A PESTLE analysis of solar home systems in refugee camps ...
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* = corresponding author details, [email protected] A PESTLE analysis of solar home systems in refugee camps in Rwanda Thomas, P.J.M. 1, * , Sandwell, P. 2, 3 , Williamson, S.J. 1 , Harper, P.W. 1 1. Faculty of Engineering, University of Bristol, Queen's Building, University Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TR, United Kingdom. 2. Department of Physics, Blackett Laboratory, Imperial College London, Prince Consort Road, South Kensington, London, SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom. 3. Practical Action, The Robbins Building, 25 Albert Street, Rugby, CV21 2SD, United Kingdom Abstract There is a paucity of data on energy access in refugee camps and limited analysis regarding the viability of modern energy technologies such as solar home systems in these contexts. This paper addresses these by presenting an overview of the household and small enterprise electricity access situation in Kigeme, Nyabiheke and Gihembe camps in Rwanda and through the application of a Political, Economic, Social, Technological, Legal and Environmental (PESTLE) analysis to assess the barriers influencing solar home system provision. Most households and small enterprises currently have limited or no access to electricity and there is significant unmet demand for energy services such as mobile phone charging, lighting, and entertainment in the camps. The analysis suggests that solar home systems can meet these energy needs and identifies important factors in ensuring projects are successful. Projects should be informed by the needs and priorities of end-users and should be aligned with national policies, such as achieving Tier 2 energy access, to garner political support. Where possible, local market systems should be nurtured to normalise paying for energy products and to avoid free distribution. This can support private sector engagement and result in longer system lifetimes through improved maintenance. Energy literacy programmes can also improve awareness of solar home systems and their benefits compared to traditional sources of energy. These findings can inform practitioners on the supporting policy/financial frameworks, design requirements and implementation measures needed to maximise the benefits of future solar home system projects and help achieve electrification targets. Word Count: 7,948 Highlights • An overview of access to electricity in three refugee camps in Rwanda. • A PESTLE analysis of solar home systems in the refugee camps. • Identification and analysis of factors impacting solar home system projects. • Recommendations to enable better solar home system project design.
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Transcript of A PESTLE analysis of solar home systems in refugee camps ...
*=correspondingauthordetails,[email protected]
A PESTLE analysis of solar home systems in refugee camps in Rwanda
Thomas,P.J.M.1,*,Sandwell,P.2,3,Williamson,S.J.1,Harper,P.W.1
1. FacultyofEngineering,UniversityofBristol,Queen'sBuilding,UniversityWalk,Bristol,BS81TR,UnitedKingdom.
2. DepartmentofPhysics,BlackettLaboratory,ImperialCollegeLondon,PrinceConsortRoad,SouthKensington,London,SW72AZ,UnitedKingdom.
3. PracticalAction,TheRobbinsBuilding,25AlbertStreet,Rugby,CV212SD,UnitedKingdom
Abstract
Thereisapaucityofdataonenergyaccessinrefugeecampsandlimitedanalysisregardingtheviabilityofmodernenergytechnologiessuchassolarhomesystemsinthesecontexts.ThispaperaddressesthesebypresentinganoverviewofthehouseholdandsmallenterpriseelectricityaccesssituationinKigeme,NyabihekeandGihembecampsinRwandaandthroughtheapplicationofaPolitical,Economic,Social,Technological,LegalandEnvironmental(PESTLE)analysistoassessthebarriersinfluencingsolarhomesystemprovision.Mosthouseholdsandsmallenterprisescurrentlyhavelimitedornoaccesstoelectricityandthereissignificantunmetdemandforenergyservicessuchasmobilephonecharging,lighting,andentertainmentinthecamps.Theanalysissuggeststhatsolarhomesystemscanmeettheseenergyneedsandidentifiesimportantfactorsinensuringprojectsaresuccessful.Projectsshouldbeinformedbytheneedsandprioritiesofend-usersandshouldbealignedwithnationalpolicies,suchasachievingTier2energyaccess,togarnerpoliticalsupport.Wherepossible,localmarketsystemsshouldbenurturedtonormalisepayingforenergyproductsandtoavoidfreedistribution.Thiscansupportprivatesectorengagementandresultinlongersystemlifetimesthroughimprovedmaintenance.Energyliteracyprogrammescanalsoimproveawarenessofsolarhomesystemsandtheirbenefitscomparedtotraditionalsourcesofenergy.Thesefindingscaninformpractitionersonthesupportingpolicy/financialframeworks,designrequirementsandimplementationmeasuresneededtomaximisethebenefitsoffuturesolarhomesystemprojectsandhelpachieveelectrificationtargets.
WordCount:7,948
Highlights
• AnoverviewofaccesstoelectricityinthreerefugeecampsinRwanda.• APESTLEanalysisofsolarhomesystemsintherefugeecamps.• Identificationandanalysisoffactorsimpactingsolarhomesystemprojects.• Recommendationstoenablebettersolarhomesystemprojectdesign.
Keywords
EnergyAccess;HumanitarianEnergy;SolarHomeSystems;PESTLEAnalysis;Refugee;Rwanda
Abbreviations
1US$=953RWFCO2-CarbondioxideCRRF-ComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFrameworkEPRSC–EngineeringandPhysicalSciencesResearchCouncilGPA-GlobalPlanofActionforSustainableEnergySolutionsinSituationsofDisplacementLED-light-emittingdiodeMIDIMAR-MinistryofDisasterManagementandRefugeeAffairsMINEMA-MinistryofEmergencyManagementPAYG-Pay-As-You-GoPESTLE-political,economic,social,technical,legalandenvironmentalPV-photovoltaicRE4R-RenewableEnergyforRefugeesRWF–RwandanFrancSAFE-SafeAccesstoFirewoodandAlternativeEnergyinHumanitarianSettingsSDG-SustainableDevelopmentGoalSHS-solarhomesystemsUNHCR-UnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugeesVAT-value-addedtaxW–WattWh-WatthourWp-Wattpeak
1.0 Introduction
Existingresearchhasestablishedthatmostrefugeesandthehostcommunitiessurroundingthemcurrentlyrelyonunsustainable,unreliableandunsafeformsofenergy[1–5].Thisisinpartbecauseenergyisnotcurrentlyembeddedwithinthehumanitarianresponsesystem[6–8]andisoftennotprioritised[9,10].Thislackofaccesstoenergyisknowntoexacerbatemultipleissuesinhumanitariancontextsincludingimpactingtheprotection[11],health[12,13]andeducation[14]ofdisplacedpeople.
Toaddressthischallenge,theUnitedNationsHighCommissionerforRefugees(UNHCR)madeacommitmentatthe2019GlobalRefugeeForumthatallrefugeeandhostcommunityhouseholdswillhaveTier2electricityaccessby2030[15].Thismeansthatallhouseholdshaveaccesstoatleast50Wofpoweror200Whperdayofelectricitythatcanprovidelighting,aircirculation,televisionandphonechargingservicesforaminimumof4hoursduringthedayand2hoursintheevening[16].Inordertoachievethisgoal,humanitarianorganisationsneedtosignificantlyincreaseenergyaccesslevelsforatleast20millionpeople1[17]withintenyears.
1Atthetimeofwritingtherewere20.4millionrefugeesunderUNHCR’smandate(excludingPalestinianrefugees).
Enablinghouseholdstoaccesssolarhomesystems(SHS)whichareoftenabletomeetthecriteriaofTier2energyaccess[18–20]isonepossiblesolutiontothischallenge.WhiletherehavebeenSHSprojectsinrefugeecampsinKenya[21,22]andinBurkinaFaso[23],theseprojectshaveoftenhadlimitedsuccessbecauseofissueswithaffordabilityandbecauseinterventionsdidnotconsiderlocalconditionsortheneedsoftheintendedcommunities[24].ThereisalsolimitedresearchevaluatingwhythegrowthindemandforSHSseenelsewhereinRwanda[25]hasnotalsobeenseeninrefugeecampsinthecountry.
