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Community DevelopmentPublication details including instructions for authors andsubscription informationhttpwwwtandfonlinecomloircod20

A general theory of community-buildingin its application in a multi-ethnicsetting the Kosovo caseHrachia A Kazhoyan a ba Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Regional Centre Mitrovicae co OSCE Secretariat in ViennaWallnerstrasse 6 Vienna A-1010 Austriab National Academy of Sciences Institute of Philosophy Sociologyand Law Yerevan 00002 ArmeniaPublished online 25 May 2012

To cite this article Hrachia A Kazhoyan (2012) A general theory of community-building in itsapplication in a multi-ethnic setting the Kosovo case Community Development 432 225-243DOI 101080155753302011575232

To link to this article httpdxdoiorg101080155753302011575232

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CD CASE

A general theory of community-building in its application in a

multi-ethnic setting the Kosovo case

Hrachia A Kazhoyanab

aOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Regional Centre Mitrovicaeco OSCE Secretariat in Vienna Wallnerstrasse 6 Vienna A-1010 Austria bNational Academyof Sciences Institute of Philosophy Sociology and Law Yerevan 00002 Armenia

This paper discusses the evolution of community-building in conflict-proneKosovo While analyzing the application of a general concept of community-building in a concrete multi-ethnic setting current needs and prerequisites formulti-ethnic community development are discussed and a set of policyrecommendations is proposed Community-building usually refers to a partici-pative process of responding to local challenges through organizing andstrengthening social connections and building common values However tounderstand that process in a multi-ethnic setting within the context of ongoingdecentralization in Kosovo the issue of civil and ethnic identity and identity-related perceptions and values are considered as well

Keywords community-building multi-ethnic community policy communicationsocial change leadership institutional development

1 Introduction

For centuries the Balkans has beenknown for its unique blend of nationaltraditions and ethnic aspirations thatinterweaving through history ensuredexchange peace and prosperity (Bailey2000 Hammond 2004 Milojkovic-Djuric 2006) This diversity has fasci-nated and influenced the outside worldbut at times it caused suffering terrorand wars (Glenny 2002 Mazower2002) And today when the strugglebetween the forces of global unificationand ethno-national seclusion persis-tently brings the issue of multiculturalsociety into focus the very notion ofdiversity becomes important within thecontext of the modern quest for social

deconstruction under democratic prin-ciples of pluralism equal opportunitiesand respect of the rights of all themembers of society (Riggs 2002) AndKosovorsquos efforts and prospects inmulti-ethnic community-building arein the spotlight

Progressively attracting interna-tional attention since the beginning ofthe conflict this issue has been con-sidered vital for peacekeeping anddevelopment in Kosovo as well as foroverall stability in the region Amongmany other countries Japan has alsosupported the process In her openingremarks at the Seminar on CommunityBuilding in the Multi-ethnic Societiesof the Western Balkans Japanrsquos Vice-

Email hrachiagmailcom

Community Development

Vol 43 No 2 May 2012 225ndash243

ISSN 1557-5330 printISSN 1944-7485 online

2012 Community Development Society

httpdxdoiorg101080155753302011575232

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

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Minister of Foreign Affairs ProfAkiko Yamanaka proposed

On political front capacity buildingof local authorities is one of theimportant key elements of the com-munity building Protection of min-ority rights as well as the return andsettlement of refugees and internallydisplaced persons could be facilitatedif local capacities were properlyenhanced Media is also impor-tant for reconciliation Multilingualbroadcasting and ethnically unbiasedprograms are viable tools to promotemutual understanding (Yamanaka2006 x 6)

There seems to be a common under-standing of the overarching goal andrecognition of the need (Cocozzelli2010 European Stability Initiative2006 Independent International Com-mission on Kosovo 2004) Howeverthis evident target of a multi-ethnicsociety in Kosovo has not been materi-alized in any tangible strategy yet(Kazhoyan 2008) It still lacks a visionand therefore no benchmarks can beset to measure the progress Thereforethe process of multi-ethnic community-building still needs to be conceptua-lized in order to establish viableapproaches and polices for developingsustainable collective action

The purpose of this paper is topropose such a policy framework byintroducing and explicating the generaltheory of community-building in itsapplication in a multi-ethnic settingCommunity-building usually refers to aparticipatory process of responding tolocal challenges through organizingand strengthening social connectionsand building common values (Ledwith1983 Philips amp Pittman 2009) Therewere many examples of successfulcooperation and capacity-building incommunity development processes(Anderson 1990 Eade 1997) In addi-tion to models of community develop-ment that emphasize skills training and

the setting up of formal organizationsAlison Gilchrist advocated for a viewof a community development lsquolsquowhichaims to create and maintain the condi-tions in which people with differentidentities and competing interests canmanage disagreements and resolveconflictsrsquorsquo (1998 p 75) She proposeda 12-step community empowermentprocess in the following order recogni-tion tolerance information exchangedialogue empathy mediation sharedcommitment negotiation trust coali-tion alliances and resolution andjustice ndash and provided a frameworkfor conflict resolution

However with their specifics andunique development contexts the con-flict-prone communities face certainchallenges Christine Bigdon and Ben-edikt Korf (2004) analyzed the practi-cal experience of traditional relief anddevelopment projects working on com-plex emergencies in the field of com-munity development In contrast to theconflict resolution or conflict manage-ment models they propose a conflicttransformation approach Referring toRothman and Friedman (2001) theyargue that the framework of identity(critical for any conflict transformationdiscourse) involves a paradigm shiftaway from the logic of conflict manage-ment towards logic of local empower-ment Referring to Edward Azar andJohn Burton they write

This model recognizes that the mostintractable conflicts are really aboutthe articulation and confrontation ofindividual and collective identitiesSuch conflicts find their source inthreats to or the frustration of deeplyrooted human needs such as dignityrecognition safety control purposeand efficacy (Azar 1990 Burton 1990)

They conclude that

Analysts working within the identityframe do not see conflicts as pro-blems to be resolved or even

226 HA Kazhoyan

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managed Rather they argue thatthey offer opportunities for growthadaptation and learning (Lederach1995) Conflicts can lead all parties toclarify for themselves their needs andvalues and can thus help them tobetter understand just what causesthem dissatisfaction and satisfaction(Baruch Bush and Folger 1994Bigdon amp Korf 2004 p 7)

Therefore to better understandthat process in a multi-ethnic environ-ment the issue of civil and ethnicidentity and identity-related percep-tions and values should be consideredAt the same time John Kretzmann andJohn McKnight proposed a shift fromthe traditional approach of respondingto the needs of communities to thelsquolsquopathrsquorsquo of capacity-building lsquolsquobecausethe needs-based strategy can guaranteeonly survival and can never lead toserious change or community develop-mentrsquorsquo (1993 p 4) Furthermore in amulti-ethnic setting often the culturaldiversity itself dialogue and exchangeprovide opportunities for developmentand are among the major communityassets (Tishkov amp Filippova 2002)Although there were several projectsof successful capacity-building in amulti-ethnic setting implemented inKosovo1 there were also and stillare cases when traditionally practicedneed-based community developmentapproaches did not tackle importantcivic and ethnic identity questionsfailing to provide viable solutions Asa result representatives of ethnic mino-rities were often secluded from themainstream of development processeswhich at times has led to turmoil indifferent parts of Kosovo (Chigas2006 Hoxhaj 2005)

Conflict transformation throughidentity-based empowerment and in-clusion implies also a shift of theresearch paradigm Since in essence itis about change the research shouldalso lead to change and therefore

change must be incorporated into theresearch process (Stoeker 1996 Tod-hunter 2001 Winter 1989) Because ofthat and also due to the participativenature of the process when it comes tomethodology community membersand many donor or development agen-cies usually refer to the cyclic frame-work of action research

The advancement of action researchis often credited to Kurt Lewin (1946)who used it as a methodology forintervening in the post-war social issuesand described it as a cycle of planningacting observing fact-finding aboutthe result of the action and re-plan-ning Gerald Susman (1983) specifiedfive phases within each research cycleInitially a problem is identified anddata are collected for diagnosis This isfollowed by a collective postulation ofpossible solutions development andimplementation of an action planThen the results of the interventionare analyzed and the outcomes of theaction are defined At that point theproblem is re-assessed another cyclebegins and the process continues untilthe final goal is reached

Robert Rapoport defined actionresearch as the method that lsquolsquoaims tocontribute both to the practical con-cerns of people in an immediate pro-blematic situation and to goals ofsocial science by joint collaborationwithin mutually acceptable ethicalframeworkrsquorsquo (1970 p 499) The meth-od is widely applied today also throughits various ramifications such as parti-cipative action and research (FalsBorda 2000 Fals Borda amp Rahman1991) collaborative inquiry (Reason ampBradbury 2008) and developmentalaction inquiry (Starr amp Torbert 2005)However some researchers considerthat epistemologically action researchaddresses more lsquolsquoimprovementrsquorsquo pro-blems than lsquolsquoconstructionrsquorsquo issues be-cause action research problems mostly

Community Development 227

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are initiated by clients (Iivari 2007)Nevertheless there is always a possibi-lity that during the action researchconstruction will also be initiated andimplemented and limitations for con-structive change can be overcome if theprocess is driven by a shared long-termstrategy or common vision of the endresult (Friend amp Hickling 2005)

