Post on 09-Jan-2023
Michael HuffstutlerCreated for the Department of Anthropology
A Brief Comparison of the Germanic Aspect of the LBK & WBCCultures
Written for the University of Minnesota Twin-Cities [2013]
What knowledge is able to be ascertained about the customs,
social organization, and values in the early Linearbandkeramik
period (5700-5000 BC) of Neolithic Germany by analyzing burial
sites, styles and patterns, and how did these characteristics
change in the Wartberg Culture of the late Neolithic (3600-2700
BC)?
Linearbandkeramic Culture
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
1
Before the rise of agriculture in the Neolithic, the Late
Mesolithic period was largely characteristic of traditional
hunter-gatherer societies, yet showed signs of an impending
transition to a sedentary lifestyle. A wider variety of plant and
animal species ranging from acorns to hazelnuts, and seals, to
wild boar and deer were preyed upon and foraged in the later part
1 Photo courtesy of: John, J., Ifantidis, F (Ed)., Nikolaidou, M (Ed). (2011). Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches, Contributions to theArchaeology of Shell Techniques. BAR International Series 2216.
2
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
of the Mesolithic2. This is indicative that technological
specialization was occurring, and is evidenced by the arrival of
various hunting prospects and creations such as nets, hooks,
harpoons, and canoes. An expanded amount of projectile weapons
were crafted from materials such as bone, wood, and antler3. With
the arrival of agriculture in the Neolithic period, societies
were revolutionized and a new age of human culture began.
In Europe, the arrival of the LinearBandKeramik (LBK)
culture of the Early Neolithic introduced the first farmers and
the start of agriculture4. The earliest sites are found in the
StarcevoKoros culture on the Hungarian plain around 5700 B.C.,
where it then separately spread North, East, and West5.
Radiocarbon dating methods indicate a rapid dispersal of the LBK
culture due to the fact that results dating Germany and Hungary
are practically synonymous. It is estimated that the movement
spread across Central Europe at a rate of approximately 3.5-5 2 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 156. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013. 3 Hirst, K. (2013). Linearbandkeramik Culture (LBK): The First Farmers of Europe. 4 See Price, T. pg. 155. Note that agriculture originally rose in the Near East/Anatolia and then spread west, later arriving in Europe.5 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D. (2011). Investigating Archaeological Features: Culture, Tradition, and the Settlement Burials of the Linearbandkeramik (LBK) Culture.
3
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
kilometers per year6. The remarkable uniformity of the LBK
culture is an expression as well as confirmation of its swift
dispersal from the edge of eastern Hungary, the Ukraine, Holland,
and Germany, where house construction, artifacts, material
culture, and pottery are largely the same7.
If there is any trait most definitive of the LBK
settlements, it would be the longhouses they created within their
settlements. Despite the fact that this specific culture is
named after the linear pottery it is renowned for making, these
immense free-standing timber structures signified dramatic
changes taking place within Early Neolithic culture8. Ranging
from 10-30 meters long and approximately 7 meters wide, these
seemingly monumental9 structures for the time period represent a 6 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 155. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.7 See Price, T. pg. 155.8 Other significant changes include larger, communal societies, mutual cooperation. Also a shift from a subsistence hunter-gatherer lifestyle to sedentary agriculture, creating objects for storage and pottery arise with theNeolithic; Price, T. (2013). Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.9 Monumental refers not to comparison of megaliths or architecture, but rathersize relative to earlier periods of small, circular huts and housing structures. These earlier structures made commonly of wood or animal bone and skins could easily be built independently by a single family. LBK longhouses would have required at least two large families, some estimates conclude at least 12 full size adults would have been needed to achieve placing the posts for the roofs. Price, T. (2013). Pg. 156. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
4
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
new idea of communal cooperation, something not evident even in
the Late Mesolithic. These small farmstead communities generally
consisted of several longhouses, each separated by a fair amount
of distance. Location preferences also change in the Early
Neolithic, and LBK farmers were probably more attracted to loess
basins rather than typical hunter-gatherer environments. The
landscape included a naturally rich soil profile within the
basins, as well a reduced presence of indigenous Mesolithic
hunter-gatherers, whom it is thought by many field experts to
have poor and often violent encounters between each society
respectively10.
