9609-THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC METHOD: AN ISLAMIC REFRAMING
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ISLAMIC MEDICAL EDUCATION RESOURCES01
9609-THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC
METHOD: AN ISLAMIC
REFRAMING
Presented at an International Conference on Values and Attitudes in Science and Technology
organized at the International Islamic University Malaysia September 1996 by Professor Dr
Omar Hasan Kasule MB ChB (MUK), MPH (Harvard), DrPH (Harvard)
ABSTRACT
This paper presents 5 assumptions:
(i) Methodology is the determinant of knowledge; advance of knowledge starts
reform of methodology
(ii) (ii) Muslim scientists should start with, develop, and build on the ummah’s
methodological heritage in inculcating a culture (attitudes and values) of
systematic scientific enquiry to be able to make original and innovative
contributions to scientific knowledge
(iii) (iii) Empirical research is a type of ijtihad
(iv) (iv) The basic elements of the empirical method are valid; Muslims do not
object to the essence but to the Eurocentric philosophical frame and
inappropriate use
(v) (v) A tauhidi and not a Euro-centric frame can motivate excellent and
innovative S&T in the ummah.
The problems due to a Euro-centric world-view are
(1) unstated and stated a priori biases in the formulation of hypotheses, selection of
hypotheses for testing, interpretation, and use of scientific knowledge
(2) (II) the assertion that only empirical knowledge is valid
(3) (III) arrogance in not acknowledging limitations to human observation and
interpretation of physical phenomena
(4) (IV) dealing with the parts and missing the whole.
The following Qur’anic concepts can contribute to the Islamic reframing of the
empirical method
(a) acknowledging wide but finite frontiers of human knowledge
(b) apreciating tauhid as an integrating wholistic universal intellectual paradigm for all
processes of empirical research
(c) accepting natural laws (sunan al llaah) as a basis for an ordely universe with stable
causal relations
(d) study of physical phenomena ( tadabbur aayat llaah) as basis for empirical
observations and interpretation
(e) uprightness (Istiqamat) as protection from methodological biases
(f) vicegerancy of the human on earth (Istikhlaf), placing the universe at the service of
humans ( taskhiir), and (building civilization (isti’imaar) are bases for responsible
technology.
The following concepts from classical Islamic methodological sciences (uluum al Qur’an,
uluum al hadith, and usuul al fiqh) can also contribute to reframing the emoirical
method and promoting its Islamic values and attitudes:
(1) the concept of abrogation (naskh) motivates understanding of the dynamic changes
and growth of scientific facts and theories
(2) scientific exigesis (tafsir ‘ilmi), subject-based exigesis (tafsir maudhui) and the science
of hadith critique (‘ilm naqd al hadith) relate to data interpretation. The science of
narrators (‘ilm al jarh wa al ta’adiil/’ilm al rijaal) relates to the assessment and
development of an honest and ethical personality in the scientific researcher. The
discipline of qiyas usuli relates to the inductive logic empirical science. The theory of the
general purposes of the law (maqasid al sharia) relates to the generalization or external
validity of empirical observations and theories. The axioms of the law (al qawaid al
fiqhiyyat al kulliyat) relate to established scientific laws. There are parallels in S&T
practice for the following sources of law: istihbaab, istihsaan, istislah, ijma, and ‘urf.
The paper concludes by summarizing the basic characteristics of Islamic methodology
and making 2 recommendations:
(a) Aspiring modern Muslim scientists, like their ancestors, should take a preliminary
course on classical methodology to provide intellectual tools, values, and attitudes on
which to build their innovative careers
(b) Mature scientists, like their encyclopedic forerunners, should break disciplinary
barriers so that their investigations are wholistic and follow the tauhidi paradigm.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PURPOSE OF THE PAPER
The paper analyzes the empirical methodology and discusses its reframing within an
Islamic context as a means of overcoming the attitudinal barriers to the growth of S&T,
R&D, and successful technology transfer. The paper concludes that the basic postulates
and elements of the scientific method are valid and acceptable. The problems are
external to the method and manifest in the way it is framed and is used. The paper
proposes means of an Islamic reframing of the empirical method to overcome the
defects above. It also discusses the values and attitudes that encourage or hinder the
transfer and development of science and technology.
1.2 DEFINITION OF SCIENCE, RESEARCH, AND TECHNOLOGY
Science is a body of organized knowledge secured through systematic investigation. It
searches for and tries to explain relations among physical phenomena.
A basic assumption of science is that there are natural laws, sunan llah fi al kawn, that
make the universe rationally organized and predictable. The aim of scientific research is
to learn as much as possible about these laws in order to explain and exploit causal
relations. Humans can investigate those laws that are within the seen world ‘aalam al
shahadat; they have no access to laws that are in the unseen ‘aalam al ghaib. As far as
human understanding is concerned a cause is always and is necessarily followed by its
effect. Exceptions to this are in the realm of the ‘aalam al ghaib and humans have no
need to interact with them in the normal conduct of their affairs except where instructed
by revelation. All what humans need to know from ‘aalam al ghaib is provided by
revelation.
Scientific research is basically looking for causal relations and how to exploit them.
Research is undertaken in 4 different areas: basic research, applied research, product
development, and technology transfer. The empirical method is used in each of these
fields. Research results into growth of knowledge either by addition of new knowledge or
a deeper understanding of existing knowledge. Research methods are either
observational or experimental. Observational studies may be descriptive or analytic.
Experimental studies usually result in manipulation of the ecosystem.
Technology is transformation of basic science into services and products. The Islamic
paradigm of useful knowledge, ‘ilm nafei, calls for transformation of science into
technology. The only exception to this is science studied for the sole purpose of
understanding and appreciating the majesty of the creator.
1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Science and technology are as old as humanity. The first recorded scientific activity was
teaching Adam the names of things. Naming and classification are basics for scientific
research and communication. Human curiosity and the search for practical solutions to
problems of life led to discoveries by empirical observation or trial and error. The S&T we
have today is a product of human endeavor to which all known civilizations contributed:
ancient Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, Persia, China, and India. The Greek achievements are
the best documented.
Muslims played a crucial role in preserving and improving ancient Greek learning and
passing it to Europe just before the scientific revolution at the start of the 16th century
CE. The Umayyad Khalif, Khalid Ibn Yazid, started translations of Greek science and
philosophy into Arabic. This effort intensified in the 3rd century AH under the Abassid
rulers. Muslims became leaders of science in its various disciplines by correcting defects
in Greek science but also making innovative additions of their own.
The golden era of Muslim science was during the early Abassid perod. Science in the
Muslim world declined after that. By the 14th century AH the ummah was weak in
technology and superstition had come back. The decline can be dated to (a) the Mongol
invasion and sacking of Baghdad (1258 CE) when over a period of 40 years they killed
scientists and destroyed books and the expulsion of Muslims scientists and (b) catholic
destruction of Muslim institutions of learning and research in Andalusia (1491 CE)
During the renaissance or age of enlightenment, the catholic church’s suppression of
science was rejected. At the same time Muslim science, carrying with it the empirical
method, reached Europe through translations or study of Europeans at Muslim
universities in Spain and other countries. This led to the scientific revolution in Europe of
the period 1500-1750 CE. Transfer of the empirical method to Europe was imperfect; the
Europeans took the facts but not the tauhidi context. A new European and largely secular
context was developed. The empirical method was presented as the source of knowledge
par excellence. Other sources of knowledge were rejected especially revelation because
of its association with the rejected church. This was an overreaction to the transgressions
of the church against science. The experience of the Muslims had shown that the
empirical method could be used alongside other sources of knowledge and that it was
not anti-religion.
There were 4 periods of intense scientific interaction between Europe and the Muslim
world:
(a) 3-6th centuries AH Greek science was transferred to the Muslim world. The Muslims
had a methodological basis that allowed them to make selective absorption and also be
able to innovate.
(b) during the crusades that lasted 8 centuries , the Muslims were intellectually stronger
than the Europeans. The Muslims taught and did not to learn. Transfer of Muslim science
to Europe was limited because of the intense rivalry
(c) 13-14th centuries AH the Muslims were only consumers of S&T because they had lost
their methodology and could not make original contributions. It was not possible to
integrate the ummah’s thinking with modern S&T. Lack of methodological originality led
to neglect of pure sciences
(d) With the start of the 15th century of hijra, calls for a renewal in the ummah were
made to develop of transfer technology in a selective, critical and innovative way.
Experiences of indiscriminate technology transfer in Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Pakistan and
other Muslim countries over the past 50 years have not been wholly successful; they
have made the Muslims even more dependent than before. Methodology built on the
Muslim heritage will inspire more R&D than methodology developed in another world-
view and is transplanted into the Muslim world. It will at the same time relieve the
inferiority complex that afflicts Muslims. The ummah will absorb what is available in S&T.
As Roger Garaudy advised this must be selective, critical, and creative. The ummah will
also have to develop its methodologies so that it can in its own unique way make
innovative additions to the corpus of human knowledge and experience. The ummah can
not achieve technological autonomy or develop an innovative and vigorous indigenous
science base if it does not build on an Islamic framework. The world-view that motivates
a European scientist can not motivate a Muslim to the same degree.
1.4 METHODOLOGY, KNOWLEDGE AND REFORM
Study of methodology is rapidly emerging as an important and independent field.
Methodology defines a discipline; a discipline can not be recognized as independent until
it evolved a methodology. Methodology defines a discipline. According to the tauhidi
paradigm, there is a methodological framework common to all disciplines since there is
unity of knowledge and the source of knowledge is one, Allah. This common
methodology can be reached by deep study and reflection of any discipline.
Muslim history has shown that successful reform movements have always started with
reform of knowledge. Movements that were based on purely political or military action
with no knowledge reform were not as successful. Knowledge reform requires
methodological reform. Reform of the ummah today will have to start from its
methodological heritage recast in a contemporary framework, referred to as asaalat
islamiyyat muasirat by Dr Abdulhamid Abusulayman.
The ummah is proud to have been the first to develop uluum al hadith and ‘ilm al usuul
as methodological sciences that ensure correct transmission of text (khabar) and
distinguish the right from the wrong. Tools from Islamic methodological sciences are
comparable to those of the empirical method. Science investigates matter and energy
and their uses whereas Islamic methodological sciences investigate revealed text seeking
to understand its use. The field of investigation may be different but the intellectual tools
used as well the possible methodological biases are similar to a large extent. Both face
the challenge of working from incomplete evidence and making general explanatory
theory.
Ancient Muslim scientists were encyclopedic being involved in several fields of enquiry at
the same time. Research is a type of ijtihad. We are of the opinion that door to ijtihad has
never been closed in the ummah at any epoch. The decrease in scholarly output that
occured at certain epochs in history was more due to lack of new challenges for scholars
than to lack of intellectual curiosity. The physical and social environment changed very
little between the 4th and 10th centuries of hijra. The period starting with the 13th
century has witnessed major changes and challenges and is therefore producing more
reformers and thinkers. Innovative intellectual output of the ummah is now on the rise.
This conference comes at a very opportune moment.
2.0 METHODS
2.1 SOURCES
The paper is based on bibliographic sources available in Malaysia at the time of writing,
the author’s reflections and reading on methodology over the past 5 years, and
discussions with senior colleagues at IIIT and UIA. Both Muslim and non-Muslim critiques
of the empirical methodology were studied. A large sample of writings have been
consulted to make sure that statements made on scientific or Islamic methodology are
representative.
In preparation of this paper, an Extensive literature review covering the following areas
was made to define the issues at stake: Islamic Reform Movements, technology transfer,
history of science, philosophy of science, epistemology, research methods, the empirical
method, Quranic sciences, hadith sciences, usul al fiqh, Islamic methodology and
Islamization of knowledge.
The main source of information about the various Islamic sciences was al Zahiili, M.
Marjau al ‘uluum al Islamiyyat. Dar al Ma’rifat, Damascus no date
2.2 TERMINOLOGY
Simple terminology has been used to make the paper friendly to the non-specialist.
Quranic terminology has been used whenever possible because it is exact. The term
‘European’ has been used instead of ‘western’ to refer to the to the intellectual and
cultural heritage that encompasses Greco-roman, Judeo-christian traditions that
developed over the past 2000 years and dominated the world over the past 500 years.
Many of the arabic terms used have not been translated but their meanings have been
explained in the glossary.
2.3 METHOD OF ANALYSIS
European sources have been used as authorities in the description of the empirical
method. The tauhidi paradigm has been used to critically analyze the method showing its
strengths and weaknesses. Methodological concepts from traditional Islamic sciences
have been examined in a broad sense as they relate to scientific methodology. The paper
has avoided rediscussing opinions generated by ijtihad of the ummah’s scholars over the
past 14 centuries because the details were relevant to their eras and only the guiding
principles can be applied to our times. The paper has similarly avoided discussion of the
evolution of current European concepts of epistemology and philosophy of science and
just confined itself to stating the state of art knowledge and analyzed them from a
tauhidi perspective. The paper has analyzed contemporary challenges using the original
sources of Qur’an and sunnat. Parallels between classical Islamic methodological sciences
and the empirical methodology were identified and were discussed.