TheobjectivesofthispaperaretoaddresstwoofthechallengesthatneedtobeovercometoincreasethediffusionofSHSinthecamps:(1)alackofdataonenergyprovisioninhumanitariansituationswhichisinhibitingtheabilityoforganisationstoprovideenergysolutions[26,27]and(2)theidentificationofpolitical,economic,social,technical,legalandenvironmentalbarriersandenablersthatmustbeaddressedinordertoachievewidespreadadoptionanduseofSHS[25,28–30].Forexample,althoughsomestudieshaveindicatedthatSHSareaviabletechnologyforenablingsocio-economicdevelopmentandalleviatingpoverty[31–33]therearealsoseveralstudiesthatrefutethisclaim[34–36].Properalignmentofthesefactorshasalsobeenidentifiedbyotherresearchers[39]asanessentialcomponentofsuccessfulprojects.WeaddressthischallengebyconductingaPESTLEanalysistoexplorethefactorsinfluencingtheimplementationofSHSinrefugeecampsandtoidentifylessonslearntfrompreviousprojects.ThistypeofanalysishasbeenconductedonarangeofdifferentenergytopicsincludingrenewableenergyinMalawi[38],Indonesia’sfossilfuelindustry[39],andthetidalenergyindustryintheUK[40].However,thisisthefirstpapertopresentaPESTLEanalysisofSHSasawayofprovidingaccesstoelectricityinhumanitariancontexts,andthefirstacademicpapertopresentdataontheenergysituationinKigeme,NyabihekeandGihemberefugeecampsinRwanda.Thisanalysisprovidesafirststepinunderstandingthespecificchallengesassociatedwithprovidingenergyinthesehumanitariancontexts.ThefindingscanbeusedbypractitionersandpolicymakerstoguidethedevelopmentoffutureSHSprojects,andbyresearcherstoidentifyareaswhereadditionaldataoranalysiswouldbeofvalue.
ThisstudyconsiderstheelectricityaccesssituationforhouseholdsandsmallenterprisesinKigeme,NyabihekeandGihemberefugeecamps.Unlikemanysituationsofdisplacement,thesethreecampshavebeenthefocusofrecentenergyaccessassessmentsaspartoftheongoingRenewableEnergyforRefugees(RE4R)projectandthereforeofferatimelyandrelevantcasestudy.Althoughcautionmustbetakenbeforeapplyingthefindingsofthispapertootherrefugeecontexts,theauthorsconsiderthatthesecampsoffersimilaritiestootherprotractedrefugeesituationsintheEastAfricaregionsuchasinTanzania,Burundi,Uganda,Ethiopia,SudanandKenya.Forexample,manyoftherefugeeslivingincampsinruralandremoteareasinthesecountrieshavelowincomesandpooraccesstoelectricity,whilsttheregionissun-richandisexperiencingatransitiontowardsdecentralisedenergysystemssuchasSHS.TheRE4RprojectbuildsonpreviousworkbytheMovingEnergyInitiativethatdescribedtheenergysituationinDadaabrefugeecampinKenya[22]andGoudouborefugeecampinBurkinaFaso[41]andwhichoffertwofurthercasesforcomparison.
ThefollowingsectionsprovideabriefoverviewofSHS,followedbyadescriptionoftheresearchmethodology.Theexistingenergysituationinthecamps,includingaccesstoenergyinhouseholdsandenterprises,isthenprovided.APESTLEanalysisispresentedwhichevaluatestheopportunitiesandchallengesfacingtheprovisionofSHSinthecamps,followedbyadiscussionoftheissues.Thefinalsectionspresentsomeofthelimitationsassociatedwiththeresearch,futureresearchideasandconcludingremarks.
1.1 Solar Home Systems
Thefallingcostsofphotovoltaic(PV)panels,batteriesandlight-emittingdiode(LED)bulbshavehelpedSHSemergeasacost-effectivetechnologyforprovidingelectricitytolow-demandcustomersinoff-gridlocations[25,28,42–44].SHScanprovidehouseholdswithagreaterrangeandqualityofservicesthanthoseavailableviasmaller-scaletechnologies,suchassolarlanterns,butwithasmalleroverallinfrastructurecommitmentthaninstallinglarger-scaleoptionssuchasaminigrid.AtypicalSHS(Figure1)comprisesa10to100WpPVpanel,arechargeablebattery,appliancesandassociatedequipmentsuchaswiring,switches,achargecontrollerandcommunicationequipmentthatarenotfullyshowninFigure1.DependingonthesizeofthesystemarangeofappliancesincludingLEDlights,fans,televisions,andradioscanbeconnected[45–47].MostSHScanprovideTier2accesstoelectricityservicesandstate-of-the-artsystemscanreachTier3[48–50].
Figure1:AsimplifiedschematicshowingthemaincomponentsofatypicalSHS(authors’own).
Itisimportanttonotethatwhilethemulti-tierframeworkhasbeencreditedforexpandingnarrowmetricsdefiningenergyaccess[51]therehasbeensomecriticismthatthereisstilltoomuchfocusonsystemattributessuchasWattpeakorWatt-hoursofsystemsratherthanontheservicesthesesystemsoffer[52].WefocusonTier22forconsistencywiththeUNHCREnergyChallengeandRwandanGovernmentguidelines.However,wesupportanalysisbyotherresearchthatsuggestsTier32orhighershouldbethelong-termaspiration[51].
2Fulldetailsofdifferencesbetweeneachtierareavailablein[16].
2.0 Research Methodology
Thispaperpresentsasummary3oftheexistingenergysituationinKigeme,GihembeandNyabihekerefugeecampsinRwandathatwasinvestigatedbyPracticalActionaspartoftheRE4Rprojectusingquantitativeandqualitativeapproaches.Thequantitativeassessmentaimedtoprovidenumericalevidencedescribingthedemographicsofthecampresidents,theircurrentaccesstoenergy,andtheirenergyneedsandpriorities.Thesurveysfocusedonenergyuseinhouseholdsanddomesticsettings(n.623;211householdsinGihembe,202inKigeme,210inNyabiheke),andforenterprisesandbusinesses(n.155;64,34,and37enterprisesrespectively).BuildingonsimilarstudiesbyPracticalAction[22,41,53,54],andwithinputsfromboththeUNHCRRwandaandGenevateamsandotherpartners,theassessmentmethodologywasdevelopedandfieldtestedbyRE4RstaffbeforebeingconductedinthecampsbytrainedenumeratorsinMarchandApril2018viaone-to-oneinterviewsofpeoplelivingandworkinginthecamps.
ThesurveysweretranslatedfromEnglishtoKinyarwanda,conductedinthelatterasthelanguageisspokenwidelyinthecamps,andresponseswererecordedelectronicallyonatabletinEnglishornumerically,asapplicable.Refugeeenumeratorsselectedtoconductthesurveyreceivedadailystipendandparticipatedinatwo-daytrainingworkshopbeforedatacollectioncommenced.EnumeratorsweresupervisedthroughoutthedatacollectionprocessbyfieldstafffromPracticalActionandUNHCRRwanda.Respondentsforthequantitativesurveywereselectedatrandomfromwithinpredeterminedgeographicalareastoformarepresentativesampleofthecampasawhole,withafulldescriptionofthesurveyingmethodologygivenin[55].
QualitativedatawasalsocollectedfromawiderangeofenergyusersviaunstructuredinterviewsconductedbytworesearchersfromPracticalActionwhoweresupportedbycamp-basedstaff.Theseinterviewsfocusedonthelivedexperienceofrefugeecommunities,followingaprocesssimilarto[56],andprovideadditionaldepthanddetailthatisnotreflectedinquantitativedatacollectiontechniques.DatacollectionwascompletedinMay2018andwasusedtodesignimplementationplansforfourrenewableenergyinterventionsinthethreecamps[55].
