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THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

Christian Boehm

ISBN-13 9781872843186, 264pphard cover, 287mm x 210mm, 165 colour and black and white illustrationsSaffron Asian Art & Society Series ISSN 1740-3103 | Series Editor Sajid RizviPrice GBP (£) 45.00

This lavishly illustrated volume is the first study in a Western language to examine Buddhist sculptures known as danzō (sandalwood images) and dangan (portable sandalwood shrines) in Japan from the 8th to 14th centuries, including Chinese examples from the 6th to 13th centuries, which were imported into Japan and played a major role in the establishment of an indigenous danzō tradition.

The author defines danzō as religious icons in terms of their material, form (iconography and style) and religious functions. This includes a careful examination of major issues in the study of danzō such as the transmission of danzō from India via China to Japan, the choice of substitute materials for sandalwood, carving technique, and danjiki (colour of sandalwood). Most importantly, this study proposes a new definition of the form of danzō based on the distinction between the type-style and period-style. Furthermore, it demonstrates how the aesthetic-religious concept of shōgon (sublime adornment), which is important to Buddhist art in general, is expressed in danzō, making them into objects of shōgon par excellence.

A wealth of textual evidence is presented to suggest that the two most common religious functions of danzō were as icons in ceremonies and for personal devotion for high-ranking monks, aristocrats, and members of the imperial family, which reflects the special sanctity and efficacy ascribed to these images. This book aims at a more inclusive understanding of danzō as religious icons with distinctive material, formal and functional characteristics that define them as a unique group of sacred images within Japanese Buddhist sculpture.

About the Author Christian Boehm received his BA, MA and PhD in Art and Archaeology from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London. He is an independent art historian and dealer specialising in East Asian Buddhist sculpture as well as Chinese and Korean ceramics.

Contents Acknowledgements 11; Introduction 13-16; Figures 17-79

Chapter One Materials of Danzō 81-106 | 1. Sandalwood and Danzō Carving in India and China 81 2. The Transmission of Danzō to Japan 85 3. Substitute Materials 89 4. Danjiki 97

Chapter Two Form and Functions of Danzō 107-130 | 1. The Meaning of the Term Shōgon 107 2. The Expression of Shōgon in Danzō 111 3. The Function of Danzō in Ceremonies and as Icons for Personal Devotion 116 4. The Function of Danzō as Honzon in Temple Halls and as Tainai Butsu 125

Chapter Three Dangan (Portable Sandalwood Shrines): Miniature Representations of Buddhist Worlds 131-170 | 1. Stūpa-shaped Dangan 138 2. Box-shaped Dangan 148 3. Temple Hall-shaped Dangan 162 4. Incense Container-shaped Boxes 164

Chapter Four Representations of Nyorai 171-186 | 1. Yakushi Nyorai 173 2. Miroku Nyorai 179 3. Shaka Nyorai 181 4. Dainichi Nyorai 182

Chapter Five Representations of Kannon 187-222 | 1. Jūichimen Kannon 190 2. Senju Kannon 207 3. Nyoirin Kannon 210 4. Shō Kannon 212 5. Fukūkensaku Kannon 217

Chapter Six Representations of Bosatsu and Tutelary Deities 223-240 | 1. Miroku Bosatsu 225 2. Monju Bosatsu 227 3. Jizō Bosatsu 229 4. Bonten and Taishakuten 231 5. Aizen Myōō 233 6. Bishamonten 236

Conclusion 241-242; Bibliography 243-252; Glossary Index 253-264

檀像の概念：８世紀から１４世紀の日本の仏像における白檀像クリスチャン　ボームISBN-13 9781872843186, 264pp, GBP (£) 45.00

本書は図版を豊富に用い、日本の８世紀から１４世紀において檀像 (白檀像) と檀龕(白檀製携帯用小厨子) として知られる仏像の、西洋言語における初めての研究である。このカテゴリーは、日本独自の檀像系譜の成立の上で、重要な役割を果たした６世紀から１３世紀の中国からの請来像も含むものである。

著者は檀像を、その素材、形式 (イコノグラフィーと様式)、および宗教的機能により、特殊な宗教的偶像として定義する。このことは、檀像のインドから中国を経ての日本への請来、白檀材に代わる代用材の選択、彫刻における特別なテクニック、そして「檀色」(白檀の色) の問題など、檀像を考察する上で重大な問題点を慎重かつ綿密に考察するものである。また最も重要なこととして、この研究は檀像の類型的様式と時代的様式の違いを明確にすることによって、新たな檀像形式の定義を提唱する。さらに、「荘厳」という仏教美術全般においても重要な宗教的かつ審美的概念が、いかに檀像において表現され、それによって檀像が荘厳を表現する媒体として特に優れたものとなっていることを論証する。