Also noteworthy is that in thecontext of the ongoing decentralizationin Kosovo local strategies must fitin the governmentrsquos development dis-courses action plans and policy trendsFor example such actions as abolish-ing the mechanism of fair share finan-cing for ethnic minorities in legislationand lack of approaches for propor-tionate subsidizing of communitiesneed to be addressed through a re-search and guidance from the publicpolicy domain (Peci Dugolli amp Ismai-li 2006)

The article is organized into foursections Following the introductionand a discussion of local identity aprocess model of community develop-ment is tackled and the question ofhow to apply the general theory ofcommunity development in a multi-ethnic society That integrative modelwas previously developed as a result ofa research of the traditional ap-proaches in understanding and mana-ging the process (Kazhoyan 2009)During the past decades differentapproaches have been developed andsuccessfully used in participatory as-sessment planning communicationand social action (Bacon 2009 DeSouza Briggs 2003 Figueroa KincaidRani amp Lewis 2002 Mattessich 2004Rubin amp Rubin 2001) However whileexploring different traits of communitydevelopment they usually did notintegrate civic or ethnic identity con-siderations Meanwhile application ofan identity-sensitive approach wouldhelp the stakeholders and other

participants of the process to appre-hend the multi-ethnic community-building in its entirety and conti-nuation including the multi-ethnicleadership interaction of driving andresisting forces and institutional devel-opment in the broader process ofcommunication for social change In-deed when the entire process and itscomponents are viewed through theprism of its participantsrsquo identity itbecomes possible to answer the ques-tion of how the community members ofdifferent ethnicity come together anddevelop their capacity for carrying outsustainable social change

The article concludes with a sum-mary of recommendations

Applications of this approach indifferent situations for better under-standing of the context and complex-ities of community development anddetermining the necessary policies oraction steps were tested and its benefitsdiscussed in projects and workingcontacts with Kosovo AlbanianRoma Ashkali and Kosovo Serbcommunity members from the mostethnically mixed regions of Kosovosuch as MitroviceMitrovica Prizrenthe Serbian enclave of StrpceShterpceand Roma and Ashkali communitymembers in SallahaneSalahane andDubrava villages of FerizajUrosevacmunicipality Their ethnic compositionmakes them unique among other mu-nicipalities in Kosovo Publicationsworking documents and reports ofdevelopment organizations and donoragencies were also used

The culture of action research isbeing developed in Kosovo It has beenused for instance in developing theYouth Action Plan2 and a model fora Humanitarian Ombudsman3 in de-signing curriculum for nurse educa-tion4 and so forth It is hoped thatthe approach itself and the policyrecommendations would be useful for

228 HA Kazhoyan

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researchers and practitioners in devel-oping strategies and realizing multi-ethnic community-building initiatives

2 Community-building a general

concept

Community-building can be defined asa sustained collective action to achievecommon objectives (Warren Thomp-son amp Saegerst 2001 p 11) It mayinvolve residents community leadersand external professionals workingtogether to achieve agreed social eco-nomic and environmental outcomes Inthe process of civic organizing theseself-renewing efforts of individualsgovernment local national and foreignorganizations strengthen social con-nections and build a capacity to con-tinuously improve the quality of lifethrough finding common ground andresponses to the local problems (DeSouza Briggs 2003) In the process ofproblem-solving such aspects of col-lective action can be mentioned asorganizing and agenda-setting plan-ning implementing and learning to-gether as well as negotiating

To get an insight into community-building such categories as member-ship participation and social changeare often considered (Chen JhabvalaKanbur amp Richards 2007 Jordan ampPile 2002) In human communitieswhere the identity of the participantsand their degree of cohesiveness mat-ter these categories are often beingextrapolated through the intent beliefresources priorities needs of commu-nity members as well as their chal-lenges risks and other present andcommon conditions

In addition to their geographiclocation (local neighborhood suburbvillage town or city region nation oreven the entire planet) communitiescan also be defined in terms of theircultural and organizational unity

Marie Weil (2006) writes that com-munities can be understood either asgeographic entities or as groups thatshare a special concern or identity ndashfunctional communities MarshallGoldsmith (1998) distinguishes geo-graphic religious and cultural commu-nities as well as organizationalcommunities volunteer service com-munities and communities of interestJohn Tropman John Erlich and JackRothman (2006) note that communitiesare nested one community can containanother

At the same time John Puddifoot(1996) notes that the way researchershave defined community have led tothe conceptual confusion First heargues if defined too broadly asneighborhoods community organiza-tions religious groups professionalassociations and so on this bringsthe risk of losing the specific meaningof community or conceptual utilitywhen for instance the same lsquolsquocatchallrsquorsquoterm is used at different levels ofanalysis ranging from small groupssuch as family units to nationalities(Dalton et al 2001) Secondly Puddi-foot also contends that the commonpractice of referring to communities bytype may lead to an artificial polariza-tion As an example of this he men-tions the common practice of referringto two qualitatively distinct yet oftenrelated types of community relationaland locational The notion of nestedcommunities may help overcome thatpolarization one community can con-tain another ndash for example a geo-graphic community may contain anumber of ethnic communities that intheir turn can be intertwined in net-works of culture and professionalcommunities This however makesdifficult defining the borders and map-ping the communities

David McMillan and David Chavis(1986) argue that there is a lsquolsquosense of

Community Development 229

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

230 HA Kazhoyan

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

Community Development 231

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

232 HA Kazhoyan

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

234 HA Kazhoyan

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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Minister of Foreign Affairs ProfAkiko Yamanaka proposed

On political front capacity buildingof local authorities is one of theimportant key elements of the com-munity building Protection of min-ority rights as well as the return andsettlement of refugees and internallydisplaced persons could be facilitatedif local capacities were properlyenhanced Media is also impor-tant for reconciliation Multilingualbroadcasting and ethnically unbiasedprograms are viable tools to promotemutual understanding (Yamanaka2006 x 6)

There seems to be a common under-standing of the overarching goal andrecognition of the need (Cocozzelli2010 European Stability Initiative2006 Independent International Com-mission on Kosovo 2004) Howeverthis evident target of a multi-ethnicsociety in Kosovo has not been materi-alized in any tangible strategy yet(Kazhoyan 2008) It still lacks a visionand therefore no benchmarks can beset to measure the progress Thereforethe process of multi-ethnic community-building still needs to be conceptua-lized in order to establish viableapproaches and polices for developingsustainable collective action

The purpose of this paper is topropose such a policy framework byintroducing and explicating the generaltheory of community-building in itsapplication in a multi-ethnic settingCommunity-building usually refers to aparticipatory process of responding tolocal challenges through organizingand strengthening social connectionsand building common values (Ledwith1983 Philips amp Pittman 2009) Therewere many examples of successfulcooperation and capacity-building incommunity development processes(Anderson 1990 Eade 1997) In addi-tion to models of community develop-ment that emphasize skills training and

the setting up of formal organizationsAlison Gilchrist advocated for a viewof a community development lsquolsquowhichaims to create and maintain the condi-tions in which people with differentidentities and competing interests canmanage disagreements and resolveconflictsrsquorsquo (1998 p 75) She proposeda 12-step community empowermentprocess in the following order recogni-tion tolerance information exchangedialogue empathy mediation sharedcommitment negotiation trust coali-tion alliances and resolution andjustice ndash and provided a frameworkfor conflict resolution

However with their specifics andunique development contexts the con-flict-prone communities face certainchallenges Christine Bigdon and Ben-edikt Korf (2004) analyzed the practi-cal experience of traditional relief anddevelopment projects working on com-plex emergencies in the field of com-munity development In contrast to theconflict resolution or conflict manage-ment models they propose a conflicttransformation approach Referring toRothman and Friedman (2001) theyargue that the framework of identity(critical for any conflict transformationdiscourse) involves a paradigm shiftaway from the logic of conflict manage-ment towards logic of local empower-ment Referring to Edward Azar andJohn Burton they write

This model recognizes that the mostintractable conflicts are really aboutthe articulation and confrontation ofindividual and collective identitiesSuch conflicts find their source inthreats to or the frustration of deeplyrooted human needs such as dignityrecognition safety control purposeand efficacy (Azar 1990 Burton 1990)

They conclude that

Analysts working within the identityframe do not see conflicts as pro-blems to be resolved or even

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managed Rather they argue thatthey offer opportunities for growthadaptation and learning (Lederach1995) Conflicts can lead all parties toclarify for themselves their needs andvalues and can thus help them tobetter understand just what causesthem dissatisfaction and satisfaction(Baruch Bush and Folger 1994Bigdon amp Korf 2004 p 7)

