ORIGINAL PAPER

A 60-year record of rainfall from the sedimentsof Jinheung Pond, Jeongeup, Korea

Wook-Hyun Nahm Æ Gyoo Ho Lee Æ Dong-Yoon Yang ÆJu-Yong Kim Æ Kenji Kashiwaya Æ Masayoshi Yamamoto ÆAya Sakaguchi

Received: 20 February 2008 / Accepted: 8 May 2009 / Published online: 28 May 2009

� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2009

Abstract This paper describes mean grain-size data

from the 137Cs- and 210Pb-dated sediment core BS-3

(33-cm long) recovered from Jinheung Pond, located

in the southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula.

Grain-size analysis of the Jinheung Pond sediments

shows a clear signal for changes in annual precipi-

tation over the past 60 years. Instrumental records of

annual precipitation (AP) and the annual summation

of the precipitation of [50 mm per day (AP50),

which reflects the energy available for sediment

transport, correlate well with the mean grain-size

distributions measured in the core. The most plausi-

ble mechanism for this response in mean grain size is

variations in the annual amount and intensity of

precipitation. Heavy precipitation enhances soil

erosion over the catchment area and increases the

transport capacity of streams and rivers. Thus, coarser

mean grain size should reflect higher precipitation,

and smaller mean grain size should reflect lower

rainfall. In the data from core BS-3, however, grain-

size peaks attributed to increased annual precipitation

are not prominent. This is because a dam prevents

removal of fine particles from the pond via the

outflow. Therefore, the mean grain-size value repre-

sents somewhat larger sediments together with fine

clays. The results of this study show that sediments of

dammed lakes and ponds are well suited for high-

resolution environmental investigations, especially

for records of changes in precipitation over time.

Keywords Jinheung Pond � Lake/pond sediment �Dam � Precipitation � Grain-size

Introduction

Sediment profiles in lakes and ponds are widely

recognized as archives for paleoenvironments,

because they can provide important information on

past climate and hydrology. Detailed reconstructions

of the history of natural processes may improve our

understanding of potential future environmental

changes.

The major advantage of sediment records’ very

high (decadal or annual) resolution is that they can be

W.-H. Nahm (&) � D.-Y. Yang � J.-Y. Kim

Geological & Environmental Hazards Division, Korea

Institute of Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM),

Daejeon 305-350, Korea

e-mail: nahmwh@empal.com

G. H. Lee

E&P Team, Korea Gas Corporation (KOGAS),

Seongnam, Gyeonggi 463-754, Korea

K. Kashiwaya

Institute of Nature and Environmental Technology,

Kanazawa University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan

M. Yamamoto � A. Sakaguchi

Low Level Radioactivity Laboratory, Kanazawa

University, Kanazawa 920-1192, Japan

123

J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498

DOI 10.1007/s10933-009-9345-4

compared with historical meteorological observations

and process-related information. There have, how-

ever, been few studies using lake and pond sediments

to assess environmental changes. This is due to the

great increase in recent times of anthropogenic

pollution and disturbances (Kashiwaya 1996; Laird

et al. 1996; Campbell 1998; Struck et al. 2000; Doner

2003; Peng et al. 2005; Bjorck et al. 2006).

Numerous analytical methods have been used to

study paleoenvironmental changes. Among them, the

grain-size distribution of lake and pond sediments is

generally accepted as a useful proxy for past changes

in precipitation. Several researchers have demon-

strated that lake and pond sediments record rainfall

events (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya 1996; Rodbell

et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2002; Noren et al. 2002).

Heavy precipitation enhances soil erosion over a

catchment area and increases the transport capacity of

streams and rivers. Consequently, coarser mean grain

size reflects heavier and increased amounts of

rainfall, and vice versa (Yamamoto 1984; Kashiwaya

1996; Peng et al. 2005).

Jinheung Pond is a small, dammed pond situated

on the southwestern part of the Korean Peninsula.

Massive economic growth and agricultural develop-

ment in the Jinheung Pond area began in the early

1990s. As no historic dredging of the pond has been

reported (Gamgok Township Office 2003), we are

confident that a continuous sediment record is

preserved in the pond sediments, and thus a corre-

lation of the sedimentological variables with instru-

mental measurements is possible.

We examined stratigraphic variations in grain size

distribution in sediment core BS-3 (33 cm in length)

from Jinheung Pond, and compared the data with

instrumental records of annual precipitation near the

study area. We also characterized the sediments

deposited behind the dam. These data provide

insights into the past and potential future environ-

mental changes in and around Jinheung Pond.

