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UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

A MUSICAL BREATHING APPROACH WITH GUITAR PERFORMANCE

By

Víctor Manuel Rubio Carrillo

A THESIS

Submitted to the Faculty of the University of Miami

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Music

Coral Gables, Florida

May 2019

©2019 Víctor Manuel Rubio Carrillo

All Rights Reserved

UNIVERSITY OF MIAMI

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Music

A MUSICAL BREATHING APPROACH WITH GUITAR PERFORMANCE

Víctor Manuel Rubio Carrillo

Approved: ________________ _________________ Stephen F. Zdzinski, Ph.D. Don D. Coffman, Ph.D. Professor of Music Education Professor of Music Education _______________ _________________ Rafael M. Padrón, M.M. Guillermo Prado, Ph.D. Assistant Professor of Practice of Dean of the Graduate School Instrumental Performance

RUBIO CARRILLO, VÍCTOR MANUEL (M.M., Music Education)

A Musical Breathing Approach with Guitar Performance (May 2019) Abstract of a thesis at the University of Miami. Thesis supervised by Professor Stephen Zdzinski No. of pages in text. (132)

Musical breathing has been identified as breathing patterns shaped by music.

Currently, it is known that different forms of breathing affect the body in diverse ways.

Physiological evidence has shown a formidable voluntary control of breathing in humans.

Research on breathing and music practices suggests great benefit on the physical, mental,

and emotional health.

The purpose of this study was to test how a musical breathing approach in guitar

performance will affect guitarists in terms of performance outcomes, cognitive

interference, body connection, well-being, receptiveness and responsiveness towards

musical breathing. Participants were selected from the Frost School of Music classical

guitar department. A comparison between control and treatment group was done through

non-parametric statistical tests.

Results showed better scores in musical performance and mental well-being in the

treatment group, as well as an increase in positive attitudes of participants who underwent

treatment workshops. Cognitive interference did not affect performers, and interesting

trends were observed regarding tension perceptions of participants. The development of a

musical breathing system can help in the control of breathing technique and could be an

important factor to improve well-being. Guitar performance was improved, and future

research should expand and replicate this study with larger samples. Also, different

musical instruments, as well as multiple psychomotor and cognitive tasks should be

looked at. Physiological and acoustical data should be measured to increase precision.

Musical breathing can be incorporated in multiple scenarios where music learning occurs,

as it did during this study with guitar performance.

Keywords: Musical breathing, well-being, breathing education, guitar education, guitar

performance, music psychophysiology.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... viii Chapter 1 BACKGROUND ............................................................................................ 1 Breathing and Music ........................................................................................ 1 Breathing Methods in Music Performance ...................................................... 4 Plucked String Instruments, Breathing, and Music Education ........................ 5 Justification ...................................................................................................... 6 The Problem ..................................................................................................... 8 Purpose ............................................................................................................. 8 Research Questions .......................................................................................... 9 Delimitations .................................................................................................... 9 Definitions........................................................................................................ 10 Philosophical Considerations ........................................................................... 10

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................... 12 Breathing Structure .......................................................................................... 12 Guitar Performance .......................................................................................... 16 Breathing and Psychomotor Behavior ............................................................. 19 Breathing Mechanics and Techniques ............................................................. 25 Cognitive Interference, Breathing, and Performance ...................................... 29 Muscular Tension, Breathing, and Performance .............................................. 30 Well-Being, Breathing, and Performance ........................................................ 36 Affective Domain............................................................................................. 38 3 METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................... 42 Participants ....................................................................................................... 43 Measures .......................................................................................................... 44 Treatment ......................................................................................................... 47 Physical Conditions ......................................................................................... 48 Data Collection Procedures .............................................................................. 48 Data Analysis Procedures ................................................................................ 52

v

4 RESULTS ........................................................................................................ 53 Musical Performance Outcomes ...................................................................... 53 Cognitive Interference ..................................................................................... 58 Body Connection ............................................................................................. 59 Mental Well-Being........................................................................................... 60 Attitudes ........................................................................................................... 61 Musical Breathing Exercises for Guitar Performance .................................... 64 Interpretation .................................................................................................... 65 5 DISCUSSION .................................................................................................. 70 Breathing Anatomy, Physiology, and Musical Breathing ............................... 70 Guitar .............................................................................................................. 71 Psychomotor Considerations ........................................................................... 72 Musical Breathing Technique .......................................................................... 79 Musical Breathing and Well-Being ................................................................. 84 Implications...................................................................................................... 85 Recommendations ............................................................................................ 88 REFERENCES…………… ........................................................................................ 93 APPENDICES…………… ......................................................................................... 100 A. PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM ........................................................... 100 B. GUITAR SOLO TEST ................................................................................ 104 C. COGNITIVE INTERFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE ............................... 107 D. SCALE OF BODY CONNECTION........................................................... 109 E. SCALE OF MENTAL WELL-BEING ....................................................... 111 F. ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE (PRE-WORKSHOPS) ......................... 113 G. ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE (POST-WORKSHOPS) ...................... 115 H. EVALUATION OF MUSICAL BREATHING EXERCISES ................... 117 I. WORKSHOPS DESIGN AND EXERCISES DESCRIPTIONS ................. 119 J. MUSICAL BREATHING EXERCISES FOR GUITAR ............................. 130

vi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Anatomical drawing of the respiratory muscles ............................................ 13 Figure 2 Inferior view of the abdominal cavity and thoracic diaphragm .................... 14 Figure 3 Lung volumes and capacities ......................................................................... 26 Figure 4 Behavioral circumplex model of emotion ..................................................... 32 Figure 5 Daily warm-up routine-triplets #6 ................................................................. 51 Figure 6 Ascending chromatic scale from E2 to G# .................................................... 51 Figure 7 Variation of measure number seven from Capricho Árabe by Francisco Tárrega. ......................................................................................................... 51 Figure 8 Pretest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups ............................................................................................................ 54 Figure 9 Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups from recordings of Fragment 1 ......................................................... 55 Figure 10 Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups from recordings of Fragment 2 ....................................................... 55 Figure 11 Random number generated to use with Tocher’s modification ................... 57 Figure 12 Observed data and extreme possible outcomes; 2 X 2 contingency tables for Fisher’s exact probability test ..................................................... 57 Figure 13 Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups from cognitive interference questionnaire ...................................... 59 Figure 14 Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups from the scale of body connection # ............................................... 60 Figure 15 Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups from the scale of mental well-being. ............................................... 61 Figure 16 Comparison of mean scores in attitudes test before and after breathing education workshops ................................................................................... 62 Figure 17 Comparison of mean scores of musical breathing exercises for guitar in three categories ....................................................................................... 65

vii

Figure 18 Example of musical breathing score............................................................ 74 Figure 19 Comparison of musical breathing range with the range of a keyboard. ..... 80 Figure 20 Superior view of the pelvic cavity, pelvic floor muscles ............................ 82 Figure 21 Posterior view of back musculature ............................................................ 82 Figure 22 Musical breathing approach for temporal control ....................................... 84 Figure 23 Ascending chromatic scale from E2 to G#5 with asymmetrical coupling 25:1 ............................................................................................. 85 Figure 24 Variation of measure number seven from Capricho Árabe by Francisco Tárrega with asymmetrical coupling 15:2 .................................................. 86

viii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Participants characteristics .............................................................................. 43 Table 2 Randomized pretest-posttest control group design, using matched participants ...................................................................................................... 50 Table 3 Post-workshops percentages of affirmative responses in attitudinal questionnaire from nine participants ............................................................... 63

1

CHAPTER 1

BACKGROUND

Breathing and Music

Musicians often experience maladaptive tension when their musical performance

fails to include effective psychomotor behaviors. Effectiveness is influenced by refined

muscular efficiency and control. Improvements to musical activity could be attained by

the development of skilled breathing. Intelligent breathing control has the potential to

increase vitality and enhance intention. For instance, Jordan, Moliterno, and Thomas

(2011) asserted that musical intentions have limited communicational potential without

an empowered breathing purpose. They expressed that emotions are transported and

delivered to audiences by breath (p. 15). Although great performing artists intuitively

know about this phenomenon, breathing has yet to be adopted as a vehicle for educators,

conductors, and performers in general.

Is clear that breathing is essential for life; every physiological process is driven by

breath. As Sellers-Young (2001) stated: “Breathing and my heartbeat are the two

symbiotic clocks that are the fundamental music of the body” (p. 8). Concerns about

breathing are not a new phenomenon. For example, Hippocrates (as cited in Kleisiaris,

Sfakianakis & Papathanasiou, 2014), reasoned that brain function, sensitivity and

intellect reached the brain through breathing. Similarly, Aristotle (Hett, trans. 1957)

spoke of breathing as a source of health and realized an influence of breathing in pulse

and blood flow. He also illustrated a relationship between respiration and movement and

maintained that locomotion is affected by breathing.

2

One of the main objectives of this study was to see how the manipulation of

breathing patterns would affect artistic and psychological outcomes. There is a growing

trend in musical and physiological studies. For example, Kleinman and Buckoke (2017)

attempted to explain the breathing mechanism to musical artists, and proposed exercises

to gain freedom in breathing. Also, Barbara Conable (2000) emphasized that: “Every

musician needs to know about free breathing. Breathing is movement, and musicians

move for living. It’s athletic work, playing your instruments, and you need a good supply

of oxygen.” (p. 75). Similarly, Olson (2009) explained that to center the mind, awareness

of breath must be present, and that breath support enhances music performances, making

it enjoyable to audiences and increasing concentration, relaxation, and phrasing.

Apart from the relationship with the aural arts, breathing has been used as a

therapeutic tradition for thousands of years. For example, pranayama (yogic discipline of

life force) focuses breathing as the vital force and as a potent factor of health (Beck,

2003; Lyle, 2014; Olson, 2009). The control of breathing has been linked with physical,

mental, and emotional well-being (Ramacharaka, 1932; Feldman, Greeson, & Senville,

2010). For instance, the breathing manipulation has been suggested as a method for

ceasing anxiety and enhancing concentration and awareness (Goldstein, 2016; Olson,

2009).

Wells and colleagues (2012) found a positive impact in reducing anxiety when

controlled slow breathing patterns were used in music performance situations.

Furthermore, Bloch, Orthous, and Santibanez (1987) studied how emotions such as joy,

sadness, tenderness, fear, and anger act as breathing modifiers, modulating frequency and

amplitude of the breathing pattern. Breathing is a rhythmical psychomotor act. Its control

3

is based on a self-regulating system applied both to involuntary forms of behavior and to

complicated voluntary acts (Bouhuys, 1977). The control system regulates a series of

activities that can be complementary and sometimes competitive or even incompatible (p.

233); thus, adjustments to the breathing patterns must be consistent with other activities

that use the same muscles. The control system must regulate the breathing rate, so the

volume of ventilation is sufficient to meet the gas exchange demands of the lungs.

Rhythmical breathing is regulated by a periodic output of the brain stem centers, it

is conducted via bulbospinal neurons to the spinal cord, where segments contain

motoneurons for the diaphragm, the intercostal muscles, and the abdominal muscles

(Bouhuys, 1977, p. 234). Accordingly, the energetic requirements of muscular force are

supported by ventilation to regulate our internal equilibrium (Ward, 2014). These

mechanisms of breath control provide a basis on which to develop a musical breathing

approach. Breathing in musical performance should be complementary with the artistic

requirements. It should be sensitive to the muscular requirements of each musical

passage.

When performing music, a sequence of refined movements occurs. Upper and

lower body are often found in constant motion (Bishop & Goebl, 2017). Since motion

and music are a naturally linked phenomenon (Abril, 2011), the refined motor skills

required for the performance of musical tasks rely on neural connections. As Henry and

Grahn (2017) analyzed, musical rhythm activates motor areas of the brain, and movement

modifies both perception and brain responses. A similar interaction between motor and

auditory brain regions occurs in the presence of rhythm, generating synchronization of

neural oscillators.

4

Perlovsky (2012) proposed an evolutionary model to understand the need of

refined music as a survival mechanism of the mind. Because of the semantic nature of our

verbal languages, an emancipation from emotional loads can be observed; thus, allowing

a compensatory mechanism to take place. In accordance, the evolution of music towards

a more differentiated and refined emotionality plays a major role in our physical and

cognitive drive (Perlovsky, 2014). Musical breathing interacts directly with our vitality

and capacity to breath and balance our cognitive and emotional lives.

Breathing Methods in Music Performance

Wind-instruments and vocal technique rely on air support to produce sound. It is

common to find reference of breathing techniques in their pedagogical literature. For

instance, in early 16th century, Giovanni Camillo Maffei (as cited in Talia, 2017)

developed a physiological treatise of vocal production. In it, elements of posture and

breathing were included. His ideas on breathing technique and muscle activation for the

control of breath pressure led to future development of the appoggio system. On this

topic, Miller (1996) described the physical effort necessary to modify the pace of the

breathing cycle to allow greater ventilation on the lower lobes of the lungs (p. 20). Based

on physiological evidence, he defined a special coordination of respiratory phases for a

skillful breath management, suggesting that special muscle action must be considered.

In the early 20th century, physiologists Pavlov and Sherrington (as cited in Fried

& Grimaldi, 1993) traced neural pathways of breathing reflexes. They saw how

physiological mechanisms of respiration respond to the modulation of the sympathetic

and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Despite these regulatory

processes, voluntary control rapidly bypasses them, affecting tissue ventilation,

5

metabolism, heart rate and function, and the maintenance of the body’s acid-base

balance. So, despite the apparent automatic execution of the breathing mechanism, it is

also directly affected by thought and emotion (p. 28).

Three basic breathing methods have been addressed by physiologists and

musicians. First, rest respiration status, called normal breathing and in some cases

superficial breathing due to its usage of lung capacity, is reported to be around 10% to

15% of total capacity (Yeager, 2008). Another breathing method is related to the

contraction and expansion of intercoastal muscles, this type of breathing creates a

different pattern of ventilation (Fried & Grimaldi, 1993). Another method widely

explored by musicians is through a more intense contraction of the diaphragm, sometimes

called abdominal breathing because of the outward expansion of the abdominal muscles

when activated.

Singers and wind-instrumentalists have focused their efforts on mastering these

methods. A balance between abdominal and intercoastal muscles for precise control of

the diaphragm to improve tone production has become standard practice (Lyle, 2014;

Miller, 1996; Philips & Sehmann, 1990; Shoults, 1962; Ware, 1998). In a similar way,

guitar performance can adopt breathing methods that facilitate control and effectiveness

by using common procedures and developing unique methods suited for its performance

particularities.

Plucked String Instruments, Breathing, and Music Education

Plucked strings instruments are an instrumental family with unique cultural

features and played all around the world. There are over 300 types of plucked-string

instruments across all continents (atlasofpluckedinstruments.com, 2018). The six-string

6

guitar is one of its most popular instruments, found across multiple settings in music

education, music therapy, community music, and in general with contemporary culture

(Silverman, 2011; Veblen & Olsson, 2002). The capacity of the guitar to go from

producing complex chords and arpeggiated textures, to single-note melody has made the

guitar a prevalent musical instrument of great versatility (Harrison, 2010). According to

McCarthy (2013), the growth of guitar education in schools, and of broad-based

movements has found strong support from students, teachers, parents, and administrators.

Guitar training has seen an increasing demand due to students’ motivation with

contemporary popular music (Harrison, 2010; Overland, 2017). However, the technical

challenges of guitar learning are demanding to body and mind. Economy of movement is

necessary for optimum effectiveness (Ryan, 1984). The coupling of musical breathing

with guitar performance shows promise regarding movement economy.

Justification

Vocalists and wind players have the need to regulate breathing patterns to fulfill

their musical requisites. Unfortunately, plucked-string instrumental approaches have

neglected similar attention to systematic understanding of breathing. Accordingly, limited

literature linking breathing and non-wind musical instruments is available.

Ethan Kind (2012) wrote about a trend in percussionists to hold their breath

through difficult musical passages, leading to excessive muscular tension and an overall

stress that can be transferred into the sound quality and tone production. These breath

holding habits are also observed in guitar practice. Some empirical evidence is available

in studies of breathing changes during both piano and bowed-strings performance. For

example, a multidisciplinary contribution studied heart-rate variability and gathered

7

breathing-specific data of 11 healthy professional musicians from the Vienna

Philharmonic Orchestra and 12 audience members during a live performance of Mozart’s

Piano Concerto No. 14, KV 449, version for string orchestra and piano (Laczika et al.,

2013). Findings showed two distinct musical breathing patterns during performance.

They were labeled as active and a passive musically-shaped breathing. This means that

music structures created various states of synchronization and regulation of breathing

among performers and audience members.

Similar synchronization of breathing and musical events has been documented by

King (2006), who observed synchronization of participants and musical passages over

various repetitions of a performing task. Elaine King suggested that breathing could be

made aware in pedagogical situations and that conscious breathing could benefit

interpretation. Also, Otto Szende and Nemessuri (1971) found an interaction of

musically-shaped breathing patterns in the study of a three-way relationship between

respiration, interpretation, and motor activity. They analyzed breathing patterns of

violinists and found that inhalation occurred commonly during upstrokes, and expiration

occurred in accented notes and cadences. Their observations informed breathing practices

for bowed-string musical interpretation and pedagogy.