Therefore to better understandthat process in a multi-ethnic environ-ment the issue of civil and ethnicidentity and identity-related percep-tions and values should be consideredAt the same time John Kretzmann andJohn McKnight proposed a shift fromthe traditional approach of respondingto the needs of communities to thelsquolsquopathrsquorsquo of capacity-building lsquolsquobecausethe needs-based strategy can guaranteeonly survival and can never lead toserious change or community develop-mentrsquorsquo (1993 p 4) Furthermore in amulti-ethnic setting often the culturaldiversity itself dialogue and exchangeprovide opportunities for developmentand are among the major communityassets (Tishkov amp Filippova 2002)Although there were several projectsof successful capacity-building in amulti-ethnic setting implemented inKosovo1 there were also and stillare cases when traditionally practicedneed-based community developmentapproaches did not tackle importantcivic and ethnic identity questionsfailing to provide viable solutions Asa result representatives of ethnic mino-rities were often secluded from themainstream of development processeswhich at times has led to turmoil indifferent parts of Kosovo (Chigas2006 Hoxhaj 2005)

Conflict transformation throughidentity-based empowerment and in-clusion implies also a shift of theresearch paradigm Since in essence itis about change the research shouldalso lead to change and therefore

change must be incorporated into theresearch process (Stoeker 1996 Tod-hunter 2001 Winter 1989) Because ofthat and also due to the participativenature of the process when it comes tomethodology community membersand many donor or development agen-cies usually refer to the cyclic frame-work of action research

The advancement of action researchis often credited to Kurt Lewin (1946)who used it as a methodology forintervening in the post-war social issuesand described it as a cycle of planningacting observing fact-finding aboutthe result of the action and re-plan-ning Gerald Susman (1983) specifiedfive phases within each research cycleInitially a problem is identified anddata are collected for diagnosis This isfollowed by a collective postulation ofpossible solutions development andimplementation of an action planThen the results of the interventionare analyzed and the outcomes of theaction are defined At that point theproblem is re-assessed another cyclebegins and the process continues untilthe final goal is reached

Robert Rapoport defined actionresearch as the method that lsquolsquoaims tocontribute both to the practical con-cerns of people in an immediate pro-blematic situation and to goals ofsocial science by joint collaborationwithin mutually acceptable ethicalframeworkrsquorsquo (1970 p 499) The meth-od is widely applied today also throughits various ramifications such as parti-cipative action and research (FalsBorda 2000 Fals Borda amp Rahman1991) collaborative inquiry (Reason ampBradbury 2008) and developmentalaction inquiry (Starr amp Torbert 2005)However some researchers considerthat epistemologically action researchaddresses more lsquolsquoimprovementrsquorsquo pro-blems than lsquolsquoconstructionrsquorsquo issues be-cause action research problems mostly

Community Development 227

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are initiated by clients (Iivari 2007)Nevertheless there is always a possibi-lity that during the action researchconstruction will also be initiated andimplemented and limitations for con-structive change can be overcome if theprocess is driven by a shared long-termstrategy or common vision of the endresult (Friend amp Hickling 2005)

Also noteworthy is that in thecontext of the ongoing decentralizationin Kosovo local strategies must fitin the governmentrsquos development dis-courses action plans and policy trendsFor example such actions as abolish-ing the mechanism of fair share finan-cing for ethnic minorities in legislationand lack of approaches for propor-tionate subsidizing of communitiesneed to be addressed through a re-search and guidance from the publicpolicy domain (Peci Dugolli amp Ismai-li 2006)

The article is organized into foursections Following the introductionand a discussion of local identity aprocess model of community develop-ment is tackled and the question ofhow to apply the general theory ofcommunity development in a multi-ethnic society That integrative modelwas previously developed as a result ofa research of the traditional ap-proaches in understanding and mana-ging the process (Kazhoyan 2009)During the past decades differentapproaches have been developed andsuccessfully used in participatory as-sessment planning communicationand social action (Bacon 2009 DeSouza Briggs 2003 Figueroa KincaidRani amp Lewis 2002 Mattessich 2004Rubin amp Rubin 2001) However whileexploring different traits of communitydevelopment they usually did notintegrate civic or ethnic identity con-siderations Meanwhile application ofan identity-sensitive approach wouldhelp the stakeholders and other

participants of the process to appre-hend the multi-ethnic community-building in its entirety and conti-nuation including the multi-ethnicleadership interaction of driving andresisting forces and institutional devel-opment in the broader process ofcommunication for social change In-deed when the entire process and itscomponents are viewed through theprism of its participantsrsquo identity itbecomes possible to answer the ques-tion of how the community members ofdifferent ethnicity come together anddevelop their capacity for carrying outsustainable social change

The article concludes with a sum-mary of recommendations

Applications of this approach indifferent situations for better under-standing of the context and complex-ities of community development anddetermining the necessary policies oraction steps were tested and its benefitsdiscussed in projects and workingcontacts with Kosovo AlbanianRoma Ashkali and Kosovo Serbcommunity members from the mostethnically mixed regions of Kosovosuch as MitroviceMitrovica Prizrenthe Serbian enclave of StrpceShterpceand Roma and Ashkali communitymembers in SallahaneSalahane andDubrava villages of FerizajUrosevacmunicipality Their ethnic compositionmakes them unique among other mu-nicipalities in Kosovo Publicationsworking documents and reports ofdevelopment organizations and donoragencies were also used

The culture of action research isbeing developed in Kosovo It has beenused for instance in developing theYouth Action Plan2 and a model fora Humanitarian Ombudsman3 in de-signing curriculum for nurse educa-tion4 and so forth It is hoped thatthe approach itself and the policyrecommendations would be useful for

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researchers and practitioners in devel-oping strategies and realizing multi-ethnic community-building initiatives

2 Community-building a general

concept

Community-building can be defined asa sustained collective action to achievecommon objectives (Warren Thomp-son amp Saegerst 2001 p 11) It mayinvolve residents community leadersand external professionals workingtogether to achieve agreed social eco-nomic and environmental outcomes Inthe process of civic organizing theseself-renewing efforts of individualsgovernment local national and foreignorganizations strengthen social con-nections and build a capacity to con-tinuously improve the quality of lifethrough finding common ground andresponses to the local problems (DeSouza Briggs 2003) In the process ofproblem-solving such aspects of col-lective action can be mentioned asorganizing and agenda-setting plan-ning implementing and learning to-gether as well as negotiating

To get an insight into community-building such categories as member-ship participation and social changeare often considered (Chen JhabvalaKanbur amp Richards 2007 Jordan ampPile 2002) In human communitieswhere the identity of the participantsand their degree of cohesiveness mat-ter these categories are often beingextrapolated through the intent beliefresources priorities needs of commu-nity members as well as their chal-lenges risks and other present andcommon conditions

In addition to their geographiclocation (local neighborhood suburbvillage town or city region nation oreven the entire planet) communitiescan also be defined in terms of theircultural and organizational unity

Marie Weil (2006) writes that com-munities can be understood either asgeographic entities or as groups thatshare a special concern or identity ndashfunctional communities MarshallGoldsmith (1998) distinguishes geo-graphic religious and cultural commu-nities as well as organizationalcommunities volunteer service com-munities and communities of interestJohn Tropman John Erlich and JackRothman (2006) note that communitiesare nested one community can containanother

At the same time John Puddifoot(1996) notes that the way researchershave defined community have led tothe conceptual confusion First heargues if defined too broadly asneighborhoods community organiza-tions religious groups professionalassociations and so on this bringsthe risk of losing the specific meaningof community or conceptual utilitywhen for instance the same lsquolsquocatchallrsquorsquoterm is used at different levels ofanalysis ranging from small groupssuch as family units to nationalities(Dalton et al 2001) Secondly Puddi-foot also contends that the commonpractice of referring to communities bytype may lead to an artificial polariza-tion As an example of this he men-tions the common practice of referringto two qualitatively distinct yet oftenrelated types of community relationaland locational The notion of nestedcommunities may help overcome thatpolarization one community can con-tain another ndash for example a geo-graphic community may contain anumber of ethnic communities that intheir turn can be intertwined in net-works of culture and professionalcommunities This however makesdifficult defining the borders and map-ping the communities

David McMillan and David Chavis(1986) argue that there is a lsquolsquosense of

Community Development 229

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

230 HA Kazhoyan

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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managed Rather they argue thatthey offer opportunities for growthadaptation and learning (Lederach1995) Conflicts can lead all parties toclarify for themselves their needs andvalues and can thus help them tobetter understand just what causesthem dissatisfaction and satisfaction(Baruch Bush and Folger 1994Bigdon amp Korf 2004 p 7)

Therefore to better understandthat process in a multi-ethnic environ-ment the issue of civil and ethnicidentity and identity-related percep-tions and values should be consideredAt the same time John Kretzmann andJohn McKnight proposed a shift fromthe traditional approach of respondingto the needs of communities to thelsquolsquopathrsquorsquo of capacity-building lsquolsquobecausethe needs-based strategy can guaranteeonly survival and can never lead toserious change or community develop-mentrsquorsquo (1993 p 4) Furthermore in amulti-ethnic setting often the culturaldiversity itself dialogue and exchangeprovide opportunities for developmentand are among the major communityassets (Tishkov amp Filippova 2002)Although there were several projectsof successful capacity-building in amulti-ethnic setting implemented inKosovo1 there were also and stillare cases when traditionally practicedneed-based community developmentapproaches did not tackle importantcivic and ethnic identity questionsfailing to provide viable solutions Asa result representatives of ethnic mino-rities were often secluded from themainstream of development processeswhich at times has led to turmoil indifferent parts of Kosovo (Chigas2006 Hoxhaj 2005)