APESTLEanalysisisconductedtoidentifyfactorsthatmaybeinfluencingtheadoptionofSHSinthecamps.PESTLEanalysisisananalyticaltoolforevaluatingtheimpactofexistingandfutureexternalfactorsonasystemortechnologywhilealsoevaluatingtheimpactofthesystemortechnologyinthecontextwhereitisimplemented[57,58].Thismethodisparticularlyusefulforexploringissuesthataremainlyqualitativeinnatureandforanalysingproblemsholistically.Inthecontextofthispaper,thePESTLEanalysisisfocusedonthefactorsinfluencingthediffusionofSHSamonghouseholdsandsmallenterprisesinthecampsinRwanda.Thefactorsidentifiedarewiderangingandincludelocal,national,andinternationalissues.AwiderangeofstakeholdersinterestedinSHSdeploymentareconsideredincludingrefugeeslivinginthecamps,thehostcommunitieslivingnearby,humanitarianandgovernmentagencies,donors,andprivatesectorcompanies.Thefindingsoftheanalysiscanbeusedtoimprovefutureprojectsandtoidentifyareasthatrequirefurtherinvestigation.
3FulldetailsoftheRE4Rassessmentprocessandfindingsareavailablein[55].
Theanalysisdrawsonacademicandgreyliteraturediscussingenergyaccessandhumanitarianinterventionsandtheexperienceoftheauthorstoinformtheanalysis.TheanalysisalsodrawsonunpublishedliteraturefromtheRE4RprojectsuchasnotesfromworkshopsandprogrammemeetingswhichincludeparticipantsfromawiderangeoforganisationsinvolvedintheRE4RprojectincludingPracticalAction,UNHCR,theIKEAFoundation(theprojectdonor)andtheRwandanMinistryofEmergencyManagement(MINEMA),formerlyknownastheMinistryofDisasterManagementandRefugeeAffairs(MIDIMAR).
Toensurevalidity,thefindingsofthepaperhavebeendiscussedwithmembersoftheRE4RprojectincludingPracticalActionstaffsuchasthefieldcoordinatorsbasedineachofthecamps,theproject’stechnicaladviser,theprojectmanagerandthemonitoring,evaluationandlearningadvisor.Furthermoreexpertsinthefieldhavebeenconsulted,suchasmembersoftheGPA,andcomparisonsmadebetweenthedatacollectedaspartofthisstudyandotherprojectssuchas[22,41].TheleadandsecondauthorsbothsatontheRE4RTechnicalWorkingGroupwhichmetquarterlythroughouttheprojectandwereparticipantsindecision-makingworkshopsandregularprojectreviews.Theseactivitieswillhelptomitigatetheimpactofanyemergentdiscrepanciesbetweenthepointatwhichkeydataweregathered,forexamplethesurveydata,andthecontinuallyevolvingsituationsinthecamps.
3.0 Existing Energy Situation
3.1 Kigeme, Nyabiheke and Gihembe Camps
InthispaperweconsiderthreeofthesixrefugeecampsoperatinginRwanda.ThecampshostrefugeespredominantlyfromNorthKivuandSouthKivuprovincesoftheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,havesimilarlevelsofhouseholdincomeandlevelsofemployment.AsummaryoftheseisgiveninTable1andFigure2showstheapproximatelocationofthecampsandKigali,thecapitalcityofRwanda.
Table1:Overviewofthelocations,sizeandeconomiesofthethreecamps.Datafrom[55],[59]and[60].
Camp Gihembe Kigeme NyabihekeHouseholds 2,910 3,998 2,787People 12,391 22,950 14,289Averagenumberofpeopleperhousehold 4 6 5Totalhouseholdmonthlyincome(RWF) 83,211 43,113 23,782Totalhouseholdmonthlyincome(US$) 87.31 45.24 24.95Householdswithwageearnerinlast12months(%) 34 42 47Non-farmbusinesses(%ofallbusinesses) 8 13 17
Figure2:MapofRwandashowingthelocationsofGihembe(blue),Nyabiheke(red)andKigeme(green)refugeecampsandKigalithecapitalcityofRwanda(yellowstar)[Source:55].
Thesecampswerethefocusofapreviousinvestigationby[60]thatinvestigatedtheeconomiclifeandemploymentofrefugeesresidentinthecamps;althoughthisstudydidnotfocusonenergyaccess,someofthedatagatheredisrelevanttoassessingthepotentialeconomicviabilityofSHSforhouseholds.Householdincome(includingdirectaid,wagesandremittances),potentiallyindicativeoftheabilitytopayforaSHS,washighestinGihembe.KigemeandNyabiheke,meanwhile,hadhigherproportionsofthebusinessesinthecampsoperatingoutsideoftheagriculturalsector,suchasinretail,tradeandfoodservice,whichwouldlikelyhavegreateruseforaSHS.
Allthreecampsnowuseacashandvoucherprogrammeinlieuofdirectassistanceandfooddistribution,whichatthetimeofthatstudywasonlyoperatinginGihembe.Theseprogrammesaimtodevelopthefinancialindependenceofrefugeehouseholdsbyofferinggreaterautonomyoverpurchasingdecisionswhilealsohelpingtofacilitategreaterintegrationbetweentherefugeeandlocalhostcommunitypopulations,includingaccesstoelectricityproductsandservices.
3.2 Access to electricity for households
Thereisnooverallresponsibilityamongstthecampauthoritiesfortheprovisionofenergyforlighting,althoughanumberofdistributionprogrammeshavehadalimitedeffectonincreasingaccess.Atthattimehouseholdshadverylimitedaccesstobothelectricityandenergyforcooking,withmostrespondentsreportingaccesstoonlythemostbasicformsoftechnologiesandfuels.
AsshowninFigure3,whichdisplaysthelightingsourcesusedbyhouseholdsinthepast12months,mosthouseholdsreliedonacombinationoflow-tierlightingtechnologies–suchascandles,lightsonmobilephonesandimprovisedbatterytorches–tomeettheirlightingneeds.Whenaskedaboutthehousehold’smainsourceoflighting,acrossthethreecamps,only21%ofhouseholdsreportedrelyingprimarilyonsolarlanternsand16%onSHSastheirmainsourceoflight.AccesstoaSHS,and
correspondinglyaccesstoTier2electricityservicesorhigher,variedbetweenthethreecamps:inGihembethiswasashighasaroundoneinthreehouseholds,whereasinKigemeitwaslowerthanonehouseholdinten.Theauthorsalsoidentifiedthataccesstohighertiertechnologiesresultedingreaterhoursoflightingintheevening:householdswithTier0technologiesreceivedonaverage2.6hoursperdayoflight,thosewithsolarlanterns(assumedtobeTier1)received3.3hoursperday,whilstSHS(Tier2)offered4.0hoursperday.
Figure3:Lightingsourcesusedbyhouseholdsinthepast12months.Householdscouldreportasmanyofthesourcesthatwererelevanttothem.DatafromtheRE4Rproject.
Thedeliverymodelusedtoprovidetheenergytechnologyhadanimpactonitslong-termeffectiveness[55].Forexample,campresidentswhoreceivedsolarproductsasdonationsfromcampauthoritiesorotherorganisationsweremorelikelytoreportissueswiththem,suchasbreakagesorthefts.ThiswasparticularlyprevalentinKigeme,where57%ofsolarlanternswerereceivedasdonationsandmorethanhalfofthoselanternssufferedproblems.Incontrast,householdsthatpaidforSHSfromshopsinsideorretailersoutsideofthecamps,suchasBBOXX,ZolaandIgnite,reportedfewerissues:97%ofSHSwereacquiredintheseways,butonlybetween8%(inGihembe)and18%(inKigeme)sufferedissues.Anecdotally,however,severalrespondentsdescribedaperceivedlackofcustomersupportfromretailers,potentiallycausedbycompaniesbeingunsureoftheauthorisationsorpermitsnecessarytoenterthecampstofixbrokenproducts.
CampresidentswithoutSHSreportedspendingonnon-renewablesourcesoflightingsuchascandlesandbatteriesand,whilsttherewasawiderangeorspendingpracticesreported,medianexpenditurewas500RWF(US$0.53)andmeanexpenditurewas1,000RWF(US$1.05)permonth.Connectingtothenationalgridnetwork,whichwasusedbycampauthoritiestovaryingdegreesinallthreecampsandusedbythelocalhostcommunities,wasnotpermittedforrefugeehouseholdseveniftheywereabletosaveenoughtopayfortheinitialconnectionfee.Anecdotallythiswasforsafetypurposesandbecausethecampswerenotpermanentsettlements.
