadisehislawgiverhadpainted;

Witheveryjoythelyingprophet'sbook

Withinhisfalsely-picturedheavenhadplaced,

Theythoughttheirsenseshadbecomeacquainted.

Andhowwasthiseffected?'Twasbywine—

Ofthistheydranktilleverysensegaveway,

And,whileindrunkenlethargytheylay,

Wereborne,accordingtotheirchief'sdesign,

Tosportsofpleasantness—tosunshineglades,

Delightfulgardensandinvitingshades.

Youngtenderbeautieswereabundantthere,

Inearliestbloom,andexquisitelyfair;

Thesegaylythrongedaroundthesleepingmen,

Who,whenatlengththeywereawakeagain,

Wonderingtoseethebeauteousobjectsround,

Believedthatsomewaythey'dalreadyfound

Thosefieldsofbliss,ineverybeautydecked,

ThefalseMahometpromisedhiselect.

Acquaintancequicklymade,theTurksadvance;

Themaidensjointheminasprightlydance;

Sweetmusiccharmsthemastheytripalong;

Andeveryfeatheredwarbleraddshissong.

Thejoysthatcouldforeverysensesuffice.

Werefoundwithinthisearthlyparadise.

Wine,too,wasthere—anditseffectsthesame;

Thesepeopledrank,tilltheycoulddrinknomore,

Wereearnedtotheplacefromwhencetheycame.

Andwhatresultedfromthistrickery?

Thesemenbelievedthattheyshouldsurelybe

Againtransportedtothatplaceofpleasure,

If,withoutfearofsufferingorofdeath,

TheyshoweddevotiontoMahomet'sfaith,

Andtotheirprinceobediencewithoutmeasure.

Thusmighttheirsovereignwithreasonsay,

Andthat,nowhisdevicehadmadethemso,

Hiswasthemightiestempireherebelow....

AllthismightbeverywellinoneofLaFontaine'stales—settingaparttheweakness of the verse; and there are a hundred historical anecdotes whichcouldbetoleratedthereonly.

SectionII.

Assassinationbeing,nexttopoisoning,thecrimemostcowardlyandmost

deservingofpunishment,itisnotastonishingthatithasfoundanapologistinamanwhosesingularreasoningis,insomethings,atvariancewiththereasonoftherestofmankind.

Ina romanceentitled"Emilius,"he imagines thathe is theguardianofayoung man, to whom he is very careful to give an education such as isreceived in the military school—teaching him languages, geometry, tactics,fortification, and thehistoryofhis country.Hedoesnot seek to inspirehimwithloveforhiskingandhiscountry,butcontentshimselfwithmakinghimajoiner.Hewouldhavethisgentleman-joiner,whenhehasreceivedabloworachallenge,insteadofreturningitandfighting,"prudentlyassassinatetheman."Molièredoes, it is true,sayjestingly, in"L'AmourPeintre,""assassinationisthesafest";but theauthorof this romanceasserts that it is themost justandreasonable. He says this very seriously, and, in the immensity of hisparadoxes,thisisoneofthethreeorfourthingswhichhefirstsays.Thesamespiritofwisdomanddecencywhichmakeshimdeclarethatapreceptorshouldoften accompanyhis pupil to a placeof prostitution,makeshimdecide thatthisdiscipleshouldbeanassassin.SothattheeducationwhichJeanJacqueswouldgivetoayoungmanconsistsinteachinghimhowtohandletheplane,andinfittinghimforsalivationandtherope.

Wedoubtwhetherfathersoffamilieswillbeeagertogivesuchpreceptorstotheirchildren.ItseemstousthattheromanceofEmiliusdepartsrathertoomuch from the maxims of Mentor in "Telemachus"; but it must also beacknowledgedthatouragehasinall thingsverymuchvariedfromthegreatageofLouisXIV.

Happily, none of these horrible infatuations are to be found in the"Encyclopædia."Itoftendisplaysaphilosophyseeminglybold,butneverthatatrocious and extravagant babbling which two or three fools have calledphilosophy,andtwoorthreeladies,eloquence.

ASTROLOGY.

Astrologymightrestonabetterfoundationthanmagic.Forifnoonehasseenfarfadets,or lemures,ordives,orperis,ordemons,orcacodemons, thepredictionsofastrologershaveoftenbeenfoundtrue.Let twoastrologersbeconsultedonthelifeofaninfant,andontheweather;ifoneofthemsaythatthechildshallfivetotheageofman,theotherthatheshallnot;ifoneforetellrainandtheotherfairweather,itisquiteclearthattherewillbeaprophet.

Thegreatmisfortuneofastrologersisthattheheavenshavechangedsince

therulesoftheartwerelaiddown.Thesun,whichattheequinoxwasintheRam in the timeof theArgonauts, isnow in theBull; andastrologers,mostunfortunately for their art, nowattribute to onehouse of the sun thatwhichvisiblybelongs toanother.Still, this isnotademonstrativeargumentagainstastrology.Themastersoftheartaremistaken;butitisnotprovedthattheartcannotexist.

Therewouldbenoabsurdityinsaying,"Suchachildwasbornduringthemoon's increase, in a stormy season, at the rising of a certain star; itsconstitutionwasbad,anditslifeshortandmiserable,whichistheordinarylotofweaktemperaments;another,onthecontrary,wasbornwhenthemoonwasat the full, and the sun in all his power, in calm weather, at the rising ofanotherparticularstar;hisconstitutionwasgood,andhislifelongandhappy."Ifsuchobservationshadbeenfrequentlyrepeated,andfoundjust,experiencemight, at the end of a few thousand centuries, have formed an artwhich itwouldhavebeendifficulttocallinquestion;itwouldhavebeenthought,notwithout some appearance of truth, that men are like trees and vegetables,which must be planted only in certain seasons. It would have been of noserviceagainsttheastrologerstosay,"Mysonwasborninfineweather,yethediedinhiscradle."Theastrologerwouldhaveanswered,"Itoftenhappensthattrees planted in the proper season perish prematurely; Iwill answer for thestars,butnotfortheparticularconformationwhichyoucommunicatedtoyourchild; astrology operates only when there is no cause opposed to the goodwhichtheyhavepowertowork."

Norwouldastrologyhavesufferedanymorediscreditfromitbeingsaid:"Oftwochildrenwhowereborninthesameminute,onebecameaking,theother nothing more than churchwarden of his parish;" for a defence wouldeasily have been made by showing that the peasant made his fortune inbecomingchurchwarden,justasmuchastheprincedidinbecomingking.

Andifitwereallegedthatabandit,hungupbyorderofSixtustheFifth,wasborn at the same time asSixtus,who, frombeing a swineherd, becamepope,theastrologerswouldsaythattherewasamistakeofafewseconds,andthat,according to the rules, thesamestarcouldnotbestow the tiaraand thegallows.Itwas,then,onlybecauselong-accumulatedexperiencegavethelieto thepredictions thatmen at lengthperceived that the artwas illusory; buttheircredulitywasoflongduration.

Oneof themost famousmathematiciansofEurope,namedStoffler,whoflourishedinthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies,foretoldauniversaldelugefor theyear1524.Thisdelugewas tohappen in themonthofFebruary,andnothing can be more plausible, for Saturn, Jupiter, and Mars were then inconjunctioninthesignoftheFishes.EverynationinEurope,Asia,andAfricathatheardof thepredictionwas inconsternation.Thewholeworldexpected

thedeluge, in spiteof the rainbow.Several contemporaryauthors relate thatthe inhabitants of themaritime provinces ofGermany hastened to sell theirlands, at any price, to such as had more money and less credulity thanthemselves.Eachoneprovidedhimselfwithaboattoserveasanark.Adoctorof Toulouse, in particular, named Auriol, had an ark built for himself, hisfamily, and friends; and the same precautionswere taken in a great part ofItaly.AtlastthemonthofFebruaryarrived,andnotadropofrainfell,neverwas a month more dry, never were the astrologers more embarrassed.However,weneitherdiscouragednorneglected them;almostallourprincescontinuedtoconsultthem.

Ihavenotthehonortobeaprince;nevertheless,thecelebratedCountdeBoulainvilliers and an Italian, named Colonna, who had great reputation atParis,bothforetoldtomethatIshouldassuredlydieattheageofthirty-two.Ihave already been so malicious as to deceive them thirty years in theircalculation—forwhichImosthumblyasktheirpardon.

ASTRONOMY,

WITHAFEWMOREREFLECTIONSONASTROLOGY.

M.Duval,who, if Imistakenot,was librarian to theEmperorFrancis I.,gives us an account of themanner inwhich, in his childhood, pure instinctgavehimthefirstideasofastronomy.Hewascontemplatingthemoonwhich,as it declined towards the west, seemed to touch the trees of a wood. Hedoubtednotthatheshouldfinditbehindthetrees,and,onrunningthither,wasastonishedtoseeitattheextremityofthehorizon.

Thefollowingdayshiscuriositypromptedhimtowatchthecourseofthisluminary,andhewasstillmoresurprisedtofindthatitroseandsetatvarioushours. The different forms which it took from week to week, and its totaldisappearanceforsomenights,alsocontributedtofixhisattention.Allthatachildcoulddowastoobserveandtoadmire,andthiswasdoingmuch;notoneintenthousandhasthiscuriosityandperseverance.

He studied, as he could, for three years, with no other book than theheavens, no other master than his eyes. He observed that the stars did notchange their relativepositions;but thebrilliancyof theplanetVenushavingcaughthisattention,itseemedtohimtohaveaparticularcourse,likethatofthemoon.Hewatched it every night; it disappeared for a long time; and atlengthhesawitbecomethemorninginsteadoftheeveningstar.Thecourseofthe sun, which frommonth tomonth, rose and set in different parts of the

heavens,didnotescapehim.Hemarkedthesolsticeswithtwostaves,withoutknowingwhatthesolsticeswere.

Itappears tome that someprofitmightbederived fromthisexample, inteaching astronomy to a childof tenor twelveyearsof age, andwithmuchgreater facility than this extraordinarychild,ofwhom Ihave spoken, taughthimselfitsfirstelements.

Itisaveryattractivespectacleforaminddisposedtothecontemplationofnature tosee that thedifferentphasesof themoonareprecisely thesameasthose of a globe round which a lighted candle is moved, showing here aquarter,here thehalfof its surface,andbecoming invisiblewhenanopaquebodyisinterposedbetweenitandthecandle.InthismanneritwasthatGalileoexplained the true principles of astronomy before the doge and senators ofVeniceonSt.Mark'stower;hedemonstratedeverythingtotheeyes.

Indeed,notonlyachild,butevenamanofmatureage,whohasseentheconstellationsonlyonmapsorglobes, finds itdifficult to recognize them intheheavens.Inalittletimethechildwillquitewellcomprehendthecausesofthesun'sapparentcourse,andthedailyrevolutionsofthefixedstars.

Hewill,inparticular,discovertheconstellationswiththeaidofthesefourLatin lines,madebyanastronomerabout fiftyyearsago,andwhicharenotsufficientlyknown:

DeltaAries,PerseumTaurus,GeminiqueCapellam;NilCancer,PlaustrumLeo,VirgoComan,atqueBootem,LibraAnguem,AnguiferumfertScorpios;AntinoumArcus;DelphinumCaper,AmphoraEquos,CepheidaPisces.

Nothing should be said to him about the systems of Ptolemy andTychoBrahe,becausetheyarefalse; theycanneverbeofanyotherservicethantoexplain somepassages in ancient authors, relating to the errors of antiquity.For instance, in thesecondbookofOvid's"Metamorphoses" thesunsays toPhaëton:

Adde,quodassiduarapiturvertiginecœlum;

Nitorinadversum;necme,quicætera,vincit

Impetus;etrapidocontrariusevehororbi.

Arapidmotioncarriesroundtheheavens;

ButI—andIalone—resistitsforce,

Marchingsecureinmyopposingpath.

Thisideaofafirstmoverturningtheheavensroundintwenty-fourhourswith an impossiblemotion, and of the sun, though acted upon by this firstmotion,yetimperceptiblyadvancingfromwesttoeastbyamotionpeculiarto

itself,andwithoutacause,wouldbutembarrassayoungbeginner.

Itissufficientforhimtoknowthat,whethertheearthrevolvesonitsownaxis and round the sun, or the sun completes his revolution in a year,appearances are nearly the same, and that, in astronomy, we are obliged tojudgeofthingsbyoureyesbeforeweexaminethemasnaturalphilosophers.

Hewillsoonknowthecauseoftheeclipsesofthesunandthemoon,andwhytheydonotoccureverynight.Itwillatfirstappeartohimthat,themoonbeingeverymonthinoppositiontoandinconjunctionwiththesun,weshouldhave an eclipse of the sun and one of themoon everymonth.Butwhen hefindsthatthesetwoluminariesarenotinthesameplaneandareseldominthesamelinewiththeearth,hewillnolongerbesurprised.

He will easily be made to understand how it is that eclipses have beenforetold,byknowingtheexactcircleinwhichtheapparentmotionofthesunand the real motion of the moon are accomplished. He will be told thatobserversfoundbyexperienceandcalculationthenumberoftimesthatthesetwo bodies are precisely in the same line with the earth in the space ofnineteen years and a few hours, after which they seem to recommence thesame course; so that, making the necessary allowances for the littleinequalitiesthatoccurredduringthosenineteenyears,theexactday,hour,andminuteofaneclipseofthesunormoonwereforetold.Thesefirstelementsaresoonacquiredbyachildofclearconceptions.

Noteventheprecessionoftheequinoxeswillterrifyhim.Itwillbeenoughto tell him that the sun has constantly appeared to advance in his annualcourse, one degree in seventy-two years, towards the east; and this is whatOvidmeant to express: "Contrarius evehor orbi";—"Marching secure inmyopposingpath."

ThustheRam,whichthesunformerlyenteredatthebeginningofspring,is now in the placewhere theBullwas then. This changewhich has takenplaceintheheavens,andtheentranceofthesunintootherconstellationsthanthosewhichhe formerlyoccupied,were the strongest arguments against thepretended rules of judicial astrology. It does not, however, appear that thisproof was employed before the present century to destroy this universalextravagancewhichsolonginfectedallmankind,andisstillingreatvogueinPersia.

Amanborn,accordingtothealmanac,whenthesunwasinthesignoftheLion,wasnecessarily tobecourageous;but,unfortunately,hewas in realitybornunder thesignof theVirgin.So thatGauricandMichaelMorinshouldhavechangedalltherulesoftheirart.

It is indeed odd that all the laws of astrologywere contrary to those of

astronomy. The wretched charlatans of antiquity and their stupid disciples,whohavebeensowellreceivedandsowellpaidbyalltheprincesofEurope,talkedofnothingbutMarsandVenus,stationaryandretrograde.SuchashadMars stationary were always to conquer. Venus stationary made all lovershappy.Nothingwasworse than to be born underVenus retrograde.But thefactisthattheseplanetshaveneverbeeneitherretrogradeorstationary,whichaveryslightknowledgeofopticswouldhavesufficedtoshow.

How, then, can it have been that, in spite of physics and geometry, theridiculouschimeraofastrologyisentertainedeventothisday,sothatwehaveseenmendistinguishedfor theirgeneralknowledge,andespeciallyprofoundinhistory,whohavealltheirlivesbeeninfatuatedbysodespicableanerror?Buttheerrorwasancient,andthatwasenough.

TheEgyptians, theChaldæans, the Jews, foretold the future; therefore, itmaybeforetoldnow.Serpentswerecharmedandspiritswereraisedinthosedays; therefore, spirits may be raised and serpents charmed now. It is onlynecessary to know the precise formula made use of for the purpose. Ifpredictionsareatanend,itisthefault,notoftheart,butoftheartist.MichaelMorinandhissecretdiedtogether.It is thusthat thealchemistsspeakofthephilosopher'sstone;if,saythey,wedonotnowfindit,itisbecausewedonotyetknowpreciselyhowtoseekit;butitiscertainlyinSolomon'scollar-bone.And,with this glorious certainty,more than twohundred families inFranceandGermanyhaveruinedthemselves.

It isnot then tobewonderedat that thewholeworldhasbeendupedbyastrology.Thewretched argument, "there are falseprodigies, therefore therearetrueones," isneither thatofaphilosopher,norofamanacquaintedwiththe world. "That is false and absurd, therefore it will be believed by themultitude,"isamuchtruermaxim.

It is still less astonishing that somanymen, raised inother things so farabovethevulgar;somanyprinces,somanypopes,whomitwouldhavebeenimpossible to mislead in the smallest affair of interest, have been soridiculouslyseducedbythisastrologicalnonsense.Theywereveryproudandvery ignorant.Thestarswere for themalone; the restof theworlda rabble,with whom the stars had nothing to do. They were like the prince whotrembledatthesightofacomet,andsaidgravelytothosewhodidnotfearit,"Youmaybeholditwithoutconcern;youarenotprinces."

The famousGerman leader,Wallenstein,was one of those infatuated bythis chimera; he called himself a prince, and consequently thought that thezodiac had beenmade on purpose for him. He never besieged a town, norfoughtabattle,untilhehadheldacouncilwiththeheavens;but,asthisgreatmanwas very ignorant, he placed at the head of this council a rogue of an

Italian,namedSeni,keepinghimacoachandsix,andgivinghimapensionoftwentythousandlivres.Seni,however,neverforesawthatWallensteinwouldbeassassinatedbyorderofhismostgracioussovereign,and thathehimselfwouldreturntoItalyonfoot.

Itisquiteevidentthatnothingcanbeknownofthefuture,otherwisethanby conjectures. These conjectures may be so well-founded as to approachcertainty.Youseeasharkswallowalittleboy;youmaywagertenthousandtoonethathewillbedevoured;butyoucannotbeabsolutelysureofit,aftertheadventuresofHercules,Jonas,andOrlandoFurioso,whoeachlivedsolonginafish'sbelly.

ItcannotbetoooftenrepeatedthatAlbertusMagnusandCardinald'AillibothmadethehoroscopeofJesusChrist.Itwouldappearthattheyreadinthestarshowmanydevilshewouldcastoutof thebodiesof thepossessed,andwhat sort of death he was to die. But it was unfortunate that these learnedastrologersforetoldallthesethingssolongaftertheyhappened.

We shall elsewhere see that in a sect which passes for Christian, it isbelieved to be impossible for the Supreme Intelligence to see the futureotherwise thanbysupremeconjecture; for,as the futuredoesnotexist, it is,say they, a contradiction in terms to talk of seeing at the present time thatwhichisnot.

ATHEISM.

SectionI.

OntheComparisonsoOftenMadebetweenAtheismandIdolatry.

Itseemstomethat,inthe"DictionnaireEncyclopédique,"amorepowerfulrefutation might have been brought against the Jesuit Richeome's opinionconcerning atheists and idolaters—an opinion formerly maintained by St.Thomas, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Cyprian, and Tertullian—an opinionwhichArnobiusplacedinastronglightwhenhesaidtothepagans,"Doyounot blush to reproach us with contempt for your gods? Is it not better tobelieveinnogodthantoimputetotheminfamousactions?"—anopinionlongbefore established byPlutarch,who stated that hewould rather have it saidthattherewasnoPlutarchthanthattherewasaPlutarch,inconstant,choleric,andvindictive—anopinion,too,fortifiedbyallthedialecticaleffortsofBayle.

Suchisthegroundofdispute,placedinaverystrikingpointofviewbytheJesuitRicheome,andmadestillmorespeciousbythewayinwhichBaylesetsitoff:

"There are two porters at the door of a house. You ask to speak to themaster.Heisnotathome,answersone.Heisathome,answerstheother,butis busied in making false money, false contracts, daggers, and poisons, todestroythosewhohaveonlyaccomplishedhisdesigns.Theatheistresemblesthe former of these porters, the pagan the latter. It is then evident that thepaganoffendstheDivinitymoregrievouslythantheatheist."

WiththepermissionofFatherRicheome,andthatofBaylehimself,thisisnotatallthestateofthequestion.Forthefirstportertobeliketheatheist,hemust say, not "Mymaster is not here," but "I have nomaster; hewho youpretend ismymasterdoesnot exist.Mycomrade is ablockhead to tellyouthat the gentleman is engaged in mixing poisons and wetting poniards toassassinate thosewhohave executedhiswill.There is no suchbeing in theworld."

Richeome,therefore,hasreasonedveryill;andBayle,inhisratherdiffusediscourses, has so far forgotten himself as to do Richeome the honor ofmakingaverylamecommentuponhim.

Plutarchseemstoexpresshimselfmuchbetter,indeclaringthatheprefersthosewhosaythereisnoPlutarchtothosewhoassertthatPlutarchisunfitforsociety.Indeed,ofwhatconsequencetohimwasitsbeingsaidthathewasnotintheworld?Butitwasofgreatconsequencethathisreputationshouldnotbeinjured.WiththeSupremeBeingitisotherwise.

StillPlutarchdoesnotcometotherealpointindiscussion.Itisonlyaskedwho most offends the Supreme Being—he who denies Him, or he whodisfigures Him? It is impossible to know, otherwise than by revelation,whetherGodisoffendedatthevaindiscourseswhichmenholdaboutHim.

Philosophersalmostalwaysfallunconsciouslyintotheideasofthevulgar,insupposingthatGodisjealousofHisglory,wrathful,andgiventorevenge,andintakingrhetoricalfiguresforrealideas.Thatwhichintereststhewholeworld is toknowwhether it isnotbetter toadmita rewardingandavengingGod,recompensinghiddengoodactions,andpunishingsecretcrimes,thantoadmitnoGodatall.

Bayleexhaustshimselfinrepeatingalltheinfamousthingsimputedtothegodsofantiquity.Hisadversariesanswerhimbyunmeaningcommonplaces.The partisans and the enemies ofBayle have almost always foughtwithoutcomingtoclosequarters.TheyallagreethatJupiterwasanadulterer,Venusawanton,Mercuryarogue.Butthis,Iconceive,oughtnottobeconsidered;thereligion of the ancient Romans should be distinguished from Ovid's"Metamorphoses."ItisquitecertainthatneithertheynoreventheGreekseverhada templededicated toMercury theRogue,Venus theWanton,or JupitertheAdulterer.

ThegodwhomtheRomanscalled"Deusoptimusmaximus"—mostgood,mostgreat—wasnotbelievedtohaveencouragedClodiustoliewithCæsar'swife,norCæsartobecometheminionofKingNicomedes.

Cicerodoesnot say thatMercury incitedVerres to robSicily, though, inthefable,MercuryhadstolenApollo'scows.Therealreligionoftheancientswas that Jupiter,mostgoodand just,with thesecondarydivinities,punishedperjuryintheinfernalregions.Thus,theRomanswerelongthemostreligiousobserversoftheiroaths.ItwasinnowiseordainedthattheyshouldbelieveinLeda'stwoeggs,inthetransformationofInachus'sdaughterintoacow,orinApollo'sloveforHyacinthus.ThereforeitmustnotbesaidthatthereligionofNumawasdishonoringtotheDivinity.Sothat,asbuttoooftenhappens,therehasbeenalongdisputeaboutachimera.

Then,itisasked,canapeopleofatheistsexist?Iconsiderthatadistinctionmust be made between the people, properly so called, and a society ofphilosophersabove thepeople. It is true that, ineverycountry, thepopulacerequire thestrongestcurb;and that ifBaylehadhadbut fiveor sixhundredpeasantstogovern,hewouldnothavefailedtoannouncetothemarewardingand avenging God. But Bayle would have said nothing about them to theEpicureans,whowerepeopleofwealth,fondofquiet,cultivatingallthesocialvirtues,andfriendshipinparticular,shunningthedangersandembarrassmentsofpublicaffairs—leading,inshort,alifeofeaseandinnocence.Thedispute,sofarasitregardspolicyandsociety,seemstometoendhere.

As for people entirely savage, they can be counted neither among thetheistsnoramongtheatheists.ToaskthemwhatistheircreedwouldbelikeaskingthemiftheyareforAristotleorDemocritus.Theyknownothing;theyarenomoreatheiststhantheyareperipatetics.

But,itmaybeinsisted,thattheyliveinsociety,thoughtheyhavenoGod,andthat,therefore,societymaysubsistwithoutreligion.

In this case I shall reply thatwolves live so; and that an assemblage ofbarbarouscannibals,asyousupposethemtobe,isnotasociety.And,further,Iwillaskyouif,whenyouhavelentyourmoneytoanyoneofyoursociety,youwouldhaveneitheryourdebtor, noryour attorney, noryournotary, noryourjudge,believeinaGod?

SectionII.

ModernAtheists.—ArgumentsoftheWorshippersofGod.

Weareintelligentbeings,andintelligentbeingscannothavebeenformedbyablind,brute,insensiblebeing;thereiscertainlysomedifferencebetweenaclodandtheideasofNewton.Newton'sintelligence,then,camefromsomeotherintelligence.

Whenweseeafinemachine,wesaythereisagoodmachinist,andthathehasanexcellentunderstanding.Theworldisassuredlyanadmirablemachine;thereforethereisintheworld,somewhereorother,anadmirableintelligence.Thisargumentisold,butisnotthereforetheworse.

All animated bodies are composed of levers and pulleys, which actaccording to the laws ofmechanics; of liquors,which are kept in perpetualcirculationbythelawsofhydrostatics;andthereflectionthatallthesebeingshave sentiment which has no relation to their organization, fills us withwonder.

The motions of the stars, that of our little earth round the sun—all areoperatedaccordingtothelawsoftheprofoundestmathematics.Howcoulditbe thatPlato,whoknewnotoneof these laws—theeloquentbutchimericalPlato,whosaidthatthefoundationoftheearthwasanequilateraltriangle,andthatofwateraright-angledtriangle—thestrangePlato,whosaidtherecouldbebutfiveworlds,becausetherewerebutfiveregularbodieshow,Isay,wasitthat Plato, who was not even acquainted with spherical trigonometry, hadneverthelesssofineagenius,sohappyaninstinct,astocallGodtheEternalGeometrician—to feel that there exists a forming Intelligence? Spinozahimselfconfessesit.Itisimpossibletocontrovertthistruth,whichsurroundsusandpressesusonallsides.

ArgumentoftheAtheists.

Ihave,however,knownrefractoryindividuals,whohavesaidthatthereisnoformingintelligence,andthatmotionalonehasformedallthatweseeandall that we are. They say boldly that the combination of this universe waspossible because it exists; therefore it was possible for motion of itself toarrange it.Takefourplanetsonly—Mars,Venus,Mercury,and theEarth; letusconsiderthemsolelyinthesituationsinwhichtheynoware;andletusseehowmanyprobabilitieswehave thatmotionwill bring themagain to thoserespectiveplaces.Therearebuttwenty-fourchancesinthiscombination;thatis,itisonlytwenty-fourtoonethattheseplanetswillnotbefoundinthesamesituationswithrespecttooneanother.TothesefourglobesaddthatofJupiter;and it is then only a hundred and twenty to one that Jupiter,Mars, Venus,Mercury,andourglobewillnotbeplacedinthesamepositionsinwhichwenowseethem.

Lastly,addSaturn;andtherewill thenbeonlysevenhundredandtwentychances to one against putting these planets in their present arrangement,accordingtotheirgivendistances.Itis,then,demonstratedthatonce,atleast,insevenhundredandtwentycases,chancemightplacetheseplanetsintheirpresentorder.

Then take all the secondaryplanets, all theirmotions, all thebeings that

vegetate, live, feel, think,act,onall theseglobes;youhaveonly to increasethe number of chances; multiply this number to all eternity—to what ourweaknesscallsinfinity—therewillstillbeanunitinfavoroftheformationoftheworld, such as it is, bymotion alone; therefore it is possible that, in alleternity,themotionofmatteralonehasproducedtheuniverseasitexists.Nay,this combinationmust, in eternity, of necessity happen. Thus, say they, notonly it is possible that the world is as it is by motion alone, but it wasimpossiblethatitshouldnotbesoafterinfinitecombinations.

Answer.

All this supposition seems tome to be prodigiously chimerical, for tworeasons:thefirst is, thatinthisuniversethereareintelligentbeings,andyoucannot prove it possible for motion alone to produce understanding. Thesecondis,that,byyourownconfession,thechancesareinfinitytounity,thatan intelligent forming cause produced the universe. Standing alone againstinfinity,aunitmakesbutapoorfigure.

AgainSpinozahimselfadmitsthisintelligence;itisthebasisofhissystem.Youhave not read him, but youmust read him.Whywould you go furtherthan he, and, through a foolish pride, plunge into the abyss where Spinozadarednottodescend?Areyounotawareoftheextremefollyofsayingthatitis owing to a blind cause that the square of the revolution of one planet isalwaystothesquaresoftheothersasthecubeofitsdistanceistothecubesofthe distances of the others from the common centre? Either the planets aregreatgeometricians,ortheEternalGeometricianhasarrangedtheplanets.

ButwhereistheEternalGeometrician?IsHeinoneplace,orinallplaces,withoutoccupyingspace?Iknownot.HasHearrangedallthingsofHisownsubstance?Iknownot.IsHeimmense,withoutquantityandwithoutquality?Iknownot.AllIknowis,thatwemustadoreHimandbejust.

NewObjectionofaModernAtheist.

Can it be said that the conformation of animals is according to theirnecessities? What are those necessities? Self-preservation and propagation.Now, is itastonishing that,of the infinitecombinationsproducedbychance,thoseonlyhavesurvivedwhichhadorgansadaptedfortheirnourishmentandthe continuation of their species? Must not all others necessarily haveperished?

Answer.

This argument, taken from Lucretius, is sufficiently refuted by thesensationgiventoanimalsandtheintelligencegiventoman.How,ashasjustbeen said in the preceding paragraph, should combinations produced bychance produce this sensation and this intelligence? Yes, doubtless, the

members of animals are made for all their necessities with anincomprehensible art, andyouhavenot the boldness to deny it.Youdonotmentionit.YoufeelthatyoucansaynothinginanswertothisgreatargumentwhichNaturebringsagainstyou.Thedispositionofthewingofafly,orofthefeelersofasnail,issufficienttoconfoundyou.

AnObjectionofMaupertuis.

The natural philosophers ofmodern times have done nothingmore thanextend these pretended arguments; this they have sometimes done even tominutenessandindecency.TheyhavefoundGodinthefoldsofarhinoceros'shide;theymight,withequalreason,havedeniedHisexistenceonaccountofthetortoise'sshell.

Answer.

What reasoning! The tortoise and the rhinoceros, and all the differentspecies,provealikeintheirinfinitevarietiesthesamecause,thesamedesign,thesameend,whicharepreservation,generation,anddeath.Unityisfoundinthisimmensevariety;thehideandtheshellbearequaltestimony.What!denyGod,becauseashellisnotlikeaskin!Andjournalistshavelavisheduponthiscoxcombrypraiseswhich theyhavewithheld fromNewtonandLocke,bothworshippersoftheDivinityfromthoroughexaminationandconviction!

AnotherofMaupertuis'sObjections.

Ofwhat service are beauty and fitness in the construction of a serpent?Perhaps,yousay,ithasusesofwhichweareignorant.Letusthen,atleast,besilent,andnotadmireananimalwhichweknowonlybythemischiefitdoes.

Answer.

Beyousilent,also,sinceyouknownomoreof itsutilitythanmyself;oracknowledgethat, inreptiles,everythingisadmirablyproportioned.Someofthemarevenomous;youhavebeensotoo.Theonlysubjectatpresentunderconsideration is the prodigious art which has formed serpents, quadrupeds,birds,fishes,andbipeds.Thisartisevidentenough.Youask,Whyisnottheserpentharmless?Andwhyhaveyounotbeenharmless?Whyhaveyoubeenapersecutor?which, inaphilosopher, is thegreatestofcrimes.This isquiteanotherquestion;itisthatofphysicalandmoralevil.Ithaslongbeenasked,Why are there so many serpents, and so many wicked men worse thanserpents?Iffliescouldreason,theywouldcomplaintoGodoftheexistenceofspiders; but they would, at the same time, acknowledge what MinervaconfessedtoArachneinthefable,thattheyarrangetheirwebsinawonderfulmanner.

Wecannot,then,dootherwisethanacknowledgeanineffableIntelligence,

whichSpinozahimselfadmitted.Wemustownthatitisdisplayedasmuchinthemeanest insect as in the planets.Andwith regard tomoral andphysicalevil,whatcanbedoneorsaid?Letusconsoleourselvesbytheenjoymentofphysicalandmoralgood,andadoretheEternalBeing,whohasordainedtheoneandpermittedtheother.

Onewordmoreonthistopic.Atheismistheviceofsomeintelligentmen,and superstition is the vice of fools. And what is the vice of knaves?—Hypocrisy.

SectionIII.

UnjustAccusation.—JustificationofVanini.

Formerly,whoeverwaspossessedofasecret inanyartwas indangerofpassingforasorcerer;everynewsectwaschargedwithmurderinginfantsinits mysteries; and every philosopher who departed from the jargon of theschoolswas accused of atheism by knaves and fanatics, and condemned byblockheads.

Anaxagorus dares to assert that the sun is not conducted by Apollo,mountedinachariotandfour;heiscondemnedasanatheist,andcompelledtofly.

Aristotleisaccusedofatheismbyapriest,andnotbeingpowerfulenoughto punish his accuser, he retires toChalcis.But the death of Socrates is thegreatestblotonthepageofGrecianhistory.

Aristophanes—hewhom commentators admire because hewas aGreek,forgetting that Socrates was also a Greek—Aristophanes was the first whoaccustomedtheAthenianstoregardSocratesasanatheist.

Thiscomicpoet,whoisneithercomicnorpoetical,wouldnot,amongus,have been permitted to exhibit his farces at the fair of St. Lawrence. HeappearstometobemuchlowerandmoredespicablethanPlutarchrepresentshim.LetusseewhatthewisePlutarchsaysofthisbuffoon:"ThelanguageofAristophanesbespeakshismiserablequackery;itismadeupofthelowestandmost disgusting puns; he is not even pleasing to the people; and tomen ofjudgmentandhonorhe is insupportable;hisarrogance is intolerable,andallgoodmendetesthismalignity."

This, then, is the jack-pudding whom Madame Dacier, an admirer ofSocrates,venturestoadmire!Suchwasthemanwho,indirectly,preparedthepoison by which infamous judges put to death the most virtuous man inGreece.

The tanners, cobblers, and seamstresses of Athens applauded a farce inwhichSocrateswasrepresentedliftedintheairinahamper,announcingthat

therewasnoGod,andboastingofhavingstolenacloakwhilehewasteachingphilosophy. A whole people, whose government sanctioned such infamouslicences,welldeservedwhathashappened to them, tobecomeslaves to theRomans,and,subsequently,totheTurks.TheRussians,whomtheGreeksofoldwouldhavecalledbarbarians,wouldneitherhavepoisonedSocrates,norhavecondemnedAlcibiadestodeath.

We pass over the ages between theRoman commonwealth and our owntimes. The Romans, much more wise than the Greeks, never persecuted aphilosopher for his opinions.Not so the barbarous nationswhich succeededtheRomanEmpire.NosoonerdidtheEmperorFrederickII.begintoquarrelwiththepopes,thanhewasaccusedofbeinganatheist,andbeingtheauthorof the book of "The Three Impostors," conjointly with his chancellor DeVincis.

Doesourhigh-chancellor,del'Hôpital,declareagainstpersecution?Heisimmediatelychargedwithatheism—"Homodoctus,sedvetusatheus."TherewasaJesuit,asmuchbeneathAristophanesasAristophanesisbeneathHomer—a wretch, whose name has become ridiculous even among fanatics—theJesuitGarasse,whofoundatheistseverywhere.Hebestowsthenameuponallwhoaretheobjectsofhisvirulence.HecallsTheodoreBezaanatheist.Itwashe,too,thatledthepublicintoerrorconcerningVanini.

TheunfortunateendofVaninidoesnotexciteourpityandindignationlikethat of Socrates, because Vanini was only a foreign pedant, without merit;however, Vanini was not, as was pretended, an atheist; he was quite thecontrary.

Hewas a poorNeapolitan priest, a theologian and preacher by trade, anoutrageous disputer on quiddities and universals, and "utrum chimærabombinans in vacuo possit comedere secundas intentiones." But there wasnothing inhimtending toatheism.HisnotionofGodis thatof thesoundestandmostapprovedtheology:"Godisthebeginningandtheend,thefatherofboth,withoutneedofeither,eternalwithouttime,innooneplace,yetpresenteverywhere.Tohimthereisneitherpastnorfuture;heiswithinandwithouteverything; he has created all, and governs all; he is immutable, infinitewithoutparts;hispowerishiswill."Thisisnotveryphilosophical,butitisthemostapprovedtheology.

Vaninipridedhimselfon revivingPlato's fine idea,adoptedbyAverroës,thatGodhadcreatedachainofbeings fromthesmallest to thegreatest, thelast link ofwhichwas attached to his eternal throne; an ideamore sublimethantrue,butasdistantfromatheismasbeingfromnothing.

He travelled to seek his fortune and to dispute; but, unfortunately,disputationleadsnottofortune;amanmakeshimselfasmanyirreconcilable

enemiesashefindsmenoflearningorofpedantrytoargueagainst.Vanini'sill-fortunehadnoothersource.Hisheatandrudenessindisputationprocuredhimthehatredofsometheologians;andhavingquarrelledwithoneFranconi,thisFranconi,thefriendofhisenemies,chargedhimwithbeinganatheistandteachingatheism.

Franconi, aided by some witnesses, had the barbarity, when confrontedwith the accused, to maintain what he had advanced. Vanini, on the stool,beingaskedwhathethoughtoftheexistenceofaGod,answeredthathe,withtheChurch,adoredaGod in threepersons.Takingastrawfromtheground,"This," said he, "is sufficient to prove that there is a creator." He thendeliveredaveryfinediscourseonvegetationandmotion,andthenecessityofaSupremeBeing,withoutwhomtherecouldbeneithermotionnorvegetation.

ThepresidentGrammont,whowasthenatToulouse,repeatsthisdiscoursein his history of France, now so little known; and the same Grammont,through some unaccountable prejudice, asserts that Vanini said all this"throughvanity,orthroughfear,ratherthanfrominwardconviction."