Conflict transformation throughidentity-based empowerment and in-clusion implies also a shift of theresearch paradigm Since in essence itis about change the research shouldalso lead to change and therefore

change must be incorporated into theresearch process (Stoeker 1996 Tod-hunter 2001 Winter 1989) Because ofthat and also due to the participativenature of the process when it comes tomethodology community membersand many donor or development agen-cies usually refer to the cyclic frame-work of action research

The advancement of action researchis often credited to Kurt Lewin (1946)who used it as a methodology forintervening in the post-war social issuesand described it as a cycle of planningacting observing fact-finding aboutthe result of the action and re-plan-ning Gerald Susman (1983) specifiedfive phases within each research cycleInitially a problem is identified anddata are collected for diagnosis This isfollowed by a collective postulation ofpossible solutions development andimplementation of an action planThen the results of the interventionare analyzed and the outcomes of theaction are defined At that point theproblem is re-assessed another cyclebegins and the process continues untilthe final goal is reached

Robert Rapoport defined actionresearch as the method that lsquolsquoaims tocontribute both to the practical con-cerns of people in an immediate pro-blematic situation and to goals ofsocial science by joint collaborationwithin mutually acceptable ethicalframeworkrsquorsquo (1970 p 499) The meth-od is widely applied today also throughits various ramifications such as parti-cipative action and research (FalsBorda 2000 Fals Borda amp Rahman1991) collaborative inquiry (Reason ampBradbury 2008) and developmentalaction inquiry (Starr amp Torbert 2005)However some researchers considerthat epistemologically action researchaddresses more lsquolsquoimprovementrsquorsquo pro-blems than lsquolsquoconstructionrsquorsquo issues be-cause action research problems mostly

Community Development 227

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are initiated by clients (Iivari 2007)Nevertheless there is always a possibi-lity that during the action researchconstruction will also be initiated andimplemented and limitations for con-structive change can be overcome if theprocess is driven by a shared long-termstrategy or common vision of the endresult (Friend amp Hickling 2005)

Also noteworthy is that in thecontext of the ongoing decentralizationin Kosovo local strategies must fitin the governmentrsquos development dis-courses action plans and policy trendsFor example such actions as abolish-ing the mechanism of fair share finan-cing for ethnic minorities in legislationand lack of approaches for propor-tionate subsidizing of communitiesneed to be addressed through a re-search and guidance from the publicpolicy domain (Peci Dugolli amp Ismai-li 2006)

The article is organized into foursections Following the introductionand a discussion of local identity aprocess model of community develop-ment is tackled and the question ofhow to apply the general theory ofcommunity development in a multi-ethnic society That integrative modelwas previously developed as a result ofa research of the traditional ap-proaches in understanding and mana-ging the process (Kazhoyan 2009)During the past decades differentapproaches have been developed andsuccessfully used in participatory as-sessment planning communicationand social action (Bacon 2009 DeSouza Briggs 2003 Figueroa KincaidRani amp Lewis 2002 Mattessich 2004Rubin amp Rubin 2001) However whileexploring different traits of communitydevelopment they usually did notintegrate civic or ethnic identity con-siderations Meanwhile application ofan identity-sensitive approach wouldhelp the stakeholders and other

participants of the process to appre-hend the multi-ethnic community-building in its entirety and conti-nuation including the multi-ethnicleadership interaction of driving andresisting forces and institutional devel-opment in the broader process ofcommunication for social change In-deed when the entire process and itscomponents are viewed through theprism of its participantsrsquo identity itbecomes possible to answer the ques-tion of how the community members ofdifferent ethnicity come together anddevelop their capacity for carrying outsustainable social change

The article concludes with a sum-mary of recommendations

Applications of this approach indifferent situations for better under-standing of the context and complex-ities of community development anddetermining the necessary policies oraction steps were tested and its benefitsdiscussed in projects and workingcontacts with Kosovo AlbanianRoma Ashkali and Kosovo Serbcommunity members from the mostethnically mixed regions of Kosovosuch as MitroviceMitrovica Prizrenthe Serbian enclave of StrpceShterpceand Roma and Ashkali communitymembers in SallahaneSalahane andDubrava villages of FerizajUrosevacmunicipality Their ethnic compositionmakes them unique among other mu-nicipalities in Kosovo Publicationsworking documents and reports ofdevelopment organizations and donoragencies were also used

The culture of action research isbeing developed in Kosovo It has beenused for instance in developing theYouth Action Plan2 and a model fora Humanitarian Ombudsman3 in de-signing curriculum for nurse educa-tion4 and so forth It is hoped thatthe approach itself and the policyrecommendations would be useful for

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researchers and practitioners in devel-oping strategies and realizing multi-ethnic community-building initiatives

2 Community-building a general

concept

Community-building can be defined asa sustained collective action to achievecommon objectives (Warren Thomp-son amp Saegerst 2001 p 11) It mayinvolve residents community leadersand external professionals workingtogether to achieve agreed social eco-nomic and environmental outcomes Inthe process of civic organizing theseself-renewing efforts of individualsgovernment local national and foreignorganizations strengthen social con-nections and build a capacity to con-tinuously improve the quality of lifethrough finding common ground andresponses to the local problems (DeSouza Briggs 2003) In the process ofproblem-solving such aspects of col-lective action can be mentioned asorganizing and agenda-setting plan-ning implementing and learning to-gether as well as negotiating

To get an insight into community-building such categories as member-ship participation and social changeare often considered (Chen JhabvalaKanbur amp Richards 2007 Jordan ampPile 2002) In human communitieswhere the identity of the participantsand their degree of cohesiveness mat-ter these categories are often beingextrapolated through the intent beliefresources priorities needs of commu-nity members as well as their chal-lenges risks and other present andcommon conditions

In addition to their geographiclocation (local neighborhood suburbvillage town or city region nation oreven the entire planet) communitiescan also be defined in terms of theircultural and organizational unity

Marie Weil (2006) writes that com-munities can be understood either asgeographic entities or as groups thatshare a special concern or identity ndashfunctional communities MarshallGoldsmith (1998) distinguishes geo-graphic religious and cultural commu-nities as well as organizationalcommunities volunteer service com-munities and communities of interestJohn Tropman John Erlich and JackRothman (2006) note that communitiesare nested one community can containanother

At the same time John Puddifoot(1996) notes that the way researchershave defined community have led tothe conceptual confusion First heargues if defined too broadly asneighborhoods community organiza-tions religious groups professionalassociations and so on this bringsthe risk of losing the specific meaningof community or conceptual utilitywhen for instance the same lsquolsquocatchallrsquorsquoterm is used at different levels ofanalysis ranging from small groupssuch as family units to nationalities(Dalton et al 2001) Secondly Puddi-foot also contends that the commonpractice of referring to communities bytype may lead to an artificial polariza-tion As an example of this he men-tions the common practice of referringto two qualitatively distinct yet oftenrelated types of community relationaland locational The notion of nestedcommunities may help overcome thatpolarization one community can con-tain another ndash for example a geo-graphic community may contain anumber of ethnic communities that intheir turn can be intertwined in net-works of culture and professionalcommunities This however makesdifficult defining the borders and map-ping the communities

David McMillan and David Chavis(1986) argue that there is a lsquolsquosense of

Community Development 229

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

232 HA Kazhoyan

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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are initiated by clients (Iivari 2007)Nevertheless there is always a possibi-lity that during the action researchconstruction will also be initiated andimplemented and limitations for con-structive change can be overcome if theprocess is driven by a shared long-termstrategy or common vision of the endresult (Friend amp Hickling 2005)

Also noteworthy is that in thecontext of the ongoing decentralizationin Kosovo local strategies must fitin the governmentrsquos development dis-courses action plans and policy trendsFor example such actions as abolish-ing the mechanism of fair share finan-cing for ethnic minorities in legislationand lack of approaches for propor-tionate subsidizing of communitiesneed to be addressed through a re-search and guidance from the publicpolicy domain (Peci Dugolli amp Ismai-li 2006)

The article is organized into foursections Following the introductionand a discussion of local identity aprocess model of community develop-ment is tackled and the question ofhow to apply the general theory ofcommunity development in a multi-ethnic society That integrative modelwas previously developed as a result ofa research of the traditional ap-proaches in understanding and mana-ging the process (Kazhoyan 2009)During the past decades differentapproaches have been developed andsuccessfully used in participatory as-sessment planning communicationand social action (Bacon 2009 DeSouza Briggs 2003 Figueroa KincaidRani amp Lewis 2002 Mattessich 2004Rubin amp Rubin 2001) However whileexploring different traits of communitydevelopment they usually did notintegrate civic or ethnic identity con-siderations Meanwhile application ofan identity-sensitive approach wouldhelp the stakeholders and other

participants of the process to appre-hend the multi-ethnic community-building in its entirety and conti-nuation including the multi-ethnicleadership interaction of driving andresisting forces and institutional devel-opment in the broader process ofcommunication for social change In-deed when the entire process and itscomponents are viewed through theprism of its participantsrsquo identity itbecomes possible to answer the ques-tion of how the community members ofdifferent ethnicity come together anddevelop their capacity for carrying outsustainable social change