Linear pottery, an aspect derived from almost complete
uniformity is another striking feature of the LBK. The rise of
pottery indicates that these Early Neolithic farmers now had more
spare time to dedicate to craft specialization. Also, the new
idea of food storage for longer shelf life and preservation can
be linked to purposes fulfilled by non-formal LBK pottery.
Overall, LBK pottery can be defined through two different
10 There are frequent violent burials within the LBK culture, many of which are thought to be from encounters with Mesolithic persons. Price, T. (2013). Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
5
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
categories: A plain, coarse ware most likely for everyday uses
such as cooking and storage, and a finer, more ornate decorated
ware, not associated with any clear purpose11. The pottery is
adorned with incised lines (not always perfectly straight), fist
cut in clay paste before being fired to produce the well-known
linear bands today. The common repertoire of patterns and motifs
include chevrons, spirals, triangles, and rectangles12. Among
all, the definitive schematic holotype of LBK pottery is the
ornately decorated hemispherical bowl13.
The domesticated animals and crops in Central Germany can
almost certainly be attributed to the near east. Such crops as
emmer, einkorn, wheat, and legumes such as peas and vetch were
grown and exploited14. There is minimal evidence of
autochthonous15 domestication of animals in any part of Europe
for that matter. In hierarchical order, cattle, pig sheep, and 11 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 157. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.12 See Price, T. (2013). pg. 157; Also note that among these patterns and motifs, the chevron pattern was usually incised outside of the linear band zone.13 Hemispherical bowls are commonly what comes to mind when referring to LBK pottery; Price, T. pg. 157.14 University of Oxford, School of Archaeology. (2013). The Nature of Earl Farming in South-East and Central Europe. University of Oxford.15 Autochthonous defined in the context of ‘indigenous,’ ‘aboriginal,’ or ‘a locality.’
6
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
goats were most commonly raised domestically within LBK
settlements16. At the site of Karsdorf, in the Burgenlandkreis
district of Saxony-Anhalt, isotopic analyses demonstrates that
domestication was taking place due to the similar baseline and
mean isotopic signatures produced by animals with different
grazing and foraging habits such as sheep and goats17.
For historically beginning the path to a sedentary
lifestyle, the people of the LBK culture were curiously mobile.
Using the bioarchaeological method of strontium isotope analysis
from multiple biochemical analyses, data illustrates that as much
as 60% of LBK sites were comprised of non-local individuals18.
Strontium isotopes found in prehistoric human teeth and bones
concede a geochemical signature of respective birth and death 16 Oelze, V., Siebert, A., Nicklish, N. et al. (February, 2011). Early Neolithic diet and animal husbandry: stable isotope evidence from three Linearbandkeramik (LBK) sites in Central Germany. Vol (38). Issue (2). Journalof Archaeological Science.17Oelze, V., Siebert, A., Nicklish, N. et. al. p.277. A table in this academic work demonstrates that the domestic animal sample from Karsdorf features mean δ13C values of −21.0 ± 0.9‰ (1σ) and mean δ15N values of 7.3 ± 0.9‰ (1σ). This is significant because the values are practically synonymous with each other even though two different typologies are being compared. For instance, in this computation, sheep and goats cluster between 6.4 and 7.9‰ inδ15N and around the mean of −20.4 ± 0.3‰ (1σ) in δ13C, suggesting that these animals fed on a very similar diet, as on a similar kind of pasture, although sheep are grazers, whereas goats are habitual mixed feeders.18 Isotopic studies illustrated in Oelze, V., Seibert, A., Nicklish, N. et al.For further information on isotopic analysis in Germany see ‘Herxheim’ and ‘Nieder-Mörlen.’
7
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
places19. Furthermore, this isotopic data supports that the
majority of non-local individuals at LBK were female, who
migrated from other geological spaces. What reasons motivated
these early farmers towards such high rates of mobility? One
explanation hypothesizes that as the LBK people spread throughout
Europe to places including the Upper Rhine Valley, it encountered
earlier Mesolithic hunter-gatherers, often times provoking
violence, cultural assimilation20, or migration21. Evidence of
migration and high amounts of violence are clear in LBK burials,
while mass graves such as Herxheim even contain possible evidence
of cannibalism.