2.4 USE OF END-NOTES
End-notes have been used extensively to make the main paper of reasonable length and
avoid interruption of the flow of ideas for the reader familiar with the themes being
discussed and their sources. A reader not familiar with Islamic sciences may turn to the
notes for detailed information.
2.5 TRANSLITERATION
The author has used his own transliteration system of Arabic words into the Latin
alphabet. Both the motivation and methodology are explained in the notes.
3.0 THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC METHOD
3.1 DEFINITION & CHARACTERISTICS
The European use of the empirical method has the following established
characteristics:
(a) It is pragmatic and basically atheistic
(b) only observation is the source of valid knowledge; other sources of knowledge such as
istinbat, tarikh, naql are rejected.
The following characteristics of the empirical method are alleged and may not always
hold in practice
(a) It is open-ended, theories are abandoned if no longer sustained by facts
(b) It is methodological (systematic, repeatable, and consistent)
(c) It is accurate, precise, and objective.
The empirical methodology is innately good but the manner and context of its use lead
to the following problems:
(a) biases due to a priori assumptions
(b) limitations of observation by human senses
(c) limitations of human intellect
(d) lack of an integrating paradigm
3.2 HISTORY THE EMPIRICAL SCIENTIFIC METHOD
Empiricism could be said to be an innate character of humans which they share with
animals. Humans always want to know the explanation of natural phenomena and what
relates one event to another. In the absence of empirical knowledge or wahy they have
sometimes resorted to superstition. It is not easy to give credit for discovery of the
empirical method. Available evidence shows that Muslims scientists in the golden era of
Islam were pioneers of the systematic use of the empirical method. Hitti, William Smith,
George Sarton concluded that it was Muslims who first used experimentation and
observation in a systematic way.
Greek science was conjectural and hypothetical. Greeks preferred reasoning and looked
down upon perceptual knowledge. They would spend years in their confortble arm chairs
reasoning instead of going out of the room and making observation or setting up a simple
experiment to close the issue. Aristotle for example never thought of testing his theory
about the speed of falling of heavy and light objects.
Dr Sulaiman Daud concluded after an analysis of Muslim and European writings that
Muslims were the first to criticize Greek logic (al qiyaas al mantiqi) and that they were
the first to develop a complete empirical methodology in the form of qiyaas usuuli.
Allama Muhammad Iqbal in his ‘Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam’ argued that
the empirical method was not a European discovery. He quoted contributions by:
Ghazzali, Ishraqi, Ibn Taymiyyat, Abubakr al Razi, and Ibn Hazm. Other pioneers of the
empirical method were: Ibn Sina, Al Biruni, al Kindi (d. 260 AH), Jabir Ibn Hayyan (d. 200
AH), Ibn Haytham (d. 340 AH), al Khawarizmi (d. 387 AH).
European history ascribes ‘discovery’ of the empirical method to Roger Bacon (1561-1626
CE). According to Prantl, Roger Bacon learned the empirical method from Arabs. Other
European pioneers of the method such as San Simon 1760-1825 CE, August Kant 1798-
1857 CE, Emile Durkheim 1858-1917 CE built on Bacon’s ideas.
The Qur’an is a methodological inspiration to Muslim scientists. Qur’anic, hadith, and
usul al fiqh sciences are a rich intellectual heritage on which Muslim scientists built their
methodology. They learned from and improved Greek science. They pioneered the
empirical methodology and transmitted it to Europe just before the renaissance. The
European copied the empirical method but not its context hence their misuse of the
method. Methodological development in empirical science in the ummah has stagnated
over the centuries. Biased European methodology was imposed on the Muslim world
over the past 2 centuries with the claim that it was the only source of valid knowledge.
Many Muslims unaware of their heritage have accepted this.
3.3 IBN HYTHAM AND USE OF THE EMPIRICAL METHOD
Scientific investigation starts with hypothesis formulation. The hypotheses are tested by
empirical observation and deductions/inductions are made.
Ibn Haytham, in his ‘Book of Optics’ kitaab al Manzir illustrates the use of the empirical
method. He did a lot of experiments and interpreted the findings. He realized the
importance of mathematics. He used a combination of inductive and deductive logic. In
inductive logic an observation is generalized in the form of a hypothesis that can be
tested empirically. In deductive logic, a hypothesis is verified experimentally and the
findings are used to interpret other facts based on the hypothesis. Induction usually is
followed by deduction.
Ibn Hytham formed hypotheses in 2 ways: (a) by observation of natural phenomena for
example he saw that light passing through a hole has the shape of that hole and
therefore formed a hypothesis that light travels in straight lines (b) by analogy for
example the moon gets light from the sun; stars by analogy get light from the sun
To verify the hypotheses about the stars above, Ibn Hytham made the observation that
unlike the moon, the shapes of the stars did not change with distance from the sun. He
concluded that the stars emit light of their own.
Ibn Hytham moved from experiment to generalize into a law by concluding that
(a) light of whatever type travels in straight lines
(b) the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal are in the same plane.
3.4 A PRIORI ASSUMPTIONS
A priori assertions or non-assertions (assertions by default) bias the selection of
fields/issues of investigation, formulation of hypotheses, selection of hypotheses for
testing, reporting of data, interpretation of data, and use of information.
The source of frustration with European empiricism is that some assertions are
understood but are not stated explicitly so that the uninitiated may not recognize their
existence.
European thought is basically materialist. It has several manifestations as positivism,
empiricism, pragmatism, and semanticism.
A materialistic view of the universe contradicts the Islamic view of duality of matter and
spirit, mind and body, soul and intellect, philosophy and religion, here and the hereafter.
The theory of evolution that evolved in 19th century England and coincidentally provided
‘scientific’ justification for industrial exploitation for the less fit in Europe and the
colonies by the fittest who alone had the right of survival, has a lot of influence in the
thinking of many natural and social scientists. Scientific hypotheses, scientific language,
choice of what to study reflect an underlying assumption of the innate superiority of the
most ‘evolved’ human species in Europe.
Psychological leanings cause bias. Personal or group selfish interests can unconsciously
lead to bias because of the European dichotomy between science and morality.
The life of the scientist is not put in the equation. A scientist is a prisoner of his culture.
Only the aqida of tauhid that is based on universality can rescue him from such a prison.
Many of the leading scientists were morally corrupt even psychologically sick yet their
theories and discoveries were not suspected. There is an implied unscientific assumption
that a person who tells lies in his ordinary life will not do so about his laboratory
research. The character and moral worth of the investigator is not taken into account
when judging the validity of the data on the assertion that science is morally/ethically
neutral (hiyaad akhlaqi). This is the cause of so much scientific fraud most of which is
undetectable. The Islamic approach will involve checking the moral worth of the
researcher in the assessment of any research data to void the possibility of scientific
fraud.
Regarding natural laws as final and accepting the laws of evolution that explain the start
and progress of life as chance or accidental events make the European scientist consider
the existence of a creator superflous. No empirical experiment can be set up to test the
proposition yet there are indications especially in empirical behavior of humans that
there is a super-natural power.
Tauhidi science start with the following prior assumptions: tauhid (Allah, His attributes,
uluhiyyat, rububiyyat), limitations of human knowledge, causality (sababiyyat) is the
relation between the cause and effect. The causes are creatable by Allah and he could
change them. Thus causal relations are not always what humans expect. The creator can
disregard the so-called natural laws. A Muslim believes that miracles are associated with
causal relations that are in the realm of ghaib but also recognizes that in practical terms
he need not delve into this field.
3.6 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
Both European empiricists (experience is source of knowledge) and rationalists (reason is
source of knowledge) agree that there is no source of knowledge outside the human.
The assertion that the empirical is the only source of valid knowledge excludes 2 major
fields of study:
(a) the ultimate questions about the universe that can not be proved rationally: its start,
its future, its end, purpose of human life, life, death and after-death and
(b) human behavior: motivation, and spiritual experiences). There are ultimates of
religion tat can not proved rationally.
The European paradigm that does not recognize existence of limits to human senses and
intellect can not accept that some matters can not be investigated empirically and that
other sources of knowledge such as wahy (knowledge of ghaib) must be used. They are
just ignored as if they do not exist. A proper approach would have been a declaration by
the empiricist and rationalist that they lie outside the bounds of unaided human
investigation.
Islam recognizes three sources of knowledge, 2 being primary and the third dependent
on the other two. Wahy and empirical observation are independent. They however both
need reason ‘aql for understanding. Muslim thinkers have mentioned other sources of
knowledge such as intuition (hadas), ilhaam, and wijdaan These either have wahy or an
empirical basis that may not be obvious to the uninitiated.
Wahy remains the absolute source since human senses and reason are known by
ordinary human experience to be fallible. Al Ghazali doubted the authority of sense and
reason. Human illusions and hallucinations are possible and do occur.
3.7 INVESTIGATION OF THE PAST AND THE FUTURE
The empirical method performs well in investigation of the present but is awfully
incompetent in its historicity and futuristicity. Investigation of the past and the future
requires ‘ilm al ghaib that comes only from wahy. Ghaib can be absolute or relative.
Empirical investigations continually roll back the frontiers of relative ghaib but can not
even start looking into absolute ghaib. The problem is that the European use of the
empirical method just assumes that uninvestigatable matters just do not exist or are
irrelevant. Untestable assertions are classified as unscientific.
3.8 INVESTIGATION OF THE HUMAN
European empiricism, by looking at the human as only matter, does not have the tools to
understand human duality. It fails in understanding causal relations in situations in which
humans change the ecosystem. Humans can create new facts that accord with their inner
biases such that an investigator coming later is confused.
3.9 INTEGRATION AND SPECIALIZATION
Too narrow specialization in science has resulted in a situation of knowing the parts and
failing to put them together. Knowing the whole picture makes the study of the parts
more meaningful. European empiricism as used does not acknowledge the basic
assertions of tauhid that there is one creator for the universe and that therefore there
must be an integrating paradigm for all human research and actions. A practical
consequence of this is that one advance in one area is a catastrophe in another to the
extent that many insightful scientists fear the ultimate destruction of the ecosystem.
3.10 OBJECTIVITY AND UNIVERSALITY
The claim of universality and objectivity is not true. It would have been more honest to
accept the minimum that European science reflects a Euro-centric view of the world.
3.11 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN SENSES
Empirical knowledge is relativistic and probabilistic. European science is too arrogant in
stating its conclusions as established facts when the observations on which they are
based may be wrong.
Empiricism depends on human senses. Human senses are limited in their observation and
can be deceived; this failure is not cured by use of instruments because they are aids and
extensions of the basic human senses.
Diseases of the heart can lead to biased empirical observations. Among these diseases
are: hiqd, kibr, kadhb,
Existence (al wujuud) is at 5 levels: dhaati, hissi, khiyaali, ‘aqli, and shibhi. The empirical
method can only observe the hissi, the rest have to be inferred.
3.12 LIMITATIONS OF HUMAN INTELLECT
The human intellect is necessary to interprete and understand empirical observations.
This intellect has limitations and there are matters like the human himself that lie outside
its reach. A human can not understand himself fully. Rationalism has a basis in the Qur’an
and reason is needed to understand the Qur’an and sunnat. However there are
transgressions in the use of reason that lead to false results. This occurs when reason is
employed in areas that are exclusive for wahy. The Ummah like the Europeans has had
excesses by rationalists like the mutazilites. Ibn Taymiyyat, al Ghazzali, and other scholars
of the same caliber came to bring the ummat back to the original methodology after the
excesses of the rationalists.
4.0 USE OF QUR’ANIC CONCEPTS IN THE ISLAMIC REFRAMING OF THE EMPIRICAL
METHOD
4.1 QUR’AN AND KNOWLEDGE, ‘ILM
Previous civilizations were condemned for reading and not understanding their
revelations (2:78). This is a situation of intellectual blindness. For Muslims the revelation
is the start of understanding and knowledge. Some of the contemporary Muslim
weaknesses are attributable to defects in understanding and using the Qur’an. Many
Muslim communities today have abandoned the Qur’an (hijr al Qur’an) in that they do
not use it as the sole guide of their affairs. Muslim scientific and technological
renaissance will require a return to the Qur’an as an inspiration and a methodological
guidance.
The learning, collection, study, and interpretation of the Qur’an was the start of the
methodological and knowledge revolution ushered in by Islam. This revolution was
mainly the liberation of human intellect and will from the clutches of superstition and
blind following.
Qur’anic verses deal with basically 4 concentric themes:
(a) the self, nafs;
(b) relation with other humans;
(c) relation with the ecosystem;
(d) relation with the creator. In the temporal dimension the Qur’an deals with the past,
the present, and the future. The future is generally subsumed under the concept of the
unseen, al ghaib.
The Qur’an is a book of general and basic guidance and not a textbook for any discipline.
It is a methodological guideline for the development of science and technology as well as
other areas of human knowledge.
The Qur’an and sunnat have their wisdom, hikmat, in the scientific tarbiyat of Muslims.