ByanalysingtheprevalenceofSHSinthecamps,[61]usedthedatafromtheRE4Rprojecttoestimatethemarketsizeofpotentialnewcustomersifenoughinterventionswereintroduced.Theanalysisfoundthatrespondentsmostvaluedthebenefitselectriclightingwouldbringforworkingathome(suchasforabusiness,doingchoresorstudying)withahighimportanceforchargingmobilephones,bothofwhicharepromotedsellingpointsofSHS.ByconsideringthemonthlytariffsbeingchargedbytwoSHScompanies(BBOXXandBelecom)supportedaspartoftheRE4Rproject,[61]alsoestimatedthatthenumberofhouseholdsthatwouldpurchaseasystematthepriceofferedwouldbebetween1,400RWFand2,400RWF.Theseestimates,however,couldvarysignificantlydependentonactivitiesthataffecthouseholdwillingnesstopay,suchasawarenessraisingcampaignsandgreateraccesstoretailoutletsinorneartothecamps.Itisalsoworthnotingthatdisparitiesoftenexistbetweendemandpredictionsandrealuptakebecauseofdifferencesbetweenwillingnessandabilitytopay[28].
3.3 Access to electricity for enterprises
Therewereavarietyofenterprisesinthethreecampssuchasretailshops,phonechargingproviders,foodshops,restaurants,bars,tailorsandhairdressers.OveralllevelsofelectricityaccesswerelowandmostenterprisesreliedonTier0or1technologies(58%overall)withonlyaminorityhavingaccesstoSHSenablingTier2access(27%)orhigherfromconnectionstominigridusedtopowercampoperations(15%)[55].Mostenterprises,especiallysmallshopsandthoseofferingphone-chargingservices,operatedfromwithinrespondenthomeswhilstonly5%hadadedicatedbuilding.Thissuggeststhatthesameelectricityservicescouldbenefitbothdomesticandcommercialpurposesinhabitingthesamephysicalspace.Relativelybasicelectricityservices,suchaslighting,phonechargingandtelevisions,werethemostfrequentlydesiredamongstbusinesses,indicatingasignificantpotentialcustomerbaseforSHSthatcommonlyprovidetheseservices.Therewaslessdesireforotherusesofenergysuchasheatingandcooling,potentiallyduetoalackoftechnologiesavailableinthecampsthatwouldsupplythese.
4.0 PESTLE Analysis
AlthoughSHSofferapotentialsolutionforimprovingelectricityaccesslevelsamonghouseholdsandsmallenterprisesinthecamps,withasmallminorityalreadybenefitingfromaccesstothem,therearecurrentlybarrierspreventingtheirwidespreaddiffusion.ThefollowingsectionspresentthePESTLEanalysisconductedaspartofthisresearchtobreakdownandevaluatethevariousfactorsinfluencingthediffusionofsystems.Insomesections,suchassections4.5and4.6,therewasverylimitedinformationaboutSHSprovisionspecificallyrelatedtohumanitariancontexts.Wehavedrawnmorewidelyonliteraturefromothercontextsandconsultedwithexpertsinthefieldtoensurevalidity.
4.1 Political
Policyandgovernancearecentraltothesustainabilityorenergyinterventions[37,62]andargumentssuggestingthatthepoliticalenvironmentneedstochangeinordertoimproveaccesstoenergyforrefugeeshaveexistedsince2015[2,63].However,therehavebeenseveralpolicydevelopmentssincethen.Forexample,theSustainableEnergyforAllinitiativeaimstoensuresustainableenergyforallby2030[64]andtrackingenergyaccesslevelsamongdisplacedpeoplewasincludedintheGlobalTrackingFrameworkforthefirsttimein2017[65].In2015theUnitedNationsalsoagreedon17SustainableDevelopmentGoals(SDGs),includingSDG7whichaimsto“ensureaccesstoaffordable,reliable,
sustainableandmodernenergyforall”[66]and,anindicatoronrefugeeswasexplicitlyincludedafterareviewin2019[67].Whilethesepoliticalambitionshelpdemonstratetheimportanceofenergyatahighlevel,afailuretointegrateenergyprovisionintohumanitariancoordinationmechanismssuchastheClusterSystem[7,68,69]andtheRefugeeCoordinationModel[70]hasledtogapsinresponse.Tohelpaddressthis,UNHCRlauncheditsGlobalStrategyforSustainableEnergyandcreatedacleanenergychallengeattheendof2019[15,71].Twocoordinatingbodies,thetaskforceonSafeAccesstoFirewoodandAlternativeEnergyinHumanitarianSettings(SAFE)andtheGlobalPlanofActionforSustainableEnergySolutionsinSituationsofDisplacement(GPA)[8,26],havealsobeenestablishedtosupporttheprovisionofenergyinhumanitariansettings.
ProvidingaccesstoelectricityisalsoincreasinglyapriorityfornationalgovernmentsandenergypoliciescanbeakeydriverofSHSadoption[72,73].Investmentinenergyprovisioncanbeenabledwherethereisgovernmentsupportforit[74]orcanbeamajorbarriertothediffusionwhenthereisalackofit[75,76],orwhenthereissupportforothermeansofelectrificationsuchasthenationalgrid.AlthoughthisissuehasnotbeenidentifiedinRwanda,insomecountries,suchasGhanaandMalawi,politicianshavepromisedoff-gridcommunitiesaccesstoelectricityduringpoliticalcampaigns[28,38,77].Thiscanleadtoanunwillingnesstoadoptoff-gridtechnology[78,79],althoughdomesticgridconnectionsareunlikelyinmanyhumanitariansettings,includinginRwanda.
Theadministrationofrefugeecampsistypicallyhighlyregulatedandtheprocessofworkingincamps,particularlyforprivatecompaniesandexternalorganisationsisoftenchallenging[80].Thehostgovernment’sapproachtorefugeesimpactsthecapacityofagenciestoproviderefugeeswithaccesstoenergy[12]whichcanbepoliticallyunpopular[81].Inpart,thechallengesofimprovingenergyaccessforlocalpopulationshavediscouragedgovernmentsfromprioritisingenergyaccessforrefugees[21].Thedeliveryofenergycanalsobehamperedbythewillingnessofhostgovernmentstosupportlong-terminterventions[82,83].Furthermore,byengagingwiththehostcountrygovernmentandensuringinterventionsalignwithexistingpolicies,forexample,ruralelectrificationplansandenvironmentalcommitments,canhelptoavoidnegativedisruptionandunintendedconsequences[74,84].Theinclusionofthelocalhostcommunitiesinenergyprogrammescanhelpaddressthischallenge[21].
Rwandahasrelativelyprogressivepoliciestowardsbothenergyaccessandrefugeeinclusion.TheRwandanGovernmenthasrecognisedtheimportanceofenergyaccessinseveralpoliciesincludingitsEconomicDevelopmentandPovertyReductionStrategyII[85],Vision2020framework[86]andNationalStrategyforTransformation[87].TheRuralElectrificationStrategyalsoincludesSHSasawayofprovidingaccesstoelectricity[88],usingTier2asaminimumstandardsimilartothecommitmentofUNHCR,andtheGovernmenthassupportedprivateSHSbusinessestoestablishandgrowtheiroperationsinRwanda[25].Energyprovisionfordisplacedpeople,meanwhile,issupportedbytheGovernmentsigninguptotheComprehensiveRefugeeResponseFramework(CRRF)inFebruary2018whichaffordsrefugeeswithprogressivelegalandeconomicrightsandaimsforbetterinclusionofrefugeesinRwandanpoliciesandprogrammes[89,90].Alignmentsbetweenhumanitarianenergyprogrammesandtheseexistingpolicyinitiatives,forexamplesharingthegoalofTier2access,canhelpensureadoptionofsystems.