Aiterhofen [5300 BC] & Vaihingen [5300BC] Discussion and Interpretations
5300 B.C. gave rise to the village of Aiterhofen, located in
Bavaria 5 kilometers south of the Danube22. In its excavation, 19 Bentley, R., Gronenborn, D., Lüning, J., et al. (2001). Prehistoric Human Migration in the Linearbandkeramik of Central Europe. Antiquity. 20 As LBK culture rapidly spread from the east into Europe, previous Mesolithic cultures generally joined and became part of LBK culture, migrated,or fought for the territory. Violence is usually thought to have occurred towards the later part of the LBK spread.21 Bentley, R., Gronenborn, D., Lüning, J., et al. (2001). Prehistoric Human Migration in the Linearbandkeramik of Central Europe. Antiquity.22 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., et al. (February, 2011). pg. 1245. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Society: Isotope Evidence at
8
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
157 inhumations were uncovered along with 9 double inhumations
and 65 cremations, making Aiterhofen the largest known cemetery
of the LBK period. As seen in most typical LBK cemeteries, the
majority of the inhumation burials at Aiterhofen were fixed in a
crouched or flexed position, with the head facing the east23.
Within this group, roughly 65% were buried with some sort of
grave good. Pottery, shells24, bone and stone ornaments, red
ochre, and flint tools were the most commonly associated burial
items. Males were often accompanied by these same goods as well;
however polished adzes are abundantly present in their burials as
well.
Aiterhofen (Bavaria, Germany). Antiquity.23 Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., et al. (February, 2011). pg. 1246. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Society: Isotope Evidence at Aiterhofen (Bavaria, Germany). Antiquity. 24 Among shells, spondylus shells were the most popular and must have had an important role or significance in LBK culture. River shell was also found among burial goods in the Aiterhofen cemetery.
9
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
25
There appear to be five different spatial groupings of
interment at Aiterhofen, but it is solely based on typological
and ceramic sequences, which is problematic because this
interpretation lacks a solid basis for reliability such as
radiocarbon dating on which to establish itself. Norbert
Nieszery, a specialist in Bavarian Linear Pottery argued that
spatial groupings likely represented different settlements,
however, the variation in the demography and burial goods that
have been interpreted as ‘hunter’ or ‘farmer’ identities cross-
cut these spatial groups. What can be deduced from this is that
25 Photo courtesy of: Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 162,3. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications of Special Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII.
10
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
there is not likely a simple explanation as to why these spatial
groupings exist at Aiterhofen.
Also, grave goods and isotopic analysis of dietary habits
indicate that there may be a less than clear cut division between
farmer and forager. In LBK culture, the dead were never buried
with an abundance of grave goods, but the majority was buried
with some type(s) of artifact(s). The extensive variability
within the type and quantity is suggestive of some type of social
structure within these Neolithic societies. The presence of
polished adzes in male burials may represent a status
differentiation within the social structure of LBK communities.
11
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
26
Not all male burials included polished tools, indicating
that there may have been a hierarchy composed of a smaller, more
elite group of males within the society. Another plausible
consideration could be that different burial goods represented
different ‘jobs’ or purposes within the community, such as a
hunter, or a farmer, indicating that there was probably some
specialization within LBK culture. The presence of exotic 26 This photo illustrates the different spatial groups represented in the Aiterhofen cemetery. A clear pattern of segregation is present. Photo retrieved from: Bickle, P., Hofmann, D., Bentley, R., (2011). Pg. 1246. Roots of Diversity in a Linearbandkeramik Community: Isotope Evidence from Aiterhofen. Antiquity.
12
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
material such as spondylus shells27, which originate from the
Aegean Sea, is often interpreted as a signal of the rapid
dispersion of LBK culture westward across Europe.