豊富な文献資料に基づき、檀像の最も一般的な宗教機能のひとつが儀式で使われる偶像としてであり、もうひとつは高位の僧、貴族、または皇族といった人達の個人的な念持仏としてであったということを提唱する。このことは、檀像が特殊な神聖さと利益を兼ね備えた尊像として見なされていたこと反映するものある。本書は檀像が、その特有の素材的、形式的、また機能的な特色により、日本の仏像の中でもユニークで一括した尊像のカテゴリーを形成するものであると定義し、檀像のより総括的な理解を意図

するものである。

著者紹介クリスチャン　ボームロンドン大学東洋アフリカ研究学院 (SOAS) 美術・考古学部博士課程終了。美術史家並びに東アジア仏教美術と中国・韓国陶磁器専門の古美術商。

目　次

謝辞 11; 序章 13-16; 図版 17-79

第一章：檀像の素材 81-106 | 1. 白檀材とインドと中国における檀像彫刻 81 2. 檀像の日本への請来 85 3. 代用材 89 4. ｢檀色｣ 97　

第二章：檀像の形式と機能 107-130 | 1. ｢荘厳｣という用語の意味 107 2. 檀像における荘厳の表現 111 3. 檀像の宗教儀式における機能と念持仏としての役割 116 4. 寺院の本尊または胎内仏としての檀像の機能 125

第三章：檀龕（白檀製携帯用小厨子）仏教世界の細密なる表現 131-170 | 1. 円筒形型檀龕 138 2. 箱仏型檀龕 148 3. 宮殿型檀龕 162 4. 香合仏型檀龕 164

第四章：如来形式の彫像 171-186 | 1. 薬師如来 173 2. 弥勒如来 179 3. 釈迦如来 181 4. 大日如来 182

第五章：観音形式の彫像 187-222 | 1. 十一面観音 190 2. 千手観音 207 3. 如意輪観音 210 4. 聖観音 212 5. 不空羂索観音 217

第六章：菩薩形式と眷属形式の彫像 223-240 | 1. 弥勒菩薩 225 2. 文殊菩薩 227 3. 地蔵菩薩 229 4. 梵天と帝釈天 231 5. 愛染明王 233 6. 毘沙門天 236

結論 241-242; 参考文献 243-252; 索引 253-264

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THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of

the 8th to 14th Centuries

Christian Boehm

THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th CenturiesChristian Boehm

ISBN-13 9781872843186 Hard cover

Saffron Asian Art & Society Series ISSN 1748-3103 Series Editor: Sajid Rizvi

Published by Saffron Books, EAP

EAPGROUP International Media

Cover created by Prizmatone Design Consultancy, a division of EAP

Cover image: Figure 36 (detail): Jūichimen Kannon. Tenpyō period, third quarter of 8th century. Sandalwood with kirikane, H: 42.8 cm. Nara National Museum. Courtesy of Nara National Museum. Photo: Morimura Kinji

Frontispiece: Figure 27 (detail): Yakushi Nyorai. Heian period, dated 1103. Made by Ensei and Chōen. Sandalwood with danjiki and kirikane, H of figure: 10.7 cm, overall H: 21.9 cm. Ninna-ji, Kyoto. Courtesy of Ninna-ji and Nara National Museum. Photo: Morimura Kinji

Acknowledgments: verso p10: Figure 44 (detail): Senju Kannon. Heian period, dated 1154. Sandalwood with danjiki and kirikane. H of figure: 31.5 cm, overall H: 69.1 cm. Bujō-ji, Kyoto. Courtesy of Bujō-ji and Nara National Museum. Photo: Morimura Kinji

Introduction: verso p12: Figure 7 (detail): Stūpa-shaped Portable Shrine (Triptych) known as makura honzon. Tang dynasty, last quarter of 7th century. Sandalwood, H: 23.1 cm. Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya, Wakayama Prefecture. Courtesy of Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya

Copyright © 2012. No part of this publication may be reproduced or used in any form (graphic, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping or information storage and retrieval systems) without permission of the publisher. Additional copyright information is available in Acknowledgements and with individual images used in this volume

The publication of this book has been made possible through the generous support of The Kajima Foundation for the Arts

Grateful acknowledgement to Andrew Glass for the Gāndhārī Unicode font for transliteration of Sanskrit and other languages

About Saffron Asian Art & Society Series

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� | THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries | �

Figure 24 (Detail) Incense Container-shaped Box. Kamakura period, second half of 13th century. Wood, D: 8.5 cm.