There is a hikmat in the Qur’an and sunnat being in generalities and not details and why
the companions did not ask many questions. There is also hikmat in verses of the Qur’an
being validly interpretable in more than one way. There is hikmat in the revelation of the
Qur’an in bits and pieces. The hikmat is to develop a spirit of enquiry and reflection as
the way to scientific facts.
Scientific facts in the Qur’an are there for purposes of guidance to aqida and not a
substitute for empirical research. It encourages humans to study the universe in order to
get empirical knowledge. This is achieved by indicating that the universe is large,
knowledge is wide in scope, and human knowledge is limited.
The field of human endeavor is the seen and not the unseen. It will be a transgression for
a human to try to research or deal with the unseen. All knowledge of the unseen needed
for methodological guidance of empirical study of the world is provided by the Qur’an.
The Qur’an also provides information to understand uluhiyyat and rububiyyat and their
implications in daily practical life.
4.2 THE TAUHIDI PARADIGM FROM THE QUR’AN
Tha tauhidi paradigm has the following concepts: unity of Allah, unity of creation, unity of
truth, unity of knowledge, unity of life, unity of humanity. The concept of unity is the
bedrock for causal relations and a rational predictable universe. Science shows that the
complex universe is actually a simple made up of a few fairly identical building blocks
called atoms, sub-atomic particles and molecules. The natural laws that govern the
interactions among these particles ar simple and are usually written as simple
mathemtical equations.
Under the tauhidi paradigm, wahy and aql are complementary. Since knowledge and
truth are a unity, both wahy and aql are searching for the same goal.
The tauhidi paradigm also implies an all-embracing aspect (shumuuliyyat). Since
everything has the same creator and one source, there must be order and harmony
(nidhaam) since that creator knows all His creation (ihaatat).
Tauhid liberates the human intellect from stagnation (jumuud), dependency (tab’iyat),
blind following (taqlid a’ama). It frees the human from being a slave of his own whims
and fancies.
Tauhid encourages innovation (ibda) by emphasizing the unity of the universe and its
wide expanse.
Tauhid makes us understand why the Qur’an addresses the whole person and not parts
Tauhid is the final guarantor against methodological biases because the human observing
and interpreting natural phenomena is in the same tauhidi frame of reference as the
events being studied. The Qur’an is comprehensive (shumuliyyat). It has to be accepted
as a whole (2:85). The reader must understand the changing time-space dimensions in
the Qur’an.
4.3 SUNAN LLAH FI AL KAWN
The Qur’an calls for empirical observation of the environment and its interpretation in
many verses. Human senses were given their responsibility in this matter with warning
against transgression. The Qur’an calls for use of the human intellect. It provides actual
examples of scientific research.
The principal of causality, ie a physical phenomenon must have a preceding humanly-
understandable cause, is very clear in many verses of the Qur’an. The exceptions when
the principle is suspended are described; they involve intervention of divine will beyond
human understanding or are in the realm of the unseen (‘ilm al ghaib). Humans can
ignore the principle of causality with the consequence of lack of creativity, innovation,
and activity and they lapse into a stuporous state of tawaakul.
Sunan Allah are of 2 types: those known by Allah alone and those knowable by humans.
The sunan in ‘aalam al ghaib are different from those in a’alam al shahadat. Ghaib is of
two types: haqiiqi, knowable only by Allah, and idhaafi, knowable by some humans.
The Qur’an clearly refers to methodology in Maida:48, An’am:155 and many other
chapters.
The Qur’anic methodology is induction. It was most unfortunate that Muslim scholars,
under Greek influence, turned to deductive and neglected inductive reasoning.
As part of the intellectual stagnation, the fuqaha concentrated on ayaat al ahkaam and
neglected ayaat al kawn.
4.4 BASIS FOR EMPIRICAL OBSERVATION AND INTERPRETATION
The Qur’an calls for the inductive method by ordaining looking at nature.
Ayat kawniyyat relate directly to human intellect because Allah gave humans the power
of intellect and put at their disposal what is in the earths and heavens (taskhiir) and
called upon humans to lokk and investigate
The Qur’an trains the human to observe nature by use of terms such as nadhar, tabassur.
Interpretation is emphasized by terms such as: tadabbur, tafakkur, i’itibaar. tafaquhu.
Use of evidential knowledge is emphasized by terms such as: bayyinat, burhan. Terms
used to condemn tendencies to biased observations are: taqliid, dhann.
The Qur’anic story about Ibrahim’s search for the truth by observing natural phenomena
like the moon and the sun is a good example of formulating and testing a hypothesis by
empirical observation.
4.5 ISTIQAMAT
The concept of istiqimat promotes valid and un-biased research. It is defined by the
following measures of central tendency to the golden mean or equilibrium:’adl,
wasatiyyat, tawazun,hikmat, i’itidaal, ma’ayiir, mawdhu’iyyat. The concept of wasatiyyat
can be the basis for statistical measures of central tendency (mean, mode) that are the
basis of much scientific inference
Istiqamat can also be defined negatively as rejection of what leads to bias: hiwa al nafs,
al dhann.
The Qur’an came to fight false knowledge that manifests as: usturat, khurafat, kadhb,
lahw, wahm. It condemned intellectual stagnation that manifests as taqlid. It warned
against mistakes (khata) and forgetting (nisyaan). It warned against diseases of the heart
that can color and distort objective observation and interpretation resulting in bias. It
teaches practical measures for avoiding mistakes such as insisting on a written record
and calling witnesses.
It called for use of evidence by use of the following terms: burhan, daliil, bayyinat,
shahid, tathabbut, sidq, iltimas al shawaahid, tathabut fi al umuur (nisa: 83, Hujraat:18).
4.6 BASIS FOR TECHNOLOGY: ISTIKHLAF, TASKHIR, ISTI’IMAR
The concept of ‘ilm nafei underlies the imperative to transform basic knowledge into
technology.
5.0 USE OF CONCEPTS FROM THE CLASSICAL ISLAMIC METHODOLOGICAL SCIENCES IN
THE ISLAMIC REFRAMING OF THE EMPIRICAL METHOD
5.1 ‘ILM AL TAFSIR
Two branches of tafsir have a bearing on empirical scientific research: tafsir ilmi and
tafsir maudhui.
Tafsir ilmi concentrates on ayaat al kawn. The scope of tafsir ilmi is
(a) empirical eg study of the origin of the universe, shape of the earth, the 7 heavens and
earhs, life on other planets, origin of man
(b) psychological implications of the verses. There are new and old controversies about
its appropriateness. It can be approached in a positive and a negative way. Positively it
can help to increase iman by revealing the power of the creator. It can also be a source of
methodology. Negatively it can be lead to confusion when it is used as showing the
scientific miracles of the Qur’an (ijaz ilmi li al Qur’an). Misuse of tafsir ‘ilmi is due to poor
science or poor understanding of the Qur’an. Tafsir ‘ilmi relates to the exercise of data
interpretation in empirical research.
Tafsir Maudhui tries to discover and explain the internal consistency that may not be
apparent to the casual reader. It is an intellectual challenge to sort out relations among
things. The problem is that it is not static tafsir. New developments in society and
technology give rise to new subjects matter that can make us have a different and new
look at the Qur’an. The methods of tafsir maudhui include: looking at a sura as one
subject, looking for verses on one subject in the whole Qur’an. Tafsir maudhui, like tafsir
‘ilmi, relates to data interpretation. In both tafsir and empirical research an attempt is
made to reach conclusions from given data which may sometimes not be complete.
5.2 ‘ILM AL NASKH WA AL MANSUUKH
Naskh is a matter of study in Qur’anic, hadith, and usul al fiqh. We will discuss h’ere
under Qur’an but its application is wider.
Naskh has 3 meanings:
(a) abrogation of previous revelations and books by the Qur’an
(b) textual abrogations of verses of the Qur’an like the verse of rajm but with
continuation of their practical application
(c) abrogation of a verse of the Qur’an by a later verse both text and application or
authority. We shall focus on the third type
The theory of naskh has given rise to a lot of controversies. Some scholars assert that it
does not exist and reconcile the abrogated and abrogating verses. Among those who
accept the occurrence of abrogation, there are disputes about which verses were
abrogated. Some scholars look at abrogation as making the general particular. Examples
are the verses on alcohol. The complete ban on alcohol was a more specific command
that abrogated an earlier verse that was a more general prohibition in that it forbade
prayer while drunk.
There is agreement that Qur’an abrogates Qur’an and that Qur’an abrogates sunnat and
that sunnat abrogates sunnat. There is no agreement on whether sunnat mutawaatirat
can abrogate Qur’an
Our inclination is to the opinion of scholars who assert the eternal vailidity of the Qur’an
and to explain naskh as a consequence of the revelation of the Qur’an in a dynamic and
changing society and over a period of 23 years. Abrogating verses came to address
people at a different level of development without necessarily making the abrogated
ones invalid. If we take spatio-temporal circumstances into consideration the problem of
naskh becomes clearer. The later verse elaborates or amends the previous one. The first
verse could find application in other spatio-temporal circumstances. The discourse about
naskh has been complicated by looking at it from a legal context which requires that only
one unique law be operative at a time and the previous laws would be rendered
completely useless.
The theory of naskh is very relevant to the progress of science in which new discoveries
are rendering yesterday’s theories obsolete today. The concept of naskh could be a
background to understanding the changes in scientific facts with newer discoveries.
Abandoned theories still have a grain of truth and the correct explanation of phenomena
at a certain level. Study of atoms started with the theory that the atom was the smallest
indivisible particle. This is still valid when we consider ordinary chemical reactions. Later
discoveries of sub-atomic particles. The initial laws of conservation of energy and
conservation of mass are valid for routine engineering applications but invalid when
nuclear fusions of fission are considered. Newtonian laws of motion are valid for most
ordinary low-speed motion but have to be supplanted by the relativity-based laws.
5.3 ‘ILM AL JARH WA AL TA’ADIIL
Isnaad and ‘ilm al rijaal are uinque to the ummat. ‘Ilm al rijaal is a major contribution to
science. It is important that the character of the investigator be known in order to trust
his word.
A narration is accepted on he following conditions: adaalat (Muslim, adult, not
immoral,has social respect ) and dhabt (good memory, ......). The following contradict
adaalat:disbelief (kufr), being a minor (sabiyy), immoral character/conduct (fisq),
innovation in religion (mubtadiu), telling lies in ordinary conversation (kadhib fi hadith al
naas), financial benefit from saying hadith
The biographer (muarrikh) writes biographies of men and looks for: They have to have
the following traits : truthfulness (sidq), reporting literally (lafdh) and not by meaning,
mentioning the source of information, good expression, knowledge of the meanings of
words, good overall understanding of all what concerns the subject, not being influenced
by hiwa. The biographer must have personal knowledge of his subject (knowledge,
religion, and other attributes).
The modern scientific community has done a good job of policing itself. Published data is
usually checked by others who try to replicate the methods. This has however not
prevented cases of scientific fraud to occur from time to time. The matter may be as
serious as ‘cooking’ data or may be less serious like publishing favorable results and
hiding the less favorable one thus giving a false picture of the reality. The science of jarh
and ta’adiil can be a source of guidance on how to bring up an ethical scientist who can
be trusted to tell the truth always. This science protected the ummah from many false
hadith that could have been transmitted.
5.4 ‘ILM NAQD AL HADITH
This branch of hadith science is concerned with building paradigms that will be used in
checking whether an individual hadith is valid as well as checking internal and external
consistency of a narration. There are basically two approaches (a) Naqd al matn involves
loking for illat in hadith and differring the trusted narrators (b) Naqd al sanad involves:
adalat al raawi, dhabt al raawi, ittisaal al sanad There are several categories of hadith
depending on the classification criteria used: hasan, dhaif, muttasil, munqatiu, mursal,
mu’udhal, mudalas, mawquuf, marfu’u, shaadh, mu’allal.
The paradigms of ‘ilm naqd al hadith can be used to inculcate attitudes of critical reading
and examination of scientific literature. Such attitudes will ensure that only the most
valid and rigorously-done scientific work finds acceptance. It will also set up a challenge
to scientists who do their best in the full knowledge that the readership is very critical.
5.5 QIYAAS
Qiyaas is a type of ijtihad. Qiyaas, or legal syllogism, is systematic ra’ay. Qiyaas is logical
deduction or induction from Qur’an and sunnat.
Dr Sulaiman Daud referred to qiyaas as an Islamic empirical methodology. He analyzed
the writings of the following European thinkers on empiricism: Roger Bacon (1214-129
CE), Francis Bacon (1561-1626 CE), David Hume (1711-1776 CE), and John Stuart Mill
(1806-1873 CE). He concluded that qiyaas usuuli is in conformity with the modern
empirical scientific method. Both qiyaas usuuli and the empirical methodology look for
causes (illat).
We need to return qiyaas to its simplicity away from the complexity of the ulama. This
will be the start of using it to motivate and develop a scientific culture in the ummah.
