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Prestigious fruit trees in ancient Israel: firstpalynological evidence for growing Juglans regia andCitrus medicaDafna Langguta
a The Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments, The Sonia and Marco NadlerInstitute of Archaeology, Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 69978, IsraelPublished online: 01 Oct 2014.
To cite this article: Dafna Langgut (2014): Prestigious fruit trees in ancient Israel: first palynological evidence for growingJuglans regia and Citrus medica, Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, DOI: 10.1080/07929978.2014.950067
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Prestigious fruit trees in ancient Israel: first palynological evidence for growing Juglans regia
and Citrus medica
Dafna Langgut*
The Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Ancient Environments, The Sonia and Marco Nadler Institute of Archaeology,Tel Aviv University, P.O. Box 39040, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
(Received 18 March 2014; accepted 28 July 2014)
This article describes the earliest evidence for the growing of two prestigious fruit trees: Juglans regia (Persian walnut) andCitrus medica (citron) in ancient Israel. The study also tries to identify the origin of these trees as well as their influence onJewish tradition and culture. The palynological information from the Southern Levant supports the hypothesis of the survivalof J. regia during the Last Glacial period in some areas of Eurasia. Accumulating palynological information as well asarcheobotanical evidence of J. regia plant remains from northern Israel from »1800 years BCE suggests the beginning ofhorticulture of walnut in the Southern Levant. The growing of walnut within Israel probably started in the north, and nearlyone millennium later, palynological evidence indicates that J. regia cultivation had spread also to the Judean Mountains.Walnut is mentioned only once in the Bible, in Song of Solomon (6:11). From the interpretation of this text as well otherJewish texts and the available palynological diagrams, it is clear that since the Persian period (fifth to fourth centuries BCE),J. regia was well established in ancient Israel. Citron, although being one of the four species of the Jewish feast of Tabernacles(Sukkot), is not native to the flora of the Near East. The earliest archeobotanical evidence of the growing of C. medica in Israelwas recently discovered in a Royal Persian garden in Ramat Rahel near Jerusalem, dated to the fifth to fourth centuries BCE.C. medica seems to have made its way to Ramat Rahel from India via Persia. From that point on, citron gradually penetratedthe Jewish culture and tradition. The citron is not mentioned in the Bible, and the association between the citron and theP€urı `€ec h€ad€ar (Leviticus 23:40), translated “fruit of the goodly tree,” was only made during the first century AD.
Keywords: Juglans regia; Persian walnut; Citrus medica; citron; pollen; Last Glacial refuge; horticulture; SouthernLevant; ancient Israel; Four Species
Introduction
The introduction of a specific species of tree can be traced
by its first appearance in fossil pollen records and/or by its
presence in botanical assemblages extracted from archeo-
logical sites. While the latter may only point to the impor-
tation of a specific tree (for its timber, fruits, etc.), the
occurrence of pollen grains of a particular plant in a paly-
nological spectrum is direct evidence that it actually grew
in a given region. The Southern Levant natural flora is
reflected in Pleistocene and Early Holocene fossil pollen
diagrams (Horowitz 1968, 1979; Niklewski & van-Zeist
1970; Weinstein-Evron 1983; Kadosh et al. 2004; van-
Zeist & Bottema 2009; van-Zeist et al. 2009; Langgut
et al. 2011; Litt et al. 2012; Aharonovich et al. 2014).
Within the palynological records which cover the second
half of the Holocene, the rise of pollen percentages of
local tree cultivation (e.g., Olea europaea) and the intro-
duction of non-indigenous trees are clearly evident. The
aim of this study is to trace the first palynological evi-
dence of the growing of two prestigious fruit trees in
Ancient Israel: Juglans regia (Persian walnut) and Citrus
medica (citron). The study also tries to shed light on the
origin of these trees, as well as their links to Jewish tradi-
tion and culture in later periods.
Juglans regia
Origin
Juglans regia (Persian walnut) is considered one of the
most important traditional nuts of Old World agriculture
(Zohary et al. 2012). This species is a mesophytic tree
which grows on rich, slightly moist and deep soil on
mountain slopes, in ravines and in the valleys of rivers
and streams (Browicz 1996). As with other old and wide-
spread cultivated plants, it is not easy to reconstruct its
original distribution and determine the borders of its past
natural geographical ranges (Hegi 1981). J. regia is cur-
rently native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia � the
Balkans, eastern Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, north Iran,
south Caspian region, the Caucasus, Pakistan, northern
India, Nepal and Tibet up to the Xinjiang province of
western China (Browicz 1996; Zohary et al. 2012). Today,
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected] paper has been contributed in honor of Professor Daniel Zohary
� 2014 Taylor & Francis
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the species is also found throughout southern and western
Europe, although it is more frequent in south-central and
southeastern Europe (Huntley & Birks 1983).
It is common wisdom that J. regia disappeared from
central Europe, the Balkans and southwest Turkey during
the Last Glacial period (the W€urm, approximately between
75,000 and 15,000 years BP), and reappeared in the Bal-
kans and southwest Turkey not before the middle of the
fourth millennium BP (Zohary et al. 2012). This very late
reappearance suggests that J. regia did not return to these
areas as a post-glacial wild element, but was reintroduced
by humans. Its wild occurrence today in the Balkans and
central Europe therefore represents, according to Zohary
et al. (2012), feral derivatives of cultivated walnut intro-
duced by humans. Browicz (1996) also suggests that the
occurrence of J. regia in the Balkans, Caucasus, Lebanon
and Iraq can be considered to be of anthropogenic origin.
In general, refuge (D a relict � a species that exists as
a remnant of a formerly widely distributed group in an
environment different from that in which it originated) is
by definition always difficult to demonstrate. There is an
ongoing debate whether J. regia populations are from nat-
ural or anthropogenic origin (e.g., Carri�on & S�anchez-Gomez 1992; Fornari et al. 1999; Carri�on et al. 2003;
Beer et al. 2008). This study gathered all the palynological
evidence available for the Southern Levant, which covers
the late Pleistocene and the early Holocene, in order to
cheek the presence of J. regia prior to the beginning of
horticulture.