Szende and Nemessuri (1971) found that exhalation did not require active

attention while performing. This was corroborated by the study of Wilke, Lansing, and

Rogers (1975), who argued that the brain is relatively uninvolved in monitoring the

exhalation phase, and that neural interference can occur during breath awareness and

synchronization of the motor output and breathing. Additionally, Rassler (as cited in

Nassrallah, Comeau, Russell, & Cossette, 2013) found that precision of flexion

8

movements was diminished during late expiration, and that extension movements lost

precision during inspiration. These findings suggest that specialized coordination needs

to occur when musical breathing control is aspired in musical performances.

The Problem

Literature linking breath and performance is limited regarding plucked-string

instruments. Linda Gilbert (2008) wrote about bass and breath, suggesting that breathing

awareness can produce a positive impact on many aspects of playing. She also discussed

the negative effects of withholding breath, and the benefits of breathing to calm and focus

the mind and body. Likewise, Steve Ouimette (2008) documented suggestions for

relaxing while playing fast passages on guitar and prioritized the focus on breathing.

Yet, exercises and suggestions of both Ouimette and Gilbert are not clearly

defined for specific musical tasks, and their recommendations regarding breath and

musical situations are vague. It is also important to recognize that previously cited studies

have observed non-conscious breathing, studying how the musical task affects breathing

and there seems to be a major gap in the literature regarding active manipulation of

breath in plucked-strings musical situations. Studies have assisted with preliminary data,

observing breathing as the dependent variable, but not utilizing breath activation and

awareness as a treatment variable to analyze performance outcomes.

Purpose

The aim of this study was to create and test a musical breathing approach with

guitar performance. It was important to consider how this approach affected guitarists in

terms of performance outcomes, cognitive interference, body connection, well-being,

receptiveness and responsiveness towards musical breathing. The conjunction of music

9

and physiology is a vital issue of professional music education and training (Laczika et

al., 2013). Musical structures are capable of modifying breathing patterns, and musical

breathing is capable of engaging at a more synchronized level with the musical structures.

There is still a vast field of unexplored possibilities to exercise intelligent breathing

control towards musical structures while practicing and performing.

Research Questions

For this study, pertinent inquiries were: (a) Will slow controlled breathing

enhance performance of fast guitar passages? (b) What role does cognitive interference

play when active breath control is taking place in guitar performance? (c) How do

guitarists perceive their muscle tension when voluntary breathing is active? (d) Will

breathing education impact mental well-being of guitarists? (e) How will a musical

breathing approach affect participants attitudes towards breath awareness in guitar

performance? To answer these questions, two groups of participants were compared. One

group underwent a couple of workshops to learn to couple musical breathing with guitar

performance, while another group performed the same musical tasks without the

component of musical breathing education and synchronization.

Delimitations

For this study, performance was recorded while playing nylon six-strings acoustic

guitars. Performance was done by plucking strings using finger action and was limited by

short musical passages in form of technical exercises and repertoire fragments (three

measures with eight repetitions). No physiological data was gathered during the study,

only psychometric, attitudinal, and data from performance outcomes were collected.

10

Definitions

Musical breathing is defined as a rhythmic respiration process carried out towards

a musical task and through active awareness using controlled breathing methods and

profound intention. Well-being refers to the state of feeling happy, prosperous and

healthy, for this study pleasantness and self-realization aspects of mental well-being

were measured. (Taggart, Stewart-Brown, & Parkinson, 2015). Cognitive interference

refers to the negative off-task self-dialogue that interferes with a performance (Coy,

O’Brien, Tabaczynski, Northern, & Carels, 2011). Body connection was focused in terms

of participant’s body awareness while performing. Finally, participants’ attitudes towards

controlled musical breathing while performing guitar was evaluated in terms of

receptiveness and responsiveness (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964).

Philosophical Considerations

Bennet Reimer (1992), when discussing features for development of a

philosophical foundation for music education research, suggested that knowledge can be

enhanced by combinations and juxtapositions to help overcome the dimensional

limitations and dynamics of music education. One viable combination is music and

physiology. Reimer also addressed questions of value, underlying principles of relevance

of music education. The development of physiological studies is closely related with

understanding health (Costanzo, 2018). Notably, music and health are one of the most

rapidly growing areas of research in music cognition (Saarikallio, 2017).

The interest and investigation of various cultural activities such as music as a

source of health, and well-being have been applied in professional clinical settings by

medicine and music therapy. As Suzanne Hanser (2012) reflects, the use of music in the

11

pursuit of health relies on a state of complete physical, mental, emotional and social well-

being. Furthermore, breathing is known to be an integral part of our health, applying it to

the education of music, provides a basis for development of an integral approach of

music, health, and well-being.

12

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

In this chapter, a review of basic anatomy and physiology of the breathing system

is provided, followed by historical and current issues involving the development,

practice, and education of guitar. Also, interactions of breathing and other psychomotor

behaviors, and controlled breathing techniques for musical performance are discussed.

Theories of cognitive interference are presented along with its relevance to this study.

Theories of muscle tension and body connection are presented to explore factors pertinent

to breathing and performance. A concept of well-being is offered together with

implications for breathing and music practice. Finally, there is a review of affective levels

that were tested in this study.

Breathing Structure

When considering the use of conscious controlled breathing while performing

guitar, it is important to grasp essential structural principles of the breathing system, such

as its components, and operation. A practitioner of skilled breathing will benefit from

understanding this structure, since it cannot be observed externally in its totality.

Accordingly, anatomical, developmental, and functional components are reviewed in this

section.

Anatomy of the respiratory system. Breathing is a ventilation act that occurs in

the body through the respiratory system. It is structured as a group of passages that filter

air, transporting it to the lungs where gas exchange takes place within alveoli, which are

microscopic air sacs (Powers & Howley, 1990). The organs that comprise this system

13

include the nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tree, and the lungs. One

of the major muscles of inspiration is the diaphragm.

The respiratory muscles, both morphologically and functionally, are skeletal

muscles (Ratnovsky, Elad, & Halpern, 2008). Apart from the diaphragm, the principal

inspiratory muscles include the external intercoastal, and the parasternal muscles. While

the accessory muscles are integrated by the sternomastoid and scalene muscles. On the

other hand, the expiratory muscles consist of the internal intercoastal, and the abdominal

muscles, which include the rectus abdominis, the external and internal oblique, and the

transverse abdominis (see Figure 1). The expiration muscles remain passive during

automatic breathing due to passive recoil of the lungs; but movement is observed during

active breathing.

Figure 1. Anatomical drawing of the respiratory muscles. Adapted from the Atlas of

Human Anatomy (Netter, 2014). Copyright 2014 by Saunders, Elsevier. Used with

permission.

14

Accordingly, breathing influences the movement of the trunk, which is divided in

the thoracic cavity, and the abdominopelvic cavity (Tyldesley & Grieve, 2002). The

diaphragm is the muscle that divides both cavities (see Figure 2). The vertebral column

extends across the trunk, and from two years of age onwards, it forms four distinctive

curves composed of seven cervical vertebrae, 12 thoracic vertebrae, five lumbar

vertebrae, five sacral vertebrae, and three coccygeal vertebrae. These four curves provide

flexible and resilient support. Also, the ribcage is formed by two sets of 12 curved, flat

bones (Netter, 2014). The ribs are connected to the sternum, except for the bottom two

ribs at each side, that do not curve all the way around, and are given the name of floating

ribs (Malde, Allen & Zeller, 2017). As Tyldesley and Grieve (2002) describe, the trunk

has a general protective function for the lungs, heart, digestive tract, kidney, and pelvic

organs.

Figure 2. Inferior view of the abdominal cavity and thoracic diaphragm. Adapted from

the Atlas of Human Anatomy (Netter, 2014). Copyright 2014 by Saunders, Elsevier. Used

with permission.

15

Morphological development. The lungs begin to form when the human fetus is

about 3 mm long (Bouhuys, 1977, p. 4). During the first four months of gestation, the

esophagus, and the trachea, along with the bronchial tree depend on the primary lung bud

for their development. This occurs in the pseudoglandular period. Afterwards, increased

number of blood vessels enter the lungs, and the newly formed bronchi divide further in

the canalicular period. By the 25th week of fetal life, the terminal sac period starts, and

still no alveoli have yet formed. After birth, the saccules are converted into alveolar

ducts. Evidence suggests that new alveoli might continue to form until early adulthood.

Psychophysiology of breathing. Respiration occurs at two distinct levels.

External respiration refers to the process of ventilation, and internal respiration relates to

the utilization of oxygen and production of carbon dioxide by the tissues (Powers &

Howley, 1990). The main function of the respiratory system is to extract oxygen from the

atmospheric air into the lungs through its airway passages, transports it to body tissues,

and give means for the evacuation of water vapor and excess carbon dioxide back to the

atmosphere (Fried & Grimaldi, 1993).

The structure of the respiratory system is divided in conducting zone and

respiratory zone. When inhaling using the nose, the nasal hairs filter coarser particles

present in the air. The air is then warmed and humidified (Costanzo, 2018; Fried &

Grimaldi, 1993). This process protects the lungs from bacteria thanks to the action of

macrophages and lymphocytes. The macrophages carry debris to the upper airways and

pharynx where it can be swallowed or expectorated. Meanwhile, at the respiratory zone,

where gas exchange occurs, the bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveolar sacs participate

16

in cellular respiration. In doing so, metabolism relies on the oxygen transport system that

controls the body’s acid-base balance.

Breathing is integral to every form of physiological monitoring. Behavioral

physiology addresses mental factors that operate as we adapt to our environment. Fried

and Grimaldi (1993) expose that effects of breathing in the mind are mediated by blood

flow. The hemoglobin molecule that transforms oxygen and carbon dioxide to and from

body tissues, along with the red blood cell have direct influence on the functioning of

neurons. Any problem with the red blood cell can cause neurons to discharge abnormal

electrical rhythms. Therefore, breathing is the key to regulating this process.

The pulmonary blood flow is the cardiac output of the right ventricle, which is

delivered to the lungs via the pulmonary artery (Costanzo, 2018). The blood flow in the

lungs is not distributed evenly since it relies on gravitational forces. The implication of

the effects of gravity, is that when standing the blood flow distribution is higher, since at

the bottom of the lung there are a greater number of capillaries open. Thus, postural

factors should be considered for an efficient breathing mechanism.

Guitar Performance

Historic overview. The guitar is a string instrument from the lute family and

normally built with frets along the fretboard (Sadie & Tyrrell, 2001). It is performed by

plucking or strumming the strings. The term guitar is usually applied to a wide collection

of instruments that exhibit variations in morphology and performing practice. The

modern acoustical guitar, in its basic form consists of six strings, a resonating chamber

made from wood, flat back, and incurved sidewalls. The guitar is classified as a

17

chordophone of the lute type, and although in its earlier history there were periods of

neglects in the academic realm, its use has constantly been of popular appeal.

Several theories have been proposed as speculation of the origins of the guitar in

Europe (Sadie & Tyrrell, 2001). Some find links between the ancient Greek kithara,

others have stated that the guitar ancestors are the long-necked lutes of early

Mesopotamia and Anatolia, or in the flat-backed lutes from Egypt. What is certain is that

during the second half of the 18th century, and the first decade of the 19th century, a six

single strings instrument came from the Baroque five-course guitar and was popularized

in Spain, Italy, and France. Today, the instrument is commonly known as classical guitar,

it is an instrument of a three and a half octave range. The three higher strings are made of

nylon, and the three lower strings are made of nylon strands overspun with fine metal.

Technique. Early instructions books revealed that guitar technique did not have a

standard playing approach (Sadie & Tyrrell, 2001). Currently, the performance of the

instrument has a robust body of technical principles. Details about the finger action for

the right and left hand, tone production, the usage of the thumb, damping techniques,

methods for chord playing have been documented (Quine, 1990). Also, considerations of

phrasing and articulation, tempo and rhythm, volume and dynamics, tone color and

registration have been stablished. Consequently, the technical performance of guitar feeds

from concepts such as dynamic relaxation, mind-body awareness, effortless playing, and

natural concentration (Ryan, 1984).

These technical means allow precise control. To optimize efficiency, training the

movements necessary for a natural relaxed technique must be understood under three

conditions: Muscle control of independent movements, superior strength from what is

18

required to perform the musical task, and economy of movement (Quine, 1990). Since it

is an active process, when referring to a relaxed technique, implications of dynamic states

of muscular tension are present. Klickstein (2009) also encourages ease and accuracy for

expressiveness. At a high level of ability, guitar-playing requires complex coordination

and control to achieve precise movements.

Contemporary education. The guitar is a popular instrument across multiple

settings found in music education, music therapy, community music, and in general with

contemporary culture (Silverman, 2011; Veblen & Olsson, 2002). Harrison (2010)

mentions the guitar versatility regarding musical elements and style adaptation capability.

The capacity of the guitar to go from producing complex chords and arpeggiated textures,

to single-note melody has made the guitar a musical instrument found in diverse settings.

McCarthy (2013) discusses the growth of guitar education in schools, and a tendency of

broad-based movements with strong support from students, teachers, parents, and

administrators. For instance, all-state guitar ensembles are a growing trend. In 2010, New

Mexico included a guitar ensemble in its all-state music festival; months later in Florida

the Music Education Association conference included a guitar ensemble as well

(McCarthy, 2013).

The twentieth century saw new developments of the guitar family with the

introduction of rock music to the masses (Harrison, 2010). Despite the ease of

transporting the guitar, accessing its musical versatility requires challenging skill.

Harrison (2010) exemplifies the challenges that guitar education faces, such as the

structural nature of the instrument regarding hand position across the fretboard. He also

attracts attention to the different types of notation systems that guitar uses and discusses

19

tuning systems, along with pedagogical considerations. Guitar training is an increasing

demand and students seem to be motivated by contemporary popular music (Harrison,

2010; Overland, 2017). The technical challenges that guitar education present, are

demanding to the body and mind. Therefore, mechanisms such as musical breathing can

provide bases for healthier approaches in education and in professional performance.

Breathing and Psychomotor Behavior

The psychomotor domain. Like breathing, movement is related with every

aspect of life. One of the ways musicians express their craft is precisely through

movement. Motor features are intrinsically connected to musicianship in both

instrumental and vocal music. Therefore, it is important to analyze what are some of the

conditions that have been observed regarding movement as well as connections that have

been explored between movement and breathing.

Humans operate as a unit, and every movement occurs as an interaction with a

specific context. To understand movement, muscular, physiological, social,

psychological, and neurological structures should be analyzed. This way, movement can

gain from precise components that enhance its efficiency. According to Harrow (1972),

perceptual-motor development is a key issue in the education of children and considering

that both breathing, and music performance operate through motor mechanisms, this

topic deserves special attention.

Anita Harrow (1972), documented a thorough review of movement literature to

stablish a psychomotor domain taxonomy. In it, six classification levels were devised. In

order from simple to complex, the model starts with reflex movements. Then, basic-

fundamental movements include locomotor, non-locomotor, and manipulative

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movements. Third, perceptual abilities are organized in kinesthetic, visual, auditory, and

tactile discrimination, as well as coordinated abilities. After, physical abilities encompass

endurance, strength, flexibility, and agility. Finally, skilled movements and non-

discursive movements are at the top of the taxonomy. The last category is composed of

expressive and interpretative movements. Music and breathing occur in a continuum

across this psychomotor model. Gaining precision in how to approach movement at

different educational levels can impact profoundly the development of human adaptive

and creative ability in regard to active breathing.

Breathing and locomotion. Several studies have concentrated on analyzing the

relationship between breathing and locomotion movements. These studies highlight

important components of breath manipulation. In 1983, Dennis Bramble and David

Carrier used audio recording to analyze the relationship of temporal breathing patterns in

different mammals while running. Comparing between the features of horses, dogs,

rabbits, and humans, they found unique characteristics in the flexibility that bipedalism

had against quadrupedal mammals. Looking at the phase-locking between breathing and

running rhythms, they were able to observe a 1:1 ratio occurring in the trot and gallop of

the quadruped animals. They suggested that this strict coupling occurs in part due to the

mechanical constraints and impact load that the animal’s thorax is exposed to while

running. In humans, do to our mechanical nature, such impact does not occur while

running, and several phase-lock patterns were employed by subjects. Ratios of 4:1, 3:1,

2:1, 1:1, 5:2, and 3:2 were observed. Not only that, but human patterns showed greater

complexity by using principal and secondary bursts both in inhalation and exhalation.

This shows the human capacity to regulate the lung’s tidal volume in various forms.

21

Presumably, the locomotor respiratory coupling observed occurs to optimize ventilatory

efficiency. Thus, human exceptional capacity to alter the breathing patterns could

represent an opportunity to generate strategic principles to regulate energetic costs.