Tō-ji, Kyoto. Courtesy of Tō-ji and Nara National Museum. Photo: Morimura Kinji

� | THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

Acknowledgements 11

Introduction 13

Figures 17

Chapter OneMaterialsofDanzō 811. Sandalwood and Danzō Carving in India and China 812. The Transmission of Danzō to Japan 853. Substitute Materials 894. Danjiki 97

Chapter TwoFormandFunctionsofDanzō 1071. The Meaning of the Term Shōgon 1072. The Expression of Shōgon in Danzō 1113. The Function of Danzō in Ceremonies and as Icons for Personal Devotion 1164. The Function of Danzō as Honzon in Temple Halls and as Tainai Butsu 125

Chapter ThreeDangan(PortableSandalwoodShrines):MiniatureRepresentationsof BuddhistWorlds 131

1. Stūpa-shaped Dangan 138 2. Box-shaped Dangan 148 3. Temple Hall-shaped Dangan 162 4. Incense Container-shaped Boxes 164

Chapter Four RepresentationsofNyorai 171 1. Yakushi Nyorai 173 2. Miroku Nyorai 179 3. Shaka Nyorai 181 4. Dainichi Nyorai 182

Contents | �

Contents

Chapter FiveRepresentationsofKannon 187 1. Jūichimen Kannon 190 2. Senju Kannon 207 3. Nyoirin Kannon 210 4. Shō Kannon 212 5. Fukūkensaku Kannon 217

Chapter SixRepresentationsofBosatsuandTutelaryDeities 223 1. Miroku Bosatsu 225 2. Monju Bosatsu 227 3. Jizō Bosatsu 229 4. Bonten and Taishakuten 231 5. Aizen Myōō 233 6. Bishamonten 236

Conclusion 241 Bibliography 243GlossaryIndex 253

Acknowledgements | 11

Acknowledgements

This book is a revised version of my doctoral dissertation submitted to the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London, in 2005. I would like to thank Dr John T Carpenter for his kindness and support. Special thanks are due to Professor Helmut Brinker for reading the manuscript and providing many valuable suggestions.

In Japan, I am particularly grateful to Konno Toshifumi, Professor Emeritus of Keiō University, for answering my many questions. I would like to thank the temples and museums, the Nara National Museum in particular, for generously providing photographs and for allowing me to reproduce their precious images in this book. I also wish to thank Sajid Rizvi, publisher and editor of Saffron Books, for his trust in this work. I am most grateful to the Kajima Foundation for the Arts for their generous grant towards this publication.

I am greatly indebted to my parents-in-law, Yōzō and Emiko Shimoi, for helping me to visit many temples and museums in Japan and for their generosity in making this publication possible. Thanks to my parents for their support. Finally, I would like to thank my wife Keeko without whose constant encouragement and support this book would not have taken shape and to whom I am more indebted than words can express.

Christian Boehm

Introduction | 13

Introduction

Buddhist sculptures, although visually compelling, cannot merely be studied in aesthetic terms, since the original reason for their creation was to serve a religious function as icons for veneration and rituals. It is essential, therefore, to consider Buddhist sculptures not only in terms of their formal characteristics such as material, style and iconography, but to expand this view to include their function as religious icons and thus to examine them

in context.1 This approach represents a synthesis between the methodologies used by art historians, who often focus their analysis of Buddhist images on style and iconography, and scholars of religion, who are apt to study Buddhist images as symbols or representations of textual sources.2 Therefore, the definition of Buddhist sculptures as religious icons requires a detailed examination of their material, form (iconography and style) and religious function.3

This methodology is particularly appropriate when the subject of investigation is a category of religious images, danzō (檀像; sandalwood sculptures), that were believed to differ from other Buddhist images through their special degree of sanctity and efficacy. The concept and making of danzō, which originated in India and was introduced from China to Japan during the Nara period (710-794), can be traced back to two textual traditions: the Udayana Shaka legend recorded in the Ekottarāgama Sūtra (J: Zōitsu agon-kyō; 増一阿含経) and the Eleven-Headed Kannon Sūtra (Sk: Ekādaśamukha-dhāranī Sūtra; J: Jūichimen Kanzeon shinju-kyō; 十一面観世音神呪経).

The Udayana Shaka legend recounts how King Udayana of Kausambi commissioned a portrait sculpture of the historical Buddha Śākyamuni, which was made out of ox-head sandalwood (J: gozu sendan; 牛頭栴檀) and was five shaku in height, to keep him company during the historical Buddha’s absence.4 This legend illustrates the choice of sandalwood for the most sacred of images, a portrait sculpture of the historical Buddha Śākyamuni himself, and thus reflects the special sanctity of sandalwood as a material for particularly sacred images.