The palynological evidence
The usefulness of J. regia pollen to indicate its actual
presence in the Southern Levant
The pollen of the walnut tree is relatively large (equatorial
diameter 43�53 mm) and is very easy to identify. The
grain is disc-shaped with a psilate wall (D a smooth sur-
face) and it is considered to be periporate, but it is very
characteristic in that the 10�15 pores are all found on the
equator and in only one hemisphere (heteropolar) (Bot-
tema 2000; Beug 2004). Unlike the pollen of other air-
borne fruit trees (e.g., Olea europaea; Langgut et al.
2014), J. regia pollen does not spread very far despite its
recognizable anemophily (Huntley & Birks, 1983; Bot-
tema & Woldring 1990; Bottema 2000). Its low pollen
dispersal efficiency is ascertained by the investigations of
its “recent pollen rain” in relation to the vegetation (Bot-
tema 2000): several meters from J. regia orchard, pollen
values of this species drop to 0.1�0.2% of the total arbo-
real pollen or even to zero. When values of J. regia
exceeded 2%, a fairly large number of these trees must
have been present close by and/or other tree species may
have been reduced to a minimum. That means that in the
fossil pollen records J. regia pollen is usually under-repre-
sented and its presence, even in very small numbers, indi-
cates the occurrence of this species somewhere in the
vicinity of the sampling location. Wild and cultivated pol-
len grains of J. regia are palynologically indistinguishable
(Bottema & Woldring 1990).
Late Pleistocene�Early Holocene Southern Levant
pollen diagrams
Fossil pollen of J. regia was found in several Southern
Levant palynological studies from the Ghab Valley (Last
Glacial and Early Holocene: Niklewski & van-Zeist
1970), Birkat Ram (Early Holocene, ca. 7000 years BP:
Neumann et al. 2007a), Lake Hula (Last Glacial and
Deglaciation period: Horowitz 1968; Last Glacial: Wein-
stein-Evron 1983; Mid Holocene: van-Zeist et al. 2009),
Sea of Galilee (Early Holocene: Horowitz 1968) and the
Carmel coast (ca. 10,000 years BP: Kadosh et al. 2004)
(Table 1). In all these pollen records, the occurrence of
Table 1. Palynological evidence of the occurrence of J. regia during the late Pleistocene�Early Holocene in the Southern Levant.
Location Chronology of pollen appearance Reference Period being covered in the study
Ghab Valley (Syria) Appearance in several spectraduring the last glacial and earlyHolocene
Niklewski & van Zeist1970
Last Glacial and Early Holocene
Birkat Ram Early Holocene (»7000 years BP) Neumann et al. 2007a » the last 7000 years BP
Lake Hula (Borehole K Jam) Appearance in two spectra: the firstis dated to the Early W€urm andthe second is dated to the endof the Pleistocene, slightly beforethe transition to the Holocene
Horowitz 1968 The Pleistocene and theHolocene
Lake Hula (LO7 borehole) Last Glacial Weinstein-Evron 1983 Last Glacial
Lake Hula (The 1987 Hula core) Early Bronze (»5000 years BP) van Zeist et al. 2009 » the last 12,000 years BP
Sea of Galilee (Borehole D-1016/2) Early Holocene Horowitz 1968 Holocene
Dor, Carmel coast (D-Dor drilling) Beginning of the Holocene(»10,000 years BP)
Kadosh et al. 2004 Early Holocene
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J. regia is usually of a single pollen grain in one pollen
spectrum. However, in the relatively longer diagrams,
sometimes it does appear in several spectra (Table 1).
Because J. regia is poorly dispersed and tends to be
under-represented in the pollen assemblages (Huntley &
Birks 1983; Bottema & Woldring 1990; Bottema 2000), it
is not likely that the pollen grains presented in Table 1
arrived from areas outside the Levant. During the Last
Glacial and the Deglaciation period, J. regia also survived
in several locations in Turkey (e.g., van-Zeist et al. 1975;
Litt et al. 2009). A similar picture is emerging from paly-
nological information from other regions in Europe that
reveals that J. regia was present there in earlier intergla-
cials but that the last glacial severely reduced its numbers.
The earliest pollen evidence for European Juglans comes
from Lower Eocene, France (Gruas-Cavagnetto 1978).
Paleobotanical information indicates that from the Ter-
tiary onwards through the Quaternary, this species became
more frequent in Western Europe (Renault-Miskovski
et al. 1984). In the Deglaciation period and during the
Early Holocene, it is also present in Europe, but not in
impressive numbers, growing as indigenous before the
appearance of horticulture (e.g., Renault-Miskovski et al.
1984). Although the conclusions that various authors
draw are somewhat contradictory (e.g., Carri�on et al.
2003 versus Zohary et al. 2012), it seems that there are
several areas where J. regia possibly survived the last gla-
ciations as refugia: southern Europe, the Near East, China,
and the Himalayas (Beer et al. 2008 and references
therein). For example, palynological data from the Cari-
huela Cave (Granada, southeastern Spain) suggest the
presence of J. regia in that region throughout the early
and middle stages of the last glaciation (Carri�on &
S�anchez-Gomez 1992). An analysis of genetic diversity
and differentiation in European and Asiatic J. regia popu-
lations supports the theory of a native origin of European
walnut in post-glacial times (Fornari et al. 1999). It there-
fore seems that in limited areas, most probably where cli-
matic conditions were milder, J. regia survived the cold,
dry Last Glacial period. The palynological information
from the Southern Levant which is presented in Table 1
lends support to the hypothesis of survival in this region.
