A comparison of the self-image of talented teenagers with a normal adolescent population

Journal of Youth and Adolescence, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1989

A Comparison of the Self-Image of Talented Teenagers with a Normal Adolescent Population

Samuel Whalen I and Mihaly Csikszentmihaly i 2

Received November 24, 1987; accepted September 15, 1988

The self-image o f a group o f 177 adolescents talented in one o f f ive areas - mathematics, science, music, athletics, and a r t -was compared to that o f a normal group o f teenagers, using the Offer Self-Image Questionnaire fo r Adolescents (OSIQ). In addition, correlations between the talented OSIQ scores and instructor ratings o f engagement and aptitude in the talent area was obtained. The findings indicate that talented adolescents educated in a normal high school setting evidence patterns o f self-image and esteem very similar to their more average peers. The talented teenagers, however, also report considerable uncertainty involving issues o f sexual and social competence. Discussion focuses on the implications o f these findings for later patterns o f talent development.

I N T R O D U C T I O N

Since Terman 's (1925) groundbreaking normative study of the psychosocial ad jus tment of gifted children, a wealth of research has lent suppor t to the view that the major i ty of gifted children evidence social, emot ional , and intellectual ad jus tmen t superior to that of their more average peers. With

This study is part of a longitudinal study of talented adolescents supported in full by a grant from the Spencer Foundation.

~Doctoral student in educational psychology, Department of Education, University of Chica- go. Research interests include adolescent self-concept and the psychology of challenging experience. To whom correspondence should be addressed to 5848 S. University Ave, Box 2, Chicago, Ilinios 60637.

~Professor, Department of Psychology and Education, Committee on Human Development, University of Chicago. Research interests include the psychology of adolescence and the study of optimal experience, creativity, and intrinsic motivation.

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0147-2891/89/0400-0131506.00/0 �9 1989 Plenum Publishing Corporation

132 Whalen and Csikszentmihalyi

the possible exception of those scoring in the highest percentiles of IQ, children of unusual intellectual ability demonstrate high personal and social matu- rity as well as enhanced status among peers prior to adolescence (see Brody and Benbow, 1986, for review). On the whole, the weight of this research has thrown into doubt earlier equations of unusual ability with emotional instability or psychosocial isolation (Lombroso, 1895; Witty and Lehman, 1929).

Perhaps because so much attention has been focused on the psychological well-being of the gifted during middle childhood, fewer studies have addressed the developing self-concepts and social perceptions of talented teenagers (Austin and Draper, 1981). Those studies that have suggest that while gifted adolescents do not differ appreciably from thief normal peers on most measures of self-esteem, issues of popuplarity and social adjustment do emerge as more pressing concerns (Austin and Draper, 1981; Brody and Benbow, 1986; Coleman 1961; Purkey, 1966; Strang, 1956; Tannenbaum, 1962; Tidwell, 1956). Among a small but significant minority of talented teens, discontent with peer relations may contribute to depression, anger, and chronic loneliness (Goswick and Jones, 1981; Kaiser and Berndt, 1985). Balancing this picture, however, are findings pointing to higher internal lo- cus of control (Brody and Benbow, 1986; Tidwell, 1980), greater accuracy of self-insight (Purkey, 1966), and continued intellectual self-confidence (Tid- well, 1980) among talented adolescents. Brody and Benhow (1986) have also reported significant differences in perceived popularity and social self-image between teenagers gifted in mathematics and verbal ability.

The unresolved issue of how to measure "giftedness" and "talent," and whether and when it is appropriate to distinguish these constructs, has also constrained a fuller investigation of the self-experience of highly able teenagers. Most normative studies have measured giftedness in specifically psychometric terms, focusing on IQ or other indicators of academic aptitude (Wylie, 1979). This selection procedure has had the effect of limiting the scope of research to areas of academic ability (Gagne, 1985; Tidwell, 1980). More recently, support has grown for a multidimensional approach to gifted identification, incorporating criteria of motivation, demonstrated accomplishment, and creativity into research designs (Csikszentmihalyi and Robinson, 1986; Havighurst et al., 1955; Newland, 1976; Roth and Sussman, 1974; Tidwell, 1980). Expansion of research to a wider range of abilities and talent areas has also been urged (Gagne, 1985; Gardner, 1982; Marland, 1972; Colangelo, 1984; Renzulli, 1979).