All four translations of the Eleven-Headed Kannon Sūtra, two of which were known in Japan by the 730s, stipulate that when making an image of this deity, only the finest quality of sandalwood (J: byakudan; 白檀) should be used.5 Yasogupta’s translation of 570 specifies that the sandalwood must be fine-grained and that the image must be one shaku and three sun in height.6 This illustrates the

14 | THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

choice of sandalwood as a material for the making of particularly sacred images of the Eleven-Headed Kannon and the restriction of their size to one shaku and three sun, which may have been partly due to the preciousness and natural limitations of the material.7

Apart from the two categories of danzō based on the Udayana Shaka legend and the Eleven-Headed Kannon Sūtra, there are two other categories of danzō, which at present, cannot be linked to a specific textual tradition: dangan (檀龕; sandalwood shrines), which are small portable shrines first brought from China to Japan by travelling monks, and wooden boards, mostly made from sandalwood, with Buddhist deities carved in relief (J: dan-inbutsu; 檀印仏), often representing mandalas.8 Out of these four categories of danzō, two form the subject of this book: free-standing danzō of small size, which derive from the textual tradition of the Eleven-Headed Kannon Sūtra but, as will be seen, are not iconographically restricted to representations of the Eleven-Headed Kannon and small portable shrines (dangan).

The reason for the exclusion of danzō of Udayana Shaka is that they represent an entirely separate phenomenon, in which a particular icon was at the centre of a cult. It was believed that by closely copying the original sculpture, the copy would be imbued with the spiritual power and efficacy of the original. It is therefore an example of the prime object-replication phenomenon as pointed out by Donald McCallum and similar to the cult and copying of the Zenkō-ji icon.9 Thus, danzō of Udayana Shaka will not be included in this study beyond the analogies that may be used for an understanding of the two categories of danzō considered here.

Another category of danzō that will not be included in this book is wooden boards incised with Buddhist deities in relief (dan-inbutsu), often representing mandalas. The reason for their exclusion is that their form is that of a relief rather than a sculpture, and that their function is that of ritual implements in ceremonies to stamp images in the air or on water and therefore should be considered in the context of ritual implements rather than cult images.10

The two categories of danzō that will be examined in this book, namely free-standing sculptures of small size derived from the Eleven-Headed Kannon Sūtra and small portable shrines (dangan), share many material and formal characteristics and, as will be demonstrated, their religious functions were also similar, which make it justifiable to study them as a single group. Therefore, the term danzō in this study refers to small, free-standing sculptures and dangan. In addition to Japanese examples from the eighth to the fourteenth century, when an indigenous danzō tradition flourished in Japan, I will examine Chinese examples from the sixth to the thirteenth century, which were imported into Japan and played a major role in the establishment of an indigenous danzō tradition.

Previous studies on danzō have mostly focused on issues concerning material or style, or a combination of the two. The work of Oka Naomi is mostly concerned with the stylistic development of danzō.11 Studies by Mōri Hisashi and Kuno Takeshi focus on issues of style and to some extent, material, while Donald Wood’s research concentrates on issues of style and material confined to danzō of the Eleven-Headed Kannon.12 Inoue Tadashi’s research on danzō focuses mostly on material and some stylistic issues.13 Recent studies by Suzuki Yoshihiro examine questions related to material and substitute materials of danzō.14 The work of Tazawa Yutaka, Inoue Katsutoshi and Samuel Morse has explored the role of imported Chinese and Japanese danzō of the eighth and early ninth centuries in the establishment of a plain-wood sculpture style in the early Heian period.15 The catalogue of the danzō exhibition, held at the Nara National Museum in 1991, attempts a broad overview of different types of danzō without providing a clear definition of the concept of danzō on which the selection of the sculptures may be based.16

While contributing a wealth of valuable material, none of these previous studies has provided a

Introduction | 15

systematic classification of danzō according to iconographic types, a definition of their form that can be applied to different iconographic types and period styles, an exploration of the expression of the vital element of shōgon (荘厳) in danzō, or an examination of their religious functions.

Regarding the definition of a danzō style by Japanese scholars—particularly Mōri Hisashi and Kuno Takeshi—Donald Wood in his research on danzō of Jūichimen Kannon has pointed out the shortcomings of their definition and argues ‘that artistically these pieces changed with the styles of the times, while technically the special features of wood sculptures that are manifest within them remained relatively constant. The establishment of a sandalwood style of sculpture is thus somewhat inconclusive.’17 While agreeing with Donald Wood’s conclusion, I will argue that the problem of a danzō style as defined by Japanese scholars lies in their failure to distinguish between the type-style, which remains constant and defines danzō as a coherent group, and the period-style, which changes over time and interacts with the type-style. Based on this distinction I will propose a definition of the type-style of danzō, which is applicable to danzō of different iconographic types and period styles.