Examples of qiyaas in empirical research are: results of drug trials in animals being
applied to humans, findings on drug toxicity in patients being applied to the healthy
5.6 ISTIHBAAB, ISTIHSAAN, AND ISTISLAH
Istihbab is continuation of an established law which has not been revoked or rescinded. It
is the principle of maintaining the status quo on the basis of accompanying
circumstances. The concept of istihbaab could be applied to scientific laws and theories
that are considered working explanations or hypotheses until disproved
Istihsan is acceptance of a rule because of its superior equity on comparison with an
already established law. Ahmad Hasan defined it as preferential reasoning, the principle
that equitable considerations may override strict analogy. It can also be looked at as
‘unreasoned preference’. Itihsaan is of two types: istihsaan qiyaasi and istihsaan al
dharurat. Clinicians after many years of experience can gain an intuition that should be
respected because in the end it has an empirical basis. This is similar to istihsaan.
Istislah is to seek a legal ruling by reasoning on the basis of maslahat (public interest).
Maslahat mursalat is the basis for istislah. Masalih mursalat refers to any interest/benefit
that falls within the purposes of the law-giver (maqasid al sharei) and was not mentioned
in the law in a specific or generic sense. The concept of istislah can find application in
decisions involving choosing one technology over another.
Ijma is defned as unanimous agreement of the jurists of the community of a particular
age on a legal issue . It is infallible and is not subject to reason because the community
can not agree on an error. Consensus among empirical researchers has authority eveen if
not backed by direct experimental data.
5.7 MAQASID AL SHARIAT
The theory of maqasid provides a high-level or a bird’s eye view of the law from the
context of its higher purposes and not its mechanics or details. The 5 purposes of the law,
maqasid al sharia, are preservation of : din, nafs, aql, nasl, and maal. These 5 can define
the scope and objectives of technology, Maqasid al sharia as a concept are more relevant
to applied than basic science.
Al Ghazzali and his teacher al Juwayni were pioneers of maqasid an shari’at. Al Shatibi
elaborated and systematized al Ghazzali’s ideas. The maqasid theory can transform the
Muslim mind from pre-occupation with parts and branches to dealing with the big or
large issues, from structures to ends and goals, from taqlid to innovations. Dr Shatibi
maintained that maqasid were derived from nass by nduction (istiqra)
The maqasid can provide the Muslim mind with high-level conceptual tools that can be
used to understand and use science and technology for overall benefit of humans and
the ecosystem.
5.8 QAWAID AL FIQHIYYAT AL KULLIYAT /AL QAWANIIN AL USULIYYAT
Al qawaid al fiqhiyyat are simple rules are akin to mathematical axioms derived directly
from the primary sources of law. They simplify the logical or reasoning operations
involved In complex situations. The axioms can be stated and used without having to go
through their complicated derivation.
6.0 CONCLUSIONS
6.1 UNIVERSALITY OF ISLAM
A valid fear could be expressed that correcting the European bias in science will produce
another type of bias this time being towards Muslims. The Islamic world-view of life, the
human is the universal view and is therefore not a bias. The comprehensiveness of the
Islamic frame leaves no room for bias. Bias is in essence standing apart and looking at a
phenomenon from a certain pre-determined point of view only.
6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ISLAMIC METHODOLOGY AS PRESENTED BY DR ABDULHAMID
ABUSULAYMAN
6.2.1 Scope:
The Islamic methodology has a very wide scope that encompasses and harmonizes both
the seen and the unseen (takaamul al ghaib wa al shahadat). Empirical research is in the
province of the seen and can not trespass into the unseen. Guidance from the unseen
helps encourage empirical research and guide it away from potential bias
6.2.2 Sources:
There are 3 main sources of knowledge and methodology:
Revelation (wahy),
Intellect (aql),
and Empirical observation (kawn). These sources are complementary and are never
contradictory. Full knowledge requires use of all the sources.
6.2.3 Basic principles:
Islamic methodology has 3 main principles: wahdaniyyat, al khilafat, al masuliyyat al
akhlaqiyyat
6.2.4 Basic concepts:
The Islamic methodology relies on the following basic concepts:
(a) ghaiyyat al khalq wa al wujuud, mawdhu’iyyat al haqiiqat wa nisbiyyat al
mawqiu minha
(b) hurriyat al qaraar wa al iradat al insaniyyat wa masuliyyatuha
(c) al tawakkul
(d) al sababiyyat fi adaa al fi’ilu al insaani
6.2.5 Peculiarities:
A distinguishing characteristic of the Islamic methodology is its comprehensiveness,
shumuliyyat.
6.3 REFRAMING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
The above analyzes have shown that the actual processes of the empirical methodology
(hypothesis, testing, conslusion) are not the problem but the context and manner in
which the method is used. What is therefore needed is to define the Islamic context and
make it predominant. The reframing will succeed most if it is part of the education of the
Muslim scientist.
6.4 EDUCATION OF THE MUSLIM SCIENTIST
The education of a Muslim scientist should encourage development of a culture involving
attitudes and values that can be learned from the Islamic methodological sciences.
Studying the methodological Islamic sciences of usul al fiqh, hadith, and tafsir will help
mould the personality and intellectual preparation of the future researcher within an
Islamic context. Studying the history and achievements of the early Muslim scientists will
be an inspiration for the young generation.
------------------------------------------ END-NOTES
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Q175 B229 F
Basha, Ahmad Fuad: al-ulum al-kawniyah fi al-turath al-Islami (Cairo: Majallat al Azhar) Q
127 I 8 B 2 99U
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Muhammad Abduh/al-’Iraqi Muhammad ‘Atif (ed.): al-Islam din al-’ilm wa al-madaniyah
(Cairo: Sina lil-Nashr, 1987) BP 190.5 S3 M 952I
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IIIT, 1992)
‘Urwa, Ahmad: al-’ilm wa al-din (Damascus: Dar al Fikr, 1987) BP 190.5 S 3 U 83I
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al-maktabat al-tahaqafiyah, 1970) BP 183.3 T 916I
Abd al-baqi, Ibrahim Muhammad: al-Din wa al-’ilm al hadith (Cairo: al-maktabat al
tijariyat, 1964) BP 190.5 S 3 A 135 D
Ajran K: The miracle of Islamic Science (Iowa: Knowledge House Pub, 1992) matric MQ
12, A312M
The empirical method
Eisele, Carolyn / Martin, R. M. (ed.) Studies in scientific and mathematical philosophy of
Charlis S.Peirce. ( The Hagne: Moulton, 1979). Copy:265214 B945 P44 E36S
Cohen, Morris R. / Negel, Emest, (coauthr). An introduction to logic and scientific method
( New York: Harcourt Brace, 1934). Copy:148830 Bc108 C678 118599C
Dahlstrom, Daniel O. , Nature and scientific method ( Washington: Catholic Univ. of
America, 1990). Copy: 55781 Q175.3 N285.
Feyerabend, Paul K. , Realism, rationalism, and scientific method. ( Cambridge Univ.
Press, 1981). Copy:31228 Q175 F434R.
Ghosh B. N. , Scientific method and social research ( New Delhi: Sterling Pub, 1987).
Copy:147152 m H62 G427.
Brown Clarenc W. , / Ghiselli, Edwin Earnest. Scientific method in psychology. ( New
York: McGrow-Hill, 1955). Copy: 1750 BF38 B877.
Ibn hatham: The Book of Optics
Authors on Islamic Methodology
Ridha, Muhammad rashid. Al wahy al muhammadi: thubuutu an nubuwwat bi al Qur’an
wa da’wat shuubu al madaniyyat ila al Islam. Al Zahra li al i’ilaam al arabi. Cairo 1988 BP
166.6 MA 526 1988;
Al Najjaar, Abd al hamid: Mabaahith fi manhajiyyat al fikr al Islami. Dar al Gharb al islami.
Beirut 1982;
Anonymous. Al manhajiyyat al islamiyyat wa al uluum al suluukiyyat wa al tarbawiyyat.
IIIT Herndon VA 1990/1441;
Amziyaan, Muhammad Muhammad. manhaj al bahth al ijtimae bayn al wadha’iyyat wa al
mi’iyaariyat. IIIT Herndon VA 1991;
Alwani, Taha Jabir. Source Methodology in Islamic jurispudence. IIIT Herndon VA
1411/1990;
Lodhi MAK (ed.) Islamization of Attitudes and Practices in Science and Technology. IIIT
Herndon VA 1989/1409;
Uqayli, Ibrahim. Takaamul al manhaj al marifi inda ibn Taymiyyat. IIIT Herndon VA
1415/1994;
Abusulayman, Abdulhamid. Azmat al aql am Muslim. IIIT Herndon 1991;
Abusulayman, Abdulhamic. Islamization: Reforming contemporary knowledge. IIIT
Herndon VA 1994;
Imaarat, Muhammad. Islamiyat al marifat. Dar al Sharq al Awsat li al nashr. Cairo 1991;
Imaarat, Muhammad. Maaalim al Manhaj al islami. IIIT Herndon VA 1991/1411;
Khaliil, Imad al ddiin. Madkhal ila Islamiyat al Marifat ma mukhattat muqtarahu li
islamiyat ilm al tarikh. IIIT Herndon VA 1991/1411;
Basha, Ahmad Fuad: Nasq Islami li manhaj al-bahth al-’ilmi (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1989)
Nassar, Muhammad ‘Abd al-Sattar: Manhaj al-bahth fi ‘ilm al-’aqidah fi daw’ al-tasawwur
al-’ilmi al-muasir (Algiers: IIIT, 1989) BP 166 N 265 M
Inayah, Ghazi Husain: Anasir al-manhaj al-’ilmi fi al-Qur’an wa al-sunnah (Herndon, VA,
IIIT, 1989) BP 190.5 S3 I 35 A
Authors on Islamization of Knowledge / Ta’asiil al ‘uluum
Anonymous: Islamiyat al marifat: am mabadi al aamat-lkhittat al ‘amal- al injaazaat IIIT
Herndon VA 1986
Anonymous: Islamization of Knowledge: General Principles and workplan. IIIT 1989
Anonymous: Toward Islamizatioin of Disciplines. IIIT 1989
Isma’il, Zaki Muhammad. al-Ta’sil al-Islami lil-ulum wa aldirasat al-ijtima’iyah (
Askandariyah: Dar al-Matbu’at al-Jadidah, 198.). Copy: 233852 H62.5 I8 I83T.
Yaljin, Miqdad. Dalil al-Ta’sil al-Islami lil-tarbiyah ( al-Riyad: Jami’at al-Imam Muhammad
Ibn Sa’ud, 1991). Copy: 245263 r LC903 Y19D v1.
Qunayb, Hamid Sadiq / Kemalpazasade (ed.) Dirasat fi ta’sil al-mu’arrabat wa al-mustalah
( Beirut: Dar al-Jil, 1991). Copy:245781 PJ6670 Q26D
Al-Zu’b, Zaki Muhammad Ibrahim. Ta’sil ara’ Ibn Khaldun al-iqtisadiyah. ( al-Urdun:
Jami’at al-Yarmuk, 1991). Copy:207675 t D116.7 13 Z12T.
Muhammad, Jamal ‘Abd al-Hadi. Akhta’ yajib an tusallah fi al-tarikh. ( al-Riyad: Dar
Tayyibah, 1985). Copy: BP170 M424Y.
Al-Jindi, Anwar. Aslamah al-manahij wa al-’ulum (Cairo: Dar al’itisam, ?year) LC 904 J 61A
‘Uluum al Qur’an
Fatima Ismail Muhammad Ismail: al Qur’an wa al Nadhr al Aqli (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1993
Omar Obaid Hasanat: Kaifa Nata’amalu ma’ al Qur’an (Herndon, VA: IIIT, 1992)
Hadith Methodology
Saeed, Hammaam Abd Rahim. Manhaj al Muhaddithiin fi kitaabat al hadith wa athar
dhalika fi dhabt al sunnat. Maktabat al Rushd Riyadh 1983/1403 (BP 136.48 A167M)
Saeed, Hammaam Abd Rahim.Al Fikr al manhaji inda al Muhaddithiin. Riasat al Mahaakim
al Shar’iyat wa al shuuni al diiniyat, Qatar 1408 AH (BP 136.4 S 132 F)
Technology Transfer
Rittenberger V (ed.). Science and Technology in a Changing International Order: The
United Nations Conference on Science and Technology for Development. Westview
Press, Boulder Colorado 1982 (Q 127.2 U58 1979)
Volker Rittberger (ed.) Science and technology in changing International order
(Colorado: Westview Press, 1979). Q127.2 U58
Segal, Aaron & Others. Learning by doing science and technology in the developing world
(U.S.A: Westview Press, 1987). Call number: Q127.2 L438
Shils, Edward. Criteria for Scientific Development: Public Policy and National Goals. The
MIT Press, Cambridge 1968 (Q 125 S 556)
Thomas, Frederic J. / Kondo, Allan K. (coauthr) .Towards scientific literacy. (Iran: Hulton
educational Pub. Ltd, 1978). Q125 T456
Al-Najjar, Zaghlul Raghib: Qadiyat al-takhalluf al-’ilmi wa-al-taqni fi al-’alam al-Islami
(Qatar: Ri’asat al-Mahakim al-shar’iyat, 1988) BP 190.5 S 3 N 162 Q
Historical background
# The Muslim world like all other civilizations learned from others; there were benefits
and risks. Greek science was a double-edged sword. On one hand it stimulated
knowledge but on the other hand it introduced the dedective method that undermined
the inductive empirical research that the Qur’an called for. The loss of the inductive spirit
according to Muhammad Iqbal had been one of the causes of Muslim decline. Translation
of Greek science and philosophy was accompanied by much confusion when Muslims
tried to use Greek philosophy indiscriminately. Al Kindi (d. 260 AH) tried to explain the
Islamic aqida in terms of philosophy. Al Ghazali (d. 505 AH) tried to distinguish Muslim
from Greek methodology in his publications (notes- taharuf al falasifat, maqasid al
falasifat, ihya uluum al ddiin). Other defenders of the Muslim methodology were: Ibn
Taymiyyat (d. 728 AH) in his books (notes: al jamu bayna al aql wa al naql, iqtidhau al
sirat al mustaqiim, al radd ala ibn arabi wa al sufiyat, naqdh al mantiq, mukhalafat ahl al
jahiim) and Ibn al Wazir al yamani Muhammad bin Ibrahim in his books (notes tarjihu
asaaliib al Qur’an ala qawaniin al mubtada’at wa al yunaan).
