Part I

Before You Touch the Stones

Readers should know about the basicfeatures of the Chinese language asdesbribed below:

The Chinese language belongs to the Sino-Tibetan Family. The Chinese language isbeing used by over 1.3 billion people,including people in mainland China, Taiwan,Singapore, Malaysia, China Towns in majorAmerican and European cities. It is theofficial language of China, and one of thesix working languages of the UnitedNations.

A.The phonetics of the Chinese language:The syllable of Chinese is consisted ofthree parts:1.Shéngmǔ--initial consonant,2.Yùnmǔ--simple or compound vowel,

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3.Shéngdiào--the four tones of classicaland modern Chinese phonetics:

High and level tone—汤—tāng: soup Rising tone—汤—táng: sugar Falling-rising tone—汤—tǎng: to liedown Falling tone—汤—tàng: hot

B.Grammar: most elements of Chineselanguage are of a single syllable, forinstance 汤(hand),汤(wash),汤(people) and 汤(lost). Two elements can be combinedinto a word: 汤+汤=汤汤(a road); 汤+汤=汤汤(aswitch).Such disyllables take up abigger part in Chinese words.To compare with Indo-European languages,you find no suffix, such as “ness”,“tion”, “ment” in the Chinese.In your language , the function of aword is rather simple, for instance, anoun can only be used as a subject or anobject, but in Chinese, a word has more

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functions, for example, an adjective canbe used as a predicate ( 汤 汤 汤 汤 Here isclean.), an attribute ( 汤 汤 汤 汤 Cleancloths), a complement ( 汤 汤 汤 Wash itclean), a subject (汤汤汤汤汤 Cleanness is themost important thing) or an object (汤汤汤汤汤 He does not like being clean).The subject-predicate structure is quiteloose in Chinese, you can put a commaafter the subject, for instance 汤汤汤汤,汤汤汤汤(This person, knows how to talk). Sucha structure is always used as apredicate, for example 汤 汤 汤 汤 汤 汤 (Theexpanse of China [is] really big).The verb-complement structure is quiteunique in Chinese, for instance 汤 汤(listening comprehension).

C.The Chinese characters, which is called“Han Zi”, has been a tool to record theChinese language and exchange ideas bythe Han people since ancient times. Theearliest Chinese characters that we were

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able to discover are those from theShang Dynasty more than 3,000 years ago.Chinese characters are kind of syllabicwords, one character represents asyllable in the language. A Chinesecharacter is usually formed by a radicaland a basic part, for instance,“ 汤 ,jiang, river”, is formed by a waterradical “汤“and a basic part “汤“;”汤,xin,trust” is formed by a people radical “汤“and a basic part “ 汤 --words”. More than80% of characters are “pictophoneticcharacters”, which means that one partof a character indicates meaning, andthe other sound. For example, “ 汤 ” , aseating place, pronounced as “ 汤 -zùo”,seating under a roof“汤”; “汤”—“汤”indicatessound—“jiú”, “ 汤 ” indicates meaning, abird, the character means a turtledove.The earliest Chinese characters werefound on animal bones or tortoise shellsfrom the ruins of the Shang Dynasty

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(1600-1046 BC). We have found more than100 thousand pieces of such bones andtortoise shells, from which more than2,000 characters can still berecognized. Such characters were verydeveloped in the Shang, so presumably,the characters came into being beforeXia Dynasty (2070-1600 BC). We cantherefore say that the Chinesecharacters have existed for more than4,000 years. Chinese characters areideographs. So were the cuneiform usedby Babylonians and Persians and thepictograph used by ancient Egyptians.But they no longer exist. Chinese characters have been regardedas square characters. They obviouslyevolved from simple paintings. Let megive you some examples: 汤,the sun, was 汤; 汤,the moon, was 汤; 汤, eye, was 目; 汤,grass, was 目; 汤, water, was 目 and etc. You may wish to know how many Chinese

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characters there are. The “KangxiDictionary”compiled in the Qing Dynastycontained more than 47,000 characters.