In this regard, Gagne (1985), addressing the earlier work of Renzulli, Cohn, and others, has proposed a differentiated model of giftedness and ta-

Self-Image of Talented Teenagers 133

lent (Cohn, 1981 ; Foster, 1981; Renzulli, 1979). Giftedness is viewed as above- average competence in one or more domains of human ability (e.g., sensori- motor or intellectual aptitude). Talent is seen as distinctly above-average performance in a field of human endeavor (e.g., music, competitive sports, or research science). From within this perspective, all demonstrated talent im- plies giftedness, but not all giftedness necessarily finds expression in talented performance. Gagne's model suggests that the expression of giftedness can and should be studied in a wide range of talent fields, and should include research into patterns of motivation, commitment, and identification within and across varied fields of performance.

This formulation is of particular significance to the investigation of superior ability and self-experience during adolescence. It is in adolescence that individuals first begin to make autonomous decisions about the expression of unusual ability in the context of specific and widely differing domains, many beyond the confines of the classroom. The direction of such decisions may be affected decisively by the level of the teenager's self-esteem, as well as by the quality of his/her experience among peers and family members. At the same time, the demands of a particular field and its repute among peers could test the commitment of a highly able teenager to a field of talent, both in the short and long terms. The possibility interaction of field characteristics and adolescent self-image argues for the comparison of talented teenagers with normal populations and across diverse fields of talent.

In the present study, the patterns of self-concept of 177 talented fresh- man and sophomore high school students were compared with those of a population of 218 young normal adolescents, ages 14-15. Talent was determined on the basis of teachers' and coaches' ratings of unusual ability in five talent a reas -mathemat ics , science, music, art, and a th le t ics - in conjunction with talent-specific ability and achievement criteria specified by the researchers. The Offer Self-Image Questionnaire (OSIQ), with its multidimensional format spanning such aspects of adolescent experience as family relationships, sexual attitudes, moral sensibilities, and coping abilities, was employed to measure self-concept. It was hoped that the OSIQ would provide a detailed examination of those dimensions of self-image and self-esteem that most distinguish young adolescents of superior ability from their more normally gifted peers. In addition, the analysis offered an opportunity to compare the self-experience of unusually able teenagers in widely divergent talent areas. Finally, correlations between the various OSIQ dimensions and teacher assessments of each student's engagement and aptitude in the talent area were examined to determine which aspects of self-image bear most on the development of adolescent talent.


METHODS

Sample

The talented sample consisted of 76 adolescent boys and 101 girls drawn from the ninth and tenth grades of two large suburban high schools in the metropolitan Chicago area. Talent had been determined by teacher recom- mendations in one or more of five talent areas: mathematics, science, music, art, and athletics. The following criteria guided teacher selections of study candidates: in mathematics and science, all subjects were drawn from advanced placement classes. In music, all subjects studied musical theory and performed in either the orchestra, the advanced choral groups, or both. In athletics, subjects were competing athletes judged to possess varsity-level competitive ability. In art, subjects had qualified for advanced fine arts courses and were judged to possess the potential to pursue art as a n adult career.

The following performance measures further characterized the talent subsamples. Among the mathematics students, the mean GPA in math classes was 3.33 out of 4.0. The mean PSAT Math score was 60.8, locating the group above the 90th percentile of college-bound juniors. Among the science students, the mean GPA in science classes was 3.76 out of 4.0. The mean PSAT Verbal Score was 53.0 (86th college-bound percentile), while the mean PSAT Math score was 56.6 (84th percentile). Among musicians, the mean grade in music theory classes was 3.9 out of 4.0. Among athletes, 39 of the 44 subjects had attained at least junior-varsity standing by their sophomore years. Thirteen of the 44 athletes had attained varsity standing as sophomores. Among the artists, the mean fine arts grade was 3.32 out of 4.0.