The article concludes with a sum-mary of recommendations

Applications of this approach indifferent situations for better under-standing of the context and complex-ities of community development anddetermining the necessary policies oraction steps were tested and its benefitsdiscussed in projects and workingcontacts with Kosovo AlbanianRoma Ashkali and Kosovo Serbcommunity members from the mostethnically mixed regions of Kosovosuch as MitroviceMitrovica Prizrenthe Serbian enclave of StrpceShterpceand Roma and Ashkali communitymembers in SallahaneSalahane andDubrava villages of FerizajUrosevacmunicipality Their ethnic compositionmakes them unique among other mu-nicipalities in Kosovo Publicationsworking documents and reports ofdevelopment organizations and donoragencies were also used

The culture of action research isbeing developed in Kosovo It has beenused for instance in developing theYouth Action Plan2 and a model fora Humanitarian Ombudsman3 in de-signing curriculum for nurse educa-tion4 and so forth It is hoped thatthe approach itself and the policyrecommendations would be useful for

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researchers and practitioners in devel-oping strategies and realizing multi-ethnic community-building initiatives

2 Community-building a general

concept

Community-building can be defined asa sustained collective action to achievecommon objectives (Warren Thomp-son amp Saegerst 2001 p 11) It mayinvolve residents community leadersand external professionals workingtogether to achieve agreed social eco-nomic and environmental outcomes Inthe process of civic organizing theseself-renewing efforts of individualsgovernment local national and foreignorganizations strengthen social con-nections and build a capacity to con-tinuously improve the quality of lifethrough finding common ground andresponses to the local problems (DeSouza Briggs 2003) In the process ofproblem-solving such aspects of col-lective action can be mentioned asorganizing and agenda-setting plan-ning implementing and learning to-gether as well as negotiating

To get an insight into community-building such categories as member-ship participation and social changeare often considered (Chen JhabvalaKanbur amp Richards 2007 Jordan ampPile 2002) In human communitieswhere the identity of the participantsand their degree of cohesiveness mat-ter these categories are often beingextrapolated through the intent beliefresources priorities needs of commu-nity members as well as their chal-lenges risks and other present andcommon conditions

In addition to their geographiclocation (local neighborhood suburbvillage town or city region nation oreven the entire planet) communitiescan also be defined in terms of theircultural and organizational unity

Marie Weil (2006) writes that com-munities can be understood either asgeographic entities or as groups thatshare a special concern or identity ndashfunctional communities MarshallGoldsmith (1998) distinguishes geo-graphic religious and cultural commu-nities as well as organizationalcommunities volunteer service com-munities and communities of interestJohn Tropman John Erlich and JackRothman (2006) note that communitiesare nested one community can containanother

At the same time John Puddifoot(1996) notes that the way researchershave defined community have led tothe conceptual confusion First heargues if defined too broadly asneighborhoods community organiza-tions religious groups professionalassociations and so on this bringsthe risk of losing the specific meaningof community or conceptual utilitywhen for instance the same lsquolsquocatchallrsquorsquoterm is used at different levels ofanalysis ranging from small groupssuch as family units to nationalities(Dalton et al 2001) Secondly Puddi-foot also contends that the commonpractice of referring to communities bytype may lead to an artificial polariza-tion As an example of this he men-tions the common practice of referringto two qualitatively distinct yet oftenrelated types of community relationaland locational The notion of nestedcommunities may help overcome thatpolarization one community can con-tain another ndash for example a geo-graphic community may contain anumber of ethnic communities that intheir turn can be intertwined in net-works of culture and professionalcommunities This however makesdifficult defining the borders and map-ping the communities

David McMillan and David Chavis(1986) argue that there is a lsquolsquosense of

Community Development 229

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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researchers and practitioners in devel-oping strategies and realizing multi-ethnic community-building initiatives

2 Community-building a general

concept

Community-building can be defined asa sustained collective action to achievecommon objectives (Warren Thomp-son amp Saegerst 2001 p 11) It mayinvolve residents community leadersand external professionals workingtogether to achieve agreed social eco-nomic and environmental outcomes Inthe process of civic organizing theseself-renewing efforts of individualsgovernment local national and foreignorganizations strengthen social con-nections and build a capacity to con-tinuously improve the quality of lifethrough finding common ground andresponses to the local problems (DeSouza Briggs 2003) In the process ofproblem-solving such aspects of col-lective action can be mentioned asorganizing and agenda-setting plan-ning implementing and learning to-gether as well as negotiating

To get an insight into community-building such categories as member-ship participation and social changeare often considered (Chen JhabvalaKanbur amp Richards 2007 Jordan ampPile 2002) In human communitieswhere the identity of the participantsand their degree of cohesiveness mat-ter these categories are often beingextrapolated through the intent beliefresources priorities needs of commu-nity members as well as their chal-lenges risks and other present andcommon conditions

In addition to their geographiclocation (local neighborhood suburbvillage town or city region nation oreven the entire planet) communitiescan also be defined in terms of theircultural and organizational unity

Marie Weil (2006) writes that com-munities can be understood either asgeographic entities or as groups thatshare a special concern or identity ndashfunctional communities MarshallGoldsmith (1998) distinguishes geo-graphic religious and cultural commu-nities as well as organizationalcommunities volunteer service com-munities and communities of interestJohn Tropman John Erlich and JackRothman (2006) note that communitiesare nested one community can containanother

At the same time John Puddifoot(1996) notes that the way researchershave defined community have led tothe conceptual confusion First heargues if defined too broadly asneighborhoods community organiza-tions religious groups professionalassociations and so on this bringsthe risk of losing the specific meaningof community or conceptual utilitywhen for instance the same lsquolsquocatchallrsquorsquoterm is used at different levels ofanalysis ranging from small groupssuch as family units to nationalities(Dalton et al 2001) Secondly Puddi-foot also contends that the commonpractice of referring to communities bytype may lead to an artificial polariza-tion As an example of this he men-tions the common practice of referringto two qualitatively distinct yet oftenrelated types of community relationaland locational The notion of nestedcommunities may help overcome thatpolarization one community can con-tain another ndash for example a geo-graphic community may contain anumber of ethnic communities that intheir turn can be intertwined in net-works of culture and professionalcommunities This however makesdifficult defining the borders and map-ping the communities

David McMillan and David Chavis(1986) argue that there is a lsquolsquosense of

Community Development 229

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

232 HA Kazhoyan

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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communityrsquorsquo that unites its members Itcomprises four elements of membership(which includes such attributes asboundaries emotional safety a senseof belonging and identification perso-nal investment and a common symbolsystem) influence fulfillment of needsand shared emotional connection

Formation of a community takesplace through different processes ofchange Those processes may be sup-ported externally like building roadsor by other infrastructure improvementprojects realized by a developmentagency (Kumar Vaija Pozzoni ampGarner Woodall 2005) or they cantarget individual behavior change likein cases of prevention of epidemic(Figueroa et al 2002) or else therecan be community dialogue and collec-tive action when the members of agiven community are solving a com-mon problem (Schutz amp Sandy 2011)If successfully accomplished resolutionof that problem can lead to socialchange empower community membersand build their capacity to meet otherlocal challenges

Perhaps the phenomenon of com-munity-building can be better under-stood if we look at a community thatcould be considered as developedThen among the main features thatdistinguish its members we wouldmost probably value their capacity forproducing sustainable social change(Garred amp Abu-Nimer 2006 NoyaClarence amp Craig 2009 Omoto2005) Analyzing their problem-solvingpractices in comparison with othercommunities we can notice that thechange is always initiated by leaders(Fullan 2001) Even if the need hasbeen perceived by people for years stillthe process of change requires leadersinitiators and implementers and itentails redistribution of power in thecommunity It usually starts by theleaders who have a vision for the

solution of the problem While orga-nizing themselves and others theycreate new structures disseminate newvision and change the pace of socialprocesses (Ernst amp Chrobot-Mason2011) That way community membersgain knowledge and new skills changetheir mindset and norms of behaviorAs a result they produce a uniqueand sustainable mechanism for socialchange (Kazhoyan 2004)

Social planning social action localdevelopment and community partner-ship or coalitions are common civicorganizing practices in community de-velopment and since any community isunique these practices are countlessNevertheless they have some commonfeatures and traits Thus as it is oftenmentioned the target of the community-building process is social change thenecessity of which is recognized by themembers of community and other devel-opment stakeholders (Fisher amp Kling1993 Fisher amp Romanofsky 1981Warren 2001) The process of changeis initiated devised and realized by thoseindividuals or organizations that havedeveloped a clear vision and are con-solidating the efforts and available re-sources through communication

Furthermore the forces that resistor oppose to change shall also be con-sidered in order to make this picturecomplete They should be taken intoaccount in planning and implementingthe communication process which isthe supporting structure of the entireprocess (Gumucio-Dagron amp Tufte2006 Rosenberg 2005 Servaes2003) and during which the commu-nityrsquos human and institutional capacityto implement social change is strength-ened (Blackburn amp Holland 1998Serrat 2009 Thomas 1987 Walter2007)

Meanwhile in some cases consoli-dated efforts are made even by theforces with apparently conflicting