Onwhatcouldthisatrocious,rashjudgmentofthepresidentbefounded?Itis evident, from Vanini's answer, that he could not but be acquitted of thecharge of atheism. But what followed? This unfortunate foreign priest alsodabbledinmedicine.Therewasfoundinhishousealargelivetoad,whichhekeptinavesselofwater;hewasforthwithaccusedofbeingasorcerer.Itwasmaintainedthatthistoadwasthegodwhichheadored.Animpiousmeaningwasattributedtoseveralpassagesofhisbooks,athingwhichisbothcommonandeasy,bytakingobjectionsforanswers,givingsomebadsensetoaloosephrase, and perverting an innocent expression. At last, the faction whichoppressedhimforcedfromhisjudgesthesentencewhichcondemnedhimtodie.

Inordertojustifythisexecutionitwasnecessarytochargetheunfortunatemanwith themost enormous of crimes. The grey friar—the very grey friarMarsenne,wassobesottedastopublishthat"VaninisetoutfromNaples,withtwelveofhisapostles,toconvertthewholeworldtoatheism."Whatapitifultale!Howshouldapoorpriesthave twelvemen inhispay?HowshouldhepersuadetwelveNeapolitanstotravelatgreatexpense,inordertospreadthisrevoltingdoctrineat theperilof their lives?Wouldakinghimselfhave it inhispowertopaytwelvepreachersofatheism?NoonebeforeFatherMarsennehad advanced so enormous an absurdity. But after him it was repeated; thejournals andhistoricaldictionaries caught it, and theworld,which loves theextraordinary,hasbelievedthefablewithoutexamination.

EvenBayle, in hismiscellaneous thoughts (PenséesDiverses), speaks ofVaniniasofanatheist.Heciteshisexampleinsupportofhisparadox,that"a

societyofatheistsmightexist."HeassuresusthatVaniniwasamanofveryregular morals, and that he was a martyr to his philosophical opinions. Onboththesepointsheisequallymistaken.Vaniniinformsusinhis"Dialogues,"writteninimitationofErasmus,thathehadamistressnamedIsabel.Hewasasfreeinhiswritingsasinhisconduct;buthewasnotanatheist.

Acenturyafterhisdeath,thelearnedLacroze,andhewhotookthenameofPhilaletes, endeavored to justifyhim.Butasnoonecaresanythingaboutthe memory of an unfortunate Neapolitan, scarcely anyone has read theseapologies.

The JesuitHardouin,more learned and no less rash thanGarasse, in hisbookentitled"AtheiDetecti"chargestheDescartes,theArnaulds,thePascals,theMalebranches,withatheism.Happily,Vanini'sfatewasnottheirs.

SectionIV.

Awordonthequestioninmorals,agitatedbyBayle,"Whetherasocietyofatheistscanexist."Here letus firstobserve theenormousself-contradictionsof men in disputation. Those who have been most violent in opposing theopinion of Bayle, those who have denied with the greatest virulence thepossibility of a society of atheists, are the very men who have sincemaintained with equal ardor that atheism is the religion of the Chinesegovernment.

They havemost assuredly beenmistaken concerning the government ofChina; theyhadonly to read theedictsof theemperorsof thatvastcountry,andtheywouldhaveseenthatthoseedictsaresermons,inwhichaSupremeBeing—governing,avenging,andrewarding—iscontinuallyspokenof.

But, at the same time, they are no less deceived respecting theimpossibility of a society of atheists; nor can I conceive how Bayle couldforgetastrikinginstancewhichmighthaverenderedhiscausevictorious.

Inwhatdoestheapparentimpossibilityofasocietyofatheistsconsist?Inthis:Itisjudgedthatmenwithoutsomerestraintcouldnotlivetogether;thatlawshavenopoweragainstsecretcrimes;andthatitisnecessarytohaveanavengingGod—punishing,inthisworldorinthenext,suchasescapehumanjustice.

ThelawsofMoses,itistrue,didnotteachthedoctrineofalifetocome,didnot threatenwithchastisementsafterdeath,noreven teach theprimitiveJews the immortality of the soul; but the Jews, far from being atheists, farfrom believing that they could elude the divine vengeance, were the mostreligiousofmen.Theybelievednotonly in theexistenceofaneternalGod,butthatHewasalwayspresentamongthem;theytrembledlesttheyshouldbepunishedinthemselves,theirwives,theirchildren,theirposteritytothefourth

generation.Thiswasaverypowerfulcheck.

ButamongtheGentilesvarioussectshadnorestraint;theSkepticsdoubtedof everything; the Academics suspended their judgment on everything; theEpicureans were persuaded that the Divinity could not meddle in humanaffairs,andintheirheartsadmittednoDivinity.Theywereconvincedthatthesoulisnotasubstance,butafacultywhichisbornandperisheswiththebody;consequently,theyhadnorestraintbutthatofmoralityandhonor.TheRomansenatorsandknightswereinrealityatheists;fortomenwhoneitherfearednorhopedanythingfromthem,thegodscouldnotexist.TheRomansenate,then,inthetimeofCæsarandCicero,wasinfactanassemblyofatheists.

Thatgreatorator,inhisorationforCluentius,saystothewholeassembledsenate:"Whatdoeshe losebydeath?Werejectall thesilly fablesabout theinfernal regions. What, then, can death take from him? Nothing but thesusceptibilityofsorrow."

DoesnotCæsar,wishingtosavethelifeofhisfriendCatiline,threatenedbythesameCicero,objectthattoputacriminaltodeathisnottopunishhim—thatdeath isnothing—that it isbut the terminationofour ills—amomentratherfortunatethancalamitous?DidnotCiceroandthewholesenateyieldtothis reasoning?The conquerors and legislators of all the knownworld then,evidently, formed a society of men who feared nothing from the gods, butwererealatheists.

Baylenext examineswhether idolatry ismoredangerous than atheism—whether it is a greater crime not to believe in the Divinity than to haveunworthynotionsofit;inthishethinkswithPlutarch—thatitisbettertohaveno opinion than a bad opinion; but, without offence to Plutarch, it wasinfinitelybetter that theGreeksshouldfearCeres,Neptune,andJupiter thanthat they should fear nothing at all. It is clear that the sanctity of oaths isnecessary;andthatthosearemoretobetrustedwhothinkafalseoathwillbepunished, than thosewho think theymay takea falseoathwith impunity. Itcannotbedoubtedthat,inanorganizedsociety,itisbettertohaveevenabadreligionthannoreligionatall.

ItappearsthenthatBayleshouldratherhaveexaminedwhetheratheismorfanaticismisthemostdangerous.Fanaticismiscertainlyathousandtimesthemosttobedreaded;foratheisminspiresnosanguinarypassion,butfanaticismdoes; atheism does not oppose crime, but fanaticism prompts to itscommission.Let us suppose,with the author of the "CommentariumReturnGallicarum," that the High-Chancellor de l'Hôpital was an atheist; hemadenone but wise laws; he recommended only moderation and concord. ThemassacresofSt.Bartholomewwerecommittedbyfanatics.Hobbespassedforanatheist;yethe leda lifeof innocenceandquiet,while the fanaticsofhis

timedelugedEngland,Scotland,andIrelandwithblood.Spinozawasnotonlyan atheist—he taught atheism; but assuredly he had no part in the judicialassassinationofBarneveldt;norwasithewhotoreinpiecesthetwobrothersDeWitt,andatethemoffthegridiron.

Atheistsare,forthemostpart,menoflearning,boldbutbewildered,whoreasonilland,unabletocomprehendthecreation,theoriginofevil,andotherdifficulties, have recourse to the hypothesis of the eternity of things and ofnecessity.

Theambitiousandthevoluptuoushavebutlittletimetoreason;theyhaveotheroccupationsthanthatofcomparingLucretiuswithSocrates.Suchisthecasewithusandourtime.

It was otherwise with the Roman senate, which was composed almostentirely of theoretical and practical atheists, that is, believing neither inProvidencenorinafuturestate;thissenatewasanassemblyofphilosophers,menofpleasure,andambitiousmen,whowereallverydangerous,andwhoruinedthecommonwealth.Undertheemperors,Epicureanismprevailed.TheatheistsofthesenatehadbeenfactiousinthetimesofSullaandofCæsar;inthoseofAugustusandTiberius,theywereatheisticalslaves.

I should not wish to come in the way of an atheistical prince, whoseinterest it shouldbe tohavemepounded in amortar; I amquite sure that Ishould be so pounded. Were I a sovereign, I would not have to do withatheisticalcourtiers,whoseinterestitwastopoisonme;Ishouldbeunderthenecessityof takinganantidote everyday. It is thenabsolutelynecessary forprinces and people that the idea of a Supreme Being—creating, governing,rewarding,andpunishing—beprofoundlyengravedontheirminds.

There are, nations of atheists, says Bayle in his "Thoughts on Comets."TheKaffirs, theHottentots,andmanyothersmallpopulations,havenogod;theyneitheraffirmnordenythatthereisone;theyhaveneverheardofHim;tellthemthatthereisone,andtheywilleasilybelieveit;tellthemthatallisdone by the nature of things, and they will believe you just the same. Topretend that they are atheistswould be like saying they are anti-Cartesians.They are neither for Descartes nor against him; they are no more thanchildren;achildisneitheratheistnordeist;heisnothing.

From all this, what conclusion is to be drawn? That atheism is a mostperniciousmonsterinthosewhogovern;thatitisthesameinthemenoftheircabinet, since it may extend itself from the cabinet to those in office; that,althoughlesstobedreadedthanfanaticism,itisalmostalwaysfataltovirtue.Andespecially, let itbeadded, that therearefeweratheistsnowthanever—since philosophers have become persuaded that there is no vegetative beingwithoutagerm,nogermwithoutadesign,etc.,andthatthecorninourfields

doesnotspringfromrottenness.

Unphilosophical geometricians have rejected final causes, but truephilosophers admit them; and, as it is elsewhere observed, a catechistannouncesGodtochildren,andNewtondemonstratesHimtothewise.

If therebeatheists,whoare toblame?Whobut themercenary tyrantsofoursouls,who,whiledisgustinguswiththeirknavery,urgesomeweakspiritstodenytheGodwhomsuchmonstersdishonor?Howoftenhavethepeople'sbloodsuckersforcedoverburdenedcitizenstorevoltagainsttheking!

Menwhohavefattenedonoursubstance,cryouttous:"Bepersuadedthatan ass spoke; believe that a fish swallowed aman, and threw him up threedaysafter,safeandsound,ontheshore;doubtnotthattheGodoftheuniverseordered one Jewish prophet to eat excrement, and another to buy twoprostitutes,andhavebastardsbythem;"sucharethewordsputintothemouthof the God of purity and truth! Believe a hundred things either visiblyabominable ormathematically impossible; otherwise theGod ofMercywillburn you in hell-fire, not only for millions of millions of ages, but for alleternity,whetheryouhaveabodyorhavenotabody.

Thesebrutalabsurditiesarerevoltingtorashandweakminds,aswellastofirmandwiseones.Theysay:"OurteachersrepresentGodtousasthemostinsensate and barbarous of all beings; therefore, there is noGod."But theyoughttosay,"OurteachersrepresentGodasfuriousandridiculous,thereforeGodisthereverseofwhattheydescribeHim;HeisaswiseandgoodastheysayHeisfoolishandwicked."Thusdothewisedecide.But,ifafanatichearsthem, he denounces them to a magistrate—a sort of priest's officer, whichofficer has them burned alive, thinking that he is therein imitating andavengingtheDivineMajestywhichheinsults.

ATHEIST.

SectionI.

TherewereoncemanyatheistsamongtheChristians;theyarenowmuchfewer. It at first appears to be a paradox, but examination proves it to be atruth,thattheologyoftenthrewmen'smindsintoatheism,untilphilosophyatlengthdrewthemoutof it. Itmust indeedhavebeenpardonable todoubtoftheDivinity,whenHisonlyannouncersdisputedonHisnature.NearlyallthefirstFathersoftheChurchmadeGodcorporeal,andothers,afterthem,givingHimnoextent, lodgedHiminapartofheaven.According tosome,Hehadcreated theworld inTime;while, according to others,Hehad createdTime

itself.SomegaveHimaSonliketoHimself;otherswouldnotgrantthattheSonwas like to theFather. Itwas also disputed inwhatway a third personproceededfromtheothertwo.

ItwasagitatedwhethertheSonhadbeen,whileonearth,composedoftwopersons.So that thequestionundesignedlybecame,whether therewere fivepersonsintheDivinity—threeinheavenandtwoforJesusChristuponearth;or four persons, reckoning Christ upon earth as only one; or three persons,consideringChrist only asGod. Therewere disputes aboutHismother,Hisdescent intohell and into limbo; themanner inwhich thebodyof theGod-manwas eaten, and the blood of theGod-manwas drunk; on grace; on thesaints,andathousandothermatters.WhentheconfidantsoftheDivinitywereseensomuchatvarianceamongthemselvesanathematizingoneanotherfromagetoage,butallagreeinginanimmoderatethirstforrichesandgrandeur—while, on the other hand,were beheld the prodigious number of crimes andmiserieswhichafflictedtheearth,andofwhichmanywerecausedbytheverydisputesoftheseteachersofsouls—itmustbeconfessedthatitwasallowableforrationalmentodoubttheexistenceofabeingsostrangelyannounced,andformenofsensetoimaginethataGod,whocouldofHisownfreewillmakesomanybeingsmiserable,didnotexist.

Suppose, for example, a natural philosopher of the fifteenth centuryreading thesewords in "St. Thomas'sDream": "Virtus cœli, loco spermatis,sufficit cum elementis et putrefactione ad generationem animaliumimperfectorum.""Thevirtueofheaven insteadofseed is sufficient,with theelements and putrefaction, for the generation of imperfect animals." Ourphilosopher would reason thus: "If corruption suffices with the elements toproduceunformedanimals,itwouldappearthatalittlemorecorruption,witha littlemoreheat,wouldalsoproduceanimalsmorecomplete.Thevirtueofheaven is here no other than the virtue of nature. I shall then think, withEpicurus and St. Thomas, thatmenmay have sprung from the slime of theearthandtheraysofthesun—anobleorigin,too,forbeingssowretchedandsowicked.WhyshouldIadmitacreatingGod,presentedtomeundersomanycontradictory and revolting aspects?" But at length physics arose, and withthem philosophy. Then it was clearly discovered that the mud of the Nileproducednotasingleinsect,norasingleearofcorn,andmenwerefoundtoacknowledge throughout, germs, relations, means, and an astonishingcorrespondenceamongallbeings.Theparticlesof lighthavebeen followed,which go from the sun to enlighten the globe and the ring of Saturn, at thedistanceofthreehundredmillionsofleagues;then,comingtotheearth,formtwooppositeanglesintheeyeoftheminutestinsect,andpaintallnatureonitsretina.Aphilosopherwasgiven to theworldwhodiscovered thesimpleandsublime lawsbywhich thecelestialglobesmove in the immensityof space.Thus the work of the universe, now that it is better known, bespeaks a

workman, and so many never-varying laws announce a lawgiver. Soundphilosophy, therefore, has destroyed atheism, to which obscure theologyfurnishedweaponsofdefence.

Butoneresourcewasleftforthesmallnumberofdifficultminds,which,beingmore forcibly struck by the pretended injustices of a Supreme Beingthan by hiswisdom,were obstinate in denying this firstmover. Nature hasexisted from all eternity; everything in nature is in motion, thereforeeverythinginitcontinuallychanges.Andifeverythingisforeverchanging,allpossiblecombinationsmusttakeplace;thereforethepresentcombinationsofall thingsmayhavebeen theeffectof thiseternalmotionandchangealone.Takesixdice,anditis46,655toonethatyoudonotthrowsixtimessix.Butstill thereis thatonechancein46,656.So, intheinfinityofages,anyoneoftheinfinitenumberofcombinations,asthatofthepresentarrangementoftheuniverse,isnotimpossible.

Minds,otherwiserational,havebeenmisledbythesearguments;buttheyhavenotconsideredthatthereisinfinityagainstthem,andthattherecertainlyisnotinfinityagainst theexistenceofGod.Theyshould,moreover,considerthat if everything were changing, the smallest things could not remainunchanged,astheyhavesolongdone.Theyhaveatleastnoreasontoadvancewhynewspeciesarenotformedeveryday.Onthecontrary,itisveryprobablethat a powerful hand, superior to these continual changes, keeps all specieswithin the bounds it, has prescribed them. Thus the philosopher, whoacknowledges a God, has a number of probabilities on his side, while theatheisthasonlydoubts.

ItisevidentthatinmoralsitismuchbettertoacknowledgeaGodthannotto admit one. It is certainly to the interest of allmen that there shouldbe aDivinitytopunishwhathuman,justicecannotrepress;butitisalsoclearthatitwerebetter to acknowledgenoGod than toworship abarbarousone, andofferHimhumanvictims,assomanynationshavedone.

Wehaveonestrikingexample,whichplacesthistruthbeyondadoubt.TheJews,underMoses,hadnoideaoftheimmortalityofthesoul,norofafuturestate. Their lawgiver announced to them, from God, only rewards andpunishmentspurelytemporal;they,therefore,hadonlythislifetoprovidefor.Moses commands theLevites tokill twenty-three thousandof their brethrenfor having had a golden or gilded calf. On another occasion twenty-fourthousand of them are massacred for having had commerce with the youngwomenofthecountry;andtwelvethousandarestruckdeadbecausesomefewof themhadwished to support theark,whichwasnear falling. Itmay,withperfect reverence for the decrees of Providence, be affirmed, humanlyspeaking, that itwould have beenmuch better for these fifty-nine thousandmen,whobelievedinnofuturestate,tohavebeenabsoluteatheistsandhave

lived, than to have been massacred in the name of the God whom theyacknowledged.

ItisquitecertainthatatheismisnottaughtintheschoolsofthelearnedofChina, but many of those learned men are atheists, for they are indifferentphilosophers.NowitwouldundoubtedlybebettertolivewiththematPekin,enjoyingthemildnessoftheirmannersandtheirlaws,thantobeatGoa,liableto groan in irons, in the prisons of the inquisition, until brought out in abrimstone-coloredgarment,variegatedwithdevils,toperishintheflames.

Theywhohavemaintained thatasocietyofatheistsmayexisthave thenbeenright,foritislawsthatformsociety,andtheseatheists,beingmoreoverphilosophers,may lead averywise andhappy life under the shadeof thoselaws.Theywillcertainlyliveinsocietymoreeasilythansuperstitiousfanatics.PeopleonetownwithEpicureanssuchasSimonides,Protagoras,DesBarreux,Spinoza; and another with Jansenists andMolinists. In which do you thinktherewillbethemostquarrelsandtumults?Atheism,consideringitonlywithrelation to this life,wouldbeverydangerousamongaferociouspeople,andfalseideasoftheDivinitywouldbenolesspernicious.Mostofthegreatmenofthisworldliveasiftheywereatheists.EverymanwhohaslivedwithhiseyesopenknowsthattheknowledgeofaGod,Hispresence,andHisjustice,has not the slightest influence over the wars, the treaties, the objects ofambition, interest or pleasure, in the pursuit of which they are whollyoccupied.Yetwedonotsee that theygrosslyviolate therulesestablishedinsociety.Itismuchmoreagreeabletopassourlivesamongthemthanamongthe superstitious and fanatical. I do, it is true, expectmore justice fromonewhobelieves in aGod than fromonewhohas no suchbelief; but from thesuperstitious I look only for bitterness and persecution. Atheism andfanaticismaretwomonsterswhichmaytearsocietyinpieces;buttheatheistpreserves his reason, which checks his propensity to mischief, while thefanaticisundertheinfluenceofamadnesswhichisconstantlyurginghimon.

SectionII.

InEngland,aseverywhereelse,therehavebeen,andtherestillare,manyatheistsbyprinciple; for there arenonebutyoung, inexperiencedpreachers,veryill-informedofwhatpassesintheworld,whoaffirmthattherecannotbeatheists. I have known some in France, who were quite good naturalphilosophers;andhave,Iown,beenverymuchsurprisedthatmenwhocouldso ably develop the secret springs of nature should obstinately refuse toacknowledgethehandwhichsoevidentlyputsthosespringsinaction.

Itappearstomethatoneoftheprincipleswhichleadsthemtomaterialismis that they believe in the plentitude and infinity of the universe, and theeternity of matter. It must be this which misleads them, for almost all the

Newtonianswhom Ihavemet admit thevoid and the terminationofmatter,andconsequentlyadmitaGod.

Indeed, if matter be infinite, as so many philosophers, even includingDescartes,pretend,ithasofitselfoneoftheattributesoftheSupremeBeing:if a void be impossible, matter exists of necessity; it has existed from alleternity.Withtheseprinciples,therefore,wemaydispensewithGod,creating,modifying,andpreservingmatter.

IamawarethatDescartes,andmostoftheschoolswhichhavebelievedintheplenum,andtheinfinityofmatter,haveneverthelessadmittedaGod;butthisisonlybecausemenscarcelyeverreasonoractupontheirprinciples.

Hadmenreasoned,consequently,EpicurusandhisapostleLucretiusmusthavebeenthemostreligiousassertorsoftheProvidencewhichtheycombated;forwhentheyadmittedthevoidandtheterminationofmatter,atruthofwhichtheyhadonlyanimperfectglimpse,itnecessarilyfollowedthatmatterwasthebeing of necessity, existing by itself, since it was not indefinite. They had,therefore, in theirownphilosophy,andintheirowndespite,ademonstrationthat there is a Supreme Being, necessary, infinite, the fabricator of theuniverse.Newton's philosophy,which admits and proves the void and finitematter,alsodemonstrativelyprovestheexistenceofaGod.

ThusIregardtruephilosophersastheapostlesoftheDivinity.Eachclassofmenrequiresitsparticularones;aparishcatechisttellschildrenthatthereisaGod,butNewtonprovesittothewise.

In London, under Charles II. after Cromwell's wars, as at Paris underHenryIV.afterthewaroftheGuises,peopletookgreatprideinbeingatheists;having passed from the excess of cruelty to that of pleasure, and corruptedtheirminds successively bywar and by voluptuousness, they reasoned veryindifferently.SincethenthemorenaturehasbeenstudiedthebetteritsAuthorhasbeenknown.

OnethingIwillventuretobelieve,whichis,thatofallreligions,theismisthemostwidelyspreadintheworld.ItistheprevailingreligionofChina;itisthatofthewiseamongtheMahometans;and,amongChristianphilosophers,eightoutoftenareofthesameopinion.Ithaspenetratedevenintotheschoolsof theology, into the cloisters, into the conclave; it is a sort of sectwithoutassociation, without worship, without ceremonies, without disputes, andwithoutzeal,spreadthroughtheworldwithouthavingbeenpreached.Theism,like Judaism, is to be found amidst all religions; but it is singular that thelatter, which is the extreme of superstition, abhorred by the people andcontemnedbythewise,iseverywheretoleratedformoney;whiletheformer,whichistheoppositeofsuperstition,unknowntothepeople,andembracedbyphilosophers alone, is publicly exercised nowhere but inChina.There is no

countryinEuropewheretherearemoretheiststhaninEngland.Somepersonsaskwhethertheyhaveareligionornot.

Therearetwosortsoftheists.TheonesortthinkthatGodmadetheworldwithoutgivingmanrulesforgoodandevil.Itisclearthattheseshouldhavenoothernamethanthatofphilosophers.

TheothersbelievethatGodgavetomananaturallaw.These,itiscertain,have a religion, though they have no external worship. They are, withreferencetotheChristianreligion,peacefulenemies,whichshecarriesinherbosom; they renouncewithout any design of destroying her.All other sectsdesire to predominate, like political bodies, which seek to feed on thesubstance of others, and rise upon their ruin; theism has always lain quiet.Theistshaveneverbeenfoundcaballinginanystate.

TherewasinLondonasocietyoftheists,whoforsometimecontinuedtomeet together. They had a small book of their laws, in which religion, onwhich so many ponderous volumes have been written, occupied only twopages.Theirprincipalaxiomwasthis:"Moralityisthesameamongallmen;therefore it comes fromGod.Worship isvarious; therefore it is theworkofman."

Thesecondaxiomwas:"Men,beingallbrethren,andacknowledgingthesameGod,itisexecrablethatbrethrenshouldpersecutebrethren,becausetheytestify their love for the common father in a differentmanner. Indeed," saidthey,"whatuprightmanwouldkillhiselderbrotherbecauseoneofthemhadsaluted their father after the Chinese and the other after the Dutch fashion,especially while it was undecided in what way the father wished theirreverencetobemadetohim?Surelyhewhoshouldactthuswouldbeabadbrotherratherthanagoodson."

I amwell aware that thesemaxims lead directly to "the abominable andexecrabledogmaoftoleration";butIdonomorethansimplyrelatethefact.Iam very careful not to become a controversialist. It must, however, beadmittedthatifthedifferentsectsintowhichChristianshavebeendividedhadpossessed thismoderation,Christianitywould have beendisturbedby fewerdisorders,shakenbyfewerrevolutions,andstainedwithlessblood.

Let us pity the theists for combating our holy revelation. But whencecomesitthatsomanyCalvinists,Lutherans,Anabaptists,Nestorians,Arians,partisans of Rome, and enemies of Rome, have been so sanguinary, sobarbarous,andsomiserable,nowpersecuting,nowpersecuted?It isbecausetheyhavebeenthemultitude.Whenceis it that theists, thoughinerror,havenever done harm to mankind? Because they have been philosophers. TheChristian religion has cost the human species seventeen millions of men,reckoningonlyonemillionpercentury,whohaveperishedeitherbythehands

oftheordinaryexecutioner,orbythoseofexecutionerspaidandledtobattle—allforthesalvationofsoulsandthegreatergloryofGod.

Ihaveheardmenexpressastonishmentthatareligionsomoderate,andsoapparentlyconformable to reason,as theism,hasnotbeenspreadamong thepeople.Among the great and little vulgarmaybe foundpious herb-women,Molinist duchesses, scrupulous seamstresseswhowould go to the stake foranabaptism, devout hackney-coachmen, most determined in the cause ofLuther or of Arius, but no theists; for theism cannot so much be called areligionasasystemofphilosophy,andthevulgar,whethergreatorlittle,arenotphilosophers.

Locke was a declared theist. I was astonished to find, in that greatphilosopher's chapter on innate ideas, that men have all different ideas ofjustice.Weresuchthecase,moralitywouldnolongerbethesame;thevoiceofGodwouldnotbeheardbyman;naturalreligionwouldbeatanend.Iamwilling to believe, with him, that there are nations in which men eat theirfathers,andwheretoliewithaneighbor'swifeistodohimafriendlyoffice;butifthisbetrueitdoesnotprovethatthelaw,"Donotuntoothersthatwhichyouwould not have others do unto you," is not general. For if a father beeaten, it iswhenhe has grownold, is too feeble to crawl along, andwouldotherwisebeeatenbytheenemy.And,Iask,whatfatherwouldnotfurnishagoodmealtohissonratherthantotheenemiesofhisnation?Besides,hewhoeatshisfatherhopesthatheinturnshallbeeatenbyhischildren.

Ifaserviceberenderedtoaneighborbylyingwithhiswife,itiswhenhecannothimselfhaveachild,andisdesirousofhavingone;otherwisehewouldbeveryangry.Inboththesecases,andinallothers,thenaturallaw,"Donottoanotherthatwhichyouwouldnothaveanotherdotoyou,"remainsunbroken.Alltheotherrules,sodifferentandsovaried,maybereferredtothis.When,therefore,thewisemetaphysician,Locke,saysthatmenhavenoinnateideas,that they have different ideas of justice and injustice, he assuredly does notmeantoassertthatGodhasnotgiventoallmenthatinstinctiveself-lovebywhichtheyareofnecessityguided.

ATOMS.

Epicurus,equallygreatasagenius,andrespectableinhismorals;andafterhimLucretius,whoforcedtheLatinlanguagetoexpressphilosophicalideas,and—to thegreat admirationofRome—toexpress them inverse—Epicurusand Lucretius, I say, admitted atoms and the void. Gassendi supported thisdoctrine,andNewtondemonstratedit.InvaindidaremnantofCartesianism

stillcombatfortheplenum;invaindidLeibnitz,whohadatfirstadoptedtherational system of Epicurus, Lucretius, Gassendi, and Newton, change hisopinion respecting the void after he had embroiled himself with his masterNewton.Theplenumisnowregardedasachimera.

InthisEpicurusandLucretiusappeartohavebeentruephilosophers,andtheirintermediaries,whohavebeensomuchridiculed,werenootherthantheunresisting space in whichNewton has demonstrated that the planetsmoveround their orbits in times proportioned to their areas. Thus it was notEpicurus' intermediaries, but his opponents, that were ridiculous. But whenEpicurusafterwardstellsusthathisatomsdeclinedinthevoidbychance;thatthisdeclinationformedmenandanimalsbychance;thattheeyeswereplacedintheupperpartoftheheadandthefeetattheendofthelegsbychance;thatears were not given to hear, but that the declination of atoms havingfortuitouslycomposedears,menfortuitouslymadeuseofthemtohearwith—thismadness,calledphysics,hasbeenveryjustlyturnedintoridicule.

Soundphilosophy, then,has longdistinguishedwhat isgood inEpicurusand Lucretius, from their chimeras, founded on imagination and ignorance.Themostsubmissivemindshaveadoptedthedoctrineofcreationintime,andthe most daring have admitted that of creation before all time. Some havereceived with faith a universe produced from nothing; others, unable tocomprehend this doctrine in physics, have believed that all beings wereemanations from theGreat—theSupremeandUniversalBeing;but all haverejected the fortuitous concurrence of atoms; all have acknowledged thatchanceisawordwithoutmeaning.Whatwecallchancecanbenootherthanthe unknown cause of a known effect. Whence comes it then, thatphilosophers are still accused of thinking that the stupendous andindescribable arrangement of the universe is a production of the fortuitousconcurrenceofatoms—aneffectofchance?NeitherSpinozanoranyoneelsehasadvancedthisabsurdity.

YetthesonofthegreatRacinesays,inhispoemonReligion:

Otoi!quifollementfaistonDieuduhasard,

Viensmedéveloppercenidqu'avectantd'art,

Aumêmeordretoujoursarchitectefidèle,

Al'aidedesonbeemaçonnel'hirondelle;

Comment,pourélevercehardibâtiment,

A-t-elleenlebroyantarrondisonciment?

Ohye,whoraiseCreationoutofchance,

AserstLucretiusfromth'atomicdance!

Comeviewwithmetheswallow'scuriousnest,

Wherebeauty,art,andorder,shineconfessed.

Howcouldrudechance,foreverdarkandblind,

Presidewithinthelittlebuilder'smind?

Couldshe,withaccidentsunnumberedcrowned,

Itsmassconcentrate,anditsstructureround!

Theselinesareassuredlythrownaway.NoonemakeschancehisGod;noonehassaid thatwhilea swallow"tempershisclay, it takes the formofhisabodeby chance."On the contrary, it is said that "hemakeshisnest by thelawsofnecessity,"whichistheoppositeofchance.

Theonlyquestionnowagitatedis,whethertheauthorofnaturehasformedprimordialpartsunsusceptibleofdivision,orifalliscontinuallydividingandchanging into other elements. The first system seems to account foreverything,andthesecond,hithertoatleast,fornothing.

Ifthefirstelementsofthingswerenotindestructibleoneelementmightatlastswallowupall therest,andchange theminto itsownsubstance.Hence,perhapsitwasthatEmpedoclesimaginedthateverythingcamefromfire,andwouldbedestroyedbyfire.

Thisquestionofatoms involvesanother, thatof thedivisibilityofmatterad infinitum.Thewordatomsignifieswithoutparts—not tobedivided.Youdivideitinthought,forifyouweretodivideitinrealityitwouldnolongerbeanatom.

Youmaydivide a grainof gold into eighteenmillionsof visible parts; agrainofcopperdissolvedinspiritofsalammoniachasexhibitedupwardsoftwenty-twothousandparts;butwhenyouhavearrivedatthelastelementtheatom escapes the microscope, and you can divide no further except inimagination.

The infinite divisibility of atoms is like some propositions in geometry.Youmaypassaninfinityofcurvesbetweenacircleanditstangent,supposingthe circle and the tangent to be lineswithout breadth; but there are no suchlinesinnature.

Youlikewiseestablishthatasymptoteswillapproachoneanotherwithoutevermeeting;butitisunderthesuppositionthattheyarelineshavinglengthwithoutbreadth—thingswhichhaveonlyaspeculativeexistence.

So, also,we representunitybya line, anddivide this lineand thisunityintoasmanyfractionsasyouplease;butthisinfinityoffractionswillneverbeanyotherthanourunityandourline.

Itisnotstrictlydemonstratedthatatomsareindivisible,butitappearsthattheyarenotdividedbythelawsofnature.

AVARICE.

Avarities,amorhabendi—desireofhaving,avidity,covetousness.Properlyspeaking, avarice is thedesire of accumulating,whether in grain,movables,money, or curiosities. There were avaricious men long before coin wasinvented.

Wedonotcallamanavariciouswhohasfourandtwentycoachhorses,yetwill not lend one to his friend: or who, having two thousand bottles ofBurgundyinhiscellar,willnotsendyouhalfadozen,whenheknowsyoutobe in want of them. If he show you a hundred thousand crowns' worth ofdiamonds you do not think of asking him to present you with one worthtwentylivres;youconsiderhimasamanofgreatmagnificence,butnotatallavaricious.

Hewho in finance, inarmycontracts,andgreatundertakingsgained twomillionseachyear,andwho,whenpossessedofforty-threemillions,besideshis houses at Paris and his movables, expended fifty thousand crowns perannumforhistable,andsometimeslentmoneytonoblemenatfivepercent,interest,didnotpass, in themindsof thepeople, for anavariciousman.Hehad, however, all his life burned with the thirst of gain; the demon ofcovetousnesswasperpetuallytormentinghim;hecontinuedtoaccumulatetothelastdayofhislife.Thispassion,whichwasconstantlygratified,hasneverbeencalledavarice.Hedidnotexpendatenthpartofhisincome,yethehadthereputationofagenerousman,toofondofsplendor.

A father of a family who, with an income of twenty thousand livres,expendsonlyfiveorsix,andaccumulateshissavingstoportionhischildren,has the reputation among his neighbors of being avaricious,mean, stingy, aniggard,amiser,agrip-farthing;andeveryabusiveepithetthatcanbethoughtofisbestoweduponhim.

NeverthelessthisgoodcitizenismuchmoretobehonoredthantheCrœsusIhavejustmentioned;heexpendsthreetimesasmuchinproportion.Butthecauseofthegreatdifferencebetweentheirreputationsisthis:

Menhate the individualwhom theycall avariciousonlybecause there isnothing to be gained by him. The physician, the apothecary, the wine-merchant,thedraper,thegrocer,thesaddler,andafewgirlsgainagooddealbyourCroesus,who is truly avaricious.Butwithour close and economical

citizenthereisnothingtobedone.Thereforeheisloadedwithmaledictions.

As for those among the avaricious who deprive themselves of thenecessariesoflife,weleavethemtoPlautusandMolière.

AUGURY.

Mustnotamanbeverythoroughlypossessedbythedemonofetymologytosay,withPezronandothers,thattheRomanwordauguriumcamefromtheCelticwordsauandgur?Accordingtotheselearnedmenaumust,amongtheBasques andBas-Bretons, have signified the liver, because asu,which, (saythey)signifiedleft,doubtlessstoodfortheliver,whichisontherightside;andgurmeantman,oryellow,orred,inthatCeltictongueofwhichwehavenotonememorial.Trulythisispowerfulreasoning.

Absurdcuriosity (forwemust call thingsby their rightnames)hasbeencarried so far as to seek Hebrew and Chaldee derivations from certainTeutonic andCelticwords.This,Bochart never fails to do. It is astonishingwithwhatconfidencethesemenofgeniushaveprovedthatexpressionsusedon the banks of the Tiberwere borrowed from the patois of the savages ofBiscay.Nay,theyevenassertthatthispatoiswasoneofthefirstidiomsoftheprimitive language—the parent of all other languages throughout theworld.Theyhaveonly toproceed, and say that all thevariousnotesofbirdscomefromthecryofthetwofirstparrots,fromwhicheveryotherspeciesofbirdshasbeenproduced.

Thereligiousfollyofaugurieswasoriginallyfoundedonverysoundandnaturalobservations.Thebirdsofpassagehavealwaysmarkedtheprogressofthe seasons. We see them come in flocks in the spring, and return in theautumn.The cuckoo is heard only in fineweather,which his note seems toinvite. The swallows, skimming along the ground, announce rain. Eachclimatehasitsbird,whichisineffectitsaugury.

Among theobservingpartofmankind therewere,nodoubt,knaveswhopersuaded fools that there was something divine in these animals, and thattheir flight presaged our destinies, which were written on the wings of asparrowjustasclearlyasinthestars.

Thecommentatorson theallegorical and interesting storyof Joseph soldbyhisbrethren,andmadePharaoh'sprimeminister forhavingexplainedhisdreams, infer that Joseph was skilled in the science of auguries, from thecircumstance that Joseph's steward is commanded to say tohis brethren, "Isnotthisit(thesilvercup)inwhichmylorddrinketh?andwherebyindeedhe

divineth?"Joseph,havingcausedhisbrethrentobebroughtbackbeforehim,says to them: "Whatdeed is this thatyehavedone?Wotyenot that suchamanasIcancertainlydivine?"

Judah acknowledges, in the name of his brethren, that Joseph is a greatdiviner,andthatGodhasinspiredhim:"Godhathfoundouttheiniquityofthyservants." At that time they took Joseph for an Egyptian lord. It is evidentfromthetextthattheybelievetheGodoftheEgyptiansandoftheJewshaddiscoveredtothisministerthetheftofhiscup.

Here,then,wehaveauguriesordivinationclearlyestablishedintheBookofGenesis;soclearlythatitisafterwardsforbiddeninLeviticus:"Yeshallnoteat anything with the blood; neither shall ye use enchantment nor observetimes.Yeshallnotroundthecornersofyourheads,neithershaltthoumarthecornersofthybeard."

As for the superstitionof seeing the future inacup, it still exists, and iscalledseeinginaglass.Theindividualmustneverhaveknownpollution;hemust turn towards the east, and pronounce thewords,Abraxa per dominumnostrum, after which he will see in a glass of water whatever he pleases.Childrenwereusuallychosenforthisoperation.Theymustretaintheirhair;ashavenhead,oronewearingawig,canseenothing inaglass.ThispastimewasmuchinvogueinFranceduringtheregencyofthedukeofOrleans,andstillmoresointhetimespreceding.

