Post on 13-May-2023
1
Farmers’ Perception of climate change and climate variability versus
climatic evidence in Burkina Faso, West Africa
Safiétou SANFO1* , John P.A. LAMERS2, Marc MUELLER2 and William FONTA1
1WASCAL, (West African Science Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use)
2 ZEF (Centre for Development Research, Walter–Flex-Str. 3, D-53113 Bonn, Germany)
*Corresponding author: Safiétou SANFO, WASCAL,
Climate change and climate variability (CC & CV) in West Africa is recurrently mentioned as
the main threat to sustainable development in Africa, which necessitates adaptation measures.
Of the many offered, few have been seen an impact on the ground because farmers have hardly
implemented such measures. This is due also because of an incomplete understanding of
farmers’ perception of potential climatic threats. This study compares the perception of male
and female farmers in two case study villages in Burkina Faso on climate CC & CV. The
subjective assessment of climate threats is then compared with historical weather and climate.
The farmer’s perceptions were captured through a combination of focus group discussions and
household questionnaires whilst historical weather data from the study region stations was used
to develop climate information.
The research findings underlined that farmers recall and understand CC & CV primarily based
on weather-crop interactions and on events that are associated with climatic fluctuations. Their
perceptions are additionally shaped by the cultural frame or belief system. Farmers emphasized
that climatic and weather patterns had changed over the three decades, and mentioned as
indicators the more erratic rainfall patterns, decreased rainfall amounts, increased temperatures,
winds and radiation. These changes they thought have been responsible for a decreased crop
productivity and increased livestock morbidity and mortality. The majority of the respondents
(90%) were additionally highly pessimistic for the future. On the other hand, the perceptions
did only marginally match the monitored long-term weather data. For instance, an increase in
the duration of radiation as perceived by farmers opposed to a decrease by measurements, or
the decrease in rainfall could be confirmed for the past decade only but not for three decades.
Despite the in part contrasting evidence, when negotiating adaptation measures the perception
of farmers is key and therefore must be taken into account as these greatly influence on-farm
investments and decision-making in agricultural management production. It is argued that an
increased general awareness of CC & CV by farmers is of paramount interest to the decision-
makers that should advance any attempt to promote adaptation measures to the farming
population.
Key Words: Climate change and climate variability, farmer perceptions, climatic evidence,
West Africa
2
Introduction
Climate change and climate variability CC & VC is predicted by scientists to have the main
impact on agriculture, economy and livelihood of smallholder farmers in West Africa (KANDJI
et al., 2006). CC & CV present many challenges in West Africa (Hulme et al., 2005), and annual
and mid-season droughts have become recurrent features of West African agriculture. It has
been reported that there is a large deficit of information and knowledge in this vulnerable region
which impedes decision making and assessment of climate related risks (McSWEENEY et al.,
2010). Information about this issue may be put into two groups: (1) climate trend analysis and
future projections from climate scientists and (2) the perception information from people at risk
in those regions (mainly farmers). It is important to recognise whether these 2 types of
information correspond to support the effectiveness of any policy towards farmer empowerment
for climate change adaptation. In West Africa (mostly for the Sahel), contradictory literature
regarding climate trend information has been published on climate change. For instance a close
relationship between the Sahelian rainfall decrease and the reduction in the number of rainy
days has been reported (SIVAKUMAR, 1992a, b; LE BARBÉ & LEBEL, 1997). The authors
observed a decrease in both the seasonal amount and number of rainfall events of about 25%.
But recently, while some authors reported the Sahelian drought to have ended since the 1990s
(e.g. OZER et al., 2003), or being simply an artifact of changing station networks (e.g.
