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Component-I (A) – Personal details:

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Component-I (B) – Description of module:

Subject Name Indian Culture

Paper Name Outlines of Indian History

Module Name/Title The Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties &

Salient features of the Delhi Sultanate

Module Id I C / OIH / 23

Pre-requisites Knowledge in Medieval history of India and the rule of Delhi Sultanate

Objectives

To study the History of the Sayyid and Lodi Dynasties and Declining of the Delhi Sultanate. The contribution of Delhi Sultanates to Indian Culture

Keywords Delhi Sultanate / Sayyid / Lodi / Indo-Persian Culture

E-text (Quadrant-I) 1. The Sayyid dynasty (1414 - 1451) The Sayyid dynasty was the fourth dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate ruled from 1414 – 1451. This family claimed to be sayyids, or descendants of the Prophet Muhammad. The central authority of the Delhi sultanate had been fatally weakened by the invasion of the Turkish conqueror Timur and his capture of Delhi in 1398. Khizr Khan, who had been appointed Governor of Lahore, Multan and Dipalpur by Amir Timur, acquired control of Delhi after defeating its de facto ruler Daulat Khan. Taking advantage of the confusion that prevailed in India after the death of the last Tughlaq, Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah, Khizr Khan marched on Delhi, occupied the throne for himself on May 28, 1414

1. 1 Khizr Khan (1414-1421)

Khizr Khan laid the foundation of a new dynasty of the Sayyids. He was a man of high moral character who combined in him the qualities of a saint, soldier and politician. Khizr Khan ruled Delhi independently for seven years. His kingdom comprising of Sindh, Punjab and some parts of the Doab. He did not assume sovereign title of Sultan or Shah nor stuck coins in his name. He professed to rule as the deputy to Timur’s son and successor, Shah Rukh, to whom he probably sent occasional tributes. He tried to suppress the refractory chieftains in Rohilkhand, Doab and Mewat, but no attempt was made to re-conquer the provinces which had succeeded from the Sultan. Khizr Khan died on May 20, 1421. He was popular among the people of Delhi because of public welfare activities and humanitarian approach to the administration.

1.2 Mubarak Shah, (1421-1434)

Mubarak was the son and successor of Khizr Khan, assumed the title of Sultan. He was a competent military general and suppressed a few revolts of the Hindu Zamindars of the Doab and defeated the Muslim nobles in the Punjab. His successful expeditions against Mewatis, Katihar and the Gangetic doab enabled him to collect revenue from that region, although Delhi’s authority over their chiefs was precarious. Mubarak Shah was assassinated in 1434 by some of his own nobles.

1.3 Muhammad Shah (1434-1445)

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The power of the Sayyids declined rapidly after the murder of Mubark Shah. The conspirators led by Sarwarul Mulk, raised Muhammad Shah, a nephew of the deceased Sultan, on the throne. But the real power of the state was usurped by Sarwarul Mulk, the Wazir. The Sultan was unable to combat the intrigues among the leading nobles. Taking his incompetence, Muhammad Khilji of Malwa and Bahlul Lodi became independent. He was in fact reduced to the pitiable position of ruling a territory which extended merely forty miles around his capital.

1.4 Alam Shah (1445-1451)

On the death of Muhammad Shah in 1445, his son Alauddin ascended the throne of Delhi with the high sounding title of Alam Shah. He proved to be the last and the most incompetent ruler of the Sayyid dynasty. Unable to cope with the administrative problems, revolts and intrigues of his courtiers, he retired to his personal estate at Badaun. This provided an opportunity to Bahlul Lodi to capture Delhi. The Sultan did not contest Bahlul’s usurpation and formally transferred the sovereignty of Delhi to him in 1451. 2. Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526) 2.1 Bahlul Lodi (1451 – 1489) Lodi’s were the last Sultans of Delhi Sultanate ruled for about 75 years. Bahlul was the founder of the Lodi dynasty. The Lodis constituted a clan of the Ghilzai tribe of the Afghans. Bahlul was capable and ambitious. He had the wisdom to realize that the Sultanate could no longer be restored to its former extent, power and prestige. In order to strengthen his position, Bahlul tried to win over the confidence of the Army by distributing Gifts and Bounties. Bahlul’s most important achievement was the conquest of the Sultanate of Jaunpur. The Sharqi Sultans of Jaunpur claimed to be the legitimate successors of the Sayyids of Delhi on the basis of matrimonial relations. A long war resulted in the decisive defeat of Sultan Husain Shah Sharqi and the incorporation of his territories in Bahlul’s dominions (1479). He consolidated his authority in the Doab by suppressing the Rajput chiefs.