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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initial standpoints or interventionmethods For instance in FerizajUr-osevac in Kosovo the Initiative forProgress (INPO) and the AVONETNGO network comprised of AdvocacyCenter for Progress (QAP) HandikosEtika Youth Organization and IRPYouth Progressive Initiative5 are com-peting when it comes to their attitudeand position regarding cooperation withlocal administration Both are engagedin monitoring local government andusually express similar opinion on thestate of affairs and the municipal perfor-mance However while the INPO oftenconfronts the local administration AV-ONET chooses to cooperate and actu-ally receives certain reciprocity from theofficials being less radical in criticismand more constructive in proposingremedial actions Also local media inFerizajUrosevac are known to havedisparate standpoints towards the localgovernment and it seems that existenceof such diverse attitudes and strategiescreates an appropriate environment forthe contribution of civil society to theunfolding decentralization process

Extensively developed and widelyapplied methods of strategy plann-ing stakeholder analysis conflict

management and assets mapping canbe used in assessing different stages ofthe process while summarizing thosestages the overall community develop-ment process can be visualized asshown in Figure 1

The model has been developed inthe course of a participative study andwidely applied in assessing the forma-tion and development of more than30 communities and community-basedorganizations (CBOs) in Armenia(Kazhoyan 2009) By visualizing theprocess and providing a system ofbenchmarks and tools for assessmentof the state and dynamics of itscomponents it has become a usefulinstrument for describing and analyz-ing the main elements and the interac-tion of driving and resisting factors ofthe process as well as for better under-standing and managing the process inits entirety

However in order to be useful inassessing multi-ethnic community de-velopment in Kosovo this approachshould also embrace the dimension ofidentity Due to the specific purposeand nature of this article the modelwas applied mainly for descriptive andqualitative assessment purposes

Figure 1 Process model of community development Source Kazhoyan (2009)

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

232 HA Kazhoyan

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

Dow

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

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3 Participation and identity

If community is understood as a unityof people that are solving commonproblems (Gilchrist 1998) then thesocial cohesion in a multi-ethnic com-munity could be considered based onthe common values and norms thatmotivate or allow representatives ofdifferent ethnicities to participate in theprocesses of change (Connolly 1998Fanning 2011)

To better understand this the focusshould be shifted from the dynamics ofthe overall process to the micro-level ofinteraction of its participants Yet howto identify a common participant incommunity-building Who are thosewho initiate and drive the process up tothe stage when the change happensWhat brings people to the point ofaction and how do they overcomemistrust or their dependency syndromeand become active players

The issue of identity turns out to beinstrumental when we deal with whatbrings people together makes up andsustains the social cohesion in a givencommunity In a way identities allowus to answer the questions like Whowe are What unites us with othersWhat is unique about us What are thegoals we are trying to achieve Identitycould be defined by a combination ofclass gender age race religion orlanguage (Williams 1998)

Among the entire spectrum of thesecombinations the most relevant in thecommunity-building process identitiescan be further categorized into local orcivil (neighborhood school commu-nity town) ethnic or national andcultural or trans-national terms (Kaz-hoyan 2004) These levels overlap andconverge and usually blurred theirboundaries become clear-cut when theyare in conflict That can happen forinstance when an essential decision isto be made or while engaging in animportant activity In such cases we

find ourselves in an uncertainty causedby an incompatibility between forinstance our national and cultural orlocal and ethnic identities And ob-viously we can feel free and notdiscriminated in our relations withothers and with the state if we arerespected at all these identity levels

Andrej Grubacic proposes

Could there possibly be a solution thatwould not unavoidably imply lsquolsquoethnicdivisionrsquorsquo or lsquolsquomultiethnicity imposedfrom aboversquorsquo Moreover could therebe a left-libertarian solution foundedon the sheer undermining of suchconcepts going from a struggle tomutual aid through putting together amosaic of mutually linked alternativeapproaches in a new kind of politicsA solution not based on the ridiculousidea of bringing together so-calledethnic groups but developing aplan that is centered around solvingessential social problems such as pov-erty education housing (2004 x 17)

When community development is un-der way the shared civil identity iswhat brings people together to solvetheir common social problems of se-curity education employment sus-tainable development and preservationof environment Once they manage torespond to any of those challengestheir achievement may empower themfor another collective action

However identity is perceived notonly in identification with those of thesame values but also in contrast to lsquolsquotheothersrsquorsquo and especially in conflictpeople tend to consider themselves asopposed to the others (Ashmore Jus-sim amp Wilder 2001 Hogg amp Abrams1988 Korostelina 2007) Therefore ina multi-ethnic setting where groups ofcommunity members have differentethnic values and norms the function-ing policies and the legal environmentshould enable sharing of civil andcultural identities Following this logicin Kosovo it would be more effective to

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

234 HA Kazhoyan

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

Dow

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

236 HA Kazhoyan

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

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bring Kosovo Albanian and KosovoSerb youth together for instance inpursuit of environmental projects astudy or exchange trip or for a musicfestival rather than taking KosovoAlbanians to Albania and KosovoSerbs to Serbia proper which wouldreinforce their ethnic identity andemphasize differences Thus sportsand festivals with participation ofprominent sportsmen musicians andartists have proved a valuable meansfor reconciliation Building on theglobal identity of young people theycan promote tolerance mutual respectand good neighborhood Many re-searchers recognize the role of sportsas a medium for setting up conditionsfor dialogue and for bringing peopletogether across the boundaries ofethnically divided societies and as aninstrument to break down stereotypesand negative attitudes Such programsexist in the Balkans (Gasser amp Levin-sen 2004) Australia6 the UnitedKingdom (McDonald amp Tungatt1992) Canada (Lankford amp Neal1998 2000) Israel and Palestine (Sug-den 2006) and South Africa (Keim2006)

4 Applying the concept in a

multi-ethnic setting

41 Leaderconsolidation

The process model (Figure 1) presentscommunity-building as initiated andled by a leader who has a vision andis able to gather people together toorganize communication and mobilizeresources needed in the process ofchange Michael Fullan (2001) arguesthat today everybody can develop acapacity to become a leader if he orshe has a number of important leader-ship characteristics and that everyleader be that a manager of aninternational corporation or a schoolprincipal acts more effectively if there

is a precise understanding of expec-tations the role and the undertakenresponsibility Referring to RonaldHeifetz he claims that leadership lsquolsquoisnot mobilizing others to solve problemswe already know how to solve but tohelp them confront problems that havenever yet been successfully addressedrsquorsquo(Fullan 2001 p 3)

Indeed leaders are usually neededwhen the problems are not easy tosolve When the challenges are com-plex and there are no ordinary anduniversally applicable solutions orlsquolsquobest practicesrsquorsquo to borrow thenpeople are gathering in a lsquolsquotask forcersquorsquoor action group around the commonissues Meanwhile there is a differencebetween management that producesorder and consistency and leadershipthat produces change and movement(Northouse 2007) which in certaincases can lead to a conflict of powerAnd as Paulo Friere and Saul Alinskypropose community organizing canbe seen as an action with politicalaims of meeting community needs byredistributing the power of the stateand the market Measured by conces-sions won empowerment thereforeshould be understood as the resultof intense community pressure andpolitical organization involving non-violent direct action ndash power is notgiven but fought for (Colenutt 2010)Thus for instance local officials canbe not interested in cooperating withaction groups thinking of their lea-ders as competitors and the entireprocess as a political struggle thatundermines their authority In aneffort to preserve the status quo theselocal managers are likely to exaggeratethe problem and propose to deal withit through the official channels undertheir disposal at the central levelrather than to cooperate with locallyformed task forces that are empower-ing their leaders In Kosovo in some

Community Development 233

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important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

234 HA Kazhoyan

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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ry]

at 0

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

236 HA Kazhoyan

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

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ry]

at 0

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Nov

embe

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14

is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

important processes such as returnand reintegration of the displacedpersons that tendency has been over-come by establishing community com-mittees municipal working groupsand other participatory mechanismsin a format proposed by the interna-tional community In those cases theinternational financial support wasalso instrumental (UN Mission inKosovo 2004)

Some institutional changes wereintroduced within local governmentstructures also to reflect the multi-ethnic composition of communitiesand became mandatory with the adop-tion of new legislation in Kosovo in2008 These included the position ofdeputy chairperson for communitiesand community committees The Orga-nization for Security and Cooperationin Europe (OSCE) monitored theiractivities through its field operationsand conducted occasional training fortheir members However some of thecommittees are still not functioningefficiently due to the lack of leadershipand organizational guidance especiallyafter elections7 With insufficient un-derstanding of responsibilities and du-ties and inadequate distribution oftasks among their members they arestuck in the inchoate phase of theirdevelopment

As the process of return in Kosovois predominantly going on in villagesthe environment for fostering leader-ship and participation could be sup-ported through village councils Inethnically diverse communities repre-sentative village councils can lay thegrounds for returneesrsquo participation insocial life of the receiving communityThey can foster effective diversitymanagement and promote the princi-ples of fair share financing