Mid-Holocene Levantine palynological diagrams
Since the Middle Bronze Age I (1950�1750 years BCE)
there is increasing palynological evidence for the occur-
rence of J. regia in the Southern Levant. In the Sea of
Galilee pollen diagrams, there are rising percentages from
»1800 years BCE (Figure 1). This finding is corroborated
by archeobotanical data � the earliest J. regia remains in
the land of Israel were found in a Middle Bronze Age
stratum at Tel Megiddo (Liphschitz 2000). According
to stratigraphy (Ilan et al. 2000: 78�79) and the
general chronology of the Tel (Finkelstein, personal
communication) the stratum should be dated to the late
Middle Bronze Age I to early Middle Bronze Age II,
meaning that this archeobotanical finding is most proba-
bly from the »1800�1700 years BCE time interval. Other
archeobotanical remains come from the upper Galilee at
Hazor in a Late Bronze Age stratum (1550�1150 years
BCE; Liphschitz 2000). Walnut remains were also found
at the Caves of Nahal Mishmar (Zaitschek 1961); how-
ever, their context is not clear, as they have not yet been
directly dated (e.g., by AMS radiocarbon) to confirm their
stratigraphy (Chalcolithic or Roman level). In the pollen
records of northern Israel, the appearance of J. regia from
the Middle Bronze Age and into the Iron Age is inconsis-
tent (Neumann et al. 2007a: Birkat-Ram; van-Zeist et al.
2009: Hula Valley; Sea of Galilee: Figure 1). Pollen of
J. regia was also found in an Iron Age stratum at Beth-
saida (Geyer et al. 2009). Since the fifth to fourth centu-
ries BCE, during the Persian period, the Juglans pollen
curves are continuous, showing that the walnut tree was
well established in northern Israel by that time (Neumann
et al. 2007a; van-Zeist et al. 2009). Nearly a millennium
later, there is the first palynological evidence of the occur-
rence of J. regia in pollen diagrams from southern Israel
(the Dead Sea area), showing that it probably grew on the
eastern slopes of the Judean Mountains; The earliest pol-
len evidence comes from an Iron Age II layer, dated to
approximately the ninth century BCE, from a palynologi-
cal study conducted in the Ze’elim Gully (Langgut et al.
2014). Other evidence is dated slightly later: in Ramat
Rahel J. regia pollen is present in assemblages from the
Royal Persian garden, dated to the fifth to fourth centuries
BCE (Langgut et al. 2013a) and in the Ein Feshkha pollen
record, it appears in the Hellenistic period (late fourth
century to late first century BCE; Neumann et al. 2007b).
The appearance of a continuous pollen curve of J. regia in
the Ghab Valley in Syria precedes the evidence from
Northern Israel. According to Bottema and Woldring
(1990), the start of growing of walnut trees for economic
reasons is dated to the early second millennia BCE.
Until now, it is unknown where and when the domesti-
cation of J. regia took place (Zohary et al. 2012). The pal-
ynological evidence does not give a clear picture of the
origin of domestication of the walnut or the direction of
its spread (Bottema 2000). Zohary et al. (2012) claim that
walnut cultivation most likely started in northern Iran,
northeastern Turkey and the Caucasus. Increasing percen-
tages of pollen and more continuous appearances of J.
regia pollen curves since the beginning of the second mil-
lennium BCE are indicated in diagrams from Turkey and
Greece, suggesting that the walnut tree was most likely
planted by farmers (van Zeist et al. 1975; Bottema 1980,
2000; Bottema & Woldring 1984, 1990; Eastwood et al.
1999). In the Zeribar region in Iran, J. regia appears only
at about 500 years BCE (van-Zeist & Bottema 1977). It is
therefore more likely that the idea and knowledge of
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growing J. regia for economic reasons spread to ancient
Israel from the northern Levant.
The walnut in the Bible and Jewish tradition
Its Hebrew name ( זוגא - �egoz) appears only once in the
Bible (Song of Solomon 6:11): “I went down to the nut
orchard, to look at the blossoms of the valley, to see
whether the vines had budded, whether the pomegranates
were in bloom”.
According to Jewish tradition, the book Song of Solo-
mon was written during the time of King Solomon (tenth
century BCE). However, based on its linguistic interpreta-
tions, it is accepted today, among many scholars, that
most of the songs within the book were actually written
several centuries later, during the Hellenistic period (most
probably during the third century BCE; e.g., Zakovitch
1992: 19). Indeed, according to the verse from Song of
Solomon, the walnut grew in a garden with some other
fruit trees such as grape and pomegranate. This means
that by the time the text was written, the walnut tree was
well established as a cultivated fruit tree in the region.
The idea of a garden which includes walnut trees among
other fruit trees is reflected in the archebotanical
reconstruction of the Royal Persian garden in Ramat
Rahel, where in addition to walnut the following fruit
trees were identified palynologically: fig (Ficus carica),
grape (Vitis vinifera), citron (Citrus medica), and olive
(Olea europaea). Although some scholars interpreted the
garden in the Song of Solomon as a metaphor, most
researchers believe that the meaning is of a garden in
which the walnut tree is its main element (Stoop-van-Pari-
don 2005 and references therein). In the Mishnah (dated to
the third century BCE) the walnut is mentioned as a tree
which requires peaa ( האפ D a form of charity � the corner
of a field or orchard left unharvested for the poor to come
and take what they need). Josephus Flavius (first century
AD) praised the fruitful valley near the Sea of Galilee for
its abundance of walnut trees, among other plants (Zohary
1982: 64).
Citrus medica
C. medica (citron, Etrog) is not mentioned in the Bible
among the four species (“arba’at ha-minim”) of the Jew-
ish feast of Tabernacles, Sukkot), and the association
between the citron and the P€urı `€ec h€ad€ar (Leviticus
23:40), translated “fruit of the goodly tree,” was made
hundreds of years later. Additionally, and as opposed to
Figure 1. Palynological diagram of the Sea of Galilee presenting a selection of pollen curves during the Bronze and Iron Ages. A 10-fold exaggeration is used to show changes in taxa percentages (shaded gray). The chronological framework and the division into histori-cal periods are presented in details in Langgut et al. 2013b.