2.2 Sikandar Shah (1489 – 1517)

Bahlul Lodi was succeeded by his third son, Nizam Khan, who took the title of Sikandar Shah. He shifted his capital in 1504 to the village of Agra on the bank of the river Yamuna, which was developed into a beautiful town during his period. He defeated Husain Shah, the former Sharqi Sultan and also the Sultan of Bengal in 1498. Sikandar Lodi attempted to revive the concept of absolute monarchy by bringing the Afghan nobles under the effective control of the central authority. He set up an efficient espionage system to keep himself abreast of all the developments in his dominions and watch the activities of the disaffected officers. He suppressed the rebellions with firmness and determination, thereby restoring respect for the central government. He did not spare even the haughty Afghan nobles. They were made to realize that they were in fact not equal to the Sultans. Although he did not introduce any basic change in the system of administration, he insisted on proper auditing of accounts and punished defalcation and embezzlement with a severity. His patronage to Muslim scholars helped the progress of learning. He wrote verses in Persian under the “nom de plume of Gulrukhi”. But his policy towards the Hindus was marred by intolerance and persecution.

2.3 Ibrahim Lodi (1517 - 1526)

Ibrahim the son of Sikandar Lodi was the last king of the Lodi dynasty and of the Dellhi Sultanate. Ibrahim Lodi wanted to strengthen his position at the cost of his nobles and adopted all measures to humble them. His ill-treatment turned the loyal Afghan nobles against him. They hatched a conspiracy to declare his uncle, Jalal Khan, as the ruler of Delhi, but they failed. He put an end to his brother Jalal, the governor of Jaunpur and Azam Humayun, the governor of Gwalior.

He adopted a dictatorial attitude towards the old and experienced Afghan officers and annoyed his ministers and provincial governors by the display of irritable temper and

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arrogance. He insulted openly his own relatives viz., Daulat Khan Lodi of Punjab and Alak Khan Lodi (brother of Sikandar Lodi). Daulat Khan Lodi organized a movement against the Sultan with the support of the Afghan nobles. They sent invitations to Babur in Kabul to invade India. With the support of Daulat Khan Lodi and Alak Khan Lodi, Babur entered Punjab in December 1525 and occupied Lahore and proceeded to Delhi. Ibrahim led a large army in person. Babar defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526). The battle of Panipat ended the Lodi dynasty and brought the rule of Mughals.

3. Disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate : Most of the Sayyids and Lodi’s were weak. The disintegration of the Delhi Sultanate started even during the reigns of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq and the process could not be checked by their in competent successors. The weakness of the Delhi Sultanate was made even worse by Timur invasion of Delhi (1398). The invasion of Timur may, however be regarded as marking the end of the phase of strong rule by the Delhi Sultans, although the Tughlaq dynasty itself lingered on till 1414. Taking advantage of the situation number of independent states was set up in different parts of the country. No substantial improvement was made in the fortunes of the Delhi Sultanate during the reigns of the Sayyid and Lodi rulers. They did not recover any territory that was lost or became independent during the time of Tughlaqs. They spent most of their precious time in suppressing the revolts. In fact their rule was confined only to Delhi and its neighbourhood. Thus it is correct to regard Sayyids and Lodis as phantom (unreal) Sultans of Delhi. 4. Salient features of Delhi Sultanate: The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate towards the beginnings of the 13th century may be said marking a new phase in the cultural development of the country. The expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the evolution of a powerful and efficient administrative system.

4.1 Administration

The government established by the Turks was a compromise between Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently many elements of the Rajput political system, with or without changes, became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India. In theory the Muslim state was a theocracy, i.e. the head of the state was also the religious head and derived his position and authority from God. The Sultans of Delhi, were, therefore, independent rulers of their territorial possessions and did not owe their sovereignty to any earthly power, neither the Caliph nor the Millat. Their nominal allegiance to the Caliph was a matter of courtesy or at the best a social political expediency.

4.1.1 Central Government:

The strength or weakness of the Sultanates depended upon the personality and character of the Sultan. His government was based on highly centralized despotic principles. Alauddin Khilji, backed by a strong army could afford to defy the Islamic principles of government and administration, make the Ulema subservient to him and declare that he was the state. No wonder, Sultan occupied the most privileged position in the administrative set up of the Sultanate. All the powers of the state were concentrated in the hands of the Sultan.

