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Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

Reconstruction of the inventory of materia medica used by membersof the Jewish community of medieval Cairo according to prescriptions

found in the Taylor–Schechter Genizah collection, Cambridge

Efraim Lev a,∗, Zohar Amar b,1

a Department of Eretz Israel Studies and School of Public Health, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israelb Department of Land of Israel Studies and Archeology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel

Received 13 March 2006; received in revised form 30 May 2006; accepted 6 June 2006Available online 27 June 2006

bstract

The Taylor–Schechter (T–S) collection at Cambridge University Library is the biggest of all Cairo Genizah collections in the world. Themportance and the potential of research into the medical aspects of the Genizah documents were clear to researcher since the early 1960s. A feworks have been published since, usually focusing on one subject, or even important single manuscripts. The current research concerned mainlyith one aspect of the history of medicine of the Jewish community of Cairo (as a reflection of Eastern medieval societies), namely the practicalses of natural substances for medicine. The most interesting and original information is undoubtedly to be found in the 141 prescriptions, as theyeflect the medical reality that actually existed. And indeed, 242 substances were recorded in the prescriptions identified: 195 substances of plants
rigin (80.6%), 27 inorganic materials (11.2%) and 20 substances of animal origin (8.2%) were recorded as being in practical used for medicinalurposes. The most frequently mentioned substances were the rose, myrobalan, sugar, almonds, and endive. The most prevalent ailments: eyeiseases, headache, constipations (purgative), cough, skin diseases, stomach, fever, gynaecological problems, haemorrhoids, liver ailments, lice,wellings, dental trouble, ulcers, and problems of the urinary tract.
2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

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eywords: Genizah; Cairo; Jewish community; Materia medica; Prescription;

. Introduction

A 1000 years ago, one of the most important centres of Jewryhe world over, and particularly in the East, was the communityf old Cairo (Fustat). This community had close connectionsith the Jewish communities of Iraq, al-Sham (Israel and Syria),pain, Sicily, North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia),ndia, Yemen, and others. The Fustat community was a cen-re of considerable social, economic, and religious activity. Thealestinian Jews of Fustat worshipped in the Ben Ezra syna-
ogue and it was one of the rooms in their synagogue whichas utilized as a “Genizah”, or depository, from about the 10th
o the 19th Century. In accordance with Jewish religious prac-

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +972 4 8240949; fax: +972 4 8240959.E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]

E. Lev), [email protected] (Z. Amar).1 Tel.: +972 8 9241986.

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378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.06.005

pharmacology; Mediterranean; Medieval

ice, sacred books which were no longer to be used were notdly discarded, but were committed to such a Genizah or buried.he community in Fustat made full use of the first option andeposited not only sacred works such as the Bible and rabbiniciterature and liturgies, but also sectarian literature, palimpsests,esponsa, poetry, and documents of all kinds. In fact, almostvery piece of writings that passed through its members’ hands,n vellum or paper, printed or manuscript, early or late, schol-rly research or children’s reading exercises, was consigned tohe Genizah. The extraordinary circumstance of its preservationor this long period against the ravages of time and decay wasue to the exceptionally dry climate of Egypt.

By the 19th Century the fragments slowly begun to reachhe hands of private collectors, and soon after that different aca-emic institutes and libraries assembled their own collections
Richler, 1994; Reif, 2000). The main collections are as fol-ows: Cambridge University Library (150,000 items), the Johnylands University Library in Manchester (10,000, mostly small
craps), the Saltykov-Schedrin Public Library in Leningrad

mailto:[email protected]



dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2006.06.005

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1200 and thousands in the Firkovich collection), the Bodleianibrary in Oxford (5000), the British Library (5000), the Mosseriamily collection (4000), and other small collections in ParisAIU] Cambridge, [Westminster College], Strasbourg [Bib-iotheque nationale et universitaire], Budapest [Academy of Sci-nce], Philadelphia [Annenberg Research Institute], JerusalemJNUL], Cincinnati [HUC], Vienna, Washington, Birmingham,rankfort and Berlin (Richler, 1994).

The Taylor–Schechter (T–S) Genizah collection at Cam-ridge University Library owes its existence to Dr. Solomonchechter (1847–1915) and Dr. Charles Taylor (1840–1908).hey were responsible for recovering the majority of Genizahanuscripts from Cairo in 1896. The collection was offered to

he Cambridge University Library Syndicate with certain con-itions in 1898.

. History of research

The Genizah’s many collections have been studied ever sinceReif, 2000). Individual fragments have been published, cata-ogues written (Helper, 1924; Gottheil and Worrell, 1927; Davis,978/1980/2003; Reif, 1988; Jefferson and Hunter, 2004), anduch research focusing on a wide variety of matters has yieldedwealth of articles and books. Among the main fields that haveeen studied are various religious and biblical subjects, Jewishaw, education, poetry, social life, trade, and communal organi-ation.

Medical issues in the Genizah have been studied only as partf other subjects such as the different professional classes ofhe Jewish community in old Cairo. A number of scholars haveealt with this subject-matter, such as Goitein (Goitein, 1963,967–1988), Dietrich (Dietrich, 1954), Cohen (Cohen, 1993),nd especially Isaacs (Isaacs, 1979–1980).

On the importance and the potential of research into the medi-al aspects of the Genizah documents Goitein wrote in 1971 thatthese prescriptions have to be examined by experts in the historyf medicine” (Goitein, 1967–1988). Fenton in 1980 underlinedhe same need for focused research: the Genizah fragments,although of considerable interest for the history of medicine,ave received relatively little attention” (Fenton, 1980). A feworks have been published since, usually focusing on one sub-

ect (Dvorjetski, 1990), or even important single manuscriptshich were studied in detail, for example, by Baker (Baker,996) and by Isaacs (Isaacs, 1991).

In addition, the medical profession has been studied in worksn the Genizah in general, and on the life of the Jewish commu-ities and societies in the Mediterranean (Goitein, 1967–1988).edicine as a subject in the Genizah has been given due atten-

ion only in the last few years, with the publication of a cataloguef medical and para-medical manuscripts in the Cambridgeenizah collection by Isaacs and Baker (Isaacs, 1994). Shortescriptions are given of 1616 fragments, about one quarterf which concern materia medica. However, the book hardly
iscusses or analyses the evidence. The compilers close theirntroduction to the catalogue as follows: “Much more could beaid of the Genizah medical material, but enough basic infor-ation has been provided to encourage future scholars with an
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rmacology 108 (2006) 428–444 429

nterest in such matters to pursue further investigation” (Isaacs,994). Recent catalogues (Baker and Polliack, 2001; Shivtielnd Niessen, 2006) and further research on the T–S collectionave provided information on more than 180 fragments referringo medicine in general and materia medica in particular (Lev andhipman, in press).

In keeping with the above, this article attempts to contribute tohe reconstruction of the inventory of practical materia medica in

edieval Cairo according to dozens of prescriptions. This matterill help to give us a better picture and a wider perspective of theaily practical medicine of the Genizah people, as a reflectionf Eastern medieval societies.

Our research project is based mainly on the T–S Genizah col-ection at Cambridge. All other collections are much smaller andome have not yet been catalogued. To date, no specialist cata-ogue of medical materials in the other Genizah collections haseen published. A survey of the collections at the British Library,t the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and at the Hebrew Universityn Jerusalem shows that these contain very few Genizah frag-

ents relating to medicine, in most cases parts of books (Leveent al., 1996).

.1. Jewish medicine and practitioners in medieval Cairoccording to the Genizah

The literature on medicine in medieval Muslim countries ineneral (Campbell, 1926; Hermann, 1936–1937; Arnold anduillaume, 1965; Levey, 1973; Ullmann, 1978; Conrad, 1993;avage-Smith, 1996) and in Egypt (Dols, 1984), particularly

s vast however it mainly discusses theory, not practice. Manyedieval Egyptian Jews chose the medical profession for a wide

ange of reasons.So far, sifting through Genizah fragments as part of an ongo-

ng long-term project (Lev, 2004) has yielded the names of morehan 50 physicians. That a large number of Jews engaged inhe medical profession in Egypt and other Muslim territoriesmerges from other historical sources as well, mainly the booksy medieval biographers and historians of medicine such asbn Abi Usaybia and Ibn al-Qifti (Ibn al-Qifti, 1903; Ibn Abisaybia, 1965). This writer’s mentions more than 15 Jewishractitioner he met or knew of in Cairo in his time and before.f several explanations for this phenomenon, Goitein’s is still

onvincing and relevant, based as it is on his deep knowledge andnderstanding of medieval Mediterranean society, particularlyts Jewish sector.