CHAPPELL & AGNEW, 2004) others like L’HOTE et al. (2002, 2003), DAI et al. (2004) and
HULME (2001) reported it as being real and continuing. On the other hand, for the part of the
sub-Saharan Africa, when temperature trend is widely said to be increasing, annual rainfall was
reported to be highly variable on inter-annual and inter-decadal timescales and no long term
trends could be identified (McSWEENEY et al., 2010). Regarding the opinion of the
populations at risk in WA, several studies have been produced. Through a standardised
questionnaire, Egouaven (2013) collected qualitative data and provided an analysis of
environmental observations by farmers, as well as of models of blame in Northern Ghana. Mayo
et al. (2012) used participatory research techniques, to investigate farmers’ perceptions of
climate variability in semi arid Zimbabwe. To assess farmer’s perception in the SSWA,
Akponikpè1 and al. (2010) interviewed 234 farmers in five SSW African countries (Benin,
Burkina Faso, Ghana, Niger and Togo with approximately 47 farmers per country, in a total of
78 villages).
In Burkina Faso, Roncoli et al. (2002) conducted a comprehensive farmer climate knowledge
and rainfall forecasting in Bonam in the central plateau in Burkina, and WEST et al. (2008)
later assessed local perceptions and regional climate trend from two provinces of the same area.
Drawing from a survey in 11 African countries (with 3 in West-Africa i.e. Ghana, Burkina and
Niger) MADDISON (2007) analyzed the ability of farmers to detect climate change, the way
they adapt and the barriers to adaptation. We noticed that these few studies provide either
country level bulked information or are climate and place localized. Despite the widespread
scientific debate concerning farmers perception of climate change and adaptation, not much is
know about rural farming households’ perceptions in Burkina Faso. The above studies mainly
focused the Plateau Central area. Knowing that every country in the SSWA encompasses at
least two main climatic regions (within Guinean, Sudanian or Sahelian), we hypothesized that
climate along a latitudinal gradient (imposing different agricultural systems) in West-Africa
will influence farmers’ perception differently. This means that differences between climatic
areas should be well known to guide decision making and policy for differential mitigation
actions. It has been also reported that Farmers’ ability to perceive climate change is a key
precondition fortheir choice to adapt. Farmers cope with climate change based on their
perceptions of changing climate patterns. Taking the above into consideration, and taking into
account the differents between regions within the same country this papper attempted to address
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the following questions in the southern Burkina Faso: (1) How do farmers in the southern
Burkina Faso perceive climate change? (2) How do farmers’ perceptions of climate trends
correspond of metereological data? Overall, the study attempts to assess differential farmer
perception of CC & CV and wether teir perceptions correspond to meteorological data.
1.1: About climate change and farmers perceptions
Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural variability
or/and as a result of human activity (IPCC, 2007a:871). This paper uses the term climate change
in a broad context that includes changes in weather variability. Climate change imposes
constraints to development especially among smallholder farmers whose livelihoods mostly
depend on rain-fed agriculture (IPCC, 2007b; Tanner & Mitchell, 2008). Negative impacts of
extreme events such as floods and droughts are expected to be high in developing countries
especially in rural areas (Adger, Hug, Brown, Conway, & Hume, 2003; IPCC, 2007a). A large
array of measures is needed to effectively alleviate the climate thread. An individual nation
cannot change the force of the climate change by unilateral actions. It can, however, reduce
local damage by proper application of adaptation, which consists of local measures to reduce
the vulnerability of natural and human systems against actual or expected effects of climate
change.
However, according to Lorenzoni and Pidgeon (2006) people are not likely to support initiatives
addressing climate change unless they consider the issue a very serious problem for society, or
one that affects them personally. Slovic and Weber (2002) and Sunstein (2006) describe how
the way we perceive events that pose a potential risk to us is captured in the issue of risk
perception. This can be defined as the perceived likelihood of negative consequences to oneself
and the society from the specific (environmental) phenomenon (risk) for instance climate
change. CC & CV perception is the subjective judgment that people make about the
characteristics and severity of a risk.
Review of literature shows that the donor community, international development agencies,
regional political bodies, Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs), farmers’ organisations and
national government involved in adaptation strategies promotion have often not taken into
account perceptions of smallholder farmers of climate change (CFU, 2006; FAO, 2009, 2011b).
The adaptive capacity is influenced by factors such as knowledge about climate change.