Throughout LBK culture, empty graves have had a presence in
many cemetery sites. It is useful to break down these
specialized burial pits into two different categories28:
Cenotaphs29, in which no remains of the skeleton are left or
buried, but the grave goods are intentionally placed signifying
the absence of the deceased. The second type then, an empty grave
contains burial goods that are not in the original or intended
position, and there are either few or no skeletal remains left in
the pit. At Aiterhofen, there are 36 empty graves, which accounts
for 13.6% of the total known burials at the site. This begs the
question, what purpose do these graves serve?
27 Spondylus shells were often shaped or made into bracelets, necklaces, beads, or belt buckles in LBK culture; John, J., Ifantidis, F (Ed)., Nikolaidou, M (Ed). (2011). Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches,Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Techniques. BAR International Series2216.28 Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 162,3. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications of Special Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII. 29 The origin of the word cenotaph is derived from the Greek work ‘Kenotaph.’ In its literal translation, kenotaph means empty grave.
13
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
Specialized ritual practices can probably be the most
closely associated activity linking empty graves to societal
culture. The bodies would have had to have been wrapped in some
type of organic winding sheet made of a common material such as
tissue or leather, where the decomposition would occur quickly in
central European soil30. This implies that the time between
burial and disinterment would not have been very long. Other
German LBK sites such as Kleinhadersdorf and Schwetzingen had
high rates of empty graves. This pattern may be linked to the
consistency and uniformity overall of LBK culture and practices,
and there may have been possible ritual activities shared amongst
them. No data is known on where the bodies were moved after
disinterment, and due to lack of remains, empty graves remain an
archeological anomaly until further information is uncovered.
Beginning around 5300 B.C. near Stuttgart in the Nektar
Valley, the site of Vaihingen offers uniquely good preservation
in which many archaeological materials and site features have
survived31. There is evidence for over 100 houses at Vaihingen, 30 Lenneis, E. (2010). Pg. 164. Empty Graves in LBK Cemeteries- Indications ofSpecial Burial Practises. Documenta Praehistorica XXXVII.31 Bentley, R., Krause, R., Price, T., Kaufmann, B. (2003). Human Mobility at the Early Neolithic Settlement of Vaihingen: Strontium Isotope Analysis.
14
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
spanning over 6 ha of landscape. This village appears to be
planned due to house orientation. Sometime after the construction
of the settlement, a large flat-bottom ditch was created
surrounding most of the village. In all, 138 skeletons were
excavated. The ditch surrounding Vaihingen was most likely used
as a burial ground after it was no longer used for whatever its
original purpose may have been. Within the fill, 85 human burials
were recovered. This village for the most part is typical of the
LBK culture, just as at Aiterhofen. However, there are higher
rates of violence exhibited through burials here than represented
at Aiterhofen.
In the ditch, many of the skeletons are not in the flexed
position attributed to typical LBK burials, but seem to have been
thrown in without any regard. Grave goods include nothing more
than shards of pottery32. These spatially separated groups
included all age and gender categories, which may suggest that a
kin based or familial type burial system was in place at the
time. A strontium isotope analysis was conducted on three cows
University of Oxford. 32 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 161,2. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.
15
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
from Vaihingen. The results show that during the summer, at least
one of the cows left the settlement, and was taken to the Black
Forest to pasture in the uplands, while then being brought back
to the settlement33. The other two cows tested don’t display data
concurrent with starting on the settlement, and they were led to
different locations to pasture34. This evidence procures the idea
that maybe family lineages controlled access to different parts
of pasture land, or through family, had a right to pasture their
cattle on certain parts of the surrounding landscape. This is one
viable explanation for non-age or gender specific spatial
groupings, and unceremonious burials in the ditch at Vaihingen.
Traumatic injury is also present on many of the dead.
These graves could likely the remains of non-locals. The ditch
site, almost a mass grave is suggestive that an instance of
conflict between existing Mesolithic hunter-gatherers and
incoming LBK peoples may have taken place, ultimately with the
33 Knipper, C., Bentley, R. (December, 2005). Transhumance at the Early Neolithic Settlement of Vaihingen (Germany). Antiquity. V(079). 34 The three cattle specimens used in this strontium isotope analysis sequencewere (3882) representing the Black Forest pasture feeding, and (3194) and (4805) representing cattle not originally from the settlement, taken to other areas of surrounding land to feed. See Knipper, C., Bentley, R. (December 2005).
