TES PSIKOLOGI DAN TES PSIKOLOGI DAN PERBEDAAN INDIVIDUALPERBEDAAN INDIVIDUAL

PsikologiPsikologi UmumUmum 22UniversitasUniversitas BundaBunda MuliaMulia

Mengembangkan Alat TesMengembangkan Alat Tes

Orientasi teoritikOrientasi teoritikTes dibuat dengan menggunakan landasan Tes dibuat dengan menggunakan landasan teoritik tertentuteoritik tertentu

Pertimbangan praktisPertimbangan praktisTes diberikan untuk tujuan praktis tertentu.Tes diberikan untuk tujuan praktis tertentu.

Mengevaluasi TesMengevaluasi Tes

StandarStandarisasiisasiMeneMenenntukan kebermaknaan skor dengan tukan kebermaknaan skor dengan mmembandingkan kinerja dari kelompok standar yang embandingkan kinerja dari kelompok standar yang diuji sebelumnya. diuji sebelumnya.

ReliabilitReliabilitasasSejauh mana tes meSejauh mana tes memmberikan hasil yaberikan hasil yanng konsisten.g konsisten.

ValiditValiditasasSejauh mana tes mengukur ataSejauh mana tes mengukur atauu memperkirakan hal memperkirakan hal yang syang seeharusnya diharusnya diuukur. kur.

StandarisasiStandarisasi

Kurva NormalKurva NormalKurva berbentuk lonceng yang sKurva berbentuk lonceng yang siimemettrik yang rik yang menggambarkan distrimenggambarkan distribbusi atribut fisik atau psikologik usi atribut fisik atau psikologik tertentu. tertentu. KKebanyakan bebanyakan beerada rada ppada rataada rata--rata, dan sedikit atau rata, dan sedikit atau semsemaakin sedikit pada titik ekstrim. kin sedikit pada titik ekstrim.

Kurva NormalKurva Normal

StandardizationStandardization

Melihat kesamaan antara kelompok standarisasi dan Melihat kesamaan antara kelompok standarisasi dan tes individualtes individualAdakah norma yang berbeda untuk kelompok yang Adakah norma yang berbeda untuk kelompok yang berbedaberbeda--bedabeda??Apakah pembuatan tes dilaksanakan sesuai dengan Apakah pembuatan tes dilaksanakan sesuai dengan tujuan dan manual standarisasi? tujuan dan manual standarisasi?

Apakah sampel diambil secara acakApakah sampel diambil secara acak atau atau terstrata (terstrata (stratifiedstratified//random samplingrandom sampling) ) ??Berapa jumlah sampelBerapa jumlah sampel??

Apakah prosedur administrasi terstandarisasiApakah prosedur administrasi terstandarisasi??

ReliabilitReliabilitasas

Sejauh mana tes memberikan hasil yang konsisten dan Sejauh mana tes memberikan hasil yang konsisten dan dapat diulang untuk mengukur kinerja tersebut. dapat diulang untuk mengukur kinerja tersebut. Terbagi atas: Terbagi atas:

Internal reliability or splitInternal reliability or split--half reliabilityhalf reliability ––mengkorelasikan antar skor yang telah dibagi dua untuk mengkorelasikan antar skor yang telah dibagi dua untuk melihat konsistensi internal. melihat konsistensi internal. Karakteristik yang tidak stabilKarakteristik yang tidak stabilTTestest--retest reliabilityretest reliability –– membandingkan skor subyek pada membandingkan skor subyek pada dua administrasi tes yang berbeda (atau formulir pengganti). dua administrasi tes yang berbeda (atau formulir pengganti). Sifat (Sifat (ttraitrait)) atau atribut yang sangat stabil atau atribut yang sangat stabil Interrater/interscorerInterrater/interscorer reliabilityreliability –– membandingkan skor membandingkan skor dari beberapa pengujidari beberapa penguji

Koefisien Koefisien ReliabilitReliabilitasasMenunjukkan Derajat konsistensiMenunjukkan Derajat konsistensiAntara Antara 1.00 1.00 sampaisampai .00 .00

CCoefficientoefficient of stability for testof stability for test--retestretestCoefficient of equivalence for alternate formsCoefficient of equivalence for alternate formsSpearmanSpearman--Brown for splitBrown for split--half reliabilityhalf reliability