The normal sample consisted of 218 adolescent respondents, aged 14 and 15 years. This age range was drawn from a larger sample of 504 Ameri- can teenagers collected during the early 1980s by Dr. Daniel Offer and his colleagues. Of the young normal subjects, 112 were male and 106 were female. All subjects completed the OSIQ (Offer et al., 1978). This scale con- sists of 130 first-person statements that are organized into 11 subscales. All protocols used here conformed to the reliability criteria outlined by Offer et al. (1978). Because only complete OSIQ protocols yield a total score, the frequencies of missing values in both the talented and normal control groups were examined. Of the 218 normal subjects, 71 07o had no missing items, and 96~ showed no more than 3 missing items. Of the 177 talented subjects, 7707o had complete protocols, and 100070 had no more than 3 missing items. In order to ensure that the OSIQ total score accurately reflected the performance of subjects on the individual OSIQ scales, group means were sub- stituted for the missing values across all cases.


Analyses

Three analyses were performed to compare the talented and normal samples. First, standard scores were calculated for the male and female por- tions of the talented group, using the scale means and standard deviations of the normal males and females as the comparative parameters. These scores were used to compare the talented males and females to their sex-appropriate normal counterparts. Second, a content analysis of individual items was undertaken to examine the greatest differences in degree of affirmation between the normal and talented groups. Following Offer et al. (1982, 1984), only those differences in percentage affirmed that met or exceeded 10~ were con- sidered notable (one difference of 9.9oT0-Item No. 9 8 - w a s also includ- ed). Third, standard scores were used to compare the talented males and females to normal teenagers according to their specific talent area. t Tests were employed to assess the extent of difference between the talented and normal OSIQ means. Finally, Pearson correlations were calculated between the talented group's OSIQ scale scores and two factor scores derived from 17 instructor ratings. These rating factors were characterized as "engagement" and "ability/aptitude." Because instructor ratings were either missing or un- reliably completed for some subjects, the sample size for this final analysis is smaller, N = 151, with 96 girls and 55 boys.

RESULTS

The Self-Image of Talented Students

Figure 1A and 1B present the results of the comparison of the talented males and females with their age- and sex-specific normal counterparts on the OSIQ total and subscale scores. The analysis yielded no significant difference f rom the norm on the OSIQ total score for either the male or female talented groups. In addition, only one OSIQ subscale diverged significantly f rom the norm, the Sexual Attitudes subscale. This measure is designed to assess the adolescent's sense of how attractive s /he feels to members of the opposite sex. It also explores the relative conservatism or openness of the teenager's sexual opinions. That this subscale difference is significant for both girls and boys lends further support to the reliability of this finding.

The results of the analysis indicate that the possession of unusual talent does not have a predictable impact upon the young adolescent's psychological well-being, sense of moral responsibility, or feeling of ability to cope with challenges. Talent appears to have a more decidedly negative impact,


+ .......... + .......... + .......... + .... Mean--+ Impulse Control +# 50 Emotional Tone #+ 48 Body and Self-lmage # + 46 Social Relationships # + 46 Morals +# 50 Voc./Ed. Goals #+ 49 Sexual Attitudes # + 45 Family Relationships # + 48 Mastery +# 50 Psychopathology # + 48 Superior Adjustment +# 50 Idealism # + 46 Total # + 47

SD .82 13.03 .82 14.29 24 14.44 99 13.12 96 12.61 18 15.36 14" 12.23 31 15.04 34 12.80 18 15.14 30 15.32 l0 12.53 77 14.01

+ .......... + .......... + .......... + .......... +

30 40 50 60 70 OSIQ Standard Score

(*= <.05; 2-TAILED SIGNIFICANCE)

Fig. lA. C o m p a r i s o n o f t a l e n t e d y o u n g a d o l e s c e n l m a l e s ( N = 76) with OSIQ 14-15-year- old 1980 n o r m a l p o p u l a t i o n ( N = 112).

however, upon the young teenager's sense of physical confidence and sexual competence. Talented young teenagers are apparently more cautious than their normal peers when it comes to sexual behavior, and less sure of their attractiveness to members of the opposite sex.