4.1.2 Ministry:

The Sultan was assisted by a number of dignitaries in the discharge of his functions. The Sultan enjoyed wonderful opportunities to select from among the wisest and experienced men of the age as his counselors, ministers, heads of the departments and military generals. The Sultans of the Mamluk dynasty constituted four ministers at the top level. These were held by the Wazir, the Ariz-i-Mumalik, the Diwan-i-Insha and the Diwan-i-Risalat. After some time there came into existence an extraordinary officer of the state styled as Malik Naib – the regent or the deputy Sultan. The Wazir or Vakil was the prime minister and his department was called the Diwan-i-Wizarat. He was the head of the finance department and usually held over all charge of the

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entire administrative set up. He was assisted by two junior ministers Mushrif and Mushtafi in the discharge of his duties. The Mushrif could be defined as the accountant general which the Mushtafi functioned somewhat like an auditor-general. The army establishment or the ministry of defence was called the Diwan-i-Ariz. It was headed by Ariz-i-Mumalik. He was responsible for the organization and maintenance of the royal army and exercised disciplinary control over it. His duties included recruitment of the defence personnel, fixation of their salaries, preparation of the muster rolls, equipment of the army and its deployment at the capital or other strategic places within the dominions or along the borders. The duty of Ariz-i-Mumalik was to review the army and branding of the horses. Sadr-us-Sudur was the head of the public charities and ecclesiastical department known as Diwan-i-Risalat. He made grants in cash or land for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs, and Madarasa. He also granted maintenance allowances to the learned, the saintly, the orphaned and the disabled.

The department of correspondence and records of the royal court was called Diwan-i-Insha. It was held under the charge of a central minister, variously known as the Dabir-i-Mumalik, Dabir-i-Khas or Amir Munshi. This department was the main source of communication between the royal court and the provincial and local governments, feudatory chieftains, military generals and the foreign powers. Qazi-ul-Quzat was the head of the judicial administration and usually the posts of the chief Sadr and the chief Qazi were combined in a single person. Barid-i-Mumalik was the head of the information and intelligence department. Vakil-i-dar looked after the royal palace and personal attendants of the sovereign. Amir-i-Shikar organized royal hunts and all area where the Sultan went for hunting were under his direct control and authority. Amir-i-Majlis made arrangements for assemblies, feasts and special celebrations. Sar-i-Jandar was the chief bodyguard of the Sultan.

4.1.3 Provincial Government: The provincial government was a replica of the central government and for its working it had all the paraphernalia of the central government. Delhi Sultanate was divided into smaller units called provinces (Iqta). Provinces were ruled by governors called Wali, Muqti, Naib and even Sultan. The governors were directly responsible to the central government for proper administration of the provinces under their charge. The provinces were divided into districts or Shiqs under Shiqdars and further divided into Paragana under Faujdar and village under Khut and Muqaddam.

4.1.4 Military Organization:

The military organization of the Sultanate was based mainly on the Turkish model. The strength and stability of the Sultanate depended primarily on its strong and efficient army. Iltutmish was the first Turkish ruler of Delhi who thought of organizing the king’s army i.e., an army centrally recruited, centrally paid and centrally administered. Balban increased the numerical strength of the army and appointed able officers on attractive terms. No Sultan took greater interest in the army than Alauddin Khilji. He maintained a large standing army on a permanent basis and did not disband the soldiers as soon as a campaign was over. He recruited troops directly and paid them in cash from the public treasury. Firoz Tughlaq followed Alauddin also introduced the system of dagh or branding the horses. The system of Chehra was followed and the Ariz continued to enroll and keep registers of the army.

5. Social Life : The society of the Delhi Sultanate was a socio-religious one. The society was divided broadly into two group’s viz., the Muslims and the Hindus. There was little change in the structure of the Hindu society. Traditional caste system with Brahmins on the upper strata of the society was prevalent. The Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and social groups. The Indian Muslims were excluded from the ruling hierarchy and they were looked down with contempt and dislike by the Sultans. The Muslim ruling class was divided into Khan, Malik, Amir,

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Sipah-salar and Sari-Khail. The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely Hindu nobles were given high position in the Government. The Hindus were considered Zimmins or protected people for which they were forced to pay the tax called Jizya. The sub servient position of women continued and the practice of Sati was widely prevalent. The seclusion of women and the wearing of Purdah became common among the upper class women. 6. Economic Life : The chroniclers of the period paid more attention in the events at the court than in the lives of the people. However, they do sometimes tell us the prices of the commodities. Ibn Battuta who travelled widely all over India has left a very interesting account of the products of the country, including fruits, herbs, etc, the condition of the roads and life of the people. Ibn Battuta says that the soil was so fertile that it produced two crops every year, rice being sown three times a year.