Despite minor changes in the longdevelopment of the characters, ancientwords from Shang and Zhou Dynasties,books handed down from Qin and HanDynasties can still be read andunderstood by people of today. There are, generally speaking, 7dialects. People in different parts ofChina use the same characters, but theymay use different pronunciations. Whileallowing the continued existence oflocal dialects, we have beenpopularizing a common speech that isbased on the Beijing dialect. For thatpurpose, since 1958, “The Scheme for theChinese Phonetic Alphabet” has beenimplemented. I shall use this scheme aswell to give you the pronunciation ofthe poems I quote.

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Why do foreigners find Chineselanguage difficult to learn? Ipersonally think there are threereasons. Unlike phonetic languages, whenhearing a word, a foreigner who hasnever studied Chinese can not write itdown; when he reads a word, he can notpronounce it. It is common in Chinesemany words share the same pronunciation,a word may contain more than onemeanings and a word may have differentpronunciations. Secondly, the writing ofcharacters is difficult. There are fivebasic strokes: dot, horizontal,vertical, left-falling and right-fallingand turning strokes. There are more thana dozen other strokes. Finally, it isdifficult to master the four tones. I presume, such a general picture ofthe Chinese language would be enough atthe present stage as backgroundknowledge. Any further details would be

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a burden to you.

Let me now give you a very briefintroduction to

the history of China. Please look at thischronology (attached as appendix I). I would like to point out that man hadlived for a very long time in the countryknown as China today. Fossil remains of theearly Palaeolithic Ape Man, his stoneimplements, as well as large quantities ofother palaeontological fossils, have beenfound on various occasions since 1929 atZhoukoudian, fifty kilometers southwest ofBeijing. Studies by experts reveal that theChinese Ape Man, also known as the PekingMan, lived in the Pleistocene period of theQuarternary era, about 500,000 years ago. A great amount of Neolithic remainsincluding painted and black pottery wasfound in the vast expanse of China.

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Prehistoric characters can be founded inancient books. To name a few: Huang Di (theYellow Emperor) who used jade to makeweapons with which to conquer other tribes;Lei Zu, his wife, who introduced therearing of silkworms; Shun, the inventor oflacquer-ware; and the Great Yu, who usedbronze weapons to vanquish to Miao peopleand who harnessed great floods. The societywas based on the primitive commune in whichclasses, private property and exploitationof man by man were unknown. Xia Dynasty (2070-1600 B.C.) was the firstChinese dynasty that ruled a state. TheGreat Yu was the first king, who wassucceeded by his descendants. Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 B.C.) Written recordsof the Shang Dynasty, made bycontemporaries, still exist. Some of thewritings of this period were cast inbronze, some inscribed on tortoise shellsor animal bones. Shang Dynasty has the

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following features: The discovery of anextraordinary variety of bronzes shows thatproduction had reached the Bronze Age. Ithad entered into the stage of agriculture,as supported by evidence discovered. It wasa slave society; people were buried assacrifices in the tombs of the nobles. Zhou Dynasty covers two periods, thefirst is the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046-771

B.C.). Modern archaeological research andextant records reveal the followingcharacteristics of the period:1.Improved farming tools, greater variety

of agriculture products and an enlargedscale of farming show that theproduction level was higher.

2.A hierarchy based on the privateownership of land existed. The sons ofkings were made princes and princelingsand granted fiefs.

3.The hierarchical system was closelyconnected with the patriarchal system,

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which established the right ofsuccession by the eldest son.

4.Western Zhou culture developed further,as witnessed by the artistic creationin the Book of Songs and the form ofideographs used in the writings.

Eastern Zhou Dynasty was the second periodof Zhou Dynasty. Eastern Zhou itselfcontains two periods: the Spring and Autumn(770-476 B.C.) and the Warring States (475-221 B.C.). Eastern Zhou society had thefollowing features:1. The discovery and use of iron promotedthe growth of the productive forces.