The gap between the numbers of Jewish physicians men-ioned in the historiographic literature and in the Genizah docu-

ents emphasises the importance and advantages of the Genizahs a primary source.

Goitein explains the phenomenon of Jewish predominancen medicine not as the continuation of the pre-Islamic tradi-ion but as a contemporary development owing to the revival ofhe Greek sciences in Islam on the one hand and the efflores-
ence of trade with India and the Far East on the other. In hispinion medicine and pharmaceutics then experienced unprece-ented exuberance and became almost new professions (Goitein,967–1988).

4 opharmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

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Most of the 50 Jewish physicians found to date in the frag-ents lived and practised medicine in Cairo, with a few inlexandria and other smaller cities in Egypt, between the 11th

nd the 13th Century. Their titles (all signifying ‘doctor’),ccording to the Genizah fragments, were al-mutatabbib, al-abib, ha-rofe, and hakim. For some of them we even have infor-ation on their specialization: eye doctors, a wound specialist,

nd a physician who worked in a hospital. The Genizah recordsonstitute historical evidence supporting Maimonides’ accountf the great number of physicians in Cairo in two instances: onehere he criticizes the number of physicians who were treatingne patient: “in some cases a patient was healed of one ailmenty ten physicians” (Maimonides, 1963).

. Research description and methods

Anyone wishing to study and assess realistically the medicalspects of Mediterranean society in the Middle Ages has nohoice but to check authentic, practical knowledge, mainly thathich can be extracted from the prescriptions found in the Cairoenizah. Such information uniquely and exclusively enables usroperly to understand practical medicine in that period.

This article is concerned mainly with one aspect of the historyf medicine of the Jewish community of Cairo (as a reflec-ion of Eastern medieval societies), namely the practical usesf natural substances for medicine. Sources for such study ofmedieval community are extremely rare since all records of

ractical medicine naturally vanish over the years.

.1. Medical treatment

Medical treatment usually began with a patient visiting ahysician in his clinic, continued with the latter writing a pre-cription, which was subsequently put to use by the preparationf the formula by a pharmacist at his pharmacy. In other caseshe physician saw patients in a rented room at the back of theharmacy (Isaacs, 1994). The prescription stage is usually miss-ng from historical records for various reasons: in some caseshe physician made up the formula himself so no prescriptionxisted, but in most cases there was presumably no reason toeep the prescriptions, and they were torn up or thrown away.

These circumstances have enabled us, to date, to trace 141rescriptions among other documents. We consider the pre-criptions clear-cut evidence of the use of these substances foredicinal purposes and an important element of medical knowl-

dge in its practical form.

.2. Prescription

The most important and interesting information is undoubt-dly to be found in the prescriptions, as they reflect the medicaleality that actually existed. A unique aspect of the informationhat emerges from the prescriptions is their originality.

In most cases they are written in Arabic script (92) and Arabicritten in Hebrew script (Judaeo-Arabic) (47), the most widelysed languages and dialects in the daily life of medieval CairoFig. 1). Very rarely Hebrew (1) or Judaeo-Persian (1) is found.

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Fig. 1. Prescription for a recipe written in Judaeo-Arabic (T–S K 25.212).

n a few cases the prescription is written in Judaeo-Arabic buthe benedictions that open and close it are written in Arabiccript. A few prescriptions were copied identically, others withlight changes, from famous books such as Minhaj al-dukkanKohen al-Attar al-Israili, 1940) or Dustur al-Bimaristani (Ibnbi-al-Bayan and al-Dustur al-Bimaristani, 1932–1933).Most of the prescriptions were written on one page, usually

n one side of sheet of paper (very rarely vellum). Often pre-criptions were written on reused paper (at times in the marginr in between the lines of other documents or even books).

Prescriptions can also teach us about the prevailing diseasesnd their symptoms that members of the community actually suf-ered from. Unfortunately, in most cases neither the symptomsor the patient’s name appear on the prescription. Still, analyz-ng the prescriptions and some of the notebooks with the helpf contemporary pharmacopoeias shows that eye diseases werehe most prevalent ailments. The many dozen of fragments con-erned with ophthalmology from many different medical booksealing with eye diseases are more evidence of this (Isaacs,
994). Other ailments were skin diseases, headaches, fevers,nternal diseases (liver), intestinal problems, and hemorrhoids,s well as many others such as urinary trouble, ulcers, swellings,ough, and gynaecological illnesses.

E. Lev, Z. Amar / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (2006) 428–444 431

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timus to the highest or most satisfactory level of identification, isthe continuous and reliable “tradition of identification”. Manysubstances that appear in the texts are used today (with the samenames) for medical purposes by various ethnic groups. Records

Table 1Drugs recorded in the Genizah prescriptions

Origin Number %

Fig. 2. Prescription for a recipe

.3. Identification of medieval materia medica

Identification of drugs mentioned in medieval sources ineneral and in Genizah fragments in particular is one of theost problematic and complex issues in the field of history ofedicine and pharmacology. First, the texts are casual and dealith the daily life of the Genizah people (medicine, trade, pri-ate letters) and not literary, so the writing is not bound by thefficial or accepted rules of orthography (Fig. 2). Occasionallyhe texts were written by people not skilled or trained as scribes,ence the barely legible scrawl. Even when it is possible to readhe content, the medical terms (mainly names of drugs) are mis-pelled, therefore harder to decipher and identify.

Moreover, identifying this material was and remains prob-ematic, even in the professional medical literature. It sprangrom the wide and diverse sources of the substances right acrosshe Old World, from India to Spain. Each substance, regardlessf origin – animal, plant, inorganic, or some kind of combina-ion – had different names in different languages, according tots geographic origin or ethnic background. Maimonides him-elf testifies to this situation: “For a single remedy may carryeveral names by the representatives of the same language, as aonsequence of a coincidence in naming or a difference in therigin of the terminology by the inhabitants of various regions”Maimonides, 1995).

This was undoubtedly an impossible situation, intolerable forerchants, traders, and medical practitioners, and dangerous for

atients. To prevent confusion, traders as well as physicians andharmacists had to use lists of synonyms, dictionaries, and otherinds of aids, which were crucial for mutual understanding andnsuring that they obtained the correct substances. We knowf dozens of such works (Maimonides, 1995). These works listrugs’ names in various languages and dialects: Syrian, Latin,reek, Persian, standard Arabic, Berber, Spanish, Sanskrit, andore. The authors of such dictionaries include some members of

he Andalusian school such as Jonah Ibn Ganah (Amar and Serri,000–2001), Ibn Biklarish (Amar and Serri, 2001), MaimonidesMeyerhof, 1935; Levey, 1973), and al-Idrisi (al-Idrisi, 1974),
ho exceptionally introduced many Hebrew words (Amar anderri, 2005).
Another problematic issue in the identification of drugs inhe Genizah and other medieval sources is their systematic cate-

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en in Arabic (T–S Ar 39.274).

orization. The medieval classification method (systematis) wasifferent from our scientific classification. The medieval systemended to classify plants and animals in larger groups accordingo external morphological characters, with no consideration ofenetic proximity or anatomical similarity as is the case today.herefore, the existence of a collective (general) name for aroup of several similar species was common. Here, are somexamples of this feature:

. Fudanj: collective name for various species of aromaticplants, namely of the family Labiatae (Maimonides, 1940).

. Zaj: collective name for salts of sulphuric acid (verdigris,vitriol) compounded with various metals such as iron, copper,lead, and zinc (Maimonides, 1940; Amar and Serri, 2004).

. Awsaj: collective name for spiny bush species such as box-thorn, buckthorn (Lycium sp.), (Rhamnus sp.), and bramble.

Controversy over the exact name and the precise identifica-ion of some of these substances and others started in the Middleges, as stated by (Maimonides, 1940). In our work, on accountf the uncertainty we have bundled such similar substances inne entry under a general (collective) name, even though theyould be different species or kinds (identified by us in mostases).

In general the identification was accomplished by analysis ofhe text and the context, and by comparison with medieval med-cal literature, namely dictionaries of names of materia medica

entioned earlier. Yet the most important criterion, which took

lants 195 80.6norganics 27 11.2nimals 20 8.2

otal 242 100

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or such uses in Egypt in the recent past and in present-day mar-ets were taken by some scholars, mainly Meyerhof (Meyerhof,918), Ducros (Ducros, 1930), and others (Ahmed et al., 1979).or the purpose of identification we also used botanical dic-

ionaries such as that of Issa (Issa Bey, 1930) and BedevianBedevian, 1936).

. Findings

The most important information emerging from the prescrip-ions is the drugs in them: 242 substances were recorded in therescriptions identified (Table 1).