James Krile (2006) considers thatthe main three competences of a com-munity leader are framing ideas

building and using social capital andmanaging resources Thus in the pro-cess of return leaders can melt downthe initial resistance of the receivingcommunity and help returnees reinte-grate by promoting reciprocal inclusionbased on shared values and commonnorms In any aspect of multi-ethniccohabitation different perceptions andapproaches sometimes can cause mis-understanding and provoke tensionshowever when properly addressed bythe community leaders and externalsupporters diversity can nurture betterideas deepen analyzing and under-standing and eventually develop acapacity for more efficient responsesto the local challenges (Bailey ampSmithka 2002)

Volunteerism is the driving force ofconsolidation and community-wide ac-tion (Serageldin 1994) In any commu-nity the development process dependson the culture of volunteerism Espe-cially in a multicultural setting it isimportant to cultivate volunteerism byovercoming communication barriersand promoting principles of equalopportunities and non-discriminationVolunteering could be fostered forinstance by youth clubs and associa-tions through sports activities cleaningand maintaining the environment andso forth and in a multi-ethnic commu-nity this could be among the prioritiesof local government media CBOs andother civil society institutions

42 Communication for social change

Communication for social change ispivotal to the process (Figure 1) It isdefined by the Communication forSocial Change (CFSC) Consortium8

as a process of public and privatedialogue through which people them-selves define who they are what theyneed and how they will work togetherto get what they want and need in

234 HA Kazhoyan

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

236 HA Kazhoyan

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ded

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ry]

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2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

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order to improve their lives and theircommunities For many years in themost ethnically mixed municipalitieslike MitrovicaMitrovice in northernKosovo FerizajUrosevac and the Ser-bian enclave of StrpceShterpce in thesouth international organizations havetried to promote inter-ethnic dialogueand outreach of municipal officials tothe minority areas Such forum inMitrovicaMitrovice was mainly sup-ported through a municipal workinggroup on return issues and the out-reach in Ferizaj and StrpceShterpcewas usually conducted within the bud-get planning process with a purpose toidentify needs of the ethnic minoritiesand develop efficient responses

However using the word lsquolsquocommu-nityrsquorsquo as a substitute for lsquolsquoethnic min-orityrsquorsquo the policy-makers have beenconsistently referring to cohabitationof separate ethnic groups with theirlegally fixed share of representation inlocal administration (OSCE 2009a)Thus instead of one community witha multi-ethnic composition they con-strue a multi-ethnic society whereinseparate communities of different eth-nicity co-exist Geared with such aparadigm policy-makers are doomedto recognize the existence of thesecommunities as a risk for potentialtensions and security threats9 ratherthan an asset ndash a unique qualitymanifested in cultural diversity andplurality of visions based on whichthe people of different ethnicity arebuilding a capacity to exchange ideasand develop joint responses to theircommon challenges As opposed to onemulti-ethnic community with commonneeds and problems this mindset fo-cuses on the reciprocal threats andfears of conflicting ethnic groups thataccompanied with practices of lsquolsquosecur-itizationrsquorsquo10 strengthen the marginali-zation of some lsquolsquocommunitiesrsquorsquo that intheir turn being unable or reluctant to

participate in common local adminis-tration are doomed to use the so-calledlsquolsquoparallelrsquorsquo institutions in pursuit oftheir secluded survival

In such cases the counteraction bythe central-level institutions would bedirected towards abolishment of theparallel structures and integration ofmarginalized communities into a multi-cultural and multi-ethnic society Fol-lowing that logic Peci et al areassessing the integration prospects byanalyzing the low level of participationof minority communities in electionslsquolsquotheir integration and satisfaction withthe performance of key public institu-tions of Kosovo issues of ethnicsecurity and human rights as well ascommunity identity development op-portunitiesrsquorsquo (2006 p 11) They writethat lsquolsquoa considerable number of com-munity members feel that in the inte-gration efforts conducted by theinternational community and PISG[Provisional institutions of self-govern-ance] they are treated as decor not aspartnersrsquorsquo (Peci et al 2006 p 13)Reflecting on the lack of planning atthe central level they conclude lsquolsquothecontinuing situation of segregation andparallelism in education system cul-ture media and the lack of inclusivecross-cultural community developmentdirectly hinder efforts to build a multi-cultural and multiethnic societyrsquorsquo (Peciet al 2006 p 19)

The practice of securitization prac-tice based on withstanding the lsquolsquoothersrsquorsquoand lsquolsquotop-downrsquorsquo integration effortsbegan after the war in 1999 and violentinter-ethnic clashes in 2004 when thesecurity was the highest priority inKosovo Today the situation is differ-ent and there could be a gradual shiftfrom the central policies that try tosafely integrate ethnic minorities into amulti-ethnic society towards the evolu-tionary grassroots lsquolsquobottom-uprsquorsquo com-munity-building processes which are

Community Development 235

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already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

236 HA Kazhoyan

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ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

already taking place among youth ofdifferent ethnicity11 representatives ofpolice service (Peci et al 2006) civilsociety (Technical Assistance for CivilSociety Organisations 2010 UnitedNations Development Programme2008) and media12 in different ethni-cally mixed towns across KosovoWhile building communities peopleovercome their fears anxiety and mis-understanding mobilize available re-sources and expand their capacity forcollective action In this respect betterplanning and exchange of knowledgebetween local leaders and internationalexperts could also contribute to theincreasing capacities for diversity man-agement at the level of community

43 Institutional development

Institutional development is often re-cognized as one of the key indicators ofthe ongoing community developmentprocess It is reflected in local policesand laws as well as in the number ofactive CBOs and other formalizedpractices and institutions that strength-en lsquolsquolocalized accumulation of socialcapital by mobilizing self-help capaci-ties progressive skills developmentand local resources (savings indigen-ous knowledge) in order to improveultimately the community membersrsquohuman natural and economic re-source base and their political powerrsquorsquo(Baas 1998 p 11) In Kosovo thereare applicable laws prerequisites andother factors at the level of localgovernment that influence the processof multi-ethnic community-building13

Principles of good governance andEuropean standards promoted formany years by the international com-munity have shaped the decentraliza-tion process and empowered localleadership (ARD 2006) With supportof international organizations Kosovoself-government institutions have tried

to develop and embed the proceduresfor fair share financing gender equalityand equal opportunities in their admin-istrative routines and eventually man-aged to institutionalize them in suchforms as the municipal offices forreturn community councils and soforth (Kazhoyan 2008)

Institutional development is an im-portant component of community-building which reinforces the consoli-dation processes and provides theleadership with instruments and toolsneeded to guide (and reflect upon) theparticipatory process of social changeTo cultivate participation in a multi-cultural community an insight into thecurrent processes is needed and acapacity for informed non-discrimina-tion policy-making at both local andcentral levels (Riera 2005) Such po-licies for instance could supportthe establishment and development ofCBOs as an essential step in multi-ethnic consolidation Some successfulCBOs already exist in the Bosniandistrict of Mitrovica however thereare only a few CBOs throughoutKosovo and their scope of activities islimited due to the lack of funding andabsence of income-generation opportu-nities (OSCE 2009a)

CBOs could be instrumental alsofor the return of the internally dis-placed persons and the StrengtheningOrganizations Assisting Refugees Pro-ject is running a website with manyuseful resources intended for trainingof internally displaced person leaders14

Another important means to meetthat end is education and trainingin knowledge management In thecontext of community-building knowl-edge management practices develop inthe process of understanding the com-mon vision and goals by communitymembers and designing strategiesfor their realization (Wenger 1998Wenger McDermott amp Snyder

236 HA Kazhoyan

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Uni

vers

ity o

f U

lste

r L

ibra

ry]

at 0

054

25

Nov

embe

r 20

14

2002) Therefore in the case ofethnically mixed communities certainmechanisms should be in place formeaningful participation to ensurethat the process is understood andsupported by the interested communitymembers When it comes to account-ability the leader should also makesure that relevant information on theproceedings and use of local resourcesis available and accessible for thecommunity members

Accountability can also be consid-ered from the knowledge managementpoint of view In this sense internationalorganizations have significantly influ-enced the culture of reporting of theirlocal partners in the emerging civilsociety in Kosovo However account-ability still needs to be developed asa wider notion that in addition topublic affairs and working with themedia also implies social researchdata gathering information mainte-nance ownership share and analyticalpractices as well as other aspects ofknowledge management that feed thecommunication process

5 Summary of recommendations

Multi-ethnic community members areunited by their local identity There-fore in participative problem-solvingsessions or infrastructure developmentprojects it is important to cultivate asense of collective ownership of suchprojects by reinforcing the local identityof the participants of different ethni-city At the same time common needsand problems can bring people to-gether and terminate the securitizationpractices that constrain exchange ofideas free flow of information andefficient mobilization of human localresources

To avoid the discrepancy in mentalmodels that can entail undesirableconsequences in law and policy-

making the word lsquolsquocommunityrsquorsquo inaddition to referring to a separateethnic minority group could also beused in implying a bigger unity ndash themulti-ethnic community wherein differ-ent ethnic groups not only cohabitatebut also communicate in solving com-mon local problems and collaborateutilizing common resources This newparadigm would recognize the multi-ethnic composition not as a cause forpossible tensions and security threatsbut as an asset of a given communitythat can bring forward a variety ofdevelopment options visions and con-structive problem-solving approaches