6.1 Agrarian Conditions

After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans classified the land into three categories-

• Iqta land, - land assigned to officials as Iqtas; instead of payment their services.

• Khalsa land or crown land - land which was under the direct control of the Sultan. The revenues from these crown lands will go directly to the Sultan’s treasury.

• Inam land or Waqf land - land assigned or granted to religious leaders and religious institutions.

6.2 Taxation System: The Delhi Sultans collected different types of taxes such as Zakat, Jizya, Kharaj and Khans. Zakat is a tax on the property and land of the Muslims. Jizya was a tax imposed on non-Muslims or Zimmis for the protection given by the state to their life, property and place of worship. Kharaj was the most important tax or source of income to the state. It was a land tax realized originally from the non-Muslims cultivating Khalsa land. There were many other taxes such as the irrigation tax, grazing tax, customs and excise from traders and merchants, house tax, etc. Taxes were paid both in cash and kind, though Alauddin preferred payment in kind in some regions like the Doab. The Sultans undertook efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing irrigational facilities and by advancing Takkavi loans for different agricultural purposes. They also encouraged peasants to cultivate cash crops instead of food crops and superior crops like wheat in place of inferior crops like barley.

6.3 Trade, Commerce and Urbanization:

With consolidation of the Delhi Sultanate and the improvement of communications and the establishment of a sound currency system, there was a definite growth in the country. This was marked by the growth of towns and urban life. During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum. A number of cities and towns had grown. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwada, Laknauti, Daulatabad and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the largest city. Both Inland and foreign trade flourished extensively during this period. The growth of trade and commerce was described by contemporary writers. India had trade relations with Persian Gulf, west Asia and also to South east Asian countries. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslims. Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarat Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants. Introduction of the institution of dalals or brokers facilitated commercial transactions on a large scale. Construction of new roads and maintenance of old ones facilitated easy and

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smooth transport and communications. Sarais or rest houses were maintained on the roads for the convenience of traders and merchants. Cotton textile industry developed well due to the introduction of new techniques such as a spinning wheel etc. There was also an increase in the production of silk cloth. The production of paper was started by the Turks in India and there was an extensive use of paper from the 14th and 15th centuries. Building industry, leather-making, metal working and carpet weaving increased due to the increased demand under the Sultans. The system of coinage had also developed during Sultanate. Iltutmish issued several types of Silver tankas. Gold coins or Dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khilji. Muhammad Bin Tughlaq experimented Token currency besides Gold and Silver Coins. 7. Evolution of Indo-Persian Culture: The Delhi Sultanate period marked a new phase in the cultural development of India. The interaction between the Persian and Indian Cultures resulted in the birth of a Indo-Persian Culture. The Turko-Afghans were responsible for this cultural assimilation.

7.1 Architecture:

One of the greatest contributions of the Turko-Afghan rulers was the domain of Architecture. To get clear perspective of the architectural achievements of this age one should know the evolution of the Indo-Persian style of architecture. The Slaves, the Khiljis, the Tughlaqs and Lodis contributed substantially in this direction. When these two diverse architectural styles came in to contact with each other, a new architectural style came to existence which has been described as Indo-Persian style or Indo-Islamic style of architecture. The Slave Sultans did not have many independent buildings to their credit. They converted the existing Hindu temples and buildings into mosques. The best examples of this type are the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near the Qutub Minar in Delhi and the Adhai-din-ka-jhonpra at Ajmer. The most magnificent monument constructed by the Slave Sultans was the Qutb Minar. Its foundation was laid by Qutubuddin Aibak but it was completed by Iltutmish. This was dedicated to the famous Sufi Saint, Khwaja Qutubuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki who was born at Osh near Bagdad.