The detailed information is presented in Table 2(A–C) sortedccording to their origin, i.e. plants, inorganic substances andnimals. The substances are displayed according to the alpha-etical order of their common names. The scientific names asdentified by the authors of this article (animals and plants) andhemical formulas (inorganic substances) are also presentedlong with the total number of times the substance was men-ioned in prescriptions and the practical medical uses found inenizah prescription (“None” appears encase no medical usesere mentioned in any prescription).

. Discussion

Previous researches show that the reconstructed inventorys clearly of the usual size, as are its subdivisions accordingo substance origin. These subdivisions are treated in the nextection, giving the figures and the history of the medicinal usesf each group (plant, inorganic, and animal origin).

.1. Drugs of plants origin

Plants have been used as drugs since prehistoric timesPalevitch, 1978; Yaniv, 1982). Various sources describe the usef natural substances for healing in ancient civilizations. Fromhese we learn that plants were the main source for the concoc-ion of remedies. Here, we describe few milestones along theoute.

Ancient Chinese medical books (Read and Pak, 1936) (thirdillennium b.c.) contains thousands of medical prescriptions

Gordon, 1949; Kremers and Urdang, 1976), most of them oflant origin and based on well-known plants such as cannabisnd rhubarb. In Egypt the Ebers Papyrus yielded 877 medicinesnd prescriptions, mostly of plant origin such as aloe, barleybeer), castor (oil), cedar, centaury, cumin, elder, fennel, fig,ax, frankincense, garlic, grapevine (wine and vinegar), hen-ane, juniper, lentisk, mandrake, myrrh, olive (oil), onion, poppyeed, saffron, tarragon, and yeast (Bryan, 1930; Estes, 1989;tetter, 1990; Nunn, 1996).

The great majority of drugs mentioned in other sources fromntiquity, such as the Bible, were also from the plant world (Low,924–1934; Moldenke and Moldenke, 1952; Zayyda, 1956;
eldman, 1957; Ulman, 1960a,b; Harrison, 1966; Hamarneh,973; Feliks, 1976; Shoshan, 1979; Duke, 1983; Palmer, 1986;reuss, 1992; Rosner, 1994). Scholars have identified 25–30lants in the Bible that served as remedies (Amar, 1996). Among
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rmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

he more important plants are colocynth, marjoram, balsam,nion, mandrake, cumin, prickly saltwort (Salsola kali), blackumin, and fig (Ulman, 1960a,b; Jacob and Jacob, 1993). Inesopotamia, medical sources in documents discovered in Nip-

ur (21st Centuary b.c.) mention the following: cassia, date,ogwood, fig, giant fennel, myrtle, pear, prickly saltwort andillow. The Code of Hammurabi, king of Babylon (18th Cen-

uary b.c.), contains descriptions of the use of medicinal plantsuch as cassia, henbane, liquorice, and mint (Yaniv, 1982). Theoyal library of Ashurbanipal (7th Centuary b.c.) (Thompson,923) has references to about 250 kinds of plants, including iris,leander, olive (oil), jasmin, cassia, mint, cinnamon, liquorice,ennel, henbane, and barley (beer) (Hakim, 1970).

The Greek Hippocrates (5th Century b.c.) mentions about00 drugs, most of them (91%) being plants (Riddle, 1987).heophrastus (3rd Century b.c.), who dedicated his life to plant

esearch, wrote many books in which he prominently describesedicinal plants. The most important of his works is The His-

ory of Plants (Theophrastus, 1990) in which more than 500edications are listed (Kremers and Urdang, 1976). During his

ravels Dioscorides (1st Century a.d.), who was a physician inero’s army, collected many plant specimens and examined

heir medicinal virtues. His famous work De Materia MedicaGunther, 1959) describes more than 600 kinds of plants, amonghich are acacia, aconite, almond, aloe, balsam, buckthorn,

umin, dill, grapevine (vinegar and wine), liquorice, mandrake,int, olive (oil), poppy seed, rose (oil), and tarragon. Pliny thelder, a contemporary of Dioscorides, is the author of Historiaaturalis (Pliny, 1992), 8 of whose 37 volumes treat medicinallants. The original source of some of these substances indicatedy physicians of the classical world is the Middle East; amonghem are persimmon (balsam) grown in Judea, elephant’s ear,ennel and tamarisk found in abundance in Syria, onion andenna from Ashkelon, and storax ointment produced in SyriaAmar, 1996).

The scholar Immanuel Low lists about 400 kinds of plantsentioned in the Talmud (Low, 1924–1934; Perelman, 1926),

0 of which are defined as medicinal plants. Among the medic-nal plants mentioned by the Jewish Sages are asparagus, blackumin, cabbage, cumin, dodder, garlic, grapevine (wine andinegar), lavender, leek, marrow (squash), olive (oil), onion,epper, pine gum (resin), radish, rose (oil), and watercress. Theedical tradition formulated during the Islamic period indicates

he use of plants such as black cumin, cedar, citron, date (bothruit and kernel), eggplant, fig, garlic, henna, onion, rice, andatermelon (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, 1998).Opening new trading routes and widening the range of oppor-

unities were only some important advantages that emergedrom the Islamic conquest. The Muslim rulers took advantage ofhe fact that various cultures existed under their regimes. Theyransferred cheap manpower, technical knowledge, agriculturalechnologies and processing methods. These historical processes

ade possible the transfer of new crops and products (some of
imited distribution), mainly from south-east Asia, to the Middleast, North Africa, and Europe. Among these we may mentionanana, cotton, eggplant, indigo, Indian hemp, lemon, orange,pinach, and sugar cane (Watson, 1983; Amar, 2000).


Table 2Drugs recorded in prescriptions found in the Genizah

No. Common name Scientific nameand family [ ]

Distribution ofplant and partused [ ]

No. of timesmentioned inprescriptions

Practical medicinal uses(in Genizah prescriptions)

A. Plants1 Agaric Agaricus sp. [Agaricaceae] Levant [whole] 12 Headache [migraine], weakness

of the eye sight, aphrodisiac,purgative

2 Almond Amygdalus communis [Rosaceae] Levant, cultivated [seeds] 27 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, eye treatment,aphrodisiac, laxative, face andeye treatment, fever, dressingbites, cough

3 Aloe Aloe sp. [Liliaceae] Domesticated [liquid fromthe leaves]

13 Topical application, weakness ofthe eye sight, migraine, eyediseases: inflammation, dimnessof vision, widening of the pupils

4 Aloe wood Aloexylon (=Aquilaria agallocha)[Thymelaceae]

Tropical, India [wood] 11 Aphrodisiac, eases itches, inlincti and ointment

5 Ammoniacum(gum ammoniac)

Dorema ammoniacum [Umbelliferae] North Africa [gum resin] 4 None

6 Amomum Amomum sp. [Zingiberaceae] Tropical, domesticated[seeds]

9 Eye treatment, cleaning ortreating the teeth

7 Anise Pimpinella anisum [Umbelliferae] Asia, cultivated [seeds] 12 Eye complaints, invalid diet,weakness of the eye sight,migraine

8 Apple Pyrus malus = Malus sylvestris[Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 2 None

9 Apricot Prunus armeniaca [Rosaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 3 None10 Asa foetida Ferula assafetida [Umbellieferae] Iran [gum resin] 1 None11 Ash tree Fraxinus sp. (excelsior, syriaca)

[Oleaceae]Asia/Europe [bark and leaves] 1 Eye complaints

12 Asparagus Asparagus officinalis [Liliaceae] Europe and Levant [youngshoots]

1 None

13 Asphodel Asphodelus aestivus (=ramosus)[Liliaceae]

Levant [roots] 1 None

14 Balm Mellisa officinalis [Labiatae] Mediterranean [leaves] 1 None15 Balsam Commiphora gileadensis

(=opobalsamum) [Burseraceae]Arabia and East Africa [gumresin]

1 None

16 Bamboo [chalk,tabashir]

Bambusa vulgaris [Gramineae] South-east Asia [ashes] 11 Medical compounds and powder

17 Barley Horedeum sp. [Gramineae] Cultivated [kernels] 2 Lips complaints, strengthen thegum

18 Basil Ocimum basilicum [Labiatae] Cultivated [leaves] 12 Invalid diet, fever, cleaning andtreating the teeth, purgative

19 Bdellium Commiphora mukul [Burseraceae] Africa and Asia [gum resin] 9 Lincti and ointment, invalid diet,weakness of the eye sight andmigraine

20 Bean Vicia faba [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 9 Hemorrhoids, swelling, cough,stomach ailments, face and eyestreatment, wet ulcer

21 Beet Beta vulgaris [Chenopodoaceae] Cultivated [leaves, roots] 8 Topical application, swelling22 Ben tree Moringa peregrina [Moringaceae] African and Levantine deserts