4.2 Economic
Fundingforenergyhasnothistoricallybeenapriorityfordonorsandhumanitarianagenciesareusuallyunabletoprovidehouseholdenergytechnologies[83,91]asaresult.SomesolarlanternshavebeenprovidedinthethreecampsbutthediffusionofSHShasmostlybeenmarket-led.Supportedbyresearchthathasestablishedthatfreelydistributingsimilartechnologiesreducesdiffusionamongstusersinareaswheremarket-baseddeliveryisbeingimplemented[21,23],somehumanitarianactorsarenowarguingthatfreedistributionofproductsshouldbeavoidedinallbutemergencysituations[92–94]becauseofthenegativeimpactsithasonlocalmarketsystems[80,95].
ThedeliveryofSHSthroughmarket-basedmodelshassignificantchallengesthatneedtobeaddressed.Forexample,thehighcostofpurchasingaSHSoutrightisabarrieridentifiedinseveralstudies[20,32]:althoughsystemcostscanvarybetweencountries[76].InRwanda,a50WpSHSisavailabletopurchaseinmarketsforaround250,000RWF(US$262)[96]butthisisasignificantproportionofhouseholdincometopayinasingleinstallment.ExistingSHSprojecthavesometimesfailedtoreachthepoorestmembersofsocietyandaretypicallypurchasedbyhigher-incomehouseholds[92,97,98].Pay-As-You-Go(PAYG)hasemergedasawaytoovercomethislimitedpurchasingcapacityandforlow-incomehouseholdstospreadthecostsofasystemmoreflexiblyandbettertakeaccountoffluctuatingprioritiesandincome[20,92].ForexamplethecostofaBBOXXsystemwithtwolightsandmobilephonechargingisaround6,000RWF(US$6)permonthinthecamp[25],subsidisedbytheRE4Rprojectby40%,farlowerthanthecosttopurchaseasimilarsystemoutrightbutcomparablewhenconsideringthethree-yearrepaymentperiod.However,accesstofinanceforconsumersremainsasignificantbarriertothediffusionofSHSidentifiedinseveralcountries[99–101],whichaffectstheabilityofhouseholdstopurchaseasystemandlimitsSHSprovidersfromscalingtheirbusinesses.AttemptsweremadetoaddressthisaspartoftheRE4Rproject,forexample,thecreationofarevolvingfund[102]whichprovidesaccesstomicroloanswhichhouseholdscanusetopurchaseaSHS.Theintroductionofcash-basedtransfers[103]whererefugeesreceivecashandmakethedecisionaboutwhattheyneedhasbeenanenablingfactorinthecampsbysettinganexpectationthatpaymentshouldbemadeforproductsorserviceswhichsupportsthePAYGmodel[92].
DespiteinnovativedeliverymodelsandsubsidiesinthecaseoftheRE4Rproject,thesepaymentsstillrepresentasignificantexpenditureforlowincomehouseholdsand,insomecases,SHShavebeenpaidforbydivertingfundsfromotherneeds[104].AcquiringaSHSviaPAYGrequiresregularmonthlypaymentsandrepresentsalong-termfinancialcommitmentcomparedtotraditionalenergysourceswhichcanbepurchasedornotdependingonincomeconstraints[104,105]andsomaynotbecompatiblewithvariableincomesofmanyrefugeehouseholds.ThisalsopresentsachallengeforSHSproviders,whoarereliantonconsistentincomestreams[92].Tomitigatethisrisksomesystemsareabletoremotelylockwhichcanreducethefrequencyoflateandmissedpayments[81,106].Forrefugeehouseholdswithmorevariableincomesthismaymeanthat,despitehavingaSHSintheirhome,theiraccesstoimprovedelectricityservicesremainslimited.
ThemajorityofstudiesonthetopicreportthatSHScanhelptoimprovehouseholdincomesprimarilythroughenablingworktotakeplaceafterdark[107,108];giventhatmanyenterprisesinthecampsarelocatedinhouseholds,thiswouldlikelyalsobethecaseincamps.Somehouseholdsalsogenerateincomethroughchargingmobilephones[25]althoughthisopportunitymaybediminishedifSHSareadoptedbymosthouseholds.However,householdsthatdoownaSHScansavemoneyandtimethat
theypreviouslywouldhavespentonenergyservicessuchasmobilephonechargingandtraditionalsourcesoflighting[25,105,109],whichisalsocommonplaceinthecamps.ItisworthnotingthatthereareasimilarnumberofstudiesthatcontradictthesefindingandsuggestthepotentialSHScanhaveonincomegenerationandpovertyreductionislowbecauseincreasedoperatinghoursenabledbyimprovedaccesstolightinghasalimitedimpactonincome[96,104,105,110].
4.3 Social
SHSneedtomeettheneedsofusersandbeadaptedtothecontextsinwhichtheyoperatetoensureacceptanceanddiffusion[38,84,104,111–114].However,identifyingwhatpeoplewantorneedcanbechallengingbecause,insomecases,recipientstellprovidersthattheywantcertaintechnologiesbecausetheythinkthatiswhattheywanttohearandnotbecauseitnecessarilyreflectstheirtruepriorities[115].Projectshavealsofailedinthepastbecauseusershavealimitedchoiceofsystemwhichdonotmeettheirneeds[75,116]andthereareexamplesinhumanitariancontextsofenergyproductsbeingunusedorre-sold[94].Asaresult,projectsshouldconsiderofferingarangeofsystemsorprovidesystemsthatareflexible[28,117]sothatconsumershavechoice.However,itisworthnotingthatofferingonesystemcanhelpreducecosts[76]whichisanimportantconsiderationinhumanitariancontextswherefundingislimited[2].
Energyplaysahugepartintheeverydaylivesofdisplacedcommunities[118,119]andSHShavetheabilitytoimprovehouseholdlivingstandards[75].Refugeeshavereportedthataccesstoelectricityhasimprovedtheirchildren’sabilitytostudy[12,14,120]andlightingenablespeopletomovearoundcampsatnightandincreasesoperatinghoursforenterprises[12,121].InRwanda,theRE4RsurveysfoundthatSHSprovided90minutesmorelightingperdaycomparedtotraditionalsources[45].However,itisworthnotingthatwhileanincreaseinlightinghourscanincreasestudyandoperatinghours,itdoesnotnecessarilyleadtoincreasedincomesoranimprovementineducationalattainment[31,110].SHScanalsoenablepeopletoengageinsocialactivitiesafterdark[75,76,104,113]andimproveaccesstoinformationthroughradioandtelevisions,whichcanhelppeoplemonitorthesituationintheirhomecountry,andisawidelycitedpositiveimpactoflargerSHS[75,76,104,105,109,110,122].However,insomecases,householdscontinueusingtraditionallightingtechnologiestoconservepowerfortelevisionviewing[123]whichcannegatetheexpectedbenefitsofelectriclighting.
TherearealsohealthandsafetybenefitsassociatedwithSHS,forexampleimprovementsinindoorairqualityandareductioninthelikelihoodorburnsandfires[13,32,75,104,124–128].Althoughlightingisnotapanaceaforprotectionchallengesinrefugeecamps,itcanimprovepeople’sperceptionofsafety[11,12,120,129].However,therearesomenegativeimpactssuchassocialexclusionandindebtednessamonggroupswhoareunableorstruggletoaffordSHS[75,105].Vandalismandtheftofsystemscanalsobeaprobleminsomehumanitariancontexts[31,115].
OnepotentialbarriertothediffusionofsystemsisthatlevelsofeducationandawarenessaboutrenewableenergyremainslowamongpotentialconsumersofSHS[76,130].End-usersmaybeunawarethatovertime,SHSmaybecomparablewithwhattheyarecurrentlyspendingonenergy[92].UserscanalsohaveunrealisticexpectationsaboutwhataSHScanachieveandhavemisunderstandingsabouthowtousethetechnologyorbeunawareofthepotentialbenefits[92,109,115,131].Asaresult,capacitybuildingoflocalcommunitiesiswidelycitedtobeanimportantcomponentofprogramsuccess
[76,114,116,132].Alackoffundingtoprovidethis[76]andadvertisingthatdoesn’tillustratethelimitationsofSHS[133]hasexacerbatedthischallenge.