Untuk menghitung dipergunakan pUntuk menghitung dipergunakan pearsonearson product product moment correlation moment correlation Kita biasanya menggunakan angka reliabilitas di atas Kita biasanya menggunakan angka reliabilitas di atas .80 .80 untuk tugas klinik dan psikountuk tugas klinik dan psiko--pendidikan, dan diatas pendidikan, dan diatas .90 .90 untuk tujuan pengambilan keputusanuntuk tujuan pengambilan keputusan

Faktor yang mempengaruhi Faktor yang mempengaruhi reliabilitasreliabilitas

Panjang tesPanjang tesHomogenitas tesHomogenitas tesInterval tInterval testest--retest retest VariabilitVariabilitasas skorskorTebakanTebakanVariaVariasi situasi tes si situasi tes Ukuran sampelUkuran sampelKarakteristik pengujiKarakteristik pengujiKarakteristik peserta ujianKarakteristik peserta ujian

ValiditValiditasasSejauh mana tes mengukur hal yang ingin kita Sejauh mana tes mengukur hal yang ingin kita ukur. ukur. Akurasi dan manfaat dari tesAkurasi dan manfaat dari tesTerbagi atas: Terbagi atas:

Content validityContent validity –– Apakah dapat mengisi rentang isi yang ingin diukur?Apakah dapat mengisi rentang isi yang ingin diukur?

CriterionCriterion--related Validityrelated ValidityConcurrent validity Concurrent validity –– hubungan antara skor tes dengan kriteria yang tersediahubungan antara skor tes dengan kriteria yang tersediaPredictive validity Predictive validity –– untuk menunjukkan kinerja individu pada saat yang akan untuk menunjukkan kinerja individu pada saat yang akan datangdatang

Construct validityConstruct validity –– Apakah tes mengukur sifat atau konstruk psikologis Apakah tes mengukur sifat atau konstruk psikologis yang ingin diukur? yang ingin diukur?

Convergent Convergent –– pengukuran berbeda dengan domain yang samapengukuran berbeda dengan domain yang samaDiscriminant Discriminant –– testtest mengukur karakter yang berbeda seharusnya tidak mengukur karakter yang berbeda seharusnya tidak berkorelasi. berkorelasi.

Kemampuan Prediksi TesKemampuan Prediksi Tes

HASIL TESHASIL TES

BaikBaikBurukBuruk

Valid negativeValid negativespecificityspecificity

False negativeFalse negative

False positiveFalse positiveValid positiveValid positivesensitivitysensitivity

Dianjurkan Dianjurkan

Tidak Tidak dianjurkandianjurkan

KINERJA YANG SEBENARNYAKINERJA YANG SEBENARNYA

Construct ValidityConstruct Validity

Prosedur validasi:Prosedur validasi:Group differencesGroup differencesFactor analysisFactor analysisInternal consistencyInternal consistencyTests of stabilityTests of stability

ProporProporsi skor varian tessi skor varian tes

Validitas pada Situasi KlinikValiditas pada Situasi Klinik

Apakah tes Apakah tes validvalid pada situasi spesifik pada situasi spesifik dengan klien spesifikdengan klien spesifik??Incremental validityIncremental validity

Kemampuan tes untuk menghasilkan Kemampuan tes untuk menghasilkan informasi di atas yang telah diketahui informasi di atas yang telah diketahui sebelumnya. sebelumnya. Misalnya: tambahanMisalnya: tambahan latar belakang data latar belakang data pada pada MMPI MMPI tentang konsistensi dapat tentang konsistensi dapat mendorong meningkatkan validitasmendorong meningkatkan validitas

Tes InteligensiTes Inteligensi

LLatar belakangatar belakangTesTes inteligensiinteligensi

Intelligence TestIntelligence TestMetode untuk Metode untuk menilai kapasitas menilai kapasitas mental seseorang mental seseorang dengan dengan membandingkan membandingkan orang tersebut orang tersebut dengan yang lainnya dengan yang lainnya menggunakan skor menggunakan skor numerik. numerik.

MaMakkna Inna Inttelligensielligensi??