[seeds, oil]1 Cough

23 Berberry Berberis cretica [Berberidaceae] Levant, Iran, Iraq [fruits] 6 Cough24 Betel (areca) palm

(nut)Areca catechu [Palmae] Tropical Asia [fruits] 1 None

25 Birthwort Aristolochia sp. [Aristolochiaceae] Mediterranean [stem root] 2 Treatment of vomiting26 Bitumen trefoil Bituminaria bituminosa

[Papilionaceae]Mediterranean [unknown] 1 None

27 Black cumin Nigella sativa [Ranunculaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 2 None28 Black spleenwort Asplenium onoperis [Aspleniaceae] Mediterranean [rhizome,

leaves]1 None

29 Borage Anchusa sp. (italica and officinalis)[Boraginaceae]

Mediterranean [leaves] 17 Hallucination, weakness of theeye sight, migraine, fever, invaliddiet, aphrodisiac

434 E. Lev, Z. Amar / Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

Table 2 (Continued)





30 Bottle gourd Lagenaria vulgaris [Cucurbitaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 7 Fever, cough, plaster, ointment31 Box Buxus scmpervirens [Buxaceae] Cultivated, Europe, Asia

[fruits, leaves]1 None

32 Boxthorn Lycium afrum [Solanaceae] Europe, N. Africa [leaves,fruits, roots]

2 Eye diseases, linctus for cough

33 Cabbage Brassica oleracea [Cruciferae] Cultivated [leaves] 1 None34 Calamus

(sweet-flag)Acorus calamus [Araceae] Tropical Asia, swamps in

Southern Europe [roots]2 None

35 Camphor Cinnamomum camphora [Lauraceae] Tropical Asia [leaves] 7 Eye diseases, swellings, stopsbleeding

36 Cannabis [Indianhemp]

Cannabis sativus var. indica[Cannabinaceae]

Cultivated [seeds, gumsproduced from leaves andflowers]

1 None

37 Caraway Carum carvi [Umbellifereae] Cultivated [seeds] 2 None38 Cardamom Elettaria cardamomum

[Zingiberaceae]Cultivated [seeds] 6 Fevers

39 Carob Ceratonia siliqua [Caesalpiniaceae] Cultivated, Mediterranean[fruits]

1 None

40 Carrot (wild andcultivated)

Daucus carota [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds, roots] 3 Linctus for cough

41 Cassia [senna] Especially: Cassia acutifolia[Caesalpiniaceae]

Tropical, desert, cultivated[leaves, fruits]

13 Fevers, aphrodisiac

42 Cassia, purging Cassia fistula [Caesalpiniaceae] Tropical Asia, Africa,Cultivated [fruits]

8 Diet, aphrodisiac, plaster

43 Castor oil Ricinus communis [Euphorbiaceae] Middle East [seeds, oil] 1 None44 Celandine

[swallow-wort]Chelidonium majus [Papaveraceae] W. Asia, N. Africa, Europe

[seeds, roots]2 Dental and oral hygiene

45 Celery Apium graveolens [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [roots, seeds] 8 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, purgative

46 Centaury Centaurea sp. [Compositae] Northern hemisphere[flowers]

1 None

47 Chamomile Matricaria aurea [Compositae] Mediterranean, deserts[flowers, leaves]

1 None

48 Chate melon Cucumis melo var. chate[Cucurbitaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 5 Liver ailments, cough,aphrodisiac

49 Cherry Prunus ovium, Prunus cerasia (sweetcherry), Prunus cerasus (sour cherry)[Rosaceae]

Cultivated [fruits, seeds, oil] 9 Medical diet, aphrodisiac

50 Chicklingvetch Lathyrus sativum [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None51 Chickpeas Cicer arietinum [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 General health, topical

application52 Cinnamon Cinnmomum sp. (zeylanicum and

cassia) [Lauraceae]India and Eastern Asia [bark] 9 Weakness of the eye sight,

migraine53 Clove Eugenia caryophyllata [Myrtaceae] Cultivated, E. Asia [flower

buds]6 None

54 Colocynth (bittergourd, bitterapple)

Citrillus colocynthis [Cucurbitaceae] Deserts and on sandy soil[fruits, seeds]

3 Purgative

55 Common caper Capparis spinosa [Capparaceae] Cultivated [fruits, stems,roots]

2 None

56 Common reed Phragmites communis [Gramineae] Cosmopolitan, river banks[roots]

1 None

57 Coriander Coriandrum sativum [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds] 6 Hallucination, topicalapplication, weakness of the eyesight, migraine

58 Costus (Arabiancostus)

Costus speciosus [Zingiberaceae] Himalayas [various parts] 7 Medical chewing gum

59 Cotton Gossypium herbaceum [Malvaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None60 Cubeb pepper Piper cubeba [Piperaceae] Tropical regions [fruits] 2 None61 Cucumber Cucumis sativus [Cucurbitaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 3 None62 Cumin Cuminum cyminum [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds] 2 Cough63 Cypress-tree Cupressus sempervirens

[Cupressaceae]Ornamental [cones] 4 None


Table 2 (Continued)





64 Dates Phoenix dactylifera [Palmae] Cultivated, deserts [fruits] 2 Aphrodisiac65 Dill (anet) Anethum graveolens [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None66 Dodder Cuscuta sp. [Convolvuulaceae] Cosmopolitan [whole plant] 2 None67 Dodder of thyme

(lesser or heathdodder)

Cuscuta epithymum[Convolvuulaceae]

Cosmopolitan [whole plant] 8 Hallucination

68 Eggplant Solanum melongena [Solanaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 1 None69 Egyptian clover Trifolium alexandrinum

[Papilionaceae]Cultivated [seeds] 1 Linctus for treating cough

70 Egyptianmarjoram

Origanum maru [Labiatae] Desert [seeds, leaves] 1 None

71 Endive (chicory) Cichorium intybus (Cichoriumendivia, Cichorium pumilum)[Compositae]

Cultivated [seeds, roots] 23 Invalid diet, plaster for swelling,aphrodisiac, fevers, liver,weakness of the eye sight,migraine

72 False safflower(bastard saffron)

Carthamus tinctorius [Compositae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None

73 Fennel Foeniculum vulgare [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds] 14 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, hemorrhoids, fevers,aphrodisiac

74 Fenugreek Trigonella foenum-graecum[Papilionaceae]

Cultivated [seeds] 3 None

75 Frankincense(olibanum)

Boswellia carteri [Burseraceae] High deserts (Arabia,Ethiopia) [gum resin]

6 Cleaning and treating the teeth,medical chewing gum

76 Fumitory Fumaria officinalis [Fumariaceae] Europe, N. Africa [wholeplant]

1 None

77 Galbanum Ferula galbaniflua [Umbelliferae] Turkestan, Persia, Crete[resin]

2 Liver ailments

78 Galingale Alpinia galanga [Zingiberaceae] Cultivated, tropical [rhizome] 3 None79 Garden cress

(pepper grass)Lepidum sativum [Cruciferae] Cultivated [seeds] 11 Cough, fever, hallucination

80 Garden rocket Eruca sativa [Cruciferae] Cultivated [seeds, leaves] 3 None81 Garlic Allium sativum [Liliaceae] Cultivated [bulbous root] 1 None82 Ginger Zingiber officinale [Zingiberaceae] Cultivated [rhizome] 5 None83 Grapevine

(products: wine,vinegar, raisins)

Vitis vinifera [Vitaceae] Cultivated [fresh fruits andraisins, vinegar, wine, jam,etc.]