Smithers and Smit (2009) contend that environmental perceptions are among key elements
influencing adoption of adaptation strategies.
This type of evidence has led to interest in how farmers understand and perceive climatic
process (Adger et al., 2005; Conway et al., 2005; Ziervogel et al., 2006). One’s perception
depends on one’s environment and its characteristics (Heathcote, 1969) and a range of beliefs,
judgments and attitudes (Slegers, 2008). Experience is another important factor that shapes
individuals’ peceptions, with previous experiences of poor seasons creating memories that may
determine how farmers describe different types of seasons (Slegers 2008). Farmers can also be
influenced by peers’ perceptions and community values (Maddison, 2006). Perception of
climate is based on the economic and social impact it has on personal lives; and farmers’
perceptions of climate variability are important to adaptation as they determine decisions in
agricultural planning and management (Slegers, 2008; Bryant et al. 2008)). Several studies on
farmers’ perceptions of climate change have shown a high correspondence of resource users’
perceptions of climate change to meteorological data (Deressa, Hassan, Alemu, Yesuf, &
Ringler, 2008; Maddison, 2007; Mertz, Mbow, Reenberg, & Diouf, 2009; Slegers, 2008; West,
Roncoli, & Ouattar, 2008). This paper examines Burkina Faso farmers’ perceptions of CC &
CV and compares these perceptions with historical, official meteorological data.
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1.2. STUDY AREA
The Burkina Faso agriculture services aclasiffy the westhern areas are as agro-ecological zones
(AEZ). Several studies reveal that though the area is suitable for crop production (it is
commonly known as the breadbasket of the country), it has experienced climate change impacts.
This southern region was selected as it represents environments with contrasting agricultural
potential, while having still one of the highest agricultural potential in the country. The region
is located between the 700 and 1100 mm isohyets. The region is subject to severe dry spells
within the rainy season (mid season droughts). The length of the growing period in the study
areas is quite variable, ranging from 70-100 days. The vegetation cover is deteriorating.
Population growth and deforestation have lead to land degradation. The investigation was
mainly conducted in two villages, Batiara and Pontiéba, in Ioba province of Burkina Faso, at
approximately 11oN and 2oW. The study sites had been selected as close to the meteorological
stations to minimise impact of spatial variability.
Maps here
2 MATERIALS AND METHODS
Data Survey
The data collection and analysis detailed below included three steps: fieldwork data collection,
meteorological data collection, and meta-analysis. Data were collected in the villages in April
and May 2011 using two complementary approaches, namely (i) focus group discussions
(FGDs) and (ii) household questionnaires. An FGD involving about 20 farmers in groups was
held in each village to collect qualitative information on the farming systems, farmer
perceptions on climate variability, farmers’ use of seasonal climate forecasts, and how they
cope with variable climate. The FGDs enabled community perspectives to be captured and
provided a picture of the survey areas in terms of climate-related issues and biophysical and
socio-economic constraints farmers face due to climate variability. A team of translators helped
to collect data.
Upon arrival in Dano, we contacted officers of the local agricultural service (Direction
Provinciale de l’Agriculture, DPA) and the local leadership, who facilitated farmer
participation at FGDs. The DPA officers helped with introductions of the research team to the
village authorities and the communities; and household sampling and identification. The semi-
structured questionnaire used both a qualitative and quantitative research approach (Bryman,
2008; Sanfo; 2010) to collect household level data on factors that may influence farmers’
perceptions on climate variability. Some of the specific aspects covered in the questionnaire
included: (i) Demographic and socio-economic indicators; (ii) What weather-related changes
have been noted over the years and explanations for such changes; (iii) Indicators of climate
change; (iv) Sources of weather- and climate-related information; and (v) Farmers’ coping
mechanisms or strategies, i.e. what agricultural management practices and other socio-
economic coping strategies they employ in the face of climate variability. The FGD helped to
understand farmers’ perception on weather fluctuations and climate change, through farmer’s
eyewitness accounts of about weather fluctuations observed over a lifetime. The data were
entered and analysed in the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and MS Excel.