Analysis of Individual Items

An analysis of differences in strength of affirmation of the individual OSIQ items was undertaken in order to explore further some of the self-issues that most distinguish the normal and talented groups. Table I presents those

+ .......... + .......... + .......... + .... Mean--+ Impulse Control # 49.83 Emotional Tone #+ 49.17 Body and Self-Image # + 47.82 Social Relationships # + 48.03 Morals # 50.09 Vo~./Ed. Goals # + 47.97 Sexual Attitudes # + 45.61. Family Relationships +# 51.28 Mastery #+ 49.24 Psychopathology #+ 49.47 Superior Adjustment ~+ 49.48 Idealism # 49.72 Total #+ 48.84

SD 12.56 14.42 12.91 15.45 13.13 14.51 15 88 14 04 13 87 14 85 12 00 ll 40 13 i0

+ .......... + .......... + .......... + .......... +

30 40 50 60 70 OSIQ Standard Score

(*= <. 05; 2-TAIL SIGNIFICANCE)

Fig. lB. Comparison of talented young adolescent females (N = 101) with OSIQ 14-15-year- old 1980 normal populat ion (N = 106).


Table I. Compar ison of Differences in Strength of Aff i rmat ion of OSIQ Items Exceed- ing 10070 (in Descending Order) Among Normal and Talented Adolescents

OSIQ item Normal (%) Talented (o70) N

43. I am a superior student in school. 60.3 77.4 214/176

78. Other people are not after me to take advantage of me. 62.7 77.4 217/177

29. I often blame myself even when I 'm not at fault. 36.9 48.5 217/175

107. I will not be able to assume responsibility for myself in the future. 16.6 5. I 217/176

112. Most of the time my parents are satisfied with me. 81.5 92.7 216/177

46. I would rather sit around and loaf than work. 27.6 38.4 217/177

11. If separated from all those I know 1 would not be able to make a go of it. 32.3 42.4 217/177

98. I am against giving so much money to the poor. 23.0 13.1 200/176

ap < .05, two-tailed significance. bp < .01, two-tailed significance. Cp < .001, two-tailed significance.

items on which the normal and talented teenagers differed in their strength of affirmation by 10~ or more (Offer et al., 1982, 1984), listed in order of descending difference.

Only 8 of the 130 OSIQ items yielded a between-groups difference in degree of affirmation of 1007o or more. Five of the items reflected favorably on the self-experience of the talented adolescents, while 3 items reflected better psychological adjustment among the normals. None of the 8 items were part of the Sexual Attitudes subscale, although the talented teens were less likely to affirm the statement "I think that girls/boys find me attractive" by a difference of 8.5070. On the whole, then, the small number of distinctive items further underscored the finding that the self-image of the talented group is identical in most respects to that of the normal group.

A closer examination of the items that distinguish normal from talented, however, does suggest important differences in the self-experience of the two groups. Not surprisingly, the talented teens are more likely to see themselves as "superior students." As a group they evidence more assurance about their ability to cope with the challenges of the future (No. 107). They are also somewhat more likely (difference = 8.0070) to affirm the statement, "Dealing with new intellectual subjects is a challenge for me," These are cer- tainly statements that might be expected to distinguish an academically talented sample of teenagers from a normal group. On the other hand, the tendency of the talented adolescents to admit that they would "rather loaf than work"


may express a sense that their commitments are sometimes too strenuous, that relaxation is a neglected dimension of their daily experience.

The talented adolescents express greater confidence in the predictabili- ty and trustworthiness of the psychosocial environment, especially the family. They are more inclined to affirm that the intentions of others toward them are essentially friendly (No. 78). And they feel confident they they are meet- ing their parent's basic expectations of them (No. 112). This semse of psychosocial security may h.elp explain why the talented teens are less willing to call into question the needs for financial security of the poor and less for- tunate (No. 98).