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the other three species (willow, myrtle, and frond from a
date palm), the citron is not native to the Israeli flora
(Zohary et al. 2012). Scholars argue over the question
when the citron first appeared in this region and was iden-
tified as the biblical “fruit of goodly tree.” Biger and
Liphschitz (1987) claimed that citrus fruit generally
arrived in the region during the tenth century AD at the
earliest, and the identification of the citron as the “fruit of
goodly tree” only came about at a much later period. They
believed that the citrus fruit mentioned in the ancient
scripts is not the citron, but rather the Lisbon Lemon,
which also has an elongated shape and a pedicel. Felix
(1987), however, following Gur (1974) and Moldenka
and Moldenka (1952), claimed that the citron existed in
Israel since biblical times. Tolkowsky (1966) proposed a
compromise, arguing the citron made its way to the region
during the conquest of Alexander the Great (late fourth
century BCE).
New recently published pollen findings from Ramat
Rahel near Jerusalem shed new light on the earliest possi-
ble dating of the cultivation of C. medica in ancient Israel
(Langgut et al. 2013a; Figure 2a�c). A Persian Royal gar-
den was excavated in Ramat Rahel, on the western side of
an extravagant palace (Lipschits et al. 2012). While exam-
ining one of the plastered pools in the garden, dating to the
fifth or fourth century BCE, fossilized C. medica pollen
was identified that had been trapped in one of the plaster
layers (various facilities within the garden were plastered
in several layers, most probably due to ongoing mainte-
nance). The unique palynological spectra extracted from
Figure 2. Citrus medica pollen grains: a�c D fossil, e�kD recent. Fossil pollen grains were recovered from the ancient Persian gardenof Ramat Rahel (fifth to fourth centuries BCE). Three varieties of recent pollen grains of C. medica were collected from citron groveslocated in the Sharon area: Halamish variety, Braverman variety and Organg variety. The recent pollen grains were submitted to a simi-lar chemical procedure as the fossil ones. While all C. Medica fossil pollen grains identified in the Ramat Rahel’s pollen assemblageswere colporate with a colpus number of four, within the recent pollen some appeared with four colpus (the majority) while otherappeared with five colpus (2i). Each bar D 10 mm.
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this plaster layer included, in addition to C. medica, other
palynological evidence of trees introduced from remote
parts of the Persian empire of special and highly valued
trees by the ruling Persian authorities [e.g., the cedar of
Lebanon (Cedrus libani)]. The pollen evidence of these
exotic trees in the Ramat Rahel palatial garden suggests
that they were probably brought to flaunt the power of the
imperial Persian administration. Native fruit trees and
ornamentals that were also grown there include the fig
(Ficus carica), grape (Vitis vinifera), olive (Olea euro-
paea), willow (Salix), poplar (Populus), myrtle (Myrtus
communis), and water lily (Nymphaea) (Langgut et al.
2013a). It should be noted that although Citrus pollen is
hardly ever airborne, it appears in high frequencies within
the Ramat Rahel’s palynological assemblages (up to
32%). Therefore, it was argued that at least one citron tree
was located near the sampling location (Langgut et al.
2013a).
Origin
C. medica (etrog) originated in eastern India and south
China, and is the first Citrus to spread west, apparently
through Persia (Zohary et al. 2012). Gur (1974) suggested
that C. medica made its way from India to Afghanistan,
Persia, Syria, Israel and Egypt. In the Southern Levant, C.
medica requires watering (mainly during summer) and
much care in order to thrive (Oppenheimer 1955).
The name etrog ( גורתא ) indicated its origin. In Hindi, the
citron is called torange. In Persian it is called toronge and
later etronge; in Aramaic it’s called etronga ( אגנורתא ) or
etroga ( אגורתא ), in Arabic turug or eturug ( جرتألا ). In Coptic
the citron is ghitri, in Greek k�ıtrion and in Latin citreum or
citrium. The Latin word medicamay also suggest its Persian
(Median) origin or its use for medical purposes. Tolkowsky
(1966) mentions that during the 1950s and 1960s, C. medica
trees which match Theophrastus’s description were grown
in the Gilan province in Persia, which was part of ancient
Medes [Theophrastus of Eresos (287�372 BC) � the great
Greek botanist who wrote the Enquiry into Plants
(Theophrastus 1916) which contains elaborate and accurate
illustrations of East Asian flora; in the fourth chapter of the
book, descriptions of the citron tree are given; the book is
dated to approximately 310 BCE].
The citron is one of the first three ancestral species of
the genus Citrus, along with the pomelo and the mandarin.
This argument was first made by Bart and Rhodes (1976)
and is the popular approach in today’s research, supported
by the latest genetic studies proving that other species of
Citrus are in fact crossbred. Nicolosi et al. (2000) exam-
ined over 40 “species” of Citrus and found that genes
originating in C. medica are a key part in all kinds of
domesticated Citrus, concluding that the citron gave rise
to the various kinds of Citrus known to us today, that are
in fact natural crosses between C. medica and other Citrus
species. One must note that this study examined not only
the nuclear DNA, but also the chloroplast DNA. Based on
the results it was concluded that C. medica was the male
participant in all these citruses, meaning the citron pro-
vided the pollen, as opposed to the female participant (see
also Nicolosi et al. 2005).
As far as we know, C. medica is the first species of
Citrus to spread west (e.g., Zohary et al. 2012), while other
species arrived later. The lemon, the lime and the pomelo
reached the Mediterranean only during the Muslim con-
quest (starting during the seventh century AD), whereas
the orange and mandarin reached the area over the past
few hundred years following developments in maritime
trade (Ram�on-Laca 2003). However, Jashemski et al.
(2002: 101) suggested that the depiction of yellow fruits in
two Roman paintings dated to the first century AD from
the Vesuvius area should be identified as lemon trees.