Study area

Jinheung Pond (35�4104200N, 126�5501300E) was a

small pond until the early twentieth century, but now

functions as a water reservoir for irrigation (Fig. 1).

The dam on Jinheung Pond, which is *3.8 m high,

was built in 1945. Today, Jinheung Pond (Gamgok

Town, Jeongeup City) has an average depth of 2.2 m,

a water surface area of 8,900 m2 within a small

catchment of 173,000 m2, and a water storage

capacity of 19,580 m3. One small stream brings

freshwater into Jinheung Pond. The main land-use

types in the drainage basin have not changed over the

decades. At higher elevations, land cover is mainly

forest, which consists of pine and broadleaf trees.

Lower elevation areas are occupied mostly by

agricultural lands, used for cultivating cabbage,

lettuce, maize and rice. The irrigation season extends

from March to June, with maximum demand in April

and May. Although the pond water level drops during

periods of irrigation, the sediments are rarely

exposed. Jinheung Pond is located in the mid-latitude

temperate zone, which has seasonal winds and a

continental climate. Average temperature varied from

a low of -14.4�C in January to a high of 29.5�C in

August in recent decades. The yearly average tem-

perature is 13.1�C. Mean annual rainfall is 1,136 mm.

Due to high North Pacific atmospheric pressure, the

region receives 55% of its precipitation in summer

months. The prevailing winds, generally from the

NW and SE, can reach a speed of 1.1 m/s (Jeongeup

City Office 2003). The bedrock of the region consists

of Jurassic coarse to medium-grained biotite granite

(Park et al. 2001).

Materials and methods

A 33-cm-long sediment core (core BS-3) was taken

from the center (Fig. 1) of Jinheung Pond (Fig. 2) on

July 2003 using a hand-held cylindrical gravity core

sampler with an inner diameter of 50 mm. The core

was sub-sampled in the laboratory at 1-cm intervals.

After the removal of carbonates by 10% HCl and

organic matter by 30% H2O2 and the use of sodium

hexametaphosphate as the dispersing agent, grain-

size analysis of the bulk sediment was carried out

with a Mastersizer 2000 laser particle analyzer

detecting a 0.02–2,000 micro-meter size range (Mal-

vern Instruments, Ltd., Worcestershire, UK). Grain-

size parameters were calculated following Folk and

Ward (1957), and correlated with precipitation

records during the past 60 years from the Jeonju

Weather Station (operated by Korea Meteorological

Administration) located 15 km northeast of the study

area.

490 J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498

123

We established an age-depth model for core BS-3

using 137Cs and 210Pb dating. The radioactivities of137Cs and 210Pbexcess in the sub-samples were mea-

sured using a high-resolution, low background, low

energy, hyper-pure n-type germanium coaxial

gamma-ray LOAX HPGe detector (EG&G Ortec,

Oak Ridge, Tenn., USA) at the Low Level Radioac-

tivity Laboratory, Kanazawa University, Japan. The137Cs activities of the sub-samples were measured

using the net counts at the 661.7 keV photopeak. The210Pbtotal activities of the sub-samples were measured

using the 46.5 keV gamma ray for 210Pb, and the226Ra activities were measured using the 351.9 keV

gamma ray for 214Pb, a short-lived daughter of 226Ra.

Results and discussion

137Cs dating

The radionuclide 137Cs (half-life 30.17 year) is

a fission product initially introduced into the envi-

ronment in significant quantities as a result of

0 100 m

ChinaJapan

Korea

30N

35N

40N

120 E 125 E 130 E

Baeksan Temple

Gamgok

Jinheung Pond

dam

BS-3

inlet

Fig. 1 Location of Jinheung Pond and the coring site (core BS-3)

Fig. 2 Jinheung Pond photographed from the southwest

J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498 491

123

atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted in the

early 1950s. 137Cs is deposited as fallout, which is

rapidly and almost irreversibly adsorbed onto sedi-

ment, particularly clay particles (Tamura 1964;

Alberts and Muller 1979; Livens and Rimmer 1988)

and possibly organic matter (Tahir and Stewart 1975)

in freshwater systems. Dating with 137Cs data is

based on assumptions about the distribution of 137Cs

in the depth profile (Ritchie and McHenry 1990;

Ely et al. 1992; Pinglot et al. 1999). The annual

deposition of 137Cs was characterized by great

temporal variation, and the highest 137Cs activity

may represent the period of maximum radionuclide

fallout in the northern hemisphere. This is associated

with the peak of atomic weapons testing in 1963

(Ritchie and McHenry 1990; He et al. 1996; Collins

et al. 1997; Kang et al. 1997; Andersen et al. 2000;

Yan et al. 2002). In core BS-3, the maximum 137Cs

peak (19.60 ± 1.42 Bq/kg) corresponds to a depth of

19 cm. In accordance with 137Cs studies in other

regions of the world, we assigned a date of 1963 to

this depth (Fig. 3).