The remaining 2 items, however, indicate that in some respects this sense of security may face considerable pressure in the challenging social environment of the large suburban high school. Particularly striking is the talented group's sense that it could not cope with a decisive separation from those who are familiar to them (No. 11). These are teenagers who have long been the objects of adult approval and have developed self-appraisals largely in response to adult expectations, especially in their talent fields. It seems likely that for such teens the shifting rules of peer approval and sexual desirability that accompany adolescence may be experienced as arbitrary, baffling, and even alienating. At the same time talented subjects also are more likely to feel they prefer one of their parents over the other (No. 87, difference = 9.0% from normal group). For those with unusual levels of talent, then, adolescence may be a period when relations with both parents and peers are sources of more than the usual confusion and anxiety and perceived vulnerability is suggested by Item No. 29, a precocious tendency toward self-scrutiny and self-deprecation.

Comparison of OSIQ Across Talent Areas

An examination of the OSIQ performances of specific talent groups against their sex-specific norms suggests that the particular area of talent may also have an impact upon the relationship between talent and dimensions of the self-image. Tables IIA and IIB present standardized scores compar- ing the male and female talent groups to their 1980 sex-specific norms. While the low sample sizes counsel caution in interpretation, the particularly strong response pattern of the male scientists is worthy of notice. The male science students are the only talented group to approach a significant difference from the norm on the OSIQ total score (t = 1.94, p < .06). They evidence great confidence in their ability to cope with and control their emotions and im- pulses (Impulse Control), as well as with academic and psychosocial challenges (Mastery of the External World, Superior Adjustment, and Vocation- al/Educational Goals). They are also distinctive among the talented males


Table IIA. Standardized OSIQ Means and Standard Deviations for Talented Males (N = 76) in Five Talent Areas (Standardized 1980 Normal Mean = 50; Standard Deviation = 15)

Talent area

Math Science Music Athletics Art OSIQ (n = 13) (n = 11) (n = 22) (n = 21) (n = 9)

Total 45.49 57.88 45.25 47.78 43.88 (14.75) (12.66) (14.42) (12.31) (15.64)

Impulse control 49.92 58.45* 50.67 49.71 45.18 (10.87) (11.65) (15.61) (11.97) (10.45)

Emotional tone 52.57 55.57 46.04 47.93 44.34 (7.32) (17.57) (15.57) (13.41) (15.24)

Body and self-image 46.79 53.57 42.52 ~ 49.30 38.76* (11.49) (11.47) (14.76) (15.24) (15.19)

Social relationships 44.87 51.34 42.11 ~ 51.84 45.52 (14.60) (16.40) (13.18) (9.72) (9.56)

Morals 50.89 54.17 50.57 49.54 51.85 (9.61) (12.45) (12.85) (13.92) (14.06)

Vocational/educational goals 42.31 57.49 ~ 50.57 48.26 48.15 (16.24) (9.27) (17.17) (16.03) (11.17)

Sexual attitudes 45.40 46.34 40.51 b 49.43 45.05 (11.45) (14.32 (12.40) (10.63) (12.09)

Family relationships 44.24 59.93 b 47.13 45.78 49.37 (12.91) (11.23) (13.81) (14.86) (20.81)

Mastery 47.58 59.46 b 48.90 48.96 50.27 (I4.95) (8.69) (15.08) (9.54) (11.63)

Psychopathology 50.13 55.09 45.65 48.64 42.67 (16.53) (13.56) (15.57) (14.66) (15.64)

Superior adjustment 45.98 62.70 b 49.43 49.38 44.98 (14.64) (12.45) (16.45) (13.13) (17.25)

Idealism 43.65 44.47 49.37 46.13 44.27 (12.15) (8.33) (16.01) (11.87) (12.30)

~ < .05, two-tailed significance. bp < .01, two-tailed significance. "p < .001, two-tailed significance.

in strongly affirming the quality of their family relationships. Of the ten sex- specific talent groups examined here, the male scientists most closely resem- ble the robust patterns of "gifted" self-image reported by Offer et al. (1978).

Among the remaining male talent groups only the musicians and artists deviate significantly from the 1980 norms. The male musicians express considerable doubt about the adequacy of their sexual and social adjustment, while the male artists evidence considerable anxiety about the adequacy of their physical development. The male athletes reported the most normal patterns of self-image.