Daley, Bramble, and Carrier (2013) corroborated previous findings when they

tested the hypothesis of locomotor respiratory coupling in humans as a mean to minimize

antagonistic effects of step-driven flows in breathing. Similarly, they found phase-locking

at rations of 2:1, 2.5:1, 3:1, and 4:1. This coupling occurs due to mechanical and neural

interactions, and results showed a significant influence between the timing of impact

loading relative to ventilatory cycle with breathing dynamics. Findings also showed that

step-driven ventilation averaged around 10-12% of total ventilatory volume in the 14

subjects tested, this amounts of around 2.5-3.0% of tidal volume per step, especially in a

2:1 step per breath rhythm pattern. Another unique feature emphasizing the flexibility of

breath control in humans was flow reversal, which often occurred during late expirations

in slow deep breaths with ratios greater than 2.5:1. An implication of these breathing

dynamics seems to be the control to minimize fatigue in breathing muscles, which can

account for limits in the human endurance activity.

Breathing and non-locomotion. Other various tasks regarding non-locomotor

movements and breathing coordination have been studied. One study by Wilke, Lansing,

and Rogers (1975) revised the synchronization between repetitive finger tapping and

entrainment of respiration. Understanding that respiratory centers in the brain stem emit a

frequent output to the respiratory muscles, and that this process is set by metabolic and

mechanical factors that seek minimal muscular energy while maintaining adequate

alveolar ventilation, they realized that respiratory frequency can be adjusted through a

22

wide range of changes in the breathing effort. Conclusions drawn from the study stated

that the synchrony observed in participants finger patting based on visual cues and their

breathing was an entrainment caused cue signals (square wave stimulator). Later,

participants were given instructions of explicit control, but were not able to match the

aural stimuli as before. Accordingly, flow patterns showed a clear distinction between

voluntary and automatic control of breathing. Presumably, this difference occurred due to

a cognitive load of instructions given for voluntary breathing.

Regarding attentional loads and breathing control, Hessler and Amazeen (2009)

studied motor-respiratory coordination adding both cognitive and physical constraints to

participants who were intentionally controlling breathing location during rotational

rhythmic arm movement. Some important concepts employed in this study were: (a)

attention regarding controlled processing, and (b) attentional demands of loads.

Attentional loads in form of cognitive, physical, and compound effects showed disruption

on the motor respiratory coordination in the task employed. Investigators highlighted the

relevance of exploring the role of different types of load combinations and motor skills in

the motor respiratory coordination cycles.

Breathing and musical tasks. Music performance ability is a motor skill that

demands various types of attention. Motor respiratory coordination in various musical

tasks has also been studied. Mainly, studies have focused attention on the relationship of

breathing with piano and violin performance. The findings provided insights on how

breath coordination couples with the psychomotor processes that underline instrumental

performance.

23

Elaine King (2006) considered the studies done by Szende and Nemessuri in 1971

as “one of the first detailed accounts of respiratory rhythm in non-wind performance”.

The text King refers to is The Physiology of Violin Playing, where the relationship

between motor activity, respiration, and musical expression was explored. One of their

observations was that musical interpretation showed a clear relationship with the motor

activity, and this, in turn, influenced the breathing patterns of performers. For example,

Szende and Nemessuri found a tendency to inhale with upbows in violin playing.

Similarly, Isaak Vigdorchik (1988), described a physiological approach to playing the

violin. In it, remarks on breathing, posture, and expressive movement, were related with

fatigue and technical effort.

Regarding piano performance, a pilot study with three subjects provided

important data regarding breathing coordination of performers (King, 2006). Two

subjects with over 40 years of piano playing experience, and one subject with less than a

decade of training showed significant differences in their breathing rhythms. For

instance, older subjects had the tendency to breath slower at a calmer pace while

performing. Meanwhile, 22-year-old subject would show hyperventilation patterns. The

mean breath-beat ratio was 2:1 for the first subject, 3:1 for the second subject, and 1:1 for

the younger subject. This evidence suggests that age, experience, and presumably anxiety

may play a major role in the musical breathing coordination. Another important finding

was the use of long exhalations to resolve intricate musical passages by the second

subject. Also, subject one who had been exposed to yoga and Alexander technique

training showed a less variant breathing rhythm than other subjects. Nevertheless, no data

regarding the quality of the performances was reported.

24

Flora Nassrallah (2010) did a follow up study of Ebert and colleagues’ findings of

time signature and breathing coordination. Results showed a synchronization of breathing

with bar length of 1:1 in measure signature of 5/4, 6/4, 7/4; and 2:1 in 4/4 and 6/4. Later,

Nassrallah and colleagues (2013) reported a coupling analysis of breathing with scales

and arpeggio patterns. In this case, results showed a lack of coordination between

breathing and the musical task performed. These findings suggest that the cognitive load

and mechanical features of the musical passages play a major role on the musical

breathing coordination.

Anchoring on this evidence, Sakaguchi and Aiba (2016) also explored temporal

characteristics of breathing patterns in piano performance. In their study, they were able

to analyze in detail the relationship of specific musical characteristics. For example, there

was a significant tendency of participants to exhale before the musical onset. In certain

cases, musical rests showed a tendency to generate inhalation of participants. Another

trait observed was a stronger tendency to exhale during slur segments. As in previous

studies, data gathered confirms that subjects were mostly unaware of their breathing

during their performance. Also, participants show distinct breathing behaviors among

each other, but consistent intra-subject breathing rhythm in repeated takes of the musical

passage. Their findings evidenced that musical phrase modulates breathing.

This principle was the focus of Laczika and colleagues (2013), who analyzed the

breathing patterns of 11 professional musicians of the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra in

a live performance. They sought to find the relationship of how music shapes breathing

patterns. In their investigation, they found that musical structure synchronizes the

breathing behaviors of both performers and audience members. Their efforts revealed two

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breathing archetypes. An active musically-shaped breathing and a passive musically-

shaped breathing. In the first archetype, the music shapes the breathing of performers as a

group, coupling the breathing behaviors among group members. In the latter, different

breathing responses can be adapted despite the music structure. The investigators state

that musical structure is deeply interwoven with physiology, and that breathing activity

seems to have a direct bilateral influence in the musical physiology conjunction. This

raises important questions regarding how musicians should breath in accordance to

specific musical tasks.

Breathing Mechanics and Techniques

Lung volumes and capacities. To understand the control of breathing

mechanisms, and subsequent techniques derived from such processes, it is important to

clarify what is known about the volumes and capacities of the lungs. The ventilation of

the lungs relies on the inspiration and expiration of air in and out the lungs. In normal

breathing, the tidal volume refers to the air that fill the airways plus the volume of air that

fill the alveoli, this accounts for approximately 500 mL (Costanzo, 2018). When air is

inspired above the tidal volume, the extra volume is called inspiratory reserve volume,

which is around 3000 mL. Similarly, the additional volume that can be expired beyond

the tidal volume is called expiratory reserve volume and it is approximately 1200 mL.

Finally, there is a constant presence of gas in the lungs after forced expiration, which is

the residual volume of around 1200 mL.

Combining these volumes, the capacities of the lungs are revealed (Costanzo,

2018). When combining the tidal volume plus the reserve inspiratory volume we have the

inspiratory capacity. The functional residual capacity accounts for the residual volume

26

plus the expiratory reserve volume. The vital capacity is thought of as the expiratory

reserve volume plus the inspiratory capacity, this is the volume that can be expired after

maximal inspiration and accounts for close to 5000 mL. Its value depends on gender,

body size, and age. To conclude, the total lung capacity is the sum of the vital capacity

and residual volume (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Lung volumes and capacities. Adapted from Physiology (Costanzo, 2018, p.

193). Copyright 2018 by Elsevier.

Control of breathing. The control of the breath resembles that of other motor

acts. Luria (as cited in Bouhuys, 1977) wrote about the respiratory control system as self-

regulating: “The brain judges the result of every action in relation to the basic plan and

calls an end to the activity when it arrives at as successful completion of the program” (p.

233). The control system is regulated by activities that are usually complementary, but

other times competitive or incompatible activities. Its conditions are: (a) it should

maintain a rhythmic pattern, (b) it should adjust the tidal volume and the breathing rate to

meet the demands for gas exchange in the lungs, and (c) it should adjust the breathing

27

pattern so that it is consistent with other activities. Meeting these conditions is essential

to any breathing approach for guitar performance.

The control of the breathing pattern is done through a periodic motor output of the

brain stem centers that regulate rhythmic breathing via bulbospinal neurons to segments

in the spinal cord. These segments are charged with motoneurons for the diaphragm,

intercoastal muscles, and the abdominal muscles (Bouhuys, 1977). Neural networks,

commands of brain stem centers, and signals from the muscles that indicate the degree of

muscle contraction work together. The results of respiratory muscle contraction rely on

the increase and decrease of volume of the thoracic cage and the lungs. To meet the

metabolic demands of gas exchange, the ventilatory drive control system can adjust the

motor output.

Breathing is under the control of systemic pulmonary reflexes (Fried & Grimaldi,

1993). These mechanisms seem to be modulated by action of the sympathetic and

parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system. Despite this automaticity,

breathing is affected by thoughts and emotions. And when engaged in voluntary control,

all these regulatory processes seem to be readily bypassed. Accordingly, respiratory

movement appears to be localized in the representations of the corresponding body

musculature in the cerebral cortex (p. 48). Other respiratory functions have also been

found in the limbic area of the cortex, and close associations have been found in the

olfactory and speech related areas. Some of these areas are also linked to the control of

emotions. So, stimulation in these areas result in breathing changes. Based on this

principles of control breathing techniques have been developed.

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Breathing techniques. Any approach that encompasses details to maneuver the

breathing apparatus must rely on the movements of its associated mechanisms. It is

known that the most important muscle on inspiration is the diaphragm; nonetheless, when

due to aerobic need the tidal volume increases, the external intercoastal muscles and the

accessory muscles may be used for a more energetic inspiration (Costanzo, 2018).

Similarly, the expiration process is normally a passive procedure dependent on the

pressure balance of inspired air; but when voluntary control of breath is executed, the

abdominal and internal intercoastal muscles can aid in the process.

For example, in the automated process of normal breathing, only a small amount

of the total vital capacity is used. Regular conversation shows a slight increase on the

needs of the respiratory system, while public speech and singing uses specific maneuvers

to manage the whole vital capacity (Proctor, 1980). Clifton Ware (1998) described a four-

phase mechanism of breathing: (a) inspiration can be done with nose or mouth, and the

recruitment of external intercoastal muscles to increase the volume of the ribcage is

desired. (b) suspension occurs briefly when recoil forces overcome muscular forces that

expand the rib-cage, and this leads into a reversal in the process. (c) expiration occurs

with either the contraction or relaxation of the abdominal muscles, and finally (d) there is

a relaxation moment for breathing muscles before the process starts again. Variations to

this basic model are adjusted for voluntary breathing. The desired model will be

dependent on the nature of the task, and ventilatory requirements of the specific

psychomotor activity with which breathing is synchronized.

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Cognitive Interference, Breathing, and Performance

As mentioned before, cognitive loads, attentional demands, and psychomotor

behaviors influence the breathing pattern (Hessler and Amazeen, 2009). At the same

time, effects of breathing in the blood flow directly influence the functioning of neurons

(Fried & Grimaldi, 1993, p. 5). So, there is a complex psychophysiological feedback loop

where cellular activity, thoughts and emotions affect and are affected by respiration.

Consequently, when performing guitar using musical breathing awareness, considerations

on how breathing can affect cognitive processing and related psychomotor activity should

be clarified.

Cognitive Interference Theory. Cognitive interference refers to distractions that

obstruct the performance of a task (Coy, O’Brien, Tabaczynski, Northern, & Carels,

2011). These distractions present themselves usually in the form of negative off-task self-

dialogue. In other words, cognitive interference refers to unwanted intrusive thoughts that

can be detrimental to a desired performance (Sarason, Pierce, & Sarason, 1996). This

interference is an attentional disruption in the working memory that changes the focus of

an individual cognitive processing (Sarason, Sarason, Keefe, Hayes, & Shearin, 1986).

Sarason and colleagues (1986) found that manipulation of attentional focus in

form of instructions that emphasize ignoring personal preoccupations while dealing with

a cognitive task show significant decrease of cognitive interference and enhanced

performance. Also, a significant relationship has been found between off-task self-

dialogue and evaluation anxiety inducing instruction against supportive instructions on

both auditory and visual memory tasks (Coy et al., 2011). On the other hand, Chambers,

Chuen Yee Lo, and Allen (2008) found significant increase in working memory capacity

30

by individuals who underwent an intensive 10-day meditation course. It is worth noting

that a core principle of mindful meditation is mindfulness of breathing, which requires

aware intentional breathing and emphasizes postural elements for a proper balance of the

mind and body (Goldstein, 2016).

Therefore, a breathing approach for guitar should consider that breathing can be

perceived as an off-task behavior from guitar performance. Thus, adding a degree of

cognitive interference that might lead to a detrimental execution of musical tasks.

Especially when controlled active breathing occupies large cognitive loads in the working

memory. However, mindful breathing can allow relaxation and free up cognitive loads

when skillfully applied. Therefore, cognitive resources should be managed appropriately

to allow controlled musical breathing while freeing up attention to deal with guitar

performance tasks.

Muscular Tension, Breathing, and Performance

Muscle tension, tone, fatigue and contraction. Muscle tension is defined as a

force that results from muscular contractions (Anderson, 2002). External tension is

produced by movement of the bones, while internal tension is produced when cross-

bridges form between protein filaments within each muscle fiber. The force generated by

these contractile elements is transmitted to the bones via tendons and connective tissue.

Muscle tone is the degree of tension present at muscular rest. Muscular fatigue occurs

when a muscle loses its ability to contract due to overactivity (p. 1134). And muscular

contractions can be divided in three depending on their function. Eccentric and concentric

contractions involve lengthening and shortening of muscles, isometric contractions

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present no change in length, and isokinetic involve constant velocity during contractions

(Robergs & Roberts, 1997, p. 158).

The relevance of these concepts for implementing a breathing approach for guitar

performance rely on the muscular activity, degree of contractions, tension and possible

fatigue that occurs while breathing and while performing guitar, both as postural

elements and as dynamic tension caused by the psychomotor act. For example, the

length-tension relationship of the muscle influences its performance output. Inadequate

muscle length can produce fatigue. This is why warm-up and flexibility preparation

optimize the length-tension relationship of skeletal muscles, allowing increased force

production, power generation, and improving performance (Robergs & Roberts, 1997, p.

161).

A behavioral perspective. Using methodological behavioral analysis, Arthur

Marr (2010) suggests that muscle tension occurs as an operant behavior. Under this

perspective, the activity of striated musculature is reinforced by its consequences, thus,

underlying a motivational chain of stimulus-response. This muscular activity produces

systemic changes in the autonomic nervous system, so physiological arousal might be

mediated by the sustained contraction of motor units. Tension and arousal can become

maladaptive when a psycho-social demand produces continuous activation to a point of

failure, recruiting muscles more peripheral than the original group, and creating an

imbalance between activation and rest/recovery.

In guitar practice, this principle can be observed when a guitarist practicing the

instrument creates a series of musculature activity due a psychosocial-demand (e.g.,

upcoming concert, classes, rehearsal). While practicing complicated passages, an

32

imbalance between activation and recovery might lead towards muscular fatigue, causing

discomfort and pain. Thus, creating inappropriate reinforcement, and possibly shortening

the practice session; or even worst, maintaining the maladaptive behavior and creating

injuries (Gary & Miles, 2003; Horvath, 2010).

To overcome this possible maladaptation, resting protocols can be applied.

Musical breathing might allow a better balance between activation and recovery while

performing; thus, allowing the guitarist to diminish muscle fatigue and enhance both

quality and quantity of practice time. Marr (2010) suggests that manipulation of attention

and choice of an individual can enhance states of relaxation. Through a behavioral

circumplex model of emotion (see Figure 4), he identifies that discrepancies between

high and low salience responses can increase dopaminergic activity; thus, facilitating a

state of flow.

Figure 4. Behavioral circumplex model of emotion. Adapted from Muscular Tension: An

explanation from a methodological behaviorism (Marr, 2010, p. 376).

33

Flow state refers to an optimum exhilarating performance (Wilson & Roland,

2002). This optimal experience requires a balance between skill and challenge, it involves

focused concentration, a sense of control, and a perception of losing self-awareness

(O’Neill & McPherson, 2002, p. 35). According to this explanation, when a task matches

the skill level, it results in pleasurable outcomes. When skill is high and task not

challenging, results in boredom. And when skill is not high enough for a task results in

anxiety.

This description of flow matches the behavioral circumplex model of emotion

(Marr, 2010). This model suggests anxiety occurs when a high salience option is matched

with a high salience response (e.g., intense musical requirements matched with intense

muscular activation due to lack of technical control). According to this model, boredom

occurs when a high salience response is matched with low salience option (e.g., desired

to play fast passages due to strong technical ability matched with slow musical passage).

When a low salience response is matched with a low salience option relaxation occurs

(e.g., desire to play slow passages, matched with appropriate musical literature). Finally,

flow state occurs due to elation. This occurs when a high salience option is coupled with

a low salience response (e.g. intense muscular requirements for a fast guitar passage

matched with controlled muscular activation using controlled slow breathing). In guitar

practice, when engaging with a new musical passage, many times technical requirements

are too demanding; consequently, a high muscular response is provided. According to

this model, a lower muscular response would be necessary to achieve a flow state of

optimal performance. To do so, controlled breathing can change the focus of attention

34

from muscular tension and provide better oxygenation to increase muscular performance;

hence, facilitating elation in guitar playing.