Palynological and other archeobotanical evidence
Archaeological excavations in Nippur in the south of Bab-
ylonia revealed Citrus seeds dating to the Sumerian period
(4000 years BCE; Bonavia 1894: 68). Because the seeds
found in the excavation were charred, they can only be
identified as Citrus, and specific species cannot be deter-
mined. Tolkowsky (1966) claimed that these seeds were
probably citron seeds brought to Nippur either as an offer-
ing to a divinity or as a gift to a king. He argues that find-
ing seeds in an ancient site is not evidence of the tree
being cultivated in the region, but simply indicates the
fruit was imported. Moreover, the seeds were not dated,
their age being assessed only by their archeological
context.
The French archeologist Loret (1891) claimed that
citrons are evident in the mural at the Karnak Temple,
Egypt, which was built in the time of Thutmosis III
(1490�1450 years BCE). In my opinion it is not possible
to clearly define what was depicted in this mural. Other
scholars reached the same conclusions when they failed to
find a clear connection between the Egyptian murals and
the citron (e.g., Amar 2009).
In the archeological site Hala Sultan Tekke (Cyprus),
seeds that resemble Citrus were discovered in a layer
dated to the twelfth century BCE; however, the exact spe-
cies could not be identified (Hjelmqvist 1979). Based on
Lortet’s observations from the Karnak Temple, Hjelmqv-
ist suggested that these seeds were in fact citron seeds, as
this is the first Citrus species to be grown in Egypt. How-
ever, these remains have not yet been directly dated to
confirm their antiquity (e.g., by AMS radiocarbon; Zohary
et al. 2012). Furthermore, those seeds were found in an
unsealed stratum. In addition and as mentioned above, the
presence of seeds or fruit remains can point to fruit impor-
tation rather than tree cultivation. Better identified and
dated finds have come from three different Roman sites in
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Egypt (van-der Veen 2001, 2003; van-der Veen & Tabi-
nor 2007). Moreover, recent studies indicate that Citrus
seeds can be difficult to recognize due to their morpholog-
ical variability and the changes caused by preservation
processes; traditional methods of seed identification,
therefore, tend to be problematic (Coubray et al. 2010;
Pagnoux et al. 2013). Hence, more advanced identification
methods are recommended when identifying Citrus seeds
such as microtomography technology which enables 2D
and 3D simulation to a scale of microns. The problem
also lies in the similarity of the general morphology of
Citrus seeds and other seeds (e.g., Maloideae types), and
especially when mineralized (Pagnoux et al. 2013).
The archeological evidence mentioned above (Karnak,
Nippur and Cyprus) seems to indicate that the citron fruit
was imported but was not necessarily grown locally. This
is the case even if we accept their indefinite identification
and inconclusive dating and context. However, identifying
citron pollen is a clear sign of a tree grown nearby, espe-
cially in the case of an insect-pollinated species that has
low pollen dispersal efficiency. Furthermore, identifying
seeds, grain or pulp may point to the fruit having existed,
but does not prove that a tree was growing in the area.
It appears that the citron was considered a valuable
commodity since antiquity due to its healing qualities,
symbolic use and pleasant smell on the one hand and its
rarity on the other (e.g., Zohary et al. 2012), possibly mak-
ing the citron known to the people in the region by reputa-
tion throughout antiquity. Liran (2013) reached a similar
conclusion, suggesting that the citron was grown by the
wealthy and represented the rich as it was a rare commod-
ity that only they could afford.
From this overview, one can conclude that the remains
of citron pollen found in the Ramat Rahel Royal Persian
garden are so far the oldest archeobotanical findings indi-
cating that citron was grown in the Near East. Perhaps in
the future, with the development of research and further
excavations, more evidence will be discovered predating
the fifth to fourth centuries BCE findings from Ramat
Rahel. Since the Roman period, the citron became well-
known throughout the Mediterranean (Zohary et al.
2012). As of the first century AD, palynological evidence
from the Vesuvius area indicates that Citrus trees were
probably cultivated in gardens owned by the affluent
(Mariotti-Lippi 2000).
Textual evidence
A precise description of the citron was first written by The-
ophrastus, in his book Enquiry into Plants (1916 English
translation by Hort):
[. . .] And in general the lands of the East and Southappear to have peculiar plants, as they have peculiar ani-mals; for instance, Media and Persia have, among many
others, that which is called the “Median” or “Persianapple”. This tree has a leaf like to and almost identicalwith that of the Arbutus, but it has thorns like those of thepear or white-thorn, which however are smooth and verysharp and strong. The “apple” is not eaten, but it is veryfragrant, as also is the leaf of the tree. And if the “apple”is placed among clothes, it keeps them from being moth-eaten. It is also useful when one has drunk deadly poison;for being given in wine it upsets the stomach and bringsup the poison . . .
The text goes on describing exact instructions on how
to grow the tree along with two key observations: the first
being the tree’s unique quality in bearing fruit during sev-
eral seasons (this means, new fruit may grow on the same
tree alongside fruit that first grew during the previous
year). This character made the citron tree a symbol of an
eternal spring, fertility and inspiring many poets and
artists. The second observation concerns the tree’s flow-
ers, having a prominent pistil, making them more fertile
as opposed to other flowers found to be sterile. From a dif-
ferent piece written by Theophrastus, it appears that the
discovery of sterile flowers with no pedicle was first made
by Persian gardeners, who informed the Greek botanists.
However, they and perhaps Theophrastus himself first rec-
ognized this trait’s significance in identification (Tolkow-
sky 1966). The pedicle of the citron develops from the
style and the stigma. In other citrus species this part
degenerates, whereas in the citron it develops into a pedi-
cle (Felix 1987). Nowadays some citrons no longer pro-
duce pedicles due to cross-breeding with other Citrus
types. In isolated, faraway places, where other species of
Citrus are not grown, all citrons grow a pedicle (for fur-
ther discussions on the topic of the pedicle, see: Felix
1994). The Arbutus mentioned in Theophrastus’ text is
related to the eastern strawberry tree, Arbutus andrachne.