Asforauguries, theyperishedwith theRomanEmpire.Only thebishopshave retained theaugurial staff, called thecrosier;whichwas thedistinctivemarkofthedignityofaugur;sothatthesymboloffalsehoodhasbecomethesymboloftruth.

There were innumerable kinds of divinations, of which several havereached our latter ages. This curiosity to read the future is amaladywhichonly philosophy can cure, for the weak minds that still practise thesepretendedartsofdivination—eventhefoolswhogivethemselvestothedevils—allmakereligionsubservienttotheseprofanations,bywhichitisoutraged.

It is anobservationworthyof thewise, thatCicero,whowasoneof thecollegeofaugurs,wroteabookforthesolepurposeofturningauguriesintoridicule;buttheyhavelikewiseremarkedthatCicero,attheendofhisbook,says that "superstition should be destroyed, but not religion. For," he adds,"thebeautyof theuniverse,andtheorderof theheavenlybodiesforceus toacknowledge an eternal andpowerful nature.Wemustmaintain the religionwhich is joined with the knowledge of this nature, by utterly extirpatingsuperstition, for it is amonsterwhichpursues andpressesuson every side.Themeetingwithapretendeddiviner,apresage,animmolatedvictim,abird,a Chaldæan, an aruspice, a flash of lightning, a clap of thunder, an event

accidentally corresponding with what has been foretold to us, everythingdisturbs andmakes us uneasy; sleep itself,which shouldmake us forget allthesepainsandfears,servesbuttoredoublethembyfrightfulimages."

CicerothoughthewasaddressingonlyafewRomans,buthewasspeakingtoallmenandallages.

Most of the great men of Rome no more believed in auguries thanAlexanderVI.,JuliusII.,andLeoX.,believedinOurLadyofLorettoandtheblood of St. Januarius. However, Suetonius relates that Octavius, surnamedAugustus,was soweak as to believe that a fish,which leaped from the seaupon theshoreatActium, foreboded thatheshouldgain thebattle.Headdsthat,havingafterwardsmetanass-driver,heaskedhim thenameofhisass;and the man having answered that his ass was named Nicholas, whichsignifiesconquerorofnations,hehadnolongeranydoubtsaboutthevictory;andthatheafterwardshadbrazenstatueserectedtotheass-driver,theass,andthe jumping fish.He further assuresus that these statueswereplaced in theCapitol.

It is very likely that this able tyrant laughed at the superstitions of theRomans,and thathisass, thedriver,and the fish,werenothingmore thanajoke.Butitisnolesslikelythat,whilehedespisedallthefolliesofthevulgar,hehadafewofhisown.ThebarbarousanddissimulatingLouisXI.hadafirmfaithinthecrossofSt.Louis.Almostallprinces,exceptingsuchashavehadtime to read, and read to advantage, are in some degree infected withsuperstition.

AUGUSTINE.

Augustine,anativeofTagaste,isheretobeconsidered,notasabishop,adoctor, a father of the Church, but simply as a man. This is a question inphysics,respectingtheclimateofAfrica.

Whenayouth,Augustinewasagreatlibertine,andthespiritwasnolessquick inhim than the flesh.Hesays thatbeforehewas twentyyearsoldhehadlearnedarithmetic,geometryandmusicwithoutamaster.

Doesnotthisprovethat,inAfrica,whichwenowcallBarbary,bothmindsandbodiesadvancetomaturitymorerapidlythanamongus?

ThesevaluableadvantagesofSt.AugustinewouldleadonetobelievethatEmpedocles was not altogether in the wrong when he regarded fire as theprincipleofnature. It is assisted,butbysubordinateagents. It is likeakinggoverning the actions of all his subjects, and sometimes inflaming the

imaginations of his people rather too much. It is not without reason thatSyphaxsaystoJuba,intheCatoofAddison,thatthesunwhichrollsitsfierycar overAfrican heads places a deeper tinge upon the cheeks, and a fiercerflamewithin theirhearts.That thedamesofZamaarevastly superior to thepalebeautiesofthenorth:

TheglowingdamesofZama'sroyalcourt

Havefacesflushedwithmoreexaltedcharms;

Wereyouwiththese,myprince,you'dsoonforget

Thepaleunripenedbeautiesofthenorth.

Where shallwe find inParis,Strasburg,Ratisbon,orViennayoungmenwhohave learnedarithmetic, themathematics andmusicwithout assistance,andwhohavebeenfathersatfourteen?

Doubtless it is no fable that Atlas, prince of Mauritania, called by theGreeks the son of heaven, was a celebrated astronomer, and constructed acelestialspheresuchastheChinesehavehadforsomanyages.Theancients,who expressed everything in allegory, likened this prince to the mountainwhichbearshisname,because it lifts itsheadabove theclouds,whichhavebeencalledtheheavensbyallmankindwhohavejudgedofthingsonlyfromthetestimonyoftheireyes.

TheseMoors cultivated the scienceswith success, and taught Spain andItalyforfivecenturies.Thingsaregreatlyaltered.ThecountryofAugustineisnowbutadenofpirates,whileEngland, Italy,Germany,andFrance,whichwere involved in barbarism, are greater cultivators of the arts than ever theArabianswere.

Ouronlyobject,then,inthisarticleistoshowhowchangeableascenethisworldis.Augustine,fromadebauchee,becomesanoratorandaphilosopher;heputshimselfforwardintheworld;heteachesrhetoric;heturnsManichæan,and from Manichæanism passes to Christianity. He causes himself to bebaptized, togetherwith one of his bastards, namedDeodatus; he becomes abishop,andafatherof theChurch.Hissystemofgracehasbeenreverencedforelevenhundredyearsasanarticleoffaith.At theendofelevenhundredyears some Jesuits find means to procure an anathema against Augustine'ssystem,wordforword,underthenamesofJansenius,St.Cyril,Arnaud,andQuesnel.Weaskifthisrevolutionisnot,initskind,asgreatasthatofAfrica,andiftherebeanythingpermanentuponearth?

AUGUSTUS(OCTAVIUS).

TheMoralsofAugustus.

Mannerscanbeknownonlyfromfacts,whichfactsmustbeincontestable.It is beyonddoubt that thisman, so immoderately praised as the restorer ofmorals and of laws, was long one of themost infamous debauchees in theRomancommonwealth.HisepigramonFulvia,writtenafterthehorrorsoftheproscriptions,provesthathewasnolessadespiserofdecencyinhislanguagethanhewasabarbarianinhisconduct.ThisabominableepigramisoneofthestrongesttestimoniestoAugustus'infamousimmorality.SextusPompeiusalsoreproached him with shameful weaknesses: "Effeminatum infectatus est."Antony,beforethetriumvirate,declaredthatCæsar,great-uncletoAugustus,had adopted him as his son only because he had been subservient to hispleasures;"Adoptionemavunculistupromeritum."

LuciusCæsarchargedhimwiththesamecrime,andevenassertedthathehadbeenbaseenoughtosellhimself toHirtiusforaveryconsiderablesum.Hewassoshamelessastotakethewifeofaconsulfromherhusbandinthemidstofasupper;hetookhertoaneighboringcloset,staidwithherthereforsometime,andbroughtherbacktotablewithouthimself,thewoman,orherhusbandblushingatallattheproceeding.

Wehave also a letter fromAntony toAugustus, couched in these terms:"Itavaleasuthancepistolamcumleges,noninierisTestullam,autTerentillam,autRussillam, autSalviam, automnes.Anne refertubi et inquamarrigas?"Weareafraidtotranslatethislicentiousletter.

Nothing is better known than the scandalous feast of five of thecompanionsofhispleasureswithfiveoftheprincipalwomenofRome.Theywere dressed up as gods and goddesses, and imitated all the immodestiesinventedinfable—"BumnovaDivorumcœnatadulteria."Andonthestagehewaspubliclydesignatedbythisfamousline:

Videsneutcinaedusorbemdigitotemperet?

AlmosteveryLatinauthor that speaksofOvidasserts thatAugustushadtheinsolencetobanishthatRomanknight,whowasamuchbettermanthanhimself,merelybecausetheotherhadsurprisedhiminanincestwithhisowndaughterJulia;andthathesenthisdaughterintoexileonlythroughjealousy.Thisisthemorelikely,asCaligulapublishedaloudthathismotherwasbornfrom the incest of Augustus with Julia. So says Suetonius, in his life ofCaligula.

Weknow thatAugustus repudiated themother of Julia the very day shewasbroughttobedofher,andonthesamedaytookLiviafromherhusbandwhen she was pregnant of Tiberius—another monster, who succeeded him.

Suchwas theman towhomHorace said: "Res Italas armis tuteris,moribusornes,Legibusemendes...."

ItishardtorepressourindignationatreadingatthecommencementoftheGeorgics thatAugustus isoneof thegreatestofdivinities; and that it isnotknownwhatplacehewillonedaydeigntooccupyinheaven;whetherhewillreign in theair,orbecometheprotectorofcities,orvouchsafe toaccept theempireoftheseas:

AnDeusimmensiveniasmaris,actuanauta

NuminasolacelanttibiservialultimaThule.

Ariostospeakswithmuchmoresenseaswellasgrace,whenhesaysinhisfinethirty-fifthcanto:

NonfusisantonebenignoAugusto

ComelatrombadiVirgiliosonna;

L'averavutoinpoesiabuongusto

Laproscriptioneiniquagliperdona.

Augustuswasnotquitesomildandchaste

Ashe'sbyhonestVirgilrepresented;

Butthen,thetyranthadpoetictaste;

Withthisthepoetfullywascontented.

TheCrueltiesofAugustus.

If Augustus was long abandoned to the most shameful and franticdissipation,hiscrueltywasno lessuniformanddeliberate.Hisproscriptionswerepublishedinthemidstoffeastingandrevelry;heproscribedmorethanthree hundred senators, two thousand knights, and one hundred obscure butwealthyheadsoffamilies,whoseonlycrimewastheirbeingrich,AntonyandOctavius had them killed, solely that they might get possession of theirmoney; inwhich they differed not the least fromhighway robbers,who arecondemnedtothewheel.

Octavius,immediatelyafterthePersianwar,gavehisveteransallthelandsbelongingtothecitizensofMantuaandCremona,thusrecompensingmurderbydepredation.

Itisbuttoocertainthattheworldwasravaged,fromtheEuphratestotheextremities of Spain, by this man without shame, without faith, honor, orprobity,knavish,ungrateful,avaricious,blood-thirsty,coolinthecommissionofcrime,who,inanywell-regulatedrepublic,wouldhavebeencondemnedto

thegreatestofpunishmentsforthefirstofhisoffences.

Nevertheless, thegovernmentofAugustusisstilladmired,becauseunderhim Rome tasted peace, pleasure and abundance. Seneca says of him:"Clementiamnonvocolassamcrudelitatem"—"Idonotcallexhaustedcrueltyclemency."

It is thought that Augustus became milder when crime was no longernecessarytohim;andthat,beingabsolutemaster,hesawthathehadnootherinterestthantoappearjust.Butitappearstomethathestillwaspitilessratherthanclement;for,afterthebattleofActium,hehadAntony'ssonmurderedatthefeetofCæsar'sstatue;andhewassobarbarousastohaveyoungCæsarion,thesonofCæsarandCleopatra,beheaded, thoughhehadrecognizedhimaskingofEgypt.

Suspecting one day that the prætor Quintus Gallius had come to anaudiencewithapoinardunderhis robe,hehadhimput to the torture inhispresence;and, inhis indignationathearing thatsenatorcallhima tyrant,hetoreouthiseyeswithhisownhands;atleast,sosaysSuetonius.

We know that Cæsar, his adopted father, was great enough to pardonalmostallhisenemies;butIdonotfindthatAugustuspardonedoneofhis.IhavegreatdoubtsofhispretendedclemencytoCinna.Thisaffairismentionedneither by Suetonius nor by Tacitus. Suetonius, who speaks of all theconspiracies against Augustus, would not have failed to mention the mostmemorable.Thesingularityofgivingaconsulship toCinna in returnfor theblackestperfidywouldnothaveescapedeverycontemporaryhistorian.DionCassius speaks of it only after Seneca; and this passage in Seneca has theappearanceratherofdeclamationthanofhistoricaltruth.Besides,Senecalaysthe scene in Gaul, and Dion at Rome; this contradiction deprives theoccurrence of all remaining verisimilitude.Not one of ourRoman histories,compiled in haste and without selection, has discussed this interesting fact.LawrenceEchard'sHistoryhasappearedtoenlightenedmentobeasfaultyasitismutilated;writershaverarelybeenguidedbythespiritofexamination.

Cinnamight be suspected, or convicted, byAugustus of some infidelity;and,when theaffairhadbeenclearedup,hemighthonorhimwith thevaintitleofconsul;butitisnotatallprobablethatCinnasoughtbyaconspiracytoseize the supreme authority—he, who had never commanded an army, wassupportedbynoparty,andwasamanofnoconsiderationintheempire.Itisnotvery likely thatameresubordinatecourtierwould thinkofsucceedingasovereignwhohadbeentwentyyearsfirmlyestablishedonhisthrone,andhadheirs;norisitmorelikelythatAugustuswouldmakehimconsulimmediatelyaftertheconspiracy.

If Cinna's adventure be true, Augustus pardoned him only because he

couldnotdootherwise,beingovercomebythereasoningortheimportunitiesofLivia,whohadacquiredgreatinfluenceoverhim,andpersuadedhim,saysSeneca,thatpardonwoulddohimmoreservicethanchastisement.Itwasthenonly through policy that he, for once, was merciful; it certainly was notthroughgenerosity.

Shallwe give a robber credit for clemency, because, being enriched andsecure, enjoying in peace the fruits of his rapine, he is not every dayassassinatingthesonsandgrandsonsoftheproscribed,whiletheyarekneelingtoandworshippinghim?Afterbeingabarbarianhewasaprudentpolitician.Itisworthyofremarkthatposteritynevergavehimthetitleofvirtuous,whichwas bestowed on Titus, on Trajan, and the Antonines. It even becamecustomary in the compliments paid to emperors on their accession, towishthat they might be more fortunate than Augustus, and more virtuous thanTrajan. It is now, therefore, allowable to considerAugustus as a clever andfortunatemonster.

Louis Racine, son of the great Racine, and heir to a part of his talents,seems to forget himself when he says, in his "Reflections on Poetry," that"HoraceandVirgilspoiledAugustus;theyexhaustedtheirartinpoisoningthemind of Augustus by their praises." These expressions would lead one tobelieve that the eulogies so meanly lavished by these two great poets,corrupted this emperor's fine disposition. But Louis Racine verywell knewthatAugustuswasanexceedinglybadman, regardingcrimeandvirtuewithindifference, availing himself alike of the horrors of the one and theappearances of the other, attentive solely to his own interest, employingbloodshed and peace, arms and laws, religion and pleasure, only to makehimself master of the earth, and sacrificing everything to himself. LouisRacineonlyshowsusthatVirgilandHoracehadservilesouls.

He is,unfortunately, toomuch in the rightwhenhe reproachesCorneillewith having dedicated "Cinna" to the financier Montoron, and said to thatreceiver. "What youmost especially have in commonwith Augustus is thegenerosity with which," etc., for, thoughAugustus was themost wicked ofRomancitizens,itmustbeconfessedthatthefirstoftheemperors,themaster,thepacificator, the legislatorof the thenknownworld, shouldnotbeplacedabsolutelyonalevelwithaclerktoacomptroller-generalinGaul.

The same Louis Racine, in justly condemning the mean adulation ofCorneille,andthebasenessof theagedHoraceandVirgil,marvellously laysholdof thispassage inMassillon's "PetitCarême!" "It isno lessculpable tofailintruthtowardsmonarchsthantobewantinginfidelity;thesamepenaltyshouldbeimposedonadulationasonrevolt."

I ask your pardon, Father Massillon; but this stroke of yours is very

oratorical, verypreacher-like, very exaggerated.TheLeague and theFrondehave,ifIamnotdeceived,donemoreharmthanQuinault'sprologues.Thereis noway of condemningQuinault as a rebel. "Estmodus in rebus." FatherMassillon,whichiswantinginallmanufacturersofsermons.

AVIGNON.

Avignon and its country are monuments of what the abuse of religion,ambition,knavery,andfanaticismunitedcaneffect.Thislittlecountry,afterathousandvicissitudes,had,inthetwelfthcentury,passedintothehandsofthecountsofToulouse,descendedfromCharlemagnebythefemaleside.

RaymondVI.,countofToulouse,whoseforefathershadbeentheprincipalheroesinthecrusades,wasstrippedofhisstatesbyacrusadewhichthepopestirredupagainsthim.Thecauseofthecrusadewasthedesireofhavinghisspoils;thepretextwasthatinseveralofhistownsthecitizensthoughtnearlyashasbeen thought forupwardsof twohundredyears inEngland,Sweden,Denmark,three-fourthsofSwitzerland,Holland,andhalfofGermany.

This was hardly a sufficient reason for giving, in the name of God, thestates of the count of Toulouse to the first occupant, and for devoting toslaughterandfirehissubjects,crucifixinhand,andwhitecrossonshoulder.All that is relatedof themostsavagepeople falls farshortof thebarbaritiescommitted in thiswar, calledholy.The ridiculousatrocityof some religiousceremonies always, accompanied these horrid excesses. It is known thatRaymondVI.wasdraggedtoachurchofSt.Giles's,beforealegate,nakedtothewaist,withouthoseorsandals,witharopeabouthisneck,whichwasheldbyadeacon,whileanotherdeaconfloggedhim,andathirdsungmisererewithsomemonks—andallthewhilethelegatewasatdinner.SuchwastheoriginoftherightofthepopesoverAvignon.

CountRaymond,whohadsubmittedtotheflagellationinordertopreservehisstates,underwentthisignominytonopurposewhatever.Hehadtodefendbyarmswhathehadthoughttopreservebysufferingafewstripes;hesawhistowns laid in ashes, and died in 1213 amid the vicissitudes of the mostsanguinarywar.

Hisson,RaymondVII.,wasnot,likehisfather,suspectedofheresy;buthewasthesonofaheretic,andwastobestrippedofallhispossessions,byvirtueof the Decretals; such was the law. The crusade, therefore, was continuedagainst him; he was excommunicated in the churches, on Sundays andholidays,tothesoundofbellsandwithtapersextinguished.

AlegatewhowasinFranceduringtheminorityofSt.Louisraisedtenthsthere to maintain this war in Languedoc and Provence. Raymond defendedhimself with courage; but the heads of the hydra of fanaticism wereincessantlyreappearingtodevourhim.

Thepopeatlastmadepeacebecauseallhismoneyhadbeenexpendedinwar. Raymond VII. came and signed the treaty before the portal of thecathedralofParis.Hewas forced topay ten thousandmarksof silver to thelegate, two thousand to the abbey of Citeaux, five hundred to the abbey ofClairvaux, a thousand to that of Grand-Selve, and three hundred to that ofBelleperche—-allforthesalvationofhissoul,asisspecifiedinthetreaty.SoitwasthattheChurchalwaysnegotiated.

It is very remarkable that in this document the count of Toulouseconstantlyputsthelegatebeforetheking:"Iswearandpromisetothelegateandtothekingfaithfullytoobserveallthesethings,andtocausethemtobeobservedbymyvassalsandsubjects,"etc.

Thiswasnotall.HecededtoPopeGregoryIX. thecountryofVenaissinbeyondtheRhône,andthesovereigntyofseventy-threecastlesonthissidethesameriver.Thepopeadjudgedthisfinetohimselfbyaparticularact,desirousthat, in a public instrument, the acknowledgment of having exterminated somanyChristiansforthepurposeofseizinguponhisneighbor'sgoods,shouldnotappear insoglaringa light.Besides,hedemandedwhatRaymondcouldnotgrant,withouttheconsentoftheEmperorFrederickII.Thecount'slands,on the leftbankof theRhône,werean imperial fief,andFrederickII.neversanctionedthisexaction.

Alphonso, brother of St. Louis, havingmarried this unfortunate prince'sdaughter, by whom he had no children, all the states of Raymond VII. inLanguedoc, devolved to the crown of France, as had been stipulated in themarriagecontract.

ThecountryofVenaissin,whichisinProvence,hadbeenmagnanimouslygivenupbytheEmperorFrederickII.tothecountofToulouse.HisdaughterJoan, before her death, haddisposed of thembywill in favor ofCharles ofAnjou,countofProvence,andkingofNaples.

PhiliptheBold,sonofSt.Louis,beingpressedbyPopeGregoryIX.,gavethecountryofVenaissin to theRomanchurch in1274. ItmustbeconfessedthatPhilip theBoldgavewhat innowaybelonged tohim; that this cessionwas absolutely null and void, and that no act everwasmore contrary to alllaw.

ItisthesamewiththetownofAvignon.JoanofFrance,queenofNaples,descended from thebrotherofSt.Louis, havingbeen,withbut toogreat an

appearanceofjustice,accusedofcausingherhusbandtobestrangled,desiredtheprotectionofPopeClementVI.,whoseseewasthenthetownofAvignon,in Joan's domains. She was countess of Provence. In 1347 the Provencalsmadeherswear,onthegospel,thatshewouldsellnoneofhersovereignties.She had scarcely taken this oath before she went and sold Avignon to thepope.TheauthenticactwasnotsigneduntilJune14,1348;thesumstipulatedforwaseightythousandflorinsofgold.Thepopedeclaredherinnocentofherhusband'smurder,butneverpaidher.Joan'sreceipthasneverbeenproduced.Sheprotestedjuridicallyfourseveraltimesagainstthisdeceitfulpurchase.

So that Avignon and its country were never considered to have beendismemberedfromProvence,otherwisethanbyarapine,whichwasthemoremanifest,asithadbeensoughttocoveritwiththecloakofreligion.

When Louis XI. acquired Provence he acquired it with all the rightsappertaining thereto; and, as appears by a letter from John of Foix to thatmonarch,hadin1464resolvedtoenforcethem.ButtheintriguesofthecourtofRomewerealwayssopowerful that thekingsofFrancecondescended toallowittheenjoymentofthissmallprovince.Theyneveracknowledgedinthepopesalawfulpossession,butonlyasimpleenjoyment.

InthetreatyofPisa,madebyLouisXIV.withAlexanderVII.,in1664,itissaidthat,"everyobstacleshallberemoved,inorderthatthepopemayenjoyAvignonasbefore."Thepope,then,hadthisprovinceonlyascardinalshavepensions from the king, which pensions are discretional. Avignon and itscountrywereaconstantsourceofembarrassment to theFrenchgovernment;theyaffordeda refuge toall thebankruptsand smugglers, thoughvery littleprofitthenceaccruedtothepope.

LouisXIV.twiceresumedhisrights;butitwasrathertochastisethepopethantoreuniteAvignonanditscountrywithhiscrown.AtlengthLouisXV.didjusticetohisdignityandtohissubjects.ThegrossandindecentconductofPopeRezzonico(ClementXIII.)forcedhimin1768torevivetherightsofhiscrown.This pope had acted as if he belonged to the fourteenth century.Hewas,however,withtheapplauseofallEurope,convincedthathelivedintheeighteenth.

When the officer bearing the king's orders entered Avignon, he wentstraight to the legate'sapartment,withoutbeingannounced,andsaid tohim,"Sir,thekingtakespossessionofhistown."ThereissomedifferencebetweenthisproceedingandacountofToulousebeing floggedbyadeacon,whilealegateisatdinner.Things,wesee,changewithtimes.

AUSTERITIES.

MORTIFICATIONS.FLAGELLATIONS.

Suppose that some chosen individuals, lovers of study, united togetherafter a thousand catastrophes had happened to the world, and employedthemselvesinworshippingGodandregulatingthetimeoftheyear,asissaidoftheancientBrahminsandMagi;allthisisperfectlygoodandhonest.Theymight,bytheirfrugallife,setanexampletotherestoftheworld;theymightabstain,duringthecelebrationoftheirfeasts,fromallintoxicatingliquors,andallcommercewiththeirwives;theymightbeclothedmodestlyanddecently;iftheywerewise,othermenconsultedthem;iftheywerejust,theywerelovedand reverenced.Butdidnot superstition,brawling, andvanity soon take theplaceofthevirtues?

Wasnotthefirstmadmanthatfloggedhimselfpubliclytoappeasethegodstheoriginal of thepriests of theSyriangoddess,who flogged themselves inher honor; of the priests of Isis, who did the same on certain days; of thepriestsofDodona,namedSalii,who inflictedwoundson themselves;of thepriestsofBellona,whostruckthemselveswithsabres;ofthepriestsofDiana,who drew blood from their backs with rods; of the priests of Cybele, whomadethemselveseunuchs;ofthefakirsofIndia,wholoadedthemselveswithchains?Hasthehopeofobtainingabundantalmsnothingatalltodowiththepracticeoftheseausterities?

Is there not some similarity between the beggars, who make their legsswell by a certain application and cover their bodieswith sores, in order toforce a fewpence from the passengers, and the impostors of antiquity,whoseated themselves upon nails, and sold the holy nails to the devout of theircountry?

Andhadvanityneveranyshareinpromotingthesepublicmortifications,which attracted the eyes of the multitude? "I scourge myself, but it is toexpiateyourfaults;Igonaked,butit istoreproachyouwiththerichnessofyourgarments;Ifeedonherbsandsnails,butitistocorrectinyoutheviceofgluttony;Iwearanironringtomakeyoublushatyourlewdness.Reverencemeasonecherishedbythegods,andwhowillbringdowntheirfavorsuponyou.Whenyoushallbeaccustomedtoreverenceme,youwillnotfindithardtoobeyme;Iwillbeyourmaster,inthenameofthegods;andthen,ifanyoneofyoudisobeymywill inthesmallestparticular,Iwillhaveyouimpaledtoappeasethewrathofheaven."

If the first fakirs did not pronounce thesewords, it is very probable thattheyhadthemengravedatthebottomoftheirhearts.

Humansacrifices,perhaps,hadtheirorigininthesefranticausterities.Menwhodrewtheirbloodinpublicwithrods,andmangledtheirarmsandthighs

to gain consideration,would easilymake imbecile savages believe that theymust sacrifice to thegodswhateverwasdearest to them; that to have a fairwind, theymust immolate a daughter; to avert pestilence, precipitate a sonfromarock;tohaveinfalliblyagoodharvest,throwadaughterintotheNile.

These Asiatic superstitions gave rise to the flagellations which we haveimitated from the Jews. Their devotees still flog themselves, and flog oneanother, as the priests of Egypt and Syria did of old.Among us the abbotsflogged their monks, and the confessors their penitents—of both sexes. St.Augustine wrote to Marcellinus, the tribune, that "the Donatists must bewhippedasschoolmasterswhiptheirscholars."

Itissaidthatitwasnotuntilthetenthcenturythatmonksandnunsbeganto scourge themselves on certain days of the year.The customof scourgingsinnersasapenancewassowellestablished thatSt.Louis'sconfessoroftengave him thewhip. Henry II. was flogged by themonks of Canterbury (in1207).Raymond,countofToulouse,witharoperoundhisneck,wasfloggedbyadeacon,atthedoorofSt.Giles'schurch,ashasbeforebeensaid.

The chaplains to Louis VIII., king of France, were condemned by thepope'slegatetogoatthefourgreatfeaststothedoorofthecathedralofParis,andpresentrodstothecanons,thattheymightflogtheminexpiationforthecrimeoftheking,theirmaster,whohadacceptedthecrownofEngland,whichthepopehadtakenfromhimbyvirtueoftheplenitudeofhispower.Indeed,thepopeshowedgreatindulgenceinnothavingthekinghimselfwhipped,butcontentinghimselfwithcommandinghim,onpainofdamnation,topaytotheapostolicchambertheamountoftwoyears'revenue.

Fromthiscustomisderivedthatwhichstillexists,ofarmingallthegrand-penitentiaries in St. Peter's at Rome with long wands instead of rods, withwhichtheygivegentletapstothepenitents,lyingalltheirlengthonthefloor.InthismanneritwasthatHenryIV.,ofFrance,hadhisposteriorsfloggedbyCardinalOssatandDuperron.Sotrueisitthatwehavescarcelyyetemergedfrombarbarism.

At the commencement of the thirteenth century fraternities of penitentswereformedatPerosiaandBologna.Youngmenalmostnaked,witharodinonehandandasmallcrucifix in theother,floggedthemselves in thestreets;whilethewomenpeepedthroughthewindow-blindsandwhippedthemselvesintheirchambers.

These flagellators inundated Europe; there are many of them still to befoundinItaly,inSpain,andeveninFrance,atPerpignan.Atthebeginningofthesixteenthcenturyitwasverycommonforconfessorstowhiptheposteriorsof their penitents. A history of the Low Countries, composed by Meteren,relates thatacordeliernamedAdriacem,agreatpreacheratBruges,used to

whiphisfemalepenitentsquitenaked.

The Jesuit Edmund Auger, confessor to Henry III., persuaded thatunfortunateprincetoputhimselfattheheadoftheflagellators.

Flogging the posteriors is practised in various convents of monks andnuns;fromwhichcustomtherehavesometimesresultedstrangeimmodesties,overwhichwemustthrowaveil,inordertosparetheblushesofsuchaswearthe sacred veil, and whose sex and profession are worthy of our highestregard.

AUTHORS.

Author is a generic term,which, like the names of all other professions,may signify author of the good, or of the bad; of the respectable, or of theridiculous;oftheuseful,ortheagreeable;orlastly,theproducerofdisgustingtrash.

Thisnameisalsocommontodifferentthings.WesayequallytheauthorofnatureandtheauthorofthesongsofthePontNeuf,oroftheliteraryage.Theauthor of a goodwork should beware of three things—title, dedication, andpreface.Othersshouldtakecareofthefourth,whichiswritingatall.

As to the title, if the authorhas thewish toput his name to it,which isoften very dangerous, it should at least be under a modest form; it is notpleasanttoseeapiouswork,fulloflessonsofhumanity,bySirorMyLord.Thereader;whoisalwaysmalicious,andwhoofteniswearied,usuallyturnsintoridiculeabookthatisannouncedwithsomuchostentation.Theauthorofthe"ImitationofJesusChrist"didnotputhisnametoit.

But theapostles,youwill say,put theirnames to theirworks; that isnottrue, theywere toomodest.TheapostleMatthewneverentitledhisbooktheGospel of St.Matthew; it is a homage that has been paid to him since. St.Lukehimself,whocollectedallthathehadheardsaid,andwhodedicatedhisbook to Theophilus, did not call it the Gospel of St. Luke. St. John alonementions himself in the Apocalypse; and it is supposed that this book waswritten by Cerinthus, who took the name of John to give authority to hisproduction.

However it may have been in past ages, it appears to me very bold inauthorsnow toputnamesand titles at theheadof theirworks.Thebishopsneverfailtodoso,andthethickquartoswhichtheygiveusunderthetitleofmandaments are decorated with armorial bearings and the insignia of theirstation; aword, no doubt, is said about Christian humility, but thisword is

often followed by atrocious calumnies against those who are of anothercommunionorparty.Weonlyspeakhere,however,ofpoorprofaneauthors.ThedukedelaRochefoucaulddidnotannouncehisthoughtsastheproductionofMonseigneur le dud de la Rochefoucauld, pair de France. Some personswhoonlymake compilations inwhich theremaybe fine things,will find itinjudicioustoannouncethemastheworkofA.B.,professoroftheuniversityof——,doctorofdivinity,memberofthisorofthatacademy,andsoon.Somanydignitiesdonotrenderthebookbetter.Itwillstillbewishedthatitwasshorter,morephilosophical, less filledwitholdstories.Withrespect to titlesandquality,nobodycaresaboutthem.

Dedicationsareoftenonlyofferingsfrominterestedbasenesstodisdainfulvanity.WhowouldbelievethatRohaut,soi-disantphysician,inhisdedicationto the duke of Guise, told him that his ancestors had maintained, at theexpenseof theirblood,political truth, thefundamental lawsof thestate,andtherightsofsovereigns?LeBalafréandthedukeofMayennewouldbealittlesurprisedifthisepistlewerereadtothemintheotherworld.AndwhatwouldHenryIV.say?MostofthededicationsinEnglandaremadeformoney,justasthecapuchinspresentuswithsaladonconditionofourgivingthemdrink.

MenoflettersinFranceareignorantofthisshamefulabasement,andhavenever exhibited so much meanness, except some unfortunates, who callthemselvesmenoflettersinthesamesensethatsign-daubersboastofbeingoftheprofessionofRaphael,andthatthecoachmanofVertamontwasapoet.

Prefacesareanotherrock."TheIishateful,"saysPascal.Speakofyourselfaslittleasyoucan,foryououghttobeawarethattheself-loveofthereaderisasgreatasyourown.Hewillneverpardonyouforwishingtoobligehimtoesteemyou. It is foryourbook tospeak tohim,should ithappen tobereadamongthecrowd.

"Theillustrioussuffrageswithwhichmypiecehasbeenhonoredwillmakeme dispense with answering my adversaries—the applauses of the public."Eraseallthat,sir;believemeyouhavehadnoillustrioussuffrages;yourpieceiseternallyforgotten.

"Somecensorshavepretendedthattherearetoomanyeventsinthethirdact; and that in the fourth the princess is too late in discovering the tendersentimentsofherheartforherlover.TothatIanswer—"Answernothing,myfriend, fornobodyhasspoken-,orwill speakof thyprincess.Thypiecehasfallen because it is tiresome, and written in flat and barbarous verse; thyprefaceisaprayerforthedead,butitwillnotrevivethem.

Others attest that all Europe has not understood their treatises oncompatibility—on the Supralapsarians—on the difference which should bemadebetweentheMacedonianandValentinianheresies,etc.Truly, Ibelieve

thatnobodyunderstandsthem,sincenobodyreadsthem.

Weareinundatedwiththistrashandwithcontinualrepetition;withinsipidromances which copy their predecessors; with new systems founded onancientreveries;andlittlehistoriestakenfromlargerones.

Doyouwishtobeanauthor?Doyouwishtomakeabook?Recollectthatitmust be new and useful, or at least agreeable.Why from your provincialretreatwouldyouassassinatemewithanotherquarto,toteachmethatakingoughttobejust,andthatTrajanwasmorevirtuousthanCaligula?Youinsistupon printing the sermons which have lulled your little obscure town torepose,andwillputallourhistoriesundercontributionstoextractfromthemthelifeofaprinceofwhomyoucansaynothingnew.

Ifyouhavewrittenahistoryofyourowntime,doubtnotbutyouwillfindsome learnedchronologist,ornewspapercommentator,whowill relieveyouastoadate,aChristianname,orasquadronwhichyouhavewronglyplacedatthedistanceofthreehundredpacesfromtheplacewhereifreallystood.Begrateful,andcorrecttheseimportanterrorsforthwith.

If an ignoramus, or an empty fool, pretend to criticise this thing or theother,youmayproperlyconfutehim;butnamehimrarely,forfearofsoilingyour writings. If you are attacked on your style, never answer; your workaloneshouldreply.

If you are said to be sick, content yourself that you are well, withoutwishing toprove to thepeople thatyouare inperfecthealth;and,aboveall,rememberthattheworldcaresverylittlewhetheryouarewellorill.

A hundred authors compile to get their bread, and twenty fools extract,criticise,apologize,andsatirizethesecompilationstogetbreadalso,becausetheyhavenoprofession.AllthesepeoplerepaironFridaystothelieutenantofthe police at Paris to demand permission to sell their drugs. They haveaudience immediatelyafter thecourtesans,whodonot regard them,becausetheyknowthattheyarepoorcustomers.

They returnwith a tacit permission to sell and distribute throughout thekingdomtheirstories;theircollectionofbon-mots;thelifeoftheunfortunateRégis;thetranslationofaGermanpoem;newdiscoveriesoneels;anewcopyof verses; a treatise on the origin of bells, or on the loves of the toads. Abooksellerbuystheirproductionsfortencrowns;theygivefiveofthemtothejournalist,onconditionthathewillspeakwelloftheminhisnewspaper.Thecritic takes their money, and says all the ill he can of their books. Theaggrieved parties go to complain to the Jew, who protects the wife of thejournalist,andthesceneclosesbythecriticbeingcarriedtoFortEvêque;andthesearetheywhocallthemselvesauthors!

Thesepoorpeoplearedividedintotwoorthreebands,andgobegginglikemendicantfriars;butnothavingtakenvowstheirsocietylastsonlyforafewdays,fortheybetrayoneanotherlikepriestswhorunafterthesamebenefice,though they have no benefice to hope for. But they still call themselvesauthors!

Themisfortuneofthesemenisthattheirfathersdidnotmakethemlearnatrade,whichisagreatdefectinmodernpolicy.Everymanofthepeoplewhocanbringuphissoninausefulart,anddoesnot,meritspunishment.Thesonofamasonbecomesa Jesuit at seventeen;he ischased fromsocietyat fourand twenty, because the levity of his manners is too glaring. Behold himwithoutbread!Heturnsjournalist,hecultivatesthelowestkindofliterature,and becomes the contempt and horror of even themob.And such as these,again,callthemselvesauthors!

Theonlyauthorsaretheywhohavesucceededinagenuineart,beitepicpoetry, tragedy, comedy, history, or philosophy, and who teach or delightmankind. The others, ofwhomwe have spoken, are, amongmen of letters,like bats among the birds.We cite, comment, criticise, neglect, forget, and,aboveall,despiseanauthorwhoisanauthoronly.

Aproposofcitinganauthor,ImustamusemyselfwithrelatingasingularmistakeofthereverendFatherViret,cordelierandprofessoroftheology.Hereadinthe"PhilosophyofHistory"ofthegoodabbéBazinthatnoauthorevercitedapassageofMosesbeforeLonginus,wholivedanddiedinthetimeoftheEmperorAurelian.Forthwith thezealofSt.Franciswaskindled inhim.Viretcriesoutthat it isnottrue;thatseveralwritershavesaidthat therehadbeenaMoses,thatevenJosephushadspokenatlengthuponhim,andthattheAbbéBazin is awretchwhowoulddestroy the seven sacraments.But, dearFatherViret,yououghttoinformyourselfofthemeaningoftheword,tocite.There is a great deal of differencebetweenmentioning an author and citinghim.Tospeak,tomakementionofanauthor,istosaythathehaslived—thathehaswritteninsuchatime;tociteistogiveoneofhispassages—asMosessays in his Exodus—as Moses has written in his Genesis. Now the AbbéBrazinaffirmsthatnoforeignwriters—thatnoneevenoftheJewishprophetshaveeverquoteda singlepassageofMoses, thoughhewasadivineauthor.Truly,FatherViret,youareverymalicious,butweshallknowatleast,bythislittleparagraph,thatyouhavebeenanauthor.