2. Changes in land ownership began totake place.

3. Local economy began to develop.4. Political structure was being changed.Numerous vassal states submitted to bigpowers. Only seven (Qi, Qin, Chu, Yan,Zhao, Wei and Han) were left. The newlyrising classes of landlords and

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peasants demanded an end to theseparatist rule of the nobles and theestablishment of a unified politicalpower. The system of fiefs waspartially abolished and superseded by asystem of prefectures and counties.Governors and magistrates wereappointed by the king.

5. Culture gained remarkable progress.Confucius (552-479 B.C.), champion ofthe feudal hierarchy, played a veryimportant role in summarizing andspreading academic knowledge. Theschool of the philosopher Mo Di (480-390 B.C.) opposed the internecine warsof the princes and the extravagance ofthe time. The followers of Lao Zi andZhuang Zi (365? -290? B.C.) wereopposed to social evolution andadvocated a return to primitive societyin which people lived in isolation alltheir lives. The legalists, represented

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by Shang Yang (390?-338 B.C.) and HanFei (280?-233 B.C.) advocated acentralized monarchy and rule by law.There was great progress in naturalsciences. A number of historical worksappeared. In literature even moreimportant developments were recorded,and long theoretical essays made theirappearance in addition to narrativecompositions. The long lyrical poems ofthe genius Chu poet, Qu Yuan (340-278B.C.) and the works of other Chu poetsconstitute a particularly valuable partof China’s literary heritage.

The Qin Dynasty (221-206 B.C.) Shi Huang Di (246-210 B.C.), the First Emperor of the QinDynasty, conquered the six other states andput an end to the independent, disunitedfeudal states which had existed for overeight hundred years and founded the firstcentralized, autocratic feudal empire inChinese history in 221 B.C.

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Emperor Shi Huang Di unified the countryby standardizing weights and measures, thelength of axles of carts, the type of dressand the calendar and the initiating of asingle currency, enforcing national lawsand a unitary script. Shi Huang Di soughtto stamp out the old aristocratic cultureand ideas. In 213 B.C. there was a publicburning of books in which an enormousnumber of books were consigned to theflames, only books on medicine, pharmacy,astronomy and agronomy were exempt fromthis wanton destruction. He and his sonforced 300,000 men to build the Great Walland dispatched 500,000 to Garrison Lingnan.An additional 700,000 men were used tobuild palaces, and equal number to erecthis mausoleum, and myriads more wereconscripted to build roads. In 209 B.C.peasants armed with hoes and clubs, led byChen Sheng and Wu Guang, destroyed the ruleof Qin.

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Western Han Dynasty (206 B.C.-24A.D.) wasestablished as a result of the peasantuprising. Under Wu Di (reigned 140-87 B.C.)the Western Han reached the zenith of itspower and the central government wieldedunlimited authority. Confucianism becamethe orthodox Chinese doctrine. It wasduring this period, China opened trade withPersia, India and key cities of the RomanEmpire. What was particular about the Eastern Han

Dynasty (25-220 A.D.) was the invention of papermaking in the year 105 by Cai Lun and thestart of porcelain manufacture. I would like to point out that the termHan nationality, which embraces themajority of the inhabitants of China otherthan those of the ethnic minorities, istaken from “Han” of the Han Dynasty whenthe Chinese people were known as Han beyondthe borders. Four names in the Han Dynastyshould be remembered: Sima Qian (148

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B.C.-?) wrote “Historical Records” whichintroduced a new form of biography. Ban Gu(32-92) wrote the “History of Han”, whichinaugurated the method of recording historyby dynasties. Zhang Heng (78-139) inventedan armillary sphere operated by waterpower,a seismoscope, and an instrument to detectthe direction of the wind. Wang Chong(27-?), a materialist philosopher, boldlycriticized and denounced superstitiousideas. We now come to the period of ThreeKingdoms; they are Wei (220-265), Shu (221-263) and Wu (222-280). The names of therulers of Three Kingdoms, especially CaoCao (155-220), the King of Wei and a greatpoet and Zhuge Liang (181-234), therenowned prime minister and strategist ofthe Kingdom of Shu, have been known toalmost every Chinese, thanks to theinfluence of the historical book by ChenShou of the Western Jin Dynasty and the