Postural considerations. Static posture relies on postural tone that supports the

body against gravity and on the muscle activity that keeps the body balanced over its

support base (Tyldesley & Grieve, 2002). This postural process is controlled by the brain

stem, which consists of a complicated series of nerve tracts and clusters of neurons. It is

responsible for many metabolic functions including cardiorespiratory control (Powers &

Howley, 1990, p. 140). Therefore, regarding brain function, both posture and breathing

are intrinsically connected.

Tyldesley and Grieve (2002) describe a model of posture regulation during

movement. This model starts with a motor command that feeds forwards to both limb

movement and postural adjustments. In turn, this ends up creating a movement

performance that can stablish a feedback loop with postural adjustments through possible

posture disturbances (p. 192). In guitar performance practice, the movement performance

tends to create strong postural disturbances. For instance, a conventional sitting position

for guitarists utilizes a footstool to elevate the left leg. Savino (1997, p. 202) addresses

this problem, highlighting that this manner of sitting can result in persistent back,

shoulder, and neck pain. A solution to this problem has been the use of guitar supports to

maintain a symmetrical sitting posture, creating less postural disturbances.

In this regard, Hamaoui and Le Bozec (2014) studied postural disturbances and

increased muscular tension in asymmetrical equilibrium, concluding that experimental

induced muscular tensions create more postural disturbances when equilibrium is

asymmetrical. They discuss this issues in terms of postural chain mobility (p. 333), which

35

has special considerations for the focus of a breathing approach for guitar performance.

Since breathing is a movement performance, coupling it with guitar performance creates

a double system of postural and muscle control. Respiration is thought to be compensated

by active counter disturbance movements, and therefore has to be well managed when

engaging beyond passive automatic respiration. Similarly, greater active muscular tension

along the postural chain can slow down this compensatory movements and reduce the

dampening capacity of the chain. Accordingly, a bidirectional influence between breath

management and postural control has to be well balanced to achieve enhanced

performance.

Body connection. For this study, the way to assess perceived muscular tension

was through the use of the Scale of Body Connection (SBC). This scale was developed to

examine psychophysical awareness and bodily dissociation (Neves, Price, & Carvalheira,

2017). This type of awareness involves sensory processes of receiving, accessing, and

appraising internal bodily signals. On the contrary, dissociation represents a sense of

separation from the body, including avoidance of physical and emotions sensations.

Body sensations work as behavior motivators (Neves, Price, & Carvalheira, 2017,

p. 159). In terms of postural regulation for performance, these body sensations can guide

decision-making through its affective interoceptive components. Such interoceptive

components have long range of impact in human development. For example, they

influence representations of the self, and self-regulation procedures. They aid to maintain

homeostasis, which is one of the main functions of breathing as well (Fried & Grimaldi,

1993). Interoception is connected with potential cognitive interference and specific types

of performance (Neves, Price, & Carvalheira, 2017, p. 165). Accordingly, improved

36

mind-body connection has been used as treatment approaches for multiple conditions,

including chronic pain, substance abuse, PTSD, and depression. Models of interoception

have a strong potential for body awareness and also for embodiment components of

health and well-being.

Well-Being, Breathing, and Performance

Research on well-being has increased steadily over the last decades. Definitions

and measurements are not unified since many constructs associated with well-being can

be focused from various perspectives, such as that of individuals and communities,

economic, political, and health psychology. Thus, well-being has been considered a

boundary object, that serves as a philosophical, theoretical, and practical frameworks for

interdisciplinary crossings (Hartwell, 2013).

An ecological attitude towards well-being understands it as a contextual, cultural,

performative object (Wood & Ansdell, 2018). Under this perspective, well-being is an

emergent phenomenon and a situated process within an environment of complex

relational, social and spiritual dimensions. Accordingly, Van der Merwe and Habron

(2017) expressed that music education provides an opportunity to learn and participate in

the power and joy of uplifting the human spirit and the well-being of society (p. 22) For

this, the relationship between musical practice and well-being is a central concern to

musicians.

Levels of well-being. Isaac Prilleltensky (2012) provides indicators of objective

and subjective well-being based on various levels of analysis. These levels are the

personal, interpersonal, organizational, and communal. For this study, discussions on

well-being will focus on the personal level. Further classification of the personal level

37

categorizes it as economic, physical, occupational, psychological, communal, and

interpersonal. Objective indicators of psychological well-being refer to laughing, smiling,

crying, sleeping, symptoms of anger, and depression. On the other hand, subjective

indicators refer to life satisfaction evaluations, reports of feelings, perceived self-efficacy,

mastery, sense of control, spirituality, flow, meaning, growth, and engagement (p. 5).

For the present study, Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale was used.

Mental well-being is one aspect of overall well-being. Generally, there are two

perspectives on mental well-being, one includes states of happiness and life satisfaction

(hedonic perspective), and the other includes positive psychological functioning, good

relationships with others and self-realization/acceptance (eudaimonic perspective) (Putz,

O’Hara, Taggart, & Stewart-Brown, 2012). In general, mental well-being reflects on

positive states of being, thinking, behaving and feeling.

Breathing and well-being. A quote by F. M. Alexander (as cited in Kleinman &

Buckoke, 2017, p. 91) states that “breath is life; and breathing capacity is the measure of

life”. We know that life is dependent upon respiration. To be, we must breath, so life is a

serious of continuous breaths. Ramacharaka (1932) warned about unintelligent, careless

breathing, being a cause of decreased vitality and openness to disease (p. 9). He called

attention to contaminated breathing habits and encouraged a natural breathing without

restrictions in the chest and shoulders. A traditional saying stated that one generation of

correct breathers would regenerate humanity (p. 9).

It is important to not underestimate breathing and be aware of possible toxic

habits of unskilled breathing. Sarananda (2016) discusses unhealthy breathing habits as

creators of tension, and inhibitors of chest expansion. Similarly, warns about poor

38

respiratory habits as potential distress creators in our physical, mental, and emotional

health. According to this model of breathing practice, some of the benefits of better

breathing are to: (a) help relieve tension in the body, enhancing ability to deal with

pressure and stress; (b) increase concentration and clear thinking; (c) bring calmness and

mastery of emotions; (d) boost immune system; and (e) maximize vocal delivery to

clarify thinking (p. 11).

Awareness of breathing in guitar performance aims to enhance well-being, help

control muscular tension, and aid in concentration; thus, minimizing detrimental

cognitive interference in performance. Skilled breathing has various levels of control.

Such as the length of inhalation, and exhalation; the length of retention before and after

inhalation and exhalation; the volume of air; the ratio of the relationship between these

elements of control; the mind-body connection and cognitive focus; and the amount of

times a cycle is repeated (Saradananda, 2016, p. 15). Accordingly, controlled breathing is

a refined psychomotor skill that can be developed from the level of reflex movements to

skilled movement and non-discursive communication procedures. Thus, active coupling

of skillful breathing and guitar playing can refine not only technique, but also overall

musicianship and well-being.

Affective Domain

If a learner is not aware of the existence of certain phenomena, it will be hard to

value it and incorporate it. To effectively adopt suggestions from this breathing approach

for guitar performance, participants need to be sensitized to the problems and solutions

that breath control brings to guitar playing. Two workshops were created to impact

affective dimensions of participants so they would be able to learn and benefit from this

39

approach. To measure the affective impact of these workshops, an evaluation model from

the taxonomy of affective domain was used.

Taxonomy of educational objectives: Affective domain. After the first

handbook of educational objectives with descriptions of the taxonomy of cognitive

domain was published, a subcommittee was appointed to develop the next volume based

on affective objectives (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964). This classification of

processes structures an affective path towards development of values. At its first level we

find receptiveness as a fundamental attribute to engage in affective development.

Subsequently, levels of responding, valuing, organization of values, and characterization

of complex values follow. For the purpose of this study, an evaluation instrument was

developed to measure the first two levels of positive values regarding musical breathing

in guitar performance.

The first level (receptiveness) involves subclassification of awareness, willingness

to receive, and controlled or selected attention (p. 95). The second level (responsiveness),

involves acquiescence in responding, willingness to respond, and satisfaction in response.

A questionnaire was constructed to measure these subclassifications. A description of

each subclassification and the suggested testing mechanisms used in this study follow:

Awareness. Refers to when an individual given the appropriate opportunity will be

conscious enough to take account of the situation, phenomenon, object, or state of

affairs (p. 99). Awareness can range from unsophisticated to highly detailed awareness,

but at this level interest in the phenomena is not consider. A model of responses using

true/false and uncertain was used to see if participants were aware of possibilities of

breathing and breathing control while performing the guitar.

40

Willingness to receive. At this level, there is still not a judgement toward the

stimulus but a willingness to attend (p. 107). To test, yes/no and uncertain were given

as response answers to questions regarding their willingness to incorporate breathing

approaches to their guitar playing.

Controlled attention. At this level, there is a selectivity to differentiate a given

stimulus from adjacent impressions (p. 112). There is still no assessment or tension in

the perception, despite indicating a preferent choice, this level indicates at best that

individuals have limited aversion towards the stimulus. To test, questions requiring

yes/no or uncertain were used to check for participants’ likelihood of wanting to know

hot to apply control breathing to improve guitar ability.

Acquiescence in responding. First subclassification of the second level of

responsiveness, this stage goes beyond attending the phenomenon. At this level there is

enough motivation to actively commit or accept to do something towards an objective

(p. 118). Participants tested for this using yes/no or uncertain type responses in regard

to whether or not they practice active breathing exercises to enhance guitar ability.

Willingness to respond. Individuals at this stage display capacity for voluntary

activity. Participants were asked if they have applied active breathing approaches to

their practice sessions.

Satisfaction in response. At this stage of responsiveness, an internalized

emotional response self-reinforces the process of responsiveness (p. 130). Participants

responded three questions regarding relaxation, connection, and expressivity.

Affective development its an essential component of valuing and learning.

Participants underwent educational workshops regarding musical breathing for guitar

41

performance. To have success during treatment workshops, affective outcomes needed to

be considered. Participants needed to be aware, be willing to receive and respond, and at

the end, finding satisfaction in the approach to solidify the basis of their musical

breathing development. In the following chapter, detailed presentation of all the

procedures and measuring instruments is provided.

42

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This study tested how an approach towards breathing awareness in guitar

performance affected guitarists’ performance, cognitive interference, body connection,

well-being, and attitude. It was hypothesized that slow active breathing had the potential

to enhance guitarists’ performance accuracy, tone quality, rhythm and tempo control,

and expressiveness. Related to cognitive interference, previous research suggested that

attentional loads (e.g., focusing on performing) can alter the motor-respiratory

coordination (Hessler & Amazeen, 2009), thus, it was not certain how performers would

be affected by having to coordinate their breathing with their guitar performance.

Additionally, performers can create optimal muscular tension patterns through

psychophysical interoceptive awareness (Kohut, 1992). Therefore, it was necessary to

explore the relationship between the musical breathing approach and their perception of

body tension.

A positive direction was expected in well-being outcomes because breathing

practice has shown to help: (a) relieve tension in the body and enhance ability to deal

with pressure and stress, (b) increase concentration and clear thinking, (c) bring

calmness and mastery of emotions, and (d) boost the immune system (Sarananda, 2016,

p. 11). Similarly, participants needed to be aware, be willing to receive and respond, and

at the end, finding satisfaction in the approach to increase the chances of success of

treatment workshops. These are elements addressed by the affective domain

(Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964), from which the first two levels of receptiveness

and responsiveness were tested.

43

The questions explored were: : (a) Will slow controlled breathing enhance

performance of fast guitar passages? (b) What role does cognitive interference play

when active breath control is taking place in guitar performance? (c) How do guitarists

perceive their muscle tension when voluntary breathing is active? (d) Will breathing

education impact mental well-being of guitarists? (e) How will a musical breathing

approach affect participants attitudes towards breath awareness in guitar performance?

Participants

All students majoring in classical guitar at the Frost School of Music were

selected (N = 11). Undergraduate and graduate students were considered and recruited in

their weekly studio group meeting. Participants who volunteered were given a detailed

form of consent before the beginning of the study (see Appendix A).

Table 1

Participants Characteristics

Characteristic n %

Gender

Men

Women

8

3

72.7

27.3

University Program

Doctor of Musical Arts

Artist Diploma

Undergraduate

1

1

9

9.1

9.1

81.8

(Table 1 continues)

44

(Table 1 continued)

Characteristic n %

Age

18 – 19

21 – 22

24 – 26

47

4

4

2

1

36.4

36.4

18.2

9

Nationality

Colombia

Cuba

China

USA

1

1

1

8

9.1

9.1

9.1

72.7

Measures

To evaluate guitar performance outcomes, an adaptation of a rubric created by

Perez (n.d.) was used (see Appendix B). This guitar solo test measures five elements of

performance and provides criteria for grading note accuracy, individual tone quality,

rhythm and tempo, body position, and hand position. Each section can earn a maximum

of five points, allowing a combined score of 25 points. For the purpose of this study, the

adaptation of the scale consisted on eliminating both hand and body position sections,

adding criteria for expressiveness, and refining original wording. Test-retest reliability

after one and two weeks was rₛ = .65, p ≤ .05, and equivalence was rₛ = .75, p ≤ .05,

45

obtained by correlating the two guitar fragments that were used during the posttest.

Additionally, reliability of ratings of four judges using this scale was rₛ = .91, p ≤ .05

during the pretest and rₛ = .88, p ≤ .05 on the posttest.

To measure cognitive interference in performance tests, an adapted version of the

questionnaire developed by Sarason and Stroops (1978) was used (see Appendix C). For

the original test, internal consistency was found to be acceptable in a sample of 96

college students (Cronbach’s alpha = .71), and test-retest reliabilities ranged from r = .66

to .70 in a sample that completed the measure with a one-month interval where test

conditions were unidentical (Hunsley, 1987). In the original questionnaire, 10 items

assess the frequency of task-relevant thoughts and 12 items measure frequency of task-

irrelevant thoughts. Except for the last item, five-point scales on a 1 (never) to 5 (very

often) are used. The final item asks participants to rate the degree to which their mind

wandered during task performance on a 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much) scale. The

adaptation of this scale consisted on using only task-relevant thoughts (n = 8), changing

the wording to fit an agree-disagree format, and addressing explicitly possible

interference of breath awareness. A total of nine items that showed internal consistency

(using Spearman rₛ) of .97.

To evaluate perceived muscular tension, an adaptation of the scale of body

connection (Price & Thompson, 2007) was used (see Appendix D). This self-report scale

was created to examine body awareness and bodily dissociation in mind-body studies

due to growing interest in mindfulness transdisciplinary research measures. The original

scale measures 20 items in two subscales: body awareness and bodily dissociation with

five-point Likert scales, ranging from 0‐4 with 0 at (not at all) and 4 at (all the time). For

46

this scale, construct validity was assessed using confirmatory factor analysis. Results

met standards for excellent fit (p ≥.95). English versions of the scale show a reliability

Cronbach alpha of .86 for the 12-item body awareness subscale, and .81 for the eight-

item bodily dissociation subscale (Price, Thompson, & Cheng, 2017). The adapted

version used in this study was reduced to only five items of the body awareness subscale

and phrased to fit an agree-disagree format . Only items that addressed body tension and

breathing were included and showed internal consistency (using Spearman rₛ) of .86.

For mental well-being an adapted version of the Warwick-Edinburgh Mental

Well-being Scale was used (Taggart, Stewart-Brown, & Parkinson, 2015) (see Appendix

E). This scale has been validated for subjects’ older than sixteen years of age. Construct

validity analysis has shown moderately high correlations between WEMWBS and the:

Scale of Psychological Well-being (n = 63, r = 0.73); Satisfaction with Life Scale (n =

79, r = 0.72); Short Depression Happiness Scale (n = 71, r = 0.76); Positive and

Negative Affect Scale – Positive Subscale (n = 63, r = 0.73); and the WHO-Five Well-

being Index (n = 79, r = 0.77). The results indicate that WEMWBS covers both

pleasantness and self-realization aspects of mental well-being. Similarly, internal

consistency shows a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient = 0.89 (n = 348), and intra-class

correlation coefficient = 0.83 after one week (n = 124) for test-retest reliability. For the

purpose of this study, instructions were worded so participants relate, in ten selected

items, how much the research study had impacted their well-being. Internal consistency

showed a coefficient (using Spearman rₛ) of .91.

Finally, to collect data on participants’ attitudes, a questionnaire was constructed

based on an evaluation model for the first two levels (receptiveness and responsiveness)

47

of the taxonomy of affective domain (Krathwohl et al., 1964). The three

subclassifications of receptiveness are: (a) awareness (two questions), (b) willingness to

receive (one question), and (c) controlled attention (one question). On the other hand,

the components of responsiveness are: (d) acquiescence in responding (one question),

(e) willingness to respond (one question), and (f) satisfaction in response (three

questions). Two versions of this test were completed, one was administered before

treatment workshops (during their pretest time), which only contained items related to

awareness, acquiescence in responding, and willingness to respond (see Appendix F)

and the full version that was administered after the workshops (see Appendix G). Test-

retest reliability after two weeks was .78, and construct validity analysis showed

significant correlation of .78 with the adapted version of the scale of body connection

(which also measures awareness of breath and tension). Finally, the guitarists who

participated in the breathing education workshops rated the suitability of the musical

breathing exercises according to their value for developing breathing control, their

capacity to transfer to repertoire scenarios, and the likelihood of incorporating them to

their warm-up routine or technique practice sessions (see Appendix H).