Statistics were mainly descriptive including means, frequencies and standard deviations where
applicable. This study used only informations about farmers’ perception on climate change.
5
Climatology evidence. To ascertain how farmers’ perceptions of CC & CV correspond to
actual long term climatic records, climate data available for Dano and surrounding provinces
by the Burkina’s Meteorological Department were analysed and compared to findings from the
farmer survey. The study focuses on rainfall, temperatures, insolation, wind and season and
their duration. Daily rainfall, maximum and minimum temperatures, daily insolation and winds
data for the time period 1970–2010 have been collected. Ther is only one gap, the 1978 season
at Dano. The rainfall analysis based on the total annual amount and the number of day of
rainfall. For the temperature data, the dailly maximum values were summarised on a annual
temperature. The same was calculated for the daily minimum temperatures and insolation. The
first approach of the analysis of season and their duration was to identify the rainy seasons at
the station based on its daily rainfall data. The Burkina Faso Meteorological Services
Department classifies seasons according to whether or not they were below or above normal.
The Department classifies any season receiving <90% of the long-term mean (of 30 years 1981-
2010) as below normal or poor; seasons ranging from 90% of the long-term mean to 110% as
normal; seasons ranging from 111% of the long-term mean to 150% as above normal or good
seasons and those seasons >150% of the long-term mean rainfall as very above normal or very
good seasons. This classification is a simplification and does not take account critical periods
and dryspells within the rainy season. To verify consequently the assertions of farmers, we
therefore targeted critical periods of crops, flowering and harvested periods. The study looks at
dryspells within theses criticals periods that can impact negatively crops yields. For the length
of seasons, the rainy season is generally identified in the West African zone according to
different methods depending on the objectives of the studies and the locations. We can
distinguish two classes of methods which are usually used in the Sahelian region; the agronomic
method and the hydrological method (Sivakumar 1988; Balme et al. 2005). As this study deals
with agiculture and crops the agronomic method is needed. The agronomic method defines the
rainy season start after the first April with a 3 days cumulative rainfall amount higher than 20
mm and not followed by a dry spell of more than 7 days. The rainy season end of this method
is marked by the last rainfall higher than 5 mm/day after the first September with any rainfall
higher than 5 mm/day during the twenty following days. For the hydrologic method, the rainy
season begins with the first rainfall higher than last rainfall higher than 5 mm/day. The limit of
this method is that they are empirical and they are based on some assumptions on the behavior
of land surface conditions or the crops.
3 Results and Discussion
Farmers’ perceptions of weather-related changes and variabilities compare to
methodological eveidence
Many farmers (55%) had heard of climate change mainly through public media (television,
radio). Another 45% mentioned oral sources (Meeting, relatives, agricultural technicians,
cabarets, etc.). Farmers stated that disruptions of weather patterns occured since the 1970s, with
drought years in 1974, 1984, 2004 and years of excessive rainfall in 1976, 1996 and 2006. The
majority (52%) attributed the perceived weather-related changes to natural climatic processes
but other farmers (48%) indicated that these changes had been caused by cultural and religious
factors (table1). The FGDs revealed furthermore1 the belief that ancestors had been made angry
1 Some mentions from farmers indicating that God and the ancestors are angry included: “…..we have now
abandoned our ancestors, and we are following the modern world so much that we no longer even go to “”, the
rainmaking shrine to pray to our ancestors for a good rainy season…..”.lots of unusual things are now happening
6
because cultural norms and beliefs had been ignored and as a punishment had brought climatic
changes. Also an erosion of religious values and beliefs are perceived of having caused weather
changes noted over the years. Yet, farmers linked the weather changes also to politics in Burkina
by stating that the “owners of the land” or ancestors were not happy with political upheavals,
and hence, were punishing society by bringing along the adverse weather change reflected in
rainfall. Overall, the findings of the FGDs indicated that farmer’s recogniyed the climate effects
as “the work of God which cannot be influenced”.Smallholder farmers in Dano are aware of
climate change through their experiences. This is a common finding from other studies on
perceptions of resource users of climate change such as in the Sahel (Mertz et al., 2009), Nile
basin of Ethiopia (Deressa et al., 2008), semi-arid central Tanzania (Slegers, 2008) and Asia
(Marin, 2010b).