The Khilji period also witnessed hectic building activity; Alauddin built his capital at Siri, a few kilometers away from the site of the Qutub complex. But only the remains of the city are found at present. The most important monument of his period is Alai Darwaja. This has been described as a treasure-gem Islamic architecture. It served as an entrance to the Qutub Minar. Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq, Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq contributed a lot for the development of Indo-Persian style of architecture. A new complex by name Tughlaqabad came into existence during this period. The Tughlaqs built huge Palace-fortress complexes in the Tughlaqabad. The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq at Tughlaqabad marks a new trend in the evolution of Indo-Persian town architecture. The Lodi phase is the last phase in the indo-Persian architecture of Delhi Sultanate. The assimilation and amalgamation of the Islamic style and Indigenous style made its impact felt on the Monuments constructed by the provincial governors at Jaunpur, Bengal, Gujarat and Malwa.

7.2 Music:

The interaction between the Perso-Arabic and the Indian music resulted in the birth of Hindustani music in North India, distinct from the Karnataka music of South India. Further, the Turks brought along with them a number of musical instruments, Airs, Modes and Scales. Amir Khusrau, the greatest Persian poet and an accomplished musician introduced many ragas such as Aiman, Ghora, Sanam etc. He earned the title Tut-i-Hind, the parrot of India. He is credited with having invented the Sitar, though we have no evidence of it. At the initiative of Firoz Tughlaq, Indian classical work on Music by name Ragadarpan was translated into Persian. The musical gatherings known as ‘Sama’ conducted by the Sufi saints and singing hymns with the accomplishment of music by the Bhakti saints gave further stimulation of these two modes of music.

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7.3 Language and Literature:

With the arrival of the Turks in India during the 10th century, a new language, Persian, was introduced in the country. From the beginning, the Turks adopted Persian as the language of literature and administration in the country. Thus, Lahore emerged as the first centre of the cultivation of the Persian language. The Delhi Sultans patronized learning and literature. The Sultans, the nobles and the provincial governors extended their patronage for the promotion of Persian language. As a result Delhi became the centre of activity of Persian poets and intellectuals. Delhi thus became the envy of Bagdad, the rival of Cairo and the equal of Constantinople. Amir Khusrau was the most famous of the Persian scholars of this period. He became the court poet of Alauddin Khilji and also enjoyed the patronage of Ghiyasuddian Tughlaq. He wrote large number of poetical works including historical romances. He experienced with all the poetical forms and created a new style of Persian poetry called the Sabaq-i-hindi or a style of India. He also wrote of some Hindi verses. His other works are Khazain-ul-Futuh (speaks about Alauddin conquests), Tughlaq Nama (deals with the rise of Ghiasuddin Tughlaq) and Tarikh-i-Alai. Apart from poetry, a strong school of history writing in Persian also developed and encouraged. The famous historians of the period were Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, Afif and Isami.

Minhaj-us-Siraj – Tabqat-i-Nasiri Ziauddin Barani - Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi Shams-i-Siraj Afif - Continued the work of Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi

Sanskrit language also received due recognition during this period. The Sultans, Hindu Rajas and Jain merchants extended their patronage to Sanskrit poets. The Sultans and nobles also took very keen interest in translating many Sanskrit works into Persian. Sanskrit and Persian functioned as link languages in the Delhi Sultanate in politics, religion and philosophy, as well as the means of literary production. Zia Nakhabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian. His work Tutu Nama (Book of the Parrot) written in the time of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq proved very popular and translated into Turkish and later into many European languages. Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin the ruler of Kashmir, had translated the famous historical work Rajatarangini of Kalhana and the Mahabharata into Persian.

During this period, literary works of high quality were produced in many regional languages such as Hindi, Bengali and Marathi. The rise of Bhakti Cult and the use of common language by the Bhakti Saints was an important factor in the rise of regional languages.

Urdu language was the outcome of the linguistic synthesis of the Muslims and Hindus and was an indigenous product. It is a combination of Persian, Sanskrit, Hindi, Gujarati and Marathi languages. It is rather strange to note that the Urdu language gained currency in the South. It was neither patronized by the Sultans of Delhi nor by the Mughlas until the time of the Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah. Amir Khusrau was the first Urdu poet. 8. Summary : The first quarter of the 13th century is a memorable period in the history of medieval India, for it witnessed the establishment of Delhi Sultanate. The 320 years of the rule of Delhi Sultanate was the well marked period in the political history of India. The state set up by the Delhi Sultanates in the Northern India gradually developed into a power and highly centralized state, which for sometime controlled almost the entire country. This period also marked a new phase in the cultural development of India. The interaction between Persian and Indian Cultures resulted in the birth of a Indo-Persian Culture. Thus the new Cultural forces of Delhi Sultanate prepared the ground for the glorious achievements of Mughals.