UNIT 2: CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
1.0 Organisation of the Unit………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………….…. 1
1.2 Aims …………………………………………………………………………2
1.3 Objectives/Expected Outcomes………………………………………………2
1.4 Key Concepts……………………………………………………………........3
1.5 Content……………………………………………………………………….4
1.5.1 Preparation for teaching…………………………………………….4
1.5.1.1 Curriculum……………………………………………………………5
1.5.1.2 The Nature of the Curriculum in
Zimbabwe………….............................5
1.5.1.3 The Role of the teacher in the
Curriculum……………………………..5
1
1.5.1.4 The role of other
stakeholders…………………………………………6
1.5.2 Syllabus……………………………………………………………..
1.5.2.1 Syllabus Interpretation………………………………………………
1.5.2.2 Why interpret the
syllabus?...................................................
.................
1.5.3 Scheming…………………………………………………………………..
1.5.3.1 Rationale…………………………………………………………
1.5.3.2 Factors to consider
1.5.3.2.1 Pupils
1.5.3.2.2 School Calendar
1.5.3.2.3 Time table
1.5.3.2.4 Order
1.5.3.2.5 Seasonal changes
1.5.3.2.6 Scheme format
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1.5.4 Lesson Planning
1.5.4.1 Rationale
1.5.4.2 Factors to consider
1.5.4.3 Approaches to teaching and
learning
1.5.4.4 Planning format
1.5.5 Lesson Presentation
1.5.5.1 Steps to follow
1.5.5.2 Characteristic of an effective lesson
1.5.6 Types of lessons
1.5.6.1 Teacher Centred
1.5.6.2 Child Centred
1.5.7 Evaluation
1.5.7.1 Rationale
1.5.7.2 Types of evaluation
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1.5.8 Classroom Organisation
1.5.8.1 Grouping
1.5.8.2 Types of groups
1.5.8.3 Managing groups
1.5.9 Class Discipline and Control
1.5.9.1 Class rules and regulations
1.5.9.2 Causes of deviant behavior
1.5.9.3 Types of deviant behavior
1.5.9.4 Behaviour modification
1.5.10 Record Keeping
1.5.10.1 Rationale
1.5.10.2 Types of records
1.6 Summary
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Assignment
1.9 References
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In this Unit we present an introduction to Classroom Management
which is meant to give you an overview of the issues you will
meet in this Unit. This is followed by a statement of the Aims
and Objectives and Definitions of the key concepts covered. You
will be exposed to the content of the Unit which includes the
following main themes:
Preparation for Teaching
Classroom Organisation
Class discipline and control
Record Keeping
At the end of some sections of this Unit, we set out some
activities which you are required to complete before proceeding.
These exercises are meant to assist you to check on your
understanding of the concepts. They will also assist us to check
on your progress so that we can assist you where necessary.
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Towards the end of the Unit, we give you a summary to assist you
recall/reinforce and further enhance your understanding of the
key elements you have learnt in this Unit.
At the end you will find a list of the references cited in this
Unit. Further, we give a list of resource materials relevant to
Classroom Management .You are strongly advised to read these
materials as they are meant to further enrich your knowledge
base. The Glossary of Terms is meant to assist you in
consolidating your understanding of the key terms used throughout
this Unit.
1.1 Introduction
Classroom Management is a key element to the teaching and
learning process. It is important that you as a classroom
practitioner are conversant with issues related to classroom. In
this Unit, we present information on preparation for teaching,
record keeping, classroom organisation, class discipline and
control. Understanding of these concepts will increase your
teaching competence.
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1.2 Aim
This Unit aims to equip you with the necessary knowledge and
skills to enable you to become a competent classroom manager.
1.3 Objectives:
After completing this Unit, you should be able to :
1.3.1: describe the role of the teacher in curriculum
development, implementation, syllabus interpretation
lesson planning, and evaluation.
1.3.2 examine different types of grouping and their impact in
the teaching and learning processes.
1.3.3 illustrate ways of managing the different types of
behaviour in the classroom
1.3.4 explain the importance of record keeping
1.3.5 give reasons for and maintaining up to date records
1.4 Key Concepts
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Below are some definitions and explanations of the key
concepts you will meet in this Unit.
1.4.1 Classroom management refers to the way a teacher
manages the human and material resources in the classroom
to achieve learning
1.4.2 Classroom Organisation is the way a teacher arranges
the classroom environment to so as to enable effective
teaching and learning
1.4.3 Curriculum refers to all that is learnt in a
particular course or programme in its broadest sense. It
covers both learning that is planned and intended and
learning that is unplanned and unintended.
1.4.4 Deviant behavior refers to non conformity to a set of
norms , values and beliefs of a given society such as a
school.
1.4.5 Discipline refers to conformity to acceptable ways of
life in a particular society.
1.4.6 Evaluation is a measure to which set targets have
been accomplished in order to plan for the future .
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1.4.7 Group refers to a number of people who share some
common characteristics
1.4.8 Lesson Planning is the process of outlining
specified and time framed which guide the teacher and the
learners .This is normally drawn from a scheme.
1.4.9 Scheming is a step by step arrangement of subject
matter to be taught and learnt as drawn from the
syllabus .
1.4.10 Syllabus is an outline of selected materials drawn
from the curriculum documents which pupils should learn.
1.5 Content
1.5.1 Preparation for Teaching
1.5.1.1 Curriculum
A curriculum is the total structure of knowledge, skills, and
educational experiences that make up any one educational system or
its component parts.
1.5.1.2 Curriculum planning
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Curriculum planning is the global term we apply to any systematic
process intended to develop this structure. Curriculum planning is
usually carried out by the curriculum development team and
includes:
• decisions on the structure as a whole;
• the formulation of aims and objectives;
• decisions on the content to be included;
• the teaching strategy and methods to be used;
• media choice;
• assessment techniques; and
• evaluation.