On the whole, the talented females conformed more closely to their norms than was true of the talented males. The only significant deviation from the 1980 norms occurred among the female math students, who tend- ed to express anxiety about their sexual adjustment. Sexual concerns also approached significance among the female science students (t = 1.87; p <


Table liB. Standardized OSIQ Means and Standard Deviations for Talented Females (N = 101) in Five Talent Areas (Standardized 1980 Normal Mean = 50; Standard Deviation = t5)

Talent area

Math Science Music Athletics Art OSIQ (n = 18) (n = 14) (n = 33) (n = 23) (n = 13)

Total 50.33 50.40 49.38 48.77 43.30 (14.05) (I 1.92) (12.92) (10.98) (17.41)

Impulse control 49.80 53.86 50.48 47.66 47.07 (11.76) (9.54) (11.71) (13.24) (16.75)

Emotional tone 51.29 52.12 48.04 50.26 44.90 (I 1.94) (13.46) (17.47) (11.68) (14.28)

Body and self-image 49.07 52.69 45.74 47.80 45.93 (13.20) (11.52) (13.96) (9.36) (16.09)

Social relationships 47.12 42.89 48.62 52.67 44.68 (16.97) (16.01) (16.45) (10.10) (17.17)

Morals 50.70 49.74 53.03 46.68 48.25 (14.25) (14.62) (12.03) (11.23) (15.85)

Vocational/educational goals 48.42 50.92 47.55 47.46 45.50 (17.77) (13.30) (14.56) (13.31) (13.62)

Sexual attitudes 43.33* 37.43 46.72 46.50 53.27 (12.13) (24.57) (13.52) (14.91) (13.45)

Family relationships 55.17 51.27 54.61 49.94 40.16 (11.19) (12.01) (10.65) (13.09) (22.59)

Mastery 47.42 53.36 48.91 50.14 47.42 (12.86) (10.64) (15.41) (11.80) (18.48)

Psychopathology 50.99 56.35 47.36 50.64 43.55 (15.21) (14.32) (15.12) (11.04) (18.45)

Superior adjustment 51.77 51.20 48.16 50.57 45.12 (12.70) (10.18) (12.52) (9.06) (15.76)

Idealism 50.49 45.85 52.55 47.68 48.82 (8.36) (13.08) (12.04) (11.02) (11.46)

*p < .05, two-tailed significance. bp < .01, two-tailed significance. "p < .001, two-tailed significance.

.08). While the female science students appear to reflect some of the strengths of self-image that characterize the male scientists, their patterns of self-image are generally within the normal range. One pattern among the females that deserves further attention with larger subsamples is a tendency toward an in.verse relationship between sexual attitudes and the quality of family relationships. Among the math, science, music, and athletic females, family relationships are in the mid- to high-normal range, while sexual attitudes are inthe low-normal to subnormal range. Among the female artists, however, the pattern is reversed, with high-normal sexual adjustment and a tendency toward below-normal family relationships. Such a pattern is not as evident among the males, and may signal the existence of a somewhat inverse relationship between sexual confidence and the quality of family life in early adolescence, perhaps especially in the case of talented females.


Relationship Between OSIO and Talent Ratings

Finally, correlations were calculated between the talented OSIQ responses and teacher ratings of performance and ability. The analysis was designed to investigate which dimensions of talented self-image are most associated with the perceptions of those adults who assess the quality of talented performance. A factor analysis of a 21-item teacher rating questionnaire as- sessing various aspects of student performance revealed three factors, two of which are used in the present analysis. The first factor, labeled "engagement," accounted for 56o7o of sample variance (eigenvalue = 10.74), and was taken as a measure of the student's quality of attention while engaged in the learning process. It is comprised of the sum of the following 10 individual measures weighted by factor loadings: attentiveness (.84), ability to accept criticism (.83), ability to use criticism constructively (.82), involvement (.76), concentration (.72), performance reaching full potential (.72), cooperative- ness (.72), persistence (.69), motivation to achieve (.64), and seeks feedback from instructor (.55). The reliability of this summed scale (Cronbach's alpha) was .95, while the avreage single-item correlation with the composite score was r -- .79 (N = 184). The second factor, labeled "ability/aptitude in talent area" (eigenvalue = 1.55) was taken as a measure of the student's capacity for skillful and original work in the talent area. It is the sum of 7 factor-weighted items: originality (.78), curiosity (.75), career potential (.73), autonomy (.72), skillfulness (.67), sense of personal worth (.54), and will stay with talent area through high school (.51). It attained a reliability (Cron- bach's alpha) of .89, while the average single-item correlation with the composite score was r = .69.