The most voluminous authors that we have had in France are thecomptrollers-general of the finances. Ten great volumes might be made oftheir declarations, since the reign of Louis XIV. Parliaments have beensometimes thecriticsof theseworks,andhavefounderroneouspropositionsandcontradictionsinthem.Butwherearethegoodauthorswhohavenotbeencensured?

AUTHORITY.

Miserablehumanbeings,whetheringreenrobesorinturbans,whetherinblackgownsor in surplices, or inmantles andbands, never seek to employauthoritywherenothingisconcernedbutreason,orconsenttobereviledinallagesasthemostimpertinentofmen,aswellastoendurepublichatredasthemostunjust.

Youhavebeen toldahundred timesof the insolentabsurditywithwhichyoucondemnedGalileo,andIspeak toyouof it for thehundredandfirst. Iwouldhaveitinscribedoverthedoorofyourholyoffice.

Seven cardinals, assistedby certainminorite friars, threw intoprison themaster of thinking in Italy, at the age of seventy; andmade him live uponbread andwater because he instructedmankind in that of which they wereignorant.

Havingpassedadecree in favorof thecategoriesofAristotle, theabovejunta learnedly and equitably doomed to the penalty of the galleyswhoevershoulddaretobeofanotheropinionfromtheStagyrite,ofwhomtwocouncilshadburnedthebooks.

Further, a Faculty, which possessed very small faculties, made a decreeagainstinnateideas,andafterwardsanotherforthem,withoutthesaidFacultybeinginformed,exceptbyitsbeadles,ofwhatanideawas.

In neighboring schools legal proceedings were commenced against thecirculation of the blood. A process was issued against inoculation, and thepartiescitedbysummons.

Oneandtwentyvolumesofthoughtsinfoliohavebeenseized,inwhichitwaswickedlyandfalselysaid that triangleshavealways threeangles; thatafatherwas older than his son; that Rhea Silvia lost her virginity before heraccouchement;andthatfarinadiffersfromoakleaves.

In another year the following question was decided: "Utrum chimærabombinans in vacuo possit comedere secundas intentiones?" and decided intheaffirmative.Thesejudges,ofcourse,consideredthemselvesmuchsuperiorto Archimedes, Euclid, Cicero, or Pliny, and strutted about the Universitiesaccordingly.

AXIS.

Howisitthattheaxisoftheearthisnotperpendiculartotheequator?Whyisitraisedtowardthenorthandinclinedtowardsthesouthpole,inapositionwhich does not appear natural, and which seems the consequence of somederangement,ortheresultofaperiodofaprodigiousnumberofyears?

Is it true that theeclipticcontinually inclinesbyan insensiblemovementtowards theequatorand that theangle formedby these two lineshasa littlediminishedintwothousandyears?

Is it true that theecliptichasbeen formerlyperpendicular to theequator,thattheEgyptianshavesaidso,andthatHerodotushasrelatedit?Thismotionoftheeclipticwouldformaperiodofabouttwomillionsofyears.Itisnotthatwhichastoundsus,fortheaxisoftheearthhasanimperceptiblemovementinabout twenty-six thousand years which occasions the precession of theequinoxes.Itisaseasyfornaturetoproducearotationoftwentythousandasoftwohundredandsixtyages.

We are deceivedwhenwe are told that the Egyptians had, according toHerodotus,atraditionthattheecliptichadbeenformerlyperpendiculartotheequator. The tradition of which Herodotus speaks has no relation to thecoincidenceoftheequinoctialandeclipticlines;thatisquiteanotheraffair.

Thepretended scholarsofEgypt said that the sun in the spaceof eleventhousandyearshadsettwiceintheeastandrisentwiceinthewest.Whentheequatorandtheeclipticcoincided,andwhenthedayswereeverywhereequaltothenightsthesundidnotonthataccountchangeitssettingandrising,butthe earth turned on its axis from west to east, as at this day. This idea ofmaking the sun set in theeast is achimeraonlyworthyof thebrainsof thepriestsofEgyptandshowstheprofoundignoranceofthosejugglerswhohavehad somuch reputation.The tale should be classedwith those of the satyrswho sang and danced in the train ofOsiris;with the little boyswhom theywouldnotfeedtillaftertheyhadruneightleagues,toteachthemtoconquertheworld;withthetwochildrenwhocriedbecinaskingforbreadandwhobythatmeansdiscoveredthatthePhrygianwastheoriginallanguage;withKingPsammeticus,whogavehisdaughtertoathiefwhohaddexterouslystolenhismoney,etc.

Ancienthistory,ancientastronomy,ancientphysics,ancientmedicine(uptoHippocrates), ancient geography, ancientmetaphysics, all are nothing butancientabsurditieswhichoughttomakeusfeelthehappinessofbeingborninlatertimes.

Thereis,nodoubt,moretruthintwopagesoftheFrenchEncyclopædiainrelationtophysicsthaninallthelibraryofAlexandria,thelossofwhichissomuchregretted.

BABEL.

SectionI.

BabelsignifiesamongtheOrientals,GodtheFather,thepowerofGod,thegate of God, according to the way in which the word is pronounced. Itappears, therefore, that Babylon was the city of God, the holy city. EverycapitalofastatewasacityofGod,thesacredcity.TheGreekscalledthemallHieropolis,andthereweremorethanthirtyofthisname.ThetowerofBabel,then,signifiesthetowerofGodtheFather.

Josephus says truly that Babel signifies confusion; Calmet says, withothers, that Bilba, in Chaldæan, signifies confounded, but all the Orientalshave been of a contrary opinion. The word confusion would be a strangeetymon for the capital of a vast empire. I very much like the opinion ofRabelais,whopretends thatPariswas formerly calledLutetiaonaccountoftheladies'whitelegs.

Be that as itmay, commentators have tormented themselves to know towhat heightmenhad raised this famous towerofBabel.St. Jeromegives ittwentythousandfeet.TheancientJewishbookentitled"Jacult"gaveiteighty-onethousand.PaulLucashasseentheremainsofitanditisafinethingtobeas keen-sighted as Paul Lucas, but these dimensions are not the onlydifficultieswhichhaveexercisedthelearned.

People have wished to know how the children of Noah, after havingdivided among themselves the islands of the nations and establishedthemselves invarious lands,with eachonehisparticular language, families,andpeople,shouldallfindthemselvesintheplainofShinaar,tobuildthereatower saying, "Letusmakeus aname lestwebe scatteredabroadupon thefaceofthewholeearth."

TheBookofGenesisspeaksofthestateswhichthesonsofNoahfounded.IthasrelatedhowthepeopleofEurope,Africa,andAsia,allcametoShinaarspeakingonelanguageonly,andpurposingthesamething.

The Vulgate places the Deluge in the year of the world 1656, and theconstructionofthetowerofBabel1771,thatistosay,onehundredandfifteenyearsafterthedestructionofmankind,andevenduringthelifeofNoah.

Men then must have multiplied with prodigious celerity; all the artsrevived in avery little time.Whenwe reflecton thegreatnumberof tradeswhichmusthavebeenemployedtoraiseatowersohighweareamazedatsostupendousawork.

The patriarch Abraham was born, according to the Bible, about fourhundredyearsafterthedeluge,andalreadyweseealineofpowerfulkingsinEgyptand inAsia.Bochartandothersageshavepleasantly filled theirgreatbookswith Phœnician andChaldæanwords and systemswhich they do notunderstand. They have learnedly taken Thrace for Cappadocia, Greece forCrete,andtheislandofCyprusforTyre;theysportinanoceanofignorancewhichhasneither bottomnor shore. Itwouldhavebeen shorter for them tohaveavowedthatGod,afterseveralages,hasgivenussacredbookstorenderusbettermenandnottomakeusgeographers,chronologists,oretymologists.

BabelisBabylon.Itwasfounded,accordingtothePersianhistorians,byaprince named Tamurath. The only knowledge we have of its antiquitiesconsistsintheastronomicalobservationsofnineteenhundredandthreeyears,sentbyCallisthenesbyorderofAlexander,tohispreceptorAristotle.Tothiscertainty is joined the extreme probability that a nation which had made aseriesofcelestialobservationsfornearlytwothousandyearshadcongregatedand formed a considerable power several ages before the first of theseobservations.

Itisapitythatnoneofthecalculationsoftheancientprofaneauthorsagreewithoursacredones,andthatnoneofthenamesoftheprinceswhoreignedafter thedifferentepochsassigned to theDelugehavebeenknownbyeitherEgyptians,Syrians,Babylonians,orGreeks.

It isno lessapity that there remainsnoton theearthamong theprofaneauthorsonevestigeofthefamoustowerofBabel;nothingofthisstoryoftheconfusionoftonguesisfoundinanybook.ThismemorableadventurewasasunknowntothewholeuniverseasthenamesofNoah,Methuselah,Cain,andAdamandEve.

Thisdifficultytantalizesourcuriosity.Herodotus,whotravelledsomuch,speaksneitherofNoah,orShem,Reu,Salah,orNimrod.ThenameofNimrodis unknown to all profane antiquity; there are only a few Arabs and somemodernPersianswhohavemadementionofNimrodinfalsifyingthebooksoftheJews.

Nothingremainstoconductusthroughtheseancientruins,unknowntoallthe nations of the universe during somany ages, but faith in theBible, andhappilythatisaninfallibleguide.

Herodotus,whohasmingledmanyfableswithsometruths,pretendsthatinhis time, which was that of greatest power of the Persian sovereigns ofBabylon,allthewomenoftheimmensecitywereobligedtogoonceintheirlivestothetempleofMylitta,agoddesswhowasthought tobethesameasAphrodite,orVenus,inordertoprostitutethemselvestostrangers,andthatthelawcommanded them to receivemoneyas a sacred tribute,whichwaspaid

overtothepriesthoodofthegoddess.

ButeventhisArabiantaleismorelikelythanthatwhichthesameauthortellsofCyrusdividingtheIndusintothreehundredandsixtycanals,whichalldischargedthemselvesintotheCaspianSea!WhatshouldwesayofMézerayifhehadtoldus thatCharlemagnedividedtheRhineinto threehundredandsixtycanals,which fell into theMediterranean, and that all the ladiesofhiscourtwereobligedonceintheirlivestopresentthemselvesatthechurchofSt.Genevievetoprostitutethemselvestoallcomersformoney?

Itmustberemarkedthatsuchafableisstillmoreabsurdinrelationtothetime of Xerxes, in which Herodotus lived, than it would be in that ofCharlemagne. The Orientals were a thousand times more jealous than theFranksandGauls.Thewivesofallthegreatlordswerecarefullyguardedbyeunuchs. This custom existed from time immemorial. It is seen even in theJewish history that when that little nation wished like the others to have aking,Samuel,todissuadethemfromitandtoretainhisauthority,said"thataking would tyrannize over them and that he would take the tenths of theirvines and corn to give to his eunuchs." The kings accomplished thisprediction, for it is written in the First Book of Kings that KingAhab hadeunuchs, and in the Second that Joram, Jehu, Jehoiakim, and Zedekiah hadthemalso.

TheeunuchsofPharaoharespokenofalongtimepreviouslyintheBookofGenesis,anditissaidthatPotiphar,towhomJosephwassold,wasoneofthe king's eunuchs. It is clear, therefore, that there were great numbers ofeunuchsatBabylon toguard thewomen. Itwasnot thenaduty for them toprostitute themselves to thefirstcomer,norwasBabylon, thecityofGod,avastbrothelasithasbeenpretended.

ThesetalesofHerodotus,aswellasallothersinthesametaste,arenowsodecriedbyallpeopleofsense—reasonhasmadesogreatprogress thatevenoldwomenandchildrenwillnolongerbelievesuchextravagances—"Nonestvetulaquæcredatnecpuericredunt,nisiquinondumærelavantur."

Thereis inourdaysonlyonemanwho,notpartakingof thespiritof theage in which he lives, would justify the fable of Herodotus. The infamyappears to him a very simple affair. He would prove that the Babylonianprincesses prostituted themselves through piety, to the first passengers,becauseitissaidintheholywritingsthattheAmmonitesmadetheirchildrenpassthroughthefireinpresentingthemtoMoloch.Butwhatrelationhasthiscustomofsomebarbaroushordes—thissuperstitionofpassingtheirchildrenthroughtheflames,orevenofburningthemonpiles,inhonorofIknownotwhom—ofMoloch; these Iroquois horrors of a petty, infamous people to aprostitutionsoincredibleinanationknowntobethemostjealousandorderly

oftheEast?WouldwhatpassesamongtheIroquoisbeamongusaproofofthecustomsofthecourtsofFranceandofSpain?

He also brings, in further proof, the Lupercal feast among the Romansduringwhichhesaystheyoungpeopleofqualityandrespectablemagistratesrannakedthroughthecitywithwhipsintheirhands,withwhichtheystruckthe pregnant women of quality, who unblushingly presented themselves totheminthehopeoftherebyobtainingahappydeliverance.

Now,inthefirstplace,itisnotsaidthattheseRomansofqualityranquitenaked, on the contrary, Plutarch expressly observes, in his remarks on thecustom,thattheywerecoveredfromthewaistdownwards.

Secondly, it seems by the manner in which this defender of infamouscustoms expresses himself that the Roman ladies stripped naked to receivetheseblowsofthewhip,whichisabsolutelyfalse.

Thirdly,theLupercalfeasthasnorelationwhatevertothepretendedlawofBabylon,whichcommands thewivesanddaughtersof theking, the satraps,and the magi to sell and prostitute themselves to strangers out of puredevotion.

Whenanauthor,withoutknowingeither thehumanmindor themannersofnations,has themisfortunetobeobligedtocompilefrompassagesofoldauthors,whoarealmostallcontradictory,heshouldadvancehisopinionswithmodesty and know how to doubt, and to shake off the dust of the college.Aboveallheshouldneverexpresshimselfwithoutrageousinsolence.

Herodotus,orCtesias,orDiodorusofSicily,relateafact:youhavereaditinGreek, therefore this fact is true.Thismanner of reasoning,which is notthatofEuclid,issurprisingenoughinthetimeinwhichwelive;butallmindswillnotbe instructedwithequal facility;and therearealwaysmorepersonswhocompilethanpeoplewhothink.

Wewill say nothing here of the confusion of tongues which took placeduring the construction of the tower ofBabel. It is amiracle, related in theHolyScriptures.Weneither explain,nor evenexamineanymiracles, andasthe authors of that great work, the Encyclopædia, believed them, we alsobelievethemwithalivelyandsincerefaith.

We will simply affirm that the fall of the Roman Empire has producedmoreconfusionandagreaternumberofnewlanguagesthanthatofthetowerofBabel.FromthereignofAugustustillthetimeoftheAttilas,theClovises,andtheGondiberts,duringsixages,"terraeratuniuslabii"—"theknownearthwasofonelanguage."TheyspokethesameLatinattheEuphratesasatMountAtlas.ThelawswhichgovernedahundrednationswerewritteninLatinandtheGreekservedforamusement,whilstthebarbarousjargonofeachprovince

wasonly for thepopulace.Theypleaded inLatinatonce in the tribunalsofAfricaandofRome.AninhabitantofCornwalldepartedforAsiaMinorsureofbeingunderstoodeverywhereinhisroute.Itwasatleastonegoodeffectedby the rapacity of the Romans that people found themselves as wellunderstood on the Danube as on the Guadalquiver. At the present time aBergamaskwho travels into the smallSwisscantons, fromwhichhe isonlyseparatedbyamountain,hasthesameneedofaninterpreterasifhewereinChina.Thisisoneofthegreatestplaguesofmodernlife.

SectionII.

Vanity has always raised stately monuments. It was through vanity thatmenbuilttheloftytowerofBabel."Letusgoandraiseatower,thesummitofwhich shall touch the skies, and render our name celebrated before we arescattered upon the face of the earth." The enterprise was undertaken hi thetime of a patriarch namedPhaleg,who counted the goodmanNoah for hisfifth ancestor. It will be seen that architecture, and all the arts whichaccompany it, hadmade great progress in five generations. St. Jerome, thesamewhohasseenfaunsandsatyrs,hasnotseenthetowerofBabelanymorethanIhave,butheassuresusthatitwastwentythousandfeethigh.Thisisatrifle. The ancient book, "Jacult" written by one of the most learned Jews,demonstrates theheight tobeeighty-onethousandJewishfeet,andeveryoneknowsthattheJewishfootwasnearlyaslongastheGreek.Thesedimensionsare still more likely than those of Jerome. This tower remains, but it is nolonger quite so high; several quite veracious travellers have seen it. I, whohavenotseenit,willtalkaslittleofitasofmygrandfatherAdam,withwhomIneverhadthehonorofconversing.ButconsultthereverendfatherCalmet;heisamanoffinewitandaprofoundphilosopherandwillexplainthethingtoyou.Idonotknowwhyitissaid,inGenesis,thatBabelsignifiesconfusion,for,asIhavealreadyobserved,baanswerstofatherintheeasternlanguages,and bel signifiesGod.Babelmeans the city ofGod, the holy city.But it isincontestablethatBabelmeansconfusion,possiblybecausethearchitectswereconfounded after having raised their work to eighty-one thousand feet,perhaps,because the languageswere thenconfounded,as from that time theGermansnolongerunderstoodtheChinese,although,accordingtothelearnedBochart,itisclearthattheChineseisoriginallythesamelanguageastheHighGerman.

BACCHUS.

OfallthetrueorfabulouspersonagesofprofaneantiquityBacchusistous

themostimportant.IdonotmeanforthefineinventionwhichisattributedtohimbyalltheworldexcepttheJews,butfortheprodigiousresemblanceofhisfabuloushistorytothetrueadventuresofMoses.

TheancientpoetshaveplacedthebirthofBacchusinEgypt;heisexposedon the Nile and it is from that event that he is named Mises by the firstOrpheus,which, inEgyptian,signifies"savedfromthewaters,"accordingtothose who pretend to understand the ancient Egyptian tongue, which is nolongerknown.HeisbroughtupnearamountainofArabiacalledNisa,whichisbelievedtobeMountSinai.ItispretendedthatagoddessorderedhimtogoanddestroyabarbarousnationandthathepassedthroughtheRedSeaonfoot,withamultitudeofmen,women,andchildren.AnothertimetheriverOrontessuspendeditswatersrightand left to lethimpass,and theHydaspesdid thesame.Hecommandedthesuntostandstill;twoluminousraysproceededfromhishead.Hemadeafountainofwinespoutupbystrikingthegroundwithhisthyrsis, and engraved his laws on two tables ofmarble. Hewanted only tohaveafflictedEgyptwithtenplagues,tobetheperfectcopyofMoses.

Vossiusis,I think,thefirstwhohasextendedthisparallel.ThebishopofAvranches,Huet,haspushed itquiteas far,butheadds, inhis "EvangelicalDemonstrations"thatMosesisnotonlyBacchus,butthatheisalsoOsirisandTyphon. He does not halt in this fine path. Moses, according to him, isÆsculapius, Amphion, Apollo, Adonis, and even Priapus. It is pleasantenoughthatHuetfoundshisproofthatMosesisAdonisintheirbothkeepingsheep:"Etformosusoves,adfluminapavitAdonis."

HecontendsthatheisPriapusbecausePriapusissometimespaintedwithanass,andtheJewsweresupposed,amongtheGentiles,toadoreanass.Hegivesanotherproof,notverycanonical,whichisthattherodofMosesmightbe compared to the sceptre of Priapus. "Sceptrum tribuitur Priapo, virgaMost."NeitheristhisdemonstrationinthemannerofEuclid.

Wewill not here speak of themoremodernBacchuses, such as hewholived two hundred years before the Trojan war, and whom the GreekscelebratedasasonofJupiter,shutupinhisthigh.WewillpauseathimwhowassupposedtobebornontheconfinesofEgyptandtohaveperformedsomanyprodigies.OurrespectforthesacredJewishbookswillnotpermitustodoubt that theEgyptians, theArabs, and even theGreeks, have imitated thehistoryofMoses.Thedifficultyconsistssolelyinnotknowinghowtheycouldbeinstructedinthisincontrovertiblehistory.WithrespecttotheEgyptians,itisverylikelythattheyneverrecordedthesemiraclesofMoses,whichwouldhave covered themwith shame. If theyhad said awordof it the historians,Josephus and Philo, would not have failed to have taken advantage of itJosephus, in his answer to Appion,made a point of citing all the EgyptianauthorswhohavementionedMoses,andhefindsnonewhorelateoneofthese

miracles.NoJewhaseverquotedanyEgyptianauthorwhohassaidawordofthetenplaguesofEgypt,ofthemiraculouspassagethroughtheRedSea,etc.It could not be among theEgyptians, therefore, that this scandalous parallelwasformedbetweenthedivineMosesandtheprofaneBacchus.

ItisveryclearthatifasingleEgyptianauthorhadsaidawordofthegreatmiraclesofMosesallthesynagogueofAlexandria,allthedisputatiouschurchofthatfamoustownwouldhavequotedsuchword,andhavetriumphedatit,everyoneafterhismanner.Athenagorus,Clement,Origen,whohavesaid somany useless things, would have related this important passage a thousandtimes and itwould have been the strongest argument of all the fathers.Thewholehavekeptaprofoundsilence; theyHad,therefore,nothingtosay.Buthowwas itpossible foranyEgyptian tospeakof theexploitsofamanwhocausedallthefirstbornofthefamiliesofEgypttobekilled;whoturnedtheNiletoblood,andwhodrownedintheRedSeatheirkingandallhisarmy?

All our historians agree that one Clodowick, a Sicambrian, subjugatedGaulwith a handful of barbarians. The English are the first to say that theSaxons, theDanes, and theNormanscameby turns toexterminateapartoftheir nation. If they had not avowed this truth all Europe would haveexclaimedagainst itsconcealment.Theuniverseshouldexclaim in thesamemannerattheamazingprodigiesofMoses,ofJoshua,ofGideon,Samson,andof so many leaders and prophets. The universe is silent notwithstanding.Amazingmystery!Ononesideitispalpablematallistrue,sinceitisfoundintheholywritings,whichareapprovedbytheChurch;ontheotheritisevidentthatnopeoplehaveevermentionedit.LetusworshipProvidence,andsubmitourselvesinallthings.

TheArabs,whohavealwayslovedthemarvellous,wereprobablythefirstauthorsofthefablesinventedofBacchus,afterwardsadoptedandembellishedbytheGreeks.ButhowcamethestoriesoftheArabsandGreekstoagreesowell with those of the Jews? It is known that the Hebrews nevercommunicated their books to anyone till the time of the Ptolemies; theyregarded such communication as a sacrilege, and Josephus, to justify theirobstinacy in concealing thePentateuch from the rest of theworld, says thatGodpunishedallforeignerswhodaredtospeakoftheJewishhistories.Ifweare tobelievehim, thehistorianTheopompus, foronlydesigningtomentionthem in his work, became deranged for thirty days, and the tragic poetTheodecteswasstruckblindforhavingintroducedthenameoftheJewsintooneofhis tragedies.Suchare theexcuses thatFlaviusJosephusgives inhisanswertoAppionforthehistoryoftheJewsbeingsolongunknown.

These books were of such prodigious scarcity that we only hear of onecopyunderKingJosiah,andthiscopyhadbeenlostforalongtimeandwasfoundinthebottomofachestonthereportofShaphan,scribetothePontiff

Hilkiah,whocarriedittotheking.

Thiscircumstancehappened,accordingtotheSecondBookofKings,sixhundredandtwenty-fouryearsbeforeourvulgarera,fourhundredyearsafterHomer,andinthemostflourishingtimesofGreece.TheGreeksthenscarcelyknewthattherewereanyHebrewsintheworld.ThecaptivityoftheJewsatBabylonstillmoreaugmentedtheirignoranceoftheirownbooks.EsdrasmusthaverestoredthemattheendofseventyyearsandforalreadymorethanfivehundredyearsthefableofBacchushadbeencurrentamongtheGreeks.

If theGreeks had founded their fables on the Jewish history theywouldhave chosen facts more interesting to mankind, such as the adventures ofAbraham,thoseofNoah,ofMethuselah,ofSeth,Enoch,Cain,andEve;ofthefatal serpent and of the tree of knowledge, allwhich names have ever beenunknown to them.Therewas only a slight knowledge of the Jewish peopleuntilalongtimeaftertherevolutionthatAlexanderproducedinAsiaandinEurope;thehistorianJosephusavowsitinformalterms.ThisisthemannerinwhichheexpresseshimselfinthecommencementofhisreplytoAppion,who(byway of parenthesis) was deadwhen he answered him, for Appion diedundertheEmperorClaudius,andJosephuswroteunderVespasian.

"As the country we inhabit is distant from the sea we do not applyourselves to commerce and have no communicationwith other nations.Wecontent ourselveswith cultivating our lands, which are very fertile, andwelaborchieflytobringupourchildrenproperly,becausenothingappearstoussonecessaryastoinstructthemintheknowledgeofourholylawsandintruepiety, which inspires them with the desire of observing them. The abovereasons,addedtoothersalreadymentioned,andthismannerof lifewhich ispeculiartous,showwhywehavehadnocommunicationwiththeGreeks,liketheEgyptiansandPhœnicians.Isitastonishingthatournation,sodistantfromthe sea, not affecting towrite anything, and living in thewaywhich I haverelated,hasbeenlittleknown?"

AftersuchanauthenticavowalfromaJew,themosttenaciousofthehonorofhisnationthathaseverwritten,itwillbeseenthatitisimpossiblefortheancientGreekstohavetakenthefableofBacchusfromtheholybooksoftheHebrews, any more than the sacrifice of Iphigenia, that of the son ofIdomeneus,thelaborsofHercules,theadventureofEurydice,andothers.Thequantityofancienttaleswhichresembleoneanotherisprodigious.HowisitthattheGreekshaveputintofableswhattheHebrewshaveputintohistories?Was it by the gift of invention; was it by a facility of imitation, or inconsequenceoftheaccordanceoffineminds?Toconclude:Godhaspermittedit—atruthwhichoughttosuffice.

Ofwhatconsequence is it that theArabsandGreekshave said the same

thingsastheJews?WereadtheOldTestamentonlytoprepareourselvesfortheNew,andinneithertheonenortheotherdoweseekanythingbutlessonsofbenevolence,moderation,gentleness,andtruecharity.

BACON(ROGER).

ItisgenerallythoughtthatRogerBacon,thefamousmonkofthethirteenthcentury,wasaverygreatmanandthathepossessedtrueknowledge,becausehewaspersecutedandcondemned toprisonbya setof ignoramuses. It is agreat prejudice in his favor, I own. But does it not happen every day thatquacksgravelycondemnotherquacks,andthatfoolsmakeotherfoolspaythepenaltyoffolly?This,ourworld,hasforalongtimeresembledthecompactedificesinwhichhewhobelievesintheeternalFatheranathematizeshimwhobelieves in the Holy Ghost; circumstances which are not very rare even inthese days. Among the things which render Friar Bacon commendable wemustfirstreckonhisimprisonment,andthenthenobleboldnesswithwhichhedeclaredthatallthebooksofAristotlewerefitonlytobeburnedandthatatatime when the learned respected Aristotle much more than the JansenistsrespectSt.Augustine.HasRogerBacon,however,doneanythingbetter thanthe Poetics, the Rhetoric, and the Logic of Aristotle? These three immortalworks clearly prove that Aristotle was a very great and fine genius—penetrating, profound, and methodical; and that he was only a bad naturalphilosopherbecauseitwasimpossibletopenetrateintothedepthsofphysicalsciencewithouttheaidofinstruments.

DoesRogerBacon,inhisbestwork,inwhichhetreatsoflightandvision,expresshimselfmuchmoreclearlythanAristotlewhenhesayslightiscreatedbymeansofmultiplyingitsluminousspecies,whichactioniscalledunivocaland conformable to the agent? He also mentions another equivocalmultiplication,bywhichlightengendersheatandheatputrefaction.

Roger Bacon likewise tells us that life may be prolonged by means ofspermaceti, aloes, anddragons' flesh, and that thephilosopher's stonewouldrenderusimmortal.Itisthoughtthatbesidesthesefinesecretshepossessedallthoseofjudicialastrology,withoutexception,asheaffirmsverypositivelyinhis"OpusMajus,"thattheheadofmanissubjecttotheinfluencesoftheram,hisnecktothoseofthebull,andhisarmstothepowerofthetwins.Heevendemonstrates these fine things from experience, and highly praises a greatastrologeratPariswhosaysthathehinderedasurgeonfromputtingaplasteronthelegofaninvalid,becausethesunwastheninthesignofAquarius,andAquariusisfataltolegstowhichplastersareapplied.

It is an opinion quite generally received that Roger was the inventor ofgunpowder. It is certain that itwas inhis time that importantdiscoverywasmade,forIalwaysremarkthatthespiritofinventionisofall timesandthatthe doctors, or sages, who govern both mind and body are generallyprofoundlyignorant,foolishlyprejudiced,oratwarwithcommonsense.Itisusually among obscuremen that artists are found animated with a superiorinstinct,whoinventadmirablethingsonwhichthelearnedafterwardsreason.

One thing that surprises me much is that Friar Bacon knew not thedirectionofthemagneticneedle,which,inhistime,begantobeunderstoodinItaly,butinlieuthereofhewasacquaintedwiththeSecretofthehazelrodandmanysuchthingsOfwhichhetreatsinhis"DignityoftheExperimentalArt."

Yet, notwithstanding this pitiable number of absurdities and chimeras, itmustbeconfessedthatRogerBaconwasanadmirablemanforhisage.Whatage?youwillask—thatoffeudalgovernmentandoftheschoolmen.Figuretoyourself Samoyedes and Ostiacs who read Aristotle. Such were we at thattime.

RogerBaconknewa littleofgeometryandoptics,whichmadehimpassforasorcereratRomeandParis.Hewas,however,reallyacquaintedwiththemattercontainedintheArabian"Alhazen,"forinthosedayslittlewasknownexceptthroughtheArabs.TheywerethephysiciansandastrologersofalltheChristiankings.Theking'sfoolwasalwaysanative;hisdoctoranAraboraJew.

Transport thisBacon to the times inwhichwe live andhewouldbe, nodoubt,agreatman.Hewasgold,encrustedwiththerustofthetimesinwhichhelived,thisgoldwouldnowbequicklypurified.Poorcreaturesthatweare!Howmanyageshavepassedawayinacquiringalittlereason!

BANISHMENT.

Banishment for a term of years, or for life: a penalty inflicted ondelinquents,oronindividualswhoarewishedtobeconsideredassuch.

Not long ago it was the custom to banish fromwithin the limits of thejurisdiction, for petty thefts, forgeries, and assaults, the result ofwhichwasthat the offender became a great robber, forger, or murderer in some otherjurisdiction. This is like throwing into a neighbor's field the stones thatincommodeusinourown.

Thosewhohavewrittenonthelawsofnationshavetormentedthemselvesgreatlytodeterminewhetheramanwhohasbeenbanishedfromhiscountry

can justly be said still to belong to that country. Itmight almost aswell beaskedwhetheragambler,whohasbeendrivenawayfromthegaming-table,isstilloneoftheplayersatthattable.

Ifbythelawofnatureamanispermittedtochoosehiscountry,stillmoreis themanwhohas lost the rightsofacitizenat liberty tochoosehimselfanewcountry.Mayhebeararmsagainsthisformerfellow-citizens?Ofthiswehave a thousand examples. How many French Protestants, naturalized inEngland, Holland, or Germany, have served, not only against France, butagainstarmies inwhich their relatives, theirownbrothers,havefought?TheGreeksinthearmiesofthekingofPersiafoughtagainsttheGreeks,theiroldfellow-countrymen.TheSwiss in theserviceofHollandhave firedupon theSwissintheserviceofFrance.Thisisevenworsethanfightingagainstthosewhohavebanishedyou,for,afterall,drawingtheswordinrevengedoesnotseemsobadasdrawingitforhire.

BAPTISM.

AGreekWord,SignifyingImmersion.

SectionI.

Wedonotspeakofbaptismastheologians;wearebutpoormenofletters,whoshallneverenterthesanctuary.TheIndiansplunge,andhavefromtimeimmemorial plunged, into the Ganges. Mankind, always guided by theirsenses,easilyimaginedthatwhatpurifiedthebodylikewisepurifiedthesoul.In the subterranean apartments under theEgyptian temples therewere largetubsforthepriestsandtheinitiated.

Onimiumfacilesquitristiacriminacædis

Flumineatolliposseputatisaqua!

OldBaudier,whenhewaseighty,madethefollowingcomictranslationoftheselines:

C'estunedrôledemaxime,

Qu'unelessiveeffaceuncrime.

Onecan'tbutthinkitsomewhatdroll,

Pump-waterthusshouldcleanseasoul.

Every sign being of itself indifferent,God vouchsafed to consecrate thiscustom amongst the Hebrew people. All foreigners that came to settle in

Palestinewerebaptized;theywerecalleddomiciliaryproselytes.

They were not forced to receive circumcision, but only to embrace theseven precepts of the Noachides, and to sacrifice to no strange god. Theproselytes of justice were circumcised and baptized; the female proselyteswerealsobaptized,quitenaked,inthepresenceofthreemen.Themostdevoutamong the Jewswent and received baptism from the hands of the prophetsmostveneratedbythepeople.HenceitwasthattheyflockedtoSt.John,whobaptizedintheJordan.

Jesus Christ Himself, who never baptized anyone, deigned to receivebaptismfromSt.John.Thiscustom,whichhadlongbeenanaccessoryoftheJewish religion, received new dignity, new value from our Saviour, andbecame the chief rite, the principal seal of Christianity. However, the firstfifteen bishops of Jerusalem were Jews. 'The Christians of Palestine longcontinued to circumcise. St. John's Christians never received baptism fromChrist.

SeveralotherChristiansocietiesappliedacautery to thebaptized,withared-hot iron, being determined to the performance of this extraordinaryoperationbythewordsofSt.JohntheBaptist,relatedbySt.Luke:"Ibaptizeyouwithwater,butHethatcomethaftermeshallbaptizeyouwithfire."

This was practised by the Seleucians, the Herminians, and some others.Thewords,"Heshallbaptizeyouwithfire,"haveneverbeenexplained.ThereareseveralopinionsconcerningthebaptismbyfirewhichismentionedbySt.Luke and St. Matthew. Perhaps the most likely opinion is that it was anallusion to the ancient custom of the devotees to the Syrian goddess, who,afterplungingintowater,imprintedcharactersontheirbodieswithahotiron.With miserable man all was superstition, but Jesus substituted for theseridiculoussuperstitionsasacredceremony—adivineandefficacioussymbol.

In the first ages of Christianity nothing was more common than topostponethereceivingofbaptismuntilthelastagony.Ofthistheexampleofthe Emperor Constantine is a very strong proof. St. Andrew had not beenbaptizedwhenhewasmadebishopofMilan.Thecustomofdeferringtheuseofthesacredbathuntilthehourofdeathwassoonabolished.

BaptismoftheDead.

Thedeadalsowerebaptized.ThisisestablishedbythepassageofSt.Paulto the Corinthians: "If we rise not again what shall they do that receivebaptism from thedead?"Here is a point of fact.Either thedead themselveswere baptized, or baptismwas received in their names, as indulgences havesincebeenreceivedforthedeliveranceofthesoulsoffriendsandrelativesoutofpurgatory.

St.EpiphaniusandSt.ChrysostominformusthatitwasacustominsomeChristiansocieties,andprincipallyamongtheMarcionites,toputalivingmanunder the deadman's bed; he was then asked if he would be baptized; thelivingmanansweredyes,andthecorpsewastakenandplungedintoatubofwater.Thiscustomwassooncondemned.St.Paulmentionsitbuthedoesnotcondemn it; on the contrary he cites it as an invincible argument to proveresurrection.

BaptismbyAspersion.

TheGreeksalwaysretainedbaptismbyimmersion.TheLatins,abouttheclose of the eighth century, having extended their religion into Gaul andGermanyandseeingthatimmersionmightbefataltoinfantsincoldcountries,substituted simple aspersion and thus drew upon themselves frequentanathemasfromtheGreekChurch.

St.Cyprian, bishopofCarthage,was asked if thosewere reallybaptizedwhohadonlyhadtheirbodiessprinkledallover.Heanswers,inhisseventy-sixthletter,thatseveralchurchesdidnotbelievethesprinkledtobeChristians;that,forhisownpart,hebelievesthattheyareso,butthattheyhaveinfinitelylessgracethanthosewhohavebeenthricedipped,accordingtocustom.

A personwas initiated among the Christians as soon as he was dipped;untilthenhewasonlyacatechumen.TobeinitiateditwasnecessarytohavesponsorstoanswertotheChurchforthefidelityofthenewChristiansandthatthemysteries shouldnotbedivulged.Hence itwas that in the first ages theGentileshad,ingeneral,aslittleknowledgeoftheChristianmysteriesastheChristianshadofthemysteriesofIsisandtheEleusinianCeres.

Cyril ofAlexandria, in hiswriting against theEmperor Julian, expresseshimselfthus:"IwouldspeakofbaptismbutthatIfearmywordswouldreachthemwho are not initiated." At that time there was no worship without itsmysteries, its associations, its catechumens, its initiated, and its professed.Each sect requirednewvirtues and recommended to its penitents anew life—"initium novæ vitæ"—whence the word initiation. The initiation ofChristians, whether male or female, consisted in their being plunged quitenakedintoatubofcoldwater,towhichsignwasattachedtheremissionofalltheirsins.ButthedifferencebetweenChristianbaptismandtheGreek,Syrian,Egyptian, and Roman ceremonies was the difference between truth andfalsehood.JesusChristwastheHighPriestofthenewlaw.