Tolkowsky (1966) holds that the description of the citron
leaf as having a round base and a point end much like the
arbutus eliminates any intent to perhaps refer to a different
Citrus as they all have either winged petioles or very nar-
row chisel-shaped leafs. The pear within this text is
related to the wild Syrian pear, Pyrus syriaca.
Scholars argue that Theophrastus emphasizing that the
tree grew in Media and Persia is further evidence that
prior to »300 years BCE the citron was not widely culti-
vated outside Media and Persia (e.g., Tolkowsky 1966).
Theophrastus’ descriptions in Enquiry into Plants are
based on observations by a number of Greek scholars who
accompanied Alexander the Great’s camp and were given
the task by him to examine the geography, the people and
the natural resources of the countries that he was yet to
conquer. These scholars accompanied the king and his
army in all their campaigns and conquests through Asia
Minor, Syria, Israel, Egypt, and Persia and even reached
the region that is today’s Pakistan. Around 310 BCE, The-
ophrastus published his book Enquiry into Plants,
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including the observations of those accompanying the
king in his journeys. If so, they passed twice through
the area west of Persia and did not mention observing the
growing of citron trees. This leads to the conclusion that
the citron tree was limited to the Iranian plateau and was
not cultivated west of there yet. On the other hand, Theo-
phrastus not describing the fruit itself but rather its charac-
teristics may suggest the citron fruit was known to the
Greeks. In approximately 35 BCE the citron is still
described as an exotic fruit: the Roman author and poet
Virgil mentions the citron as antitoxic and having scented
oil. He names the citron the “Median Apple”.
The citron in the Bible and Jewish tradition
The use of the noun “h€ad€ar” � רדה and the meaning of
“glory” or “grandeur” are typical of the poetry and proph-
ecy in the Bible, and is mentioned six times in the phrase
“hod ve’ h€ad€ar” � רדהודוה (“Splendor and majesty”:
Psalms 21:6, 96:6, 104:1, 111:3, Job 41:10, Chronicles 1
16:27). Other phrases such as “glory and majesty”
(Psalms 8:5) or “strength and dignity” (Proverbs 31:25)
appear in the Bible only once. Usually “h€ad€ar” will referto God’s strength and grandeur (may be compared to Isa-
iah 35:2, for example). Note the parallel phrases
“majesty” and “glory” (“The glory of Lebanon will be
given to it, the majesty of Carmel and Sharon. They will
see the glory of the LORD, The majesty of our God”).
The verse in Leviticus 23:40 instructing the holding of
the four species over the feast of Tabernacles (“And ye
shall take you on the first day the fruit of goodly tree,
branches of palm trees, and the boughs of thick trees, and
willows of the brook; and ye shall rejoice before the Lord
your God seven days”) clearly refers to two known spe-
cies (willow and palm); however, researchers are finding
it difficult to determine whether “the fruit of goodly tree”
and “boughs of thick trees” refer to specific species or can
be summarized as general instructions.
As for the “fruit of goodly tree,” the Septuagint (third
century BCE) determined the phrase consists of a noun
referring to a grand and delightful fruit. This appears to be
the intention in Leviticus 27:30 and in Nehemiah 10:36,
where the verses do not refer to any specific kind of tree.
The phrase “fruit of goodly tree” is not mentioned in the
description on the feast of Tabernacles in Nehemiah
8:13�15 where five different species are mentioned:
On the second day of the month, the heads of all the fami-lies, along with the priests and the Levites, gatheredaround Ezra the teacher to give attention to the words ofthe Law. (14) They found written in the Law, which theLord had commanded through Moses, that the Israeliteswere to live in temporary shelters during the festival ofthe seventh month (15) and that they should proclaim thisword and spread it throughout their towns and in Jerusa-lem: “Go out into the hill country and bring back branches
from olive and wild olive trees, and from myrtles, palmsand shade trees, to make temporary shelters” � as it iswritten”.
Within the description in the Books of the Maccabees
2 10:6�7 there is no mention of “the fruit of goodly tree”,
but rather “ivy-wreathed wands and beautiful branches
and also fronds of palm” (Schwartz 2005). Following this,
a number of scholars have interpreted the phrase in Leviti-
cus 23:40 as a request to bring forth a variety of goodly
fruit in addition to the three other species mentioned
above, or as a general instruction demanding the three
species that follow to be of goodly quality (see also Breen
1972). The Septuagint (third century BCE) refers to a
goodly fruit of a tree and later interpretations (following
the first century AD) mention the citron by its name, usu-
ally following a noun to replace the phrase goodly. For
example, the Targum Onkelos clearly mention “And you
shall take to you on the first day the fruit of the citron
tree.” Despite this, the Vulgata (fourth�fifth centuries
AD), much like the Septuagint, translates the verse liter-
ally, with no clear identification.
Since the first century AD there is a significant change
in texts in which the four species mentioned in Leviticus
23:40 are defined: palm, willow, myrtle and citron. In
Antiquities of the Jews 13 13:5 372); late first century
AD), Josephus describes how the Jews threw citrons at
Alexander Jannaeus for disrespecting of the libation ritual
(compare to Mishna tractate Sukkah 4:9). The citron
became a fixed element in the feast of Tabernacles since
the first century AD in visual sources as well as textual
ones. The citron appears on coins alongside the palm
branch during the fourth year of the great revolt (Hebrew
months of Nissan 69 AD�Adar 70 AD) and is coined
about 60 years later again in the days of Simon bar
Kokhba. The documents from the days of Chazal indicate
that the citron was fully accepted as part of the holiday
tradition with no mention of any kind of objection (Amar
2012: 108�109). Therefore, it seems that before the days
of Chazal, other traditions were not practiced.