16
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
LBK prevailing. Strontium isotope analysis taken from tooth
enamel indicates that strewn remains in the ditch tended to be
non-local individuals while the dead place in the traditional
flexed position were local35. Measurements of the bones were also
taken, and robusticity was higher in the unceremoniously
scattered bones as opposed to the crouched position typical in
the LBK36.
While the U-shaped ditch at Vaihingen can be thought to
represent a burial for lower status individuals or non-locals,
Graves outside of the ditch may represent an increased importance
within the village. Outside the confines of the ditch, 40+ graves
were discovered with a general trend of a higher number of grave
goods accompanying them. These graves were mainly burial pits or
adjacent to the longhouses. One grave adjacent to a house, known
as Grave 130, contained a child burial. The child was buried
crouched on the left side, in the typical LBK fashion and in
35 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 162. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford University Press, 2013.36 See Price, T. (2013). Pg. 162.
17
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
front of its head 2 undecorated bowls were placed in front of its
head37.
Wartberg Culture [3600-2700 BC]
38
37 Price, T. (2013). Pg. 1612. Europe Before Rome. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 2013.38 This photo illustrates the geographic position of the WBC in relation to Germany and the Rhine river. Other subcultures are shown in relation. Photo courtesy of: Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. ComparativeArchaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.
18
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
In the latter part of the Neolithic period from
approximately 3600-2700 BC39, The Wartberg Culture (WBC)
developed within the Hesse region, eastern North Rhine-
Westphalia, and western Thuringia states of Germany40. Subgroups
within this culture include: Trichterbecherkultur (TRB) or Funnel
Beaker culture, the Globular Amphora Culture, the Tieftisch
pottery group, and the Northern Hessian Wartberg group With their
unique settlements relative to the regional norm and their
megalithic tombs (gallery graves), Wartberg culture provokes
numerous questions on the dynamic and influence of this culture.
Due to its central geographic location, it also suggests
influences from various directions41. The grave culture of
megalithic tombs in the early period of WBC culture remains a
high point of mystery for archaeologists, due to the fact that
while surrounding cultures in similar time periods and geographic
locations such as the Netherlands and Northern Germany do not
39 Some dates have been given for the arrival for WBC/TBK culture as early as 4100 B.C. I remain conservative here because there is stronger evidence supporting a later, conclusive date. 40 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.41 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthwork and gallery gravesof the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.
19
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
share this burial style, societies from locations including the
Paris Basin and Brittany draw many parallels with this burial
culture42. The dimensions and burial materials used in the
collective tombs that characterize WBC indicate that they could
only have been built by groups or some sort of communal team
work43.
The gallery graves associated with the WBC can be divided
into two different categories based upon stylistic properties:
Züschen and Rimbeck style tombs44. These graves can be anywhere
from 10-35 meters long and 2-3 meters wide, and as part of their
unique construction process, are sunk into the ground and covered
with some type of mound architecture45. The building material for
these graves is predominantly limestone and sandstone in the case
of both Züschen and Rimbeck style gallery graves46. Züschen style
42 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.43 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de. 44 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.45 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.46 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.
20
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
gallery graves are characterized by access to the tomb on the
smaller, axial side and an antechamber or vestibule, whereas
Rimbeck style gallery graves have access to the tomb on the
longer, lateral side, similar to a Funnel beaker passage grave47.
In many gallery grave cases, there has been evidence for around
80-100 individuals within each tomb, however, much more minimal
numbers are discussed due to extenuating circumstances such as
diagenetic alteration leading to poor preservation, and chaotic
discovery circumstances48. In tombs where bones have been
preserved, inhumation burials are almost always common. The
bodies are generally found lying on their back in a supine
position49. In many tombs, it is common to find the heads or feet
of the deceased oriented towards the entrance to the gallery.
However, the anisotropy of the bodies is not related to any form
47 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.48 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.49 The author discusses an atypical case: “one individual is known lying face-down (Henglarn I: Günther 1992, 57). They were positioned parallel to the chamber axis. As seen in Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.
21
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
of astronomical orientation because the tombs themselves are not
oriented in any particular direction50.