IntelligenIntelligensisiKemampuan untuk belajar dari Kemampuan untuk belajar dari pengalaman, memecahkan pengalaman, memecahkan masalah, dan menggunakan masalah, dan menggunakan pengetahuan yang dimiliki untuk pengetahuan yang dimiliki untuk beradaptasi pada situasi baru. beradaptasi pada situasi baru.

Mengukur InteligensiMengukur Inteligensi

Factor AnalysisFactor AnalysisProsedur statistik yang menProsedur statistik yang menggidentifikasi kluster item identifikasi kluster item yang berhubungan yang berhubungan ((disebut faktordisebut faktor)) pada suatu tespada suatu tesDigunakDigunakaan untuk mengidentifikasi dimensi n untuk mengidentifikasi dimensi ppeerrformaformayanyangg bbeerbeda yang menrbeda yang menddasari asari skskor total seseorang. or total seseorang.

General IntelligenceGeneral Intelligence (g)(g)Spearman Spearman dkkdkk –– faktor yang mendasari kemampuan faktor yang mendasari kemampuan mental spesifik mental spesifik DDiiuukur oleh semua tugas pada tes inteligensikur oleh semua tugas pada tes inteligensi

Multiple Intelligences? Multiple Intelligences?

Savant SyndromeSavant SyndromeKondisi dimana seseorang yang memiliki Kondisi dimana seseorang yang memiliki kemampuan mental terbatas memkemampuan mental terbatas memiiliki liki kemkemaampuan luar biasa pada keampuan luar biasa pada keahhlian lian tertentu tertentu

ppenghitunganenghitunganmelukismelukis

Multiple Intelligences?Multiple Intelligences?

Social IntelligenceSocial IntelligenceBBagaimana memahami dan agaimana memahami dan memecahkan masalmemecahkan masalaah pada situasi h pada situasi sosial dan mengelola diri sendiri untuk sosial dan mengelola diri sendiri untuk berhasil berhasil

Emotional IntelligenceEmotional IntelligenceKemampuan untuk mempersepsikan, Kemampuan untuk mempersepsikan, mengekspresikan, memahami, dan mengekspresikan, memahami, dan mengelola emosimengelola emosi

GardnerGardner’’s Theorys Theory

IntelligenIntelligensisi dan dan KreativitKreativitasas

KKreativitreativitas as –– kemampukemampuaan untuk n untuk menghasilakn gagasan baru yang menghasilakn gagasan baru yang bermakna. bermakna.

Keahlian Keahlian KeKetterampilan berpikir imajinatif erampilan berpikir imajinatif KKepribadian untuk mencari yang baru epribadian untuk mencari yang baru Motivasi intrinsikMotivasi intrinsikLingkungan kreatifLingkungan kreatif

Sternberg Triarchic TheorySternberg Triarchic Theory

FunFungsgsii OtOtaak dan k dan IntelligensiIntelligensi

Orang yang dapat Orang yang dapat mempersepsikan mempersepsikan stimulus dengan stimulus dengan cepat cenderung cepat cenderung memiliki smemiliki skkor yang or yang tinggi datinggi dallam tes am tes inteligensiinteligensi

Stimulus Mask

Question: Long side on left or right?

Origins of Intelligence Origins of Intelligence TestingTesting

StanfordStanford--BinetBinetthe widely used American revision of the widely used American revision of BinetBinet’’ssoriginal intelligence testoriginal intelligence test

IQ = MA/CA X 100IQ = MA/CA X 100revised by revised by TermanTerman at Stanford Universityat Stanford University

Mental AgeMental Age a measure of intelligence test a measure of intelligence test performance devised by performance devised by BinetBinetCChronologicalhronological AAgege that most typically that most typically corresponds to a given level of performancecorresponds to a given level of performance

child who does as well as the average 8child who does as well as the average 8--yearyear--old is old is said to have a mental age of 8said to have a mental age of 8

Assessing IntelligenceAssessing Intelligence

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)(WAIS)

most widely used intelligence testmost widely used intelligence testsubtestssubtests

verbal verbal

performance (nonverbal)performance (nonverbal)

Assessing Intelligence: Sample Assessing Intelligence: Sample Items from the WAISItems from the WAIS

From Thorndike and Hagen, 1977

VERBAL

General Information Similarities Arithmetic ReasoningVocabularyComprehensionDigit Span

PERFORMANCE

Picture Completion Picture ArrangementBlock DesignObject AssemblyDigit-Symbol Substitution

Verbal Scale

General information: how many hours apart are Eastern standard and pacific time.