Discussion: 1 . What are your experiences of curriculum planning? How would they define these terms?
1.5.1. Instructional development
Instructional development, also known as ‘instructional design’, is
a process of designing instruction that usually includes the stage
of curriculum design and development. Development is a process of
several phases: the initial phase is needs analysis, followed by
programme identification, then design of the overall curriculum for
the programme, and then by course design and development. Several
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courses will be designed as part of the curriculum for any given
programme.
You may have wondered where and how the material learnt in
schools comes. We have seen it necessary to bring it to your
attention that curriculum plays a very important role in the
teaching and learning situation. As explained in the section on
Key Concepts, curriculum refers to a refined and prescribed
course of studies which students must fulfill in order to pass.
The Report on the Presidential Commission of Inquiry into
Education and Training (1999) says that the curriculum is the
aggregate of all that we impart to our learners through the total
experiences of the school system, in a deliberate design to
achieve educational goals.
Farrant (1980) defines curriculum as all that is taught in a
school including the timetabled subjects and those aspects that
exercise an influence in the lives of the children. A complete
description of the curriculum has at least three distinct
components:
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(1) What is studied, the content or subject matter of
instruction
(2) How the study and teaching are done, the method of
instruction
(3) When the various subjects are presented, the order of
presentation.
You can clearly see that the curriculum represents the distilled
thinking of society on what it wants to achieve through
education. The curriculum tends to mirror society itself,
reflecting its aims, values and priorities. This includes what
society would want to pass on to its youth as values, knowledge,
skills and information. At this stage , you will appreciate that
the appropriateness of a curriculum should be based on the extent
to which it meets individual attributes, the economy, the needs
of society and the challenges of the future.
1.5.1.2 The Nature of the Curriculum in Zimbabwe
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As you continue to interrogate the literature and examine some
best practices in this area, you will realize that the nature of
any curriculum is determined by the National development agenda
and the educational goals set. In Zimbabwe, decisions on what is
taught are based on national policies, the demands of society,
the nature and characteristics of the learners, their stage of
development and their interests .
The current Government practice in Zimbabwe is that government
through the Curriculum Development Unit in the Ministry of
Education, Sport, Arts and Culture, in consultation with the
relevant stakeholders develops detailed syllabi. Schools then
select subject areas from the official curriculum. The Zimbabwe
School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC) as the qualifications
awarding body sets examinations for various levels on the
qualifications framework based on the official curriculum.
1.5.1.2 The role of the teacher in the curriculum
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We have examined the nature of the curriculum in Zimbabwe and the
various players that determine and influence its development. It
is clear that among these important groups of stakeholders, the
teacher is critical. As a teacher you should now look at the role
you are expected to play in the whole curriculum process. First,
do you think you have a role to play in curriculum design,
development and implementation? If this is so, what roles might
these be?
Nacino-Brown, et al.(1982):3 outline the teacher’s role in the
curriculum as follows:
The curriculum is not so much that which is found in
the printed guide
(Syllabus) as what the teacher makes of it in the
classroom. It is the teacher’s n adaptation to
meaningful learning experiences that really counts.
The teacher should use the syllabus as a framework and must feel
free to express his/her
teaching methods in the way that can best make him/ her
successful in the classroom.
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It should now be clear to you that teachers are critical people
as they make the curriculum design achieve what it is designed to
achieve. As a teacher , you you should be knowledgeable,
imaginative and creative to make the syllables relevant and
stimulating. One of your most critical roles is Curriculum
implementation. You remain a critical link as you further inform
the whole process by providing the necessary feedback to the
designers, policy makers and Ministry representatives. In this
way the gaps and challenges in syllabus design and implementation
are addressed.
1.5.1.4 The role of other stakeholders
You might have realized that there are various stakeholders who
contribute in no small measure to curriculum content. We have
the teacher associations such as ZIMTA, PTUZ, TUZ and various
pressure groups such Catholic Commission for Justice and PEACE
(CCJP), Jairos Jiri etc who play major roles in curriculum
development and implementation. ZIMTA has influenced the
inclusion of HIV and AIDS education in the school curriculum.
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The CCJP revisited the teaching of sex education and political
economy in school.
1.5.2 The Syllabus
Teachers do not teach what they think is important but they
derive the knowledge, skills and values to impart to the
learners from sources that have been systematic documents
are called syllabi. Macauley et al (1990) defines the
syllabus as a selection of what children should learn and
also specifies the content. In support, Aggraval (2000),
states that the syllabus is made up of fire major concepts.
(a) Preamble/Introduction – Justifies the inclusion of the
subject in the curriculum.
(b) Aims/Goals/Objectives – Present the longer term
aspirations, skills and competencies that should be
acquired, while objectives focus on learning outcomes in
each lesson.
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(c) Content/Subject matter – answers the question what is
to be learned or taught.
(d) Methodology/Learning Activities – are tied to the
content and answers the question how learning or teaching
should take place.
(e) Evaluation – is an attempt to ascertain the value or
worth of any activity. We hope you have conceptualized
what a syllabus is. In the following section we
introduce you to syllabus interpretation.
1.5.2.1 Syllabus Interpretation
Mnkandla (1996) states that, syllabus interpretation is concerned
with decoding, explanations and application of the syllabus
materials to classroom situation. The word ‘decoding’ means
giving meaning to the syllabus. So when you are interpreting the
syllabus, you will be giving meaning to the contents by breaking
down topics into teachable units. In order to adequately prepare
to teach, you need a thorough understanding of the subject
syllabus. This requires an in-depth study and/or analysis of the
syllabus documents as well as the wide variety of teaching18
approaches learnt in college. While there are general principles
on syllabus interpretation, each syllabus has its own specific
demands and requirements. You should be able to analyse each
topic and break it down into its constituent parts in order to
evolve coherent schemes of work.