Although grave goods are not abundant or lavish within the
WBC, many personal ornaments have been attributed as cultural
burial goods. For instance, pendants made from animal teeth,
mandibles (often from foxes), and copper and amber objects51. The
animal tooth pendants, most often made from the teeth of dogs
have been associated with both males and females of various ages
and locations such as the head, neck, legs, and arms. From this
evidence, it can probably be said that these pendants were used
as decorative necklaces or various clothing ornamentations or
fixtures. The mandibles have been found circumstantially near the
waist area in almost all cases52. The consistent position of
these finds indicates that the dead of whom these were buried
with most likely carried these mandibles in some form of belt or
pouch carried around the waist. From this, it is thus indicative
that these mandibles may have been used as amulets or other
50 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.51 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.52 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.
22
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
ritualistic type items. Arrowheads have been categorized by
region, with triangular shaped arrowheads originating from the
Northern Hesse and Eastern Westphalia regions, while arrowheads
trapezoidal in figure are found in Westphalia tombs53.
The Calden Enclosure and the tomb at
Züschen I: Discussion and Interpretations
The Calden enclosure, which has been radiocarbon dated back
to around 3600-3700 BC, but a more reasonable timetable being
close to 3400 BC, was a crucial discovery in attempting to
understand the early part of the WBC period54. The enclosure
itself is a 14ha double-ditch system located in a small valley
close to the two sources that feed the Calde creek near Kassel in
the Hesse region of Germany55. The entrance to this gallery grave
53 Bone arrowheads have also been discovered at sites in Warburg. There have been instances in which all three types of arrowhead have been found together,indicating that the arrows were kept together in a type of quiver. Schierhold,K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.54 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de. 55 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthwork and gallery gravesof the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.
23
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
is oriented towards the Southeast, and while most of the
architecture and reconstructions point towards a predominantly
general transportation related purpose, over 300 human remains
have been discovered within the ditch fill. This characteristic
along with the ditch being deliberately filled shortly after its
construction, and scattered human remains discovered in excavated
parts of the enclosure point to a possible mortuary or ritual
practice as a prominent aspect of the enclosure .
24
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
[On the left, the symmetry of the gates is demonstrated at the Calden Enclosure. The
figure on the right is a plan of the tomb]56
Although the excavation of Calden I lacks the finding
of any completely preserved skeletons, many elements were left in
original anatomical positions. The buried deceased were laid down
in an extended supine position parallel to the longitudinal
direction of the tomb and the head of the entrance57. Some of the
bodies adjacent to one another were placed in a fourfold skeletal
superposition58. Children buried at Calden II were buried across
the chamber axis59. The style found here exhibits a regional
preference found at this location as well as others such as
Altendorf. Special body orientations can be found throughout the
WBC, and can be thought of as regional group preferences,
although they don’t seem to be influenced by age or gender60.
56 Photo courtesy of: Raetzel-Fabian, D. (2 February 2002). Calden - earthworkand gallery graves of the 4th Millennium BC. Journal of Neolithic Archaeology.57 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.58 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.59 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.60 Further discussion of age and gender by the author: “All age classes are represented. Many children died, about 10-30% of the population. Most people reached an age of 30 to 40, some over 60, very few grew older than 60. It has to be mentioned that the amount of male and female burials is more or less in balance. The data points to the conclusion that every member of a community
25
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
This skeletal typology has been found in other WBC burial grounds
such as Altendorf and Wewelsburg61. This placement could suggest
that a series of burials with some aspect in common with each
other was taking place at the time.
At Calden II, the characteristic Wartberg group architecture
is displayed. This collective tomb (12 x 3-3.5m) has vertical
wall stones integrated into the foundation, and is made up solely
of local tertiary quartzite62. This site is crucial because it
offers a rare glimpse at some of the grave goods buried with the
deceased. Two ceramic drums with picot chalets were recovered at
the site. The style of these objects has been linked to a
cultural influence from Central Germany63. One of the excavated
was buried in a gallery grave, without reference to age or gender.”61 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.62 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.63 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.