22 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, aphrodisiac, topicalapplication, muscles pain,swellings

84 Gum Arabic(babul acacia)

Acacia arabica (=Acacia nilotica)[Mimosaceae]

Deserts, Arabia, Africa [gumresin]

14 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, eye diseases, cough,depilatory for hairy women,stomach ailments

85 Hazelnuts Corylus avellana [Betulaceae] Cultivated [nuts] 4 Dressing bites, cough86 Hellebore Helleborus niger/albus

[Ranunuculaceae]Europe, Turkey [roots] 2 None

87 Henbane[hemlock]

Hyoscymus albus [Solanaceae] Cultivated [seeds, leaves] 1 None

88 Henna Lawsonia inermis (alba)[Lythraceae]

Cultivated [leaves] 3 Stops bleedings, medical plaster

89 Horehound Marrubium vulgare [Labiatae] Mediterranean [leaves, stems] 1 None90 Horned poppy Glaucium corniculatm

[Papaveraceae]Semi-arid [flowers] 1 None

91 Hypocist [rape ofcistus]

Cytinus hypocistis [Rafflesiaceae] Mediterranean [flowers, otherparts]

1 None

92 Hyssop Hyssopus officinalis [Labiatae] Mediterranean [leaves, stems] 1 None93 Indigo Indigofera tinctoria [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None94 Iris Iris sp. (florentina, mesopotamica)

[Iridaceae]Mediterranean [root, stem,flowers, oil]

1 None

95 Jasmine Jasminum sp. [Oleaceae] Cultivated [flowers, oil] 1 Eye diseases96 Judas-tree Cercis siliquastrum

[Caesalpiniaceae]Mediterranean [flowers] 1 None

97 Jujube Ziziphus (jujuba) vulgarus[Rhamnaceae]

Cultivated [fruits] 9 Hemorrhoids, fevers, medical diet


Table 2 (Continued)





98 Ladanum Cistus (ladanifer) [Cistaceae] Cultivated [resin produced ofleaves and stems]

1 None

99 Laurel Laurus nobilis [Lauraceae] Mediterranean [leaves, fruits,seeds, oil]

2 Purgative, lincti and ointment

100 Lavender Lavandula officinalis [Labiatae] Cultivated [leaves, stems,flowers]

13 Hallucination, weakness of theeye sight, migraine, invalid diet

101 Leek Allium porrum [Liliaceae] Cultivated [stems, leaves] 4 None102 Lemon Citrus limon [Rutaceae] Cultivated [fruits, juice] 12 Fever, invalid diet, medical

plaster103 Lemon-grass Andropogon schenanthus

[Gramineae]Cultivated [leaves] 2 None

104 Lentil Lens esculenta [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 4 Treatment of lice105 Lentisk Pistacia lentiscus [Anacardiaceae] Mediterranean [gum resin] 16 Stomach problems, lips

complaints, strengthens gums,cleans and treats the teeth

106 Leopardus bane(panther strangler)

Doronicum scopiodes [Compositae] Cultivated [roots] 3 None

107 Lettuce Lactuca sativa [Compositae] Cultivated [leaves, seeds] 2 Eye diseases, lincti and ointment108 Lichen Usnea sp. [Usnceae] Cosmopolitan [whole plant] 1 Eye diseases109 Licorice Glycyrrhiza glabra [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [roots] 22 Cleaning and treating the teeth,

cough, aphrodisiac, invalid diet,skin diseases such as freckles,chronic ulcers and tinea of thescalp, emmenagogue, expels thefoetus

110 Linseed (flax) Linum usitatissimum [Linaceae] Cultivated [seeds, oil] 3 None111 Long pepper Piper longum [Piperaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 5 Eye diseases112 Lotus [GN] Nymphaea sp.; Nuphar sp.

[Nymphaeceae]Water plants [leaves, flowers,oil]

1 None

113 Lovage Levisticum officinale [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None114 Madder Rubia tinctorium [Rubiaceae] Cultivated [roots] 3 None115 Maidenhair Adianthum capillus-veneris

[Adiantaceae]Mediterranean, Asia, Europe[leaves, root stem]

2 Cough, aphrodisiac

116 Malabathrum Cinnamomum citriodorum[Lauraceae]

Asia [bark] 1 None

117 Mandrake Mandragora autumnalis[Solanaceae]

Mediterranean [roots, fruits] 1 None

118 Marsh-mallow Althea officinalis [Malvaceae] Temperate zones globally[seeds, stems]

13 Eye diseases, aphrodisiac,swelling, medical diet

119 Meadow saffron Colchicum sp. (automale, Ritchii)[Liliaceae]

Europe–Asia [bulbs] 4 Purgative

120 Melon Cucumis melo [Cucurbitaceae] Cultivated [fruits, seeds] 1 Medical diet121 Mint Mentha sativa [Labiatae] Cultivated [leaves, stems] 1 None122 Mustard Sinapis alba [Cruciferae] Europe–Asia [seeds, leaves] 1 None123 Myrobalan

(cherry plum)Terminalia sp. (arjuana, citrina,chebula, bellerica, emblica)[Combretaceae]

Cultivated, Asia [fruits] 55 Hallucination, stomach anddigestion, weakness of the eyesight, eye diseases, migraine,invalid diet, aphrodisiac, linctiand ointments

124 Myrrh Commiphora myrrha [Burseraceae] Deserts in Africa and Arabia[gum resin]

6 Eye diseases, cough

125 Myrtle Myrtus communis [Myrtaceae] Cultivated [leaves, fruits, oil] 2 Lincti and ointment126 Nutmeg Myristica fragrans [Myristicaceae] Cultivated, Asia [seeds, peels] 2 None127 Oak gall Quercus sp. [Fagaceae] Asia–Europe [gallnuts] 7 Hemorrhoids128 Olive oil Olea europaea [Oleaceae] Cultivated [fruits, oil] 7 Vomiting, swellings, lincti and

ointments129 Onion Allium cepa [Liliaceae] Cultivated [onion, seeds,

leaves]6 Topical application, dressing

bites, swelling130 Opium (poppy

head)Papaver somniferum [Papavraceae] Cultivated [resin] 5 Wind and colic, eye diseases,

collyrium131 Opopanax Opopanax chironium [Umbelliferae] Southern Europe and Turkey

[resin]1 Wind and colic

132 Oxymel [Honey and vinegar] 3 Fever


Table 2 (Continued)





133 Parsnip Pastinaca schekakul [Umbelliferae] Cultivated [root] 1 None134 Pear Pyrus communis [Rosacea] Cultivated [fruits, leaves] 4 None135 Pellitory of Spain Anacylus {Anthemis} pyrethrum

[Compositae]Mediterranean [roots,flowers, stems]

4 None

136 Peony Paeonia sp. [Paeoniaceae] Europe, Lebanon [roots,seeds]

3 None

137 Pepper Piper nigrum [Piperaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 13 Eye diseases, purgative138 Perfumed cherry Prunus mahaleb [Rosaceae] Cultivated [seeds] 1 None139 Pilosum basil Ocimum pilosum [Labiatae] Cultivated [leaves] 1 None140 Pine (nuts) Pinus pinea [Pinaceae] Mediterranean [seeds] 1 Linctus for cough141 Pistachio, Atlantic Pistacia atlantica [Anacardiaceae] Middle East [resin] 4 Medical chewing gum142 Pistachio Pistacia vera [Anacardiaceae] Cultivated [seeds, nut’s peels] 1 None143 Plantain [fleawort] Plantago afra [Plantaginaceae] Middle East [seeds] 2 Cough144 Plum Prunus domestica [Rosaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 10 Fever, hemorrhoids, muscle pain,

aphrodisiac145 Pomegranate Punica grantum [Punicaceae] Cultivated [flowers, seeds,

fruit’s peel]9 Medical soap, urinary

complaints, medical diet146 Purslane Portulaca oleracea [Portulacaceae] Cultivated [leaves, stems,

seeds]7 Dressing bites

147 Quince Cydonia oblonga [Rosaceae] Cultivated [fruits, seeds] 1 Eye complaints, swelling, cough148 Radish Raphanus sativus [Cruciferae] Cultivated [seeds, roots] 2 Snake bites, lice treatment149 Red-behen

[sea-lavender]Statice limonium [Plumbaginaceae] Cultivated [root] 1 None

150 Resin Pinus sp. [Pinaceae] Europe, Asia [resin] 1 Linctus for cough151 Rhubarb Rheum sp. [Polygonaceae] Cultivated [roots] 9 Invalid diet152 Rose (dog rose) Rosa canina [Rosaceae] Mediterranean and cultivated

[flowers, oil, seeds, fruits]57 Liver ailments, lice treatment,

weakness of the eye sight,migraine, eye diseases, lincti andointments, cleans and treats theteeth, invalid diet, purgative,medical chewing gum

153 Rosemary Rosmarinus officinalis [Labiatae] Cultivated [leaves, flowers] 1 None154 Rue Ruta chalepensis; Ruta graveolens

[Rutaceae]Mediterranean and cultivated[leaves, oil]

3 Eye diseases

155 Saffron Crocus sativus [Iridaceae] Cultivated [stigmas offlowers]

13 Eye diseases, plaster

156 Sagapenum Ferula persica [Umbeliferae] Mediterranean and CentralAsia [resin]

1 Purgative

157 Salep Orchis sp. [Orchidaceae] Cultivated [bulbs] 2 None158 Sandalwood (red,

white, yellow)Santalum album [Santalaceae] Cultivated, Asia [wood] 1 None

159 Sarcocolla Astragalus sarcocolla[Papilionaceae]

Asia, Middle EastIranian-Toranian [resin]

4 Eye diseases

160 Savory Satureja sp. [Labiatae] Mediterranean and cultivated[stems, leaves]

3 None

161 Scammony(Syrian bindweed)

Convolvulus scammonia[Convolvulaceae]