210Pbexcess dating

210Pb is a natural radioactive isotope formed as a

product of the 238U decay series, with a half-life of

22.26 years. 238U in the Earth’s crust decays to 226Ra

and further to 222Rn, which then escapes to the

atmosphere and decays to 210Pb. Precipitation carries210Pb to the Earth surface, where it adheres to fine-

grained material and organic components (Van Hoof

and Andren 1989; He and Walling 1996). This fallout

(atmospherically derived) fraction is termed ‘‘unsup-

ported’’ or ‘‘excess’’ 210Pb (hereafter referred to as210Pbexcess).

210Pb also forms within the sediment

itself as a product of the decay of the 238U incorpo-

rated in mineral grains, and this fraction is termed

‘‘supported’’ 210Pb. We calculated the 210Pbexcess

concentrations for the sub-samples by subtracting

the 226Ra-supported 210Pb concentrations from the

total 210Pb (unsupported and supported) concentra-

tions (Joshi 1987; Appleby and Oldfield 1992).

137Cs (Bq/kg)

0 4 8 12 16 20 24

25

20

15

10

5

0

dept

h (c

m)

1963 (19 cm)

Fig. 3 137Cs concentration profile in core BS-3. The arrowindicates the 1963 137Cs peak

0

5

10

15

20

10 100 1000

activity of 210Pbexcess (Bq/kg)

dept

h (c

m)

ln(Y) = -0.071 * X + 5.277

coefficient of determination (R2) = 0.86

(sedimentation rate) = 0.43 cm/year

Fig. 4 210Pbexcess logarithmic profile in core BS-3

492 J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498

123

The calculations of sedimentation rate are based

upon the decay constant of 210Pb and the decay and

the change of activities of 210Pbexcess with depth

(Nittrouer et al. 1979; San Miguel et al. 2001). The

activity of 210Pbexcess in a layer at depth z (cm), A(z)

(Bq/kg), is expressed as:

AðzÞ ¼ Að0Þ � EXP �k� z=xð Þð Þ ð1Þ

where A(0) (Bq/kg) is the activity of 210Pbexcess in the

top layer of the sediment core, k is the 210Pb

radioactive decay constant (0.031 year-1), and x is

the sedimentation rate (cm/year). The 210Pb logarith-

mic profile versus depth in core BS-3, using a least

squares weighted fit (Fig. 4), gives us the following

results:

Ln AðzÞ ¼ �0:071� zþ 5:277 ð2Þ

with a coefficient of determination (R2) equal to 0.86.

This allows, by comparison with Eq. 1, the determi-

nation of the sedimentation rate:

x sedimentation rateð Þ ¼ 0:43cm=year ð3Þ

Based on the sedimentation rate (0.43 cm/year)

calculated from the 210Pbexcess method, the age of

sediments at 19 cm depth can be assigned to 1959 or

1960. The discrepancy of 3–4 years between the137Cs and 210Pbexcess methods may be related to the

relatively low value of the coefficient of determina-

tion (0.86) in the 210Pbexcess method. We interpret the

low coefficient of determination to be caused by

changes in sediment influx due to variations in

precipitation patterns.

Grain-size distribution: the consequences

of dam construction

Overall, the mean grain size of core BS-3 decreases

stepwise upwards, mostly in the range from medium

silt- to very fine silt-sized particles (Fig. 5). Sand-

sized grains are rare. Except for the grain-size, no

lithologic variation within core BS-3 is apparent.

8.5 8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.035

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

mean grain-size (phi) distribution

dept

h (c

m)

1963(19 cm)

1945(24 cm)

interval 2

interval 3

interval 1

A

0 20 40 60 80 100

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

granulometry (%)

clay

(%

)

silt

(%)

sand

(%

)

Fig. 5 Mean grain-size

distribution and

granulometry (%) of core

BS-3 (A: upward-fining

trend)

J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498 493

123

There are three intervals of sediment with similar

mean grain-size distributions.

Interval 1 From 33 to 24 cm depth, the sediments

consist mainly of medium silt, with a mean grain size

of 6.78 (phi).

Interval 2 Between 24 and 2 cm depth, several

small changes in the mean grain size from 6.74 to

7.67 (phi) are apparent. Overall mean grain size in

this interval is 7.20 (phi).

Interval 3 The interval from 2 to 0 cm depth

consists of clay with rich amorphous organic matter.