Treatment

Participants underwent two 50-minute workshops. (see Appendices I and J for

complete description and full guide of breathing exercises for guitar). During the

workshops, participants reviewed basic breathing anatomy, concepts of postural

awareness, mindful breathing, musical breathing, and practiced controlled breathing

exercises at different rates and tempos. Participants also learned to couple musical

breathing techniques with performance of guitar passages.

48

Physical Conditions

Pretest and posttest sessions were conducted at the classical guitar main studio

office at the Frost School of Music. Workshops were done in a classroom at the

University of Miami. For this process, participants used their own classical guitars and

performed either with a footstool or with a leg support. Recordings were done with a

Zoom H2n Handy Portable Digital Audio Recorder and with a Korg MA-30 metronome.

Data Collection Procedures

Information was collected in a four-week period during the weekly group studio

meeting of the classical guitar department and participants’ applied lesson time. After

the recruitment presentation was done, and personal information and consent forms were

obtained, participants performed the pretest during their applied lesson time on week

one (duration: M = 16.7 minutes). Based on the results of the pretest, participants were

matched by achievement level and randomly assigned to either control group (n = 6) or

treatment group (n = 5).

Pretest. The pretest protocol required all participants to perform a warm-up

exercise (see Figure 5) and to record a chromatic scale (from E2 to G#5) in first position

of the guitar fretboard and using open string when possible (see Figure 6). Participants

were given time to get comfortable with the warm-up exercise and then asked to perform

the whole exercise at 80 BPM (beats per minute), 100 BPM, 120 BPM, and 112 BPM.

Once the warm-up was completed, they were given time to learn the chromatic scale

exercise, and asked to practice at 80, 90, 100, 110 BPM (four repetitions at each tempo),

then a practice run of four repetition was done at 112 BPM before recording the required

49

eight repetitions. After the performance tasks, participants completed the pre-workshop

attitudinal questionnaire, and were asked to abstain from practicing the exercises of the

test.

Posttest. The control group performed the posttest at the beginning of week two

during their applied lesson time (duration: M = 19.5 minutes). Once every individual

from the control group had been tested, all the control group participants were welcomed

to undergo the treatment workshops that were conducted at the end of week two and

three on the classical guitar studio meeting. During the fourth week, participants from

the treatment group performed the posttest on their applied lesson time (duration: M =

22.01 minutes), and participants from the control group completed the remaining

evaluation of post-workshop attitudes and musical breathing exercises for guitar.

The treatment group performed the posttest after two workshops of breathing

education for guitar and completed the performance task using a prescribed breathing

pattern (controlled slow inhalation while playing the scales and exhalation while

allowing last note to vibrate). Similarly, treatment group was asked to perform the

warm-up with a prescribed breathing pattern (slow inhalation while ascending, slow

exaltation while descending). All performance outcomes were rated by the same four

judges while listening to audio recordings of each participant.

The protocol for the posttest required all participants to perform the same warm-

up and chromatic scale from the pretest and a variation of measure seven of Tarrega’s

Capricho Árabe (see Figure 7). During the posttest, all participants performed the warm-

up passage at 80, 100, and 120 BPM; and the chromatic scale at 80, 90, 100, 110, and

112 BPM (two repetitions at each tempo). For Tarrega’s fragment there was a two-

50

minute familiarization period, followed by four repetitions at 60, 80, 100, and 108 BPM.

After finishing the performance tasks, all participants completed the adapted measuring

instruments: (a) cognitive interference questionnaire for guitar performance, (b) scale of

body connection for guitar performance, (c) mental well-being scale for guitar

performance. Guitarists who participated on the workshops (n = 9) completed (d) post-

workshop attitudinal questionnaire for guitar performance, and (e) evaluation of musical

breathing exercises for guitar performance.

Table 2

Note. Pretest: Guitar Solo Test, one musical fragment (GST), and pre-workshops

attitudes questionnaire (ATQ-pre). Posttest: GST (two musical fragments), Cognitive

Interference Questionnaire (CIQ), Scale of Body Connection (SBC), Scale of Mental

Well-being (SMW). Treatment Evaluation: ATQ-post, ratings of musical breathing

exercises for guitar.

Randomized Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design, Using Matched Participants

Week 1 Week 2 & 3 Week 4

Treatment

Group

Mᵣ X O (Posttest and

Treatment

Evaluation)

O (Pretest) (Workshops)

Control

Group

Mᵣ O (Posttest) X (Treatment

Evaluation)

51

Figure 5. Daily Warm-up Routine Triplets ~ #6. Adapted from Pumping Nylon

(Tennant, 2015, p. 79). Copyright 2015 by Alfred Music.

Figure 6. Ascending chromatic scale from E2 to G#5.

Figure 7. Variation of measure number seven from Capricho Árabe by Francisco

Tárrega.

52

Data Analysis Procedures

Once data were collected, a descriptive statistical analysis was conducted,

followed by nonparametric statistical tests. As Siegel (1956) points out, nonparametric

tests have a powerful advantage in their usefulness with small sample sizes. For this

study, the most pertinent tests were: (a) sign test for comparison of groups serving as

their own control, (b) Fisher exact probability test with Tocher’s modification for

intergroup (control-treatment) comparisons of dependent variables, (d) Spearman rank

correlation coefficient, and (e) Kendall coefficient of concordance corrected for ties to

obtain reliability information.

53

CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

This study was conducted throughout January and February 2019 to develop and

test a musical breathing approach with guitar performance. A specific breathing approach

was used as an independent variable (treatment group vs. control group) to see the effects

on these dependent outcomes: (a) music performance, (b) cognitive interference, (c) body

connection, (d) mental well-being, and (e) receptiveness and responsiveness towards

musical breathing practice for guitar performance. Also, participants evaluated the

exercises used during treatment workshops, giving insights on guitarists’ perceptions on

the musical breathing approach used throughout this study. To better understand the

relationships among these variables, descriptive and non-parametric statistical tests were

used.

Musical Performance Outcomes

The research question related to music performance was: Will slow controlled

breathing enhance performance of fast guitar passages? Results from all participant’s

pretest and posttest were collected, evaluated by four raters, and tested for statistical

significance using Fisher exact probability test with Tocher’s modification. First, the

results from planned pretest comparison are presented followed by the posttest

comparison that directly answers the research question.

Pretest. During the first week of the study, participants (N = 11) recorded a

musical task (eight repetitions of an ascending chromatic scale from E2 to G#5 using

open strings when available). The recordings were rated by four judges (two faculty

members, one graduate teaching assistant, and one independent guitarist) using the same

54

criteria from the guitar solo test. Concordance of judges (using Kendall W) was .91.

Participants were matched based on the results of their scores and randomly assigned to

control (n = 6) or treatment (n = 5) conditions.

Subscales of the guitar solo test provided information on note accuracy, tone

quality, rhythm and tempo and expressiveness. Planned comparison of matched

participants showed non-significant differences of the scores from the pretest between the

two groups (p = 0.608). A surface comparison of means revealed that control group rated

slightly higher in the note accuracy subscale, but lower in the other subscales.

Figure 8. Pretest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups.

Posttest. The control group performed during the second week of the study, while

treatment group performed during the fourth week (after undergoing treatment

workshops). For these tests, guitarists recorded two passages (the chromatic scale

previously performed during the pretest, and a fragment adapted from standard guitar

literature). Recordings were rated by the same pretest scorers and concordance coefficient

of combined posttest (using Kendall W) was .87. The treatment group performed using a

55

prescribed breathing pattern of slow controlled inhaling while playing the scales and

exhaling while letting long notes vibrate. Surface comparison of means revealed higher

ratings from the treatment group in all subscales on both passages.

Figure 9. Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups

from recordings of Fragment 1 (chromatic scale passage).

Figure 10. Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups

from recordings of Fragment 2 (Tárrega’s fragment).

56

A Fisher exact probability test was used to analyze statistical significance for

inter-group posttest comparison. The exact probability test with Tocher’s modification is

considered as the most powerful one-tailed test for two independent samples that are

small in size (Cochran, 1952; as cited in Siegel, 1956, p.104). For the test, the scores are

presented in a 2 X 2 contingency table (classified as above and below median) to

determine whether the two groups differ in the proportion in which they fall into the

classifications.

Initial results showed a non-significant difference (p = 0.175, ˃ α = 0.05);

nonetheless, it is suggested to check all possible extreme outcomes with the same

marginal totals in the 2 X 2 contingency table, if significance can be achieved by one of

those outcomes, then Tocher’s modification should be used to determine whether or not

to reject the null hypothesis (Siegel, 1956, p. 103). Tocher recommends computing a ratio

based on the difference of alpha and the probability of more extreme outcomes divided

by the observed probability, then a random number generator from zero to one should

draw a number smaller than the obtained ratio. If the number is larger, then null

hypothesis should be maintained. This added probability makes Fisher test slightly less

conservative.

In the case of this data, there is only one possible extreme outcome for posttest

intergroup comparison of musical performance outcomes (p = 0.013, ˂ α = 0.025). Thus,

according with Tocher’s modification, the difference of desired level of significance and

extreme probability is divided by the observed probability (ratio to test for significance at

α = 0.025 is 0.069). To reject H₀, a random number from 0 to 1 was drawn, if the number

is smaller than the Tocher’s ratio, then H₀ should be rejected. For this case, an online

57

random number generator (https://www.random.org/decimal-fraction) was used and

yielded a value of 0.035 (see Figure 11). Accordingly, the null hypothesis could be

rejected at a level of significance of .025.

Figure 11. Random number generated to use with Tocher’s modification.

Figure 12. Observed data and extreme possible outcomes; 2 X 2 contingency tables for

Fisher’s exact probability test.

58

Cognitive Interference

To better understand the role of musical breathing as an added cognitive load to

guitar performance, the second research question was: What role does cognitive

interference play when active breath control is taking place in guitar performance?

Results from all participant’s posttest cognitive interference questionnaire were collected.

Cognitive interference was measured using an adapted version of the questionnaire

created by Sarason and Stroops (1978). In it, participants were asked to indicate the level

of agreement with each item related to the task they just performed. All items relate to

degrees of awareness of certain thoughts while performing. Items can be grouped as task

difficulty, external and internal judgement. Intergroup comparison of composite scores

showed a non-significant difference (using Fisher exact probability test) of p = 0.608.

The strongest trend towards significance was seen in the awareness of passages

difficulty (p = 0.175). All other observed differences between mean scores of both groups

were non-significant. Nonetheless, treatment group showed slightly lower scores on items

related to comparison with others, wandering off task, and concerns of playing more

carefully, and to some extent higher on thinking about getting confused, and on

concentrating on difficulty of breathing while performing (see Figure 13).

59

Figure 13. Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups

from cognitive interference questionnaire (adapted for guitar performance).

Body Connection

It was relevant to explore how body connection was perceived by guitarists

when voluntary breathing was active. For it, the third research question asked was: How

do guitarists perceive their muscle tension when voluntary breathing is active?

Accordingly, results from all participant’s posttest were collected. Participants were

given an adapted version of the scale of body connection developed by Price and

Thompson (2007). Only items relating to body awareness were included and they can be

categorized in terms of awareness and solutions of connection problems.

Intergroup comparison showed a non-significant difference in their total scores

(using Fisher’s exact probability test) of p = 0.608. Nonetheless, interesting trends can be

observed where control and treatment group rated slightly distinct. For example,

awareness of problems (more perceived body tension and discomfort while performing)

60

was scored moderately higher by the control group. While treatment group reported

better ratings on awareness of solutions (more perceived tension location and occurrence

of shallow breath) (p = 0.175) .

Figure 14. Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups

from the scale of body connection (adapted for guitar performance).

Mental Well-Being

The fourth research question was: Will breathing education impact mental well-

being of guitarists? To know how breathing education impacted mental well-being of

guitarists, results from all participant’s posttest were collected. An adapted version of the

Warwick-Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale was used (Taggart, Stewart-Brown, &

Parkinson, 2015). Intergroup comparison of total scores showed a significant difference

(using Fisher’s exact probability test) of p = 0.013 ˂ α = 0.025. For this questionnaire,

participants were asked to rate their level of agreement based on their experience during

61

this study. Participants from the treatment group rated higher on all ten subscales

indicating this study helped them feel: (a) optimistic about the future, (b) useful, (c)

relaxed, (d) like having energy to spare, (e) they can deal with problems well, (f) they can

think clearly, (g) good about themselves, (h) confident, (i) autonomous, and (j) curious.

Figure 15. Posttest comparison of mean scores between control and experimental groups

from the scale of mental well-being (adapted for guitar performance).

Attitudes

Since value systems affect behavior, it was important to know how this musical

breathing approach was going to affect participants’ attitudes towards breathing

awareness in guitar performance after the workshops were conducted. The final research

question was: How will a musical breathing approach affect participants attitudes

towards breath awareness in guitar performance? Based on the evaluation model from

the taxonomy of affective domain (Krathwohl et al., 1964), the attitudinal questionnaire

addressed the first two levels (receptiveness and responsiveness). This questionnaire was

62

given to participants first during the pretest sessions (reduced 5-item version to test

awareness, acquiescence in responding, and willingness to respond), and after

completing the intervention workshops (full 10-item version). To test for statistical

significance, the sign test was used using the group as their own control before treatment.

To do so, scores from pre-workshops and post-workshops are paired for each participant

and a plus or minus assigned based on the change of direction of the score. For the null

hypothesis to be true, half signs would be positive, and half signs would be negative.

Only nine participants completed both measures (pre/post-workshops). From the

nine participants, three missed one of two workshops, and were guided through shorter

versions on a later date. One of the three, rated systematically lower on all subscales; this

participant was the only one who missed the first workshop where conceptual

information was provided. Pre-workshop to post-workshop comparison (using sign test)

was p = 0.09. This means that two out of nine participants did not show change in

positive direction. Results excluding participant who missed the first workshop yielded

p = 0.035 ˂ α = 0.05.

Figure 16. Comparison of mean scores in attitudes test (n = 9) before and after breathing

education workshops.

63

Table 3

Post-Workshops Percentages of Affirmative Responses in Attitudinal Questionnaire from

Nine Participants

Affective Level Percentage

Awareness

Breathing coupling with guitar

Control of breathing muscles to facilitate breathing

Slow controlled breathing to improve performance

88.88

88.88

88.88

Willingness to receive

Open to incorporate breathing approaches in performance

77.77

Controlled attention

Open to knowing how to apply breathing approaches

100.00

Acquiescence in responding

Consistent practice of active breathing for performance

33.33

Willingness to respond

Have you applied breathing approaches to practice sessions

66.66

Satisfaction in responses

Finding relaxation in playing using controlled breathing

Connecting with music more profoundly while breathing

Better expression using active breathing approach

66.66

55.55

77.77

64

Musical Breathing Exercises for Guitar Performance

A set of exercises was created to develop breathing control while performing the

guitar. A total of 17 exercises were included in the workshops, these exercises were

grouped by types from basic to complex controls of breath management in performance

of guitar.

Basic symmetrical coupling (two exercises).

Basic symmetrical coupling adding points of control (two exercises).

Larger ratios and airway control (two exercises).

Asymmetrical coupling (four exercises).

Slow breath management (one exercise).

Fast breath control and control of reversed cycles (four exercises).

Playing through a retention extension (one exercise).

Nine participants rated the exercises using five-point Likert scales on three

categories: (a) usefulness to develop control of breath coupling with guitar

performance, (b) transferability to guitar repertoire contexts, and (c) degree to which

participants would incorporate these exercises to their warm-up routines or technical

practice. Results of the first category indicated slow breath control, asymmetrical

coupling, fast breath control, and larger ratios are perceived as the most useful

mechanisms to develop control. In terms of transferability to repertoire, larger ratios,

slow breath control, and playing through retention seem to be most appropriate. Finally,

participants rated slow breathing exercises and asymmetrical coupling as the most

likely exercises to be incorporated in their technical practice.

65

Figure 17. Comparison of mean scores of musical breathing exercises for guitar in three

categories (control development, repertoire transferability, likelihood of application in

practice routines).

Interpretation

Music performance outcomes. The reported non-significant difference in the

pretest revealed that both groups started well matched after random assignment. For the

posttest, participants from the treatment group used a specific breathing rhythm while

performing the required guitar passages. A significant difference was found in

comparison from total posttest results, indicating that the specific pattern of slow-

controlled breathing while playing fast passages did enhance performance outcomes.

66

Also, two 50-minute workshops were completed where most of participants

practiced 17 musical breathing exercises for guitar designed for this study (see

Appendices I and J). From observational logs during posttest, notes were taken on

participants’ body position while breathing, both to check if they were breathing as

indicated, and to analyze their technical capacity to control breathing muscles. A few

participants were not able to control methods of abdominal or intercoastal breathing (as

covered during workshops). The training of this muscles and coordination requires active

practice to develop. Despite participants’ struggle to fulfill breathing requirements, they

achieved significant gain in performance scores.