Furthermore, I will demonstrate that the religious-aesthetic concept of shōgon (sublime adornment), which is important to Buddhist art in general, is of particular importance for danzō, since it deeply pervades and unites the two elements of material and form in the concept of danzō, making danzō into objects of shōgon par excellence. Moreover, I will examine textual and material evidence to establish the religious functions of danzō with special consideration of issues of patronage.

Therefore, the nature of this study is typological and systematic rather than historical and sequential. Chapters One and Two provide a definition of the three elements of material, form (iconography and style) and religious function that make up the concept of danzō. This represents the conceptual framework for the iconographical and stylistic analysis of danzō and dangan in Chapters Three to Six, which is vital for the dating of the images.

Chapter Three provides a classification of the different types of dangan, while Chapters Four to Six classify danzō according to iconographic types. The main reason for this structure is to explore the various iconographic types of deities that were represented as danzō and, by additionally drawing on textual sources, to examine how frequently specific iconographic types were represented as danzō. Furthermore, the classification according to iconographic types is suitable for a detailed examination of the expression of the vital element of shōgon according to iconographic types and period style, which is a major theme explored throughout Chapters Three to Six.

I hope that this book will lead to a deeper and more inclusive understanding of danzō as religious icons of special sanctity with distinctive material, formal and functional characteristics that define them as a unique category of religious images within Japanese Buddhist sculpture.

Notes1 For a detailed discussion of the vital importance of religious functions in Buddhist art, see Dietrich Seckel, Buddhist Art of East

Asia (Bellingham: Western Washington University, 1989), pp189-203.2 For a discussion of these two approaches to the study of Buddhist art and a synthesis between the two, see Robert H Sharf,

‘Prolegomenon to the Study of Buddhist Icons,’ in Japanese Buddhist Icons in Context, Robert H Sharf and Elizabeth Horton Sharf, eds (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001), pp1-18.

3 For a discussion of the iconological approach, applied to danzō in this study, see Erwin Panofsky, ‘Iconography and Iconology: An Introduction to the Study of Renaissance Art,’ in Erwin Panofsky, Meaning in the Visual Arts (London: Penguin Books 1993; reprint), pp51-81; particularly diagram, p66.

4 For a detailed account of this legend, see Alexander C Soper, Literary Evidence for Early Buddhist Art in China (Ascona: Artibus Asiae, 1959), pp259-265; Martha L Carter, The Mystery of the Udayana Buddha (Naples: Istituto Universitario Orientale, 1990); and Robert H Sharf, ‘The Scripture on the Production of Buddha Images,’ in Religions of China in Practice, Donald S Lopez Jr, ed (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996), pp262-263.

5 Xuanzang’s translation of the sūtra was recorded in the Heijō capital in 733 and Yasogupta’s in 738; Ishida Mosaku, Shakyō yori

1� | THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ: ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

mitaru Nara-chō bukkyō no kenkyū (Tokyo, 1930; reprint Tokyo: Hara shobō, 1982), p84 and p89.6 Mochizuki Shinkō, ed, Bukkyō daijiten, volume 3 (Tokyo: Bukkyō daijiten hakkōsho, 1936), pp2206-2207a. 7 One shaku is the equivalent of 30.303 centimetres; one sun is the equivalent of 3.030 centimetres. 8 For examples of dan-inbutsu, see Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, ed, Danzō: byakudanbutsu kara Nihon no mokuchō butsu e

(Nara: Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1991), plates 11-13, 15-18.9 For a study of this phenomenon based on the Seiryō-ji Shaka tradition, see Donald F McCallum, ‘The Saidai-ji Lineage of the

Seiryōji Shaka Tradition,’ Archives of Asian Art, volume 49 (1996), pp51-67; for a study of this phenomenon based on the Zenkō-ji icon, see Donald F McCallum, Zenkō-ji and Its Icon: A Study in Medieval Japanese Religious Art (Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1994).

10 For a detailed discussion of dan-inbutsu, see Tanabe Saburōsuke, ‘Kodai no Inbutsu ni tsuite,’ reprinted in Tanabe Saburōsuke chōkokushi ronshū: Nihon chōkoku to sono shūhen. (Tokyo: Bijutsu shuppan, 2001), pp424-456.

11 Oka Naomi, ‘Danzō yōshiki to sono shiteki hatten ni tsuite,’ Mikkyō Kenkyū, no 67 (1938), pp33-70. 12 Mōri Hisashi, ‘Heian jidai no danzō ni tsuite,’ reprinted in Nihon bukkyō chōkokushi no kenkyū (Kyoto: Hōzōkan, 1970), pp134-

145; Kuno Takeshi, ‘Danzō chōkoku no tenkai,’ Bukkyō geijutsu, no 43 (July 1960), pp31-55; Donald A Wood, ‘Eleven Faces of the Bodhisattva,’ PhD dissertation, University of Kansas, 1985.