The organic matter may originate from either algal or

bacterial elements or the decomposition of land and

aquatic plants (Schnurrenberger et al. 2003). The

mean grain size of this interval is 8.28 (phi).

The main phase shift in mean grain size was found

at about 24 cm depth, which is the boundary between

interval 1 (33–24 cm depth) and interval 2 (24–2 cm

depth). Assuming that 19 cm depth corresponds to

1963, 24 cm depth would correspond to about 1945

(Fig. 5). Using the 210Pbexcess method, 24 cm depth

corresponds to 1946.

Construction of the dam in 1945 may have

significantly affected the sedimentation processes in

Jinheung Pond. Several studies elsewhere have

reported that the building of a dam can cause a

fundamental change in the distribution of fine sedi-

ment storage in various depositional environments

(Wolanski et al. 1996; Andersen et al. 2000; Chen

et al. 2001; Rathburn and Wohl 2003; Vericat et al.

2006). As dams tend to trap large quantities of fine

sediments being transported from upstream reaches

(Vericat et al. 2006), the large distribution of finer

sediments in interval 2 (mean grain size 7.20 (phi))

compared to that of interval 1 (mean grain size 6.78

(phi)) can be attributed to the effect of the dam

construction.

Mean grain size fluctuations within Interval 2

Within interval 2 (24–2 cm depth), a gradual

decrease in mean grain size upwards was observed.

We interpret this upward-fining trend (Fig. 5a) to be

due to a gradual increase in the density of the

vegetation cover in the catchment area, which can

impede transport of sediments. Several mean grain

size fluctuations are also recognized within interval 2.

The most plausible mechanism for these fluctuations

is the variation in the annual amount and the intensity

of precipitation. An increase or decrease in precip-

itation potentially causes sediment input to increase

or decrease, and consequently, makes sediment grain

size larger or smaller, respectively (Yamamoto 1984;

Kashiwaya 1996; Rodbell et al. 1999; Brown et al.

2002; Noren et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2005). To

separate vegetation effects from the grain size signal,

we applied a de-trending method to the raw data.

After the de-trending, we computed the fluctuation

amplitude of the mean grain size signal (Fig. 6).

Based on the instrumental records of daily rainfall

in the study area during the past 60 years (Korea

Meteorological Administration 2003), the annual

amount of precipitation (AP) and the annual summa-

tion of the excess precipitation over 50 mm per day

8.0 7.5 7.0 6.5 6.0

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

dept

h (c

m)

interval 2

Fig. 6 De-trended curve of mean grain-size distribution

within interval 2

494 J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498

123

(AP50) proposed by Kashiwaya (1996) were calcu-

lated. The AP represents the amount of annual

precipitation, whereas the AP50 represents the inten-

sity of rainfall (Kashiwaya et al. 1986, 1989).

Changes in the AP and the AP50 are shown in Fig. 7.

In the AP diagram, seven low rainfall events

(\950 mm AP) are apparent, occurring in 1949,

1951, 1968, 1977, 1982, 1988 and 1994–1995. In the

AP and AP50 diagrams, eight high rainfall events

([1600 mm AP or 250 mm AP50) are shown, in

1948, 1958, 1961, 1969, 1979, 1984–1985, 1987 and

1997. These fluctuations in the instrumental records

of the AP and the AP50 may correspond to the

changes in grain size distribution.

The decreased grain-size peaks at 21, 16, 12, 9 and

4 cm depth can be attributed to the low rainfall

recorded in 1949, 1968, 1977, 1982 and 1994–1995,

respectively. The grain-size peaks at depths of 22, 20,

10, 8, 5 and 3 cm can be attributed to the increased

rainfall recorded in 1948, 1961, 1979, 1984–1985,

1987 and 1997, respectively. Decreased rain-

fall events in 1951 and 1988, and increased rainfall

events in 1958 and 1969, do not correspond with

peaks in the grain-size data. This is perhaps

1940

1945

1950

1955

1960

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

400 800 1200 1600 2000 0 100 200 300 400 500

AP (mm) AP50 (mm)

year

Fig. 7 Instrumentally

recorded annual

precipitation (Korea

Meteorological

Administration, 2003), (AP:

the annual amount of

precipitation, AP50: the

annual summation of the

excess precipitation over

50 mm per day, h:

increased rainfall events, s:

decreased rainfall events)

J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498 495

123

attributable to sediment erosion or depositional

hiatuses, but there is no sedimentary evidence or

written records to support these explanations. Never-

theless, the age-depth curve for core BS-3 based on

these estimated ages shows a nearly linear trend,

which suggests that the age determination from grain-

size peaks is not seriously in error (Fig. 8).