This study had the limitation of not having reliable ways of measuring

physiological variables such as breathing rates while performing. Breathing belts or nose

sensors could be employed in the future. This way, information on air consumption levels

could be achieved to refine and precise musical breathing techniques.

From observational data, the control group presented a distinct inter-participant

breathing pattern, similar to the findings of Sakaguchi and Aiba (2016). Plus, control

group seemed to be staying within their tidal volume and expiratory reserve, while the

treatment grouped was challenged to maximize their inspiratory capacity. In conclusion,

performance outcomes appear to have been influenced by a controlled musical breathing.

Cognitive interference. Groups had similar scores on measures of cognitive

interference. In a general sense, the added cognitive load of managing a rhythmic

breathing while performing did not affect participants as compared to control group.

Thus, no special role of cognitive interference was added when controlled breathing was

active in guitar performance. However, the main distinction was in participants

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perception of task difficulty. Musical passages for the treatment group differed because

had additional breath marks included in the music sheet. At this stage, participants

recognized that controlled breath while playing was a harder task than using passive

breathing patterns.

Body connection. Participants’ perception of body connection did not differ

significantly between control and treatment groups. Originally, the inquiry was related to

the role of perceived body tension in both groups. Despite a non-significant difference

overall, some trends related to breathing and tension were observed. Participants in the

treatment group reported more awareness of shallow breath, and tension location than

control group. Which is beneficial to identify musical breathing solutions. While the

control group reported more awareness of body tension. Reports of perceived body

tension with added physiological measures could provide a clearer picture on

participants’ tension control and enhance recommendations for peak states of

performance.

Mental well-being. The greatest effect observed after musical breathing treatment

was in the results from the scale of mental well-being. As predicted, these results suggest

that participants from the treatment group were able to maintain higher levels of mental

well-being than control group. Data from observational logs indicate that a few

participants from the control group expressed clear discontent with the difficulty of the

posttest (e.g., yelling when committing a mistake). On the other hand, the treatment

group displayed lighter moods, even when committing mistakes. Results suggest that

these observations may reflect the overall depiction of participants’ mental well-being.

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However, no temperament or personality data were collected; thus, it is not clear to what

extent this acted as a mediator.

Testing scenarios required performers to learn a complicated musical fragment in

a short period of time, to practice it, and to briefly record it. Under these conditions,

which are similar to what performers encounter throughout their career, by completing

two 50-minutes workshops of breathing education, and using a controlled musical

breathing approach while playing, guitarists showed a significant improvement in mental

well-being scores against a control group.

Attitudes. Participants attitudes towards using a controlled breathing approach in

guitar performance had positive changes. Questionnaires before workshops showed a lot

of uncertainty in participants. After workshops, participants were confident a controlled

breathing approach had the capacity to improve their performance and overall state. Eight

out of nine participants had positive responses on awareness items asking if breathing

coupling with guitar performance was possible, if control of breathing muscles would

facilitate breathing, and if slow controlled breathing would improve performance.

All participants expressed positive responses on being open to learning how to

apply control breathing techniques in guitar performance, seven of nine participants

showed openness to incorporating breathing techniques in their playing, and only four

responded of doing it consistently. Ideally, musical breathing education could breach this

gap so that the percentage of people who does it (33%), is closer to that of people who is

open to learn about it (100%). Finally, seven out of nine participants showed positive

satisfaction in terms of: (a) finding relaxation in playing using controlled breathing, (b)

connecting with music more profoundly while breathing, and (c) having better expression

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while using and active breathing approach. This would suggest that in participants views,

using this musical breathing approach while playing had a positive impact on their value

systems as musicians.

The results provided answers to original research questions, they highlighted

necessities for future research and validated the construction of a musical breathing

system. This system, when used in guitar performance showed some of the control and

synchronization possibilities between non-wind instrumental performance and controlled

musical breathing techniques. And showed the importance and necessity of informing

musical breathing practice from psychophysiological and artistic perspectives.

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CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

Artistic musical outcomes were enhanced when guitarists applied the musical

breathing approach used in this study. Accuracy, tone quality, rhythm, tempo, and

expressiveness showed significant improvement as compared with matched participants

from a control group. Perhaps most importantly, mental well-being was impacted

positively in self-reports of optimism, feelings of usefulness, relaxation, feeling energetic,

clarity of mind, self-esteem, confidence, curiousness, and thinking autonomy. During this

study, no significant difference was observed in measures of cognitive interference and

body connection. Nonetheless, several trends along the subscales of these instruments

seem to suggest possible ways longer treatments might impact these variables. After

musical breathing education workshops, affective outcomes (receptiveness and

responsiveness) towards musical breathing in guitar performance were positively

developed. Based on observations made throughout this process, current state of this

musical breathing system is presented. Also, theoretical and practical implications are

discussed.

Breathing Anatomy, Physiology, and Musical Breathing

To develop a musical breathing approach, it was fundamental to consider

available research on the structure and functioning of the respiratory system. The

techniques developed for this study rely on the manipulation of external respiration,

possible by intervening the motor patterns of related musculature. Also, our breathing

patterns affect, through psychophysiological processes, our thoughts and emotion (Fried

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& Grimaldi, 1993). Thus, to discuss musical breathing, precision in terminology should

be considered.

It is common to refer to terms as “deep breathing” or “diaphragmatic breathing”

But what does deep breathing mean? and what is the interaction it has with the

diaphragm? According to Costanzo (2018, p. 206), inspiration occurs because of the

contraction of the diaphragm which causes the pressure of the thorax to increase. This

process occurs during normal breathing as opposed to only during deep breathing states.

Thus, diaphragmatic breathing occurs permanently as long as the breathing system is in

normal conditions.

Then, what is commonly referred as deep breathing, many times involves a

change in the breathing rate and volume of inspiration, a process that alters the autonomic

breathing rhythm. Specific mechanisms of control and techniques are discussed later, but

it is important to specify that to achieve precise control over the breathing rhythm,

breathing musculature should be developed and trained. This mainly includes the

development of intercoastal, abdominal, and dorsal muscles, but attention to the whole

body could be aspired. With pertinent muscle control, musical breathing goes beyond

deep breathing, it emphasizes control of the breathing range, of its rhythm, and its input

and output volume.

Guitar

The guitar is classified as a chordophone of the lute family (Sadie & Tyrrell,

2001). For this study, nylon-strings acoustic guitars (classical guitars) were used to

perform pretest and posttest performance tasks. The guitar solo test used to measure

performance outcomes did not provide a criteria to evaluate technique. Accordingly,

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findings from this study cannot be used to compare how hand-techniques changed in

participants who used a musical breathing approach.

Nonetheless, it was observed that participants from the treatment group perceived

higher levels of relaxation (from mental well-being scale, and from attitude

questionnaire). Likewise, trends in the results from the scale of body connection, and

cognitive interference questionnaire suggest that control and treatment groups perceived

mind-body awareness with subtle differences. Since guitar’ technique pedagogy

emphasizes dynamic relaxation, mind-body awareness, effortless playing, and natural

concentration as essential components (Ryan, 1984); participants’ guitar technique was

only affected as much as this musical breathing approach increased performance

outcomes.

Psychomotor Considerations

Musical breathing and performing are two compatible types of behavior. Music

performances affect the synchronization of breathing rates (Laczika et al., 2013), and

based on this study we can say that controlled breathing affects musical performance as

well. A discussion on the learning process of acquiring proficient musical breathing

techniques follows.

Based on the taxonomy of psychomotor behaviors (Harrow, 1972), The most

basic type of movement occurs at the reflex level, at this stage we can analyze our

autonomous breathing patterns and non-conscious postural adjustments. At the next level,

basic fundamental movements include those reflex movements and serve as a basis for

more refined skill motions. Breathing at this stage begins to be manipulated by active

intention. Participants reached this stage by performing breathing exercises developed for

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guitar players (see Appendix I). These exercises required participants to hold the guitar in

playing position while actively manipulating their breathing and conditioning their

breathing musculature.

Once manipulative movements were obtained using the breathing apparatus,

participants were capable of reaching a third level of psychomotor functioning. For this

level of perceptual abilities, participants developed coordination between manipulative

movements (guitar playing and musical breathing). To do so, participants performed

specially developed musical breathing exercises for guitar (see Appendix J). This was an

essential process for guitarists to feel comfortable coupling breathing and guitar playing

during posttest recordings.

The next stages of development are necessary for an effective musical breathing

technique, a technique that maximizes the utilization of our breathing range. The fourth

level is the development of physical abilities, such as endurance, strength, flexibility, and

agility (Harrow, 1972, p. 105). For this study, participants were introduced to exercises to

develop these physical abilities. Mastery benchmarks can be set at high expectation levels

and would require more practice than the treatment (100 minutes) participants received.

The fifth level is where skilled movement occurs, efficiency while performing complex

tasks is the essential component at this level. In terms of breathing, we would be looking

at an efficient technique capable of managing breathing musculature independently and

in coordination with breath, as well as temporal and rhythmic control for each phase of

the breathing cycle.

The more refined level of the psychomotor domain is non-discursive

communication (Harrow, 1972, p. 106). This is often seen in choreographed dance,

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through expressive and interpretative movements, or while using facial expressions.

Gaining control on how breathing becomes an expressive or interpretative movement

allows fluidity and vitality in performance. Technical presence facilitates breathing

communication and synchronization. For this study, musical breathing symbols were

created to fit musical scores. Single line notation of rhythm was used for detailed

rhythmic breathing pattern. Traditional symbol for breath in music is a comma, this was

adapted in the following way: (a) one comma (,) = Inhale, (b) two commas (,,) = Exhale,

(c) plus sign in parenthesis (+) = Pre-inhale rest, and (d) minus sign in parenthesis

(-) = Pre-exhale retention. Using these adapted symbols with any expressive music

notation mark can convey a non-discursive expressive and interpretative movement.

Figure 18. Example of musical breathing score (breathing as non-discursive

communication [expressive and interpretative]). Arrangement for musical breathing of

the first 16 measures of Gustav Holst’s Suite The Planets.

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Another consideration was the findings from studies of locomotion/non-

locomotion and breathing (Bramble & Carrier, 1983; Daley, Bramble & Carrier, 2013;

Hessler & Amazeen, 2009; Wilke, Lansing & Rogers, 1975). Observations of breath-

running ratios of human breathing compared with other mammals, provided information

on types of breathing demands required for intense physical work. Also, breathing

flexibility displayed in humans seem to be unmatched by other mammals (e.g., capacity

to reverse a breath cycle).

Care was taken when constructing the musical breathing phrase for guitar

performance. Wilke, Lansing, and Rogers (1975) found that participants who performed

simple motor tasks (finger tapping) were able to coordinate their breathing to aural

stimuli, but when breathing instructions were added, their processing capacity was

overwhelmed and the synchronization with the finger movements was lost. Similarly,

following recommendations of Hessler and Amazeen (2009) this study examined

cognitive loads of precise motor-respiratory coordination with advanced musical

performance, and in contrast with previous findings, participants who practiced musical

breathing improved their breathing coordination and music performance movements.

Musical breathing puts an emphasis on consistent coupling between motor

requirements (e.g., instrumental performance) and respiratory cycles. This allows a

steady supply of oxygen to the muscles, which is particularly important to sustain aerobic

activity for long performing sessions (Hessler & Amazeen, 2009). Observations rendered

by this musical breathing study suggest that participants who occupied this approach

were more likely to notice when shallow breath was occurring and to spot the location of

their tension . Thus, suggesting that musical breathing education can aid by helping to

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combat maladaptive tension; thus, enduring long performing sessions, and helping

support long-term careers.

Music performance ability and breathing. A few studies provided important

information regarding current state of research on breathing and performance of non-

wind instruments (King, 2006; Laczika et al., 2013; Nassrallah, 2010; Nassrallah et al.,

2013; Sakaguchi and Aiba, 2016; Szende & Nemessuri, 1971). These studies evidenced

certain synchronized breathing behaviors that occur while listening to music and while

playing string-instruments and piano. Limitations of these studies relied on the lack of

data relevant to quality of performance. Because of dealing with experienced musicians,

it was assumed their performance was stable and accurate, but subtle differences exist in

individual performances. Since musicians seem to constantly aspire to improve

performance, applying a musical breathing approach could help improve artistic

outcomes.

The present study on musical breathing and guitar used performance measurement

to respond the inquiry of differences in performance by modifying the breathing

paradigm traditionally used in previous research, and pedagogical practice. Sakaguchi

and Aiba (2016) discussed the potential of controlled breathing for piano performance,

they suggested two ways based on the results of their study. One, to breath like singing

(inhale before the onset and exhale while playing), or by differing from that “singing”

pattern. They also reported participants views on the “dangers” of focusing too much on

breathing, so they concluded that it is unlikely that breathing for piano comes from

performers’ conscious control of breathing. In contrary, this study used conscious control

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of breathing to enhance performance. Caution should be placed when adopting breath

patterns observed without evidence of artistic, acoustic, or psycho-motor effectiveness.

Guitarists from the Frost School of Music tested using a distinct pattern from what

is usual in non-wind instrumentalists or vocalist. From audio recordings of the pretest it

was analyzed that, similar to report of Sakaguchi and Aiba (2016), participants did quick

inhales before the onset of the musical phrase, finishing the inhale slightly before the

actual playing. During the musical phrase, exhalation occurred passively after some

retention period. In contrast, treatment group performed using a slow continuous inhale

while performing the musical phrase and exhaled at musical resting points.

The reasons for the testing of this specific breathing pattern relied on previous

findings that precision of flexion movements was diminished during expiration (Rassler,

2000, as cited in Nassrallah et al., 2013). Also, Wilke, Lansing, and Rogers (1975),

argued that the brain is relatively uninvolved in monitoring the exhalation phase, and that

neural interference can occur during exhalation and synchronization of motor output. On

the other hand, extension movements lost precision during inspiration. For guitar

performance, finger action relies on flexion movements. Thus, inspiration control should

be aspired while performing. For example, guitarists found useful to exhale through the

nose to avoid activating forced exhalation musculature. Because when exhalation occurs,

if not passive (due to natural recoil of the lungs) it could create accuracy errors.

Nassrallah (2010) observed alteration of breathing rates because of changes in

tempo, musical phrasing, lack of breath consistency in subsequent repetitions of pieces or

exercises, and lack of homogeneity in the breathing cycles of participants. She observed

that the tempo of the musical piece would create a synchronization of the automatic

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breathing process, and that musical onsets would alter resting state (normal breathing).

Feeding from this, musical breathing transcends the lack of synchronization between

participants by giving performers breathing rhythms performed at the same tempo to

optimize their playing ability. The musical breathing approached used for guitar

performance contradicts the tendency to make quick inhale bursts before the musical

onset. Rather, the onset should mark the beginning of a controlled slow breath cycle. In

the present study, guitarists tested using this type of slow controlled inhale while

performing. They also rated this type of exercises as most suited to develop control, to

transfer to repertoire, and to apply in their practice.

The approach tested in this study resembles previous findings by King (2006). He

analyzed breathing patterns of three pianists while performing, two of them had over 40

years of piano playing experience, and one less than a decade of training, results showed

significant differences in their breathing rhythms. Older pianists had the tendency to

breath slower at a calmer pace while performing. Meanwhile, 22-year-old participant

showed hyperventilation patterns. One of the older participants who had breathing

training (due to yoga and Alexander technique practice) showed a less variant breathing

rhythm than other subjects. Since there was no data reported on quality of performance,

we cannot know if any of the breathing patterns used by these participants was optimum

for performance. Nonetheless, we can observe that with more years of playing, breathing

rhythm seems to normalize and become calmer. Musical breathing rhythm for the type of

musical passages performed with guitars, introduced this idea of long breathing rhythms.

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Hypoventilation tendencies can also occur when tackling a new intricate musical

piece. Usually, when learning a new passage, if attentional demands are oriented solely

on fingerings without breath consideration, a retention period prolongates in the breath of

guitarists. This can lead to maladaptive tension and alter the natural musically shaped

breathing observed by Laczika and colleagues (2013). In this scenarios, musical

breathing practice allows guitarist to engage their breathing from the foundation,

intervening the process of withholding, correcting hypo-ventilatory patterns, and

transcending normal breathing to fulfill oxygen demands of the muscles in a steady pace.

Musical Breathing Technique

To maximize control over our vital capacity, we can understand it by comparing

our musical breathing range with the range of a musical instrument. Every instrument has

a limited range depending on their construction and shape, within that range, there is a

tessitura where quality of sound is optimum depending on the musical needs. Similarly,

when dealing with our musical breathing, we can operate multiple registers to navigate its

range. Musical breathing could be considered a musical instrument that works

continuously under regular conditions.

If we do a comparison of our vital capacity (as measured in milliliters) with a

keyboard range, we observe that our residual air (which is not fully accessible to prevent

collapse of the lungs) is close to one octave register, our expiratory volume has a similar

register, our tidal volume (equilibrium volume in normal breathing) is less than an octave

register, and our inspiratory reserve has the greatest capacity of approximately three

octaves register (see Figure 19).

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Figure 19. Comparison of musical breathing range (vital capacity), with the range of a

keyboard.