There is, however, divergence of perceptions amongst the farmers, as indicated by the results
of what is causing these changes in agricultural productivity. This may indicate that there are
different perceptions of what changes have occurred, but maybe the most remembered or
evident aspect the farmers associate with climate variability is the decrease in agricultural
productivity. There was uncertainty in terms of how seasons will fare, which in turn may
discourage any beneficial investments in terms of agricultural production for farmers (Cooper
et al., 2008). The farmers also reported considerable morbidity and mortality rates of their
livestock which were attributed to the climatic changes the farmers had experienced over the
years.
Weather factors highlighted by farmers concerned rainfall, temperature, insolation, winds and
comparison of seasons.
in our midst, so many women being raped, a lot of murders, immorality and God is not happy, hence is punishing
us by not bringing any rains…..”
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Table 1. Weather changes that farmers have noted over the past two decades in the
Southern parts of Burkina Faso
About Climate and perceived change Percentage of sample
Climate change through media
Climate change through oral source
Natural changes in climate
Cultural and religious reasons
Increased number of seasons without enough rainfall
Rainfall starts late and ends early
Extremes in temperatures
Long dry spells during the season
Rains do not come when they normally used to
Rainfall starts late
Prolonged/extended dry season
Short rainy seasons
Too much rain
Rainfall distribution within seasons now poor
Decline in the amount of rainfall
55
45
52
48
65
97
95
97
97
97
85
97
5
90
90
Farmers perception on rainfall and seasons and meteorological evidence
About 65% of the farmers explained climate change by a decrease in rainfall. All respondents
stated that climate has changed and this is experienced in lesser rain and dryspells.
According to the Chairman of a group of cotton producers (GPC) in Pontieba rainfall is
gradually declining since 1974. Over 90% of the farmers surveyed agreed on lower amounts of
rainfall during the rainy season. One farmer aged 59 years from the Pontieba district, explained
during the FGD that “……in our youth, it was unheard to have 2-3 poor rainfall seasons in a
row. Nowadays, these poor rainfall seasons are more pronounced, occurring on a regular basis
and usually accompanied by unusually high temperatures, especially in the months of October
and November… Old farmers mentioned that rainfall intensity is becoming higher, compared
to the period ranging from 1960 to 1970, and rains are accompanied by stronger winds. Flooding
(plots and villages) during the rainy season was also debated whilst 95% of respondents think
it is a phenomenon in decline, even though floods once occurring have become more dangerous.
The recorded data on rainfall from 1970 to 2010 (figure 1) shows that about 80 percent of the
rainfall occurs from Jun to September. The curve with Therehere is a large variability in the
amount of precipitation from year to year in the study region characterized by a sawtooth curve.
The same patterns are pobserved in Bobo, Gaoua and in Boromo. The high proportion of
farmers noticing a decrease in precipitation could be explained by the fact that during the last
few years of the study (2007 to 200), there was a substantial decrease in the amount of rainfall.
Thus, farmers’ perceptions of a reduction in rainfall over the 30-year period are explained by
8
the fact that, as Maddison (2006) noticed, some farmers place more weight on recent
information than is efficient.
Farmers assessed a “good or “bad season” by evaluating the cropping seasons, including
climate-related changes. Farmers used the term “bad season” to refer to any year with reduced
crop production. A bad season was widely regarded (90% of the farmers) as a season with
irregular rainfall distribution which was defined as rainfall at the start of the season but with
consequent very long dry spells during the follow-up, leading to crop wilting and ultimately
poor yields or even complete failures. Farmers were asked how the seasons were over the past
decade, i.e. what season can be classified bad during the last past decade. Farmers reported that
the cropping seasons 2006 and 2009 were bad. Farmer and specifically agriculture technician
reported that crops failed during the 2009 cropping season were lead to the introduction of new
varieties of maize «bondofa». All agreed that the implementation of Bondofa helped fill the
yields gaps of maize during bad seasons.