Why interpret the syllabus?
The following are some of the reasons for interpreting the
syllabus.
a) To bring meaning to the contents of the syllabus. The
concepts are broadly presented and so there is
need to unpack them.
b) To prepare in advance what pupils will learn.
c) To give the teacher a chance to familiarize with the
concepts s/he is going to teach.
d) To enable the teacher to research more about the concepts to
be taught. The syllabus just gives and outline of what
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pupils should learn. The teacher needs to read so as to
fill up the gaps.
e) To help the teacher to note which materials need to be
collected or made in advance?
Now that syllabus interpretation has been dwelt on, it is
important that we focus on scheming because it is an important
aspect in classroom management.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ACTIVITY 1:
Explain with clear examples your role as a teacher in curriculum development
and implementation.
1.5.3 Scheming
Gwarinda (2000:29) explains the scheme of work as ‘—the logical
and sequential or step by step arrangement of subject matter to
be taught and learned drawn from the syllabus” Gwarinda (2000)
further says the scheme of work show how teacher intend to cover
the syllabus during the term. You can realize that the scheme is20
derived from the syllabus. In the scheme of work the
concepts/content to be covered are identified in more detail than
in the syllabus. It directs the teacher throughout the term on
what is to be covered and how it is to be covered.
1.5.3.1 Rationale
Scheming can be regarded as the teachers’ first contact with the
curriculum. The syllabus was not drawn up by the teacher but by
the CDU. The teacher has to interpret the syllabus so as to
bring the concepts to the learner. Since the syllabus is linked
to examinations, the teachers’ scheme of work should directly
based on the syllabus. As teachers we should never under
estimate the importance of examinations in the eyes of the
parents, society and the learners.
Parents want their children to pass the examinations so, if the
pupils are to pass examinations the teacher has to draw up
schemes of work that address and relate to the relevant
assessment scheme/specification grid.
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Scheming has a process to be followed as shown below:
a) Formatting and stating broad aims on the topic to be
covered.
b) Breaking down each topic into teachable lesson units.
c) Allocating adequate time to each topic.
d) Identification of relevant source materials.
e) Selecting and/or making suitable teaching/learning
activities, materials and media for each unit.
Now, we focus on factors to consider when you scheme.
1.5.3.2 Factors to Consider
You will realise that for effective scheming to take place, the
following are some of the factors that you need to take into
account:
1.5.3.2.1 Pupils
A pupil is a very important constituent of the scheme of work.
The scheme has to be determined by the age of the pupils, their
ability, interests and needs. So the scheme should be tailor
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made to meet these concerns, (Kochhar, 1996). The broad topics
on the syllabus should be broken down into units that can be
grasped by the pupils.
In order to meet the needs and interests of the individual
learners, the scheme needs to have a variety of learning
activities. However, the variety of activities should be
directed towards achieving the same goal.
1.5.3.2.2 The School Calendar
The school calendar spells out the activities to be done by the
school during the term or year. It tells you of the different
sporting activities to be done, staff meeting and workshops,
consultation days and when examinations are to be written.
Hence, you need to subtract these days and come up with the
actual teaching and learning days in the term.
1.5.3.2.3 Timetable
The timetable is very important because it shows you the amount
of time allocated to each subject. This knowledge enables you to
scheme the right amount of work so as to avoid a situation
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whereby you run short of what to teach or find yourself with too
much work to cover when the term year has ended.
1.5.3.2.4 Order
The way you sequence your topics in the scheme of work is very
important, (Kasambira, 1972). This point concurs with Kochlar
(1996) who indicates that when scheming you need to present your
work in a logical order. Topics that links must follow each
other to create continuity. For example – In Mathematics – we
have addition followed by subtraction, multiplication followed by
division and so on. These topics are related and it is easy for
pupils to understand them.
1.5.3.2.5 Seasonal changes in the year.
You also need to take into account the seasons of the year. Some
topics are easily understood when taught in summer while others
in winters. So you need to find out which topics. Can be taught
and learned effectively during the different seasons of the year.
This allows you to use the environment in the teaching and
learning process. Linking learning with the environment helps to
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make pupils realize the relevance of concepts they are learning.
For example topics like ‘seed germination’ can be taught during
the rain season when ploughing and seeding are in progress.
1.5.3.2.6 Scheme Format
You need to bear in mind that there is no one
particular scheme format. The format you use may depend
on preferences of individual teachers, heads of schools
and education officers, (Gwarinda, 1997).
Week
Ending
Aims Toipc
and
Content
Methods
and
Activiti
es
Media SOM Evaluat
ion
a) Week ending:- for accountability, purposes, dates of the
respective Fridays must be entered (e.g. 20/06/12).
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b) Aims:- these are long term outcomes or targets coached in
general terms reflecting value goals or benefits, e.g what
benefits do you as a teacher intend to bring to the child by
teaching him/her the material for the week). You then
translate the goals of instruction into a framework for an
instructional programme.
Examples:
i. To develop an understanding of addition of three digit
numbers.
ii. To develop expand children’s knowledge of aspects of
hygiene in the home.
c) Topic: The Topic is the general subject heading of the
week, e.g. addition of fractions etc
d) Content: This is the unit obtained from the breakdown of
the Topic e.g
Topic – Transport and Communication
Content – (i) road transport, (ii) Air transport (iii) Sea
transport.
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Note that content units must be logically sequenced and
their number usually equal to the number of lessons the
subject is given on the timetable.
e) Methods and Activities
(i) Methods: How you as a teacher are going to approach
the units in broad terms. There must be sufficient
variety in the methods employed to ensure effectiveness
of instructional process.