Mediterranean [resinproduced from the roots]

9 Aphrodisiac, purgative, medicalchewing gum

162 Sea squill Urginea maritima [Liliaceae] Mediterranean [bulb] 1 None163 Sebesten Cordia myxia [Boraginaceae] Cultivated [fruits] 4 Medical diet164 Sedge [cocograss,

coconut grass]Cyperus longus [Cyperaceae] Mediterranean [tubers] 4 Stomach ailments, cleaning and

treating the teeth165 Service tree Sorbus domestica = Pyrus sorbus

[Rosaceae]Levant [not known] 1 Hemorrhoids

166 Sesame Sesamum indicum [Pedaliaceae] Cultivated [seeds, oil] 10 None167 Soap [Ash, olive oil] 3 None168 Sorrel (dock) Rumex sp. [Polygonaceae] Cultivated [seeds, leaves,

stems]3 Face and eye diseases

169 Spikenard (nard) Nardostachys (Valeriana) jatamansi[Valerianaceae]

Asia [roots] 19 Eye diseases

170 Spinach Spinacia oleracea [Chenopodoaceae] Cultivated [leaves] 3 Invalid diet171 Spurge (milkwort) Euphorbia sp. [Euphobiaceae] Cosmopolitan [juice] 2 Linctus for the treatment of

cough, medical chewing gum


Table 2 (Continued)





172 Staphisagria(lousewort)

Delphinium staphisagria[Ranunculaceae]

Mediterranean [various parts] 2 Treatments of lice

173 Starch [Grains] 4 Eye diseases174 Sugar cane Saccharum officinarum [Gramineae] Cultivated [stems] 30 Wind and colic, cleaning and

treating the teeth, urinarycomplaints, hallucination, liver,fever, cough, swelling, weaknessof the eye sight, migraine, invaliddiet, aphrodisiac

175 Sweet clover(white melilot)

Melilotus albus [Papilionaceae] Cultivated [leaves, stems,seeds]

1 Eye diseases

176 Sweet lime Citrus medica [Rutaceae] Cultivated [fruits, peel] 4 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine

177 Sweet marjoram Origanum majorana [Labiateae] Cultivated [leaves, stems] 1 None178 Sweet violet Viola odorata [Violaceae] Cultivated [flowers, oil] 13 Hallucination medical diet,

treating the face, eye diseases,aphrodisiac

179 Tamarind Tamarindus indica [Papilionaceae] Cultivated, Asia [fruits,seeds]

6 Fevers, cough, aphrodisiac

180 Tamarisk Tamarix gallica, Tamarix orientalis[Tamaricaceae]

Desert [gallnuts, bark, seeds] 4 None

181 Tar (liquid) Pinus and Cederus sp. [Pinaceae,Coniferae Cupressaceae]

[Resin] 2 None

182 Tragacanth Astragalus gummifer [Papilionaceae] Europe–Asia [gum resin] 9 Weakness of the eye sight,migraine, cough, eyes diseases,cleaning or treating the teeth,winds and colic, purgative, linctiand ointment

183 Tumeric Curcuma longa [Zingiberaceae] Cultivated, tropical [rhizome] 2 Eye diseases184 Turpeth (turbith,

Indian jalap)Ipomoea turpethum[Convolvulaceae]

Cultivated, tropical [rhizome,resin]

11 Treating the face, eye diseases,itches, clean or treat the teeth,purgative

185 Wallflower Cheiranthus cheiri [Cruciferae] Europe, cultivated [flowers,oil, seeds]

1 None

186 Walnuts Juglans regia [Juglandaceae] Cultivated [nut] 5 Cleaning or treating the teeth,dressing bites, aphrodisiac

187 Watermelon Citrullus vulgaris [Cucurbitaceae] Cultivated [fruits, peel seeds] 4 Treatment of the face and the eye,urinary complaints, medical diet

188 Wheat Triticum vulgare [Gramineae] Cultivated [grains] 2 Treatment of the face, eyediseases

189 White-behen Centaurea behen [Compositae] Mediterranean and westernIran-Turanian [roots]

1 None

190 Wild marjoram Majorana syriaca [Labiatae] Mediterranean [leaves, stems,flowers]

4 Fever, diet

191 Wild nard(Asarabacca)

Asarum europaeum[Aristolochiaceae]

Europe–Asia, cultivated[various parts]

3 Cough

192 Wild rue Peganum harmala [Rutaceae] Deserts [seeds] 2 None193 Willow Salix sp. [Salicaceae] River banks [wood, leaves,

bark]1 None

194 Wormwood Artemisia sp. (absinthium, sieberi,judaica, arborescens) [Compositae]

Cultivated, Europe, N. Africa,Asia [leaves, stems]

4 None

195 Yew Taxus bacata [Taxaceae] Cultivated [leaves, bark,fruits, seeds]

1 None

No. Common name Chemical formula No. of timesmentioned inprescriptions


B. Inorganics1 Agate SiO2 1 None2 Alum AlK(SO4)2·12H2O 6 Cleaning and treating the teeth3 Arsenic AS2S3; AS2S2 3 Depilatory for hairy women,

medicinal soap4 Asphalt 2 Plaster


Table 2 (Continued )

No. Common name Chemical formula No. of timesmentioned inprescriptions

Practical medicinal uses (inGenizah prescriptions)

5 Borax Na2B4O7·10H2O 3 Depilatory hairy women6 Cadmia Cd 10 Eye diseases7 Clay (earth, bole) Armenian earth, Cyprus clay,

white clay, Egyptian clay10 Hallucination, swelling

8 Copper Cu 1 None9 Cuprite Cu2O 1 None

10 Gold Au 1 None11 Gypsum CaSO4 1 None12 Haematite Fe2O3 2 None13 Kohl [antimony, galena] Sb, PbS 5 Eye diseases14 Lapis lazuli NaAlSiO4·CaSO4 7 Hallucination, aphrodisiac15 Lead, white (ceruse) 2PbCO3·Pb(OH)2 8 Eye diseases, aphrodisiac, itches16 Litharge PbO 1 None17 Mercury Hg 6 None18 Minum Red lead oxide 1 None19 Potash K2CO3; Na2CO3 3 Dental problems20 Pyrite [marcasite] FeS2 1 None21 Sal-ammoniac NH4Cl 3 Eye diseases22 Salt NaCl 16 Cleaning and treating the teeth,

stomach and digestion ailments,eye diseases, purgative

23 Scoria 3 Eye diseases24 Silver Ag 3 None25 Sulphur Sulfur (S) 2 Itches, snake bite26 Vitriol [verdigris] Green-FeSO4, blue-CuSO4,

white-ZnSO4, CuSO4·5H2O4 Eye diseases

27 Zinc Zn 7 Lice treatment, weakness of theeye sight, migraine

No. Common name Scientific name No. of timesmentioned inprescriptions


C. Animals1 Adder Echis coloratus 1 None2 Ambergris Physeter catodon 1 Lincti and ointment3 Beaver (castoreum) Castor fiber 3 Eye diseases4 Caracal Felis [Lynx] caracal 1 None5 Cattle products (cheese, milk, cream) Bos taurus 5 Dressing bites, topical application,

swelling, eye complaints6 Chicken products (meat, eggs) Gallus gallus domesticus 4 Stop bleedings, dressing bites7 Coral Coelenterate system 4 Dental problems8 Cuttle-fish Sepia officinalis 4 Dental uses9 Donkey [Ass] (milk, feces) Equus asinus 7 Cleaning or treating the teeth,

muscles pain, invalid diet, stopbleedings

10 Earthworm Lumbricus terrestris 1 Dental uses11 Goat products (cheese, milk) Capra hirctus mambrica 2 None12 Honey Apis mellifica 19 Eye diseases, cough, diet,

aphrodisiac, oxymel medical plaster13 Kermes Kermes sp. 1 None14 Lacca Laccifer lacca 2 None15 Musk Moschus moschiferus 2 Cradle lips, strengthen gum16 Pearl Pinctada margaritifera 4 Eye diseases17 Silk worm [cocoons and products] Bombyx mori 2 None18 Snail Helix sp. 2 Dental caries, dentifrice powder19 Spiny-tailed lizard Uromastix aegyptius 1 None20 Wax Apis mellifica 11 Eye diseases, depilatory for hairy

women, aphrodisiac

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Various parts (root, seeds, leaves, fruit, bulb, flower, etc.)f hundreds of plants, as well as extracts, gums, resin, oil, andther products, were used in Muslim medicine. Most were plantslready used by Greek and Roman physicians and pharmacolo-ists and mentioned in classical medical literature; a few wereedicinal plants introduced by the Muslims. The medical quali-

ies of these plants and their products are largely described in theedieval literature, mainly Indian hemp and sugar cane. More-

ver, the opening of the new trade routes facilitated the transportf various goods and products from all over the ancient world,ncluding medicinal plants, perfumes, and spices such as cam-hor, clove, mace, myrobalan, and rhubarb (Levey, 1973). Theevelopment of the alchemy and dyeing expanded the use ofany inorganic materials and minerals (Levey, 1973; Hamarneh,

980; Amar and Serri, 2004). In that way the inventory of mate-ia medica, mainly in the East (the Muslim world), but also in theest (Europe), became enriched with dozens of new substances.One hundred and ninety-five substances of plant origin were

ecorded as being in practical use for medicinal purposes byhe Genizah people according to prescriptions. This number isell within the size range (150–417) of substances of plant ori-in in other practical inventories (Lev and Amar, in press). Theost frequently mentioned substances, and therefore, we sug-

est, used were: rose, myrobalan, sugar, and almonds.Isaacs tried to explain the enormous number of plants in the

ateria medica inventory as connected with the flourishing artf herbalism among the Arabs (Isaacs, 1994); however, this pro-ortion, where plants account for 70–90% of materia medicanventories, is found in different sources from classical medicalooks to present-day traditional medicine (Lev, 2002a, 2003a).