Fossil Citrus medica pollen grains versus recent one
Based on morphologic characteristics it was possible to
distinguish the Ramat Rahel Citrus pollen into its species
level, C. medica. In the genus Citrus, C. medica grains are
larger than all other Citrus species and characterized also
by slightly coarser surface ornamentation (Xianghong
1982). The Ramat Rahel C. medica pollen grains are sub-
prolate-spheroidal in shape with average circularity of
1.2. All grains are colporate with a colpus number of four
and their average polar axes was 33.9 mm while the equa-
torial axis average was 28.2 mm (Figure 2a�c and
Table 2).
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During the spring of 2012, pollen grains of three varie-
ties of C. medica were collected from citron groves
located in the Sharon area: Halamish variety, Braverman
variety and Organg variety. The recent pollen grains were
submitted to a similar chemical procedure as the fossil
ones (that includes acetolysis process and mounting in
glycerin) and then were measured using the software
Image J (Table 3). The measurements of recent pollen
grains yielded some differences in comparison to the
Ramat Rahel fossil pollen grains: the recent ones are more
rounded; therefore, their calculated average circularity
was 1.1 (Table 3). All grains are colporate with a colpus
number of four (Figure 2d�k). However, more than 15%
of the grains included colpus number of five (Figure 2i).
In all the three recent varieties of C. medica both averages
of polar axis and equatorial axis were smaller than the cal-
culated average of the fossil grains (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2. Measurements (in microns) of C. medica fossil pollengrains from the Ramat Rahel’s assemblages.
Order�Polaraxis (P)
(mm)Equatorial diameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
1 35.6 28.5 1.2
2 35.7 28.8 1.2
3 29.8 26.1 1.1
4 34.2 29.5 1.2
5 34.3 28.5 1.2
6 34.1 30.4 1.1
7 34.6 27.7 1.2
8 35.4 27.8 1.3
9 33.3 30.9 1.1
10 35.1 26.3 1.3
11 32.1 28.2 1.1
12 32.6 25.8 1.3
Average 33.9 28.2 1.2
�Each measurement represents one pollen grain.
Table 3. Measurements in microns of C. medica recent pollen grains.
C. medica Halamish variety C. medica Braverman variety C. medica Organg variety
Order�
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
1 31.2 28.8 1.1 29.2 27.1 1.1 29.7 28.2 1.1
2 30.9 26.7 1.2 28.3 27.2 1.0 28.5 26.9 1.1
3 25.6 18.1 1.4 28.4 27.1 1.0 26.6 25.3 1.1
4 30.0 25.8 1.2 36.4 31.1 1.2 29.1 26.5 1.1
5 27.4 23.9 1.1 28.9 27.4 1.1 28.1 25.3 1.1
6 30.7 27.4 1.1 26.7 25.9 1.0 28.3 27.1 1.0
7 28.5 25.5 1.1 30.4 24.1 1.3 28.0 27.0 1.0
8 30.5 27.4 1.1 24.0 22.2 1.1 29.9 29.5 1.0
9 25.2 24.4 1.0 29.7 28.3 1.0 27.5 27.0 1.0
10 27.8 24.2 1.1 27.3 26.6 1.0 29.2 27.6 1.1
11 29.4 27.3 1.1 29.2 27.6 1.1 28.7 28.5 1.0
12 23.2 19.2 1.2 29.1 26.7 1.1 26.1 24.7 1.1
13 28.4 27.6 1.0 29.0 26.1 1.1 28.1 26.8 1.0
14 30.6 29.1 1.1 26.9 23.6 1.1 28.9 28.2 1.0
15 28.2 23.9 1.2 32.2 27.5 1.2 26.3 24.4 1.1
16 34.7 32.7 1.1 26.9 26.4 1.0 28.4 27.1 1.0
17 28.0 24.2 1.2 26.9 25.6 1.1 29.1 26.5 1.1
18 31.6 30.4 1.0 27.8 26.4 1.1 26.8 25.7 1.0
19 22.0 19.2 1.1 31.1 28.7 1.1 28.4 27.5 1.0
20 34.4 31.9 1.1 27.3 26.6 1.0 29.5 27.2 1.1
21 36.6 32.4 1.1 26.6 24.8 1.1 28.7 28.1 1.0
22 26.9 25.2 1.1 30.3 23.2 1.3 32.7 29.4 1.1
23 28.5 24.0 1.2 30.9 24.9 1.2 28.8 27.8 1.0
24 27.4 24.0 1.1 30.0 25.2 1.2 25.4 25.0 1.0
25 30.0 29.7 1.0 28.5 27.4 1.0 28.1 26.0 1.1
26 29.5 24.3 1.2 29.7 28.4 1.0 26.0 25.5 1.0
27 28.8 27.7 1.0 28.3 22.0 1.3 30.3 28.9 1.0
(continued)
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Conclusions
This study evaluated the origin and the beginning of horti-
culture of two prestigious and culturally important fruit
trees into the land of Israel: Juglans regia (Persian wal-
nut) and Citrus medica (citron), mainly based on palyno-
logical information from our region. The presence of
pollen grains of a certain insect-pollinated plant in a paly-
nological spectrum is direct evidence of its actual growing
in the region, unlike other archeobotanical remains (seeds,
grains, pulp charcoal and wood remains) which can come
from importation of fruit or timber rather than the actual
growing of the tree. Because the two investigated trees
are characterized by low pollen dispersal efficiency, their
occurrence within the fossil Israel pollen assemblages
most probably indicates that they grew in the region.