Inthesecondcenturyinfantsbegantobebaptized;itwasnaturalthattheChristiansshoulddesiretheirchildren,whowouldhavebeendamnedwithoutthis sacrament, to be providedwith it. It was at length concluded that theymustreceiveitattheexpirationofeightdays,becausethatwastheperiodatwhich, among the Jews, theywere circumcised. In theGreekChurch this is

stillthecustom.

Suchasdiedinthefirstweekweredamned,accordingtothemostrigorousfathers of theChurch.But PeterChrysologos, in the fifth century, imaginedlimbo, a sort of mitigated hell, or properly, the border, the outskirt of hell,whither all infants dying without baptism go and where the patriarchsremaineduntilJesusChrist'sdescent intohell.So that theopinion thatJesusChristdescendedintolimbo,andnotintohell,hassincethenprevailed.

It was agitated whether a Christian in the deserts of Arabia might bebaptized with sand, this was answered in the negative. It was asked ifrosewatermightbeused, itwasdecided thatpurewaterwouldbenecessarybutthatmuddywatermightbemadeuseof.Itisevidentthatallthisdisciplinedependedonthediscretionofthefirstpastorswhoestablishedit.

TheAnabaptistsandsomeothercommunionsoutofthepalehavethoughtthatnooneshouldbebaptizedwithoutathoroughknowledgeofthemeritsofthecase.Yourequire,saythey,apromisetobeoftheChristiansociety,butachildcanmakenoengagement.Yougiveitasponsor,butthisisanabuseofan ancient custom. The precaution was requisite in the first establishment.Whenstrangers,adultmenandwomen,cameandpresentedthemselvestobereceivedintothesocietyandshareinthealmstherewasneededaguaranteetoanswer for their fidelity; itwasnecessary tomake sureof them; they sworetheywouldbe Jews,but an infant is in adiametricallyopposite case. It hasoften happened, that a child baptized by Greeks at Constantinople hasafterwards been circumcised by Turks, a Christian at eight days old and aMussulmanatthirtyyears,hehasbetrayedtheoathsofhisgodfather.

ThisisonereasonwhichtheAnabaptistsmightallege;itwouldholdgoodinTurkey,butithasneverbeenadmittedinChristiancountrieswherebaptisminsuresacitizen'scondition.Wemustconform to the rightsand lawsofourcountry.

TheGreeks re-baptize such of the Latins as pass from one of our Latincommunions to theGreekcommunion. In the lastcentury itwas thecustomfor these catechumens to pronounce the following words: "I spit upon myfatherandmymotherwhohadmeillbaptized."Thiscustomstillexists,andwill,perhaps,longcontinuetoexistintheprovinces.

NotionsofRigidUnitariansConcerningBaptism.

It is evident to whosoever is willing to reason without prejudice thatbaptismisneitheramarkofgraceconferrednorasealofalliance,butsimplyamarkofprofession.

That baptism is not necessary, neither by necessity of precept, nor bynecessity ofmeans. That it was not instituted by Christ and that it may be

omittedbytheChristianwithouthissufferinganyinconveniencetherefrom.

Thatbaptismshouldbeadministeredneithertochildren,nortoadults,nor,ingeneral,toanyindividualwhatsoever.

That baptismmight be of service in the early infancy of Christianity tothosewhoquittedpaganisminorder tomake theirprofessionoffaithpublicand give an authentic mark of it, but that now it is absolutely useless andaltogetherindifferent.

SectionII.

Baptism, immersion inwater, abstersion, purification bywater, is of thehighestantiquity.Tobecleanlywastobepurebeforethegods.Nopriesteverdaredtoapproachthealtarwithasoiluponhisbody.Thenaturalinclinationtotransfer to the soul that which appertains to the body led to the belief thatlustrations and ablutions took away the stains of the soul as they removedthoseofthegarmentsandthatwashingthebodywashedthesoulalso.HencetheancientcustomofbathingintheGanges,thewatersofwhichwerethoughtto be sacred; hence the lustrations so frequent among every people. TheOrientalnations, inhabitinghotcountries,were themost religiouslyattachedtothesecustoms.

The Jews were obliged to bathe after any pollution—after touching anuncleananimal,touchingacorpse,andonmanyotheroccasions.

WhentheJewsreceivedamongthemastrangerconvertedtotheirreligiontheybaptized,aftercircumcisinghim,andifitwasawomanshewassimplybaptized—that is, dipped in water in the presence of three witnesses. Thisimmersionwas reputed togive thepersonsbaptizedanewbirth,anew life;theybecameatonceJewishandpure.Childrenbornbeforethisbaptismhadnoshareintheinheritanceoftheirbrethren,bornafterthemofaregeneratedfatherandmother.Sothat,withtheJews,tobebaptizedandtobebornagainwerethesamething,andthisideahasremainedattachedtobaptismdowntothe present day. Thus, when John, the forerunner, began to baptize in theJordanhedidbutfollowanimmemorialusage.Thepriestsofthelawdidnotcall him to account for this baptizing as for anythingnew,but they accusedhimofarrogatingtohimselfarightwhichbelongedexclusivelytothem—asRomanCatholicpriestswouldhavearighttocomplainifalaymantookuponhimself to say mass. John was doing a lawful thing but was doing itunlawfully.

Johnwished to have disciples, and he had them.Hewas chief of a sectamongthelowerordersofthepeopleanditcosthimhislife.ItevenappearsthatJesuswasatfirstamonghisdisciples,sincehewasbaptizedbyhimintheJordan,andJohnsentsomeofhisownpartytoHimashort timebeforeHis

death.

ThehistorianJosephusspeaksofJohnbutnotofJesus—anincontestableproofthatinhistimeJohntheBaptisthadagreaterreputationthanHewhomhe baptized. A greatmultitude followed him, says that celebrated historian,and the Jews seemed disposed to undertake whatever he should commandthem.

FromthispassageitappearsthatJohnwasnotonlythechiefofasect,butthechiefofaparty.JosephusaddsthathecausedHerodsomeuneasiness.Hedid indeed make himself formidable to Herod, who, at length, put him todeath, but Jesus meddled with none but the Pharisees. Josephus, therefore,mentionsJohnasamanwhohadstirreduptheJewsagainstKingHerod;asone whose zeal had made him a state criminal, but Jesus, not havingapproachedthecourt,wasunknowntothehistorianJosephus.

The sect of John the Baptist differed widely in discipline from that ofJesus.IntheActsoftheApostlesweseethattwentyyearsaftertheexecutionofJesus,ApollosofAlexandria,thoughbecomeaChristian,knewnobaptismbut thatofJohn,norhadany ideaof theHolyGhost.Several travellers,andamongothersChardin,themostaccreditedofall,saythatinPersiatherestillaredisciplesofJohn,calledSabis,whobaptizeinhisnameandacknowledgeJesusasaprophet,butnotasagod.

As for JesusChristHimselfHe received baptism but conferred it on noone;Hisapostlesbaptizedthecatechumens,orcircumcisedthemasoccasionrequired;thisisevidentfromtheoperationofcircumcisionperformedbyPaulonhisdiscipleTimothy.

ItalsoappearsthatwhentheapostlesbaptizeditwasalwaysinthenameofJesusChristalone.TheActsoftheApostlesdonotmentionanyonebaptizedinthenameoftheFather,Son,andHolyGhost—whenceitmaybeconcludedthattheauthoroftheActsoftheApostlesknewnothingofMatthew'sgospel,inwhichitissaid:"Goandteachallnations,baptizingtheminthenameoftheFather,andoftheSon,andoftheHolyGhost."TheChristianreligionhadnotyetreceiveditsform.EventheSymbol,whichwascalledtheSymbolof theApostles,wasnotmadeuntilaftertheirtime,ofthisnoonehasanydoubt.InPaul's Epistle to theCorinthianswe find a very singular customwhichwasthen introduced—that of baptizing the dead, but the rising Church soonreservedbaptism for the livingalone;at firstnonewerebaptizedbutadults,andtheceremonywasoftendeferreduntiltheageoffifty,orthelastsickness,that the individualmightcarrywithhiminto theotherworld theunimpairedvirtueofabaptismrecentlyperformed.

Now, all children are baptized: none but the Anabaptists reserve thisceremony for thematureage; theyplunge theirwholebodies into thewater.

The Quakers, who compose a very numerous society in England and inAmerica, donot usebaptism: the reason is that JesusChrist didnot baptizeany ofHis disciples, and their aim is to beChristians only asHis discipleswere—which occasions a very wide difference between them and othercommunions.

AdditiontotheArticle"Baptism"byAbbéNicaise.

The Emperor Julian, the philosopher, in his immortal "Satire on theCæsars,"putsthesewordsintothemouthofConstantius,sonofConstantine:"Whosoeverfeelshimselfguiltyofrape,murder,plunder,sacrilege,andeverymostabominablecrime,sosoonasIhavewashedhimwiththiswater,heshallbecleanandpure."

Itwas, indeed, this fataldoctrine thatoccasioned theChristianemperors,and the great men of the empire, to defer their baptism until death. Theythoughttheyhadfoundthesecretoflivingcriminalanddyingvirtuous.

Howstrangeanidea—thatapotofwatershouldwashawayeverycrime!Now,allchildrenarebaptizedbecauseanideanolessabsurdsupposesthemallcriminal;theyareallsaveduntiltheyhavetheuseofreasonandthepowertobecomeguilty!Cuttheirthroats,then,asquicklyaspossible,toinsuretheirentrance into paradise. This is so just a consequence that there was once adevoutsect thatwentaboutpoisoningandkillingallnewly-baptized infants.Thesedevoutpersonsreasonedwithperfectcorrectness,saying:"Wedotheselittleinnocentsthegreatestpossiblegood;wepreventthemfrombeingwickedandunhappyinthislifeandwegivethemlifeeternal."

BARUCH,ORBARAK,ANDDEBORAH;

AND,INCIDENTALLY,ONCHARIOTSOFWAR.

WehavenointentionheretoinquireatwhattimeBaruchwaschiefoftheJewishpeople;why,beingchief,heallowedhisarmytobecommandedbyawoman;whetherthiswoman,namedDeborah,hadmarriedLapidoth;whethershewasthefriendorrelativeofBaruch,orperhapshisdaughterorhismother;nor on what day the battle of Tabor, in Galilee, was fought between thisDeborah and Sisera, captain-general of the armies of King Jabin—whichSisera commanded in Galilee an army of three hundred thousand foot, tenthousandhorse,andthreethousandchariotsofwar,accordingtothehistorianJosephus.

Weshallatpresent leaveoutof thequestion thisJabin,kingofavillagecalledAzor,whohadmoretroopsthantheGrandTurk.Weverymuchpitythe

fateofhisgrand-vizierSisera,who,having lost thebattle inGalilee, leapedfromhischariotandfourthathemightflymoreswiftlyonfoot.HewentandbeggedthehospitalityofaholyJewishwoman,whogavehimsomemilkanddroveagreatcart-nailthroughhisheadwhilehewasasleep.Weareverysorryforit,butthisisnotthemattertobediscussed.Wewishtospeakofchariotsofwar.

Thebattlewas foughtat the footofMountTabor,near the riverKishon.Mount Tabor is a steepmountain, the branches ofwhich, somewhat less inheight, extend over a great part of Galilee. Between this mountain and theneighboring rocks there is a small plain, coveredwith great flint-stones andimpracticable for cavalry. The extent of this plain is four or five hundredpaces.Wemayventure tobelieve thatSiseradidnotheredrawuphis threehundred thousandmen in order of battle; his three thousand chariotswouldhavefounditdifficulttomanœuvreonsuchafield.

We may believe that the Hebrews had no chariots of war in a countryrenownedonlyforasses,buttheAsiaticsmadeuseoftheminthegreatplains.Confucius, or rather Confutze, says positively that, from time immemorial,eachoftheviceroysoftheprovinceswasexpectedtofurnishtotheemperorathousandwar-chariots,eachdrawnbyfourhorses.Chariotsmusthavebeeninuse longbefore theTrojanwar, forHomerdoesnotspeakof themasanewinvention,butthesechariotswerenotarmedlikethoseofBabylon,neitherthewheelsnortheaxleswerefurnishedwithsteelblades.

At first this invention must have been very formidable on large plains,especially when the chariots were numerous, driven with impetuosity, andarmedwithlongpikesandscythes,butwhentheybecamefamiliaritseemedsoeasytoavoidtheirshockthattheyfellintogeneraldisuse.

In the war of 1741 it was proposed to renew and reform this ancientinvention.Aministerofstatehadoneofthesechariotsconstructedanditwastried. Itwas asserted that in large plains, like that ofLützen, theymight beusedwithadvantagebyconcealingthembehindthecavalry,thesquadronsofwhichwould open to let them pass and then follow them, but the generalsjudged that thismanœuvrewould be useless, and even dangerous, now thatbattlesaregainedbycannononly.Itwasrepliedthattherewouldbeasmanycannonhithearmyusingthechariotsofwartodefendthemasintheenemy'sarmy to destroy them. It was added that these chariots would, in the firstinstance,beshelteredfromthecannonbehindthebattalionsorsquadrons,thatthe latterwouldopenand let the chariots runwith impetuosity and that thisunexpected attack might have a prodigious effect. The generals advancednothinginoppositiontothesearguments,buttheywouldnotrevivethisgameoftheancientPersians.

BATTALION.

Letusobservethatthearrangements,themarching,andtheevolutionsofbattalions, nearly as they are nowpractised,were revived inEurope by onewho was not a military man—by Machiavelli, a secretary at Florence.Battalions three, four, and five deep; battalions advancing upon the enemy;battalions in square to avoid being cut off in a rout; battalions four deepsustainedbyothers incolumn;battalionsflankedbycavalry—allarehis.HetaughtEuropetheartofwar;ithadlongbeenpractisedwithoutbeingknown.

The grand duke would have had his secretary teach his troops theirexercisesaccordingtohisnewmethod.ButMachiavelliwastooprudenttodoso;hehadnowishtoseetheofficersandsoldierslaughatageneralinablackcloak;hereservedhimselfforthecouncil.

Thereissomethingsingularinthequalitieswhichherequiresinasoldier.Hemustfirsthavegagliardia,whichsignifiesalertvigor;hemusthaveaquickand sure eye—inwhich theremust also be a little gayety; a strong neck, awidebreast,amusculararm,roundloins,butlittlebelly,withsparelegsandfeet—all indicating strength and agility.But above all the soldiermust havehonor, andmust be led by honor alone. "War," says he, "is but too great acorrupter of morals," and he reminds us of the Italian proverb:Warmakesthieves,andpeacefindsthemgibbets.

Machiavelli had but a poor opinion of the French infantry, and until thebattleofRocroiitmustbeconfessedthatitwasverybad.AstrangemanthisMachiavelli!Heamusedhimselfwithmakingverses,writingplays,showinghis cabinet the art of killingwith regularity, and teaching princes the art ofperjuring themselves, assassinating, and poisoning as occasion required—agreatartwhichPopeAlexanderVI.,andhisbastardCæsarBorgia,practisedinwonderfulperfectionwithouttheaidofhislessons.

BeitobservedthatinallMachiavelli'sworksonsomanydifferentsubjectsthereisnotonewordwhichrendersvirtueamiable—notonewordproceedingfromtheheart.ThesameremarkhasbeenmadeonBoileau.Hedoesnot,itistrue,makevirtuelovely,butherepresentsitasnecessary.

BAYLE.

WhyhasLouisRacine treatedBayle like a dangerousman,with a cruelheart,inanepistletoJeanBaptisteRousseau,which,althoughprinted,isbut

littleknown?

He compares Bayle, whose logical acuteness detected the errors ofopposingsystems,toMariussittingupontheruinsofCarthage:

Ainsid'unœilcontentMarius,danssafuite,

ContemplaitlesdébrisdeCarthagedétruite.

ThusexiledMarius,withcontentedgaze,

Thyruins,Carthage,silentlysurveys.

Hereisasimilewhichexhibitsverylittleresemblance,or,asPopesays,asimiledissimilar.Mariushadnotdestroyedreasonandarguments,nordidhecontentedly view its ruins, but, on the contrary, he was penetrated with anelevatedsentimentofmelancholyoncontemplatingthevicissitudesofhumanaffairs,whenhemadethecelebratedanswer:"SaytotheproconsulofAfricathatthouhastseenMariusseatedontheruinsofCarthage."

We ask inwhatMarius resembledBayle?LouisRacine, if he thinks fit,mayapply theepithets"hard-hearted"and"cruel" toMarius, toSulla, to thetriumvirs,but, in reference toBayle thephrases"detestablepleasure,""cruelheart,""terribleman,"shouldnotbeputinasentencewrittenbyLouisRacineagainst one who is only proved to have weighed the arguments of theManichæans,thePaulicians,theArians,theEutychians,againstthoseoftheiradversaries.LouisRacineproportionsnot thepunishment to theoffence.Heshould remember that Bayle combated Spinoza, who was too much of aphilosopher, and Jurieu, who was none at all. He should respect the goodmannersofBayleandlearntoreasonfromhim.ButhewasaJansenist,thatistosay,heknewthewordsofthelanguageofJansenismandemployedthematrandom. You may properly call cruel and terrible a powerful man whocommandshisslaves,onpainofdeath,togoandreapcornwherehehassownthistles;whogivestosomeofthemtoomuchfood,andsuffersotherstodieofhunger;whokillshiseldestsontoleavealargefortunetotheyounger.Allthatis frightful and cruel, Louis Racine! It is said that such is the god of thyJansenists,butIdonotbelieveit.Ohslavesofparty,peopleattackedwiththejaundice,youconstantlyseeeverythingyellow!

Andtowhomhastheunthinkingheirofafatherwhohadahundredtimesmoretastethanhehasphilosophy,addressedthismiserableepistleagainstthevirtuousBayle?ToRousseau—apoetwho thinks still less; to amanwhoseprincipal merit has consisted in epigrams which are revolting to the mostindulgentreader;toamantowhomitwasalikewhetherhesangJesusChristorGiton.SuchwastheapostletowhomLouisRacinedenouncedBayleasamiscreant.Whatmotivecouldtheauthorof"Phædra"and"Iphigenia"haveforfalling into such a prodigious error? Simply this, that Rousseau had made

versesfortheJansenists,whomhethenbelievedtobeinhighcredit.

SuchistherageoffactionletlooseuponBayle,butyoudonothearanyofthedogswhohavehowledagainsthimbarkagainstLucretius,Cicero,Seneca,Epicurus,noragainstthenumerousphilosophersofantiquity.ItisallreservedforBayle; he is their fellow citizen—he is of their time—his glory irritatesthem.BayleisreadandNicoleisnotread;beholdthesourceoftheJansenisthatred! Bayle is studied, but neither the reverend Father Croiset, nor thereverendFatherCaussin;henceJesuiticaldenouncement!

In vain has a Parliament of France done him the greatest honor inrenderinghiswillvalid,notwithstandingtheseverityofthelaw.Themadnessof party knows neither honor nor justice. I have not inserted this article tomake the eulogy of the best of dictionaries, which would not be becominghere,andofwhichBayleisnotinneed;Ihavewrittenittorender,ifIcan,thespiritofpartyodiousandridiculous.

BDELLIUM.

WeareverymuchpuzzledtoknowwhatthisBdelliumiswhichisfoundneartheshoresofthePison,ariveroftheterrestrialparadisewhichturnsintothecountryoftheHavilah,wherethereisgold.Calmetrelatesthat,accordingto several commentators,Bdellium is the carbuncle, but that itmay also becrystal.ThenitisthegumofanArabiantreeandafterwardswearetoldthatcapersareintended.Manyothersaffirmthatitsignifiespearls.NothingbuttheetymologiesofBochartcanthrowalightonthisquestion.Iwishthatallthesecommentatorshadbeenuponthespot.

Theexcellentgoldwhich isobtained in thiscountry,saysCalmet,showsevidentlythatthisisthecountryofColchisandthegoldenfleeceisaproofofit. It isapity that thingshavechangedsomuchforMingrelia; thatbeautifulcountry,sofamousforthelovesofMedeaandJason,nowproducesgoldandBdelliumnomorethanbullswhichvomitfireandflame,anddragonswhichguardthefleece.Everythingchangesinthisworld;andifwedonotskilfullycultivateourlands,andifthestateremainalwaysindebt,weshallbecomeasecondMingrelia.

BEARD.

Certainnaturalistsassureusthatthesecretionwhichproducesthebeardis

the same as thatwhich perpetuatesmankind.An entire hemisphere testifiesagainst this fraternal union. The Americans, of whatever country, color, orstaturetheymaybe,haveneitherbeardsontheirchins,noranyhairontheirbodies, except their eyebrows and the hair of their heads, I have legalattestations of official men who have lived, conversed, and combated withthirtynationsofSouthAmerica, and they attest that theyhavenever seen ahairontheirbodies;andtheylaugh,astheywellmay,atwriterswho,copyingoneanother,saythattheAmericansareonlywithouthairbecausetheypullitoutwithpincers;asifChristopherColumbus,FernandoCortes,andtheotheradventurers had loaded themselves with the little tweezers with which ourladies remove their superfluous hairs, and had distributed them in all thecountriesofAmerica.

I believed for a long time that the Esquimaux were excepted from thegenerallawsofthenewworld;butIamassuredthattheyareasfreefromhairastheothers.However,theyhavechildreninChile,Peru,andCanada,aswellasinourbeardedcontinent.Thereis,then,aspecificdifferencebetweenthesebipedsandourselves,inthesamewayastheirlions,whicharedivestedofthemane,andinotherrespectsdifferfromthelionsofAfrica.

It is to be remarked that the Orientals have never varied in theirconsiderationforthebeard.Marriageamongthemhasalwaysexisted,andthatperiodisstilltheepochoflifefromwhichtheynolongershavethebeard.Thelong dress and the beard impose respect. The Westerns have always beenchanging the fashion of the chin. Mustaches were worn under Louis XIV.towards theyear1672.UnderLouisXIII.a littlepointedbeardprevailed. Inthe time of Henry IV. it was square. Charles V., Julius II., and Francis I.restoredthelargebeardtohonorintheircourts,whichhadbeenalongtimeinfashion. Gownsmen, through gravity and respect for the customs of theirfathers,shavedthemselves;whilethecourtiers,indoubletsandlittlemantles,wore their beards as long as they could.When a king in those days sent alawyerasanambassador,hiscomradeswouldlaughathimifhesufferedhisbeardtogrow,besidesmockinghiminthechamberofaccountsorofrequests,—Butquiteenoughuponbeards.

BEASTS.

Whatapityandwhatapovertyofspirittoassertthatbeastsaremachinesdeprivedofknowledgeandsentiment,whicheffectalltheiroperationsinthesamemanner,whichlearnnothing,neverimprove,etc.

Whatisthisbird,whomakesitsnestinasemicirclewhenheattachesitto

awall;andinacircleonatree—thisbirddoesallinthesameblindmanner!Thehound,whichyouhavedisciplined for threemonths,doeshenotknowmoreattheendofthistimethanhedidbefore?Doesthecanary,towhichyouplay an air, repeat ft directly? Do you not employ a considerable time inteaching it? Have you not seen that he sometimes mistakes it, and that becorrectshimself?

IsitbecauseIspeaktoyouthatyoujudgeIhavesentiment,memory,andideas?Well,supposeIdonotspeaktoyou;youseemeentermyroomwithanafflicted air, I seek a paper with disquietude, I open the bureau in which Irecollecttohaveshutit,Ihiditandreaditwithjoy.YoupronouncethatIhavefeltthesentimentofafflictionandofjoy;thatIhavememoryandknowledge.

Extend the same judgment to the dogwho has lost hismaster,who hassoughthumeverywherewithgrievouscries,andwhoentersthehouseagitatedandrestless,goesupstairsanddown,fromroomtoroom,andatlastfindsintheclosetthemasterwhomheloves,andtestifieshisjoybythegentlenessofhiscries,byhisleapsandhiscaresses.

Some barbarians seize this dog, who so prodigiously excels man infriendship, they nail him to a table and dissect him living to show themesentericveins.Youdiscoverinhimthesameorgansofsentimentwhicharein yourself. Answer me, machinist, has nature arranged all the springs ofsentiment in this animal that he should not feel? Has he nerves, and is heincapable of suffering? Do not suppose this impertinent contradiction inmature.

But themasters of this school ask, what is the soul of beasts? I do notunderstandtinsquestion.Atreehasthefacultyofreceivinginitsfibresthesapwhichcirculates,ofevolving itsbuds, its leaves, and its fruits.Youwill askmewhat is the soul of this tree? It has received thesegifts.The animal hasreceivedthoseofsentiment,memory,andacertainnumberofideas.Whohasbestowed these gifts; who has given these faculties? Hewho hasmade theherbofthefieldtogrow,andwhomakestheearthgravitatetowardsthesun.

The souls of beasts are substantial forms, says Aristotle; and afterAristotle, the Arabian school; and after the Arabian school, the Angelicalschool;andaftertheAngelicalschool,theSorbonne;andaftertheSorbonne,everyoneintheworld.

The soulsofbeasts arematerial, exclaimotherphilosophers.Thesehavenot beenmore fortunate than the former. They are in vain asked what is amaterial soul?Theysay that it isamatterwhichhassensation;butwhohasgivenitthissensation?Itisamaterialsoul,thatistosay,itiscomposedofamatterwhichgivessensationtomatter.Theycannotgetoutofthiscircle.

Listentoonekindofbeastsreasoninguponanother;theirsoulisaspiritualbeing,which dieswith the body; butwhat proof have you of it?What ideahaveyouofthisspiritualbeing,whichhassentiment,memory,anditsshareofideas and combinations, but which can never tell whatmade a child of sixyears old? On what ground do you imagine that this being, which is notcorporeal, perishes with the body? The greatest beasts are those who havesuggestedthatthissoulisneitherbodynorspiritanexcellentsystem!Wecanonly understand by spirit something unknown,which is not body. Thus thesystem of these gentlemen amounts to this, that the soul of beasts is asubstancewhich is neither body, nor somethingwhich is not body.Whencecanproceedsomanycontradictoryerrors?Fromthecustomwhichmenhaveofexaminingwhatathingisbeforetheyknowwhetheritexists.Theycallthespeechtheeffectofabreathofmind,thesoulofasigh.Whatisthesoul?ItisanamewhichIhavegiventothisvalvewhichrisesandfalls,whichletstheairin,relievesitself,andsendsitthroughapipewhenImovethelungs.

There isnot, then,asouldistinct fromthemachine.Butwhatmoves thelungs of animals? I have already said, the power thatmoves the stars. Thephilosopher who said, "Deus est animâ brutorum."—God is the soul of thebrutes—isright;butheshouldhavegonemuchfurther.

BEAUTIFUL(THE).

SincewehavequotedPlatoonlove,whyshouldwenotquotehimon"thebeautiful,"sincebeautycauseslove.ItiscurioustoknowhowaGreekspokeofthebeautifulmorethantwothousandyearssince.

"Themaninitiatedintothesacredmysteries,whenheseesabeautifulfaceaccompaniedbyadivine form,asomethingmore thanmortal, feelsasecretemotion, and I know not what respectful fear. He regards this figure as adivinity....When the influence of beauty enters into his soul by his eyes heburns;thewingsofhissoularebedewed;theylosethehardnesswhichretainstheirgermsandliquefythemselves;thesegerms,swellingbeneaththerootsofits wings, they expand from every part of the soul (for soul had wingsformerly),"etc.

IamwillingtobelievethatnothingisfinerthanthisdiscourseofthedivinePlato;butitdoesnotgiveusveryclearideasofthenatureofthebeautiful.

Askatoadwhatisbeauty—thegreatbeautyToKalon;hewillanswerthatit is the femalewith twogreat roundeyescomingoutofher littlehead,herlarge flatmouth,heryellowbelly, andbrownback.AskanegroofGuinea;

beautyistohimablack,oilyskin,sunkeneyes,andaflatnose.Askthedevil;hewilltellyouthatthebeautifulconsistsinapairofhorns,fourclaws,andatail. Then consult the philosophers; they will answer you with jargon; theymust have something conformable to the archetype of the essence of thebeautiful—totheToKalon.

Iwasonceattendingatragedynearaphilosopher."Howbeautifulthatis,"saidhe."Whatdoyoufindbeautiful?"askedI."Itis,"saidhe,"thattheauthorhas attained his object."The next day he took hismedicine,which did himsome good. "It has attained its object," cried I to him; "it is a beautifulmedicine." He comprehended that it could not be said that a medicine isbeautiful, and that to apply to anything the epithet beautiful it must causeadmirationandpleasure.Headmitted that the tragedyhad inspiredhimwiththesetwosentiments,andthatitwastheToKalon,thebeautiful.

WemadeajourneytoEngland.Thesamepiecewasplayed,and,althoughably translated, itmade all the spectators yawn. "Oh, oh!" said he, "the ToKalonisnotthesamewiththeEnglishaswiththeFrench."Heconcludedaftermanyreflectionsthat"thebeautiful"isoftenmerelyrelative,asthatwhichisdecentatJapanisindecentatRome;andthatwhichisthefashionatParisisnot soatPekin; andhewas thereby spared the troubleof composinga longtreatiseonthebeautiful.

There are actions which the whole world considers fine. A challengepassed between two of Cæsar's officers, mortal enemies, not to shed eachother'sbloodbehindathicketbytierceandquarte,asamongus,buttodecidewhich of them would best defend the camp of the Romans, about to beattackedby thebarbarians.Oneof the two,afterhavingrepulsed theenemy,wasnearfalling;theotherflewtohisassistance,savedhislife,andgainedthevictory.Afrienddevoteshimself todeathforhis friend,asonforhis father.TheAlgonquin,theFrench,theChinese,willmutuallysaythatallthisisverybeautiful,thatsuchactionsgivethempleasure,andthattheyadmirethem.

Theywillsaythesameofgreatmoralmaxims;ofthatofZoroaster:"Ifindoubt that an action be just, desist;" of that of Confucius: "Forget injuries;neverforgetbenefits."

The negro,with round eyes and flattened nose,whowould not give theladiesofourcourt thenameofbeautiful,wouldgive itwithouthesitation totheseactionsandthesemaxims.Eventhewickedmanrecognizesthebeautyof thevirtueswhichhecannot imitate.Thebeautiful,whichonlystrikes thesenses, theimagination,andwhat iscalledthespirit, is thenoftenuncertain;the beautywhich strikes the heart is not.Youwill find a number of peoplewho will tell you they have found nothing beautiful in three-fourths of the"Iliad";butnobodywilldenythat thedevotionofCodrusforhispeoplewas

fine,supposingitwastrue.

BrotherAttinet, a Jesuit, anativeofDijon,wasemployedasdesigner inthecountryhouseoftheEmperorCamhi,atthedistanceofsomeleaguesfromPekin.

"Thiscountryhouse,"sayshe,inoneofhisletterstoM.Dupont,"islargerthanthe townofDijon.It isdividedintoa thousandhabitationsononeline;eachonehas itscourts, itsparterres, itsgardens, and itswaters; the frontofeachisornamentedwithgoldvarnishandpaintings.Inthevastenclosuresofthepark,hillshavebeen raisedbyhand from twenty to sixty feethigh.Thevalleysarewateredbyaninfinitenumberofcanals,whichrunaconsiderabledistance to join and form lakes and seas. We float on these seas in boatsvarnishedandgilt,fromtwelvetothirteenfathomslongandfourwide.Thesebarkshavemagnificentsaloons,andthebordersofthecanalsarecoveredwithhouses,all indifferenttastes.Everyhousehasitsgardensandcascades.Yougofromonevalleytoanotherbyalleys,alternatelyornamentedwithpavilionsand grottoes.No twovalleys are alike; the largest of all is surrounded by acolonnade, behind which are gilded buildings. All the apartments of thesehouses correspond in magnificence with the outside. All the canals havebridges at stated distances; these bridges are bordered with balustrades ofwhitemarblesculpturedinbasso-relievo.

"Inthemiddleofthegreatseaisraisedarock,andonthisrockisasquarepavilion, in which are more than a hundred apartments. From this squarepavilionthereisaviewofallthepalaces,allthehouses,andallthegardensofthisimmenseenclosure,andtherearemorethanfourhundredofthem.

"When the emperor gives a fête all thesebuildings are illuminated in aninstant,andfromeveryhousetherearefireworks.

"Thisisnotall;attheendofwhattheycalltheseaisagreatfair,heldbytheemperor'sofficers.Vessels come from thegreat sea toarriveat this fair.Thecourtiersdisguisethemselvesasmerchantsandartificersofallsorts;onekeeps a coffee house, another a tavern; one takes the profession of a thief,anotherthatoftheofficerwhopursueshim.Theemperorandalltheladiesofthecourtcometobuystuffs,thefalsemerchantscheatthemasmuchastheycan;theytellthemthatitisshamefultodisputesomuchabouttheprice,andthat they are poor customers. Their majesties reply that the merchants areknaves; the latter are angry and affect to depart; they are appeased; theemperor buys all and makes lotteries of it for all his court. Farther on arespectaclesofallsorts."

WhenbrotherAttinetcamefromChinatoVersailleshefounditsmallanddull. The Germans, who were delighted to stroll about its groves, wereastonishedthatbrotherAttinetwassodifficult.This isanotherreasonwhich

determinesmenottowriteatreatiseonthebeautiful.

BEES.

Thebeesmayberegardedassuperiortothehumanraceinthis,thatfromtheir own substance they produce anotherwhich is useful;while, of all oursecretions,thereisnotonegoodforanything;nay,thereisnotonewhichdoesnotrendermankinddisagreeable.

Ihavebeencharmedtofindthattheswarmswhichturnoutofthehivearemuchmilderthanoursonswhentheyleavecollege.Theyoungbeesthenstingno one; or at least but rarely and in extraordinary cases. They sufferthemselvestobecarriedquietlyinthebarehandtothehivewhichisdestinedfor them. But no sooner have they learned in their new habitation to knowtheir interests than they become like us and make war. I have seen verypeaceablebeesgoforsixmonths to labor inaneighboringmeadowcoveredwith flowers which secreted them. When the mowers came they rushedfuriously from their hive upon thosewhowere about to steal their propertyandputthemtoflight.

WefindintheProverbsattributedtoSolomonthat"therearefourthings,theleastuponearth,butwhicharewiserthanthewisemen—theants,alittlepeoplewholayupfoodduringtheharvest;thehares,aweakpeoplewholieon stones; the grasshoppers,who have no kings andwho journey in flocks;and the lizards, which work with their hands and dwell in the palaces ofkings." IknownothowSolomonforgot thebees,whose instinctseemsverysuperiortothatofhares,whichdonotlieonstone;oroflizards,withwhosegenius I am not acquainted. Moreover, I shall always prefer a bee to agrasshopper.

The bees have, in all ages, furnished the poet with descriptions,comparisons, allegories, and fables. Mandeville's celebrated "Fable of theBees"madeagreatnoiseinEngland.Hereisashortsketchofit:

Oncethebees,inworldlythings,

Hadahappygovernment;

Andtheirlaborersandtheirkings

Madethemwealthyandcontent;

Butsomegreedydronesatlast

Foundtheirwayintotheirhive;

Those,inidlenesstothrive,

Toldthebeestheyoughttofast.

Sermonsweretheironlylabors;

Worktheypreacheduntotheirneighbors.

Intheirlanguagetheywouldsay,

"Youshallsurelygotoheaven,

Whentousyou'vefreelygiven

Waxandhoneyallaway."—

Foolishlythebeesbelieved,

Tillbyfamineundeceived;

Whentheirmiserywascomplete,

Allthestrangedelusionvanished!

Nowthedronesarekilledorbanished,

Andthebeesagainmayeat.

Mandevillegoesmuchfurther;heassertsthatbeescannotliveattheireaseinagreatandpowerfulhivewithoutmanyvices."Nokingdom,nostate,"sayshe,"canflourishwithoutvices.Takeawaythevanityofladiesofquality,andtherewillbenomorefinemanufacturesofsilk,nomoreemploymentformenandwomeninathousanddifferentbranches;agreatpartofthenationwillbereducedtobeggary.Takeawaytheavariceofourmerchants,andthefleetsofEnglandwillbeannihilated.Depriveartistsofenvy,andemulationwillcease;weshallsinkbackintoprimitiverudenessandignorance."

Itisquitetruethatawell-governedsocietyturnseveryvicetoaccount;butitisnottruethatthesevicesarenecessarytothewell-beingoftheworld.Verygoodremediesmaybemadefrompoisons,butpoisonsdonotcontributetothesupportof life.By thus reducing the "Fableof theBees" to its justvalue, itmightbemadeaworkofmoralutility.

BEGGAR—MENDICANT

Every country where begging, where mendicity, is a profession, is illgoverned. Beggary, as I have elsewhere said, is a vermin that clings toopulence.Yes;butletitbeshakenoff;letthehospitalsbeforsicknessandagealone,andlettheshopsbefortheyoungandvigorous.

The following is an extract from a sermon composed by a preacher tenyears ago for theparishofSt.Leu andSt.Giles,which is theparishof thebeggars and the convulsionaries: "Pauper es evangelicantur"—"the gospel ispreachedtothepoor."

"My dear brethren the beggars, what is meant by the word gospel? Itsignifiesgoodnews.Itis,then,goodnewsthatIcometotellyou;andwhatisit?Itisthatifyouareidlersyouwilldieonadung-hill.Knowthattherehavebeenidlekings,soatleastwearetold,andtheyat lasthadnotwheretolaytheirheads.Ifyouwork,youwillbeashappyasothermen.

"ThepreachersatSt.EustacheandSt.Rochemaydelivertotherichveryfinesermonsinaflowerystyle,whichprocurefortheauditorsalightslumberwith an easy digestion, and for the orator a thousand crowns; but I addressthosewhomhungerkeepsawake.Workforyourbread,Isay;fortheScripturesaysthathewhodoesnotworkdeservesnottoeat.Ourbrotherinadversity,Job,whowasforsometimeinyourcondition,saysthatmanisborntolaboras thebird is tofly.Lookat this immensecity;everyone isbusy; the judgesrise at four in themorning to administer justice to you and send you to thegalleyswhenyouridlenesshascausedyoutothieveratherawkwardly.