# European invasion and occupation of Muslims lands in the 18th and 19th century was a
double-edged sword for S&T development. It stimulated S&T but it brought with it the
European world-view that contradicted the Muslim one. Therefore no Muslim creativity
#Muslim scientists were leaders in S&T as Sayyed Hossein Nasr proves in his writings.
Many of the books by Muslims became texts in Europe. Muslim scientists were
encyclopedic in their knowledge and investigations. Muslim scientists who were also
philosophers were: al Kindi, al Razi, al Farabi, Ibn Sina, Ibn al Baja, Ibn Tufail, Ibn Rushd, al
Tuusi.
Reform Movements
# The hadith of the prophet about a mujaddid for every century has been fulfilled: 1st
century: Omar ibn al khattab, 2nd century: Omar ibn Abd al Aziz, 3rd century:
Muhammad ibn Idris al Shafei, 4th century: ibn suraij and al ash’ari, 5th century: Abu
Sahl, Abu hamid al Asfarani, 6th century: al Ghazzali, 7th century: al Razi, 8th century: ibn
Aqiiq, 9th century: Nasr al ddiin al Shadhili, Siraj al ddiin al Balqini, 10th century:
Jalaluddin al Suyuti, 11th century: Ahmad al Sirhind. One characteristic of successful
reform movements is that they are preceded by a knowledge/methodological reform or
revival. Ancient reformers whose movements were preceded by knowledge reform:
Omar ibn Abd al Aziz, Fakh al ddiin al Razi, Nasr al ddiin al Tuusi , Ahmad Ibn Taymiyyat.
Ibn Taymiyyah’s movement started with methodological reform. He criticized
philosophers, showed the defects logic, fought bid’a and supersitition , opened the doors
of jtihad ,attacked deductive logic and thus opened the way for the inductive empirical
method. Ibn Taymiyyah’s writings on methodological reform included: al radd ala al
falasifat, al aql wa al naql, al radd ala al mantinqiyiin, bayaan muwafaqaat sariih al
ma’quul li sahiih al manqul, naqd al mantiq. Modern reformers whose movements
involved intellecual revival: Muhammad Ibn Abd al Wahhab, Ahmad Muhammad al
Mahdi, Jamal al ddiin al afghani (1254-114 AH), Muhammad Abduh(1266-1323 AH),
Sayyied Ahmad Khan, Sayyed Amir Khan, Muhammad Iqbal, Ibn Badees, Hasan al Banna
(1324-1368 AH). Reformers whose movements that were reactive without an intellectual
base and therefore did not last:: Abd al karim al Kawakibi (1265-1320AH), Urabi Pasha
Three approaches to revival today
# Dr Abdulhamid Abusulayman in discussing solutions to the ummah’s present
weaknesses considere 3 alternatives: (a) al hall al tariikhi al taqliidi (b) al hall al
mustawrad (c) al hall al Islami al muasir. He concluded that that the only viable
alternative is al nahdhat min al asaalat al islamiyyat al muasirat
Manifestations of a Rennaisance
# Husain, Sayyed Waqar Ahmad: Teaching Islamic Science and Engineering (Leicester:
Islamic Foundation, 1985) 402169 LC905 H968T
# Husain, Sayyed Waqar Ahmad: Islamic Science and Public Policies, Kuala Lumpur, 1986
34334 BP 190.5 S 3 H 968
# International Conference on Science in Islamic Polity (Pakistan): Islamic Scientific
Thought and Muslim Achievements in Science. 207069 Q127 I 742 I 61P vol 1-2
# Muslim journal for the Advancement of Science publishes a Journal of Islamic Science in
New Delhi
Uluum al Qur’an: Definition and Lisiting
Definition of uluum al Qur’an: al mabaahith al kulliyat allati tata’allaqu bi al Qur’an al
karim min nahiyat nuzuulihi, wa tartibihi, wa jamuhu, wa kitaabatuhu, wa quraatuhu, wa
tafsiiruhu, wa ijazuhu, wa nasikhuhu wa mansuukhukhu. The main Qur’anic sciences are:
‘ilm tafsir al Qur’an, ‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul, ‘ilm i’ijaz al Qur’an, ‘ilm naasikh al Qur’an wa
mansuukhuhu, ‘ilm ahkaam al Qur’an, ‘ilm fadhail al Qur’an, ‘ilm ta’wiil mushkil al
Qur’an, ‘ilm al muhkam wa al mutashhabih, ‘ilm taarikh al Qur’an wa tadwwinuhu wa
naskhihi wa kuttabihi wa rasmihi, ‘ilm i’iraab al Qur’an, ‘ilm tafsiir al Qur’an, ‘ilm al
Qira’aat. These sciences are interrelated and share the characteristic of being
methodological in approach.
Authors on Uluum al Qur’an
al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). al itqaan fi ‘uluum al
Qur’an; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). asbaab al
nuzuul; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911 AH). lubaab al
‘uquul fi asbaab al nuzuul; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman bin Abubakar (d. 911
AH) Tabaqat al mufassiriin; al Zahiili, M. Marjau al ‘uluum al Islamiyyat. Dar al Ma’rifat,
Damascus no date; al Zamakhshari, Abi al Qasim Mahmud bin Omar al Khawarizmi (d.
538 AH). al Kashhaf ‘an haqaiq al tanziil wa uyuun al aqawiil fi wujuuh al ta’awiil; al
Zarkashi, Imaam Badr al Ddiin Muhammad bin Abdullah (d. 794 AH) al Burhaan fi ‘uluum
al Qur’an; al Zubairi, Ali Muhammad. Ibn Jaziyi wa manhajuhu fi al tafsir. Dar al Qalam,
Damascus 1987/1407 vols 1-2; al Rumi, Fahad bin Abd al Rahman bin Sulaiman.
Ittijaahaat al tafsir fi al qarn al rabiu ashar. Muassasat al Risaalat Riyadh 1414 AH (vols 1-
3); Al Juwayni, Mustafa al Sawi. Manahij fi al tafsir. Munsha’at al ma’arif, Alexandria, ?
date; Arjun, Muhammad al Sadiq. Nahwa Manhaj Li Tafsir al Qur’an. Al Dar al Saudia li al
nashr. Jeddah 1977/1397; Al hamdhaani, al qadhi Abd al jabbaar bin Ahmad:
Mutashhabih al Qur’an; al shawkaani, Muhammad bin Ali bin Abdullah al Safaani. Fath al
Qadiir fi al tafsiir
‘Ilm al Tafsir
‘Ilm tafsir al Qur’an was defined by Zarkashi as ‘’ilm yubhathu fiihi ‘an ahwaal al Qur’an al
Majeed min haithu dalaalatihi ‘ala muraad al llah ta’ala bi qadr al taqat al bashariyyat’.
There is some tafsir that Allah left for himself. ‘Ilm tafsir al Qur’an is the most important
of the ‘uluum al Qur’an. It has a basis in the Qur’an (Sad: 29, NISA: 82). The major issue in
tafsir is to reconcile the holiness the text with the humanness of the mufasir. The
mufassir may make mistakes in the interpretation of the text (Hasanat). The tafsir of
muhakamat and mutashabih is different. Ayaat muhakkamat is what is al dalaalat al
dhaahiru allathi la yatahammalu al naskh. Ayat mutashabih ma lam yutalaqqa ma’anhu
min lafdhihi, wa la yastaqillu bi nafsihi bal yahtaaju ila bayaan. The muhakamat are clear
whereas mutashabihat needs a lot of interpretation. The evolution of tafsir went through
many stages: The Prophet’s tafsir was to explain the details and explain the meaning. The
companions and followers also undertook tafsir of a similar nature. Tafsir of sahabat was
either naql or ijtihad. Most famous mufassiriin among the companions were according to
al Suyuti (with dates of death): Abubakr, Omar, Othman, Ali, IbnMas’ud, Ibn Abbaas,
Ubayy bin Ka’ab, Zayd bin Thabit, Abu Musa al Ash’ari, Abdullah bin al Zubayr (HADIDI
1983). The discipline of tafsir grew when differences started to appear and there was a
need to look for solutions to the problems that arose in the community. Tafsir can be
classified in several ways: by approach (linguistic, obvious, scholars, Allah only), by source
(Qur’an, sunnat, ijtihad, isitinbat), by method (mathur, ra’ay), by subject matter (alfadh &
kalimaat, fiqhi, sufi, falsafi, ilmi, lughawi). Each mufassir has used a different
methodology. Ibn Abbas, the father of tafsir, methodology in tafsir: sabab al nuzuul
(occasion, time, place), nasikh & mansuukh, poetry, qur’an bi al qurr’an, the personal
dimension. Al Tabari method included: tafsir bi al mathuur, tafsir al qisas bi hujjat, refusal
of tafsir bi al ray, tafsir al nass dhahiriyat, use of linguistic tools. There are 2 primary
sources of tafsir: the Qur’an and the sunniat. The Qur’an explains itself, sunnat explains
Qur’an, ijtihaad and inference (istinbaat). The Qur’an can explain itself because of its
internal unity such that one part can elaborate and not contradict another. Methods of
tafsir al Qur’an by al Qur’an: the brief is explained by the detailed ayat (sharh al mujaz bi
al mubassat), sharh al mutlaq bi al muqayyad, sharh al aam bi al mukhassas, al jamu
bayn ma yatawahhamu annahu mukhtalif (HADID 1983). Methods of tafsir of Qur’an by
sunat: explain the general, clarify the mushkil, make the general particular, restrict the
mutlaq, explain terminology (lafdh), explain naskh, emphasize the Qur’anic hukm (HADIDI
1983). Among the disciplines that assist tafsir: ‘ilm al lugha wa al nahawu wa al saraf,
‘ilm al qiraat, ‘ilm usul al ddiin, ilm usul al fiqh, ‘ilm asbaab al nuzuul.
Types of tafsir
Traditionally 2 main types f tafsir were recognized: tafsir bi al ma’athuur and tafsir bi al
ra’ay. There are contemporary trends in tafsir: tafsir ‘ilmi, tafir mawdhui, tafsir adabi,
tafsir ijtimae, tafsir salafi, tafsir fiqhi, tafsir tajriibi, and tafsir aqdi (sunni, shi)
Tafsir bi al ma’athuur
Tafsir bi al mathuur refers to explanation that are from the Qur’an, sunnat, the
companions and the followers. Tafsiir based on opinion tafsir bi al ra’ayi uses ijtihad
(linguistic, asbaab al nuzuul, nasikh & mansuukh, maqasid al sharia) and can be
prasieworthy, mahmuud, or balemworthy, madhmuum.. The prasieworthy uses opinion
that is guided by valid general principles from the Qur’an and sunnat. The madhmuum is
a free for all affair that culd lead to wrong conclusions. The main field of tafsir bi al ra’ay
are the allegorical verses. Muslims, modern and ancient have produced a lot of works on
Tafsiir bi al ma’athuur: Ibn Arabi, Abi Bakar Muhammad bin Abdillah al Andalusi (d. 543
AH): ahkaam al Qur’an; al Baydhaawi, Abdullah bin Muhammad al baydhawi (d. 685 AH)
: Anwaar al tanziil wa ssraar al Ta’awiil; al Nasafi (d. 715 AH): Madaarik al tanziil; al
Khaazin: lubaab al ta’wiil; Abu hayyaan al tauhidi: Ishharaat Ilahiyyat; Abi Hayyaan al
Andalusi: al bahr al Muhiit; al Baghawi, Abi Muhammad al Hussain bin Mas’ud bin
Muhammad al faraa al baghawi (d. 510): Maalim al tanziil; Ibn Attiyah: tafsiir ibn Attiyat;
al Tha’alabi: al kashf wa al bayaan; Ibn Kathir, ‘Imad al ddin abi fida Ismail bin Amru al
Basri al Dimashqi (d. 774 AH). Tafsiir al Qur’an al ‘adhiim; al Qurtubi, Abi Abdillah
Muhammad bin Ahmad al Ansari (d. 671 AH). al Jamiu li ahkaam al Qur’an.; Al Saqr,
Muhammad Abu Al Nur al Hadidi. Tafsir bi al Mathuur wa manhaj al mufassiriin fiihi. Al
Markaz al aalami li al taliim al Islami, Makka 1403/1983 (BP 130.2 S242T); Al Samarqandi,
Abu al Llayth Nasr bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim (d. 373 AH). Bahr al uluum; Baqi, bin
Mukhallad bin Yaziid, bin Abd al Rahman al Andalusi al Qurtubi. Tafsir Baqi Mukhallad; al
Nisapuri, Abu Ishaq Ahmad bin Ibrahim al Tha’alabi. al kashf wa al bayaan ‘an tafsir al
Qur’an; al Suyuuti, Jalal al Ddiin Abd al Rahman (d. 911 AH). al Ddur al manthuur di al
tafsiir bi al ma’athuur; al Tabari, Abi Ja’afar Muhammad bin Jariir (d. 310 AH). Jamiu al
Bayaan ‘an ta’awiil Aayi al Qur’an; al Razi, Ahmad bin Ali Abubakar al Jassaas (d. 370 AH):
Ahkaam al Qur’an; al Zamakhshari, al Kashhaf. The most important of these authors
were: Muhammad bin Jariir bin Yaziid bin Kathir Abu Ja’afar al Tabari (224 - 310 AH),
Ismail bin Omar bin Kathiir al Qurashi al basrawi al Dimashqi (701 - 774 AH), Abd al
rahman bin Abi Bakr bin Muhama bin Sabiq al Ddiin al Khudhairi al Suyuuti (849 - 911 AH)
Authors on tafsiir bi al ra’ayi
Tafsir bi al ra’ay uses reason and ratinality. It has been controversial throughout the ages.