A similar concept is discussed by Ramacharaka (1932), who addressed Yogi

breathing theory classification in high, mid, low, and complete breathing (p. 33). In this

system high breathing is done through clavicular methods (high chest expansion and

clavicular elevation); mid-breathing is the one performed by intercoastal muscles (for

greater expansion, engage dorsal muscles to open the ribcage); and low-breathing that is

activated by abdominal movement. In musical breathing, these classifications (called

breathing methods) are necessary to engage for maximum usage of the musical breathing

range (classified as complete breathing).

The control of breath volume together with control of breath speed is fundamental

for temporal control of musical breathing. Average breathing speed is 20 breaths per

minute (BPM) (Wilke, Lansing & Rogers, 1975), but using musical breathing rhythms,

breath rate can lower to 1 BPM (30 s inhale & 30 s exhale), or slower. It can also speed

MUSICAL BREATHING RANGE

Tidal register (ca. 500 ml)

Expiratory register (ca. 1200 ml) Inspiratory register (ca. 3000 ml)

Residual register (ca. 1200 ml)

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up to around 300 BPM, which can create hyperventilation patterns. These resources plus

extensions of control (pre-exhale control, and pre-inhale rest), allow a great variety of

rhythmical possibilities. Thus, for a balanced musical breathing technique, management

of the full breathing range and speed are fundamental to achieve precise temporal control.

To attain this control, technical considerations need to focus on the development

of physical abilities compatible with intense breathing requirements. All muscles of

controlled inspiration need to be developed by rehearsing movement of extension to

attain flexibility, and by rehearsing independent and coupled control with breath flow.

Kinesthetic awareness and control need to start at the pelvic diaphragm (pelvic floor, see

Figure 20), from where its contraction and relaxation can affect the internal pressure of

the rest of the breathing apparatus.

Then, abdominal control should be developed; despite Netter (2014) pointing out

the lack of involvement of the abdominal muscles in active inspiration, for musical

breathing, abdominal coordination to increase inspiratory volume is a valid method of

control for greater active inspiration. For intercoastal active breathing, the abdomen

usually stays relaxed. Often times, abdominal contraction is used as a pedagogical tool, to

help students move away from clavicular, or shallow breathing patterns. Abdominal

contraction will also be necessary after intercoastal breathing (mid-breathing) reaches its

maximum capacity. Abdominal breathing (low-breathing) can be performed without

activation of mid-breath, but for complete breath (full musical breathing range), both

need to be fully active. To increase our inspiratory register, four methods of control

should be practiced: (a) pelvic, (b) abdominal, (c) intercoastal-dorsal (see Figure 21), and

(d) clavicular.

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Figure 20. Superior view of the pelvic cavity, pelvic floor muscles. Adapted from the

Atlas of Human Anatomy (Netter, 2014). Copyright 2014 by Saunders, Elsevier

Figure 21. Posterior view of back musculature. Adapted from the Atlas of Human

Anatomy (Netter, 2014). Copyright 2014 by Saunders, Elsevier

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Considering all the possibilities of breath control allows great expressive

flexibility to the musical breathing construction. It is a system for performing rhythmical

breathing. At the first stage, before the onset of inhalation, a pre-inhale rest is performed.

In it, postural accommodations to optimize the flexibility of the breathing muscles could

be made, along with a clear intention of communication (e.g., simple emotional

communication: thinking about happiness). Once the communication is clear and the

physical ability can support the breathing requirements, decisions about the conductive

airways need to be made. Will inhalation occur through the nose, mouth, through both?

What about exhalation? Different combinations are possible, and individual preferences

and musical needs will come into play. Nonetheless, it is important to consider the

protective capacity of nose inhalation, since impurities of the environment are filtered by

mucous membrane in the nostrils (Ramacharaka, 1932). Once this is settled, we can

engage our musical breathing range by controlling its methods and cycles; thus,

facilitating temporal control (rhythmic breathing). Once a breath cycle is complete a new

one can restart actively of passively from the communication level, or from the

conducting airway level (see Figure 22).

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Figure 22. Musical breathing approach for temporal control.

Musical Breathing and Well-Being

One of the premises of musical breathing is its capacity to facilitate well-being.

During this study, conceptual talks about well-being were not explicitly introduced to

participants. Regardless, participants who completed the measure after receiving musical

breathing workshops and recording a performance task using their temporal control

system, reported elevated scores on a self-reported test of mental well-being. The

significant difference between control and treatment group suggests that musical

breathing benefited participants’ overall mood towards the positive spectrum. This was

anticipated, since extensive reviews exist on controlled breathing facilitating emotional

regulation, stress management, and affecting overall well-being (Brabant, van de Ree,

Erkkila, 2017; Kleinman & Buckoke, 2017; Ramacharaka, 1932; Sarananda, 2016).

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Implications

Musical breathing focuses the respiration process as part of an internalized value

system and communicative musical instrument. It can be performed rhythmically and

expressively, and it is capable of producing various timbres depending on the intensity

and location of air impacting the conducting airways. What guitarists explored during this

study was the practice of musical breathing coupled with guitar performance.

Comparable with a singer coupling the voice with a harmonic instrument; similarly,

musical breathing can be coupled with any other musical instrument. Each type of

instrument and style will show distinct patterns of musical breathing. In this study, a slow

controlled musical breathing phrase was performed while playing two musical passages

(see Figure 23 and Figure 24). Results from a comparison with a matched grouped who

only performed guitar (with no breathing direction), showed that the group who coupled

the musical breathing phrase with the guitar’s melodic line, performed better than the

ones that were not fully aware of their breathing while playing.

Figure 23. Ascending chromatic scale from E2 to G#5 (Guitar), Asymmetrical coupling

25:1, notes to breath ratio with seven beats inhale, and five beats exhale (Musical

Breathing).

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Figure 24. Variation of measure number seven from Capricho Árabe by Francisco

Tárrega (Guitar). Asymmetrical coupling 15:2; first cycle: 4¾ beats inhale, 4¼ exhale;

second cycle: 2 beats inhale, 2 beats exhale (Musical Breathing).

Additionally, this study overcame limitations found in previous research regarding

breath coordination with motor tasks, where breathing instructions compromised the

ability to generate precise limb movements coordination due to possible cognitive

interference (Hessler and Amazeen, 2009; Wilke, Lansing, and Rogers, 1975). It was

observed that a hundred-minute conditioning was enough to avoid intense intrusive

thoughts that could have affected the motor task precision. In fact, performance measures

showed accuracy in guitar performance was enhanced. When studying a musical

instrument, or any type of psychomotor coordination, our learning process involves a

correction of errors that were detrimental to our movement goals. The learning culture of

music seems to aspire degrees of technical precision to allow desired expressivities.

These results clarified the role of cognitive interference in guitarist who tested this

musical breathing approach. Their performance was better rated than control group, and

after a hundred minutes of practice there was non-significant differences in cognitive

interference measures, suggesting that breathing instructions were not detrimental to their

artistic performance.

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When participants reported body awareness, overall comparison yielded similar

results. Nonetheless, differences in relation to perceived tension were most notorious.

Control group seemed to have been more aware of tension while performing, while

treatment group was more aware of tension location. These two trends suggest further

investigation would be helpful to better understand a complex relationship between

musical breathing and body tension.

Furthermore, having a significant positive impact in mental well-being highlights

perhaps one of the most powerful aspects of musical breathing. Its psychophysiological

properties seem to facilitate a more positive self-construction when applying it to

psychomotor coordination. In the case of this study, an advanced coordination was

performed using guitars, but this type of musical breathing could be applied to many

different aspects of life, and simpler motor coordination as well (e.g., sitting). Research

has identified positive effects of controlled breathing in therapeutic situations, and to

facilitate emotional regulation (Brabant, van de Ree, Erkkila, 2017; Kleinman &

Buckoke, 2017; Ramacharaka, 1932; Sarananda, 2016). This study adds to these positive

findings and highlights the need to investigate various types of well-being and their

possible causal paths. If musical breathing can aid, its practice could be investigated

beyond artistic endeavors.

For the education of musical breathing affective objectives and psychomotor

learning tasks were fundamental to develop proper breathing movements. Positive

affective reactions to musical breathing education was an important component for the

success of guitarists being able to feel good about their contribution to the study, and

their openness to practice and move sometimes beyond their usual actions with the guitar.

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Additionally, the evaluation of musical breathing exercises guitarists completed,

is helpful to better comprehend the complex relation that controlled breathing and precise

psychomotor behavior has. From a variety of eight type of musical breathing exercises

for guitar, slow controlled breathing was rated as most useful to learn breathing control,

to apply to repertoire situations, and to use it themselves in their playing routines. This

information gives another perspective on our original inquiry of slow controlled

breathing to enhance performance. Observations made by raters with performance scales

showed this type of pattern does enhance performance, and performers seem to agree.

Recommendations

For future research. This study did not measure physiological variables.

Assumptions were made that participants, as advanced musicians, would be able to learn

to couple their breathing (with minimal technique development) using rhythmic music

notation to perform musical breathing tasks, and would be able to maintain a repetitive

breathing pattern during the posttest. From observational logs during posttest, participants

were able to perform the task with minimal issues. Unfortunately, body position was not

rated. Video evidence of postural management, plus detailing the effects of musical

breathing in lung capacity, blood oxygenation measures, breathing and heart rate, would

provide additional variables for analysis of physical control of musical breathing.

Additionally, acoustic measures could detail the frequency (as measured in Hertz)

in relation to volume capacity of the respiratory system. Also, performance measures

need to provide acoustic physical evidence. Representations of the vibration cycle could

aid to identify more reliable information in accuracy, tone quality, rhythm, tempo, and

dynamic control. Multiple experimental designs could help resolve various questions in

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terms of the process to acquire an advanced musical breathing technique and the coupling

relationships with different motor tasks.

Educational research could focus on the learning and teaching process of musical

breathing education, on how it can be incorporated to the multiple instrumental

pedagogies, and multiple musical settings. Research on curriculum could be focused on

specific methods of instruction, content structure, and implementation in various types of

educational endeavors. Philosophical development of musical breathing could be

considered in connection to existential studies, and cultural ramifications.

In this study, awareness was something related to multiple variables. Despite the

effects of musical breathing on awareness, which was focused from affective and

psychomotor perspectives, higher loads of cognitive performance were not measured.

Studying the relationships of musical breathing and cognitive tests could highlight

diverse connections between breathing, the musical mind, and other areas of human

thought and activity.

Research on creativity could also be explored, due to the emphasis of artistic

autonomy in musical breathing. It is indispensable that musicians create their own

breathing patterns based on their temporal needs. The types of exercises and controls

created for this study give a systematic design to develop control and expression. Also,

creative teaching methods for different ages, and forms of musical education should be

looked at, since musical breathing begins with its physiological development.

For practice. Musical breathing underlines the existence of every musician,

whether aware or not, it operates within a range that allows the regular functioning of the

body. Awareness of musical breathing bypasses the autonomic process and elevates

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breathing to an advanced form of human coordination, it allows artistic expression, it

affects psychomotor, and affective development, and it has a positive effect on mental

well-being. Thus, musical breathing could be considered a creative practice at the core of

any musical endeavor.

The intricacies of the breathing controls indicate that technical mastery requires

extensive practice. Accordingly, being active with the maintenance of the musical

breathing instrument and practicing musical breathing workouts can help refine and

maintain efficient breathing techniques. Musical breathing can operate as a musical

warm-up for ensembles or solo performers. Emotional control can be coupled with

diverse breathing rhythms depending on individual’s need to convey specific emotional

patterns.

For guitar, a specific musical breathing approach (slow controlled and continues

inhale while performing, exhale with vibrating note) was tested and showed success to

better perform fast passages. Possibly, similar results could be obtained with different

type of guitar literature, thus, musicians need to stablish how to approach their breathing

rhythm based on their breathing capabilities, instrumental ability and artistic demands.

Similar attempts could be practiced with other instruments, like piano, bowed-string

instruments, other plucked-string instruments, percussion, and any type of non-wind

instrument. Vocal, and wind instruments limit the autonomy of the musical breathing

process, since their acoustic production depends on breath output and management. Thus,

a more restricted approach to musical breathing is practiced. Nonetheless, the technical

principles underlining musical breathing are the same. So, any breathing technique

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should address its physiological basis to fulfill its demands. When breathing techniques

are taught without precision, the techniques can create maladaptive habits in the musical

breathing.

Finally, it is important to recognize some of the main features this study provides.

First, it was found that performance of fast guitar passages can be enhanced when using a

controlled slow breathing approach. Second, a hundred-minute education intervention

was sufficient to avoid cognitive interference or major processing failure due to added

loads of breathing while performing. Third, body connection scales showed interesting

trends of different reaction regarding tension awareness from groups who used musical

breathing compare with groups that did not. Fourth, mental well-being was notably

improved when using musical breathing in guitar performance. Fifth, receptiveness and

responsiveness overall improved after musical breathing education workshops.

The process and results of this research highlight new paths of musical and

educational endeavor. This study presents reliable performance marks and their changes

when using musical breathing actively. Musical breathing is a theoretical construct that

provides a framework to better understand the relationship between musical performance

and breathing. For non-wind instrumentalists, this was an effort to test empirically how to

use breathing to enhance performance, expressiveness, and well-being. For wind-

instrumentalists and vocalists, musical breathing shows a system to better comprehend

the breathing instrument from a psychophysiological and anatomical perspective,

showing possibilities to enhance its use in multiple settings.

Related to plucked-string performance, this study showed that it is possible to

incorporate musical breathing as a fundamental aspect of guitar technique. Thus,

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providing a new development for guitar pedagogy. Muscle action is affected by musical

breathing, and we know that for performance it is affected in positive ways. Yet, many

psychophysiological marks are necessary to know with certainty how exactly various

musical breathing rhythms can alter the body and mind operation. Musical breathing

helped guitarists perceive their mental well-being under more positive light, even after

performing draining musical tasks. The relationship between musical breathing and well-

being was the strongest finding in this study. Musical breathing can serve connect music,

health, and well-being, as fundamental aspects of an integral education of music.

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APPENDIX A

PARTICIPANT CONSENT FORM

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University of Miami CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN A RESEARCH STUDY

(A Musical Breathing Approach with Guitar Performance)

The following information describes the research study in which you are being asked to participate. Please read the information carefully. At the end, you will be asked to sign if you agree.

PURPOSE OF STUDY:

You are being asked to participate in a research study. The purpose of this study is to develop and test a method to enhance guitar performance outcomes in terms of accuracy, tone quality, rhythm, tempo, body position, and attitudes.

PROCEDURES:

• First, you will complete a pretest that consists on playing a musical scale on the guitar. Pretests will last approximately 10 minutes for each participant and will be done once during your weekly guitar lesson time.

• Based on the results of the pretest you will be matched by levels of ability and assigned randomly to an experimental group (experimental group will undergo two technique workshops), or a control group (no special treatment).

• After pretest results and group assignment, you will be asked to perform two guitar passages while being recorded (audio and video). This step will last approximately 15 minutes and will be done on a later date during your weekly guitar lesson time.

• The recordings will be sent to professional raters (e.g., guitar professors) for evaluation.

• After completing the performance recording, you will be asked to answer four questionnaires. This will last approximately 20 minutes and will be done during your weekly guitar lesson time.

• The questionnaires require you to respond matters of body connection, cognitive interference, well-being, and attitudes.

• In addition, if assigned to the experimental group, you will be asked to attend two special technique workshops done in the regular guitar studio time on Fridays. Each workshop will last 60 minutes.

RISKS AND/OR DISCOMFORTS: We do not think you will experience any personal risk or discomfort from taking part in this study.

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BENEFITS:

No direct benefit is promised to you for your time in the study. CONFIDENTIALITY: • All data will be collected and stored on a password protected computer assigned to the

principal investigator within University of Miami premises. • Audio recordings will be sent to raters without any identifiable information other than

participant assigned number.

Organizations that may inspect and copy your information include the IRB and other representatives of this organization. Your information may be looked at and/or copied for research or regulatory purposes by:

• The sponsor, if any; • Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS); • other government agencies; • other University of Miami employees for audit and/or monitoring purposes;

and • other organizations collaborating in the research

RIGHT TO DECLINE OR WITHDRAW:

Your participation in this study is voluntary. You are free to refuse to participate in the study or withdraw your consent at any time during the study.

CONTACT INFORMATION: Victor Rubio (786-804-8871), under the supervision of Dr. Stephen Zdzinski (305) 284-6658, will gladly answer any questions you may have concerning the purpose, procedures, and outcome of this project. If you have questions about your rights as a research subject you may contact Human Subjects Research Office at the University of Miami, at (305) 243-3195.

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PARTICIPANT AGREEMENT:

I have read the information in this consent form and agree to participate in this study. I have had the chance to ask any questions I have about this study, and they have been answered for me. I am entitled to a copy of this form after it has been read and signed.

________________ Printed Name of Participant ________________ __________________ Signature of Participant Date ________________ Printed Name of Person Obtaining Consent ________________ ____________ Signature of Person Obtaining Consent Date

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APPENDIX B

GUITAR SOLO TEST

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Instructions

Under each factor, mark the appropriate statement according to the provided criteria. Use audio recording for note accuracy, tone quality, rhythm and tempo, and expressiveness.