"The king works; he attends his council every day; and he has madecampaigns.Perhapsyouwillsayheisnonethericher.Granted;butthatisnothis fault.The financiers know,better thanyouor I do, that not one-half hisrevenueeverentershiscoffers.Hehasbeenobligedtosellhisplateinordertodefendusagainstourenemies.Weshouldaidhiminourturn.TheFriendofMan(l'AmidesHommes)allowshimonlyseventy-fivemillionsperannum.Anotherfriendallatoncegiveshimsevenhundredandforty.ButofalltheseJob'scomforters,notonewilladvancehimasinglecrown.It isnecessarytoinvent a thousand ingeniousways of drawing this crown from our pockets,which,beforeitreacheshisown,isdiminishedbyatleastone-half.

"Work,then,mydearbrethren;actforyourselves,forIforewarnyouthatifyoudonottakecareofyourselves,noonewilltakecareofyou;youwillbetreatedas thekinghasbeen inseveralgraveremonstrances;peoplewillsay,'Godhelpyou.'

"Wewill go into the provinces, youwill answer;we skill be fed by thelordsoftheland,bythefarmers,bythecurates.Donotflatteryourselves,mydear brethren, that you shall eat at their tables; they have for themost partenough to do to feed themselves, notwithstanding the 'Method of RapidlyGettingRichbyAgriculture'andfiftyotherworksofthesamekind,publishedeverydayatParisfortheuseofthepeopleinthecountry,withthecultivationofwhichtheauthorsneverhadanythingtodo.

"I behold among you youngmen of some talent,who say that theywill

make verses, that they will write pamphlets, like Chisiac, Normotte, orPatouillet;thattheywillworkforthe'NouvellesEcclésiastiques'thattheywillwrite sheets for Fréron, funeral orations for bishops, songs for the comicopera.Anyof thesewouldat leastbeanoccupation.Whenamaniswritingforthe'AnnéeLittéraire,'heisnotrobbingonthehighway,heisonlyrobbinghis creditors. But do better, my dear brethren in Jesus Christ—my dearbeggars, who, by passing your lives in asking charity, run the risk of thegalleys;dobetter;enteroneofthefourmendicantorders;youwillthenbenotonlyrich,buthonoredalso."

BEKKER,

"THEWORLDBEWITCHED,"THEDEVIL,THEBOOKOFENOCH,ANDSORCERERS.

ThisBalthazarBekker,averygoodman,agreatenemyoftheeverlastinghellandthedevil,andastillgreaterofprecision,madeagreatdealofnoiseinhistimebyhisgreatbook,"TheWorldBewitched."

One Jacques-George de Chaufepied, a pretended continuator of Bayle,assuresusthatBekkerlearnedGreekatGascoigne.NiceronhasgoodreasonsforbelievingthatitwasatFraneker.Thishistoricalpointhasoccasionedmuchdoubtandtroubleatcourt.

Thefact is that in the timeofBekker,aministerof theHolyGospel—astheysayinHolland—thedevilwasstillinprodigiouscreditamongdivinesofallsorts in themiddleof theseventeenthcentury, inspiteof thegoodspiritswhich were beginning to enlighten the world. Witchcraft, possessions, andeverythingelseattachedtothatfinedivinity,wereinvoguethroughoutEuropeandfrequentlyhadfatalresults.

A century had scarcely elapsed since King James himself—called byHenryIV.MasterJames—thatgreatenemyoftheRomancommunionandthepapalpower,hadpublishedhis"Demonology"(whatabookforaking!)andinithadadmittedsorceries,incubuses,andsuccubuses,andacknowledgedthepowerofthedevil,andofthepope,who,accordingtohim,hadjustasgoodarighttodriveSatanfromthebodiesofthepossessedasanyotherpriest.Andwe,miserableFrenchmen,whoboastofhavingrecoveredsomesmallpartofoursenses,inwhatahorridsinkofstupidbarbarismwerewethenimmersed!Not a parliament, not a presidential court, but was occupied in tryingsorcerers;notagreatjurisconsultwhodidnotwritememorialsonpossessionsbythedevil.Franceresoundedwiththecriesofpoorimbecilecreatureswhom

thejudges,aftermakingthembelievethattheyhaddancedroundacauldron,tortured and put to death without pity, in horrible torments. Catholics andProtestantswerealikeinfectedwiththisabsurdandfrightfulsuperstition;thepretextbeingthatinoneoftheChristiangospelsitissaidthatdisciplesweresenttocastoutdevils.Itwasasacreddutytoputgirlstothetortureinordertomake themconfess that theyhad lainwithSatan,and that theyhadfallen inlovewithhimintheformofagoat.Alltheparticularsofthemeetingsofthegirlswith thisgoatweredetailed in the trialsof theunfortunate individuals.Theywereburnedat last,whethertheyconfessedordenied;andFrancewasonevasttheatreofjudicialcarnage.

I have before me a collection of these infernal proceedings, made by acounselloroftheParliamentofBordeaux,namedDeLangre,andaddressedtoMonseigneur Silleri, chancellor of France, without Monseigneur Silleri'shavingeverthoughtofenlighteningthoseinfamousmagistrates.But,indeed,itwouldhavebeennecessarytobeginbyenlighteningthechancellorhimself.What was France at that time? A continual St. Bartholomew—from themassacre ofVassy to the assassination ofMarshal d'Ancre and his innocentwife.

WillitbebelievedthatinthetimeofthisveryBekker,apoorgirlnamedMagdalen Chaudron, who had been persuaded that she was a witch, wasburnedatGeneva?

Thefollowingisaveryexactsummaryoftheprocès-verbalofthisabsurdandhorridact,whichisnotthelastmonumentofthekind:

"Michelle,havingmetthedevilasshewasgoingoutofthetown,thedevilgaveherakiss,receivedherhomage,andimprintedonherupperlipandherrightbreast themarkwhichit ishiscustomtoaffixonallpersonswhomherecognizes as his favorites. This seal of the devil is a small sign-manual,which,asdemonologicaljurisconsultsaffirm,renderstheskininsensible.

"The devil ordered Michelle Chaudron to bewitch two girls; and sheimmediately obeyed her lord. The relatives of the young women judiciallychargedherwithdevilishpractices,andthegirlsthemselveswereinterrogatedand confronted with the accused. They testified that they constantly felt aswarmingofantsincertainpartsoftheirbodies,andthattheywerepossessed.The physicians were then called in, or at least those who then passed asphysicians.TheyvisitedthegirlsandsoughtonMichelle'sbodyforthedevil'sseal, which the procès-verbal calls the satanic marks. They thrust a largeneedle into the spot, and this of itselfwas a grievous torture.Blood flowedfromthepuncture;andMichellemadeknownbyhercriesthatsatanicmarksdonotproduceinsensibility.Thejudges,seeingnosatisfactoryevidencethatMichelleChaudronwasawitch,hadherputtothetorture,whichneverfailsto

bringforthproofs.Theunfortunategirl,yieldingat length to theviolenceofhertortures,confessedwhateverwasrequiredofher.

"Thephysiciansagainsoughtforthesatanicmark.Theyfounditinasmalldark spotononeofher thighs.Theyapplied theneedle; but the torturehadbeensoexcessivethatthepoor,expiringcreaturescarcelyfeltthewound;shedidnotcryout;thereforethecrimewassatisfactorilyproved.But,asmannerswerebecominglessrude,shewasnotburneduntilshehadbeenhanged."

EverytribunalinChristianEuropestillringswithsimilarcondemnations;so long did this barbarous imbecility endure, that even in our own day, atWürzburg,inFranconia,therewasawitchburnedin1750.Andwhatawitch!Ayoungwomanof quality, the abbess of a convent! and in our own times,undertheempireofMariaTheresaofAustria!

Thesehorrors,bywhichEuropewassolongfilled,determinedBekkertofight against the devil. In vainwas he told, in prose and verse, that hewasdoing wrong to attack him, seeing that he was extremely like him, beinghorriblyugly;nothingcouldstophim.HebeganwithabsolutelydenyingthepowerofSatan;andevengrewsoboldastomaintainthathedoesnotexist."If,"saidhe,"therewereadevil,hewouldrevengethewarwhichImakeuponhim."

Bekkerreasonedbut toowell insayingthat if thedevilexistedhewouldpunishhim.HisbrotherministerstookSatan'spartandsuspendedBekker;forhereticswillalsoexcommunicate;andinthearticleofcursing,GenevamimicsRome.

Bekkerentersonhissubjectinthesecondvolume.Accordingtohim,theserpentwhichseducedourfirstparentswasnotadevil,butarealserpent;asBalaam'sasswasarealass,andasthewhalethatswallowedJonahwasarealwhale.Itwassodecidedlyarealserpent,thatallitsspecies,whichhadbeforewalkedontheirfeet,werecondemnedtocrawlontheirbellies.Noserpent,noanimalofanykind,iscalledSatan,orBeelzebub,ordevil,inthePentateuch.There is not somuch as an allusion toSatan.TheDutchdestroyer ofSatandoes,indeed,admittheexistenceofangels;butatthesametimeheassuresusthat itcannotbeprovedbyreasoning."Andif thereareany,"sayshe, in theeighth chapter of his second volume, "it is hard to say what they are. TheScripturetellsusnothingabouttheirnature,norinwhatthenatureofaspiritconsists.TheBiblewasmade,notforangels,butformen;Jesuswasmadeamanforus,notanangel."

IfBekkerhassomanyscruplesconcerningangels,itisnottobewonderedatthathehassomeconcerningdevils;anditisveryamusingtoseeintowhatcontortionsheputshismindinordertoavailhimselfofsuchtextsasappeartobeinhisfavorandtoevadesuchasareagainsthim.

He does his utmost to prove that the devil had nothing to do with theafflictionsofJob;andhereheisevenmoreprolixthanthefriendsofthatholyman.

There is great probability that he was condemned only through the ill-humorofhis judgesathaving lost somuch time in readinghiswork. If thedevilhimselfhadbeen forced to readBekker's "WorldBewitched"hecouldneverhaveforgiventhefaultofhavingsoprodigiouslyweariedhim.

One of ourDutch divine's greatest difficulties is to explain thesewords:"Jesuswastransportedbythespiritintothedeserttobetemptedbythedevil."Notextcanbeclearer.AdivinemaywriteagainstBeelzebubasmuchashepleases,buthemustofnecessityadmithisexistence;hemaythenexplainthedifficulttextsifhecan.

Whoeverdesirestoknowpreciselywhatthedevilismaybeinformedbyreferring to theJesuitScott;noonehasspokenofhimmoreat length;he ismuchworsethanBekker.

Consultinghistory,wheretheancientoriginofthedevilistobefoundinthedoctrineofthePersians,Ahrimanes,thebadprinciple,corruptsallthatthegoodprinciplehadmadesalutary.AmongtheEgyptians,Typhondoesalltheharmhecan;whileOshireth,whomwecallOsiris,does,togetherwithIsheth,orIsis,allthegoodofwhichheiscapable.

Before the Egyptians and Persians, Mozazor, among the Indians, hadrevoltedagainstGodandbecomethedevil,butGodhadatlastpardonedhim.IfBekkerandtheSocinianshadknownthisanecdoteofthefalloftheIndianangels and their restoration, they would have availed themselves of it tosupporttheiropinionthathellisnotperpetual,andtogivehopesofsalvationtosuchofthedamnedasreadtheirbooks.

The Jews, as has already been observed, never spoke of the fall of theangelsintheOldTestament;butitismentionedintheNew.

AbouttheperiodoftheestablishmentofChristianityabookwasattributedto "Enoch, the seventh man after Adam," concerning the devil and hisassociates.Enochgivesus thenamesof the leadersof therebelliousandthefaithfulangels,buthedoesnotsaythatwarwasinheaven;onthecontrary,thefightwasuponamountainoftheearth,anditwasforthepossessionofyoungwomen.

St.JudecitesthisbookinhisEpistle:"Andtheangels,whichkeptnottheirfirstestate,butlefttheirownhabitation,hehathreservedineverlastingchainsunderdarkness,untothejudgmentofthegreatday....Woeuntothem,fortheyhave gone in theway ofCain....AndEnoch, also, the seventh fromAdam,prophesiedofthese...."

St.PeterinhissecondEpistlealludestotheBookofEnochwhenhesays:"ForifGodsparednottheangelsthatsinned,butcastthemdowntohellanddeliveredthemintochainsofdarkness...."

Bekkermusthavefounditdifficulttoresistpassagessoformal.However,hewasevenmoreinflexibleonthesubjectofdevilsthanonthatofangels;hewouldnotbesubduedbytheBookofEnoch,theseventhmanfromAdam;hemaintainedthattherewasnomoreadevilthantherewasabookofEnoch.Hesaid that the devil was imitated from ancientmythology, that it was an oldstoryrevived,andthatwearenothingmorethanplagiarists.

WemayatthepresentdaybeaskedwhywecallthatLucifertheevilspirit,whomtheHebrewversion,andthebookattributedtoEnoch,namedSamyaza.ItisbecauseweunderstandLatinbetterthanHebrew.

ButwhetherLuciferbetheplanetVenus,ortheSamyazaofEnoch,ortheSatanoftheBabylonians,ortheMozazoroftheIndians,ortheTyphonoftheEgyptians,Bekkerwasrightinsayingthatsoenormousapoweroughtnottobeattributedtohimasthatwithwhich,evendowntoourowntimes,hehasbeen believed to be invested. It is too much to have immolated to him awomanof quality ofWürzburg,MagdalenChaudron, the curate ofGaupidi,thewifeofMarshald'Ancre,andmorethanahundredthousandotherwizardsandwitches, in the spaceof thirteenhundredyears, inChristian states.HadBelthazar Bekker been content with paring the devil's nails, hewould havebeenverywellreceived;butwhenacuratewouldannihilatethedevilheloseshiscure.

BELIEF.

We shall see at the article "Certainty" that we ought often to be veryuncertainofwhatwearecertainof;andthatwemayfailingoodsensewhendecidingaccordingtowhatiscalledcommonsense.Butwhatisitthatwecallbelieving?

A Turk comes and says to me, "I believe that the angel Gabriel oftendescendedfromtheempyrean,tobringMahometleavesoftheKoran,writtenonbluevellum."

Well,Mustapha,andonwhatdoesthyshavenheadfounditsbeliefofthisincrediblething?

"On this: That there are the greatest probabilities that I have not beendeceived in the relation of these improbable prodigies; that Abubeker, thefather-in-law, Ali, the son-in-law, Aisha, or Aisse, the daughter, Omar, and

Osman,certifiedthetruthofthefactinthepresenceoffiftythousandmen—gatheredtogetheralltheleaves,readthemtothefaithful,andattestedthatnotawordhadbeenaltered.

"That we have never had but one Koran, which has never beencontradicted by another Koran. That God has never permitted the leastalterationtobemadeinthisbook.

"That its doctrine and precepts are the perfection of reason. Its doctrineconsists in the unity of God, for Whom we must live and die; in theimmortalityofthesoul;theeternalrewardsofthejustandpunishmentsofthewicked;andthemissionofourgreatprophetMahomet,provedbyvictories.

"Itspreceptsare:Tobejustandvaliant;togivealmstothepoor;toabstainfrom that enormous number of women whom the Eastern princes, and inparticular the petty Jewish kings, took to themselves without scruple; torenounce the good wines of Engaddi and Tadmor, which those drunkenHebrewshavesopraisedintheirbooks;topraytoGodfivetimesaday,etc.

"Thissublimereligionhasbeenconfirmedbythemiracleofallothersthefinest, themost constant, and best verified in the history of theworld; thatMahomet, persecuted by the gross and absurd scholastic magistrates whodecreedhisarrest,andobligedtoquithiscountry,returnedvictorious;thathemade his imbecile and sanguinary enemies his footstool; that he all his lifefoughtthebattlesoftheLord;thatwithasmallnumberhealwaystriumphedoverthegreaternumber;thatheandhissuccessorshaveconvertedone-halfoftheearth;andthat,withGod'shelp,weshallonedayconverttheotherhalf."

Nothing can be arrayed in more dazzling colors. Yet Mustapha, whilebelievingsofirmly,alwaysfeelssomesmallshadowsofdoubtarising inhissoulwhen he hears any difficulties started respecting the visits of the angelGabriel; the sura or chapter brought from heaven to declare that the greatprophetwasnotacuckold;orthemareBorak,whichcarriedhiminonenightfromMeccatoJerusalem.Mustaphastammers;hemakesverybadanswers,atwhichheblushes;yethenotonly tellsyou thathebelieves,butwouldalsopersuadeyoutobelieve.YoupressMustapha;hestillgapesandstares,andatlastgoesawaytowashhimselfinhonorofAllah,beginninghisablutionattheelbowandendingwiththeforefinger.

IsMustaphareallypersuaded—convincedofallthathehastoldus?Isheperfectly sure thatMahometwas sent byGod, as he is sure that the city ofStamboulexists?asheissurethattheEmpressCatherineII.sentafleetfromthe remotest seas of the North to land troops in Peloponnesus—a thing asastonishing as the journey fromMecca to Jerusalem in one night—and thatthisfleetdestroyedthatoftheOttomansintheDardanelles?

ThetruthisthatMustaphabelieveswhathedoesnotbelieve.Hehasbeenaccustomed topronounce,withhismollah,certainwordswhichhe takes forideas.Tobelieveisveryoftentodoubt.

"Whydoyoubelievethat?"saysHarpagon."IbelieveitbecauseIbelieveit,"answersMasterJacques;andmostmenmightreturnthesameanswer.

Believe me fully, my dear reader, when I say one must not believe tooeasily.Butwhatshallwesayofthosewhowouldpersuadeothersofwhattheythemselves do not believe? and what of the monsters who persecute theirbrethreninthehumbleandrationaldoctrineofdoubtandself-distrust?

BETHSHEMESH.

Of the Fifty Thousand and Seventy Jews Struckwith SuddenDeath forHaving Looked Upon the Ark; of the Five Golden Emeroids Paid by thePhilistines;andofDr.Kennicott'sIncredulity.

Menoftheworldwillperhapsbeastonishedtofindthiswordthesubjectofanarticle;butwehereaddressonlythelearnedandasktheirinstruction.

BethshemeshwasavillagebelongingtoGod'speople,situated,accordingto commentators, twomiles north of Jerusalem. The Phœnicians having, inSamuel'stime,beatentheJews,andtakenfromthemtheirArkofallianceinthe battle, in which they killed thirty thousand of their men, were severelypunishedforitbytheLord:

"Percussit eos in secretiori parte natium, et ebullierunt villæ et agri.... etnatisuntmures,etfactaestconfusiomortismagnaincivitate."Literally:"Hestruck them in the most secret part of the buttocks; and the fields and thefarmhousesweretroubled....andtheresprungupmice;andtherewasagreatconfusionofdeathinthecity."

TheprophetsofthePhœnicians,orPhilistines,havinginformedthemthattheycoulddeliverthemselvesfromthescourgeonlybygivingtotheLordfivegoldenmiceandfivegoldenemeroids,andsendinghimbacktheJewishArk,they fulfilled this order, and, according to the express command of theirprophetssentbacktheArkwiththemiceandemeroidsonawagondrawnbytwocows,witheachasuckingcalfandwithoutadriver.

ThesetwocowsofthemselvestooktheArkstraighttoBethshemesh.ThemenofBethshemeshapproachedtheArkinordertolookatit,whichlibertywaspunishedyetmore severely than theprofanationby thePhœnicianshadbeen.TheLordstruckwithsuddendeathseventymenofthepeople,andfifty

thousandofthepopulace.

The reverend Doctor Kennicott, an Irishman, printed in 1768 a Frenchcommentaryon thisoccurrenceanddedicated it to thebishopofOxford.AttheheadofthiscommentaryheentitleshimselfDoctorofDivinity,memberoftheRoyal Society of London, of the PalatineAcademy, of theAcademy ofGöttingen,andoftheAcademyofInscriptionsatParis.AllthatIknowofthematteristhatheisnotoftheAcademyofInscriptionsatParis.Perhapsheisoneofitscorrespondents.Hisvasteruditionmayhavedeceivedhim,buttitlesaredistinctfromthings.

He informs the public that his pamphlet is sold at Paris by Saillant andMolini, at Rome by Monaldini, at Venice by Pasquali, at Florence byCambiagi, at Amsterdam byMarc-Michel Rey, at The Hague by Gosse, atLeydenbyJaquau,andinLondonbyBeckett,whoreceivessubscriptions.

In this pamphlet he pretends to prove that the Scripture text has beencorrupted. Herewemust be permitted to differwith him.Nearly all Biblesagreeintheseexpressions:seventymenofthepeopleandfiftythousandofthepopulace—"Depopulo septuagintaviros, et quinquagintamilliaplebis."ThereverendDoctorKennicottsaystotherightreverendthelordbishopofOxfordthatformerlytherewerestrongprejudicesinfavoroftheHebrewtext,butthatfor seventeen years his lordship and himself have been freed from theirprejudices,afterthedeliberateandattentiveperusalofthischapter.

InthiswedifferfromDr.Kennicott,andthemorewereadthischapterthemore we reverence the ways of the Lord, which are not our ways. It isimpossible, saysKennicott, for the candid reader not to feel astonished andaffectedatthecontemplationoffiftythousandmendestroyedinonevillage—men,too,employedingatheringtheharvest.

Thisdoes,it istrue,supposeahundredthousandpersons,atleast, inthatvillage,butshouldthedoctorforgetthattheLordhadpromisedAbrahamthathisposterityshouldbeasnumerousasthesandsofthesea?

The Jews and theChristians, addshe, havenot scrupled to express theirrepugnance to attach faith to this destruction of fifty thousand and seventymen.

WeanswerthatweareChristiansandhavenorepugnancetoattachfaithtowhatever is in the Holy Scriptures. We answer, with the reverend FatherCalmet, that "ifwewere to rejectwhatever is extraordinary andbeyond thereachofour conceptionwemust reject thewholeBible."WearepersuadedthattheJews,beingundertheguidanceofGodhimself,couldexperiencenoevents but such as were stamped with the seal of the Divinity and quitedifferentfromwhathappenedtoothermen.Wewillevenventuretoadvance

that the death of these fifty thousand and seventy men is one of the leastsurprisingthingsintheOldTestament.

WearestruckwithastonishmentstillmorereverentialwhenEve'sserpentandBalaam's ass talk;when thewaters of the cataracts are swelled by rainfifteencubitsaboveallthemountains;whenwebeholdtheplaguesofEgypt,andthesixhundredandthirtythousandfightingJewsflyingonfootthroughthe divided and suspended sea; when Joshua stops the sun and moon atnoonday;whenSamsonslaysa thousandPhilistineswith the jaw-boneofanass.... In thosedivine timesallwasmiracle,withoutexception,andwehavetheprofoundestreverenceforallthesemiracles—forthatancientworldwhichwasnotourworld;forthatnaturewhichwasnotournature;foradivinebook,inwhichtherecanbenothinghuman.

Butweareastonishedat the libertywhichDr.Kennicott takesofcallingthosedeistsandatheists,who,whiletheyreveretheBiblemorethanhedoes,differ from him in opinion.Neverwill it be believed that amanwith suchideas is of theAcademy ofMedals and Inscriptions. He is, perhaps, of theAcademy of Bedlam, the most ancient of all, and whose colonies extendthroughouttheearth.

BILHAH—BASTARDS

Bilhah, servant to Rachel, and Zilpah, servant to Leah, each bore thepatriarch Jacob two children, and, be it observed, that they inherited likelegitimatesons,aswellas theeightothermalechildrenwhomJacobhadbythetwosistersLeahandRachel.Itistruethatalltheirinheritanceconsistedinablessing;whereas,WilliamtheBastardinheritedNormandy.

Thierri,abastardofClovis,inheritedthebestpartofGaul,invadedbyhisfather. Several kings of Spain and Naples have been bastards. In Spainbastards have always inherited. King Henry of Transtamare was notconsideredasanillegitimateking,thoughhewasanillegitimatechild,andthisraceofbastards,foundedinthehouseofAustria,reignedinSpainuntilPhilipV.

ThelineofAragon,whoreignedinNaplesinthetimeofLouisXII.,werebastards.CountdeDunoissignedhimself"thebastardofOrleans,"andletterswerelongpreservedof thedukeofNormandy,kingofEngland,whichweresigned"WilliamtheBastard."

In Germany it is otherwise; the descent must be pure; bastards neverinheritfiefs,norhaveanyestate.InFrance,ashaslongbeenthecase,aking's

bastardcannotbeapriestwithoutadispensationfromRome,buthebecomesaprincewithoutanydifficultyassoonasthekingacknowledgeshimtobetheoffspringofhissire,eventhoughhebethebastardofanadulterousfatherandmother. It is the same inSpain.Thebastardof akingofEnglandmaybe adukebut not a prince. Jacob's bastardswereneither princes nor dukes; theyhad no lands, the reason being that their father had none, but they wereafterwardscalledpatriarchs,whichmayberenderedarch-fathers.

Ithasbeenaskedwhetherthebastardsofthepopesmightbepopesinturn.PopeJohnXI.was,itistrue,abastardofPopeSergiusIII.,andofthefamousMarozia;butaninstanceisnotalaw.

BISHOP.

SamuelOrnik, a native ofBasle,was, as iswell known, a very amiableyoungman,who,moreover,knewhisGermanandGreekNewTestamentbyheart. At the age of twenty his parents sent him to travel. He wascommissioned to carry books to the coadjutor at Paris in the time of theFronde. He arrived at the archbishop's gate andwas told by the Swiss thatmonseigneursawnoone."Mydearfellow,"saidOrnik,"youareveryrudetoyourcountrymen;theapostlesallowedeveryonetoapproach,andJesusChristdesiredthatlittlechildrenshouldcomeuntohim.Ihavenothingtoaskofyourmaster;onthecontrary,Ibringhimsomething.""Enter,then,"saidtheSwiss.

Hewaitedanhourinthefirstante-chamber.Beingquiteartlessheattackedwithquestionsadomesticwhowasveryfondoftellingallheknewabouthismaster."Hemustbeprettyrich,"saidOrnik,"tohavesuchaswarmofpagesand footmen running inandoutof thehouse.""Idon'tknow,"answered theother,"whathisincomeis,butIhearJoliandtheAbbéChariersaythatheistwomillionsindebt.""Butwhoisthatladywhocameoutofacabinetandispassing by?" "That isMadame de Pomereu, one of hismistresses." "She isreallyverypretty,but Ihavenot read that theapostleshadsuchcompanyintheir bedchambers in amorning." "Ah! that, I believe, ismonsieur, about togiveaudience.""Saysagrandeur,monseigneur.""Well,withallmyheart...."Orniksalutedsagrandeur,presentedhisbooks,andwasreceivedwithamostgracious smile. Sa grandeur said three words to him, and stepped into hiscarriage, escorted by fifty horsemen. In stepping in,monseigneur dropped asheath andOrnikwas astonished thatmonseigneur should carry so large aninkhorn."Doyounotsee,"saidthetalker,"thatitishisdagger?everyonethatgoes to parliament wears his dagger?" Ornik uttered an exclamation ofastonishment,anddeparted.

HewentthroughFranceandwasedifiedbytownaftertown.FromthencehepassedintoItaly.Inthepapalterritorieshemetabishopwithanincomeofonly a thousand crowns, who went on foot. Ornik, being naturally kind,offered him a place in his cambiatura. "Signor, you are no doubt going tocomfort the sick?" "Sir, I am going to my master." "Your master? He, nodoubt, is Jesus Christ." "Sir, he is Cardinal Azolino; I am his almoner. Hegivesme a very poor salary, but he has promised to placemewith DonnaOlimpia, the favorite sister-in-lawof nostro signore." "What! are you in thepay of a cardinal?But do younot know that therewere no cardinals in thetime of Jesus Christ and St. John?" "Is it possible!" exclaimed the Italianprelate."Nothingismoretrue;youhavereaditintheGospel.""Ihaveneverreadit,"repliedthebishop;"IknowonlytheofficeofOurLady.""Itellyouthere were neither cardinals nor bishops, and when there were bishops thepriestswerealmosttheirequals,asSt.Jerome,inseveralplaces,assuresus.""Holy Virgin" said the Italian, "I knew nothing about it; and what of thepopes?" "There were no popes either." The good bishop crossed himself,thinkinghewaswiththeevilone,andleapedfromthesideofhiscompanion.

BLASPHEMY.

This is a Greek word signifying an attack on reputation. We findblasphemiainDemosthenes.IntheGreekChurchitwasusedonlytoexpressan injury done to God. The Romans never made use of this expression,apparentlynotthinkingthatGod'shonorcouldbeoffendedlikethatofmen.

Therescarcelyexistsonesynonym.Blasphemydoesnotaltogetherconveytheideaofsacrilege.WesayofamanwhohastakenGod'snameinvain,who,intheviolenceofanger,hassworn—asitisexpressed—bythenameofGod,that hehasblasphemed; butwedonot say that hehas committed sacrilege.Thesacrilegiousmanishewhoperjureshimselfonthegospel,whoextendshisrapacitytosacredthings,whoimbrueshishandsinthebloodofpriests.

Great sacrileges have always been punished with death in all nations,especially thoseaccompaniedbybloodshed.Theauthorof the "Institutes auDroitCriminel"reckonsamongdivinehightreasonsintheseconddegree,thenon-observance of Sundays and holidays. He should have said the non-observanceattendedwithmarkedcontempt,forsimplenegligenceisasin,butnot,ashecallsit,asacrilege.Itisabsurdtoclasstogether,asthisauthordoes,simony, the carrying off of a nun, and the forgetting to go to vespers on aholiday. It is one great instance of the errors committed by writers onjurisprudence, who, not having been called upon to make laws, take upon

themselvestointerpretthoseofthestate.

Blasphemiesutteredinintoxication,inanger,intheexcessofdebauchery,orintheheatofunguardedconversationhavebeensubjectedbylegislatorstomuchlighterpenalties.Forinstance,theadvocatewhomwehavealreadycitedsaysthatthelawsofFrancecondemnsimpleblasphemerstoafineforthefirstoffence,whichisdoubledforthesecond,tripledforthethird,andquadrupledforthefourthoffence;forthefifthrelapsetheculpritissetinthepillory,forthe sixth relapse he is pilloried, andhas his upper lip burnedoffwith a hotiron,andfortheseventhheloseshistongue.Heshouldhaveaddedthatthiswasanordinanceoftheyear1666.

Punishments are almost always arbitrary, which is a great defect injurisprudence.But this defect opens theway for clemency and compassion,and this compassion is no other than the strictest justice, for it would behorrible to punish a youthful indiscretion as poisoners and parricides arepunished. A sentence of death for an offence which deserves nothingmorethancorrectionisnootherthananassassinationcommittedwiththeswordofjustice.

Isitnottothepurposeheretoremarkthatwhathasbeenblasphemyinonecountryhasoftenbeenpietyinanother?

Suppose a Tyrian merchant landed at the port of Canope: he might bescandalizedonseeinganonion,acat,oragoatcarriedinprocession;hemightspeak indecorously of Isheth, Oshireth, andHoreth, ormight turn aside hishead andnot fall onhis knees at the sight of a processionwith theparts ofhumangenerationlargerthanlife;hemightexpresshisopinionatsupper,orevensingsomesonginwhichtheTyriansailorsmadeajestoftheEgyptianabsurdities.Hemightbeoverheardbythemaidoftheinn,whoseconsciencewould not suffer her to conceal so enormous a crime; she would run anddenouncetheoffendertothenearestshoenthatboretheimageofthetruthonhisbreast,anditisknownhowthisimageoftruthwasmade.Thetribunalofthe shoens, or shotim,would condemn the Tyrian blasphemer to a dreadfuldeath,andconfiscatehisvessel.YetthismerchantmightbeconsideredatTyreasoneofthemostpiouspersonsinPhœnicia.

Numa sees that his little horde of Romans is a Collection of Latinfreebooterswhostealrightandleftalltheycanfind—oxen,sheep,fowls,andgirls.HetellsthemthathehasspokenwiththenymphEgeriainacavern,andthatthenymphhasbeenemployedbyJupitertogivehimlaws.ThesenatorstreathimatfirstasablasphemerandthreatentothrowhimheadlongfromtheTarpeian rock. Numa makes himself a powerful party; he gains over someseniorswhogowithhimintoEgeria'sgrotto.Shetalkstothemandconvertsthem;theyconvertthesenateandthepeople.InalittletimeNumaisnolonger

a blasphemer, the name is given only to such as doubt the existence of thenymph.

InourowntimesitisunfortunatethatwhatisblasphemyatRome,atourLady of Loretto, andwithin the walls of SanGennaro, is piety in London,Amsterdam,Stockholm,Berlin,Copenhagen,Berne,Basel,andHamburg.Itisyetmoreunfortunatethateveninthesamecountry, inthesametown,inthesamestreet,peopletreatoneanotherasblasphemers.

Nay,ofthetenthousandJewslivingatRomethereisnotonewhodoesnotregard thepopeas thechiefof theblasphemers,while thehundred thousandChristianswhoinhabitRome,inplaceoftwomillionsofJovianswhofilleditin Trajan's time, firmly believe that the Jews meet in their synagogues onSaturdayforthepurposeofblaspheming.

ACordelier has no hesitation in applying the epithet of blasphemer to aDominican who says that the Holy Virgin was born in original sin,notwithstandingthattheDominicanshaveabullfromthepopewhichpermitsthemtoteachthemaculateconceptionintheirconvents,andthat,besidesthisbull,theyhaveintheirforumtheexpressdeclarationofSt.ThomasAquinas.

Thefirstoriginoftheschismofthree-fourthsofSwitzerlandandapartofLowerGermanywasaquarrelinthecathedralchurchofFrankfortbetweenaCordelier,whosenameIforget,andaDominicannamedVigand.

Both were drunk, according to the custom of that day. The drunkenCordelier, who was preaching, thanked God that he was not a Jacobin,swearing that itwasnecessary toexterminate theblasphemingJacobinswhobelievedthattheHolyVirginhadbeenborninmortalsin,anddeliveredfromsinonlybythemeritsofherson.ThedrunkenJacobincriedout:"Thouhastlied;thouthyselfartablasphemer."TheCordelierdescendedfromthepulpitwithagreatironcrucifixinhishand,laiditabouthisadversary,andlefthimalmostdeadonthespot.

To revenge this outrage the Dominicans worked many miracles inGermanyandSwitzerland; thesemiraclesweredesignedtoprove their faith.TheyatlengthfoundmeanstoimprintthemarksofourLordJesusChristononeoftheirlaybrethrennamedJetzer.ThisoperationwasperformedatBerneby theHolyVirginherself,butsheborrowed thehandof thesub-prior,whodressedhimselfinfemaleattireandputagloryroundhishead.Thepoorlittlelaybrother,exposedallbloodytothevenerationofthepeopleonthealtaroftheDominicans atBerne, at last criedoutmurder! sacrilege!Themonks, inordertoquiethimasquicklyaspossibleadministeredtohimahostsprinkledwithcorrosivesublimate,but theexcessof thedosemadehimdischarge thehostfromhisstomach.

The monks then accused him to the bishop of Lausanne of horriblesacrilege.TheindignantpeopleofBerneintheirturnaccusedthemonks,andfourofthemwereburnedatBerneonthe13thofMay,1509,attheMarsillygate.Suchwastheterminationofthisabominableaffair,whichdeterminedthepeopleofBernetochooseareligion,badindeedinCatholiceyes,butwhichdelivered themfrom theCordeliersand the Jacobins.Thenumberof similarsacrilegesisincredible.Sucharetheeffectsofpartyspirit.

The Jesuits maintained for a hundred years that the Jansenists wereblasphemers,andproveditbyathousandlettres-de-cachet; theJansenistsbyupwardsof four thousandvolumesdemonstrated that itwas the Jesuitswhoblasphemed. The writer of the "Gazettes Ecclésiastiques" pretends that allhonest men blaspheme against him, while he himself blasphemes from hisgarretonhighagainsteveryhonestmaninthekingdom.Thegazette-writer'spublisher blasphemes in return and complains that he is starving.Hewouldfinditbettertobehonestandpolite.

Onethingequallyremarkableandconsolingisthatneverinanycountryofthe earth, among the wildest idolaters, has any man been considered as ablasphemerforacknowledgingonesupreme,eternal,andall-powerfulGod.Itcertainly was not for having acknowledged this truth that Socrates wascondemnedtothehemlock,forthedoctrineofaSupremeGodwasannouncedinall theGrecianmysteries.ItwasafactionthatdestroyedSocrates;hewasaccused,ataventure,ofnotrecognizingthesecondarygods,andonthispointitwasthathewasaccusedasablasphemer.

The firstChristianswere accusedof blasphemy for the same reason, butthepartisansoftheancientreligionoftheempire,theJovians,whoreproachedthe primitive Christians with blasphemy, were at length condemned asblasphemersthemselves,underTheodosiusII.Drydensays:

Thissideto-day,to-morrowt'otherburns,

Andthey'reallGodsAlmightyintheirturns.

BODY.

Bodyandmatterareherethesamethingalthoughthereishardlyanysuchthing as synonym in themost rigorous sense of theword. There have beenpersonswho by this word "body" have understood "spirit" also. They havesaidspiritoriginallysignifiesbreath;onlyabodycanbreathe,thereforebodyandspiritmay,afterall,be thesamething. In thissenseLaFontainesaid tothecelebratedDukedelaRochefoucauld:"J'entenslesespritscorpsetpétris

dematière."InthesamesensehesaystoMadameSablière:

Jesubtiliseraisunmorceaudematière,

Quintessenced'atome,extraitdelalumière,

jenesaisquoiplusvifetplussubtilencor....

NoonethoughtofharassinggoodMonsieurLaFontaine,orbringinghimtotrialforhisexpressions.Wereapoorphilosopher,orevenapoet,tosayasmuch nowadays, how many would there be to fall on him! How manyscribblers to sell their extracts for sixpence!Howmanyknaves, for the solepurpose of making mischief, to cry philosopher! peripatetic! disciple ofGassendi!pupilofLocke,andtheprimitivefathers!damnable!

Asweknownotwhataspiritis,soalsoweareignorantofwhatabodyis;we see various properties, butwhat is the subject inwhich those propertiesreside?"There isnothingbutbody,"saidDemocritusandEpicurus;"there isnosuchthingasbody,"saidthedisciplesofZeno,ofElia.

Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, is the last who, by a hundred captioussophisms,haspretendedtoprovethatbodiesdonotexist.Theyhave,sayshe,neithercolor,norsmell,norheat;all thesemodalitiesare inyoursensations,not in theobjects.Hemighthave sparedhimself the troubleofproving thistruthforitwasalreadysufficientlyknown.Butthencehepassedtoextentandsolidity, which are essential to body, and thinks he proves that there is noextent inapieceofgreenclothbecause thecloth isnot in realitygreen, thesensationofgreenbeinginourselvesonly,thereforethesensationofextentislikewise in ourselves only. Having thus destroyed extent he concludes thatsolidity, which is attached to it, falls of itself, and therefore that there isnothing in the world but our ideas. So that, according to this doctor, tenthousandmenkilledbytenthousandcannonshotsareinrealitynothingmorethan ten thousand apprehensions of our understanding, and when a femalebecomespregnantitisonlyoneidealodgedinanotherideafromwhichathirdideawillbeproduced.

Surely, the bishopofCloynemight have savedhimself from falling intothisexcessiveabsurdity.Hethinksheshowsthatthereisnoextentbecauseabodyhasappearedtohimfourtimesaslargethroughaglassastohisnakedeye,andfourtimesassmallthroughanotherglass.Henceheconcludes,that,since abodycannotbe at the same time four feet, sixteen feet, andbutonefootinextent,thereisnoextent,thereforethereisnothing.Hehadonlytotakeanymeasureandsay:ofwhateverextentthisbodymayappeartometobe,itextendstosomanyofthesemeasures.

Wemightveryeasilyseethatextentandsoliditywerequitedifferentfromsound,color,taste,smell.Itisquiteclearthatthesearesensationsexcitedinus

bytheconfigurationofparts,butextentisnotasensation.Whenthislightedcoalgoesout,Iamnolongerwarm;whentheairisnolongerstruck,Iceasetohear;whenthisrosewithers,Inolongersmellit:butthecoal,theair,andtherosehaveextentwithoutme.Berkeley'sparadoxisnotworthrefuting.

ThusarguedZenoandParmenidesofold,andveryclevertheywere;theywouldprovetoyouthatatortoisewentalongasswiftlyasAchilles,fortherewasnosuchthingasmotion;theydiscussedahundredotherquestionsequallyimportant.MostoftheGreeksmadephilosophyajuggle,andtheytransmittedtheirarttoourschoolmen.Baylehimselfwasoccasionallyoneofthesetandembroideredcobwebsliketherest.Inhisarticle,"Zeno,"againstthedivisibleextentofmatterand thecontiguityofbodiesheventures to saywhatwouldnotbetoleratedinanysix-monthsgeometrician.

It isworth knowing howBerkeleywas drawn into this paradox.A longwhileagoIhadsomeconversationwithhim,andhetoldmethathisopinionoriginatedinourbeingunable toconceivewhat thesubjectof thisextensionis, and certainly, in his book, he triumphs when he asks Hylas what thissubject, this substratum, this substance is? It is the extended body, answersHylas.Thenthebishop,underthenameofPhilonous,laughsathim,andpoorHylas,findingthathehassaidthatextensionisthesubjectofextension,andhas therefore talkednonsense, remainsquiteconfused,acknowledges thatheunderstandsnothingatallof thematter; that there isnosuch thingasbody;thatthenaturalworlddoesnotexist,andthatthereisnonebutanintellectualworld.

HylasshouldonlyhavesaidtoPhilonous:Weknownothingofthesubjectofthisextension,solidity,divisibility,mobility,figure,etc.;IknownomoreofitthanIdoofthesubjectofthought,feeling,andwill,butthesubjectdoesnotthelessexistforithasessentialpropertiesofwhichitcannotbedeprived.

We all resemble the greater part of the Parisian ladies who live wellwithout knowing what is put in their ragouts; just so do we enjoy bodieswithoutknowingofwhattheyarecomposed.Ofwhatdoesabodyconsist?Ofparts,andthesepartsresolvethemselvesintootherparts.Whataretheselastparts? They, too, are bodies; you divide incessantly without making anyprogress.

In short, a subtle philosopher, observing that a picture was made ofingredients of which no single ingredient was a picture, and a house ofmaterials of which no one material was a house, imagined that bodies arecomposedof an infinityof small thingswhich arenot bodies, and these arecalledmonads.Thissystemisnotwithout itsmerits,and,wereit revealed,Ishould think it very possible. These little beings would be so manymathematicalpoints,asortofsouls,waitingonlyforatenement:herewould

be a continualmetempsychosis. This system is as good as another; I like itquiteaswell as thedeclinationofatoms, the substantial forms, theversatilegrace,orthevampires.

BOOKS.

SectionI.

You despise books; you, whose lives are absorbed in the vanities ofambition, the pursuit of pleasure, or in indolence, but remember that all theknown world, excepting only savage nations, is governed by books. AllAfrica,tothelimitsofEthiopiaandNigritiaobeysthebookoftheKoranafterbowing to the book of the Gospel. China is ruled by the moral book ofConfucius,andagreatpartofIndiabytheVeda.PersiawasgovernedforagesbythebooksofoneoftheZoroasters.

Ina lawsuitorcriminalprocess,yourproperty,yourhonor,perhapsyourlife, depends on the interpretation of a book which you never read. It is,however,withbooksaswithmen,averysmallnumberplayagreatpart,therestareconfoundedwiththemultitude.

Bywhom aremankind led in all civilized countries? By thosewho canreadandwrite.YouareacquaintedwithneitherHippocrates,norBoerhaave,norSydenham,butyouplaceyourbody in thehandsof thosewhocan readthem. You leave your soul entirely to the care of those who are paid forreading the Bible, although there are not fifty of them who have read itthroughwithattention.

Theworldisnowsoentirelygovernedbybooksthattheywhocommandinthecityof theScipiosandtheCatoshaveresolvedthat thebooksof theirlaw shall be for themselves alone; they are their sceptre, which they havemadeithightreasonintheirsubjectstotouchwithoutanexpresspermission.Inothercountriesithasbeenforbiddentothinkinprintwithoutletters-patent.

There are nations inwhich thought is consideredmerely as an article ofcommerce,theoperationsofthehumanunderstandingbeingvaluedonlyatsomuch per sheet. If the bookseller happens to desire a privilege for hismerchandisewhetherheisselling"Rabelais,"orthe"FathersoftheChurch,"themagistrategrants theprivilegewithout answering for the contentsof thebook.

Inanothercountrythelibertyofexplainingyourselfbybooksisoneofthemost inviolable prerogatives. There youmay print whatever you please, onpainofbeing tiresome, andofbeingpunished ifyouhave toomuchabused

yournaturalright.

Beforetheadmirableinventionofprinting,bookswerescarceranddearerthan jewels.Therewere scarcely any books in our barbarous nations, eitherbeforeCharlemagneorafterhim,untilthetimeofCharlesV.,kingofFrance,calledtheWise,andfromthistimetoFrancisI.thescarcitywasextreme.TheArabs alone had them from the eighth to the thirteenth century of our era.Chinawasfullofthemwhenwecouldneitherreadnorwrite.

CopyistsweremuchemployedintheRomanEmpirefromthetimeoftheScipios until the irruption of the barbarians. This was a very ungratefulemployment.Thedealersalwayspaidauthorsandcopyistsveryill.Itrequiredtwoyearsofassiduouslaborforacopyist to transcribethewholeBiblewellonvellum,andwhattimeandtroubletocopycorrectlyinGreekandLatintheworks of Origen, Clement of Alexandria and all the others writers calledFathers!

St.Hieronymos,orHieronymus,whomwecallJerome,says,inoneofhissatirical letters against Rufinus that he has ruined himself with buying theworks of Origen, against whom he wrote with so much bitterness andviolence."Yes,"sayshe,"IhavereadOrigen,ifitbeacrimeIconfessthatIamguiltyandthatIexhaustedmypurseinbuyinghisworksatAlexandria."

TheChristiansocietiesofthethreefirstcenturieshadfifty-fourgospels,ofwhich, until Diocletian's time scarcely two or three copies found their wayamongtheRomansoftheoldreligion.

AmongtheChristiansitwasanunpardonablecrimetoshowthegospelstotheGentiles;theydidnotevenlendthemtothecatechumens.

WhenLucian(insultingourreligionofwhichheknewvery little) relatesthat "a troop of beggars took him up into a fourth story where they wereinvoking the Father through the Son, and foretelling misfortunes to theemperorandtheempire,"hedoesnotsaythattheyshowedhimasinglebook.No Roman historian, no Roman author whomsoever makes mention of thegospels.

WhenaChristian,whowasunfortunately rashandunworthyofhisholyreligion had publicly torn in pieces and trampled under foot an edict of theEmperor Diocletian, and had thus drawn down upon Christianity thatpersecutionwhichsucceededthegreatest toleration, theChristianswerethenobligedtogiveuptheirgospelsandwrittenauthorstothemagistrates,whichbeforethenhadneverbeendone.Thosewhogaveuptheirbooksthroughfearofimprisonment,orevenofdeath,wereheldbytherestoftheChristianstobesacrilegious apostates, they received the surname of traditores, whence wehave the word "traitor," and several bishops asserted that they should be

rebaptized,whichoccasionedadreadfulschism.

ThepoemsofHomerwerelongsolittleknownthatPisistratuswasthefirstwhoputtheminorderandhadthemtranscribedatAthensaboutfivehundredyearsbeforetheChristianera.

PerhapstherewasnotatthistimeinalltheEastadozencopiesoftheVedaandtheZend-Avesta.

In1700youwouldnothave founda singlebook inallRome,exceptingthemissalsandafewBiblesinthehandsofpapasdrunkwithbrandy.

Thecomplaintnowisoftheirtoogreatabundance.Butitisnotforreaderstocomplain, the remedy is in theirownhands;nothing forces them to read.Norforauthors,theywhomakethemultitudeofbookshavenottocomplainof being pressed. Notwithstanding this enormous quantity how few peopleread!Butiftheyread,andreadwithadvantage,shouldwehavetowitnessthedeplorableinfatuationstowhichthevulgararestilleverydayaprey?

Thereasonthatbooksaremultipliedinspiteofthegenerallawthatbeingsshallnotbemultipliedwithoutnecessity,isthatbooksaremadefrombooks.AnewhistoryofFranceorSpainismanufacturedfromseveralvolumesalreadyprinted, without adding anything new. All dictionaries are made fromdictionaries;almostallnewgeographicalbooksaremadefromotherbooksofgeography;St.Thomas'sDreamhasbroughtforthtwothousandlargevolumesofdivinity,andthesameraceoflittlewormsthathavedevouredtheparentarenowgnawingthechildren.

Écrivequivoudra,chacunasonmétier

Peutperdreimpunémentdel'encreetdupapier.

Write,writeaway;eachwriterathispleasure

Maysquanderinkandpaperwithoutmeasure.

SectionII.

Itissometimesverydangeroustomakeabook.Silhouète,beforehecouldsuspect that he should one day be comptroller-general of the finances,publishedatranslationofWarburton's"AllianceofChurchandState,"andhisfather-in-law, Astuce the physician, gave to the public the "Memoirs," inwhichtheauthorofthePentateuchmighthavefoundalltheastonishingthingswhichhappenedsolongbeforehistime.

The very day that Silhouète came into office, some good friend of hissoughtoutacopyofeachofthesebooksbythefather-in-lawandson-in-law,inordertodenouncethemtotheparliamentandhavethemcondemnedtotheflames,accordingtocustom.Theyimmediatelyboughtupallthecopiesinthe

kingdom,whenceitisthattheyarenowextremelyrare.

There is hardly a single philosophical or theological book in whichheresiesand impietiesmaynotbefoundbymisinterpreting,oradding to,orsubtractingfrom,thesense.

Theodore ofMopsuestes ventured to call the "Canticle of Canticles," "acollectionofimpurities."Grotiuspullsitinpiecesandrepresentsitashorrid,andChatillonspeaksofitas"ascandalousproduction."

Perhaps it will hardly be believed that Dr. Tamponet one day said toseveralothers: "Iwouldengage to findamultitudeofheresies in theLord'sPrayer if thisprayer,whichweknow tohave come from theDivinemouth,werenowforthefirsttimepublishedbyaJesuit."

I would proceed thus: "Our Father, who art in heaven—" a propositionincliningtoheresy,sinceGodiseverywhere.Nay,wefindinthisexpressiontheleavenofSocinianism,forhereisnothingatallsaidoftheTrinity.

"Thy kingdom come; thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven—"another proposition tainted with heresy, for it said again and again in theScriptures thatGodreignseternally.Moreover it isvery rash toask thatHiswillmaybedone,sincenothingisorcanbedonebutbythewillofGod.

"Giveusthisdayourdailybread"—apropositiondirectlycontrarytowhatJesusChristutteredonanotheroccasion:"Takenothought,sayingwhatshallwe eat? orwhat shallwe drink?... for after all these things do theGentilesseek....But seekye first thekingdomofGodandHis righteousness, andallthesethingsshallbeaddeduntoyou."

"Andforgiveusourdebts,asweforgiveourdebtors—"arashproposition,whichcomparesman toGod,destroysgratuitouspredestination,and teachesthatGodisboundtodotousaswedotoothers.Besides,howcantheauthorsaythatweforgiveourdebtors?Wehaveneverforgiventhemasinglecrown.Noconvent inEuropeever remitted to its farmers thepaymentof a sou.Todaretosaythecontraryisaformalheresy.

"Leadusnot into temptation—"aproposition scandalousandmanifestlyheretical, for there isno tempterbut thedevil,and it isexpresslysaid inSt.James'Epistle:"Godisnotempterofthewicked;Hetemptsnoman."—"Deusenimintentatormalorumest;ipseautemneminemtentat."

Yousee,then,saidDoctorTamponet,thatthereisnothing,thougheversovenerable,towhichabadsensemaynotbegiven.Whatbook,then,shallnotbeliabletohumancensurewheneventheLord'sPrayermaybeattacked,bygivingadiabolicalinterpretationtoallthedivinewordsthatcomposeit?

Asforme,Itrembleatthethoughtofmakingabook.ThankGod,Ihave

neverpublishedanything;Ihavenoteven—likebrothersLaRue,DuCeveau,and Folard—had any of my theatrical pieces played, it would be toodangerous.

If you publish, a parish curate accuses you of heresy; a stupid collegiandenouncesyou;a fellowthatcannot readcondemnsyou; thepublic laughatyou; your bookseller abandons you, and your wine merchant gives you nomorecredit.Ialwaysaddtomypaternoster,"Deliverme,OGod,fromtheitchofbookmaking."

Oyewho,likemyself,layblackonwhiteandmakecleanpaperdirty!calltomindthefollowingverseswhichIremembertohaveread,andbywhichweshouldhavebeencorrected:

Toutcefatrasfatduchauvreensontemps,

Lingeildevintparl'artdestisserands;

Puisenlambeauxdespilonslepressèrent

Ilfutpapier.Centcerveauxàl'envers

Devisionsàl'envilechargèrent;

Puisonlebrûle;ilvoledanslesairs,

Ilestfuméeaussibienquelagloire.

Denostravauxvoilàquelleestl'histoire,

Toutestfumée,ettoutnousfaitsentir

Cegrandnéantquidoitnousengloutir.

Thismiscellaneousrubbishoncewasflax,

Tillmadesoftlinenbythehonestweaver;

Butwhenatlengthitdroppedfrompeople'sbacks,

'Twasturnedtopaper,andbecamereceiver

Ofallthatfiftymotleybrainscouldfashion;

Sonow'tisburnedwithouttheleastcompassion;

Itnow,likeglory,terminatesinsmoke;

Thusallourtoilsarenothingbutajoke—

Allendsinsmoke;eachnothingthatwefollow

Tellsofthenothingthatmustallthingsswallow.

SectionIII.

Booksarenowmultipliedtosuchadegreethatitisimpossiblenotonlytoread themallbuteven toknowtheirnumberand their titles.Happily,one isnot obliged to read all that is published, and Caramuel's plan for writing ahundred folio volumes and employing the spiritual and temporal power ofprinces tocompel theirsubjects toread them,hasnotbeenput inexecution.Ringelburg, too, had formed the design of composing about a thousanddifferent volumes, but, even had he lived long enough to publish them hewould have fallen far short of Hermes Trismegistus, who, according toJamblicus,composedthirty-sixthousandfivehundredandtwenty-fivebooks.Supposing the truth of this fact, the ancients had no less reason than themodernstocomplainofthemultitudeofbooks.

It is, indeed, generally agreed that a small number of choice books issufficient.SomeproposethatweshouldconfineourselvestotheBibleorHolyScriptures, as the Turks limit themselves to theKoran. But there is a greatdifferencebetween the feelingsof reverenceentertainedby theMahometansfortheirKoranandthoseoftheChristiansfortheScriptures.ThevenerationtestifiedbytheformerwhenspeakingoftheKorancannotbeexceeded.Itis,say they, the greatest of all miracles; nor are all the men in existence puttogether capable of anything at all approaching it; it is stillmorewonderfulthattheauthorhadneverstudied,norreadanybook.TheKoranaloneisworthsixtythousandmiracles(thenumberof itsverses,or thereabouts);onerisingfromthedeadwouldnotbeastrongerproofofthetruthofareligionthanthecompositionoftheKoran.Itissoperfectthatitoughtnottoberegardedasaworkofcreation.

The Christians do indeed say that their Scriptures were inspired by theHoly Ghost, yet not only is it acknowledged by Cardinal Cajetan andBellarminethaterrorshavefoundtheirwayintothemthroughthenegligenceand ignorance of the book-sellers and the rabbis,who added the points, buttheyareconsideredasabooktoodangerousforthehandsofthemajorityofthefaithful.ThisisexpressedbythefifthruleoftheIndex,acongregationatRome,whoseoffice it is toexaminewhatbooksare tobeforbidden.It isasfollows:

"Since it is evident that if the reading of the Bible, translated into thevulgar tongue, were permitted to everyone indiscriminately the temerity ofmankindwouldcausemoreevilthangoodtoarisetherefrom—wewillthatitbereferredtothejudgmentofthebishoporinquisitor,who,withtheadviceofthecurateorconfessor,shallhavepowertograntpermissiontoreadtheBiblerenderedinthevulgartonguebyCatholicwriters,tothosetowhomtheyshalljudge that such readingwill do no harm; theymust have this permission inwritingandshallnotbeabsolveduntiltheyhavereturnedtheirBibleintothehands of the ordinary. As for such book-sellers as shall sell Bibles in the

vulgar tongue to thosewhohavenot thiswrittenpermission,or inanyotherwayputthemintotheirhands,theyshalllosethepriceofthebooks(whichthebishopshallemployforpiouspurposes),andshallmoreoverbepunishedbyarbitrary penalties. Nor shall regulars read or buy these books without thepermissionoftheirsuperiors."

Cardinal Duperron also asserted that the Scriptures, in the hands of theunlearned,wereatwo-edgedknifewhichmightwoundthem,toavoidwhichitwasbetterthattheyshouldhearthemfromthemouthoftheChurch,withthesolutionsandinterpretationsofsuchpassagesasappeartothesensestobefullofabsurdityandcontradiction,thanthattheyshouldreadthembythemselveswithoutanysolutionorinterpretation.Heafterwardsmadealongenumerationof these absurdities in terms so unqualified that Jurieu was not afraid todeclare that he did not remember to have read anything so frightful or soscandalousinanyChristianauthor.

Jurieu,whowassoviolent t inhis invectivesagainstCardinalDuperron,had himself to sustain similar reproaches from the Catholics. "I heard thatminister," says Pap, in speaking of him, "teaching the public that all thecharacteristicsoftheHolyScripturesonwhichthosepretendedreformershadfounded their persuasion of their divinity, did not appear to him to besufficient.'Letitnotbeinferred,'saidJurieu,'thatIwishtotakefromthelightandstrengthofthecharacteristicsofScripture,butIwillventuretoaffirmthatthereisnotoneofthemwhichmaynotbeeludedbytheprofane.Thereisnotoneofthemthatamountstoaproof;notonetowhichsomethingmaynotbesaid inanswer,and,consideredaltogether,although theyhavegreaterpowerthanseparatelytoworkamoralconviction—thatis,aproofonwhichtofoundacertaintyexcludingeverydoubt—Iownthatnothingseemstometobemoreopposed to reason than to say that these characteristics are of themselvescapableofproducingsuchacertainty."

It is not then astonishing that the Jews and the firstChristians,who,wefindintheActsoftheApostles,confinedthemselvesintheirmeetingstothereadingoftheBible,were,aswillbeseeninthearticle"Heresy,"dividedintodifferent sects. For this reading was afterwards substituted that of variousapocryphal works, or at least of extracts from them. The author of the"Synopsis of Scripture,"whichwe find among theworks of St.Athanasius,expresslyavows that thereare in theapocryphalbooks thingsmost trueandinspiredbyGodwhichhavebeenselectedandextractedfortheperusalofthefaithful.

BOURGES.

Ourquestionshavebutlittletodowithgeography,butweshall,perhaps,bepermittedtoexpressinafewwordsourastonishmentrespectingthetownofBourges.TheTrévouxDictionaryassertsthat"itisoneofthemostancientinEurope; that itwas the seatof empireof theGauls, andgave laws to theCelts."

Iwillnotcombattheantiquityofanytownorofanyfamily.Butwasthereever an empire of Gaul? had the Celts kings? This rage for antiquity is amaladywhichisnoteasilycured.InGaul,inGermany,andintheNorththereis nothing ancient but the soil, the trees, and the animals. If you will haveantiquities go to Asia, and even there they are hardly to be found.Man isancient,butmonuments arenew; thishas alreadybeen said inmorearticlesthanone.

If to be born within a certain stone or wooden limit more ancient thananother were a real good it would be no more than reasonable to date thefoundationofthetownfromthegiants'war,butsincethisvanityisinnowiseadvantageousletitberenounced.ThisisallIhavetosayaboutBourges.

BRACHMANS—BRAHMINS.

Courteousreader,observe,inthefirstplace,thatFatherThomassin,oneofthe most learned men of modern Europe, derives the Brachmans from theJewishwordbarac,byac—supposing,ofcourse,thattheJewshadac.Thisbarac, says he, signified to fly; and the Brachmans fled from the towns—supposingthattherewereanytowns.

Or,ifyoulikeitbetter,Brachmanscomesfrombarakbyak,meaningtoblessortopray.ButwhymightnottheBiscayansnametheBrahminsfromthewordbran?whichexpresses—Iwillnotsaywhat.TheyhadasgoodarightastheHebrews.Really,thisisastrangesortoferudition.Byrejectingitentirely,weshouldknowless,butweshouldknowitbetter.

Is it not likely that the Brahmins were the first legislators, the firstphilosophers, the first divines, of the earth? Do not the few remainingmonumentsofancienthistoryformagreatpresumption in their favor?sincethefirstGreekphilosopherswenttothemtolearnmathematics;andthemostancientcuriosities,thosecollectedbytheemperorsofChina,areallIndian,asisattestedbytherelationsinDuHalde'scollection.

OftheShastah,weshallspeakelsewhere.Itisthefirsttheologicalbookofthe Brahmins, written about fifteen hundred years before the Vedah, and

anteriortoallotherbooks.

Theirannalsmakenomentionofanywarundertakenbythematanytime.The words "arms," "killing," "maiming," are to be found neither in thefragmentsof theShastah thathavereachedus,nor in theYajurvedah,nor intheKormovedah.Atleast,IcanaffirmthatIhavenotseenthemineitherofthese two latter collections; and it is most singular that the Shastah, whichspeaksofaconspiracy inheaven,makesnomentionofanywar in thegreatpeninsulabetweentheIndusandGanges.

TheHebrews,whowereunknownuntil so late aperiod,nevername theBrahmins; they knew nothing of India till after Alexander's conquests andtheirownsettlinginthatEgyptofwhichtheyhadspokensoill.ThenameofIndiaistobefoundonlyinthebookofEsther,andinthatofJob,whowasnota Hebrew. We find a singular contrast between the sacred books of theHebrewsandthoseoftheIndians.TheIndianbooksannounceonlypeaceandmildness; they forbid thekillingofanimals:but theHebrewbooks speakofnothingbuttheslaughterandmassacreofmenandbeasts;allarebutcheredinthenameoftheLord;itisquiteanotherorderofthings.

Weare incontestably indebted to theBrahmins for the ideaof the fallofcelestialbeingsrevoltingagainsttheSovereignofNature;anditwasprobablyfromthemthattheGreekstookthefableoftheTitans;andlastly,fromthemitwas that the Jews, in the first century of our era, took the idea of Lucifer'srevolt.

How could these Indians suppose a rebellion in heaven without havingseenoneonearth?Suchaleapfromthehumantothedivinenatureisdifficultofcomprehension.Weusuallystepfromwhatisknowntowhatisunknown.

Awarofgiantswouldnotbeimagined,untilsomemenmorerobustthantheresthadbeenseentotyrannizeovertheirfellow-men.Toimaginethelikeinheaven,theBrahminsmusteitherhaveexperiencedviolentdiscordsamongthemselves,oratleasthavewitnessedthemamongtheirneighbors.

Be thatas itmay, it isanastonishingphenomenon thata societyofmenwho had nevermadewar should have invented a sort of war carried on inimaginaryspace,orinaglobedistantfromourown,orinwhatiscalledthefirmament—theempyrean.Butletitbecarefullyobserved,thatinthisrevoltofthecelestialbeingsagainsttheirSovereign,therewerenoblowsgiven,nocelestialbloodspilled,nomountainsthrownatoneanother'sheads,noangelsdeftintwain,asinMilton'ssublimeandgrotesquepoem.

AccordingtotheShastah,itwasonlyaformaldisobedienceoftheordersoftheMostHigh,whichGodpunishedbyrelegatingtherebelliousangelstoavastplaceofdarknesscalledOnderah,forthetermofawholemononthour.A

mononthour is a hundred and twenty-six millions of our years. But Godvouchsafed to pardon the guilty at the endof five thousandyears, and theirOnderahwasnothingmorethanapurgatory.

He turned them intoMhurd, ormen, and placed them on our globe, onconditionthattheyshouldnoteatanimals,norcohabitwiththemalesoftheirnewspecies,onpainofreturningtotheOnderah.

These are the principal articles of theBrahmin faith,which has enduredwithoutintermissionfromtimeimmemorialtothepresentday.

Thisisbutasmallpartof theancientcosmogonyoftheBrahmins.Theirrites, their pagods, prove that among them all was allegorical. They stillrepresentVirtueintheformofawomanwithtenarms,combatingtenmortalsins typified bymonsters. Our missionaries were acute enough to take thisimageofVirtueforthatofthedevil,andaffirmthatthedevilisworshippedinIndia. We have never visited that people but to enrich ourselves andcalumniatethem.

TheMetempsychosisoftheBrahmins.

Thedoctrineofthemetempsychosiscomesfromanancientlawoffeedingoncow'smilkaswellasonvegetables,fruits,andrice.ItseemedhorribletotheBrahminstokillandeattheirfeeder;andtheyhadsoonthesamerespectforgoats,sheep,andallotheranimals:theybelievedthemtobeanimatedbytherebelliousangels,whowerecompletingtheirpurificationinthebodiesofbeastsaswellasinthoseofmen.Thenatureoftheclimateseconded,orratheroriginated this law.A burning atmosphere creates a necessity for refreshingfood,andinspireshorrorforourcustomofstowingcarcassesinourstomachs.

TheopinionthatbeastshavesoulswasgeneralthroughouttheEast,andwefindvestigesofitintheancientsacredwritings.InthebookofGenesis,Godforbidsmen to eat "their fleshwith their blood and their soul." Such is theimportoftheHebrewtext."Iwillavenge,"sayshe,"thebloodofyoursoulsontheclawsofbeastsandthehandsofmen."InLeviticushesays,"Thesoulofthefleshisintheblood."Hedoesmore;hemakesasolemncompactwithmanandwithallanimals,whichsupposesanintelligenceinthelatter.

Inmuchlatertimes,Ecclesiasticusformallysays,"Godshowsthatmanisliketothebeasts;formendielikebeasts;theirconditionisequal;asmandies,soalsodiesthebeast.Theybreathealike.Thereisnothinginmanmorethaninthebeast."Jonah,whenhewenttopreachatNineveh,madebothmenandbeastsfast.

Allancientauthors,sacredbooksaswellasprofane,attributeknowledgeto thebeasts;andseveralmake themspeak. It isnot then tobewonderedatthattheBrahmins,andafterthemthePythagoreans,believedthatsoulspassed

successively into the bodies of beasts and of men; consequently theypersuadedthemselves,oratleasttheysaid,thatthesoulsoftheguiltyangels,inordertofinishtheirpurgation,belongedsometimestobeasts,sometimestomen.ThisisapartoftheromanceoftheJesuitBougeant,whoimaginedthatthedevilsarespiritssentintothebodiesofanimals.Thus,inourday,andattheextremityofthewest,aJesuitunconsciouslyrevivesanarticleofthefaithofthemostancientOrientalpriests.

TheSelf-burningofMenandWomenamongtheBrahmins.

TheBrahminsofthepresentday,whodoallthattheancientBrahminsdid,have, we know, retained this horrible custom. Whence is it that, among apeoplewhohavenevershedthebloodofmenorofanimals,thefinestactofdevotionisapublicself-burning?Superstition,thegreatuniterofcontraries,istheonlysourceofthesefrightfulsacrifices,thecustomofwhichismuchmoreancientthanthelawsofanyknownpeople.

The Brahmins assert that their great prophet Brahma, the son of God,descended amongmen, and had seyeralwives; and that after his death, thewifewholovedhimthemostburnedherselfonhisfuneralpile,thatshemightjoinhiminheaven.Didthiswomanreallyburnherself,asitissaidthatPortia,thewife of Brutus, swallowed burning coals, in order to be reunited to herhusband?oristhisafableinventedbythepriests?WasthereaBrahma,whoreallygavehimselfoutasaprophetandsonofGod?ItislikelythattherewasaBrahma,as thereafterwardswereaZoroasterandaBacchus.Fableseizedupontheirhistory,asshehaseverywhereconstantlydone.

No sooner does the wife of the son of God burn herself, than ladies ofmeaner conditionmust burn themselves likewise. But how are they to findtheirhusbandsagain,whoarebecomehorses,elephants,hawks,etc.?Howarethey to distinguish the precise beast, which the defunct animates? howrecognize him and be still his wife? This difficulty does not in the leastembarrasstheHindootheologians;theyeasilyfindadistinguo—asolutioninsensucomposito—insensudiviso.Themetempsychosis isonly forcommonpeople;forothersoulstheyhaveasublimerdoctrine.Thesesouls,beingthoseoftheoncerebelangels,goaboutpurifyingthemselves; thoseofthewomenwho immolate themselves are beatified, and find their husbands ready-purified.Inshort,thepriestsareright,andthewomenburnthemselves.

This dreadful fanaticism has existed for more than four thousand years,amongst a mild people, who would fear to kill a grasshopper. The priestscannotforceawidowtoburnherself; for the invariable lawis, that theself-devotionmustbeabsolutelyvoluntary.Thelongestmarriedofthewivesofthedeceasedhasthefirstrefusalofthehonorofmountingthefuneral-pile;ifsheisnotinclined,thesecondpresentsherself;andsooftherest.Itissaid,thaton

oneoccasionseventeenburnedthemselvesatonceonthepileofarajah:butthese sacrifices are now very rare; the faith has become weaker since theMahometans have governed a great part of the country, and the Europeanstradedwiththerest.

Still, there is scarcelyagovernorofMadrasorPondicherrywhohasnotseensomeIndianwomanvoluntarilyperishintheflames.Mr.Holwellrelatesthatayoungwidowofnineteen,of singularbeauty,and themotherof threechildren,burnedherself in thepresenceofMrs.Russell,wifeof theadmiralthenintheMadrasroads.Sheresistedthetearsandtheprayersofallpresent;Mrs. Russell conjured her, in the name of her children, not to leave themorphans.TheIndianwomananswered,"God,whohasgiventhembirth,willtake careof them."She thenarrangedeverythingherself, set fire to thepilewithherownhand,andconsummatedhersacrificewithasmuchserenityasoneofournunslightsthetapers.

Mr. Charnock, an English merchant, one day seeing one of theseastonishingvictims,youngandlovely,onherwaytothefuneral-pile,draggedherawaybyforcewhenshewasabouttosetfiretoit,and,withtheassistanceof some of his countrymen, carried her of! and married her. The peopleregardedthisactasthemosthorriblesacrilege.

Whydohusbandsneverburnthemselves,thattheymayjointheirwives?Whyhasasex,naturallyweakandtimid,alwayshadthisfranticresolution?Isit because tradition does not say that a man ever married a daughter ofBrahma,while itdoesaffirm thatan Indianwomanwasmarried toa sonofthatdivinity? Is itbecausewomenaremoresuperstitious thanmen?Or is itbecause their imaginations are weaker, more tender, and more easilygoverned?

TheancientBrahmins sometimesburned themselves toprevent thepainsand the languor of old age; but, above all, to make themselves admired.Calanus would not, perhaps, have placed himself on the pile, but for thepurpose of being gazed at byAlexander. TheChristian renegadePeregrinusburnedhimself inpublic, for thesamereason thatamadmangoesabout thestreetsdressedlikeanArmenian,toattractthenoticeofthepopulace.

IstherenotalsoanunfortunatemixtureofvanityinthisterriblesacrificeoftheIndianwomen?Perhaps,ifalawwerepassedthattheburningshouldtakeplace in the presence of one waiting woman only, this abominable customwouldbeforeverdestroyed.

Onewordmore:AfewhundredsofIndianwomen,atmost,havefurnishedthis horrid spectacle; but our inquisitions, our atrocious madmen callingthemselves judges, have put to death in the flames more than a hundredthousand of our brethren—men,women, and children—for thingswhich no

one has understood. Let us pity and condemn the Brahmins; but let us notforgetourmiserableselves!

Truly,wehaveforgottenoneveryessentialpointinthisshortarticleontheBrahmins,whichis,thattheirsacredbooksarefullofcontradictions;butthepeopleknownothingof them,and thedoctorshave solutions ready—sensesfigured and figurative, allegories, types, express declarations of Birma,Brahma,andVishnu,sufficienttoshutthemouthofanyreasoner.

BREAD-TREE.

Thebread-treegrowsinthePhilippineislands,andprincipallyinthoseofGuam and Tinian, as the cocoa-tree grows in the Indies. These two trees,alone,iftheycouldbemultipliedinourclimate,wouldfurnishfoodanddrinksufficientforallmankind.

Thebread-tree is tallerandmorebulky thanourcommonapple-trees; itsleaves are black, its fruit is yellow, and equal in dimensions to the largestapple.Therindishard;andthecuticleisasortofsoft,whitepaste,whichhasthe tasteof thebestFrenchrolls;but itmustbeeatenfresh,as itkeepsonlytwenty-fourhours,afterwhichitbecomesdry,souranddisagreeable;but,asacompensation, the trees are loadedwith themeightmonths of the year.Thenativesof the islandshavenoother food; theyareall tall, stout,wellmade,sufficientlyfleshy,andinthevigoroushealthwhichisnecessarilyproducedbytheuseofonewholesomealimentalone:and it is tonegroes thatnaturehasmadethispresent.

Cornisassuredlynotthefoodofthegreaterpartoftheworld.Maizeandcassavaare the foodof allAmerica.Wehavewholeprovinces inwhich thepeasantseatnonebutchestnutbread,whichismorenourishingandofbetterflavorthantheryeorbarleybreadonwhichsomanyfeed,andismuchbetterthantherationsgiventothesoldiers.BreadisunknowninallsouthernAfrica.TheimmenseIndianArchipelago,Siam,Laos,Pegu,Cochin-China,Tonquin,part of China, the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and the banks of theGanges, produce rice,which is easier of cultivation, and forwhichwheat isneglected.Cornisabsolutelyunknownfor thespaceoffivehundredleaguesonthecoastoftheIcySea.

The missionaries have sometimes been in great tribulation, in countrieswhere neither bread nor wine is to be found. The inhabitants told them byinterpreters: "Youwould baptize uswith a fewdrops ofwater, in a burningclimate,whereweareobligedtoplungeeverydayintotherivers;youwould

confess us, yet you understand not our language; you would have uscommunicate,yetyouwantthetwonecessaryingredients,breadandwine.Itis therefore evident that your universal religion cannot have beenmade forus." The missionaries replied, very justly, that good will is the one thingneedful; that theyshouldbeplungedintothewaterwithoutanyscruple; thatbreadandwineshouldbebroughtfromGoa;andthat,asforthelanguage,themissionarieswouldlearnitinafewyears.

BUFFOONERY—BURLESQUE—LOWCOMEDY.

Hewasaverysubtleschoolman,whofirstsaidthatweowetheoriginoftheword "buffoon" to a littleAthenian sacrificer calledBupho,who, beingtired of his employment, absconded, and never returned.TheAreopagus, asthey could not punish the priest, proceeded against his hatchet. This farce,whichwas played every year in the temple of Jupiter, is said to have beencalled"buffoonery."ThisstoryisnotentitledtomuchcreditBuffoonwasnotapropername;bouphonossignifiesanimmolatorofoxen.TheGreeksnevercalledanyjestbouphonia.Thisceremony,frivolousasitappears,mighthaveanoriginwiseandhumane,worthyoftrueAthenians.

Once a year, the subaltern sacrificer, ormore properly the holy butcher,whenon thepointof immolatinganox, fledas if struckwithhorror, toputmen in mind that in wiser and happier times only flowers and fruits wereofferedtothegods,andthat thebarbarityofimmolatinginnocentandusefulanimalswas not introduced until therewere priests desirous of fattening ontheir blood and living at the expense of the people. In this idea there is nobuffoonery.

Thisword "buffoon" has long been received among the Italians and theSpaniards,signifyingmimus,scurra,joculator—amimic,ajester,aplayeroftricks.Ménage,afterSalmasius,derivesitfromboccainfiata—abloatedface;anditistruethataroundfaceandswollencheeksarerequisiteinabuffoon.TheItalianssaybufomagro—ameagrebuffoon,toexpressapoorjesterwhocannotmakeyoulaugh.

Buffoonandbuffooneryappertaintolowcomedy,tomountebanking,toallthatcanamusethepopulace.Inthisitwas—totheshameofthehumanmindbe it spoken—that tragedy had its beginning: Thespiswas a buffoon beforeSophocleswasagreatman.