The leaderrsquos task can be understoodas developing a vision and bringingpeople together to solve their problemsin a process of change Such values ascommitment tolerance due care anddrive for collective action could becultivated at a local level with supportof the media education system com-munity-based and other civil societyinstitutions that should work on theircapacity for fostering local participa-tion and empowering leadership

A special curriculum for Kosovo-wide civic education in schools couldbe developed to promote responsibilityand initiatives for community develop-ment and foster local leadershipamong youth Also the educationsystem could institutionalize teachingofficial languages in schools to ensurethat young Kosovo Albanians KosovoSerbs and representatives of otherethnicities understand and communi-cate with each other In particularaccording to OSCE (2009b) linguisticand other barriers separating childrenof different ethnicity becomes a priorityin Kosovo and appropriate measuresand resources are needed to address themajor educational concerns of RomaAshkali and Egyptians

Since volunteerism drives the con-solidation and without volunteers there

Community Development 237

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

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is no development process at thelevel of community in a multiculturalsetting it is especially important topromote principles of equal opportu-nities and non-discrimination This isanother important task of local gov-ernment media CBOs and other civilsociety institutions

Knowledge management and grouplearning practices are important incommunity-building and they couldbe cultivated with training and follow-up activities that promote the practicesof learning together improve informa-tion exchange mechanisms among sta-keholders and foster the participationculture Such training and exchangeproved to be effective in activating thecommunities committees and media-tion committees in FerizajUrosevacDragashDragas and other municipali-ties (OSCE 2004)

Responsibility as the key attributeof the process of social change isbacked by the accountability mechan-isms The local accountability policiescould be developed through exchangeof best practices taking into consid-eration that in addition to publicaffairs and working with the mediait also implies social research datagathering and analysis as well asinformation ownership maintenanceand sharing Today in these crucialtimes for its future Kosovo needs tocooperate with international develop-ment actors in building its domesticcapacity for cultivating community de-velopment professionals Due to thenature of community-building not onlylocal participants benefit from this kindof exchange but also foreign experts arelearning while helping and training theirbeneficiaries

Notes

1 For more information see httpusaid-ipcporg httpwwwdrc-kosovoorgSee also httpwwwksundporg

httpmeeroworldvisionorgaboutphpcountryIDfrac148

2 See httpwwwksundporgcidfrac14299237

3 See httpwwwreliefwebintrwlibnsfdb900sidSSHN-784HC5$fileodihpn-nov1999pdf

4 See httpwwwnurseeducationtodaycomarticleS0260-691728072900115-3abstract

5 Founded in 2005 the INPO is theleading watchdog organization in pro-moting democracy and political free-doms in local level government TheINPO advocates for public policiesthat contribute to increasing account-ability and transparency of govern-ment and implements projects onpromoting quality dialogue betweenpolitical parties elected officials andcitizens by establishing public rela-tions offices of political parties and ofthe municipalities of the Ferizaj region(httpwwwinpo-kosorg) The AV-ONET NGO network has operatedin Ferizaj municipality since 2002 Itunites the Advocacy Center for Pro-gress (QAP) Handikos Etika YouthOrganization and IRP Youth Pro-gressive Initiative The objectives ofAVONET are to promote values ofdemocratic society to increase citizenparticipation in decision-making toincrease the accountability and trans-parency of local institutions to informthe local institutions on the commu-nity problems to promote and createmulti-ethnic society and to promotethe equality and human rights AV-ONET monitors the work of theMunicipal Assembly and its commit-tees organizes public debates anddiscussions supports returnees con-ducts surveys and action research oflocal problems organizes press con-ferences and advocacy campaigns andproduces television programs (httpavonet-avonetblogspotcom)

6 See httpaustraliagovautopicsculture-history-and-sportindigenous-culture-and-historyreconciliation

7 The report finds that although acomprehensive legal framework is inplace to ensure promotion and protec-tion of rights of ethnic minorities itsimplementation remains insufficient Itemphasizes the need for functioningcommunity participation mechanismsand for promoting representation of

238 HA Kazhoyan

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ethnic minorities in public institutionsDevelopment and implementation ofpolicies for their integration in cultur-al social and economic life as well asin public affairs is identified as keytoward building a sustainable multi-ethnic society

8 Since 2003 the CFSC Consortium hashelped people living in poor commu-nities to share their stories ideasand beliefs in order to influence thechange they need in their societies andin their lives The Consortium worksthrough advocacy research publica-tions teaching and training to en-hance the practice of communicationfor development and social changewith a special emphasis on participa-tory approaches See httpwwwcommunicationforsocialchangeorg

9 See European Centre for MinorityIssues ndash Kosovo Prishtina (2009)Strengthening the institutional systemfor communities in post-independenceKosovo Retrieved from httpwwwecmikosovoorgfileadminecmikosovotplpdfECMI-rep1pdf See also OSCE(2009a) UNHCR (2006) and theKosovo Community ReconciliationProgram 2008 (httppdfusaidgovpdf_docsPDACL840pdf)

10 Quoting Barry Buzan Marchetti andTocci (2009) describe the lsquolsquosecuritizingmoversquorsquo as a speech act that depicts thelsquolsquoOtherrsquorsquo as an existential threat to aspecific group calling for urgent mea-sures to confront that threat In theiropinion securitization provides a for-mal explanation of what security is

11 See httpwwwydprogrammeorgprojektiehtm

12 See httpwwwusaidgovkosovoengdemocracy_media_cshtml

13 See httpwwwecmikosovoorgfileadminecmikosovotplks_ins_str_comhtml

14 See httpwwwethniccommunitiesorg

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Bacon J (2009) The art of communityBuilding the new age of participationSebastopol OrsquoReilly

Bailey DW (2000) Balkan prehistoryExclusion incorporation and identityLondon Routledge

Bailey A amp Smithka P (Eds) (2002)Community diversity and differenceImplications for peace New YorkRodopi Press

Bigdon C amp Korf B (2004) The role ofdevelopment aid in conflict transforma-tion Facilitating empowerment pro-cesses and community building BerlinBerghof Research Center for Construc-tive Conflict Management Retrievedfrom httpwwwberghof-handbooknetdocumentspublicationsbigdon_korf_handbookpdf

Blackburn J amp Holland J (Eds) (1998)Who changes Institutionalizing partici-pation in development London Inter-mediate Technology Publications

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Chigas D (2006) Has peacebuildingmade a difference in Kosovo CDACollaborative Learning Projects Re-trieved from httpwwwcdainccomcdawwwpdfbookcdapeacebuildingreportkosovo_Pdf4pdf

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Gasser P amp Levinsen A (2004) Breakingpost-war ice Open fun football schoolsin Bosnia and Herzegovina Sport inSociety 7(3) 457ndash472

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Gumucio-Dagron A amp Tufte T (Eds)(2006) Communication for social changeanthology Historical and contemporaryreadings South Orange Communica-tion for Social Change Consortium

Hammond A (Ed) (2004) The Balkansand the West Constructing the Eur-opean other 1945ndash2003 BodminAshgate

Hogg MA amp Abrams D (1988) Socialidentifications A social psychology ofintergroup relations and group processesLondon Routledge

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Independent International Commission onKosovo (2003) The Kosovo reportconflict International response lessonslearned (pp 283ndash299) Oxford OxfordScholarship Online

Jordan T amp Pile S (Eds) (2002) Socialchange (sociology and society) OxfordBlackwell

Kazhoyan H (2004) Communication forsocial change Networking essentialsYerevan Lusakn

Kazhoyan H (2008) Multiethnic commu-nity building in Kosovo In UmiversumJournal Reviste shkencore (pp 73ndash81)Prishtina Universum

Kazhoyan H (2009) Communitydevelopment in the process of civicorganizing Yerevan EditPrint (inArmenian)

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Keim M (2006) Sport as opportunity forcommunity development and peace-building in South Africa In Y VandenAuweele C Malcolm amp B Meulders(Eds) Sport and development LeuvenLannoo Campus

Korostelina KV (2007) Social identityand conflict New York Palgrave

Kretzmann JP amp McKnight JL (1993)Building communities from the insideout A path toward finding and mobiliz-ing a communityrsquos assets EvanstonInstitute for Policy Research

Krile JF (2006) Community leadershiphandbook Framing ideas Building re-lationships and mobilizing resourcesSaint Paul MN Fieldstone Alliance

Kumar N Vajja A Pozzoni B ampGarner Woodall G (2005) The effec-tiveness of World Bank support forcommunity-based and driven develop-ment An OED evaluation WashingtonDC World Bank

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Lankford S amp Neal L (2000) 2000 ArcticWinter Games Whitehorse Personal andsocial benefits of participation ArcticWinter Games International Commit-tee Yellowknife Department ofMunicipal and Community AffairsGNWT

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Lewin K (1946) Action research andminority problems Journal of SocialIssues 2 34ndash46

Marchetti R amp Tocci N (2009) Conflictsociety Understanding the role of civilsociety in conflict in global changePeace amp Security 21(2) 201ndash217

Mattessich PW (2004) Community build-ing What makes it work A review offactors influencing successful communitybuilding Saint Paul Armherst H WilderFoundation

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