When comparing the actual rainfall data for the past 5- 10 years with the farmer perceptions
there is generally good agreement that the 2009 season was a bad season. Indeed in 2009 Dano
district received a total amount rainfall (Figure 1) less than 90% (about 770 mm, 86%) of the
long-term mean (of 30 years 1981-2010). The perceptions of farmers, however, contradict in
some cases with the climate data. In the case of the 2006 season, the total rainfall amount
suggests that it was an above normal season. However, further analysis indicated that the rainfall
distribution within the season, especially the intra-seasonal dry spells that was experienced in
Jun and August coincided with the anthesis stage of cereal crops and could have been
detrimental to crop production. This observation is corroborated by various other studies
reporting that in semi-arid southern Burkina, the start of rain during May and Jun may be
followed by a long dry spell, which can lead to crop failure (Mahé et al. 2010). Yet, according
to farmers, the yield levels determine farmers’ assessment irrespective of the meteorological
events. Thus, even those seasons that has a good rainfall distribution and above average rainfall
can be termed “poor” by farmers. This indicates also that for farmers, when evaluating cropping
seasons, any problem that limits harvests leads to a bad season.
This is similar to the reports of Slegters (2008) claiming that perceptions of climate change, are
based on livelihood impacts the climate has on individual farmers, i.e. the social and economic
impacts.
In additional, almost all farmers perceived a change in the duration of both the rainy and dry
seasons. About 97% saw a shift in the onset of the rainy season into June or even July thus
shortening concurrently the duration of the rainy season and thus the number of rainy months
in the year. It was underlined that presently the rainy season starts in June or July and usually
ends in late September or early October lasting thus about 3 to 4 months only. Women and
elderly underlined that both the dry and rainy season had the same length (6 months) three
decades before. Meteorological evidence to support this includes analysis of rainy days, amount
of rainfall and dry spells in line with the agronomic method. An analysis of weather data in the
5-10 past years showed a shift in the onset and the offset of cropping season. From 2000
cropping season to 2010, the onset, effectively took place by the end of Jun or the beginning of
July except the cropping season of 2000 and 2004. For instance the onset of the cropping season
of 2005 was about 2 nd July, 2006 about the 27th Jun and the onset of the cropping season of
2007 was about the 11th July. The offset of these seasons was very earlier, about the end of
September or the beginning of October. The rainy season last about 3 months.
9
Figure 1: Interannual variability of rainfall (1970-2010) in Dano.
Source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013)
Figure 2: Number of rainy days (1970-2010)
Source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013)
Farmers perception on temperature and meteorological evidence
Virtually all respondents (95%) mentioned it has currently become warmer than before whilst
temperature appeared to be the biggest problem to them. Referring to the times of their
childhood, the elderly mentioned a decline in the number of months with low temperatures
which range now from the second half of December to the second half of February only. The
rise in temperature was evidenced also a reduced use of wood stumps during the cold periods
to warm themselves in the morning.
The data in the stations of Gaoua at a same latitude as Dano showed an increase in maximum
temperature as well as the average temperature over time. The analyses revealed however in
y = -1.5211x + 893.48R² = 0.0179
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Rai
nfa
ll (m
m)
Years
10
general an increase in temperature per year. The study finds both farmers and climatology data
reporting increases in temperatures.
Figure 3: Temperature (1970-2010) for the Dano area.
Data source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013)
Farmer’s perception on insolation and meteorological evidence.
This was mentioned only by few individuals (5%) during interviews. In particular the elder
believed that solar rays have become more intense, both in the dry and rainy season.
Furthermore, these elders saw the increase in insolation causing the very hot and suffocating
days without rain during the rainy season. Almost all farmers surveyed underlined that
insolation is caused by land degradation.