Table III presents the correlations for the 151 talented subjects for whom teachers' ratings were available. The results suggest that a well-established and positive work ethic (Vocational/Educational Goals) and satisfaction with family relationships contribute significantly to successful interactions with those adults who assess the progress of adolescent talent. This pattern holds true for both sexes. These aspects of the self-image are also moderately associated with instructor perceptions of adolescent aptitude.

Other patterns of association are more sex specific. The association between OS1Q Idealism, that is, a sense of selflessness and altruism, and engagement, is specific to the talented females (r = .29, p < .01 vs. r = .02 among males). Idealism is also moderately associated with teacher ability ratings among the girls (r = .24, p < .05) but not among the boys (r = .04). The moderate correlations between OSIQ Morals (consideration for others) and Superior Adjustment (especially academic coping) and engagement is specific to the males, as is a moderate association between Impulse Control and the engagement factor (r = .31, p < .05). Boys who can con-


Table I11. Correlation of Talented OSIQ (N = 151) with Teacher Ratings of Engagement and Abil i ty/Apti tude

OSIQ Engagement Ability

Total .18" .14 Impulse control .06 .09 Emotional tone - . 0 5 - . 0 3 Body and self-image .03 .02 Social relationships .03 .04 Morals .26 c .17* Vocational/educational goals .32 c .27 c Sexual attitudes - . 11 - . 15 Family relationships .24 b .21 ~ Mastery .15 .12 Psychopathology .05 .03 Superior adjustment .19 ~ .13 Idealism .22 b .15

~ < .05, two-tailed significance. bp < .01, two-tailed significance. Cp < .OOI, two-tailed significance.

trol anger and aggression and who evidence an awareness of the needs of others are apparently more capable of focusing their attention on instruc- tional interactions, and impress instructors as more motivated to learn. Just as striking is a moderate negative correlation between OSIQ Sexual Attitudes and instructor assessments of aptitude (r = - . 3 1 , p < .01). This relationship is not evident among the talented females. Teenage boys who express uncertainty about their sexual attractiveness tend to be seen as more skillful by instructors in their talent areas.

DISCUSSION

The results reported here suggest a number of points relevant to an un- derstanding of the possible relationships between talent and adolescent self- experience. First, the findings indicate that young teenagers of superior ability who do their schooling in a "normal" academic context appear very similar in most respects to their less gifted peers. Despite the fact that they feel their parents are satisfied with them, for example, the satisfaction of the talented youths with their parents and family lives does not differ markedly f rom the normal pattern. And while these students are aware of their "superior" academic standing, they are not remarkably different f rom normal adolescents in their sense of being able to cope with challenges.

The possession of superior ability in itself, then, does not appear to enhance superior self-functioning even in those dimensions of the self-concept most related to mastery and achievement. Such a finding is in line with those


of Tidwell (1980), who in a large sample of gifted high school students found a pronounced "modesty" regarding ability. How able and skillful talented teenagers feel seems to depend more upon the quality of challenge that they experience in their activities, and less upon extrinsic signs of accomplishment or untested convictions about their abilities.

Within this largely normal pattern of self-image and self-esteem, however, certain tendencies are present, which signal that the developmental tasks facing the talented teenager may be distinctive in a few key respects. What seems to distinguish this group most is the challenge of incorporating time for social and sexual development into a schedule already dominated by the behavioral demands of talent development. As the patterns of correlations between instructor ratings and self-image suggest, commitment to talent development entails more than the demonstration of technical proficiency in a domain. It involves the internalization of the values and behavioral expectations of the talent field as mediated by those adults who cultivate as well as assess proficiency. In turn, the adolescent's decision to willingly par- ticipate in this process of socialization could be complicated by her awareness that these values and expectations may openly conflict with those of her changing peer groups. This sense of conflict and trade-off is especially evident among the talented boys, for whom sexual uncertainty is associated with higher instructor ratings of skill and ability.