4.4 Technological
ThelimitedcapacityofSHStopowerproductiveandthermalusesisoneofthemainreasonstheyareunabletoreachbeyondTier3[31,134,135]andthisisoneofthereasonswhyusersoftenhaveapreferenceforagridconnection[77].However,gridconnectionsareoftenimpractical,prohibitivelyexpensiveandcanfailtodeliverthepromisedeconomicdevelopment[81,105,135–137].Furthermoretheorganic,unplannednatureofinformalsettlementsmakesthemparticularlychallengingandexpensivecontextsinwhichtoretrofitconventionalinfrastructures[81].InRwanda,theGovernmentisreluctanttoconnectrefugeehouseholdstothegridortotheminigridsthatsupplypowertoinstitutionalfacilitiesinthecamps.ThedeploymentofSHSiscomparativelyflexibleastheycanbeinstalledonindividualhouseholds,whichplacesthematanadvantagecomparedtoothertypesoflarger-scalesystems.
PreviousresearchhasidentifiedthattheperformanceofSHShasbeenreducedbecauseofshadingorbecausesolarpanelshadnotbeencleaned[104].Thisisanimportantissuebecauseimproperuseaffectstheeconomicsandsustainabilityofthesystem[138].Thishighlightstheneedforpropermaintenance;however,accordingto[116]previousprogrammeshaveunderestimatedtheneedforrepairandmaintenance.Asaresult,mostSHSarepoorlymaintainedbytheusers[116,139],aproblemexacerbatedbyalackofusertraining[115,116,140].Poormaintenancecanlimitratesofadoption[114,141]andpreviousresearchsuggestthathouseholdshavenotbeensatisfiedwiththemaintenanceservicesprovidedbysuppliers[109,142].Toaddressthischallenge,somemodernsystemscanberemotelymonitoredandadjustedtoensurebetterperformanceandidentifymaintenanceissues[81,106].However,preliminaryfindingsfromtheRE4RprojectindicatethatthecapacityoftheSHSsupplierstodealwithmaintenanceissueshasbeenhigherwherethereisapermanentpresenceinthecamps.
Tier2SHShavethecapacitytodeliverthethreemostimportantenergyneedsidentifiedbyrefugeehouseholdsintheRE4Rsurvey(mobilecharging,lightingandentertainmentsuchasviaradiosandtelevision)[55]andcanimprovetheenergysituationincomparisontoexistingenergybasicsources.Forlighting,theaveragelightoutputfromaSHSisabout44lumensperbulb,comparedto12lumensforcandlelightand25lumensforkerosenelamps[75]andissignificantlysafer.Providingtheadditionalserviceofmobilechargingwithinthehouseholdcanincreaseconvenienceandhelptosavetimeandexpenditureonmobilephonecharging.Previousprojectevaluationsinnon-refugeesettingsinRwandasuggestweeklysavingsof200RWF(US$0.21)perphone[97],andtheRE4Rassessmentsimilarlyidentifiedanaverageweeklyexpenditureonphonechargingamonghouseholdsof150-300RWF(US$0.16-0.32)[55],whichcouldpotentiallybemitigated.Finally,morepowerfulSHScanenableaccesstoradiosandtelevisionbut,asnotedearlier,thesearetypicallymoreexpensiveandmaybeoutofreachofmanyhouseholdsevenifsubsidised.Therefore,abalanceneedstobeachievedbetweenthecostofthesystemandtheservicesitcanprovide.Whileitisnotwithinthescopetothispapertofullyassesstheimpactoftechnologydevelopment,itisworthnotingthatthecomponentsusedinSHSareprojectedtoimproveoverthecomingyearswhichcanhelpimprovethecapabilityandperformanceofSHS.Forexample,analysisby[141and142]suggestsimprovementsinbatteryandsolartechnologyas
wellasreductionsincost.Therehasalsobeenanincreaseintherangeoflow-powerappliancesalongsideimprovementsinefficiencyandreductionsincosts[145].
4.5 Legal
Overall,thereisverylimitedliteratureonthenexusbetweenthelawandenergyaccessinhumanitariansettings.Mostnationalconstitutionsandlawsinsub-SaharanAfricadonotyetrecognisetherightofaccesstoenergy[146]andsomeauthorsarguethatthisneedstohappeninordertoachieveuniversalaccess[81].ThisappliestoRwandainthatithasmultiplepolicesandtargets(seesection4.1),butnolawsonenergyprovisionorrightstoaccessforrefugeesorthehostcommunity.Formalisingthese,inparticularregardingtheinclusionofdisplacedpeople,wouldhelptointegraterefugeesintohostcountryelectricityprovision.Atpresenttheabilitytomakeaconnectiontoanexistingelectricitysupplyeitherillegallyorinformallycanbeaproblem[147]andpowerthefthasbeenreportedinotherhumanitariansettings[2,3],althoughthishasnotbeenreportedinRwanda.Displacedpeoplebeingaffordedtherighttoworkandpermissiontomoveoutsidethecampcanalsoenableaccesstoenergyinhumanitariansettings[4].Theserightscanhelprefugeesbecomeself-reliant,rebuildtheirlives,securetheirdignityandallowthemtocontributetotheirhostcommunity[148].However,therehavebeennostudiesthatspecificallyinvestigatehowrightstoworkorfreedomofmovementfordisplacedcommunitiesimpactstheirabilitytoaccessenergyviaanymeans.
EvidencefromthedevelopmentliteraturesuggeststhatclarityintermsoftaxationandimportdutiescanalsohelpsupportSHSdiffusionbysimplifyingtheprocessforSHSsuppliersanddistributors.Althoughevidenceforthehumanitariansectorisnotavailable,someresearchhascriticisedtheRwandanGovernmentforalackofclarityonvalue-addedtax(VAT)andtariffs[149].However,alsoitrecognisesthattheRwandanGovernmenthasadoptedprogressivetaxpoliciesthatenableSHSsalesincludingexemptingsolarproductsfromimportdutiesandVAT[150].Whilesparepartsandaccessories,includingappliances,areexemptforVATtheyarenotexemptfromimportduties[150].
PreviousstudieshavealsoidentifiedthatpoorqualitySHSsoldwithoutwarrantiescanhaveanegativeimpactonthewidermarketandconsumertrustinsystems[29,106].AlthoughexistingresearchhasestablishedthatthequalityofproductsinRwandawasrelativelyhigh[149],theRwandanGovernmentmandatedin2018thatallimportedSHSareLightingGlobalcertified4toensurethequalityofproductsavailabletoconsumers[149,150].TheGovernmentalsorequiresthatsystemcomponentssuchaslights,solarpanelsandbatteriesarelabeledandincludecertaininformationsuchastechnicalspecifications[150].AlthoughthecapacityoftheStandardsBoardtoimplementregulationshasbeencriticised[149],thisrepresentsanimportantstepinensuringgoodqualityproductsareavailabletohouseholds.However,accordingtosomeauthors,thelawsneedstogofurtherindealingwithsubstandardsystemstoprotectconsumers[151].Thereislimiteddocumentedevidenceregardingwhetherthesefindingsapplyinhumanitariancontexts,althoughanecdotalevidencesuggeststhatpoorqualityproductsareamajorchallenge,andsoeffortshavebeenmadetoensureminimumstandardsinhumanitariansettingsforaspectssuchashouseholdlighting[i.e.152].
4FurtherinformationontheLightingGlobalstandardsareavailablein[182].
4.6 Environmental
ThereisalackofevidenceregardingtheimpactofenvironmentalfactorsontheprovisionofSHSinhumanitariancontexts.Asaresult,thissectiondrawsonliteraturefromothercontexts.Forexample,evidencesuggeststhatinmanycontextstheinfrastructurerequiredtoprovideSHSincludingtransportandtelecommunicationnetworksisoftenlackingwhichcanincreasecostsanddeliverytimesofSHS[99,115,153].AlthoughroadsbetweenmajortownsaregenerallygoodinRwanda[154],roadstoremotetownsandvillagesareoftenunpavedandcanbecomeimpassableintherainyseason[155].Sincerefugeecampsareoftenlocatedinremoteareas[156]thischallengecouldbefurtherexacerbatedinthesecontexts.Furthermore,Rwandaislandlockedandtransportingproductsfrommajorsportscanadd7-12%tothepriceofproducts[157].Theremotenessofsomelocationscanalsomeantheendusersneedtoberesponsibleforongoingmaintenanceandoperationofthesystem[116].LocalweathercanalsoreducetheperformanceofSHS[155].Forexample,inRwandaproblemswithlightscuttingoutanddissatisfactionwiththebrightnessoflightshavebeenlinkedtoinsufficientchargingcausedbypoorclimaticconditions[97].SimilarissueshavebeenidentifiedinothercountriessuchasinBangladesh[104]andinFrenchGuyana[111].