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Spanish and Englishtragedieswerealldegradedbydisgustingbuffooneries.Thecourtswerestill

more disgraced by buffoons than the stage. So strong was the rust ofbarbarism, thatmenhadno tasteformorerefinedpleasures.BoileausaysofMolière:

C'estpar-làqueMolière,illustrantsesécrits,

Peut-êtredesonarteûtemportéleprix,

Si,moinsamidupeupleensesdoctespeintures,

Iln'eûtfaitquelquefois,grimacersesfigures,

Quittépourlebouffonl'agréableetfin,

EtsanshonteàTerencealliéTabarin.

DanscesacridiculeoùScapins'enveloppe,

Jenereconnaisplusl'auteurduMisanthrope.

Molièreincomicgeniushadexcelled,

Andmight,perhaps,havestoodunparalleled,

Hadhehisfaithfulportraitsne'erallowed

Togapeandgrintogratifythecrowd;

Desertingwitforlowgrimaceandjest,

AndshowingTerenceinamotleyvest.

Whointhesack,whereScapinplaysthefool,

Willfindthegeniusofthecomicschool?

But itmust be considered thatRaphael condescended to paint grotesquefigures.Molièrewould not have descended so low, if all his spectators hadbeen such men as Louis XIV., Condé, Turenne, La Rochefoucauld,Montausier,Beauvilliers,andsuchwomenasMontespanandThianges;buthehadalsotopleasethewholepeopleofParis,whowereyetquiteunpolished.Thecitizenlikedbroadfarce,andhepaidforit.Scarron's"Jodelets"werealltherage.Weareobligedtoplaceourselvesonthelevelofourage,beforewecan rise above it; and, after all, we like to laugh now and then. What isHomer's "Battle of the Frogs and Mice," but a piece of buffoonery—aburlesquepoem?

Worksofthiskindgivenoreputation,buttheymaytakefromthatwhichwealreadyenjoy.

Buffooneryisnotalwaysintheburlesquestyle,"ThePhysicianinSpiteofHimself," and the "Rogueries of Scapin," are not in the style of Scarron's"Jodelets."Molière does not, like Scarron, go in search of slang terms; his

lowestcharactersdonotplaythemountebank.Buffooneryisinthething,notintheexpression.

Boileau's "Lutrin" was at first called a burlesque poem, but it was thesubjectthatwasburlesque;thestylewaspleasingandrefined,andsometimesevenheroic.

TheItalianshadanotherkindofburlesque,muchsuperiortoours—thatofAretin,ofArchbishopLaCaza,ofBerni,Mauro,andDolce.Itoftensacrificesdecorum to pleasantry, but obscenewords arewholly banished from it.ThesubjectofArchbishopLaCaza's "CapitolodelForno" is, indeed, thatwhichsends theDesfontaines to theBicêtre, and theDeschaufours to thePlacedeGrève:butthereisnotonewordoffensivetotheearofchastity;youhavetodivinethemeaning.

Three or four Englishmen have excelled in this way: Butler, in his"Hudibras," which was the civil war excited by the Puritans turned intoridicule;Dr.Garth,inhis"Dispensary";Prior,inhis"Alma,"inwhichheverypleasantlymakesajestofhissubjectandPhillips,inhis"SplendidShilling."

ButlerisasmuchaboveScarronasamanaccustomedtogoodcompanyisaboveasingeratapot-house.Theheroof"Hudibras"wasarealpersonage,one Sir SamuelLuke,who had been a captain in the armies of Fairfax andCromwell.Seethecommencementofthepoem,inthearticle"Prior,""Butler,"and"Swift."

Garth's poem on the physicians and apothecaries is not so much in theburlesque style as Boileau's "Lutrin": it has more imagination, variety, andnaivete than the "Lutrin"; and, which is rather astonishing, it displaysprofound erudition, embellishedwith all the graces of refinement. It beginsthus:

Speak,Goddess,since'tisthouthatbestcansttell

Howancientleaguestomoderndiscordfell;

Andwhyphysiciansweresocautiousgrown

Ofothers'lives,andlavishoftheirown.

Prior,whomwehaveseenaplenipotentiaryinFrancebeforethePeaceofUtrecht,assumedtheofficeofmediatorbetweenthephilosopherswhodisputeaboutthesoul.Thispoemisinthestyleof"Hudibras,"calleddoggerelrhyme,whichisthestiloBerniescooftheItalians.

Thegreatfirstquestionis,whetherthesoulisallinall,orislodgedbehindthe nose and eyes in a corner which it never quits. According to the lattersystem, Prior compares it to the pope, who constantly remains at Rome,whence he sends his nuncios and spies to learn all that is doing in

Christendom.

Prior,aftermakingajestofseveralsystems,proposeshisown.Heremarksthat the two-legged animal, new-born, throws its feet about as much aspossible,whenitsnurseissostupidastoswaddleit:thencehejudgesthatthesoul enters it by the feet; that about fifteen it reaches the middle; then itascends to the heart; then to the head, which it quits altogether when theanimalceasestolive.

At the end of this singular poem, full of ingenious versification, and ofideasalike subtleandpleasing,we find thischarming lineofFontenelle: "Ilestdeshochetspour toutâge."Priorbegsof fortune to"Giveusplay-thingsforoldage."

YetitisquitecertainthatFontenelledidnottakethislinefromPrior,norPriorfromFontenelle.Prior'sworkistwentyyearsanterior,andFontenelledidnotunderstandEnglish.Thepoemterminateswiththisconclusion:

ForPlato'sfancieswhatcareI?

Ihopeyouwouldnothavemedie

LikesimpleCatointheplay,

Foranythingthathecansay:

E'enlethimofideasspeak

Toheathens,inhisnativeGreek.

Iftobesadistobewise,

Idomostheartilydespise

WhateverSocrateshassaid,

OrTullywrit,orWanleyread.

DearDrift,tosetourmattersright,

Removethesepapersfrommysight;

BurnMat'sDescartesandAristotle—

Here,Jonathan,—yourmaster'sbottle.

Inallthesepoems,letusdistinguishthepleasant,thelively,thenatural,thefamiliar—fromthegrotesque,thefarcical,thelow,and,aboveall,thestiffandforced. These various shades are discriminated by the connoisseurs, whoalone,intheend,decidethefateofeverywork.

La Fontaine would sometimes descend to the burlesque style—Phædrusnever;butthelatterhasnotthegraceandunaffectedsoftnessofLaFontaine,

thoughhehasgreaterprecisionandpurity.

BULGARIANS.

These people were originally Huns, who settled near the Volga; andVolgarianswaseasilychangedintoBulgarians.

About the end of the seventh century, they, like all the other nationsinhabitingSarmatia,made irruptions towards theDanube, and inundated theRomanEmpire.Theypassed throughMoldavia andWallachia,whither theirold fellow-countrymen, the Russians, carried their victorious arms in 1769,undertheEmpressCatherineII.

Having crossed the Danube, they settled in part of Dacia and Moesia,giving their name to the countries which are still called Bulgaria. TheirdominionextendedtoMountHæmusandtheEuxineSea.

InCharlemagne's time, theEmperorNicephorus, successor to Irene,wassoimprudentastomarchagainstthemafterbeingvanquishedbytheSaracens;and he was in like manner defeated by the Bulgarians. Their king, namedKrom, cut off his head, andmade use of his skull as a drinking-cup at histable,accordingtothecustomofthatpeopleincommonwithallthenorthernnations.

It is related that, in theninthcentury,oneBogoris,whowasmakingwarupon the Princess Theodora, mother and guardian to the EmperorMichael,was so charmedwith that empress's noble answer to his declaration ofwar,thatheturnedChristian.

The Bulgarians, who were less complaisant, revolted against him; butBogoris,havingshownthemacrucifix,theyallimmediatelyreceivedbaptism.SosaytheGreekwritersofthelowerempire,andsosayourcompilersafterthem:"Etvoilàjustementcommeonécritl'histoire."

Theodora,say they,wasaveryreligiousprincess,evenpassingher latteryearsinaconvent.SuchwasherlovefortheGreekCatholicreligionthatsheputtodeathinvariouswaysahundredthousandmenaccusedofManichæism—"thisbeing,"saysthemodestcontinuatorofEchard,"themostimpious,themostdetestable,themostdangerous,themostabominableofallheresies,forecclesiastical censures were weapons of no avail against men whoacknowledgednotthechurch."

It is said that the Bulgarians, seeing that all the Manichæans suffereddeath, immediatelyconceivedan inclinationfor their religion,and thought it

thebest,sinceitwasthemostpersecutedone:butthis,forBulgarians,wouldbeextraordinarilyacute.

Atthattime,thegreatschismbrokeoutmoreviolentlythaneverbetweenthe Greek church, under the Patriarch Photius, and the Latin church, underPopeNicholas I.TheBulgarians tookpartwith theGreekchurch; and fromthattime,probably,itwasthattheyweretreatedinthewestasheretics,withtheadditionofthatfineepithet,whichhasclungtothemtothepresentday.

In871,theEmperorBasilsentthemapreacher,namedPeterofSicily,tosavethemfromtheheresyofManichæism;anditisadded,thattheynosoonerheard him than they turned Manichæans. It is not very surprising that theBulgarians, who drank out of the skulls of their enemies, were notextraordinarytheologiansanymorethanPeterofSicily.

It is singular that these barbarians, who could neither write nor read,should have been regarded as very knowing heretics, with whom it wasdangerous to dispute. They certainly had other things to think of thancontroversy, since they carried on a sanguinarywar against the emperors ofConstantinopleforfoursuccessivecenturies,andevenbesiegedthecapitaloftheempire.

At the commencement of the thirteenth century, the Emperor Alexis,wishing tomake himself recognized by the Bulgarians, their king, Joannic,replied, thathewouldneverbehisvassal.Pope Innocent III.wascareful toseizethisopportunityofattachingthekingdomofBulgariatohimself:hesenta legate to Joannic, toanointhimking;andpretended thathehadconferredthekingdomuponhim,andthathecouldnevermoreholditbutfromtheholysee.

Thiswasthemostviolentperiodofthecrusades.TheindignantBulgariansenteredintoanalliancewiththeTurks,declaredwaragainstthepopeandhiscrusaders,tookthepretendedEmperorBaldwinprisoner,hadhisheadcutoff,and made a bowl of his skull, after the manner of Krom. This was quiteenough to make the Bulgarians abhorred by all Europe. It was no longernecessary tocall themManichæans,anamewhichwasat that timegiven toevery class of heretics: forManichæan,Patarin, andVaudoiswere the samething. These terms were lavished uponwhosoever would not submit to theRomanchurch.

BULL.

A quadruped, armedwith horns, having cloven feet, strong legs, a slow

pace,athickbody,ahardskin,atailnotquitesolongasthatofthehorse,withsomelonghairsattheend.Itsbloodhasbeenlookeduponasapoison,butitis nomore so than that of other animals; and the ancients, whowrote thatThemistocles and others poisoned themselves with bull's blood, were falseboth to nature and to history. Lucian, who reproaches Jupiter with havingplacedthebull'shornsabovehiseyes,reproacheshimunjustly;fortheeyeofabullbeinglarge,round,andopen,heseesverywellwherehestrikes;andifhis eyes had been placed higher than his horns, he could not have seen thegrasswhichhecrops.

Phalaris'sbull,ortheBrazenBull,wasabullofcastmetal,foundinSicily,and supposed tohavebeenusedbyPhalaris to enclose andburn suchashechose to punish—a very unlikely species of cruelty. The bulls of MedeaguardedtheGoldenFleece.ThebullofMarathonwastamedbyHercules.

ThentherewerethebullwhichcarriedoffEuropa,thebullofMithras,andthebullofOsiris;therearetheBull,asignofthezodiac,andtheBull'sEye,astarofthefirstmagnitude,andlastly,therearebull-fights,commoninSpain.

BULL(PAPAL).

Thisworddesignatesthebull,orsealofgold,silver,wax,orlead,attachedtoany instrumentorcharter.The leadhanging to the rescriptsdespatched intheRomancourtbearsononesidetheheadofSt.Peterontheright,andthatofSt.Paulontheleft;and,onthereverse,thenameofthereigningpope,withtheyearofhispontificate.Thebull iswrittenonparchment.In thegreeting,thepopetakesnotitlebutthatof"ServantoftheServantsofGod,"accordingtotheholywordsofJesustoHisDisciples—"Whosoeverwillbechiefamongyou,lethimbeyourservant."

Somehereticsassertthat,bythisformula,humbleinappearance,thepopesmean toexpressa sortof feudal system,ofwhichGod ischief;whosehighvassals,PeterandPaul,arerepresentedbytheirservantthepontiff;whilethelesservassalsareallsecularprinces,whetheremperors,kings,ordukes.

Theydoubtless found this assertionon the famousbull In cœnaDomini,which is publicly read at Rome by a cardinal-deacon every year, on HolyThursday,inthepresenceofthepope,attendedbytherestofthecardinalsandbishops.Aftertheceremony,hisholinesscastsalightedtorchintothepublicsquareintokenofanathema.

This bull is, to be found inTome i., p. 714 of theBullaire, published atLyons in 1673, and at page 118 of the edition of 1727. The oldest is dated

1536.PaulIII.,withoutnoticingtheoriginoftheceremony,heresaysthatitisanancientcustomof thesovereignpontiffs topublish thisexcommunicationonHolyThursday,inordertopreservethepurityoftheChristianreligion,andmaintain union among the faithful. It contains twenty-four paragraphs, inwhichthepopeexcommunicates:

1.Heretics,allwhofavorthem,andallwhoreadtheirbooks.

2. Pirates, especially such as dare to cruise on the seas belonging to thesovereignpontiff.

3.Thosewhoimposefreshtollsontheirlands.

10. Those who, in any way whatsoever, prevent the execution of theapostolicalletters,whethertheygrantpardonsorinflictpenalties.

11. All lay judges who judge ecclesiastics, and bring them before theirtribunal,whetherthattribunaliscalledanaudience,achancery,acouncil,oraparliament.

12.Allchancellors,counsellors,ordinaryorextraordinary,ofanykingorprince whatsoever, all presidents of chanceries, councils, or parliaments, asalso all attorneys-general, who call ecclesiastical causes before them, orpreventtheexecutionoftheapostolicalletters,eventhoughitbeonpretextofpreventingsomeviolence.

In the same paragraph, the pope reserves to himself alone the power ofabsolvingthesaidchancellors,counsellors,attorneys-general,andtherestoftheexcommunicated;whocannotreceiveabsolutionuntil theyhavepubliclyrevokedtheiracts,andhaveerasedthemfromtherecords.

20. Lastly, the pope excommunicates all such as shall presume to giveabsolutiontotheexcommunicatedasaforesaid:and,inorderthatnoonemaypleadignorance,heorders:

21.Thatthisbullbepublished,andpostedonthegateofthebasilicofthePrinceoftheApostles,andonthatofSt.JohnofLateran.

22. That all patriarchs, primates, archbishops, and bishops, by virtue oftheir holyobedience, shall have thisbull solemnlypublishedat least once ayear.

24.Hedeclares thatwhosoeverdares togoagainst theprovisionsof thisbull,mustknowthatheis incurringthedispleasureofAlmightyGodandoftheblessedapostlesPeterandPaul.

The other subsequent bulls, called also In cœna Domini, are onlyduplicates of the first. For instance, the article 21 of that of Pius V., dated1567,addstotheparagraph3oftheonethatwehavequoted,thatallprinces

wholaynewimpositionsontheirstates,ofwhatnaturesoever,orincreasetheold ones, without obtaining permission from the Holy See, areexcommunicatedipsofacto.ThethirdbullIncœnaDominiof1610,containsthirty paragraphs, in which Paul V. renews the provisions of the twopreceding.

ThefourthandlastbullIncœnaDominiwhichwefindintheBullaire,isdatedApril1,1672.InitUrbanVIII.announcesthat,aftertheexampleofhispredecessors, in order inviolably to maintain the integrity of the faith, andpublic justice and tranquillity, hewields the spiritual sword of ecclesiasticaldiscipline to excommunicate, on the day which is the anniversary of theSupperofourLord:

1.Heretics.

2.Suchasappealfromthepopetoafuturecouncil;andtherestasinthethreeformer.

It is said that the one which is read now, is of amore recent date, andcontainssomeadditions.

The History of Naples, by Giannone, shows us what disorders theecclesiastics stirred up in that kingdom, and what vexations they exercisedagainsttheking'ssubjects,evenrefusingthemabsolutionandthesacraments,inorder to effect the receptionof this bull,whichhas at last been solemnlyproscribedthere,aswellasinAustrianLombardy,inthestatesoftheempress-queen,inthoseoftheDukeofParma,andelsewhere.

In 1580, the French clergy chose the time between the sessions of theparliamentofParis, tohave thesamebull IncœnaDominipublished.But itwasopposedbytheprocureur-general;andtheChambredesVacations,underthepresidencyofthecelebratedandunfortunateBrisson,onOctober4,passeda decree, enjoining all governors to inform themselves, if possible, whatarchbishops,bishops,orgrand-vicars,hadreceivedeitherthisbulloracopyofitentitledLitteræprocessus,andwhohadsent it to themtobepublished; topreventthepublication,ifithadnotyettakenplace;toobtainthecopiesandsend them to the chamber; or, if they had been published, to summon thearchbishops, the bishops, or their grand-vicars, to appear on a certain daybeforethechamber,toanswertothesuitoftheprocureur-general;and,inthemeantime,toseizetheirtemporalpossessionsandplacetheminthehandsoftheking;toforbidallpersonsobstructingtheexecutionofthisdecree,onpainofpunishmentastraitorsandenemiestothestate;withordersthatthedecreebeprintedandthatthecopies,collatedbynotaries,havethefullforceoftheoriginal.

Indoingthis,theparliamentdidbutfeeblyimitatePhiliptheFair.Thebull

AuscultaFili,ofDec.5,1301,wasaddressedtohimbyBonifaceVIII.,who,after exhorting the king to listen with docility, says to him: "God hasestablished us over all kings and all kingdoms, to root up, and destroy, andthrowdown,tobuild,andtoplant,inHisnameandbyHisdoctrine.Donot,then,sufferyourself tobepersuadedthatyouhavenosuperior,andthatyouarenot subject to theheadof the ecclesiastical hierarchy.Whosoever thinksthis, is a madman; and whosoever obstinately maintains it, is an infidel,separated from the flock of theGood Shepherd." The pope then enters intolongdetails respecting thegovernmentofFrance,even reproaching thekingforhavingalteredthecoin.

PhiliptheFairhadthisbullburnedatParis,anditsexecutionpublishedonsoundoftrumpetthroughoutthecity,bySunday,Feb.11,1302.Thepope,inacouncilwhichheheldatRomethesameyear,madeagreatnoise,andbrokeoutintothreatsagainstPhiliptheFair;buthedidnomorethanthreaten.Thefamous decretal,UnamSanctam is, however, considered as thework of hiscouncil;itis,insubstance,asfollows:

"We believe and confess a holy, catholic, and apostolic church, out ofwhichthereisnosalvation;wealsoacknowledgeitsunity,thatitisoneonlybody,withoneonlyhead,andnotwithtwo,likeamonster.ThisonlyheadisJesusChrist,andSt.Peterhisvicar,andthesuccessorofSt.Peter.Therefore,theGreeks,orothers,whosaythattheyarenotsubjecttothatsuccessor,mustacknowledgethattheyarenotoftheflockofChrist,sinceHehimselfhassaid(John,x,16)'thatthereisbutonefoldandoneshepherd.'

"We learn that in this church, and under its power, are two swords, thespiritualandthetemporal:ofthese,oneistobeusedbythechurchandbythehand of the pontiff; the other, by the church and by the hand of kings andwarriors,inpursuanceoftheordersorwiththepermissionofthepontiff.Now,oneoftheseswordsmustbesubjecttotheother,temporaltospiritualpower;otherwise, theywouldnotbeordinate,and theapostlessay theymustbeso.(Rom. xiii, 1.) According to the testimony of truth, spiritual power mustinstitute and judge temporal power; and thus is verified with regard to thechurch, the prophecy of Jeremiah (i. 10): 'I have this day set thee over thenationsandoverthekingdoms.'"

On the other hand, Philip the Fair assembled the states-general; and thecommons, in the petitionwhich they presented to thatmonarch, said, in somanywords:"ItisagreatabominationforustohearthatthisBonifacestoutlyinterpretslikeaBoulgare(droppingthelandthea)thesewordsofspirituality(Matt.,xvi.19):'Whateverthoushaltbindonearth,shallbeboundinheaven;'ifthissignifiedthatifamanbeputintoatemporalprison,Godwillimprisonhiminheaven."

ClementV.,successortoBonifaceVIII.,revokedandannulledtheodiousdecisionofthebullUnamSanctam,whichextendsthepowerofthepopestothe temporalities of kings, and condemns as heretics all who do notacknowledgethischimericalpower.Boniface'spretension,indeed,oughttobecondemnedasheresy,accordingtothismaximoftheologians:"Notonlyisitasinagainsttherulesofthefaith,andaheresy,todenywhatthefaithteachesus,butalsotosetupaspartofthefaiththatwhichisnopartofit."(Joan.Maj.m.3sent.dist.37.q.26.)

Otherpopes,beforeBonifaceVIII.,hadarrogatedtothemselvestherightof property over different kingdoms. The bull is well known, in whichGregoryVII.saystotheKingofSpain:"Iwouldhaveyoutoknow,thatthekingdomofSpain,byancientecclesiasticalordinances,wasgiveninpropertytoSt.PeterandtheholyRomanchurch."

Henry II. of England asked permission of Pope Adrian IV. to invadeIreland.The pontiff gave him leave, on condition that he imposed on everyIrishfamilyataxofonecarolusfortheHolySee,andheldthatkingdomasafief of the Roman church. "For," wrote Adrian, "it cannot be doubted thateveryislanduponwhichJesusChrist,thesunofjustice,hasarisen,andwhichhasreceivedthelessonsoftheChristianfaith,belongsofrighttoSt.PeterandtotheholyandsacredRomanchurch."

BullsoftheCrusadeandofComposition.

IfanAfricanoranAsiaticof sensewere told that in thatpartofEuropewhere somemen have forbidden others to eat flesh on Saturdays, the popegivesthemleavetoeatit,byabull,forthesumoftworials,andthatanotherbull grants permission to keep stolen money, what would this African orAsiatic say? He would, at least, agree with us, that every country has itscustoms;and that in thisworld,bywhatevernames thingsmaybecalled,orhowevertheymaybedisguised,allisdoneformoney.

TherearetwobullsunderthenameofLaCruzada—theCrusade;oneofthe timeofFerdinandandIsabella, theotherof thatofPhilipV.Thefirstofthese sells permission to eat what is called the grossura, viz., tripes, livers,kidneys,gizzards,sweet-breads,lights,plucks,cauls,heads,necks,andfeet.

The second bull, granted by Pope Urban VIII., gives leave to eat meatthroughoutLent,andabsolvesfromeverycrimeexceptheresy.

Notonlyarethesebullssold,butpeopleareorderedtobuythem;and,asisbutright,theycostmoreinPeruandMexicothaninSpain;theyaretheresoldforapiastre.Itisreasonablethatthecountrieswhichproducegoldandsilvershouldpaymorethanothers.

The pretext for these bulls is, making war upon the Moors. There are

persons,difficultofconviction,whocannotseewhatliversandkidneyshavetodowith awar against theAfricans; and they add, that JesusChrist neverorderedwartobemadeontheMahometansonpainofexcommunication.

The bull giving permission to keep another's goods is galled the bull ofComposition.Itisfarmed;andhaslongbroughtconsiderablesumsthroughoutSpain,theMilanese,Naples,andSicily.Thehighestbiddersemploythemosteloquentofthemonkstopreachthisbull.Sinnerswhohaverobbedtheking,the state, or private individuals, go to these preachers, confess to them, andshowthemwhatasadthingitwouldbetomakerestitutionofthewhole.Theyofferthemonksfive,six,andsometimessevenpercent.,inordertokeeptherest with a safe conscience; and, as soon as the composition is made, theyreceiveabsolution.

The preaching brother whowrote the "Travels through Spain and Italy"(Voyage d'Espagne et d'Italie), published at Paris, avec privilège by Jean-Baptiste de l'Épime, speaking of this bull, thus expresses himself: "Is it notverygracioustocomeoffatsolittlecost,andbeatlibertytostealmore,whenonehasoccasionforalargersum?"

BullUnigenitus.

The bull In cœna Domini was an indignity offered to all Catholicsovereigns, and they at length proscribed it in their states; but the bullUnigenituswasatroubletoFrancealone.TheformerattackedtherightsoftheprincesandmagistratesofEurope,andtheymaintainedthoserights;thelatterproscribedonlysomemaximsofpietyandmorals,whichgavenoconcerntoany except the parties interested in the transient affair; but these interestedpartiessoonfilledallFrance.Itwasatfirstaquarrelbetweentheall-powerfulJesuitsandtheremainsofthecrushedPort-Royal.

Quesnel, a preacher of theOratory, refugee inHolland, had dedicated acommentary on theNewTestament to Cardinal deNoailles, then bishop ofChâlons-sur-Marne.Itmetthebishop'sapprobationandwaswellreceivedbyallreadersofthatsortofbooks.

OneLetellier,aJesuit,aconfessortoLouisXIV.andanenemytoCardinaldeNoailles,resolvedtomortifyhimbyhavingthebook,whichwasdedicatedtohim,andofwhichhehadaveryhighopinion,condemnedatRome.

ThisJesuit,thesonofanattorneyatVireinLowerNormandy,hadallthatfertility of expedient for which his father's profession is remarkable. NotcontentwithembroilingCardinaldeNoailleswiththepope,hedeterminedtohave him disgraced by the king his master. To ensure the success of thisdesign,hehadmandamentscomposedagainsthimbyhisemissaries,andgotthemsignedbyfourbishops;healsoinditedletterstotheking,whichhemade

themsign.

These manœuvres, which would have been punished in any of thetribunals, succeeded at court: the kingwas soured against the cardinal, andMadamedeMaintenonabandonedhim.

Herewasaseriesofintrigues, inwhich,fromoneendofthekingdomtothe other, everyone took a part. The more unfortunate France at that timebecame in a disastrous war, the more the public mind was heated by atheologicalquarrel.

During these movements, Letellier had the condemnation of Quesnel'sbook,ofwhichthemonarchhadneverreadapage,demandedfromRomebyLouis XIV. himself. Letellier and two other Jesuits, named Doucin andLallemant,extractedonehundredandthreepropositions,whichPopeClementXI.wastocondemn.ThecourtofRomestruckouttwoofthem,thatitmight,atleast,havethehonorofappearingtojudgeforitself.

Cardinal Fabroni, in whose hands the affair was placed, and who wasdevoted to the Jesuits, had the bull drawn up by a Cordelier named FatherPalerno,ElioaCapuchin,TerroviaBarnabite,andCastelliaServite,towhomwasaddedaJesuitnamedAlfaro.

ClementXI. let them proceed in their ownway.His only objectwas topleasethekingofFrance,whohadlongbeendispleasedwithhim,onaccountof his recognizing the Archduke Charles, afterwards emperor, as King ofSpain.Tomakehispeacewiththeking,itcosthimonlyapieceofparchmentsealedwithlead,concerningaquestionwhichhehimselfdespised.

ClementXI. did notwait to be solicited; he sent thebull, andwasquiteastonished to learn that it was received throughout France with hisses andgroans. "What!" said he toCardinalCarpegno, "a bull is earnestly asked ofme;Igiveitfreely,andeveryonemakesajestofit!"

Everyonewasindeedsurprisedtoseeapope,inthenameofJesusChrist,condemningasheretical,taintedwithheresy,andoffensivetopiousears,thisproposition:"ItisgoodtoreadbooksofpietyonSundays,especiallytheHolyScriptures;" and this: "The fear of an unjust excommunication should notpreventusfromdoingourduty."

ThepartisansoftheJesuitswerethemselvesalarmedatthesecensures,butthey dared not speak. The wise and disinterested exclaimed against thescandal,andtherestofthenationagainsttheabsurdity.

Nevertheless, Letellier still triumphed, until the death of Louis XIV.; hewas held in abhorrence, but he governed. Thiswretch tried everymeans toprocure the suspension of Cardinal de Noailles; but after the death of his

penitent, the incendiary was banished. The duke of Orleans, during hisregency, extinguished these quarrels by making a jest of them. They havesincethrownoutafewsparks;buttheyareatlastforgotten,probablyforever.Their duration, for more than half a century, was quite long enough. Yet,happy indeed would mankind be, if they were divided only by foolishquestionsunproductiveofbloodshed!

CÆSAR.

Itisnotasthehusbandofsomanywomenandthewifeofsomanymen;as theconquerorofPompeyand theScipios;as thesatiristwho turnedCatointoridicule;astherobberofthepublictreasury,whoemployedthemoneyoftheRomans to reduce theRomans to subjection; as hewho, clement in histriumphs,pardonedthevanquished;asthemanoflearning,whoreformedthecalendar;asthetyrantandthefatherofhiscountry,assassinatedbyhisfriendsand his bastard son; that I shall here speak of Cæsar. I shall consider thisextraordinarymanonlyinmyqualityofdescendantfromthepoorbarbarianswhomhesubjugated.

YouwillnotpassthroughatowninFrance,inSpain,onthebanksoftheRhine,orontheEnglishcoastoppositetoCalais, inwhichyouwillnotfindgoodpeoplewhoboastofhavinghadCæsarthere.SomeofthetownspeopleofDoverarepersuadedthatCæsarbuilttheircastle;andtherearecitizensofParis who believe that the great châtelet is one of his fine works. Many acountrysquireinFranceshowsyouanoldturretwhichserveshimforadove-cote, and tells you that Cæsar provided a lodging for his pigeons. EachprovincedisputeswithitsneighborthehonorofhavingbeenthefirsttowhichCæsarappliedthelash;itwasnotbythatroad,butbythis,thathecametocutour throats, embrace our wives and daughters, impose laws upon us byinterpreters,andtakefromuswhatlittlemoneywehad.

The Indians are wiser.We have already seen that they have a confusedknowledgethatagreatrobber,namedAlexander,cameamongthemwithotherrobbers;buttheyscarcelyeverspeakofhim.

AnItalianantiquarian,passingafewyearsagothroughVannesinBrittany,wasquiteastonishedtohearthelearnedmenofVannesboastofCæsar'sstayintheirtown."Nodoubt,"saidhe,"youhavemonumentsofthatgreatman?""Yes,"answered themostnotableamongthem,"wewillshowyoutheplacewherethatherohadthewholesenateofourprovincehanged,tothenumberofsixhundred."

"Some ignorant fellows, who had found a hundred beams underground,advancedinthejournalsin1755thattheyweretheremainsofabridgebuiltbyCæsar;butIprovedtotheminmydissertationof1756thattheywerethegallows onwhich that hero had our parliament tied up.What other town in

Gaulcansayasmuch?WehavethetestimonyofthegreatCæsarhimself.HesaysinhisCommentaries'thatwe'arefickleandpreferlibertytoslavery.'HechargesuswithhavingbeensoinsolentastotakehostagesoftheRomans,towhomwehadgivenhostages,and tobeunwilling to return themunlessourownweregivenup.Hetaughtusgoodbehavior."

"He didwell," replied the virtuoso, "his right was incontestable. It was,however,disputed,foryouknowthatwhenhevanquishedtheemigrantSwiss,to thenumberof threehundredandsixty-eight thousand,and therewerenotmorethanahundredandtenthousandleft,hehadaconferenceinAlsacewitha German king named Ariovistus, and Ariovistus said to him: 'I come toplunder Gaul, and I will not suffer anyone to plunder it but myself;' afterwhichthesegoodGermans,whowerecometolaywastethecountry,putintothehandsoftheirwitchestwoRomanknights,ambassadorsfromCæsar;andthesewitcheswere on the point of burning them and offering them to theirgods,whenCæsarcameanddeliveredthembyavictory.Wemustconfessthatthe right on both sides was equal, and that Tacitus had good reason forbestowingsomanypraisesonthemannersoftheancientGermans."

This conversation gave rise to a verywarm dispute between the learnedmenofVannesandtheantiquarian.SeveraloftheBretonscouldnotconceivewhat was the virtue of the Romans in deceiving one after another all thenationsofGaul,inmakingthembyturnstheinstrumentsoftheirownruin,inbutchering one-fourth of the people, and reducing the other three-fourths toslavery.

"Oh!nothingcanbefiner,"returnedtheantiquarian."Ihaveinmypocketa medal representing Cæsar's triumph at the Capitol; it is in the bestpreservation."Heshowedthemedal.ABreton,atittlerude,tookitandthrewitintotheriver,exclaiming:"Oh!thatIcouldsoserveallwhousetheirpowerand their skill tooppress their fellow-men!Romedeceivedus, disunitedus,butcheredus,chainedus;andatthisdayRomestilldisposesofmanyofourbenefices;andisitpossiblethatwehavesolongandinsomanywaysbeenacountryofslaves?"

TotheconversationbetweentheItalianantiquarianandtheBretonIshallonlyadd thatPerrotd'Ablancourt, the translatorofCæsar's "Commentaries,"inhisdedicationto thegreatCondé,makesuseof thesewords:"Doesitnotseem to you, sir, as if you were reading the life of some Christianphilosopher?"CæsaraChristianphilosopher!Iwonderhehasnotbeenmadeasaint.Writersofdedicationsareremarkableforsayingfinethingsandmuchtothepurpose.

CALENDS.

ThefeastoftheCircumcision,whichthechurchcelebratesonthefirstofJanuary, has taken the place of another called the Feast of the Calends, ofAsses,ofFools,orofInnocents,accordingtothedifferentplaceswhere,andthedifferentdaysonwhich,itwasheld.ItwasmostcommonlyatChristmas,theCircumcision,ortheEpiphany.

In the cathedral of Rouen there was on Christmas day a procession, inwhich ecclesiastics, chosen for the purpose, represented the prophets of theOldTestament,whoforetoldthebirthoftheMessiah,and—whichmayhavegiven the feast its name—Balaam appeared, mounted on a she-ass; but asLactantius'poem,andthe"BookofPromises,"underthenameofSt.Prosper,saythatJesusinthemangerwasrecognizedbytheoxandtheass,accordingto the passage Isaiah: "The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass hismaster'scrib" (a circumstance, however, which neither the gospel nor the ancientfathershaveremarked), it ismorelikely that, fromthisopinion, theFeastoftheAsstookitsname.

Indeed,theJesuit,TheophilusRaynaud,testifiesthatonSt.Stephen'sdaytherewassungahymnof theass,whichwasalsocalledtheProseofFools;andthatonSt.John'sdayanotherwassung,calledtheProseoftheOx.InthelibraryofthechapterofSensthereispreservedamanuscriptofvellumwithminiaturefiguresrepresentingtheceremoniesof theFeastofFools.Thetextcontainsadescriptionofit,includingthisProseoftheAss;itwassungbytwochoirs,whoimitatedatintervalsandastheburdenofthesong,thebrayingofthatanimal.

TherewaselectedinthecathedralchurchesabishoporarchbishopoftheFools,whichelectionwasconfirmedbyallsortsofbuffooneries,playedoffbywayofconsecration.Thisbishopofficiatedpontificallyandgavehisblessingto the people, beforewhom he appeared bearing themitre, the crosier, andeventhearchiepiscopalcross.Inthosechurcheswhichheldimmediatelyfromthe Holy See, a pope of the Fools was elected, who officiated in all thedecorations of papacy. All the clergy assisted in themass, some dressed inwomen'sapparel,othersasbuffoons,ormaskedinagrotesqueandridiculousmanner.Not contentwith singing licentious songs in the choir, they sat andplayed at dice on the altar, at the side of the officiator.When themasswasover they ran, leaped, anddancedabout thechurch,utteringobscenewords,singing immodest songs, and putting themselves in a thousand indecentpostures, sometimes exposing themselves almost naked. They then hadthemselves drawn about the streets in tumbrels full of filth, that theymightthrowitatthemobwhichgatheredroundthem.Thelooserpartofthesecularswould mix among the clergy, that they might play some fool's part in the

ecclesiasticalhabit.

Thisfeastwasheldinthesamemannerintheconventsofmonksandnuns,asNaudé testifies inhiscomplaint toGassendi, in1645, inwhichhe relatesthatatAntibes,intheFranciscanmonastery,neithertheofficiatingmonksnortheguardianwent to thechoiron thedayof theInnocents.The laybrethrenoccupiedtheirplacesonthatday,and,clothedinsacerdotaldecorations,tornand turned insideout,made a sort of office.Theyheldbooks turnedupsidedown, which they seemed to be reading through spectacles, the glasses ofwhich were made of orange peel; andmuttered confused words, or utteredstrangecries,accompaniedbyextravagantcontortions.

ThesecondregisterofthechurchofAutun,bythesecretaryRotarii,whichendswith1416,says,withoutspecifyingtheday,thatattheFeastofFoolsanasswasledalongwithaclergyman'scapeonhisback,theattendantssinging:"Hehaw!Mr.Ass,hehaw!"

DucangerelatesasentenceoftheofficialtyofViviers,upononeWilliam,who, having been elected fool-bishop in 1400, had refused to perform thesolemnitiesandtodefraytheexpensescustomaryonsuchoccasions.

And, toconclude, the registersofSt.Stephen,atDijon, in1521,withoutmentioningtheday,thatthevicarsranaboutthestreetswithdrums,fifes,andother instruments, and carried lamps before the pré-chantre of the Fools, towhomthehonorofthefeastprincipallybelonged.Buttheparliamentofthatcity, by a decree of January 19, 1552, forbade the celebration of this feast,whichhadalreadybeencondemnedbyseveralcouncils, andespeciallybyacircularofMarch11,1444,senttoalltheclergyinthekingdombytheParisuniversity.Thisletter,whichwefindattheendoftheworksofPeterofBlois,says that this feast was, in the eyes of the clergy, sowell imagined and soChristian, that those who sought to suppress it were looked on asexcommunicated;and theSorbonnedoctor, JohndesLyons, inhisdiscourseagainst the paganism of the Roiboit, informs us that a doctor of divinitypubliclymaintainedatAuxerre, about thecloseof the fifteenthcentury, that"the feast of Fools was no less pleasing to God than the feast of theImmaculate Conception of theBlessedVirgin; besides, that it was ofmuchhigherantiquityinthechurch."

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