Ibn Taymiyyat considered tafsir bi al ra’ay haraam. Mutazilities adopted aql in tafsir.
Modern proponents of tafsir bi al ra’ayi: Jamaluddin al Afghani, Muhammad Abduh,
Muhamad Mustafa al Maraghi. The main authors of tafsir bi al ra’ay were: al Razi
Fakhruddin, Abi Abdilah Muhammad bin Omar al Qurashi (d. 606 AH). Mafatiih al ghaib
(al tafsir al kabiir, tafsir al Razi); Ridha, Muhammad rashid Ridha: tafsir al Qur’an al
kariim; al Ruumi, Fahad bin Abd rahman bin Sulaiman. Al madrasat al ‘aqliyyat al
hadiithat fi al tafsiir. Muassassat al rissalat Riyadh 4th edition 1414 AH (vol 1-2); Ahmad
bin Ali Abubakr al Razi al Jassas (305-370 AH), Mahmud bin Omar bin Muhammad bin
Omar Abu al Qasim al Khawarizmi al Zamakhshari (d. 538 AH) (notes) . Tafsir can also be
classified according to subject matter as: tafsir al alfaadh wa al kalimmat, tafsir ayaat al
ahkaam, al tafsiir al ‘ilmi, al tafsiir al lughawi; al Baydhawi; al Nasafi; al Khazin; al
Aluusi; Abi Hayyaan al Andalusi.
Combination of tafsir bi al mathur & tafsir bi al ra’ayi
al Shawkaani, Muhammad bin Ali bin Muhmmad (d. 125 AH) . Fath al Qadiir al Jamiu
bayna fannay al riwayat wa al diraayat min ‘ilm al tafsiir; al Saabuuni, Muhammad Ali.
Safwat al tafaasir; al Aluusi, Shihaab al ddiin Mahmud al aluusi an baghdaadi (d. 1270
AH): Ruuh al ma’aani fi tafsiir al Qur’an al adhiim wa al asb’u al mathaani;
Al madarast al lughawiyyat fir al tafsir:
Abu Zakariyyat (maani al Qur’an), Abu Ubaidat (majaaz al Qur’an), Abi UýIshaq al Zujaaj
(Maani al Qur’an)
Authors on tafir fiqhi
Abibakr al jassaas (d. 370 AH): ahkaam al Qur’an, Abi bakr ibn Arabi (d. 543 AH): ahkam al
Qur’an, al Qurtubi (d. 671 AH): al jamiu li ahkam al Qur’an
Tafsir ‘ilmi
Tafsir ‘ilmi is empirical and scientitifc. It is defined as: Ijtihad al mufassir fi kashf al silat
bayn ayaat al Qur’an al kareem al kawniyyat wa muktashafaat al ilm al tajriibi ala wajh
yadh’hiru bi ijaz li al Qur’an yadullu ala masdarihi wa salahiyatihi li kulli zamaan wa
makaan (RUMI pt 3, p 549, 1987). It is concerned with uluum kawniyyat. Examples of
tafsir ilmi are: creation of everything from water, haidh, barzakh in sea water. In both
ancient and modern times tafsir ‘ilmi has had proponents and opposers.
Terminology
# ‘western’ is a confusing term. Its meaning in a geographical sense has been changing
with the changes in geo-political alignments. The term European is more appropriate
because it clearly refers to a cultural entity that started in Europe and spread in other
parts of the world: the Americas, Australasia, and some parts of Africa.
Transliteration
# The author used his own method of transliteration of Arabic words into latin characters
that may make classical Islamists of English expression extremely angry. I however found
no way out of this. I want to make sure that none of the letters in the original Arabic is
lost. Thus I represent ‘taa marbuutat’ as a ‘t’ although it is pronounced even in Arabic as
‘h’. A double vowel indicates madd. A double consonant indicates shadd.
Empirical method
# Two types of hypotheses can be identified: scientific and non-scientific. According to
the European world-view that recognizes only empirical knowledge hypotheses that can
not be tested empirically are non-scientific. Scientists do not discuss non-scientitif
hypotheses at all.
# Akbar S Ahmad identified 3 methodological assumption in western anthropology that
are biased: (a) ethnocentrism (b) despise for Muslim societies (c) empirical: man is a
product of natural and historical factors.
# Muhammad Azraf (1980) argued that intuition was a source of knowledge and that
Newton and Eistein intuitively arrived at their break-though discoveries
Definition and nature of the Qur’an
# Definition of the Qur’an: The Qur’an is defined as ‘kalaam al llaah al munazzal ala
sayyidina Muhammad (SAW) bi al lafdh al ‘arabi al manquul ilaina bi al tawaatir al
maktuub bi al masahif al muta’abbadu bi tilaawatihi al mu’ujiz bi aqsar surat minhu al
mabdu bi surat al fatihat al makhtuum bi surat al naas’. According to Muhammad Iqbal
the Qur’an is a book that emphasizes deed rather than idea. The Qur’an uses rational
approaches that are akin to scientific enquiry. Examples of the Qur’an and rationalism (al
istidlaal al aqli) are: similarity (tashabuhu & imtithaal), specialization (tajzi’at),
generalization followed by particularization (ta’amiim & takhsiis), definition (ta’areef),
apposition (muqabalat), stories (qisas), argument and debate (jadal & munatharat),
induction (istiqra)
Tafsir ‘ilmi
There is a relation between ijaz and tafsir ilmi. A main assertion of tafsir ilmi is that there
is no contradiction between science and the Qur’an. There is controversy about tafsir
‘ilmi. Ancient suporters of tafsir ‘ilmi: al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH), al Fakhr al Razi (d. 606 AH),
al Zarkashi (d. 794 AH), Ibn Abi fadl al Mursi, al Suyuti. Ancient opponents of tafsir ‘ilmi: al
Shatibi (d. 790), Ibn Hayyaan al Andalusi (d. 745 AH). Modern supporters of tafsir ‘ilmi:
Abd Rahman al Kawakibi (in tabaiu al istibdaad wa masariu al istibaad), Muhammad
Abduh, Abd al Hamid bin Badees (tafsir Ibn Badees: majalis al tadhakkur min kalaam al
hakiim al khabiir), Muhammad Mutawalli Sha’araawi, Hasan al Banna, al Tantawi (in: al
jawahor fi tafsir al Qur’an al karim), Abdul Aziz Ismail (in: al islam wa al tibb al hadith),
Hanafi Ahmad (in al tafsiir al ilmi li al ayaat al kawniyyat fi al Qur’an), Muhammad Bakhiit
al Mutie (in tanbiihu al ‘uquul al insaniyyat lima fi ayat al Qur’an min al ‘uluum al
kawniyyat), Mustafa Maraghi, Muhammad Abdullah Darraaz (madkhal ila al Qur’an al
kareem), Wahidu al ddiin Khan (al Islam yatahadda), Mustafa Sadiq al Rafie (ijaz al
Qur’an wa al balaghat al nabawiyyat), Muhammad Ahmad al Ghamrawi, Muhammad
jamaluddin alfandi (al Qur’an wa al ‘ilm), Muhammad al Tahir bin Ashour (al Tahriir wa al
tanwiir). Modern opposers of tafsir ‘ilmi: Mahmud Shaltuut, Amin al Kholi, Abbas al
Aqaad, Syed Qutb, Muhammad Rashid Ridha, Abbas Mahmoud al Akkad, Muhammad
Izzat, Muhammad Abd al Rahiim al Zarqani (in: manahil al irfaan fi ‘uluum al Qur’an)
Authors on tafsir ‘ilmi
Abu Hajar, Ahmad Omar. Al tafsir al ‘ilmi li al Qur’an fi al miizaan (Beirut: Dar Qurtuba,
1991)
Authors on tafsir mawdhui
al Omari, Ahmad Jamal: Dirasaat fi al tafsir al mawdhui li qisas al Qur’an (Cairo: Maktabat
al Khaniji, 1986); Syed Qutb in Fi dhilal al Qur’an; Muhammad Abduh; Amiin al Kholy;
Aisha Abdul Rahman bint al Shaat: al tafsir al bayani li al Qur’an al kareem; Shawqi dhaif;
Muhammad Khalfallah Ahmad.
Authors on i’ijaaz al Qur’an
al Baqillanni, al qadhi Abi Bakr bin al taib al Baqillani (d. 403 AH): i’ijaaz al Qur’an al
kariim; al Jaahidh (d. 255 AH), al Rumaani (d. 386 AH), al Khattabi (d. 388 AH), al Jarjaani
(d. 481 AH); Afaei, Mustafa Sadiq (d. 1356 AH): i’ijaaz al Qur’an wa a;l balaghat al
nabawiyyat; Abd al-Samad, Muhammad Kamil: al-I’jaz al-’ilmi fi al-Islam (Cairo: al-Dar al
Misriyah al Lubnaniyah, 1993) BP 190.5 S 3 A1356 I; Moore, Keith L/Zindan, Abdulmajid A
(co-authr): Qur’an and Modern Science (Bridgeview: Islamic Academy of Scientific
Research, 1990) BP 134 S 33 M821 Q
Authors on al nasakh
Qatadat bin Da’amat al Saduusi (d. 118 AH), Abu Ubaid al Qasim (d. 224 AH), Abu Jafar al
Nahasi (d. 338 AH)
Modern authors on tafsir (14th-15th century)
Al Shingeiti, Muhammad al Amin al Muhktar al Jakni (d. 1393 AH). Adhuwa al bayaan fi
iidhaahi al Qur’an bi al Qur’an; al Tamiimi, Abd al Rahman bin Naasir bin Abd Allah Aal
Sa’adi al Naasiri (d. 1376 AH). Taysiir al Kareem al Rahman fi tafsirr kalaam al mannaan;
Ahmad ‘Atif: Naqd al-Fahm al-’asri lil-Qur’an (Cairo: Dar al ‘Alam al Jadid, 1985) BP 130.7
AZ 86N;
Definition of hadith
Definition of hadith: wider than sunnat and includes the abrogated, sifaat khilqiyyat,
food, health, and illness. Hadith is words, actions, or taqriir or sifat of the Prophet
Muhammad (PBUH). Definition of sunnat: ma sadara ani al rasuuli min qawli, aw fi’ili, aw
sifat khulqiyat min mabdai al wahy hatta wafaatihi.
Uluum al hadith
al Suyuuti defined ‘ilm al hadith as ;ilm bi qawannin yu’urafu biha ahwaal al sanad wa al
matn’. ‘Uluum al hadith are classifiedinto 2 broad categories: ‘ilm riwayat al hadith and
‘ilm dirayat al hadith. The main aim of hadith sciences is to make sure that transmission
of information (NAQL) is correct. This contrasts with the Qur’an where transmission is
mutawaatir.
History of hadith
Collection and writing of hadith of hadith: Hadith was not written down during the era of
the prophet and the 4 companions and reporting of hadith was limited. Omar Ibn Sbd al
Aziz ordered the writing of hadith (SADI 1408 AH, p 67). The collectors of hadith each
developed a methodology. The reporting of hadith by companions varied by their
longevity (early ones reported few because there was no need or died too early to have
so many hadiths collected from them), closeness and length of association with the
prophet, and general reluctance among them to report hadith. The number of hadiths
reported from companions: Abubakr (d. ) 142, Omar (d. ) 539, Othman (d. ) 146, Ali (d.