SHSareoftenpromotedforenvironmentalreasons[105]andarewidelyconsideredtobeanenvironmentallyfriendlysolutionforsupplyingelectricity[158–160].However,themanufactureanddistributionofSHShasapotentiallysignificantenvironmentalimpact[46,159,161–165].Dependingonseveralvariables,particularlythepredictedbatteryrecyclingratesandthenumberofkerosenelanternsreplaced,aSHSwasshowntohavea0.5-2yearpaybacktimeforgreenhousegasemissions,whereasreplacingadieselgeneratorwithaSHSwasfoundtohavea6-13yearpaybacktime[165].However,itisworthnotingthatthecontinentofAfricahasrelativelylowgreenhousegasemissions,atanestimated2–3%ofglobalCO2emissions[28],andtheexistingenvironmentalimpactofrefugeesisextremelylow.TheaggregatedpotentialtomitigategreenhousegasemissionsforallrefugeehouseholdsinRwanda,forexample,wouldbesimilarlylowbutprovidingSHSwouldoffermoderateCO2savingsatanindividuallevel.
Anestimated20,000displacedpeopledieeachyearbecauseofpoorindoorairquality[2]andveryfewstudieshaveconsideredtheissuespecificallyinhumanitariancontexts[166].However,evidencedoesindicatethatuserscanalsobenefitfromimprovedindoorairqualitywhereaSHSreplacestraditionallightingsourceswhichreleaseparticulatematter,carbonmonoxide,nitricoxidesandsulphurdioxide[46,97,167–169].AlthoughtheRE4Rsurveyidentifiedlimiteduseoftraditionallightingsources,householdstypicallyhavefewroomswithpoorventilation,whichexacerbatestheimpactofanyemissions.CautionneedstobetakenbecausesmallerSHSaresometimesnotsufficientforhouseholdneeds,whichcancausehouseholdstosupplementtheSHSwithtraditionallightingtechnologies[110].Furthermore,theamountofemissionsreleasedbytraditionallightingtechnologiesisrelativelysmallcomparedtoemissionsfromhouseholdcooking[170].AlthoughcookingcannotbesupportedbyexistingSHStherearearangeofelectriccookingdevelopmentsemergingthatcouldpotentiallyenablethisinthefuture[36,106,171,172].
Whathappenstosolarpowerproductswhentheybreakdownhasalsobeenneglected[173,174].ThisisinpartbecausewastemanagementsystemsareoftennonexistentinruralAfrica,forexampleinRwandapeopleareknowntohavedisposedofbatteriesinlatrines[175,176].Atthetimeofpublicationtherewerenostudiesspecificallyaddressingthischallengeinhumanitariancontextsalthoughtherewas
anongoingstudybeingconductedby[177].Furthermore,manyoftherawmaterialsneededtoproducethecomponentsofaSHSincludingthesolarpanelandbatteryaresourcedfromfragilestatesorthosethatsufferhighlevelsofcorruption[178],andwherepovertyandthepotentialforresourcerelatedconflictexists[179,180].Existingresearchsuggeststhatendusersneedtobeawareofenvironmentalissuesandsupportenvironmentalpoliciesandregulationsforwastemanagementtobesuccessful[46].However,thereareoftenproblemsassociatedwiththedisseminationofinformationonenvironmentalissuesamongrefugeecamps,althoughtraditionalformsofcommunicationsuchasstorytellinganddancehaveprovedeffectiveinsomecases[181].ThisapproachwasutilisedbytheRE4RprojectwhichengagedacommunitytheatregroupaspartofawiderstrategytoraiseawarenessaboutSHSandrenewableenergygenerallyinthecamps.
5.0 Discussion
Thereareanincreasingnumberofpoliticalcommitmentshighlightingtheimportanceofenergyandtheinclusionofdisplacedpeopleinthesepoliciesisanimportantcontributiontoensuringrefugeesarenotleftbehind.However,manyrefugeeshavehistoricallybeenleftbehind;forexample,atthetimeoftheRE4Rsurvey,fewerthanoneinfivehouseholdsacrossGihembe,KigemeandNyabihekecampsprimarilyusedtechnologiescapableofprovidingTier2electricityaccess.Thesepoliciesarenotenoughontheirownandmoreprogresscouldbemadeifcountriesenshrinedinlawthataccesstoenergyisalegalright.Ouranalysisalsosuggeststhataligningenergyinterventionswithexistinggovernmentpolicyandhumanitarianagencies’targetsislikelytoincreasethesuccessofanyproject.Forexample,inthecaseofRwanda,theGovernmenthasmultiplepoliciespromotingenergyaccessandSHSthatrefugeeenergyinitiatives,suchastheRE4Rproject,canalignwith.However,energyinterventionscanalsobehinderedbythelackofgovernmentsupportandfutureprojectsshouldevaluatewhetheroperatinginthesecontextswouldbeeffective.Althoughthereislimitedevidenceatpresent,ensuringtherefugeeshavethelegalrighttoworkandfreedomofmovementcouldhelppeopleaccessenergyinrefugeecampcontexts.Furthermore,ensuringproductsmeetminimumlegallybindingstandardscouldimprovecustomertrustinproductsandincreaselevelsofdiffusion.
Theeconomicanalysishasidentifiedthatthereisashortageoffundinginhibitingaccesstoenergyinrefugeesituations.However,italsoidentifiedanincreasingfocus,particularlyinprotractedcrises,onprovidingenergythroughmarket-baseddeliverymodelswhichcanbeimpededbythefreedistributionofproducts.Furthermore,thecostofsystems,fluctuatingandinsecureincomes,andresettlementaspirationareamajorbarrierpreventinghouseholdsfrompurchasingSHS.Theuseofcash-basedtransfersinthethreecamps,andtheresultsofthesurveythatsuggestthathouseholdswhichpaidforsolarproductssufferedfewerissues,indicatethatmarket-baseddeliverywouldbesuccessfulinthecamps.Animportantconsiderationforfutureprogrammesishowtoenableaccessamonglower-incomehouseholdswithoutcausingdamagetomarket-deliverymodels,particularlyasaminorityofhouseholdsinthecampswerefoundtohaveawageearnerwhichmaylimittheircapacitytomakeconsistentpaymentstoSHSsuppliers.
ThefindingssuggestthatSHScanhavepositiveimpactsonthesocialwellbeingofhouseholdsprimarilythroughbetterlightingandaccesstoentertainment.InallthethreecampshouseholdswithaccesstoSHShadagreaterdurationoflightingintheevening.However,thereislimitedevidenceontheroleSHScanplayinimprovinghouseholdincome,buthome-basedentrepreneursmayhaveagreatercapacityto
accessthesesystems,asagreaterproportionofbusinessesinthethreecampshadSHScomparedtohouseholds.Ouranalysisalsohighlightstheimportanceofembeddingend-userpreferencesintoprojectsandidentifiesthechallengesassociatedwithachievingthis.Forexample,researchsuggeststhatsurveyrespondentsmaymisleadenumeratorsorbeunabletorecallinformationthatislaterusedtoguidedecisionmaking;inthecaseoftheRE4Rsurvey,respondentsexpressedadesireforservicesthatcanbereadilyprovidedbySHS,butmayhavebeenunawareofothersorunwillingtosuggestthemincasetheymightbeconsideredunfeasible.Allowingforthedeliveryofmultipleproductsandservicestoensureuserscanchoosewhatmeetstheirneedsisalsoimportant,althoughthisneedstobebalancedagainstminimisingprogrammecosts.