13 Inoue Tadashi, ‘Danjiki no igi to Yōryu-ji Kannon bosatsu zō: danzōkei chōkoku no shosō 1,’ Gakusō, no 3 (1981), pp27-52; Inoue Tadashi, ‘Kanbodai-ji Jūichimen Kannon ryūzō ni tsuite: danzōkei chōkoku no shosō 2,’ Gakusō, no 5 (1983), pp13-40; Inoue Tadashi, Danzō, Nihon no bijutsu, no 253 (Tokyo: Shibundō, 1987).

14 Suzuki Yoshihiro, ‘Danzō no gainen to hakuboku no igi,’ in Nihon bijutsu zenshū, volume 5, Mikkyō jiin to chōkoku: Heian no kenchiku, chōkoku 1, Mizuno Keizaburō et al, eds (Tokyo: Kōdansha, 1992), pp169-178; and Suzuki Yoshihiro, ‘Hakubokuzō to danzō chōkoku,’ Bijutsushi, no 107 (November 1979), pp15-35.

15 Tazawa Yutaka, ‘Heianchō shoki ni okeru mokuzōchōkoku no kōryū ni kanshite,’ (jō), Bijutsu Kenkyū, no 128 (January 1943), pp1-7; Inoue Katsutoshi, ‘Danzōkō: Heian shoki chōkokushi e no joshō,’ Bunka shigaku, no 37 (November 1981), pp1-20; Samuel C Morse, ‘The Formation of the Plain-Wood Style and the Development of Japanese Buddhist Sculpture: 760-840,’ PhD dissertation, Harvard University, 1985, pp181-242 and pp299-312.

16 Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, ed, Danzō: byakudanbutsu kara Nihon no mokuchō butsu e (Nara: Nara kokuritsu hakubutsukan, 1991).

17 Wood, ‘Eleven Faces of the Bodhisattva,’ p359.

Figure 1 Section of a Portable Shrine (Diptych) with Two Scenes from the Life of Buddha

Pakistan, Gandhāra region, 5th - 6th century

Stone, H: 15.2 cmThe Metropolitan Museum of Art, Samuel

Eilenberg CollectionGift of Samuel Eilenberg, 1987 (1987.142.51)Photograph: Otto NelsonImage © The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Figures | 17

Figure 1 Section of a Portable Shrine (Diptych) with Two Scenes from the Life of the Buddha

Pakistan, Gandhāra region, 5th - 6th centuryStone, H: 15.2 cmThe Metropolitan Museum of Art, Samuel Eilenberg Collection, Gift of Samuel Eilenberg, 1987 (1987.142.51)Photograph: Otto Nelson. Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art


Figure 2 Section of a Portable Shrine (Triptych) with Scenes from the Life of the Buddha

Pakistan, Gandhāra region, 5th - 6th centuryStone with the remains of metal pins, H: 11.4 cmThe Metropolitan Museum of ArtGift of The Kronos Collection, in honour of Samuel Eilenberg, 1994 (1994.489)Image © The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Figures | 19

Figure 3 Panel of a Portable Shrine (Triptych) with Scenes from the Jātaka Stories

Excavated at Ming-oi, near Karashahr, 5th - 6th century

Wood with traces of pigment, H: 28.2 cmThe British Museum, London, OA MAS 1000

(Mi.ix.001)© The Trustees of the British Museum

Figure 4 Panel of a Portable Shrine (Triptych) with Buddha

Said to have been found at Khocho, 6th century

Wood (juniper), H: 36.2 cmThe Metropolitan Museum

of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1929 (29.19)

Photograph © 1995 The Metropolitan Museum of Art

Figures | 21

Figure 5 Panel of a Portable Shrine (Triptych) with Buddha

Excavated at Duldur-Aqur, Kucha, 6th - 7th centuryWood, H: 26 cmMusée National des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris (EO1107)Photo: RMN/ © Thierry Ollivier


Figure 6 Portable Shrine (Diptych) with Buddha and Bodhisattva Avalokiteśvara

Said to have been found at the Mogao Caves, Dunhuang, 7th centuryWood with traces of pigment, H: 18.5 cmMusée National des Arts Asiatiques-Guimet, Paris (EO1110)Photo: RMN/ © Richard Lambert

Figures | 23


Figure 7 Stūpa-shaped Portable Shrine (Triptych) known as makura honzon

Tang dynasty, last quarter of 7th century Sandalwood, H: 23.1 cm. Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya, Wakayama PrefectureCourtesy of Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya

Figures | 25


Figure 8 Stūpa-shaped Portable Shrine (Triptych)

Tang dynasty, first half of 8th century Sandalwood, H: 13.9 cmSonggwang-sa, Suncheon, Korea Courtesy of Songgwang-sa