) 586, Abu Obaida bin al Jarraah (d. ) 14, Abd Rahman bin Awf (d. ) 65, Sa’ad bin Abi
Waqqaas (d. ) 271, al Zybayr bin al Awwaam (d. ) 38, Ibn Abbas (d. ) 1660, Abd Allah
Ibn al Zubayr (d. ) 33, Ma’adh Ibn Jabal (d. ) 157, Obadat Ibn al Saamit (d. ) 181, Abd
Allah bin Omar (d. ) 1630, Abd Allah bin Amrou (d. ) 700, Ibn Mas’ud (d. ) 848, Jabir
bin Abd Allah (d. ) 1540, Zayd bin Thabit (d. ) 92, Abu Hurairat (d. ) 5373, Abu Musa al
Ash’ari (d. ) 36O, Mu’awiyat Ibn Sufyaan (d. 13O, Amrou bin al Aaas (d . ) 37, Khalid bin
al Waliid (d. ) 18, al Hasan bin Ali (d. ) 13, Anas bin Malik (d. ) 2268, Ammaar bin
Yaasir (d. ) 62, al Barraa Ibn Aaazib (d. 305, “Uqbat bin ‘Aaamir (d. ) 55, al Nu’umaan
bin Bashir (d. 124, Bilal Ibn Rabaah’ (d...) 44, Abu Dh’arr al Gh’ifaari (d. ) 281, Abu Saied
al Kh’udh’ri (d. ) 117, Abd Allah’ bin Bah’niyyat (d. ) 56, H”udh’aifat bin al Nu’umaan (d.
) 225, Rafi bin Kh’adiij (d. ) 78, Abu al dardaa (d. ) 179, Salmat bin al Akwa (d. ) 77,
Samrat bin al Jundub (d. ) 23, Wath’ilay bin al Asqa’a (d. ) 56, Salman al Farisi (d. ) 60,
Sah’al bin Sa’ad (d. ) 188, Abu Umaamat al Baah’ili (d. ) 25, Fatimat al Zah’ra (d. ) 18,
Asih’at Umm al Mu’uminin (d. ) 221, Asma bint Abi Bakr (d. ) 56, H”afsat bint Omat (d. )
60, Umm Salmat (d. ) 378, Um H”aani (d. ) 46
Books of collections of hadith
Malik (d. 179 AH): al Muwatta; al Bukhari (d. 256 AH): sahiih al Bukhari 2761 hadith (no
repetition) selected from 600,000; Muslim (d. 261 AH): sahiih Muslim- 4000 hadiths (no
repetitions) selected from 300,000; al Tarmidhi (d. ); al jamiu al sahiih; Abu Daud (d. 275
AH): sunan Abu Daud 4800 hadiths; Al Nisae (d. 303 AH): sunan al Nisae; Ibn Majah (d.
273 AH): sunan Ibn Majah; Ahmad (d. 241 AH): musnad Ahmad; Ibn al Athiir (d. ); Jamiu
al usuul; Al hakim (d. 405 AH): al mustadrak; al haythami (d. 807 AH): majmau al zawaid;
al Nawawi (d. 767 AH): riyaadh al saalihiin; al Mundhiri (d. 656 AH): al targhiib wa al
tarhiib; Ibn Abi Shaybat (d. ): Musannaf Ibn Abi Shaybat; al Daarimi (d. 255 AH): sunan al
Daarimi; al Suyuuti (d. 911 AH): al jamiu al kabiir; al bayhaqi (d. 458 AH): al sunan al
kubra; al tabrani (d. 360 AH): al Mu’jam al kabiir; al Tirmidhi (d. 279 AH): al Jamiu al sahiih
Authors on ‘ilm al hadith -general
al qadhi ‘iyaadh (d. 544 AH) : al ilamu; al Naisapuuri, al haakim (d. 405 AH): ma’arifat
‘uluum al hadiith; Ibn al Salaah (d. 643 AH): uluum al hadith; al Nawawi (d. 676 AH): al
irshaad; al Dhahabi (d. 748 AH): Mizaan al iitidaal; al asqalani, Abi hajar: nukhbat al Fikr;
al Suyuuti (d. 911 AH): Tadriib al Raawi; al Shawkaani, al Qadhi Muhammad bin Ali (d. 250
AH): al Fawaid al majumuuat fi al ahaadiith al mawdhuat
Authors on ilm al hadith riwayatan
Al Raamahrmari (d. 360 AH): al hadath al faasil bayn al raawi wa al waai; al baghdadi, al
khatiib (. 461): al kifaayat fi ‘ilm al riwaayat; al Dhahabi, Abi Abdillah Muhammad bin
Ahmad bin Uthman.(d. 748 AH). Mizan al i’itidal fi naqd al rijaal; al Dhahabi, Abi Abdillah
Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Uthman.(d. 748 AH). al mughni fi al adhu’afa; al ‘Asqalanai,
Shihabu al Ddiin Ahmad bin Ali ‘Ibn Hajar’. Taqriib al Tahdhiib fi asmai al rijaal; Al Salafi,
Muhammad Luqman, Ihtimam al Muhaddithiin bi naqdi al hadith sanadan wa matnan wa
dahadhi mazaa’ima al mustashriqiin wa atbauhumu. Published by the author, Riyadh
1987/1407; Abu Ghuddat, Abd al Fattah (editor) . Qaidat fi al jarh wa al ta’adiil wa qaidat
fi al muarrikhiin & al mutakalimuun fi al rijaal & dhikr man yu’utamadu qawkuhu fi al jarhi
wa al ta’adiil. Maktabat al Matbuuaat al islamiyyat Beirut 1968
Authors on mustalah al hadiith
al Raamharamzi, Abi Muhamad al Hasan bin Abd al rahman bin Khallaad (d. 360 AH): al
muhdith al faasil bayn al raawi wa al waai; al Baghdadi, Abi bakr Ahmad bin Ali al khattibb
(d. 463 AH): al kifaayat; Ibn Salah, Abi Amrou Othman bin Abd al Rahman (d. 643 AH):
uluum al hadiith; Ibn Kathir, Abu al Fida ismail bin Omar bib Kathir al Qurashi al Dimashqi
(d. 774 AH): al Baithu al hathiith fi ikhtisaar uluum al hadith; al Hanbali, Abd al rahman
bin Ahmad bin Rajab (d. 795 AH): Sharh ‘ilal al hadiith
Authors on mufradaat al hadith
al Shafei, Muhammad bin Idris (d. 204 AH): ikhtilaaf al hadiith; al Daynuuri, Abdullah bin
Muslim bin Qutaiybat (d. 276 AH): Ta’awiil mukhtalaf al hadiith; al Basti, Abi Sulayman
Hamd bin Muhammad bin Ibrahim al Khattabi (d. 388 AH):,ghariib al hadiith; al Jazari,
majd al ddiin al Mubarak ibn al athiir (d. 606 AH): al nihaayat fi ghariib al hadith wa al
athar
Authors on rijaal al hadiith (al jarh wa al ta’adiil)
al Dhahabi, Abui Abdillahi Muhammad bin Ahmad bin Othman (d. 748 AH): mizaan al
iitidaal fi naqd al rijaal ( found 11,053 weak narrators); al Dhahabi, Shams al ddiin
Muhammad bin Ahmad: al mughni fi al dhuafau (found 7845 weak narrators); al asqalani,
Muhammad bin Ali (d. 852 AH): taqriib al tahdhiib: (weak narrators in the 6 books)
Hadith methodology
Hadith methodology is from the Qur’an. Hadith, unlike Qur’an, was not transmitted as
mutawaatir. The great fitna helped the growth of uluum al hadith for fear of corruption.
Methods of hadith transmission: qiraat al Sheikh alayhi, an yaqra ala al sheikh fataqulu
na’am aw yaskut, al ijaazat, al munawalat (khudh hadha al kitaab fa alrwiihi anni).
Methods of reporting hadith: lafdh, ma’ana. Methodology of Imaam Malik in muwatta:
reliance only on trusted narrators, use of mubalaghaat and mursalaat, used athaar that
stopped at tabiin and tabiu al tabiin, mixed hadith and fiqh al hadith. Method of Bukhari:
wde search, selection of only sahih hadith (only 4000 out of 600,000), report of one sahih
hadith with several sanads
‘uluum al hadith
Hadith sciences include: ‘ilm al rijaal, ‘ilm mustalah/usul al hadith, ‘ilm mufradat al
hadith, ‘ilm riwayat al hadith, ‘ilm diraayat al hadith, ‘ilm al jarh wa al ta’adiil, ‘ilm al ‘ilal,
‘ilm naqd al matn.
‘ilm naqd al hadith
The criteria for accepting hadith: (a) narrator has adl (Muslim, adult, not fasiq, has
muruat) (b) narrator has dhabt (good memory, not careless, n awhaam, not different
from the thuqaat (c) ittisaal al sanad. In order to deal with false positive and false
negative, criteria are set in such a way that it is easier in rejecting the truth rather than
accepting a falsehood. Adaalat is destroyed by: kufr, minority report, fisq, bid’a, lying in
ordinary conversation, getting reward from reporting hadiths. Fanaticism about a
madhhab is reason for rejection of a narration. Criteria for accepting/grading hadith).
Criteria are employed to grade text according to degree of authenticity. The criteria for
accepting a hadith are more stringent than laws of evidence in court. The hadith can be
critiqued as text (matn) or chain of transmission (sanad). Classification of hadith
according to sanad: muttasil, munqatiu, mursal, mu’udhal, mudlas, mawquuf, marfuu’.
Hadith shaadh is different from others in matn and sanad. Hadith muallal has a hidden
reason for not being sahih even if it is apparently correct. Critique of matn involves: illat,
being different from other trustworthy narrators, problems in the matn itself
usuul al fiqh
Muslims are very proud of usul al fiqh as their civilization’s major contribution to
methodological studies. usul is a means and not an end. because of he reliance on text,
the use of exact labguage and definition of terms is very important. Fiqh requires exact
laguage as scence requires mathematics for exactitude. Sophiscticated methods have
enabled usul scholars to derive conclusions even where there is no textual evidence.
They rely on general paradigms that are developed from situations with textual evidence
and are used where there is no evidence. Like all methodologies it can find wider
applications in other fields. Usul also mirroes the dichtomy in tafsir, ahl al raay
(ratinalists) and ahl al hadith (traditinalists). Fiqh is mainly deductive; it can however
destroy the spirit of induction that is required for a living fiqh that changes with the
times. The prophet made ijtihad with qiyaas and ra’ay
ijtihad
The oft-repeated statement about the closure of the door of ijtihad needs to be revisited.
Ijtihad was never closed; there were just not new challenges calling for new ijtihad during
the times of Muslim decline. Nyazee described 3 modes of ijtihad: (a) literal which stays
close to the text, nass (b) qiyaas is used to extend the law to situations not covered by
nass (c) maqasid are used when neither literal nor qiyaas ijtihad can apply. The maqasid
mode of ijtihad is nearest the spirit of empirical science and research.
Definition of fiqh
Abu Hanifa defined fiqh as ‘ ma’arifat al nafs ma laha wa ma alayha’. Al Shafei defined
fiqh as ‘al ‘ilm bi al ahkaam al shar’iyyat al ‘amaliyyat al muktasab bin adillatiha al
tafsiiliyyat’ ( the knowledge of legal rules pertaining to conduct that have been derived
from their specific evidences (Nyazee p. 22). Ibn Qudama defined fiqh as : al ilm bi
ahkaam al af’al al shar’iyyat ka al hall wa al hurmat wa al sihat wa al fasaad. Usul al fiqh
was defined as adillatihi al ddaalat alayhi min hayth al jumlat la min hayth al tafsiil. The
scope of fiqh: ibaadaat, muamalaat madaniyyat, ahwaal shakhsiyyat, ahkaam jina’iyyat,
ahkam qadha’iyyat, ahkaam dasturiyyat, ahkaam dawliyyat, ahkaam iqtisadiyyat.
Schools of fiqh
Many schools of fiqh arose but only 4 of them survived and spread widely. The hanafi
madh’hab was established by Abu hanifa Ibn al Nu’umaaan bin Thabit (d. 150 AH). He
was severe in criteria for accepting hadith. He used qiyaas and istihsaan widely. Hanafi
scholars used general principles in particular cases. The Maliki madh’hab was established
by Imaam Malik bin Anas al Asbahi (d. 179 AH). he relies on Qur’an, sunnat, ijam, qiyaas,
the practice of the Madanese, the opinions of the sahabat, istihsaan, istislaah, and sadd
al dharaei. The Shafei schools was established by Muhammad bin Idris al Qurashi (d. 204
AH). He relies on Qur’an, sunnat, ijma, qiyaas, . He did not accept the opinions of
companions, istihsaan, masaalih mursalat, and the practice of the Madanese. The Hanbali
madh’hab was established by Ahmad bin Hanbal Abu Abd Allah al Shaybani (d. 241 AH).