ThetechnologicalanalysisestablishedthatSHScanmeettheenergyneedsidentifiedbyusersandhighlightedtheimportanceofminimumstandardsforensuringqualityproductsareavailabletohouseholds.Rwandahasthelegalmechanismsinplacetooverseethis,howevertheseneedtobeenforcedappropriately.OuranalysisalsoindicatesthatprojectedimprovementsinbatteryandsolarPVtechnologycouldimprovethecapacityofsystemswhilealsoreducingcosts.Furthermore,awiderrangeofappliancesmaycontributetowardsenablingenterprisestogenerateadditionalincomebeyondthoseassociatedwithlightingandmobilephonecharging.
AlthoughSHSareoftenportrayedasanenvironmentallyfriendlyproduct,ouranalysishasidentifiedthatthereareimportantissuesregardingwastethatshouldbeaddressed.ThefindingsalsoindicatethatSHShavelimitedpotentialtoimproveindoorairpollutionbecausethemajorityofthiscomesfromcookingwhichSHScannotcurrentlysupport.Thevariabilityofthelocalclimateisalsohighlightedasanissuethathasledtouserdissatisfactionwithsystems.
Theimportanceofembeddingsufficienttrainingforusersandtechnicians,aswellasensuringtheprovisionofaccurateinformationonthebenefitsandlimitationsofSHShasbeenidentifiedacrossallthePESTLEfactorsanalysed.Forexample,trainingneedstobeprovidedontheproperinstallationandmaintenanceofsystemstoensureoptimumperformanceandusersatisfaction,andtorectifyissueswhentheyoccur.Energyandfinancialliteracyeducationcanalsoimproveuserawarenessofthebenefitswhichcanimproveuptake.
6.0 Limitations
Thereareseverallimitationsofthisresearchthatneededtobeaddressedinfuturestudies.ThispaperfocusesonRwanda,acountrywithrelativelyprogressivepoliciestowardsenergyaccessandrefugees,andthefindingsmaynoteasilytranslatetoothercountrycontexts,particularlythoseoutsideEastAfrica.ThethreecampsconsideredherearelikelytobebroadlyreflectiveofthesituationsintheotherrefugeecampsinRwanda,buteachwillhavetheirownlevelsofaccesstoenergytechnologiesandenablingandlimitingfactorsofSHSdiffusion.Itisalsoworthnotingthatbecausethereisalimitedamountofresearchonhumanitarianenergy[95],elementsofouranalysishavebeenbasedonevidencefromthewiderdevelopmentliterature.Newchallengescouldemergeinhumanitariancontextssuchastheimpactprospectsofrepatriationorclaimingasylumhasonhouseholdwillingnesstoadoptsystems.ThispaperalsoonlyconsidersSHSandfutureresearchcouldconductsimilaranalysisofothertechnologies,suchasminigridsorsolarlanterns,aswellasfurtherresearchoncookingandinstitutionalenergywhichcouldhelploweremissionsandreducecosts.Intermsofthemethodologicallimitations,thePESTLEanalysisprovidesasnapshotwhichislikelytochangeasSHStechnologiesanddelivery
modelsdevelopandthehumanitarianenergysectordevelops.Thedescriptionoftheenergysituationinthecampsisalsoonlyabriefoverviewanddoesnotcapturethefulldetailsofenergyaccessinthethreecamps.Therearealsomethodologicallimitationsassociatedwiththesurveyused,forexamplethepotentialmisinterpretationofquestionsorresponsesandaccuracyofresponses,particularlywhenrespondentswereaskedtorecalldataoveraperiodoftime,suchasforenergyexpenditure.Theprocessesusedtovalidatethefindingsofthispaperaredescribedinmoredetailinsection2.0butinevitablywouldrequirefurtherrepetitiontoremainup-to-dateasthesituationinthecampsdevelops.
7.0 Conclusion and Future Research
Theobjectivesofthispaperweretoaddressalackofdatacurrentlyavailableontheenergysituationinhumanitariansettingsandtoconductanovelanalysisofthepolitical,economic,social,technological,legalandenvironmentalbarriersandenablersthatneedtobeaddressedtoenablewidespreadadoptionanduseofSHS.ThesetwoobjectiveswereachievedforthecaseofthreerefugeecampsinRwandabypresentinganoverviewoftheelectricityaccesssituationinhouseholdsandsmallenterprisesandthroughtheapplicationofaPESTLEanalysiswhichinvestigatedthefactorsinfluencingthesuccessofSHSprojects.
Theresultsofthisanalysisdemonstratethataccesstoelectricityinthecampsislowandthatthereislimitedpenetrationofmodernenergytechnologiesdespitedemandfortheservicestheycanprovide.ThePESTLEanalysisestablishedthattherearemultipleopportunities,suchasensuringenergyinterventionsalignwithhostcountrypoliciesandalsobenefitthelocalhostcommunity,andthreats,suchasthelowandvariableincomesofmanyrefugeesaswellasensuringgoodmaintenanceprovisionismadethatimpactthediffusionofSHSinthecamps.
Ouranalysishasalsoidentifiedanumberofareasthatjustifyfurtherresearch.Inparticular,thereislimitedinformationavailableintheexistingliteratureregardinghowlegal(section4.5)andenvironmental(section4.6)factorscaninfluencethediffusionofSHSinhumanitariancontexts.Furthermore,whilewehavebeenabletoidentifymultiplebarriersandconcernspresent,wehavenotbeenabletoconductabarrieranalysiswhichcouldcapturetheperceptionsofdifferentstakeholders;analyseshowthesecouldbeaddressedwouldbeofvaluetothesector.Asdiscussedinsection6.0,ouranalysisonlycoverstheRwandancontextandwhileeffortshavebeenmadetoensureourfindingsarevalidforothercontexts,comparisonstudiesthatreviewdifferentcountries,particularlythosewithdifferentclimatesorpoliciestowardsrefugees,wouldbeuseful.
Overall,thefindingsofouranalysisdemonstratethatinordertomaximisethediffusionandsustainabilityofinterventions,futureSHSprojectsinrefugeecampsshouldaimto(1)evaluatetheneedsandprioritiesofrefugeeandthesurroundinghostcommunitiesinordertomatchinterventionstotheirrequirements;(2)alignprojectswithhostcountrypoliciesrelatedtoenergyaccessandpoliciesassociatedwithrefugeerightstoworkandfreedomtomoveoutsidethecamps;(3)ensurethathostcommunitiesarealsoabletoaccesstheinterventionsmadetoavoidpotentialconflictbetweenlocalpopulations;(4)avoidthefreedistributionofproductsinallbutemergencycontextsandespeciallywherelocalmarketsarealreadyoperatingorwheretheycanbedeveloped;(5)integratetheprovisionoftrainingonenergyliteracyincludingthebenefitsofaccesstomodernenergyanddeliverymodelsintoprojects;and(6)ensureminimumstandardsareadheredtoandadequatemaintenanceisprovidedbySHSsupplierstoavoidsystemfailureandcustomerdissatisfaction.Addressingthesefactorswillhelp
ensureSHSsuccessinhumanitariansettingsandwillcontributetoachievingtargetssuchastheUNHCRCleanEnergyChallenge.
Data Availability
DatafromthequantitativesurveyingactivitiesundertakenaspartoftheRE4RprojectareavailablefromboththeHumanitarianDataExchange(HumanitarianDataExchangePracticalActionDatasets,2019,https://data.humdata.org/organization/practicalaction)andtheHEEDproject(HEEDProjectDataPortal,2019,http://heed-refugee.coventry.ac.uk/data-portal/).
Acknowledgements
TheauthorswouldliketoacknowledgetheIKEAFoundationforfundingtheRE4Rprojectandthankallthemembersoftheprojectwhocollectedthedata,providedfeedbackduringthedevelopmentofthepaper,particularlyfromPracticalActionwhoalsoallowedthereproductionoffigure2.PeterThomaswouldalsoliketoacknowledgetheEPSRCforfundinghisPhDandKarenBellforhersupport.PhilipSandwellwouldliketoacknowledgethesupportofEPSRC(EP/R511547/1andEP/R030235/1)andResearchEnglandGCRFQRFunding,andthankhissupervisorProfessorJennyNelson.
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