Similarities: In what way are boats and trains alike?

Arithmetic reasoning: if eggs cost 96 cents a dozen, what does 1 egg cost?

Vocabulary: what does the word “procrastinate” mean?

Comprehension: Why do people buy automobile insurance?

Digit Span: Listen carefully to the following numbers, when I am through, I want you to repeat the numbers backwards: 4, 8, 7, 5, 2.

Performance Scale

Picture completion: an important part missing, What is missing?

Block design: use 16 blocks to make the pattern on the right.

Object assembly: pieces put together, you make something.

Picture arrangement: Pictures tell story. Put them in the right order to tell the story.

Coding: Put the appropriate code symbols in the blank spaces.

Administered to large groups of people, intelligence tests yield a normal distribution (or bell curve), that has known statistical properties. 90 -110 is labeled average and include half of the population.

Getting Smarter?Getting Smarter?

Assessing IntelligenceAssessing Intelligence

As the range of As the range of data under data under consideration consideration narrows, its narrows, its predictive predictive power power diminishesdiminishes

Greater correlationover broad rangeof body weights

10

9

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

Little corre-lation withinrestricted

range

Football linemen’s

success

Body weight in pounds180 250 290

The Dynamics of The Dynamics of IntelligenceIntelligence

Mental RetardationMental Retardationa condition of limited mental abilitya condition of limited mental abilityindicated by an intelligence score below 70indicated by an intelligence score below 70produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of produces difficulty in adapting to the demands of lifelifevaries from mild to profoundvaries from mild to profound

Down SyndromeDown Syndromeretardation and associated physical disorders retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in onecaused by an extra chromosome in one’’s genetic s genetic makeupmakeup

The Dynamics of The Dynamics of IntelligenceIntelligence

Assessing IntelligenceAssessing Intelligence

Aptitude TestAptitude TestTest yang dirancang untuk memperkirakan Test yang dirancang untuk memperkirakan kinerja seseorang di masa yang akan datang. kinerja seseorang di masa yang akan datang. AAptitudeptitude merupakan kapasitas untuk belajar merupakan kapasitas untuk belajar

Achievement TestAchievement Testtest test yang dirancang untuk menilai apa yang yang dirancang untuk menilai apa yang telah dipelajari oleh seseorang. telah dipelajari oleh seseorang.

KelompokKelompok EtnisEtnis & & InteligensiInteligensiEthnic and racial group differences in intelligence

Japanese highest IQ in the world. Mean score 111 places 77% of Japanese children above the mean score of the US European children.African American 12-15 points below the white. Note: does not mean all lower than whites.

Where do these differences come from?Separate science from myth

Tests are culturally biased (based on Euro-American white culture)Nurture: whites are raised and schooled in enriched environment that optimized the development of cognitive skills.

Past 25 years IQ difference has reduced.cultural assimilationeducation and economic opportunities.

Cross cultural perspectives on intelligenceTheories reflect views of North American and European cultures.

Most cultures put more emphasis on social intelligence

Genetics and intelligenceDebate over contribution of genetics to level of intelligence in individuals or groups.The percentage of variance in any trait accounted for by genetic differences Should test for sources of variance in intelligence scores Use twin studies to determine heritability

The more genes people have in common, the more similar they tend to be.Not entirely! Not always clear results due to environmental differences

Gender difference in cognitive abilities

Brain size and intelligenceMen and women identical IQ, women’s brain is smaller.

Men outperform women slightly on spatial tasksperform slightly better on mathematical task

Women Better on perceptual speed, verbal fluency,

Tes KepribadianTes Kepribadian

Self report testSelf report testProjective testProjective testVocational testVocational test

Personality InventoriesPersonality Inventories

SelfSelf Report TestReport Test

?? Primarily through questionnaires in whichpeople report themselves.

?? Also by understanding others’ subjectivepersonal experiences during therapy

XX Concepts are vague & subjective.Assumptions are naïvely optimistic.