He relies on Qur’an, sunnat, fatwa of companions, ijma, qiyaas, istihsaan, istishaab,
masalih mursalat, sadd al dharaei
Usuul al fiqh
Usul al fiqh is the basic franework or methodology that jurists use to deduce objective
and logical conclusions in the form of legal rulings (istinbat al ahkam) from the basic
sources of Qur’an and sunnat. Usul al fiqh is analogous to logic in philosophy. Imaam al
Shafei is credited with founding the discipline of usul al fiqh which he defined in his book
al risalat as ‘ al ‘ilm bi al ahkaam al shar’iyyat al muktasab min adillatiha al tafsiiliyyat’.
Imaam shafi in his bok dealt with the following themes: al batin * dhaahir, al aam & al
khaas. al Qadh’i al Baydh’awi defined ‘ilm al usuul as: ma’arifat dalaa’il al fiqh’ ijmaalan
wa kayfiyat al istifadat minh’a wa h’aal al mustafiid’. Ibn Kh’uldun defined ‘ilm usul al
fiqh as h’uwa fi al adillat al sh’ar’iyyat min h’ayth’u tu’ukhadh’ minh’a al ahkaam’. A
general definition of ilm al usul: h’uwa al ilm bi al qawaid al kulliyat allati tatawassalu
bih’a ila ‘isitinbaat al ahkaam al sh’ar’iyyat al amaliyyat min adilatiha al tafsiiliyyat’. Usul
al fiqh can be defined as: al qawaid allati yatawasalu biha al mujtahid ila ahkaam al
shariat al amaliyyat min adillatiha al tafsiliyyat (principles by the use of which the
mujtahid arrves at legal rules through specific evidence Nyazee p 29). Sources of ‘ilm al
usuul: ‘ilm al kalaam, ilm al lug’hat, ah’kaam sh’ariat. The subject matter of ‘ilm al usuul:
adillat. The principles of ‘ilm al usuul: tasawwuraat & tasdiiqaat. The benefits of ilm al
usul: guideline for the mujtahid, explain hoiw a mujtahid reached his conclusiions so that
the people may trust. Usuul al fiqh deals with sources of law. The sources of law (in order
of importance) that are unanimously accepted : Qur’an, Sunnat, Ijma, qiyaas, Ijam and
qiyaas operate together. Sources of law that are not unanimous: istihsaan, maslahat
mursalat, istishab, ‘urf. sadd al dharaei. One of the motivations for the rise of usul al fiqh
was to close the gap between the school of traditionalists, ahl al hadith, and the
rationalists, ahl al ra’ay. The two schools appeared in the second century of hijra. The
former was in hejaz and relied on riwayat and athar in explanation of the nass. The
latyter relied mainly on ijtihad
Authors on usuul in general
al Shafei, al umm; Abu Zahra, Muhammad. Ibn hanbal: hayatuhu, wa asruhu, wa araauhu,
wa fiqhuhu. Dar al Fikr al Arabi, 1947; Ssha’baan Muhammad ismail: usuul; al fiqh
tariikhukhu wa rijaaluhu; al Baaji, Abu al waliid (d. 474 AH): Ihkaam al fusuul fi ahkaam al
usuul; Hasan, Ahmad: the early development of Islamic jurispudence. Islamic research
Institute, Islambad 1982; Imaam al Haramain Abi al Ma’ali Abd al Malik bin Abd Allah al
Juwayni (478): al Burhan fi usuul al fiqh; Sharaf al ddiin Ahmad bin Ali “ibn Barhan al
Baghdadai (518); al wusuul ila al usuul; Muhamad bin Omar Fakhr al ddiin al Razi (606): al
Mahsuul fi ilmi al usuul; Sif al ddiin Abi al Hussain Ali bin Muhammad al Aaamidi (631): al
Ahkaam fi usuul al Ahkaam; Abi Amru Othman bin Omar “ibn al haajib (636) Mukhtasar al
muntaha; Shihaab al ddiin Mahmud bin Ahmad al Zinjaani (656): Takhriij al furru ala al
usuul; Abi Muhammad Izzi al ddiin Abd al aziiz bin Abd al salaam al dimashqi (660):
Qawaid al Ahkaam fi massalihi al anaam; Shihaab al ddiin Ahmad bin Idrtis al Qaraafi
(684): Sharh tanqiih al fusuul; Mudhaffar al ddiin Ahmad bin Ali “Ibn al saa’aati” (694):
badiu al nidhaam; Abi Abdilah Muhammad bin Abi Bakr bin Ayyuub “Ib nal Qayim al
Jawziyah” (751) A’alaam al muwaqqa’iin ‘an rabb al aaalamiin; Sadr al sharia Obaid llah
bin Mas’ud al Mahbubi (747): tanqiihu al usuul; Taquiu al ddiin Ali bin Abd al Kafi al
sabaki (756) al ibhaaj fi sharh al minhaaj; Taj al ddiin Abd al wahhaab bin Ali bin Abd al
Kaafi Al Sabaki (771) Jam’u al Jawamiu; Jamal al ddiin Abd al rahim bin al hasan al Asnawi
(772) Nihaayat al suul; Jamal al ddiin Abd al rahim bin al hasan al Asnawi (772): al tamhiid
fi takhriij al furru’u ala al usuul; Abi ishaq Ibrahim bin Musa al lakhmi “ al shatibi” (790) al
muwafaqaat fi suul al ahkaam; l kamaal Muhammad bin Abd al waahid “ibn al mahaam’
(861): al tahrii fi usuul al fiqh; Ahmad bin Abd al rahiim al Faruuqi “Shah waliyu llah al
Dahlawi (1172): hujjat llah al baalighat; Muhammad bin Ali bin Muhammad al shawkaani
(1250) irshhad al fuhuul; al Omari, nadiyat Sharief: ijtihad al Rasuul. Muassasat al risaalat
1985; Nyazee, Imran Ahsan Khan: Theories of Islamic Law (Islamabad: IIIT, 1994); Mustafa
Muhammad al Zarqa: al Istilah wa al masaalih al mursalat fi alshariat al Islamiyat wa usuul
fiqhuha (Damascus: Dar al Qalam, 1988)
Authors on usuul al fiqh ala al madh’hab al shafei
al Shafei, Muhammad Ibn Idris (204 AH). al Risaalat; al Shafei, Muhammad Ibn Idris (204
AH): Jamau al ‘ilm (devoted to prove validity of khabar al ahad); al Shafei, Muhammad
Ibn Idris (204 AH): ibtaal al istihsaan; al Shafei, Muhammad Ibn Idris (204 AH): ikhtilaaf al
hadith (reconcile hadiths that appear contradictory); al Basri, Abi al Husain Muhammad
bin Ali bin al Taib (436 AH): al Mu’tamad fi usuul al fiqh; Hujjat al Islam Abi Hamid
Muhammad bin Muhammad al Ghazzali (505): al Mustasfa fi uluum al usuul; Hujjat al
Islam Abi Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al Ghazzali (505): Shifau al ghaliil; Hujjat al
Islam Abi Hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al Ghazzali (505): al Mankhuul min
ta’aliiqaat al usuul;
Abi al thanai Mahmud bin Ahmad al Hamawi al fayuumi “Ibn alkhatiib al dahshat (834):
mukhtasar fi qawaid al ‘alaai wa kalaam al asnawi;
Authors on usuul al fiqh ala al madh’habal hanafi
al Dabbuusi, Obaid Allah bin Omar Abi Zayd (340 AH) Taqwiim al adillat; uhammad bin
Ahmad bin Sahl al Sarkhashi (483): Usuul al Sarkhashi; Jalal al ddiin Muhammad bin Omar
bin Muhammad al Khabbazi (691): al mughni fi usuul al fiqh; Abi al barakkati Abd Llah bin
Ahmad bin Mahmud al Nasafi (710): Manar al Anwaar; Ala al ddiin Abd al Aziiz Ahmad al
Bukhari (730) Kashf al asraar; Zain al ddiin bin Ibrahim bin Muhammad ‘Ibn Najiim’ (970)
Fath al ghafaar bi sharh al manar; Muhibbu llah Abd al shakoor al bihari (1119): fawaniju
al rahamuut sharh musallam al thubuut
Authors of usuu;`al fiqh on hanafi madhhab
risaalat fi al usuul by Abu al hasan al Karakhi (d. 304 AH), usul al fiqh by Abu bakr al razi al
Jassaas (d. 270 AH), Ta’asssi an Nadhr by Obaid Allah bin Omar Abu Zayd al Dabuusi (d.
430 AH), Usuul al Bazdawi by Fakhr al islam Ali bin Muhammad al Bazdawi (d. 482 AH),
Usuul al Sarkhashi by Abu Bakr Muhammad bin Ahmad al sarkhashi (d. 490 AH)
Authors on usuul al fiqh ala al madh’habal hanbali
Abi Ya’ala Muhammad bin al Hussain al Fara al Hanbali (458): al ‘Uddat fi usul al fiqh;
Muwafaq al ddiin Abd llah bin Ahmad bin Muhammad bin Qudaama al maqdasi (620):
rawdhat al naadhir wa junnat al munaadhir; Abi al Hasan Ala al ddiin Ali bin Muhammad
bin Ali al Ba’ali “ibn al lahaam” (803): al mukhtasar fi usuul al fiqh; Muhammad bin
Ahmad bin Abd al Aziiz al Futuuhi ‘ibn al najjaar’ (972): sharh al kawkab al muniir; Abd al
Qaadir bin Ahmad bin Mustafa ‘Ibn Badraan’: al madkhal ila madh’hab al Imaam Ahmad
bin Hanbal
Authors on usuul al fiqh ala al madhhabal Maliki
Ibn Jazyi, Ahmad, Abi al Qasim Muhammad Ibn Ahmad bin Jazyi al Kalbi al Gharnati al
Maliki.. Taqrib al wusuul ila ilm al usuul. Maktabat Ibn Taymiyyat, Cairo 1414 AH
Books of usul on the methodology of mutakalimiin:
al mu’atamad by Abu al Husain al Basri Muhammad bin Ali al taib (d. 436 AH), al burhaan
byImaam al Haramain Abd al malik bin Yusuf al Juwayni (d. 478 AH), al Mustasfa by Hujjat
al Islam Abi hamid Muhammad bin Muhammad al Ghazzaali (d. 505 AH), al Mahsuul by
Fakhr al ddiin Muhammad bin Omar bin al Husain al Razi (d. 606 AH), al ahkaam fi usuul
al ahkaam by Sayf al ddiin Ali bin Ali Muhammad al Aaamidi (d. 631 AH)
Authors on ijtihad
Nadiyah Sharif al Umari: Ijtihad al rasuul (Beirut: Muassasat al Risalat, 1985) BP148 U47I
Authors on maqasid al sharia
al Raysuuni, Ahmad: Nadhariyat al maqasid ‘inda al imaam al Shatibi (Herndon, VA, IIIT,
1995); Imaam Abu Ishaq al Shatibi: al Muwafaqaat fi usuul al fiqh (Cairo: Dar al Fikr al
‘Arabi, ? date) v1-4;
Qiyaas
Al Shafei was the first to write about qiyaas in his book al risalat. Qiyaas was defined al
Baaqillaani, al razi, and al juwayni.as the assignment of hukm for a thing to another thing
about which the law is silent due to the resemblance between the 2 things or due to an
undelying illat (‘haml ma’alum ala maaluum fi ithbaat hukm lahuma aw nafyihi anhuma
bi amr jamei baynahuma min ithbaat hukm aw sifat aw nafyihima’). The term qiyaas has
been used to refer to qiyaas mantiqi, a type of deductive logic, and qiyaas usuuli, a type
of inductive logic. Abu Muhammad Ali Bin Ahmad bin Hazm (d. 465 AH) accepted qiyaas
mantiqi and refused qiyaas usuuli. Taqiu al Ddiin Ahmad ibn Taymiyyat (d. 728 AH)
considered only qiyaas usuuli. Abu Hamid al Ghazzali (d. 505 AH) combined the two.
Qiyaas is considered hujjat by the majority of scholars. The basic support for qiyaas is the
famous hadith of Muadh bin Jabal. Qiyaas can be classified as weak or strong. the ‘illat
may be mentioned or not. Three types of qiyaas can be identified depending on the
method used: qiyaas al illat, qiyaas al shubhat, and qiyaas al ma’ana. qiyaas al dalaalat.
The pillars of qiyaas are: al,asl, al far’u, hukm al asl, and ‘illat (legal cause). llat operates
under qiyaas but because of its theoretical importance we decided to discuss it
separately here. A very good reference was a published doctoral thesis at Azhar by Abd al
Hakiim Abd al Rahman Al Sa’adi 1986. Several definitions form illat have been recorded.
Illat is the underlying explanation of a matter. In this it is very similar to the causal laws
and the theories that are the object of empirical scientific research. It could be said that
the purpose of science is to discover the illat or underlying explanation in order to
generalize. Illat differs from sabab, shart, hikmat, and ‘alamat. Sabab is the cause on the
basis of which a primary rule or hukm taklifi is invoked or is established. Shart refers to
facts or actions that must take place before the cause can take effect and invoke the
related hukm. Hikmat is the wisdom behind the illat.
© Professor Omar Hasan Kasule September 1996