.2. Drugs of inorganic origin

Various minerals, metals, and stones were natural drugs inarly times and in many different cultures. Some of these sub-tances were easily available to man in his natural habitat; othersere collected in close vicinity to him, a few were mined androcessed by industrial methods, and the more expensive onesere brought over the trade routes from near or distant lands

Lev, 2002b).It is known historically that in ancient Egypt various inorganic

ubstances were used: potassium nitrate, asphalt, iron, copperulphate, salt, magnesium, sodium carbonate, lead, and whiteead (Bryan, 1930). In medical lists discovered in Mesopotamia7th Century b.c.), about 120 kinds of metals, stones, and min-ral were identified as having been used for remedies, includinglum and bitumen (asphalt). These substances constituted 32%f the total drugs that were mentioned (Thompson, 1923; Levey,959; Hakim, 1970). Even ancient Chinese medicine made usef inorganic substances such as alum, iron, sulphur, and mercuryGordon, 1949; Kremers and Urdang, 1976).

Classical medicine also applied minerals and metals. Hip-ocrates mentions hundreds of substances that were identified
nd studied, including nine minerals and six metals, such aslum, arsenic, iron, sodium sulphate, sulphur, clay (three kinds),alt, natron (saltpetre), lead, white lead, and copper. Theseubstances comprised about 6% of the total (Riddle, 1987).
dta

rmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

ioscorides describes the use of about 96 kinds of inorganic sub-tances, including about 5 kinds of metals, 28 kinds of minerals,nd 27 kinds of stones, such as asphalt, zinc, antimony, iron,ulphur, kinds of clay, salt, copper, sodium, lead, calcium, andarbon. They comprise about 10% of the inventory of the drugssed by this important physician. Other minerals as well, whichere known to be poisons, such as mercury and arsenic, weresed as remedies (Gunther, 1959; Riddle, 1985). The Jewishages also mention certain minerals that were used as reme-ies, such as lime, “Sodom salt”, lead, and kohl (Perelman,926; Preuss, 1983). In neo-Aramean (Syria) medicine sub-tances such as potassium powder, glass, and white lead appearBudge, 1913; Bodenheimer, 1967).

In Arab medicine, inorganic substances form a small butmportant component of the inventory of drugs. For example,he physician al-Kindi (9th Centuary) describes the use of about00 substances, including 27 minerals and metals compris-ng about 10% of all the substances (Stapleton, 1927; Levey,966). Maimonides (12th Centuary) notes the use of approx-mately 42 kinds of minerals, stones, and metals, comprisingbout 11% of all the substances mentioned (Maimonides, 1940).amarneh estimates that in the 10th Century the use of chem-

cals and minerals in Arabic medicine reached its peak as aesult of the combined knowledge deriving from the writingsf classical physicians, information about eastern medicine, andell-developed commercial ties across the various parts of the

slamic empire, and the connections between it and other coun-ries (Hamarneh, 1980).

The development of alchemy created a large demand fornorganic substances and minerals, along with new mining meth-ds and production techniques, as may be learned from a fewnstances on the Dead Sea during the Islamic period (10th Cen-ury) (Amar and Serri, 2004). Another example is gold produc-ion in the Rift Valley in the same period (Amar, 1997).

This surge is reflected in the many references to inorganicubstances found in the writings of physicians such as al-Razi865–925), al-Majusi (d. 994), and al-Zahrawi (d. 1013) whoractised medicine in Cordoba (Hamarneh, 1980).

Saladino d’Ascoli, the Italian chemist (15th Centuary),escribes the use of about 26 kinds of metals and minerals andbout 10 kinds of stone in Europe in the Middle Ages (Muntner,963). These include asphalt, arsenic, sulphur, gold, types oflay, silver, types of salt, and lead (Riddle, 1970, 1992). A sim-lar situation and the use of identical materials occurred in theramework of traditional medicine in the Middle East. In Iraq,or example, about 17 minerals and metals are described, such aslum, antimony, arsenic, sulphur, kinds of clay, fossils, copper,atron, sodium carbonate, and lead. These substances comprisebout 5% of the materials in the inventory (Hooper, 1937).

In a research study of traditional drugs from natural sourceshat was conducted in Pakistan during the 1960s, the use of 43

inerals and metals was noted, comprising 12.5% of all theedicinal materials reviewed (Ali et al., 1984).
In a survey conducted in shops selling medications in Syria
uring the 1970s, 12.7% of the drugs were inorganic. The inven-ory of drugs of Iraqi Jewry contains a description of the use ofbout nine kinds of such substances, altogether comprising about

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% of the materials mentioned (Ben-Ya’akov, 1992). In Jordan,.8% of the substances recorded in a similar survey conductedn 2000 (Lev and Amar, 2002) were of inorganic origin, and insrael the proportion was 6.1% (Lev and Amar, 2000).

Twenty-seven inorganic materials are revealed in the sourcess being in medical use in the Levant during the Middle Ages.rom a statistical viewpoint they comprise about 11.2% of the

nventory of materials—a finding that resembles that of the listsf materials in traditional medicine in our region, and is notnlike other lists of materials from the Middle Ages and thelassical period (Lev, 2002c).

Twenty-seven inorganic substances were recorded as beingn practical use for medicinal purposes by the Genizah people,orming 11.2% of the total number of materials in the inventory.he most frequently mentioned inorganic substances, and

herefore, we suggest, used were: salt, cadmia and kinds of claynd lead.

This can be explained by Egypt’s being an important producerborax, alum) as well as an entrepot for such substances (cop-er, iron, lead, mercury, earth, silver) (Goitein, 1967–1988). Theigh rate of eye and skin diseases that have prevailed in Egyptince early times could be another explanation. Inorganic sub-tances have played an important part of the treatment of theseiseases from antiquity to the present (e.g., zinc).

.3. Drugs of animal origin

Living creatures, their body parts, and their products haveeen part of the inventory of drugs since earliest times in dif-erent cultures. Some were wild animals that were at timesunted to meet medical needs (e.g., the adder or the yellowcorpion), and others were domesticated animals such as cattle,oats, sheep, camels, dogs, and chickens, which were availableo man in his natural habitat and they or their products serveds food. The rarest and most expensive animals such as theusk deer (for its sexual gland) and the beaver (for its testicles)ere brought down the trade routes from distant countries. Inarious sources, mainly from the Middle Ages, there are occa-ional descriptions of human products such as mother’s milk,rine, and sperm. The use of such substances is also common inraditional medicine (Lev, 2000). In ancient Egypt, substanceserived from living creatures such as the bee (honey), lizard,entipede, bat, sperm whale (ambergris), and musk deer (gland)ere used for medical purposes (Bryan, 1930). Medical listsiscovered in Mesopotamia (Assyria) have descriptions of theedical uses of substances such as wax and animal fat (Hakim,

970; Thompson, 1923), and in ancient China use was made ofubstances such as the gland of the musk deer (Gordon, 1949;remers and Urdang, 1976).Even in classical medicine, living creatures and their body

arts were used. Hippocrates mentions the use of six kinds ofnimals and their body parts such as sea sponge, horns, eggs,nd milk, constituting 2.5% of all the substances (Riddle, 1987).
ioscorides reports on the use of about 168 body parts and prod-cts of living creatures, which account for 10% of his inventoryf drugs (Riddle, 1985). The Sages also mention living creaturesnd their products, such as snakes, fish, honey, milk, cheese, and
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rmacology 108 (2006) 428–444 441

ggs, and also the body parts of animals and fowl such as spleen,eart, lung, liver, and stomach (Perelman, 1926). Neo-Aramaicedicine notes the use of substances such as beaver testicles,

oney and wax, dung (of the bat and lizard), the gland of theusk deer, milk, pearl, nacre, frog, and earthworm. Use was

lso made of animal body parts such as liver, horn, and gallBudge, 1913; Bodenheimer, 1967).