There is no synoptic station in Dano. The station of Gaoua, in the same latitude of Danos was
therefore used. The average insolation in Gaoua over the past 30 years (Figure 4) has changed.
The trendline shows a negative slope illustraing a gradual negative decline in the average annual
insolation, although this decrease is very low. This is caused also by an increased cloud cover
explaining the reduction in number of hours of sunshine per month. The months with the highest
insolation are October, November, December, and January and to a lesser extent May. The
monthly average insolation duration based on the analses of the 1970/2010 is about 7.9 hours
per day. A similar trend is measured in Boromo and Bobo, indicating also in these stations a
decrease in the annual duration of insolation. The findings do not confirm farmers’ perception
that claimed an increase in insolation over time.
11
Figure 4: Average insolation at Gaoua (1970-2013)
Data source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013).
Farmer’s perception on winds and meteorological evidence
Wind speed perceived by farmers has increased. Framers mentioned that due to higher
temperatures and an on-going degradation of the vegetation cover, winds have become
increasingly violent whilst in addition 35% of the respondents claimed that in the dry season,
the very strong winds are accompagnied by unusual dusty masses. This dust is accused to have
increased the occurrence of certain diseases such as meningitis. In February, March, April,
winds seriously cause the withering of fruit trees such as shea-tree, néré, and mango. Also an
increasing frequency of whirlwinds had been mentioned whilst 96% of the respondents found
that during the rainy season, violent winds advacing rainfall events had increased. These strong
winds, accompanied by heavy rains are causing damage such as the destruction of straw roofs
and houses but also uprooted trees and damage on crops. In Gaoua the wind speed varies from
1 m/s (1974) to 1.9 m/s (1980, 1994 and 2010). The ground speed of winds increased. This is
also found in other stations in the same laltitude (Boromo and Bobo). Meteorological data
confirmed farmer’s perception
y = -0.0262x + 9.8882R² = 0.1529
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
Len
gth
(h
ou
rs)
Years
12
Figure 5: Evolution of winds at Gaoua (1970-2013)
Data source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013)
To reach a conclusion on farmers perception of CC & and the historical data we synthesize the
scientific analysis and the perception of changing climatic parameters.
Table 2: Summary of scientific observations and farmers’ perceptions
Climate factors Observation and perception
Monitored data Farmers’ perception
decrease stable increase decrease stable increase
Rainfall + + +
Temperature + +
Insolation + +
Winds + +
Rainy season (lengh) + +
Dry season(lengh) + +
Wind load + +
Source: National Meteorology services, Ouagadougou (2013)
y = 0.0126x + 1.1609R² = 0.3429
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Spe
ed
(m
/S)
Years
13
Conclusion
This study used individual household interviews and small FGDs in two villages in the southern
Burkina Faso, to compare farmer’s perception of climate change and historical weather data.
Specifically, the study investigated farmer perception of changes in rainfall and seasons,
temperature, insolation and wind speed. Results from the descriptive analysis of farmers
interviewed and FGDs revealed that smallholder farmers in the southern region of Burkina Faso
showed awareness of climate change and variability, mainly based on their perceptions. Farmers
generally perceived temperature, insolation, wind speed to have increased and rainfall to have
decreased over the last two or three decades. These changes were mostly corroboted by
scientific reports for temperature and wind speed but no always confirmed for rainfall and
insolation. The second conclusion is that in the design and implementation of projects on
planned adaptations there is a need to focus not only on technical aspects but also social
dimensions such as perceptions of smallholder farmers. Climate change communication
provides an avenue through which perceptions of resource users can be integrated in climate
change adaptation projects. This would facilitate exchange of climate change information
between smallholder farmers, donors and project implementers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was conducted within the WASCAL (West African Science Center for Climate
Change and Adapted Land Use) initiative which is financed by the German Federal Ministry of
Research and Education. We wish to thank our partners: The Burkina Faso Meteorological
services, the regional Department of Agriculture of Dano and all the staff. We would like to
acknowledge the surveyed households and to all the Focus Group discussions participants.
14
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