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long novel “Romance of the Three Kingdoms”by Luo Guanzhong of early Qing Dynasty. The disunion under the Three Kingdomscame to an end and unified state wasrestored when the Western Jin Dynasty (265-316) was established. The years between 304-439 were years inwhich the northern part of China sufferedgreat destruction. Xiong Nu overthrew Jinand thereafter various tribes—Jie, XianBei, Di and Qiang—successively occupied thecentral part of China, while other tribesseized frontier areas. They establishedshort-lived kingdoms. At the same time,Emperor Yuan Di established the Eastern JinDynasty (317-420), dominated by the Hannationality in the Changjiang River basin.It was followed by four successivedynasties under Han rulers: Song (420-479),Qi (479-502), Liang (502-557) and Chen(557-589). They became known as theSouthern Dynasties. During this period, Zu

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Chongzhi (429-500) made a remarkablecalculation, namely, the ratio of thecircumference to the diameter of a circlewas between 3.1415926 and 3.1415927. The Northern Dynasties (386-550) during theperiod of great division in the north,Toba, a branch of the Xian Bei tribe, rosein today’s Shanxi Province. They broughtthe north under unified control andestablished the Northern Wei Dynasty (386-534). Caused by a peasant uprising,Northern Wei was splitted into Eastern Wei(534-550) and Western Wei (535-577). Later,Gao Yang, a Han, overthrew the governmentof the Eastern Wei and established theNorthern Qi Dynasty (550-581). Yuwen Jue, aXian Bei, took over the control of WesternWei and founded Northern Zhou (557-581).Northern Zhou eventually conquered NorthernQi, paving the way for the unification ofChina under the Sui Dynasty. Buddhism, which was introduced into China

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through Da Yue Di about the beginning ofthe Christian era, gradually spread duringthe Eastern Han Dynasty and the period ofthe Three Kingdoms. Towards the close ofthe Eastern Jin, Buddhism became linkedwith Confucian ritualism. The Buddhistideas of transmigration and retributionwere widely accepted. Buddhist cultureflourished. The Thousand-Buddha Grottoes atDunhuang which started in the LiangDynasty, the stone caves at BinglingTemple, the Grottoes at Maijishan, thestone grottoes at Yungang and Longmen, alldating back to the Northern Wei, are nowpart of China’s historical treasury of art.Buddhism also brought to China a new typeof music, dance, musical instruments andarchitecture. The translation of Buddhistsutras into Chinese enriched the language.Sui Dynasty (581-618) In 581 Yang Jian (541-604), a Han, who was serving as primeminister under the Xian Bei rulers of

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Northern Zhou, seized power and establishedthe Sui Dynasty. He vanquished the ChenDynasty in the south in 589 and unified thewhole of China. The Grand Canal betweenHangzhou and Beijing was dug during the Suiperiod.Tang Dynasty (618-907) It was a peaceful andprosperous period during the reign of TaiZong (627-649). Changan was a center ofinternational trade and cultural exchanges.It was during this period, Princess WenCheng was married to Songtsan Gambo whounified the Tibetan area, and the economicand cultural ties between the Han and theTibetan nationalities grew all the closer.Poetry came to the flower of its glory atthis period. The dynasty produced manybrilliant poets, like Li Bai (701-762), DuFu (712-770) and Bai Juyi (772-846). Thesethree rank as the greatest of them. Artreached a very high level; there was agalaxy of great painters and sculptors like