Arab medicine – “al-Tibb al-Nabawi” – used chicken eggs,ow cheese, and bee honey (Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, 1998).he physician al-Kindi describes the medical use of 22 kindsf animals such as coral, squid, medical skink, pigeon (dove),izard, crab, mouse, and nacre; body parts feature, such as beaveresticles, cattle gall and fat, and horn of rhino and goat; also prod-cts such as honey and wax, milk, and eggs. All these constitute% of the total substances (Levey, 1966). Maimonides noteshe use of about 28 animal kinds, constituting 7% of the totalMaimonides, 1940).

The researcher Bodenheimer summarized the writings ofrab physicians, geographers, and Muslim encyclopaedists,ho describe the use of living creatures in medicine. al-Tabari

9th Centuary), for example, expounds the medical use of humanroducts, goose, deer, rabbit, lion, beaver, falcon, cattle, camel,ear, fish, stone marten, wolf, partridge, skink, rat, pig, donkey,tork, pigeon (dove) sheep, dog, snake, leopard, horse, swal-ow, crab, raven, goat, bat, spider, leech, scorpion, elephant,ule, tortoise, hyena, frog, porcupine, earthworm, jackal, and

hicken. al-Idrisi (12th Centuary) lists, among others, ram, cat-le, duck, squid, pig, snail, pigeon (dove), ibex, nacre, and roosterBodenheimer, 1967).

Fifty-two animal extracts and products are recorded as beingsed for medicinal purposes in the medieval Levant (Lev,003b).

In medieval Europe, Saladino d’Ascoli describes the use ofbout 20 different animals, their body parts, and their products,ncluding goose, ram, rabbit, lion, cattle, bee, bear, pig, donkey,at, pigeon (dove), sheep, eagle, horse, goat, mouse, fox andhicken (Muntner, 1963). The use of these creatures is also main-ained in regional traditional medicine. In Iraq, for example, 12inds of creatures feature, such as coral, cattle, camel, bee, fish,quid, sheep, nacre, and silkworm, which comprise about 3.7%f the substances in the inventory (Hooper, 1937). On the otherand, the inventory of the Jewish population of Iraq describesbout 10 kinds of substances constituting 5% of the comprehen-ive list of drugs of the Jews in Iraq (Ben-Ya’akov, 1992).

Among the Sinai Bedouin, about 25 kinds of living creaturessed for medicine are documented: adder, camel, fish, wolf,nail, donkey, lizard dong, shark, ant, crab, bat, ringed snake,corpion, hyena, tortoise, nacre, wasp, fish, fox, hare, and sharkay (Levey, 1978). The researcher Meyerhof describes theedicine market in Cairo at the beginning of the 20th Century,

nd notes that 41 of the 640 drugs were of animal origin.mong the creatures mentioned are musk deer, coral, adder,eaver (testicles), bee (honey and wax), squid, meloid (beetle),
carab (beetle), snail, lizard, cat, ostrich, lizard, centipede, crab,at (dung), leech, amber, tarantula, scorpion, elephant (ivory),earl, nacre, rhino, crimson yarns, cockroach, and crocodileMeyerhof, 1918).

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In Pakistan 31 organic substances (animals, their body parts,nd their products) were noted, accounting for 9% of all sub-tances in the inventory of traditional medicine. Examinationnd research show that these substances are similar to those thaterved for medical purposes throughout history, regardless ofeographical boundaries. Among the substances listed are coral,ee (honey and wax), squid, medical skink, silkworm, crab, spi-er, amber, pearl, nacre, hedgehog, and earthworm (Ali et al.,984). A survey conducted in Syria in the 1970s found that 4.5%f the substances traded by the medicine sellers in the marketere of animal origin (Honda et al., 1990). Similar data also

rise from surveys in Jordan (9.6%) (Lev and Amar, 2002) andn Israel (6.5%) (Lev and Amar, 2000).

Twenty substances of animal origin were recorded as beingn practical used for medicinal purposes by the Genizah people.his number matches the size range of substances of origin inther practical inventories. It is 8.2% of the total number of mate-ials. The most frequently mentioned substances, and therefore,e suggest, used were: honey, wax and donkey products.

.4. Substances in prescriptions versus substances in listsf materia medica

Seventy-two substances were mentioned only in prescriptionnd have not found yet in any list of materia medica known inhe Genizah:

. Fifty-six plants (ammoniacum, apricot, asafoetida, aspara-gus, barley, bean, beet, ben tree, bitumen trefoil, cabbage,calamus, centaury, chamomile, chickpeas, common caper,cypress-tree, dill, dodder of thyme, Egyptian clover, Egyp-tian marjoram, fumitory, hellebore, horehound, hyssop, jas-mine, leek, lemon-grass, lentil, lettuce, linseed, lovage, mal-abathrum, meadow saffron, melon, mint, mustard, opopanax,oxymel, pear, pellitory of Spain, pilosum basil, pine (nuts),red-behen, savory, sea squill, service tree, spinach, staphis-agria, sweet clover, tamarisk, tar, wallflower, white-behen,wild nard, willow).

. Eight inorganic substances (agate, copper, gold, gypsum,mercury, minum, pyrite, silver).

. Eight animals (adder, caracal, cuttle-fish, earthworm, kermes,silk worm [cocoons and products], snail, spiny-tailed lizard).

We suggest that it might be due to the large number of pre-criptions (141) compare to lists of materia medica (70) that haveeen survived and revealed in the Genizah. Another explanation,n the case of substance of animal’s origin, might be that, mostf these substances were gathered by the pharmacists or boughtrom hunters and were almost not traded regularly through thesual routes and dealers and therefore were not mentioned in theists of materia medica.

. Conclusions

The most frequently mentioned substances were the rose57), myrobalan (55), sugar (30), almonds (27), and endive (23).rapevine products and licorice were mentioned 22 times, honey

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rmacology 108 (2006) 428–444

nd spikenard 19, borage 17, lentisk and salt 16, fennel and gumrabic 14, aloe, cassia, lavender, marsh-mallow, pepper, saffron

nd sweet violet 13, agaric, anise, basil and lemon 12. The restf the substances were mentioned 11 times (5), 10 times (4), andess (209).

A few substances might have been of local origin (gum Arabicnd sugar); others were brought from the Levant (almonds, rose,ndive). Many others had to be imported into Egypt from south-ast Asia (galingale, pepper, myroblan, camphor, spikenard) andthers from the western Mediterranean (saffron, lentisk).

From studying the prescriptions we could also learn abouthe most prevalent ailments from which the community’s mem-ers suffered: eye diseases, headache, constipations (purgative),ough, skin diseases, stomach, fever, gynaecological problems,aemorrhoids, liver ailments, lice, swellings, dental trouble,lcers, and problems of the urinary tract.

Substances of animal and inorganic origin, and more partic-larly medicinal plants, played a major part in the lives of theenizah people. They encountered some of these substances in

lmost every daily secular or religious activity; the substanceslso served as foodstuffs, herbals, condiments, cosmetics, andncense, and for various home industries such as dyeing, inkroduction, tanning, and more.

It appears very clear that the theoretical inventory of theenizah people was much larger than the practical one. There-

ore, regarding the first question we can definitely answer that aap of 136 substances exists. This gap separates the theoreticalist (mentioned in books), consisting of 414 substances, fromhe practical one (mentioned in prescriptions, letters, and lists ofateria medica), consisting of 278 substances (Lev and Amar,

n press).

cknowledgments

This research would have not been taken place without theenerous grant of St. John’s College, Cambridge which hostedr. Efraim Lev as an Over Seas Visiting Scholar (2003–2004).he authors would like to express their deepest thanks to Dr.eigh Chipman, Hebrew University, Israel, and the anony-ous referees for their helpful remarks. Special thanks to our

olleagues at the Taylor–Schechter Genizah Research Unit atambridge University Library, which shared with me their enor-ous knowledge and experience and supported me with helpful

emarks: Prof. Stefan Reif (head), Shulie Reif, Dr. Avihai Shiv-iel, Dr. Fredrich Niessen, Dr. Ben Outhwaite, Dr. Rebeccaefferson, Ellis Weinberger, Sara Sykes. The authors would likeo thank the Syndicate of Cambridge University Library for theermission to publish the Cairo Genizah fragments presented inhis article.

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