Figures | 27



Tang dynasty, second quarter of 8th century

Sandalwood, H: 11 cmPrivate Collection, Mie PrefectureCourtesy of Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Figures | 29


Jin or Southern Song dynasty, 13th centurySandalwood, H: 20.9 cm Chion-in, KyotoCourtesy of Chion-in and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji


Figure 11 Box-shaped Portable Shrine

Tang dynasty, first quarter of 8th centurySandalwood, H: 19.3 cmFumon-in, Wakayama PrefectureCourtesy of Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya

Figures | 31

Figure 12 Box-shaped Portable Shrine (Triptych)

Tang dynasty, third quarter of 8th centurySandalwood, H: 22 cmItsukushima Jinja, Hiroshima PrefectureCourtesy of Itsukushima Jinja and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Figures | 33


Five Dynasties or Northern Song dynasty, 10th centurySandalwood with kirikane and inserted glass beads, H: 18.2 cmHōon-ji, KyotoCourtesy of Hōon-ji and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji


Figure 14 Panel of a Portable Shrine (Diptych)

Heian period, early 10th centurySandalwood, H: 8.4 cm, W: 7.6 cmKomatsu-dera, Ibaraki PrefectureCourtesy of Komatsu-dera and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Figures | 35


Heian period, first half of 11th centurySandalwood, H: 7.3 cm, W: 8.2 cmEishō-ji, Kanagawa PrefectureCourtesy of Eishō-ji and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji



Heian period, late 11th to first half of 12th centurySandalwood with kirikane, H: 15 cm, W: 12.8 cmKōsan-ji, Hiroshima PrefectureCourtesy of Kōsan-ji and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Figures | 37


Heian period, second quarter of 12th centurySandalwood, H: 15 cm, W: 10.4 cmShitennō-ji, OsakaCourtesy of Shitennō-ji and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Figures | 39


Kamakura period, second half of 13th centuryWood with kirikane, H: 14 cmHenmyō-in, Wakayama PrefectureCourtesy of Kongōbu-ji, Mount Kōya



Kamakura to Nanbokuchō period, first half of 14th centurySandalwood, H: 8.6 cmHōzō-in, Yamagata PrefectureCourtesy of Hōzō-in and Nara National MuseumPhoto: Morimura Kinji

Order online at www.saffronbooksandart.net

THE CONCEPT OF DANZŌ‘Sandalwood Images’ in Japanese Buddhist Sculpture of the 8th to 14th Centuries

Christian Boehm

ISBN-13 9781872843186, 264pphard cover, 287mm x 210mm, 165 colour and black and white illustrationsSaffron Asian Art & Society Series ISSN 1740-3103 | Series Editor Sajid RizviPrice GBP (£) 45.00

This lavishly illustrated volume is the first study in a Western language to examine Buddhist sculptures known as danzō (sandalwood images) and dangan (portable sandalwood shrines) in Japan from the 8th to 14th centuries, including Chinese examples from the 6th to 13th centuries, which were imported into Japan and played a major role in the establishment of an indigenous danzō tradition.

The author defines danzō as religious icons in terms of their material, form (iconography and style) and religious functions. This includes a careful examination of major issues in the study of danzō such as the transmission of danzō from India via China to Japan, the choice of substitute materials for sandalwood, carving technique, and danjiki (colour of sandalwood). Most importantly, this study proposes a new definition of the form of danzō based on the distinction between the type-style and period-style. Furthermore, it demonstrates how the aesthetic-religious concept of shōgon (sublime adornment), which is important to Buddhist art in general, is expressed in danzō, making them into objects of shōgon par excellence.

A wealth of textual evidence is presented to suggest that the two most common religious functions of danzō were as icons in ceremonies and for personal devotion for high-ranking monks, aristocrats, and members of the imperial family, which reflects the special sanctity and efficacy ascribed to these images. This book aims at a more inclusive understanding of danzō as religious icons with distinctive material, formal and functional characteristics that define them as a unique group of sacred images within Japanese Buddhist sculpture.

About the Author Christian Boehm received his BA, MA and PhD in Art and Archaeology from the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London. He is an independent art historian and dealer specialising in East Asian Buddhist sculpture as well as Chinese and Korean ceramics.