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Wu Daozi and Wang Wei.The Five Dynasties (907-960) Tang Dynastycollapsed because of peasant uprising. In907 Zhu Wen founded the Later Liang (907-923). The Later Tang (923-936), Later Jin(936-946), Later Han (947-950) and LaterZhou (951-960) followed this in rapidsuccession.Northern Song Dynasty (960-1126) In 960, ZhaoKuangyin (927-976), a military officer ofthe Later Zhou Dynasty, organized a mutiny,captured political power from the rulinghouse and founded the Song Dynasty andbrought reunification back to China. Ruraleconomy recovered and developed. Industrieslike metal mining and smelting developedtogether with trade. Nǚzhen, a northerntribe, swept southward and seized the Songcapital, the Northern Song Dynasty came toan end. Southern Song Dynasty (1127-1279) In 1127 agroup of civil and military officials

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crossed the Changjiang River andestablished a new government in Hangzhou,and the Southern Song Dynasty started. In 1234 Mongols destroyed the Nǚzhen’srule in China. In 1276, they conquered thecapital of Southern Song and in 1279 theywiped out the last contingent of the Songarmy in Guangdong, bringing the whole ofChina under their control. During the Song Dynasty, Bi Shenginvented a movable type made of clay forprinting, since than many voluminous workshave been printed. Cheng Yi (1033-1107) andZhu Xi (1130-1200) were leaders of a newschool of Confucian philosophy known asrational philosophy or neo-Confucianism.Many authoritative historical works werewritten. The main contribution of Songliterature was “ci”.Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368) Kublai Khan foundedthe Yuan Dynasty in 1271 with the capitalin Beijing. The drama, known as “za ju”,

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reached a very high level of development.The writing of novels flourished, the bestknown of that period is “Outlaws of theMarsh” by Shi Naian.Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) Zhu Yuanzhang, acommander of rebellion army succeeded inoverthrowing the Yuan rule and establisheda powerful and prosperous dynasty. A fewthings are worth of mentioning about thisperiod: An armed fleet under the command of ZhengHe (1371-1435), a court eunuch, made sevenvoyages of exploration to the South SeaIslands and Indian Ocean, they even sailedas far as the eastern shores of Africa. Germs of capitalism emerged and the lastphase of feudalism began in the middle ofMing Dynasty. Europeans began to arrive. Portuguesetrading ships came to Guangdong in 1516 andinaugurated a sea route between China andEurope. The Dutch in 1606 and the English

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in 1637 followed Spanish traders, who camein 1557. Song Yingxing wrote “Nature developsResources” to explain the process ofindustrial manufacture in great detail; LiShizhen wrote “Compendium of MateriaMedica” on zoology, botany and mineralogy.Both works carried worldwide influence. Novels were written in vernacular, suchas the “Romance of the Three Kingdoms” and“Journey to the West”.Qing Dynasty 1644-1911) The peasant army of LiZicheng entered Beijing in 1644, the lastemperor of the Ming Dynasty was unable toget out of the city and hanged himself atJingshan behind the imperial palace inBeijing. The Ming Dynasty ended with hisdeath. At the same time, the Manchus, abranch of the Nǚzhen, were approaching theShanhaiguan Pass, where the Great Wallmeets the sea. Wu Sangui, the Ming garrisoncommander of the pass, betrayed his people

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and led the Manchu troops through the GreatWall. They defeated Li Zicheng’s peasantarmy and occupied Beijing, and the QingDynasty thus started. During the QingDynasty, catholic missionaries spreadwestern scientific knowledge in China. Inthe early years of the Qing, the “KunshanDrama” of the Ming was still in vogue, butafter the reign of Qian Long, the BeijingOpera gradually supplanted it as the maindramatic form. More novels of fiction like“A Dream of the Red Mansions” and “TheScholars” appeared. The Opium War in 1840 marks the beginningof a semi-feudal and semi-colonial periodin China. During this period, the rottenQing government signed many humiliatingtreaties, which ceded territories toforeign capitalist and imperialist powerslike Britain, USA, Russia, Japan, Franceand Germany. The troops of these sixpowers, Italy and Austria marched like