Strang (1956) has noted that while a majority of the gifted adolescents in her comparative study indicated satisfaction with peer relations, a significant minority "mentioned their desire for greater acceptance with their peers and almost half were concerned with boy-girl relations" (Strang, 1956, p. 124). Tannenbaum, in his study of adolescent attitudes toward academic ability, concluded that "the brilliant student is an exceptionally prominent tar- get for teen-age pressures to conform to certain behaviors and values" (Tannenbaum, 1962, p. 68). It seems likely that for many academically and artistically talented teenagers, in particular, the onset of puberty and the changes that emerging adolescence brings to peer relations are experienced as confusing and even painful (Beane and Lipka, 1982, 1986). Such confusion might prove particularly difficult for teens long accustomed to a secure sense of the admiration and good will of important others. In interviews collected in conjunction with this study, many of the talented youngsters expressed their relief to be past the "cliquishness" of junior high school, the approximate period of puberty onset, and its relentless and often petty social competitiveness. The perceived danger of exclusion from newly crystal- lizing teenage peer groups could precipitate in talented teenagers anxiety and self-consciousness regarding popularity and sexual desirability.

If factors such as those just outlined are impinging upon the self- development of talented adolescents, then they have important implications


for the further development of talent. One short-term response to feelings of heightened self-sensitivity and vulnerability may be an exaggerated tendency toward self-scrutiny and reflection. For some, such a turn inward may coincide with a greater need for solitude and immersion in activities that provide an alternate source of self-structure. Under these circumstances an ini- tial fear of isolation could be transformed through adolescence into a realization of the value of differentiation from others and its importance to creative expression. For others, this heightened self-scrutiny may remained untransformed, evolving instead into a draining sense of isolation, inade- quacy, and unrealistic self-expectation (Powell and Haden, 1984).

In the longer run, the magnitude of the task of integrating fulfilling talent development and satisfying social and sexual growth within one cohe- sive personality may prompt many of these talented teenagers to lengthen the period of maturation and delay full commitments to adult career paths. Part of the fear of isolation expressed by the talented youths no doubt reflects some sense, and perhaps even an exaggerated sense, of the difficulties that this task might entail. For some it may involve what Erikson has called a period of moratorium, a time of postponed commitment during which the young can experiment with various identities and even radically alter their values and priorities (Erikson, 1958, 1975). In other cases the realization of a fulfilling balance between social, sexual, and vocational expectations may prove less difficult to manage.

At the very least, the results of this study suggest that the ways in which talented teenagers come to terms with themselves sexually and socially may have a direct impact upon their ultimate decisions to either commit to or disengage themselves from their talent areas. Whether the sexual uncertain- ties of talented teenagers are linked to actual differences from normal teens in pubertal timing and experience is an important question for further investigation. In addition, the present findings raise a number of questions con- cerning the interactions of domain characteristics, gender, family, and related factors in the formation of the self-concepts of the talented. What do the experiences of the male scientists, for example, contribute to their apparently superior feelings of self-regard? Do the structures of various domains and fields and the opportunities for action that they provide make a difference in the quality of self-image? More specifically, do factors intrinsic to the study of science differentiate its impact upon teenage self-image and esteem for the experience of studies in music, mathematics, or art? These are issues best addressed by combining a multidimensional approach to self-image with more detailed comparative studies of the structure of daily experience within particular fields of talent development.

Self-Image of Talented Teenagers

A C K N O W L E D G M E N T S

145

T h e a u t h o r s t h a n k Dr . Dan ie l O f f e r fo r p r o v i d i n g us wi th the 1980 no r -

mal da ta set used in this s tudy. P ro j ec t s t a f f m e m b e r s E d w a r d Donne r , Jud i th

LeFevre , Kath leen Cha t t in , Kevin R a t h u n d e , C a r o l y n Schne ider , El len Whi te ,

and M a r i a W o n g c o n t r i b u t e d to the analys is .

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A comparison of the self-image of talented teenagers with a normal adolescent population

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