26
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
bowls features typical TRB ornaments adorned with cross
patterns64. The discovery of these burial objects indicates that
somewhat long-distance connections were being made, and that
cultural influences were impacting WBC/TRB society in a new and
profound way.
Pertaining to the presence of grave goods at Calden I, the
dead were buried only with their personal garments and
accessories65. It is worth noting that pottery has never been
found at this cite. It remains unclear whether the clothing and
accessories are the last items the deceased were wearing or if
they were purposefully dressed with some ceremonious regard.
Various pierced animal teeth66 were placed on the deceased as
clothing accessories. Flint blades, and a large quantity of arrow
reinforcements comprised of chert and flint were recovered,
64 Fernandes, R., Rinne, C., Grootes, P., Josée-Nadeau, M. (2012). Revisiting the Chronology of Northern German Monumentality Sites: Preliminary Results. Leibniz Labor for Isotopic and Radiometric Dating and Isotope Research. Institute of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Archaeology. Kiel University, Germany.65 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.66 Pierced animal teeth used in clothing accessories have been derived from such species as, but not limited to: dog, rare wild cat, pig, cattle, brown bear, and red deer. Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.
27
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
likely related to hunting equipment67. On the bottom of the
grave chamber, pierced amber beads and green patina have been
found68. This indicates that there were previously copper objects
in conjunction with the grave goods69. Other finds at the site
include a single small, ceramic funnel cup, an undecorated strap
handle, and shards of simple dishware70. Roughly 34m northeast of
the Calden enclosure, there has been speculation of the presence
of a menhir71 based on dark discoloration shown through a trough
in a field. Though this has not been proven, as a whole in
context, it could indicate that these are the remains of, or a
component of a ‘religious’ or ‘ritualistic’ district72.
The Züschen I gallery grave was first discovered in 1894
between Lohne and Züschen in the Hesse region of Germany.
67 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.68 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.69 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de.70 Schierhold, K. (20 October 2010). The Gallery Graves of Hesse and Westphalia: Expressions of different Identity (ies)? jungsteinSITE.de.71 The dimensions for the possible menhir are (4.0 x 0.6 x 0.6 m). Similar structures have been found an associated with such sites as Odagsen & Groβenrode I & II. 72 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Monumentality and Communication: Neolithic Enclosures and Long Distance Tracks in West Central Europe. jungsteinSITE.de.
28
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
Arguably one of the most important discoveries pertaining to the
Wartberg culture, this late Neolithic tomb contains striking
features such as the presence of incised carvings, comparable to
prehistoric European rock art73. This feature of the WBC group is
unique to and only known so far from the Züschen megalithic
monument and tomb I at Warburg74. The grave is set in the ground
and is approximately 19 m long and 3.5 m wide75. The construction
of this grave can be safely categorized in line with the Wartberg
culture, with its antechamber being separated by a port-hole slab
in the east76. Among depictions of fork-like figured bovines,
Züschen I contains wagon like structures, which may be the oldest
representation of carts ever discovered in Europe77. Also, this 73 This grave has become particularly famous for its depictions of bovines andcart-like symbols. Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.74 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.75 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.76 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.77 The authors continue a description of the grave features: “Apart from the ornamented wall stones, a red sandstone plate was salvaged from the inside of the grave, showing bovine and wagon representations. In addition, geometrical motifs like single or double zigzag lines and herringbone patterns could be distinguished.” Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne,
29
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
tomb contains a famous motif referred to as the “Eye Goddess,”
which has linked it to other sites in the Paris basin which
contain the same image78.
[Map of the Gallery Grave at Züschen I]79
The interior of the tomb contained a high number of
disarticulated bones, and the minimum number of buried dead at
Züschen has been estimated to be 2780. The discovery of a burial
from the Urnfield period above the original depositions indicates
that the bones must have been disturbed sometime after the 9th or
Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.78 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.79 Photo courtesy of: Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.80 Megalithic.co.uk (14 September 2005). Chambered Tomb in Germany in Hesse. The Megalithic Portal.
30
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
10th century BC81. The porthole slab of the tomb (1.4 m high, 2 m
wide) separating the main and antechamber sections of the tomb
contains zigzag lines, but more curiously it contains drawn
representations of oxcarts, which have been associated with other
stones in the grave82.