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robbers into Beijing in August 1900. Theoutrages and atrocities—arson, looting,killing, raping and the burning down of theold summer palace by these aggressivearmies have seldom been equaled in worldhistory. The Taiping Uprising and Yi HeTuan Movement demonstrated the struggle ofChinese people against imperialist andfeudal oppression. During this period theBourgeois political reform movement of 1898failed. The Bourgeois Revolution of 1911 led byDr. Sun Yatsen overthrew the Qing Dynastyand ended the more than 2,000-year-oldfeudal monarchical system. Yet, owing tothe weak and compromising character of theChinese bourgeoisie, warlords usurped thefruits of the revolution.The Period of the New Democratic Revolution(1911-1949) The Peace Treaty of Versaillesafter World War I decided to give Japan allthe special “rights” previously seized by

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Germany in Shandong, including theoccupation of Qingdao. This aroused theindignation of the Chinese people. On May4,1919, students in Beijing held a massrally at Tian An Men. The May 4th Movementended with success, the warlord governmentrefused to sign the treaty. Since themovement, the influence of the OctoberSocialist Revolution came to China. Marxismbegan to be disseminated. The ChineseCommunist Party was founded in 1921, andworking class movement surged up. In thestruggle against warlords, Dr. Sun Yatsenaccepted the assistance of the CommunistParty and reorganized Guomintang. As aresult, the Northern Expedition gainedvictories. The Chiang Kai-shek clique ofthe Guomintang, representing the right wingof the national bourgeoisie, launched acoup deta in Shanghai; many workers andcommunist party members were massacred.Since the August 1st Uprising of 1927, the

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Chinese Communist Party established its ownarmy. Mao Zedong established revolutionarybases in Jiangxi. On September 18,1931,Japanese forces launched a surprise attackon Shenyang. Chiang Kai-shek’s Guomintangadopted a “non-resistance” policy, as aresult, the three northeastern provinceswith a population of more than 30 millionwere lost to the Japanese in three months.At the same time, they organized five“encirclement and suppression” against therevolutionary bases. On October 16, 1934,the main forces of the Red Army left theJiangxi revolutionary base, and began itscelebrated Long March (12,500 kilometers).The Red Army arrived in Yanan in October1935 and became the leading force in theWar of Resistance against the JapaneseAggression. It took us eight bitter yearsto defeat the Japanese. Yet, after the war,the Kuomintang, planned to seize thepeople’s fruits of victory and unleashed a

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large-scale civil war on the ChineseCommunist Party and all the revolutionaryforces of the people. While the CommunistParty smashed attacks of the Kuomintangtroops, the patriotic democratic movementin Kuomintang-controlled areas upsurged.After three major campaigns, the People’sLiberation Army armed with rifles defeatedKuomintang army, which was equipped withplanes and artilleries. After the overthrowof the reactionary rule of the Kuomintang,the Chinese people set about establishingtheir own state. The First Session of theChinese People’s Political ConsultativeConference opened on September 21, 1949 andadopted the Common Program, which definedthe character and tasks of the New China;the rights and duties of the people, thestructure of state power; military,economic, cultural and educational systems;policies on foreign affairs and ethnicminorities. Grand ceremonies inaugurating

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the People's Republic of China were held inBeijing on October 1st, 1949. From Tian AnMen, Mao Zedong issued a proclamation tothe people of the country and to the entireworld, solemnly declaring the establishmentof the people’s Republic of China and theCentral People’s Government.