(ii) Activities: These are children’s activities stated
briefly and broadly for example – group experiments,
field trip, dramatisation etc.
f) Media – any materials or apparatus used to facilitate the
achievement of aims and must be related to the methods and
activities. If demonstrations are going to be used for
example, then apparatus suitable for demonstration must be
listed.
g) SOM: The first source of materials to be cited is the
official syllabus. This legitimizes the content and after27
that textbooks and other sources can then be cited including
page numbers. Examples of S.O.M. can be textbooks, teacher
guides, magazines etc.
h) Evaluation: Schemes of work as the framework for
instructional delivery must be evaluated. Formative
evaluation involving an examination of instructional methods
and media is used to get evidence for needed revision and
refinement of instruction. This is critical for both your
professional growth as you introspect your instructional
practice and the enhancement of pupils learning. Self
criticism should involve indicating partial or total failure
in your efforts to realize the aims of the week and the
reasons thereof. Reasons for failure could range from
volume of subject matter, sequencing of content, methods,
lack of pre-instructional knowledge, lack or unsuitability
of media or because of content carried over from the
previous week.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS ACTIVITY 2:
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Critically analyse the factors that you need to consider when scheming.
1.5.4 Lesson Planning
Coombs (1995:9) states that, “If we do not know where we are
going, we certainly will not get there. To succeed, we must
plan”. This is also true in teaching .It is unlikely that that
you will succeed in your career / teaching if you do not plan the
lessons you teach on a daily basis.
Kasambira (1992;17) defines a lesson plan as a “ short carefully
developed and written outline to help the teacher to achieve the
objectives of a specific topic ,skill or idea. From this
statement you can see that a lesson plan guides the teacher on
how to achieve set objectives.
Gwarinda (2000) states that a lesson plan is the immediate
translation of a scheme of work into action. In other words, it
is a process of specifying outlining specified and time-framed
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work which guides the teachers and learners on activities to be
performed.
1.5.4.1 Rationale
There are various reasons why teachers plan their work. The
following are some of them :
(1) It keeps the teacher focused.
(2) It enables the teacher and pupils to prepare adequate
teaching and learning materials.
(3) It enhances order
(4) Adequate planning and preparation minimises indiscipline.
(5) Planning promotes continuity of learning in the absence of a
teacher.
You may also note that the planning process must be conducted by
means of a systems approach in which the plan must follow a step
by step process, beginning with an analysis of needs and goals
and ending with an evaluated system of instruction. Decisions in
each of the individual steps is based on empirical evidence. Each
step leads to decisions which become’ inputs’ to the next step.
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1.5.4.2 Factors to Consider
In the paragraphs above, you have looked at the definitions and
the reasons why teachers need to plan their work before teaching.
It is essential that we look at the factors that influence and
guide the process of lesson planning. Below we list the factors
which we consider critical to effective planning. It is important
that you comprehend these factors. They are:
(1) Learners :Teachers need to take cognisance of the
pupils’ grade levels so that they plan relevant and
appropriate materials. Knowledge of the socio –cultural
background of the learners is essential .It enables the
teacher to give correct examples. The general class
performance needs to be considered to avoid the delivery of
irrelevant data.
Pupils’ ages as well as their individual needs are
important characteristics which guide the way the teacher
presents his /her work.
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(2) Resources are a vital component of lesson planning.
Teachers need to check on the quality and suitability of the
teaching materials they are using in the classroom.
(3) Enabling learning environment.
As a teacher you should be sensitive to the comfort and
welfare of the pupils by creating an enabling environment
for learning. You need to consider weather conditions in
planning outdoor activities for the pupils as some of these
will not be suitable during unfavourable weather conditions.
(4) Time and Time Tabling
After you have considerd the characteristics of your pupils
and the resources available, you need to look at the
timetable and the lesson duration. These are important
factors as they indicate the amount of time allocated per
subject. This knowledge enables you to plan the right amount
of work for your pupils. This will help you avoid a
situation where you either give pupils too much work to do
or too little work for the time allocated.
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(5) Planning Format
Planning follows a general format. However you would do well
to be aware of the fact that there may be variations in the
format because of the specific requirements of some
subjects.
Generally, a plan starts with an introduction, proceeds to
lesson development, followed by a conclusion and an
evaluation. There are important factors to consider. These
include coherence, connectivity and logical sequencing of
the objectives, the content/subject matter , activities and
the media to be used.
1.5.4.3 Approaches to teaching and learning.
1.5.4.3.1 Pupil centered/ child centred learning:
This is an approach to education that focuses on the needs of the
pupils rather than on those of others involved in the educational
process such as teachers and administrators. This entails putting
the interests of the learner first and is in sharp contrast to
teacher centered approaches which are guided by those of the33
teacher. You can see that the child centred approach focuses on
the pupil’ needs abilities, interests and learning styles. In
this scenario, the teacher’s role becomes that of a facilitator
of learning. The approach acknowledges that pupils are central to
the learning process. They are required to be active, responsible
participants in their own learning.
Theorists like John Dewey, Jean Piaget and Lev Vygotsky whose
collective works focused on pupils learn were primarily
responsible for the move to learner centered approaches. This
calls for reversing the traditional teacher –centred
understanding of the learning process and putting pupils at the
centre of the learning process.
Pupil-centred approaches allow pupils to actively participate in
discovery learning processes from an autonomous viewpoint. They
become active participants in the learning process. You will
appreciate that with the use of valuable learning skills,
students are capable of achieving life-long learning goals which
can further enhance student motivation in the classroom. Learning
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thus becomes constructive in the sense that the pupil/ learner is
in full control of his or her learning.
Advantages of Pupil-Centred Learning.
(1) Strengthens pupil motivation
(2) Promotes peer communication
(3) Reduces disruptive behavior
(4) Builds student – teacher relationships
(5) Promotes discovery/ active learning
(6) Responsibility for one’s own learning
It is important that you understand that to create a learner –
centered environment you need to pay attention to the following
aspects of learning, what the child is curious about learning and
teaching strategies to accommodate individual needs.