Participant number: __________________________________

Note Accuracy

__ All notes are accurate and played with confidence.

__ Most notes are accurate (1-2 errors).

__ Several notes are not accurate (3-4 errors).

__ Many notes are not accurate (5-6 errors).

__ Most notes are not accurate (7 or more errors).

Tone Quality

__ Performs with a rich, full tone; no buzzing or twang.

__ Sound is warm but needs to be richer and fuller.

__ Occasional buzzing; tone could be a little richer.

__ Fair tone quality – tone is sometimes weak with buzzing.

__ Poor tone quality – tone is often weak with frequent buzzing.

Rhythm and Tempo

__ All rhythms are precise, with a constant steady beat at correct tempo.

__ Most rhythms are precise (1-2 errors), beat/tempo changes occasionally.

__ Most rhythms are precise (3-4 errors), a few pauses, tempo changes occasionally.

__ Several incorrect rhythms (5-6 errors), several pauses, tempo changes frequently.

__ Many incorrect rhythms (7+ errors), frequent pauses, unable to perform at correct tempo.

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Expressiveness

__ Performer plays with ease, expresses adequate phrasing, energetic playing, and focused attention.

__ Performer plays with ease, phrasing is adequate, playing is not consistently energetic, and attention is lost after a few repetitions.

__ Performer plays with difficulty, phrasing is adequate, energetic playing and attention are lost after a few repetitions.

__ Performer plays with difficulty, expresses inadequate phrasing, energetic playing and attention are lost after a few repetitions.

__ Performer plays with difficulty, expresses inadequate phrasing, lacks energy to play, and cannot focus attention.

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APPENDIX C

COGNITIVE INTERFERENCE QUESTIONNAIRE

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Cognitive Interference Questionnaire for Guitar Performance Instructions Please indicate the degree of agreement with each of the following statements thinking about the task you just completed. Strongly

Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly

Agree 1. I thought about how poorly I was doing

2. I thought about what the experimenter would think of me

3. I thought about how I should play more carefully

4. I thought about how others have done on this task

5. I thought about the difficulty of the passages

6. I thought about my level of ability

7. I thought about how often I get confused

8. My mind wandered off the performing task

9. Concentrating on breathing was detrimental to my performance

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APPENDIX D

SCALE OF BODY CONNECTION

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Scale of Body Connection for Guitar Performance

Participant Number:_______________________

Instructions: For each statement please check the box that best answers the way you felt while performing the guitar passages. There are no right answers, please answer truthfully.

Strongly Disagree

Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

1. I am aware if there is tension in my body while performing.

2. If my breathing becomes shallow while performing, I notice it.

3. I can feel my breath travel through my upper body when I breath

4. If I am uncomfortable while performing, I notice what might have caused the discomfort.

5. When I am tense, I take note of where the tension is located in my body

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APPENDIX E

SCALE OF MENTAL WELL-BEING

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Scale of Mental Well-Being Scale

Participant Number:___________________________

Below are some statements about feelings and thoughts. Respond honestly based on your process during the last two weeks. Please mark the box that best describes the degree you think this study for guitar performance has affected each one.

1 2 3 4 5 1. It helps me feel optimistic about the future

2. It helps me feel useful

3. It helps me feel relaxed

4. It helps me have energy to spare

5. It helps me deal with problems well

6. It helps me think clearly

7. It helps me feel good about myself

8. It helps me feel confident

9. It helps me to make up my own mind about things

10. It helps me feel interested in new things

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APPENDIX F

ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE (PRE-WORKSHOPS)

114

Attitudes Questionnaire (Pre-Workshops)

True, False, Uncertain

Directions. For the following statements provide a (T) if true, (F) if false, or (U) if uncertain.

1. Active controlled breathing can be coupled with guitar performance ( ). 2. Control of intercoastal and abdominal muscles facilitate controlled breathing ( ). 3. Slow-controlled breathing can help improve relaxation while performing guitar

passages ( ).

Yes, No, Uncertain

Directions. For the following questions please respond (Y) if yes, (N) if no, (U) if uncertain. Consider each question carefully and answer as honestly and as frankly as possible.

4. Do you practice active breathing exercises to enhance your guitar playing ability ( )? 5. Have you applied active breathing approaches to your guitar practice sessions ( )?

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APPENDIX G

ATTITUDES QUESTIONNAIRE (POST-WORKSHOPS)

116

Attitudes Questionnaire (Post-Workshops)

True, False, Uncertain

Directions. For the following statements provide a (T) if true, (F) if false, or (U) if uncertain.

1. Active controlled breathing can be coupled with guitar performance ( ). 2. Control of intercoastal and abdominal muscles facilitate controlled breathing ( ). 3. Slow-controlled breathing can help improve relaxation while performing guitar

passages ( ).

Yes, No, Uncertain

Directions. For the following questions please respond (Y) if yes, (N) if no, (U) if uncertain. Consider each question carefully and answer as honestly and as frankly as possible.

4. Would you incorporate breathing approaches to your guitar playing ( )? 5. Would you like to know how to apply controlled breathing to improve your guitar

performance ability ( )? 6. Do you practice active breathing exercises to enhance your guitar playing ability ( )? 7. Have you applied active breathing approaches to your guitar practice sessions ( )?

Agree, Disagree, Uncertain

Directions. Please respond with an (A) if you agree the statement provided brings satisfaction to your life. Respond with a (D) if you feel you do not get this satisfaction. Use the (U) if you are uncertain to your general attitude, or if the statement seems unclear or meaningless.

8. I find relaxation in playing while using a controlled breathing approach ( ). 9. Being aware of my breathing while I play guitar allows me to connect more

profoundly with the music ( ). 10. Breathing actively allows me to express myself better while playing the guitar ( ).

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APPENDIX H

EVALUATION OF MUSICAL BREATHING EXERCISES

118

Evaluation of Musical Breathing Exercises

Instructions

Please rate each of the following exercises by circling the number best fits your experience.

Are these exercises useful to acquire breathing control while playing guitar?

Ex. 1 – 2 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 3 – 4 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 5 – 6 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 7, 8, 11, 16 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 9 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 12 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 10, 13, 14, 15 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 17 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much

Are these exercises transferable to guitar repertoire contexts?

Ex. 1 – 2 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 3 – 4 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 5 – 6 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 7, 8, 11, 16 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 9 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 12 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 10, 13, 14, 15 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 17 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much

Would you consider incorporating these exercises to your warm-up routine or technique practice?

Ex. 1 – 2 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 3 – 4 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 5 – 6 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 7, 8, 11, 16 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 9 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 12 – 17 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 10, 13, 14, 15 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much Ex. 17 Not at all – 1 2 3 4 5 – Very much

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APPENDIX I

WORKSHOPS DESIGN AND EXERCISES DESCRIPTIONS

120

Music Education Research

Víctor M. Rubio

University of Miami, Frost School of Music

A Musical Breathing Approach with Guitar Performance

Workshops

These series of workshops are designed to provide participants with knowledge

regarding basic anatomy of the breathing system, as well as simple breathing physiology

understanding. Also, participants will be able to develop and practice breathing

techniques to gain control and flexibility of their breathing apparatus. Similarly, applied

techniques to guitar performance will be learned and rehearsed. Workshops are meant to

increase awareness and enhance participants attitudes towards breathing as a core

component of their guitar technique and performance.

Guiding Questions

1. Why is controlled breathing a skill worth developing?

2. How can controlled mindful breathing serve musical and artistic performance?

3. What methods can we practice to enhance our breathing skill?

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Goals

1. Perform breathing techniques comfortably.

2. Recognize different values of controlled breathing for musical performance.

3. Adapt breathing techniques to guitar performance

Criteria

1. Demonstrate suggested breathing techniques and exercises in a calm demeanor.

2. Discuss the impact of controlled breathing in human activity, including musical

performance.

3. Explore different ways of conscious breathing while performing guitar passages

Activities

1. Lectures on breathing mechanisms, controlled breathing exercises with and without the

guitar, posture exercises.

2. Discussions on implications of controlled breathing in multiple settings, exposition of

research findings.

3. Performance of controlled breathing while playing guitar passages, explorations of

different breathing points for the same musical passage.

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Sessions

Session 1. Presentation of workshops structure, aims, and activities. Lecture on

breathing mechanism. Discussion of participants views and experiences regarding

breathing and music. Breathing techniques presentation. Breathing technique practice

exercises. Application to guitar exercises.

Session 2. Presentation of research findings on breathing and various activities.

Discussion of participants views and experiences regarding breathing and music.

Breathing techniques presentation. Breathing technique practice exercises. Application to

guitar exercises.

Contents

Lecture on breathing mechanism. This lecture provides information on the

value and components of the breathing system.

Overview of breathing existential philosophy.

Anatomical review of the breathing components (airway, lungs, breathing muscles,

posture) with visual aids.

Presentation of breathing techniques. A review of breathing techniques,

methods, and theories of inhalation and exhalation will be presented.

Vital capacity.

Mouth vs. nose inhalation.

Managing vital capacity.

Clavicular, intercoastal, and abdominal breathing.

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Breathing exercises for guitar. Breathing exercises created to manage vital

capacity, relaxation, control airway passages, breathing muscles, and posture will be

practiced alongside participants.

Relaxation Exercises:

1. Musical meditation. This exercise is done while sitting in a playing position

holding the instrument and with the eyes closed. Participants are encouraged to

perceive their body from top to bottom. Then, they are encouraged to focus on

sounds from the outside and inside the room they are in. Finally, they are

encouraged to focus on their breathing (mindful breathing without judgement of

their breathing, just awareness).

2. Free breathing. This exercise allows participants to breath according to their

own criteria but with awareness on inhalation and exhalation, as they count 5

complete cycles.

Posture and Flexibility:

1. Sitting posture. Participants analyze the postural axis for muscle efficiency and

practice a balanced sitting posture.

2. Neck stretches. Holding the guitar in playing position, extend neck towards the

right side trying to touch the ear to the relaxed shoulder, inhale and exhale in

this position and return neck to original position. Repeat for the left side.

3. Chest stretches. Holding the guitar in playing position, extend the right arm

parallel to the floor, stretch back to feel a gentle pull on the chest, hold the

position and complete a breath cycle and return the arm to its original position.

Repeat for the left side.

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4. Shoulder stretches: Holding the guitar in playing position, extend both arms

towards the front parallel to the floor, interlace the fingers of the hands facing

the palms, and stretch arms to the front feeling a gentle pull on the shoulders,

extend the neck in the same direction by facing towards the floor, complete a

breath cycle in the position and return to original position.

5. Intercoastal stretches. Holding the guitar in playing position, bring the right arm

to your head so the palm is touching the back of the head, stretch to the opposite

side as further as possible, hold the position until completing one breath cycle

and return to original position. Repeat for the other side.

Controlling airway passages:

1. Silent and loud breathing. Holding the guitar in playing position, breath in

through the nose creating sound by the air hitting the nostrils, breath out

creating the same sound. Next, breath in through the nose creating sound by the

air hitting the nasal cavity and pharynx, breath out creating the same sound.

After, create sound by breathing in through the mouth and allowing the air to hit

the palate, breath out the creating the same sound. Subsequently, create the

sound by hitting air with the pharynx using the mouth to breath in, exhale the

same way. Finally, practice both nose inhalation/exhalation and mouth

inhalation/exhalation creating no perceivable sound.

2. Nose breathing. Breath in silently through the nose and exhale though the

mouth. Breath in through the nose and exhale through the nose.

3. Mouth breathing. Breath in silently though the mouth and exhale though the

mouth. Breath in through the mouth and exhale through the nose.

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4. Mixed breathing. Breath in silently though the nose and mouth and exhale

though the mouth. Breath in through the nose and mouth and exhale through the

nose.

Control of breathing muscles:

1. Chest control. In a playing position with the guitar, raise the chest as much as

possible pulling the shoulders back. After, sink in the chest as much as possible

by allowing the shoulders to come forward. Practice the feeling of these two

extreme positions, and find the natural balance in between.

2. Clavicular breathing. Use the chest control exercise coupling it with breathing.

Breath in silently through the nose while raising the chest, breath out through

the mouth while lowering the chest. Invert the pattern and breath in while

lowering the chest, and breath out while raising the chest. The inversion helps

create independence in the control between air management and breathing

muscles.

3. Abdominal control. Extend the abdominal muscles by pushing the abdomen

forward, then contract the abdomen as much as possible by pulling the abdomen

in as much as possible. Practice these extreme feelings and find the natural

relaxed position for the abdomen.

4. Abdominal breathing. Couple the abdominal control exercise with breathing.

First, breath in silently through the nose while expanding the abdomen, and

breath out through the mouth by contracting the abdomen. Invert the pattern by

breathing in while contracting and breathing out while expanding.

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5. Intercoastal control. Extend the intercoastal muscles by opening the ribcage at

the point where the elbows touch. For this maneuver the dorsal muscles from

the back must be engaged to help pull the ribcage open. Also, in some cases, the

contraction of the abdomen might help the ribcage muscles expand outwards.

Once the ribcage is comfortably open, relax and repeat.

6. Intercoastal breathing. Couple intercoastal control, with breathing. Since the

opening of the ribcage allows the expansion of the lower lobes of the lungs, the

coupling of this control should be done breathing in silently while expanding

the rib cage and breathing out while relaxing it. Is not necessary to invert as this

is one of the fundamental aspects of controlled breathing.

Managing vital capacity:

1. Maximizing vital capacity. Exhale the expiratory reserve to the point of

subsisting with the residual air. Then, using a volumetric exerciser (e.g.,

Voldyne 5000) inhale using the mouth to the maximum point of inspiratory

capacity (close to 5000 mL of inspired volume). If using an incentive deep

breathing exerciser (e.g., Triflo II), exhale expiratory reserve and inhale through

the mouth (aim for 1200 cc per second for 3 seconds).

2. Points of control. Using abdominal-intercoastal silent breathing, breath in

through the nose and out through the mouth. For this exercise, start by exhaling

(exhaling control, EC), hold the position before breathing again (pre-inhale

control, PIC), inhale (inhale control, IC) in a little over the regular tidal

capacity, hold the position before exhaling again (pre-exhale control, PEC), and

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repeat the cycle. For more advanced practice, smartphone applications (e.g.,

Prana Breath) could be used to do guided practices.

3. Temporal control. This is an extension of the exercises of points of control. Just

assign a number of beats to each point of control. Patterns could be symmetrical

(e.g., PIC – 4 beats, IC – 4 beats, PEC – 4 beats, EC – 4 beats) or asymmetrical

(e.g., PIC – 3 beats, IC – 1 beat, PEC – 2 beats, EC – 8 beats).

4. Reversing the cycle. This exercise should be creatively designed by participants.

Using the model of points of control, and temporal control a breathing cycle that

possesses inversed cycles could be created (e.g., IC – 2 beats, PIC – 1 beat, IC –

2 beats, PEC – 2 beats, EC – 3 beats, IC – 4 beats, EC – 3 beats, PEC – 1 beat,

EC – 6 beats).

Musical breathing exercises for guitar. These exercises were created to facilitate the

control of musical breathing while performing guitar (see exercises in Appendix J) .

Basic Coupling of Breathing and Guitar Performance:

1. Simple ratios. When a full breathing cycle (inhale and exhale) is

completed while performing one attack on any single note or chord it is

considered a 1:1 ratio, regardless of the rhythm performed with the

breathing or the guitar. In that sense, a 2:1 ratio means two musical attacks

are performed against one full breath cycle (see exercises 1 & 2).

2. Simple ratios with points of control extension (PCE). For this exercises

points of control or retention are added after or before the inhale or exhale

(see exercises 3 & 4).

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Control of Airway Passages:

1. Nose breathing and mouth breathing. Despite the change in ratios and in

the number of notes and chords, these exercises are meant to help

guitarists control their airway passages (e.g., nose and mouth). Exercise 5

is meant to be performed inhaling and exhaling through the nose, while

exercise 6 is meant to be performed inhaling and exhaling through the

mouth.

Asymmetrical Coupling.

1. Musically passive exhale (MPE). This type of exhale is meant to be

performed when there is a musical rest (see exercise 7).

2. Asymmetrical coupling with points of control extension. In the case of

exercise 8, the points of control are performed asymmetrically while there

are musical rests.

3. Asymmetrical coupling with points of control and musically passive

exhale. Exercise 11 requires guitarists to perform a scale while inhaling,

control and exhale during musical rests. Note there is no point of control

before inhalation.

Slow Breath Control:

1. To perform slow breathing, musicians need to control the amount of air

and the length of inhale. If total inhale capacity is reached too early,

tension will be a resultant. Thus, guitarists need to pace their inhaling

while performing (see exercise 9).

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Reversed Cycle:

1. Humans present a breathing flexibility that allows the reversing or

repetition of part of the breathing cycle. For example, two inhales in a

row, rather than traditional inhale followed by an exhale. Exercise 10

reverses the cycle while also adding points of control during the inhale

process.

Fast Breathing:

1. Short breaths. Exercises 12 to 15 use a combination of previously worked

techniques but require the breathing cycle to be performed in a faster

rhythm.

Complex Coupling:

1. Asymmetrical coupling against two breathing cycles. Exercise 16 requires

the performance of a musical scale using slow breathing in one cycle, and

a slightly shorter breath during musical rests before restarting.

.

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APPENDIX J

MUSICAL BREATHING EXERCISES FOR GUITAR

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