Table of Chinese Dynasties

Xia (21-16 cent. BC) 夏

Shang (Yin) (16-11 cent. BC) 汤 (汤)

Western Zhou (11 cent.-771 BC) 汤西

Eastern Zhou (770 - 221 BC) 汤汤

Spring & Autumn Period (770 - 475 BC) 汤汤

Warring States Period (475 - 221 BC) 汤汤

Qin (221 - 207 BC) 汤

Western Han (206 BC - 24 AD) 汤西

Eastern Han (24 - 220 AD) 汤汤

Three Kingdoms (220 - 280) 汤汤

Wei (220 - 265) 汤

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Shu (221 - 263) 汤

Wu (221 - 280) 汤

Western Jin (265 - 316) 汤西

Eastern Jin (317 - 420) 汤汤

Southern & Northern Dynasties (420 - 589) 汤汤汤

Southern Dynasties (420 - 589) 汤汤

Song (420 - 479) 宋

Qi (479 - 502) 汤

Liang (502 - 557) 汤

Chen (557 - 589) 汤

Northern Dynasties (386 - 581) 汤汤

Northern Wei (386 - 534) 汤汤

Eastern Wei (534 - 550) 汤汤

Western Wei (535 - 557) 汤西

Northern Qi (550 - 557) 汤汤

Northern Zhou (557 - 581) 汤汤

Sui Dynasty (581 - 618) 汤

Tang Dynasty (618 - 907) 汤

Five Dynasties & Ten Kingdoms (907 - 979) 汤汤汤汤

Five Dynasties (907 - 960) 汤汤

Later Liang (907 - 923) 汤汤

Later Tang (923 - 936) 汤汤

Later Jin (936 - 946) 汤汤

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Later Han (947 - 950) 汤汤

Later Zhou (951 - 960) 汤汤

Ten Kingdoms (902 - 979) 汤汤

Former Shu (907 - 925) 汤汤

Later Shu (934 - 965) 汤汤

Wu Yue (907 - 978) 汤汤

Min (909 - 945) 汤

Chu (927 - 951) 汤

Wu (902 - 937) 汤

Jing Nan (Nan Ping) (924 - 963) 汤汤 (汤汤)

Southern Han (917 - 971) 汤汤

Southern Tang (927 - 975) 汤汤

Northern Han (951 - 979) 汤汤

Song Dynasty (960 - 1279) 宋

Northern Song (960 - 1127) 汤宋

Liao (Khitan) (916 - 1125) 汤 (汤汤)

Southern Song (1127 - 1279) 汤宋

Western Xia (Xixia) (1038 - 1227) 西夏

Kin (1115 - 1234) 汤

Yuan Dynasty (1271 - 1368) 汤

Ming Dynasty (1368 - 1644) 汤

Hong Wu (1368 - 1398) 汤汤Jian Wen (1399 - 1402) 汤汤Yong Le (1403 - 1424) 汤汤Hong Xi (1425) 汤汤

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Xuan De (1426 - 1435) 汤汤Zheng Tong (1436 - 1449) 汤统Jing Tai (1450 - 1456) 汤汤Tian Shun (1457 - 1464) 汤汤Cheng Hua (1465 - 1487) 汤汤Hong Zhi (1488 - 1505) 汤汤Zheng De (1506 - 1521) 汤汤Jia Jing (1522 - 1566) 汤汤Long Qing (1567 - 1572) 汤汤Wan Li (1573 - 1620) 汤汤Tai Chang (1620) 汤汤Tian Qi (1621 - 1627) 汤汤Chong Zhen (1628 - 1644) 汤汤

Qing Dynasty (1644 - 1911) 汤

Shun Zhi (1644 - 1661) 汤汤Kang Xi (1662 - 1722) 汤汤Yong Zheng (1723 - 1735) 汤汤Qian Long (1736 - 1795) 汤汤Jia Qing (1796 - 1820) 汤汤Dao Guang (1821 - 1850) 汤汤Xian Feng (1851 - 1861) 汤汤Tong Zhi (1862 - 1874) 汤汤Guang Xu (1875 - 1908) 汤汤Xuan Tong (1909 - 1911) 汤统

The Republic of China (1911 - 1949) 汤汤汤汤

The People's Republic of China (founded in 1949) 汤汤汤汤汤汤汤

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