Sedimentation in dammed lakes and ponds

Because the grain-size analysis of lake and pond

sediments provides relatively simple, economical,

rapid, and detailed proxy data, the idea that changes

in mean grain-size record climate (precipitation)

signals has been widely accepted (Campbell 1998).

Many researchers have shown that a coarser mean

grain size reflects heavier and increased amounts of

rainfall in various settings (Yamamoto 1984; Kash-

iwaya 1996; Rodbell et al. 1999; Brown et al. 2002;

1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000

25

20

15

10

5

0

dam construction 1945 (24 cm)

rainfall (+) 1948 (22 cm)

rainfall (-) 1949 (21 cm)

rainfall (+) 1961 (20 cm)

137Cs 1963 (19 cm)

rainfall (-) 1977 (12 cm)

rainfall (+) 1979 (10 cm)

rainfall (-) 1982 (9 cm)

rainfall (+) 1987 (5 cm)

rainfall (-) 1994 (4 cm)

surface 2003 (1 cm)

dept

h (c

m)

year

rainfall (+) 1997 (3 cm)

rainfall (+) 1985 (8 cm)

rainfall (-) 1968 (16 cm)

Fig. 8 Age-depth curve for core BS-3, (?): increased rainfall

events, (-): decreased rainfall events

outflow

outflow

lake or pond

lake or pond

lake or pond

lake or pond

inflow

inflow

< heavy rainfall >

< heavy rainfall >

< weak rainfall >

< weak rainfall >

condition of natural lake or pond

condition of dammed lake or pond

condition of natural lake or pond

condition of dammed lake or pond

inflow

inflow

outflow

outflow

dam

dam

Fig. 9 Schematic diagrams

showing the sediment

transportation in natural and

dammed lakes/ponds

496 J Paleolimnol (2010) 43:489–498

123

Noren et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2005). Campbell (1998)

proposed that the mechanism for this response is as

follows: inflow carries coarse and fine particles

together at the time of heavy rainfall, while outflow

removes the fine sediments from the water column.

Consequently, the coarse fraction is deposited at the

bottom of the pond.

In this study, however, the increased mean grain-

size peaks are not well defined in the plot of mean

grain-size distribution (Fig. 5). We attributed this to

the dam construction in 1945. In the case of natural,

undammed lakes and ponds, outflow discharge

removes the fine-grained sediments. In dammed

lakes, however, the dam traps all coarse sediment

as well as a significant portion of the fine sediment

transported from upstream (Vericat et al. 2006). The

Jinheung Pond dam has weakened the power of the

outflow stream, and hence fine sediments are not

efficiently removed from the pond. As a result, a

mixture of fine and coarse fractions is deposited on

the pond bottom, and the mean grain size is reduced

significantly. At times of decreased rainfall, the

supply of coarse sediments is also reduced, so the

mean grain size is reduced even more (Fig. 9).

As sediment loss is minimized in dammed lakes

and ponds, we expect that the sedimentation rate

would be higher and that organic matter or heavy

metal pollutants, which tend to adhere to fine

sediments, would concentrate more and possibly act

as secondary pollution sources.

Conclusions

A notable feature in core BS-3 is an abrupt shift in the

mean grain size between interval 1 and 2, corre-

sponding to around 1945. We interpret this as an

effect of dam construction at that time. Within

interval 2 (from 1945 to 2003), the sediment has

recorded clear precipitation signals. Correspondence

between the grain-size distribution at depth and

fluctuations of instrumentally recorded precipitation

suggests that grain size is directly related with

precipitation in the region. An undammed lake or

pond functions as a coarse sediment trap, whereas a

dammed lake or pond functions as a trap for fine as

well as coarse sediment. In particular, the dam

prevents fine sediments from being efficiently swept

from the pond. Consequently, low mean grain-size

values at the time of decreased rainfall are more

prominent. The results of this study show that the

sediments of dammed lakes and ponds are well suited

for high-resolution paleoenvironmental investiga-

tions, especially studies of precipitation changes over

time.

Acknowledgments We thank Dr. Kue-Young Kim, Dr. Jin-

Kwan Kim and Mr. Min-Seok Kim of the Korea Institute of

Geoscience and Mineral Resources (KIGAM) for their

assistance in laboratory work. We also thank the Journal ofPaleolimnology Editor-in-Chief, Dr. Mark Brenner, and two

anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments on the

original manuscript. This research was supported by the Basic

Research Project of KIGAM funded by the Ministry of

Knowledge Economy of Korea.

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