Pupils ’social needs include collaboration, communication and
peer approval. In short we could say that in order to create a
pupil-centered learning environment, you will need to be open,
dynamic, trusting, respectful and promote children’s subjective
as well as objective learning styles. 35
1.5.4.3.1 Teacher Centered Approach
You have examined the characteristics of the pupil –centered
approach to learning .We have also allude to teacher centered
approaches. In the paragraphs that follow below we look teacher
centered approaches. These basically have the teacher at the
centre in an active role and pupils in a passive and receptive
role .Traditionally ,teachers direct the learning process and
students assume a receptive role in the learning process. This is
best illustrated in tertiary education through the lecture method
of teaching. The teacher- centred learning recognizes that
children require the setting of achievable expectations and that
they must have a solid foundation before they can learn a new
concept. An example of this situation is that in order to learn
multiplication properly, a student must understand repeated
addition and grouping. This process cannot be discovered by most
students without the direction of the teacher. You need to
realize that in teacher-centred learning , students work to
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achieve curricular objectives in order to become critical
thinkers.
1.5.5 Lesson Presentation
We hope you are still enjoying the study of classroom management.
Our focus is now on classroom management. This should be
interesting news to you. Lesson presentation is a process of
imparting knowledge to learners through various methods and
activities. You should ensure that the methods you are going to
employ tally with the set objectives, media, lesson content as
well as the lesson activities. All these aspects should be in
line with the grade level syllabus demands. In every lesson
presentation, there are steps to follow. Below we give you the
steps as follows;
1.5.5.1 introduction
1.5.5.2 lesson development
1.5.5.3 group work
1.5.5.4 written work
1.5.5.5 conclusion
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We shall give you brief explanations to each step so as to
enhance your understanding.
1.5.5.1 Introduction
The Dictionary.com Unabridged [2011] defines an introduction as
an ‘act of presenting a …idea …’ We view an introduction as an
initial stage of presenting information.
The lesson introduction should be motivational and goal directed.
It should also suit your class i,e their age, their capabilities
as well as their needs. It should be precise to the point. A good
lesson introduction sholud not take more than five minutes. We
find this information useful to you. We now move on to lesson
development.
1.5.5.2 Lesson development
We know you will find this stage very much interesting. This is a
teaching stage. It is whereby you demonstrate your knowledge of
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the content through lesson delivery. We urge to be creative at
this stage so as to keep your class motivated and focused. Like
in the lesson introduction, the lesson objectives, media,
activities and methods should match your learners’ capabilities,
age, beliefs, needs as well as their socio- cultural backgrounds.
Adequate knowledge of these aspects will enhance an ideal lesson.
This is why Bredekamp and Copple [1997] cited in Fallari [2011;
5] emphasize that, ‘ good teaching is built on a solid
understanding of developmental theories which include universal
expectations and awareness of individual differences.’ When
teaching, you may discover that some pupils do not participate in
traditional music and dance due to their cultural and religious
beliefs. Do not force them. Your task is to find out why they are
behaving in that manner. This will enable you to employ better
approaches in future. We assure you that this will help you
conduct ideal lessons.
You should demonstrate what you expect your learners to achieve
by the end of the lesson. For examples, during the early days of
the first term you can demonstrate the shaping of letters to your
39
grade one class on the chalkboard. After that allow your class to
imitate you practicing on the ground using sticks or their
fingers. You may also ask to tell you what the lesson was all
about. This will help you measure their level of comprehension
thereby assisting you conduct an ideal lesson. Interesting!
Don’t you think so? Let’s find out what the next stage has for
us.
1.5.5.3 Groupwork
The Wikipedia Dictionary defines groupwork as a form of
cooperative learning which caters for individual
differences .This is a childcentred stage which creates an
opportunity for learners to discover their potentials as they are
actively involved .We would like to inform you that groupwork
depends on the nature of the lesson. This is not break time for
the teacher. In order for you to present an ideal lesson, you
40
should monitoryour class. This may help you identify intelligent,
weak, needy and abused learners.Such findings shall help you
address key aspects that enhance or hinder ideal
lessons .Weinsten and Carol [ 2007:264] explain the benefits of
groupwork to the learner when they say, ‘ one reasons for the
benefits is that cooperative learning allows students to take an
active role in their learning – to ask questions, to allocate
turns for speaking….’
1.5.5.4 Written work
We suggest that the term written work be substituted by the
evaluative exercise. The reason why we have suggested this term
is that not all lesson activities are written .Learners. may be
asked to respond to given tasks orally or through practical. For
example, Grade one learners to name given objects. After this
there is a conclusion..
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1.5.5.5 Conclusion
This is a stage of summing up the lesson. You should conclude a
lesson in a motivating manner. You may conclude by a song, rhyme
or poem that is relevant to the lesson. Find an interesting way
of concluding your lesson .You may also ask a few questions
related to the topic. NEVER conclude a lesson by giving a written
exercise. Like the introduction, a conclusion should be brief to
the point. In the next stage, we focus on the characteristics of
an Ideal Lesson Presentation.
1.5.6 Characteristics of an ideal lesson presentation
We shall discuss some of the characteristics of an ideal lesson
presentation. These are as follows
preparedness/ readiness
motivation
confidence
voice projection, and
knowledgeability on – syllabus content
-
lesson content
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- methodologies
- learners’ capabilities
- learners’ socio- cultural and
- learners’ needs and,
- the teaching and learning
Environment
1.5.6.1 Preparedness/ Readiness
We continue to give you information on the chararacteristics of
an ideal lesson presentation. We shall begin by focusing on
Preparedness or Readiness. You need to prepare to teach and this
should be thoroughly done. You should be intrinsically motivated
so as to adequately prepare for the lesson to be taught. Lack of
interest towards your work will contribute to poorly conducted
43
lessons. Your lesson plan should always be up to date so that you
remain focused during the lesson. We emphasize that you should
always have relevant and adequate media for all your
lessons .Adherence to given time is also important. Non-
adherence to the timetable will result in hapharzadly conducted
lessons. Create time that would enable you to check, mark and
discuss homework with your class .Prepare your class for the
activities to follow .Carefully arrange your classroom eg
furniture and displays for the next lesson activity. An ideal
lesson can be conducted if the necessary preparations are done.