[Representation of Oxcarts found on the upper right corner of the porthole slab]83
81 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.82 The authors give a detailed description of these oxcarts: “There are two oxcarts, consisting of two forked signs and additional lines. The left figure consists of two forked signs linked through a cross-line beneath the half bows. From this line, usually interpreted as a yoke, another line comes off ata right angle. In its course it slightly arches to the left and meets an additional line. This latter line connects an ornament which can best be described as two almost complete rings. Another line comes off from the aforementioned line, running diagonally to the bottom right. Furthermore, there is one line between the forked signs and what has previously been interpreted as a kind of drawbar. Both lines originate from the link between the “yoke” and the forked signs… An almost identical figure can be seen to theright.” As seen in Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.83 Photo courtesy of: Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3D Measurements Techniques. CAAconference.
31
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
The excavation of Züschen has been critical in further
understanding a fairly mysterious and unknown culture. The
discoveries of rare burial goods and rock carvings have provided
much needed insight on the WBC and what their societal values and
rituals may have been like at the time of their existence. One of
the more common symbols found at this gallery grave is a simple
line with an attached open semi-circle. This is usually
interpreted as a stylized portrayal of cattle84. Similar
depictions of cattle are known from Bronze and Iron Age carvings
at sites such as Valcamonica and Bégo, and have generally been
thought of as a reflection of Neolithic ideological or religious
ideas85. Symbols that overlap can probably be attributed to
individual signs and symbols accumulating over time, and they are
likely not connected in any form to one another.
84 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.85 Loerper, L., Jockenhövel, A., Dirksen, D. (2007). Re-inspection of the Megalithic Art of the Gallery-Grave at Züschen/Lohne, Germany, with Optical 3DMeasurements Techniques. CAAconference.
32
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
Conclusions
With the rise of the Linearbandkeramik culture, agriculture
and communal cooperation become defining aspects of Neolithic
society. For the LBK, this is evident in the building of their
massive longhouses. Communal cooperation and the idea of team
work survived and prospered, evident again in the Wartberg
culture, with team work being applied to the creation of
megalithic tombs. LBK culture spread rapidly from east to west,
claiming a cultural uniformity seldom seen in archaeology. The
WBC however, is consistent predominantly by region, where certain
preferences throughout the Hesse, Thuringia and North Rhine-
Westphalia regions of Germany are expressed. Although it is
overall a heterogeneous culture, unlike the LBK, WBC experienced
periods of cultural and stylistic change during progressive
phases86. These subtle changes are evident in grave styles, body
orientation, and in some cases grave goods. A clear style and
regional distinction was found present with the separation of
Züschen style graves and the Rimbeck gallery graves.
86 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.
33
Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
With regard to both cultures in their respective eras, grave
goods continue to remain limited and overall modest in content.
In some Wartberg group passage graves, very limited copper and
amber objects were recovered. Change is also evident in the
eventual transition to single-grave burials. Although little is
known or applicable so far for this burial transition, it can be
hypothesized that with the arrival of the Corded Ware people, or
Single Grave Culture (SGC), that there was a strong cultural
differentiation between the two. Although there is no data for
economic reactions to this successive culture, some religious and
ritual reaction such as: A conservative opposition or rejection,
attempts of integrating old and new cultural elements, and a
complete abandonment of the old religious concepts87. This
explanation is just one scenario describing how this change may
have come about. Looking at the LBK group, it is clear that they
were able to overcome previous hunter-gatherer opposition and
cultural traditions, while implementing their own style
simultaneously. Looking at these two cultures which existed for
87 Raetzel-Fabian, D. (5 January 2002). Absolute Chronology and Cultural Development of the Neolithic Wartberg Culture in Germany. Comparative Archaeology Web. jungsteinSITE.de.
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Neolithic Germany (LBK & WBC)
only brief periods in the Neolithic provide excellent grounds for
analyzing cultural trends, burial styles, and the transitions
that led up to them. There is clearly continuation overlap in
some cultural regards, but probably only by happenstance.
Progressive characteristics such as the arrival of rock carved
art in the WBC continued to grow and define each culture
separately.
35