Contents Acknowledgements 11; Introduction 13-16; Figures 17-79

Chapter One Materials of Danzō 81-106 | 1. Sandalwood and Danzō Carving in India and China 81 2. The Transmission of Danzō to Japan 85 3. Substitute Materials 89 4. Danjiki 97

Chapter Two Form and Functions of Danzō 107-130 | 1. The Meaning of the Term Shōgon 107 2. The Expression of Shōgon in Danzō 111 3. The Function of Danzō in Ceremonies and as Icons for Personal Devotion 116 4. The Function of Danzō as Honzon in Temple Halls and as Tainai Butsu 125

Chapter Three Dangan (Portable Sandalwood Shrines): Miniature Representations of Buddhist Worlds 131-170 | 1. Stūpa-shaped Dangan 138 2. Box-shaped Dangan 148 3. Temple Hall-shaped Dangan 162 4. Incense Container-shaped Boxes 164

Chapter Four Representations of Nyorai 171-186 | 1. Yakushi Nyorai 173 2. Miroku Nyorai 179 3. Shaka Nyorai 181 4. Dainichi Nyorai 182

Chapter Five Representations of Kannon 187-222 | 1. Jūichimen Kannon 190 2. Senju Kannon 207 3. Nyoirin Kannon 210 4. Shō Kannon 212 5. Fukūkensaku Kannon 217

Chapter Six Representations of Bosatsu and Tutelary Deities 223-240 | 1. Miroku Bosatsu 225 2. Monju Bosatsu 227 3. Jizō Bosatsu 229 4. Bonten and Taishakuten 231 5. Aizen Myōō 233 6. Bishamonten 236

Conclusion 241-242; Bibliography 243-252; Glossary Index 253-264

檀像の概念：８世紀から１４世紀の日本の仏像における白檀像クリスチャン　ボームISBN-13 9781872843186, 264pp, GBP (£) 45.00

本書は図版を豊富に用い、日本の８世紀から１４世紀において檀像 (白檀像) と檀龕(白檀製携帯用小厨子) として知られる仏像の、西洋言語における初めての研究である。このカテゴリーは、日本独自の檀像系譜の成立の上で、重要な役割を果たした６世紀から１３世紀の中国からの請来像も含むものである。

著者は檀像を、その素材、形式 (イコノグラフィーと様式)、および宗教的機能により、特殊な宗教的偶像として定義する。このことは、檀像のインドから中国を経ての日本への請来、白檀材に代わる代用材の選択、彫刻における特別なテクニック、そして「檀色」(白檀の色) の問題など、檀像を考察する上で重大な問題点を慎重かつ綿密に考察するものである。また最も重要なこととして、この研究は檀像の類型的様式と時代的様式の違いを明確にすることによって、新たな檀像形式の定義を提唱する。さらに、「荘厳」という仏教美術全般においても重要な宗教的かつ審美的概念が、いかに檀像において表現され、それによって檀像が荘厳を表現する媒体として特に優れたものとなっていることを論証する。

豊富な文献資料に基づき、檀像の最も一般的な宗教機能のひとつが儀式で使われる偶像としてであり、もうひとつは高位の僧、貴族、または皇族といった人達の個人的な念持仏としてであったということを提唱する。このことは、檀像が特殊な神聖さと利益を兼ね備えた尊像として見なされていたこと反映するものある。本書は檀像が、その特有の素材的、形式的、また機能的な特色により、日本の仏像の中でもユニークで一括した尊像のカテゴリーを形成するものであると定義し、檀像のより総括的な理解を意図

するものである。

著者紹介クリスチャン　ボームロンドン大学東洋アフリカ研究学院 (SOAS) 美術・考古学部博士課程終了。美術史家並びに東アジア仏教美術と中国・韓国陶磁器専門の古美術商。

目　次

謝辞 11; 序章 13-16; 図版 17-79

第一章：檀像の素材 81-106 | 1. 白檀材とインドと中国における檀像彫刻 81 2. 檀像の日本への請来 85 3. 代用材 89 4. ｢檀色｣ 97　

第二章：檀像の形式と機能 107-130 | 1. ｢荘厳｣という用語の意味 107 2. 檀像における荘厳の表現 111 3. 檀像の宗教儀式における機能と念持仏としての役割 116 4. 寺院の本尊または胎内仏としての檀像の機能 125

第三章：檀龕（白檀製携帯用小厨子）仏教世界の細密なる表現 131-170 | 1. 円筒形型檀龕 138 2. 箱仏型檀龕 148 3. 宮殿型檀龕 162 4. 香合仏型檀龕 164

第四章：如来形式の彫像 171-186 | 1. 薬師如来 173 2. 弥勒如来 179 3. 釈迦如来 181 4. 大日如来 182

第五章：観音形式の彫像 187-222 | 1. 十一面観音 190 2. 千手観音 207 3. 如意輪観音 210 4. 聖観音 212 5. 不空羂索観音 217

第六章：菩薩形式と眷属形式の彫像 223-240 | 1. 弥勒菩薩 225 2. 文殊菩薩 227 3. 地蔵菩薩 229 4. 梵天と帝釈天 231 5. 愛染明王 233 6. 毘沙門天 236

結論 241-242; 参考文献 243-252; 索引 253-264

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