Our next discussion shall focus on confidence as another
characteristic of an ideal lesson presentation.
1.5.6.2 Confidence
We would like to share with you how important confidence is in
enhancing an ideal lesson. Confidence is built on a number of
issues such as adequate lesson preparation, up to date records
and knowledge of your class. In most cases teachers loose
44
confidence and fail to conduct lessons effectively due to
inadequate preparation. When you are confident you will be able
to think of your lessons steps clearly and objectively. We hope
this is clear. We now move on to the aspect of voice projection
as a contributing factor to an ideal lesson presentation.
1.5.6.3 Voice projection
We find it necessary to share with you information on voice
projection.Good voice projection enhances an ideal lesson
delivery. You should be audible enough to be heard by every
learner in the classroom. Do not shout Do not whisper. Your voice
should not irritate or frighten your learners. They should be
comfortable and always willing to listen to you. We hope you are
still able to follow. The next aspect is on knowledgeability.
1.5.6.4 Knowledgeability
In this section we now explain aspects on knowledgeability in
detail
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1.5.6.4.1 Syllabus Content
In your lesson delivery it should be evident that the
objectives, activities,methods and media in your lesson plan are
in line with the syllabus content. We encourage you to revisit
information on syllabus interpretation. Your ability to
comprehend and apply syllabus will enhance an ideal lesson
presentation.
1.5.6.4.2 Learners’ capabilities
An ideal lesson presentation is also influenced by the knowledge
of your learners ability levels .It is therefore important to
study them so that you employ teaching strategies, media and
activities that suit them. The next stage focuses on the
learners’ socio-cultural, beliefs and needs.
1.5.6.4.3 Learners’ socio-cultural background, beliefs and needs
46
At times overlook factors that hinder effective lesson delivery
such as learners’ beliefs’ needs and their socio-cultural
backgrounds. In order to conduct an ideal lesson you as a teacher
should know your class. You may find that some pupils may not
participate fully or may not participate at all in music,
physical education and religious lessons due to their socio-
cultural backgrounds and beliefs. Some of them may lack materials
to use at school due to poverty or negligent parents In order to
conduct an ideal lesson you should be able to identify such
factors .An ideal lesson is also influenced by a conducive
teaching and learning environment.
1.5.6.4.4 The environment
The environment plays an important role on lesson
presentation .As a teacher you should be aware of factors that
constitute a conducive teaching and learning environment. Other
factors that constitute a conducive teaching and learning
environment are the physical environment. The furniture should be
well arranged to allow free movement. The teacher should be
approachable. You should also provide adequate and relevant
47
media. We feel we need a break now. Don’t you think so? After
this short activity, work on the task that we have given you
below.
ACTIVITY
Justify in five ways why lesson planning is important to the
teacher. :
1.5.7 CLASSROOM MANGEMENT
You will realize that your class…
1.5.8 CLASS DISCIPLINE AND CONTROL
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1.5.8.1 Class rules and regulations
It is important for us to expose you to the concepts of
discipline and control. You will realize that for teaching
and learning to effectively take place, there must be
discipline in the classroom. Discipline generally refers to
behavior in accordance with rules of conduct set. A class
should have rules that govern the operatives of the pupils.
A rule is a regulation that is designed to control or govern
conduct.
The pupils who fail to adhere to the set, rules become
indisciplined or exhibit deviant behaviour. Deviant
behaviour means failure to conform with rules, norms and
values of an organisation. You therefore need to control
your pupils so as to combat deviant behaviour and establish
discipline. To be successful in combating deviant behaviour
it is prudent for you to know some of the types of deviant
49
behaviour. You should also know some of the causes of
deviant behavior.
1.5.8.3 Types of deviant behavior
There are several types of deviant behaviour that pupils
exhibit. You are exposed to some of them in this section.
You will realize that some of the common types are bullying,
cheating, stealing, fighting , noise making, late coming,
hiding books and failure to finish assignments.
Offences such as dishonesty, sexual offenses (e.g possession
of pornography literature, abortion, etc), disobedience,
during abuse, wickedness, strike, rudeness and breaking
boundaries are also common amongst the pupils. These types
of deviant behavior are obviously triggered by a variety of
causes. We now look at some of these causes.
1.5.8.2 Causes of deviant behaviour
(a) The child’s personality
It has been argued that heredity is influential in moulding
the child’s personality. Children from families with a
50
history of violence will also be violent. Those from
families of thieves will also be thieves. This myth is
debatable and scholars have not yet agreed on this
implication.
(c) Peer group influence
A child may easily be influenced by his/her peers to
misbehave as they are out playing. Think of several examples
of misbehavior that came as a result of influence of peers.
You must have realized that stealing and violence are part
of these examples.
(d) The teachers influence
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Quite often you find teachers who display undesirable
behaviour in front of the children. Some of teachers are
arrogant and inconsistent with what they preach to the
children. Basically the teacher is a role model to the
children. Children copy everything that the teacher does.
Therefore the teacher’s behavior should be exemplary
otherwise he or she has the potential to cause serious
indiscipline in the classroom. Teachers who are disorderly
and fail to formulate rules for their classes are a
potential disaster.
(f) The school’s influence
The climate of the school also influences the behavior of
the children. A school that is not controlled and has a
laissez- faire type of leadership will produce pupils who
lack the necessary guidance and direction. In such a
school deviant behavior tends to be rampant.