Based on the Southern Levant palynological evidence,
it seems unlikely through common wisdom that J. regia is
native to our region. Its presence in Late Pleistocene�Early Holocene regional pollen records, although in small
percentages, shows that J. regia survived as a refuge in
the Levant during the Last Glacial period, indicating the
native character of the species in the area. Since the Mid-
dle Bronze Age I, around 1800 years BCE, there is
increasing evidence of pollen embedded both in lake sedi-
ments in northern Israel and in remains in archeological
sites, suggesting the beginning of the growing of J. regia
for economic reasons. Within Israel, the growing walnut
trees probably started in the north, and only nearly a mil-
lennium later, around the ninth century BCE spread to the
Judean Mountains. The nut tree is mentioned only once in
the Bible in Song of Solomon (6:11). From the interpreta-
tion of this text as well other Jewish texts and the avail-
able palynological diagrams, it can be concluded that
since the Persian period (fifth�fourth centuries BCE) J.
regia was well established in ancient Israel. The palyno-
logical information from Eurasia does not give a clear pic-
ture of the origin of domestication of the walnut or the
direction of its distribution. Yet, it seems that it spread to
our area from the northern Levant.
Identifying grains of C. medica pollen from the Royal
Persian garden in Ramat Rahel dating to the fifth to fourth
centuries BCE suggests the citron first appeared in the
Table 3. (Continued )
C. medica Halamish variety C. medica Braverman variety C. medica Organg variety
Order�
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
Polaraxis (P)(mm)
Equatorialdiameter (E)
(mm)Circularity(P/E ratio)
28 24.4 23.9 1.0 29.6 21.6 1.4 26.3 25.7 1.0
29 26.4 23.4 1.1 30.6 29.4 1.0 29.0 24.1 1.2
30 22.8 21.6 1.1 26.0 25.2 1.0 25.5 25.3 1.0
31 23.1 19.4 1.2 26.3 24.1 1.1 27.4 25.8 1.1
32 25.6 18.2 1.4 26.9 25.0 1.1 29.2 28.0 1.0
33 27.4 24.1 1.1 28.4 25.1 1.1 29.2 24.2 1.2
34 28.5 24.0 1.2 28.9 27.6 1.0 25.3 24.4 1.0
35 26.9 25.2 1.1 25.9 20.6 1.3 28.8 27.8 1.0
36 27.8 23.9 1.2 26.7 21.2 1.3 26.1 25.9 1.0
37 29.5 24.3 1.2 24.6 21.3 1.2 28.7 27.1 1.1
38 28.8 27.7 1.0 32.0 23.3 1.4 27.0 26.7 1.0
39 24.4 23.9 1.0 34.5 27.4 1.3 28.6 27.6 1.0
40 26.4 23.4 1.1 26.8 26.5 1.0 24.9 23.1 1.1
41 22.8 21.6 1.1 31.2 24.4 1.3 26.8 24.7 1.1
42 23.1 19.4 1.2 27.1 25.7 1.1 26.0 25.5 1.0
43 27.8 23.9 1.2 28.1 22.8 1.2 26.9 25.6 1.1
44 23.2 18.9 1.2 30.1 22.3 1.3 24.6 24.0 1.0
45 27.8 24.2 1.1 26.7 24.6 1.1 28.2 27.1 1.0
46 26.1 26.0 1.0 24.8 23.5 1.1 28.0 27.5 1.0
47 22.3 18.9 1.2 26.4 24.5 1.1 27.1 26.6 1.0
48 24.3 22.7 1.1 27.7 22.5 1.2 26.3 25.9 1.0
49 23.5 22.5 1.0 22.3 20.7 1.1 29.8 28.9 1.0
50 26.0 21.7 1.2 26.3 24.4 1.1 28.0 25.1 1.1
Average 27.5 24.6 1.1 28.4 25.2 1.1 27.9 26.5 1.1
�Each measurement represents one pollen grain.
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region probably due to the local Persian ruler’s desire for
an extravagant garden. The purpose of the garden was to
portray the inhabitant as a powerful ruler as in addition to
ruling his subjects, he has also the ability to control over
nature. As a product of society which represents status, the
citron perhaps gradually penetrated the Jewish culture and
tradition. Regarding this, keep in mind that among the pol-
len grains found in Ramat Rahel’s garden, the other two
species out of the “four species” of the Jewish feast of Tab-
ernacles (the myrtle and the willow) were also identified in
the palynological spectrum. However, this is beyond the
scope of this study and will be discussed elsewhere.
C. medica was the first citrus crop that was grown in
southwest Asia and the Mediterranean basin. Several
other citrus crops (e.g., lemon, bitter orange, lime and
pomelo) apparently arrived in the Mediterranean basin
only much later, in early Islamic times (seventh century
AD). C. medica seems to have made its way to Southern
Levant from Persia. The citron (named etrog in Hebrew, a
word of Persian origin) is not mentioned in the Bible, and
the association between the citron and the P€urı `€ec h€ad€ar(Leviticus 23:40), translated as “fruit of the goodly tree,”
was made hundreds of years later. The citron became a
fixed element in the feast of Tabernacles since the first
century AD, as is evident from both textual and visual
sources. Based on the comparison between fossil C.
medica pollen and recent cultivated varieties, it seems
that some evolutionary changes occurred during the last
two millennia: the fossil pollen grain is slightly larger in
size and has more elliptic shape than the recent varieties.
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Israel Finkelstein for his help in setting the exactdate of the Juglans regia remains from Tel Megiddo and toOded Lipschits for his assitance with the interpretations of bibli-cal and Jewish texts. I wish to thank Yirmy Freud for his help inlocating citron orchards and to Yosef Ludmir for his permissionto conduct my research in his orchards. Michael Kitin isacknowledged for pollen samples preparation. Mordechai Stein,Frank Neumann and Thomas Litt and his team from the BonnPalynological Laboratory are thanked for their help in the extrac-tion of the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea (Ze’elim) cores. Iwish also to thank Ehud Weiss and Zohar Amar for their assis-tance in gathering the materials for this study and to NaomiLiran for the helpful exchange of thoughts and ideas.
Funding
This study was funded by the European Research Council underthe European Community’s Seventh Framework Program (FP7/2007�2013)/ERC grant agreement no. 229418.
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