MMPIMMPIThe main objective personality test is the The main objective personality test is the Minnesota Minnesota MultiphasicMultiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI).Personality Inventory (MMPI).This is a widely used test designed to identify the This is a widely used test designed to identify the major personality characteristics that affect personal major personality characteristics that affect personal and social adjustments. and social adjustments. TThe MMPI is best suited to he MMPI is best suited to identify psychological or emotional disturbancesidentify psychological or emotional disturbances (not (not normal traits)normal traits)EEmpiricallympirically derived derived -- test items selected basedtest items selected based upon upon how well they discriminate twixt groupshow well they discriminate twixt groups of traitsof traits

MMPIMMPI--22

The test consists of 567 statements on a The test consists of 567 statements on a variety of issues, such as moral and social variety of issues, such as moral and social attitudes, to which the individual answers attitudes, to which the individual answers ““true,true,”” ““false,false,”” or or ““cannot say.cannot say.””

The ten MMPIThe ten MMPI--2 clinical scales.2 clinical scales.

Projective TestsProjective Tests

Researchers assume that individuals will Researchers assume that individuals will interpret ambiguous stimuli in a way that reveals interpret ambiguous stimuli in a way that reveals their fundamental cognitive and emotional their fundamental cognitive and emotional framework (Walsh & Betz, 2000). framework (Walsh & Betz, 2000). Psychologists focus on the outstanding or Psychologists focus on the outstanding or general trends across sets of tests. general trends across sets of tests.

Thematic Apperceptions Test (TAT)Rorschach Inkblot Test

The Unconscious & AssessmentThe Unconscious & AssessmentHow can we assess personality?

(i.e., the unconscious)

Objective Tests?No - tap the conscious

Projective Tests?Yes - tap the unconscious

The UnconsciousThe Unconscious“the mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden”“the mind is like an iceburg - mostly hidden”

Conscious Awarenesssmall part above surface

(Preconscious)

Unconsciousbelow the surface

(thoughts, feelings,wishes, memories)

Repressionbanishing unacceptablethoughts & passions to

unconsciousDreams & Slips

Two Major TestsTwo Major Tests

The two most famous projective tests are The two most famous projective tests are the Rorschach and the Thematic the Rorschach and the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) are flawed and of Apperception Test (TAT) are flawed and of limited valuelimited valueThey are scored subjectively, with the They are scored subjectively, with the examiner often focusing on the personality examiner often focusing on the personality needs of, and environmental influences on, needs of, and environmental influences on, the main character. the main character.

Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test

The Rorschach Inkblot test consists of five black The Rorschach Inkblot test consists of five black and white and five colored inkblots. Individuals and white and five colored inkblots. Individuals are asked to tell what the blots remind them of are asked to tell what the blots remind them of and then asked what about the blot made them and then asked what about the blot made them think of their specific answer. The scorer think of their specific answer. The scorer typically is interested in the location of typically is interested in the location of responses, the determinants of the responses, responses, the determinants of the responses, the content of the responses, and the originality the content of the responses, and the originality of the responses. of the responses.

The Rorschach Inkblot TestThe Rorschach Inkblot Test

CConceptoncept of free of free association has resulted association has resulted in a number of tests. in a number of tests. They use ambiguous They use ambiguous stimuli. The person is stimuli. The person is asked to report what they asked to report what they seeseeThis type of test is called This type of test is called projectiveprojective

No clear image, so the No clear image, so the things you see must be things you see must be ““projectedprojected”” from inside from inside yourselfyourself

Rorschach Inkblot TestRorschach Inkblot Test

Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test

In the TAT an individual is shown several In the TAT an individual is shown several cards and asked to tell a story about each cards and asked to tell a story about each card, describing the events leading up to card, describing the events leading up to the situation, what the people are thinking the situation, what the people are thinking and feeling, and what events will happen and feeling, and what events will happen later. later.

Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception TestPerson is asked to tell a Person is asked to tell a story about the story about the ““herohero”” in in the picturethe picture

Another projective testAnother projective test

Based on MurrayBased on Murray’’s s personality theorypersonality theory

People are distinguished by People are distinguished by the needs that motivate the needs that motivate their behaviortheir behavior

Thematic Apperception TestThematic Apperception Test

Vocational TestVocational Test

Interest TestInterest TestScreening TestScreening Test

Clinical Clinical JudgementJudgement

Descriptions based on:Descriptions based on:Test dataTest dataCase historyCase historyMedical recordsMedical recordsPersonal journalsPersonal journalsVerbal and nonverbal behaviorVerbal and nonverbal behavior

Contextual IssuesContextual Issues

Types of referral settingsTypes of referral settingsPsychiatric settingPsychiatric settingGeneral medical settingGeneral medical settingLegal contextLegal contextEducational context Educational context Psychological clinicPsychological clinic

Tasks in Clinical AssessmentTasks in Clinical AssessmentEvaluate the referral questionEvaluate the referral questionStudy the problemStudy the problemData collectionData collectionInterpreting the dataInterpreting the dataPhases:Phases:

Collect dataCollect dataGenerate hypotheses and test themGenerate hypotheses and test themAccept/reject hypothesesAccept/reject hypothesesMake general statements based on Make general statements based on hyptheseshypthesesDescribe and discuss general factorsDescribe and discuss general factors

Even the best personality tests are imperfect. A test for detectEven the best personality tests are imperfect. A test for detecting an unusual condition will often ing an unusual condition will often identify normal people as having the condition. Here we assume tidentify normal people as having the condition. Here we assume that a certain profile occurs in hat a certain profile occurs in 95% of people with schizophrenia and 5% of other people. If we r95% of people with schizophrenia and 5% of other people. If we relied entirely on this test, we elied entirely on this test, we would correctly identify 95 schizophrenic people, but we would awould correctly identify 95 schizophrenic people, but we would also misidentify 495 normal lso misidentify 495 normal people as schizophrenic.people as schizophrenic.

TrendsTrends

Decreased usage of Decreased usage of projectivesprojectivesPoor validity and reliabilityPoor validity and reliabilityComplex scoringComplex scoringReliance on psychoanalytical theoryReliance on psychoanalytical theoryTime and cost efficiencyTime and cost efficiencyUse of behavior rating scales for childrenUse of behavior rating scales for children

Trends (cont.)Trends (cont.)

Structured interview techniques (1980sStructured interview techniques (1980s--1990s) 1990s) Diagnostic Interview ScheduleDiagnostic Interview ScheduleStructured Clinical Interview for DSMStructured Clinical Interview for DSM

Development of neuropsychological assessmentDevelopment of neuropsychological assessmentFormalized behavioral assessmentFormalized behavioral assessment

Behavioral checklists, functional behavioral Behavioral checklists, functional behavioral analysis, physiological responses, selfanalysis, physiological responses, self--report report measuresmeasures

Computerized assessmentComputerized assessmentMore emphasis on treatment planningMore emphasis on treatment planning

ComputerComputer--Assisted AssessmentAssisted AssessmentAdvantages:Advantages:

Save timeSave timePotentially improve testPotentially improve test--rere--test reliabilitytest reliabilityReduce tester biasReduce tester biasImprove efficiencyImprove efficiency

LimitationsLimitationsUntested reliability and validityUntested reliability and validityshorter better than longershorter better than longer60% made accurate predictions60% made accurate predictionsShouldnShouldn’’t be used to replace clinical t be used to replace clinical judgementjudgementNeed to meet test qualificationsNeed to meet test qualificationsMake sure narrative is linked to research and placed in contextMake sure narrative is linked to research and placed in context

Ethical IssuesEthical IssuesProfessional relationshipProfessional relationshipInvasion of privacyInvasion of privacyInviolacyInviolacyLabeling and restriction of freedomLabeling and restriction of freedomCompetencyCompetencyInterpretation and use of test resultsInterpretation and use of test resultsCommunicating test resultsCommunicating test resultsMaintenance of test security and assessment Maintenance of test security and assessment informationinformation

Test Bias with Minority GroupsTest Bias with Minority Groups

Presence of systematic error in Presence of systematic error in measurement of certain factors measurement of certain factors ––academic potential, intelligence, academic potential, intelligence, psychopathologypsychopathology-- among certain among certain individuals or groupsindividuals or groupsBelieved that psychological tests bias in Believed that psychological tests bias in favor of Europeanfavor of European--American, middle class American, middle class societysociety