Behaviour Modification
52
We have looked at some of the causes of devinant behavior.We now
introduce you to some of the ways a teacher can modify pupils’
behavior
The Satiation Principle
Kasambira ( ) believes that if a child is always
eating during lessons the teacher should allow him/her to
continue chewing throughout the day until he or she is tired
of it. The next day the child will refrain from this type of
behaviour.
(1) Rewarding
You would do well to reward children who behave well. You
can do this in several ways through positive comments. If a
child is notorious for misbehaving and one day he/ she
behaves well you need to praise that behaviour. You could
53
also ask the whole class to clap hands for such a pupil to
reinforce the positive action.
(2) Punishment
Unacceptable behavior by a pupil deserves punishment. Such
punishment for misbehavior can take several forms. As a
teacher you should note that corporal punishment is
discouraged in the school system. In meting out punishment
you should endeavour to match the form of punishment to the
type and gravity of the offence. In doing this consider the
age of the pupil. Note that you should not punish the whole
not punish the whole class for an offence committed by an
individual. Remember a teacher should not administer punish
in anger.
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PROGRESS ACTIVITY: 4
Discuss some types of deviant behavior. How can such behavior be
modified in the classroom situation?
1.5.9 Record Keeping
1.5.9.1 Rationale
Record keeping involves the organization and management of data
in the school system. It entails data such as marks, grades and
other relevant details. Records help you to assess and evaluate
your pupils, the teaching and learning process. You must be aware
that to get maximum benefit from records you should:
1.5.9.1 record the work accurately from the original
source
1.5.9.2 hold positive/ objective opinions on students that
do that do not make them
overconfident
1.5.9.3 be economic with space but give maximum possible
information
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1.5.9.4 be up- to- date. Soon after administering and marking
the exercise, recording should be done.
1.5.9.5 Avail records to parents and other stakeholders for
feedback
1.5.9.6 evaluate records periodically as per institution
requirements
Farrant [1980] describes records as communication devices.
Aggarwal [1992] is of the opinion that records are about
compilation of different judgements, held from time to time
during the course of study of a pupil.
Clearly, the implication is that records in the classroom
situation are tools that are used to understand pupils in order
to facilitate better planning and learning experiences.
Characteristics of good records are as follows;
1.5.9.7 validity – information must come from original sources
and should not be distorted
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1.5.9.8 comprehensiveness – as much as possible comprehensive
information about the student should be gathered and
recorded
1.5.9.9 accuracy - accurate information about pupils
culminates in sound and purposeful teaching and
reporting
Check your progress: Activity 5
Define a record in your own words and discuss the
characteristics of a good record .
You should also be conversant with the purpose of records. Here,
Gronuland (1985) believes that the prime purpose of record
keeping is to improve learning and instruction and to help to
monitor the progress of individual learners. Records provide
information to you and your pupils as well as to other
stakeholders. Records show that we have taken statutory
responsibility/ accountability such as delivering the national
curriculum and monitoring learners’ progress.
57
1.5.9.2 Types of Records
You may by now be aware that quite a number of records are used
in the primary school situation. You will need to familiarize
yourself with each and every one of the following types of
records that you will be required to keep up to date at all
times.
These are:
(1) Attendance register
(2) Class inventory
(3) Co-curricular record
(4) Community involvement record
(5) Extension record
(6) Progress record
(7) Reading record
(8) Remedial record
(9) Social or Individual record
(10)Test record
1.5.9.2(1) The Attendance register
58
This register is a record that you will use to the regularity of
attendance in class by your pupils .It will help you check on
those pupils who absent on any given day. You may then
investigate to find out the possible causes of such absences.
Ozigi (1994) explains that a register the teacher to monitor the
attendance pattern of pupils whose behaviour or academic progress
is a cause for concern. This will lead you as the class teacher
to find out the reasons for the child’s continued irregular
attendance at school. The register should indicate where
applicable the reasons for withdrawing a pupil and at the same
time record the new entrants.
1.5.9.2(2) Class inventory record
This is a record which gives which gives a detailed list of all
the items found in a classroom. These include such things as
desks, chairs, chalkboard rubbers and cleaners, cupboards, dust
pans and brooms and similar items ordinarily kept in the
59
classroom. Below we give an example of how such a record can be
designed.
ITEM QUANTITY STATUS DATE LAST
CHECKED
SIGNATURE &
DATE
Teacher’s
Desk
1 Slightly
broken
drawers
20
September
2012
Pupils’Desk
s
35 11 in poor
condition,
the rest in
good
condition.
20
September
2012
Chairs 37 20 in poor
shape, the
rest,
satisfactor
y.
20
September
2012
Benches Where
applicable
Cupboards 2 good 20
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condition,
I without
locks.
September
2012
Chalkboard
rubbers
2 1 used up,
the other
fairly new
20
September
2012
Brooms, etc 1, 1 with
broken
handle
20
September
2012
With this kind of record, you are informed of the resources
available in the classroom and what needs to be procured or
replaced. Looking at the scenario depicted above, you will
appreciate why you need to take good care of the available items
and maintain them in a usable condition. The school head will
find this record useful when sending items for repair or
procuring needed replacements.
1.5.9.2(3) Co-curricular records
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This is an important record which you must always make available.
Its availability enables you as a learner teacher to answer to
the curriculum demands that you develop into a full person by
going through a balanced education. The requirement for this
record guarantees that student teachers like you fully
participate in sporting, cultural and other recreational
activities in the capacity of trainer or leader.
1.5.9.2 (4) Community involvement record
This is a record that you as a student teacher will need to keep.
I t stresses the need for students teachers and pupils to be
valuable assets in the community in which they live, work and
study. It is your task to identify community based projects
current or proposed in the community. Such projects could focus
on establishment of herbal gardens and orchards, gulley
reclamation and filling in potholes and dongas. It can also be in
the form of adult literacy education for the locals. To succeed,
it is critical that you carefully plan how you will carry out
these projects. After you have started, you will need to carry
out a formative evaluation so that you are kept on course.
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1.5.9.2(5) Extension record
1.5.9.2(6) Progress record
This is a record of marks and grades attained in set targets
attained by pupils in set targets in different learning domains.
It shows the academic achievements and progress made by the
pupils. Entries of marks obtained in tests, revision exercises
and selected activities can be made weekly, fortnightly, monthly
or termly. According to Oguninyi(1994), the record of marks
should be based on the pupil’s performance upon completing a
concept, a unit or a topic. You need to develop the art of
setting good test items. These will help you identify problem
areas that your pupils experience so that you can attend to them
effectively.
1.5.9.2. (7) Reading record
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1.5.9.2. (8) Remedial record
This record is used to follow up impediments to progress in
learning noted by the teacher. Farrant (1995) defines the
remedial record as one that diagnostically shows pupils who need
specific and immediate help in given subject areas. It challenges
the teacher to re-plan and justify their methods so as to
eliminate learning flows. You need to note that this record
should state the name of the pupil requiring immediate help; the
weaknesses identified proposed media and remedial strategy. You
should have a good remedial programme so you are able to
identify, support and track pupils who need help. You need to
note, however, that remediation is not necessarily a one off
event as you may need to repeat the exercise all over again.
1.5.9.2. (9) Social or Individual record
As a teacher who aspires to be effective, you will appreciate the
need to compile and maintain an updated individual social record
for each of the pupils under your care. This record is critical
in that it shows the history or social background of individual64
pupils’ .The record gives details of an individual pupil such as
the size of the family, the pupil’s birth rank, occupation and
level of education of the parents or guardians and the marital
status of the parents as well as the type of family.
Disciplinary information is tracked by the teacher and often by
the school office as well. For examplel whenever pupil is the
Head or Deputy heads’ office for disciplinary reasons a record
should be is kept. This information will be available to class
teachers so that a clear picture of a child’s behavior in subject
classes as well as main lessons is readily available.
Parent conferences and the work with children with special
needs are well documented. You can also document any meetings or
conferences you have with the pupils’ parents or guardians and
ask them to sign the documentation. The documentation includes a
written list of what the school will do for the child and what
the school expects the parents to do.
Carefully analysed, these aspects can assist you in accounting
for the possible causes of pupils’ behaviour and performance.
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1.5.9.2. (10) Test record
The purpose of a test is to enable you as a teacher to determine
the level of knowledge, skill and concept acquisition your pupils
have attained. It is critical that you keep an accurate and up to
date record of pupils achievement.
Aggrarwal(1992) and Mills (1991) contend that a test record book
is compiled for different subjects/ topics/concepts meant to test
pupils regularly. As a teacher, your test record should show the
subject, the date the test was administered; test objectives test
items or content and the teacher’s comments.
1.5.9.2.(11) Home work record
The homework chart in each classroom is a particularly effective
method of record keeping. It is effective for pupils and
teachers alike. You may find this a quicker and more reliable way
of checking on homework given and the frequency of such
exercises.
1.5.9.3. (12) School Reports
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The written reports that go home to parents should be clear,
professional, and complete. The quality of your record keeping
will be evident in the thoroughness of the reports. All reports
should be read and edited for tone and style in addition to being
proofread for obvious spelling and grammatical errors.
Activity 6
1. What type of record keeping does your school expect teachers to keep in the classroom (e.g. late comers, absences, work in progress)? Do these expectations vary by grade?
2. Describe how these records are kept.
3. How are new teachers instructed in these expectations at your school?
All teachers, new and experienced and those like yourself who are
learning the tricks of the trade can always benefit from more
conversation around record keeping. It needs to be simple and
user friendly so that it does not become tedious and burdensome.
This will help you in your effort to build a clear picture of the
child’s progress and development.
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It is advisable that you share with other fellow students the
various techniques that are used for tracking student progress in
their schools. This sharing will be of mutual benefit as it will
further enrich your experiences.The more you can discuss with
mentors and other experienced teachers their record keeping and
tracking of student performance We reiterate what we have said
above that good record keeping results in good end of year report
and allows you to identify and react to pupils’ concerns early
on.
1.6 Summary1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Assignment
1.8.4 Assignment 4
What is working particularly well at your school with regard to classroom record
keeping?
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Is there something you would change if you could with regard to classroom record
keeping at your school? What is it, and what changes would you make?
1.9 References:
Aggarwal, J.C.(1992) School Administration, New Delhi: Arya Book
Depot.
Cohen, L., Manion,L., Morrison,R. and Wise, D.(2010) A Guideto Teaching Practice, Revised 5th edn. London: Routledge Falmer.
Blandford, S. (1998) Managing Discipline in schools. New York:Routledge.
Dreykurs, R.,Grunwald , B.B., Pepper, F.C. (1982) Maintaining
Sanity in the Classroom 2nd edn. New York: HarperCollins.
Farrant, J.S.(1995) Principles and Practices of Education,
London, Longman Private Limited.
Gronlund, N.E. (1985) Measurement and Evaluation in Teaching 5th
edn. New York, Macmillan Publishing Co. Inc.
Kyriacou, C. (1997) Effective Teaching in Schools, 2nd edn.
Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes.
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Kyriacou, C.(2007) Essential Teaching Skills, 3rd edn. Cheltenham:
Nelson Thornes.
Ogunniyi, O.A. (1994) Educational Measurement and Evaluation,
Lagos, Longman.
Mnkandhla, A.V. (1996) Porfessional Studies, Bulawayo:
Religious and Commercial Printers.
Nacino-Brown, R. et al.(1982) Curriculum and Instruction ,
Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers.
1.10 Further Reading
1.11 Glossary
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