Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP)
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Lauren Burns
Bachelor Health Science (Naturopathy), Endeavour College of Natural Medicine
School of Health and Biomedical Sciences
College of Science, Technology, Engineering and Maths
RMIT University
November 2020
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Declaration
I certify that except where due acknowledgement has been made, the work is that of
the author alone; the work has not been submitted previously, in whole or in part, to
qualify for any other academic award; the content of the thesis is the result of work
which has been carried out since the official commencement date of the approved
research program; any editorial work, paid or unpaid, carried out by a third party is
acknowledged; and, ethics procedures and guidelines have been followed. I
acknowledge the support I have received for my research through the provision of an
Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship.
Lauren Burns
Date: 25th November 2020
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Acknowledgements
Water is fluid, soft and yielding. But water will wear away rock, which is rigid and
cannot yield. As a rule, whatever is fluid, soft and yielding will overcome whatever is
rigid and hard. This is another paradox: What is soft is strong. Lao Tzu
One of the strong themes that emerged from my research was the power of
interpersonal relationships. Whether in elite sport or undertaking a PhD, support is a
crucial factor in bringing dreams to fruition. It is with sincere gratitude that I thank the
people who have been involved with me along this scholarly journey, and some who
have been a part of both my academic and sporting journey.
Firstly, a huge heart-felt thank you to my supervisors; Professor Stephen Bird,
Professor Marc Cohen and Dr Juanita Weissensteiner, for your expertise, insight,
time and guidance. To Dr Liza Oates, Professor Jeff Simons, Dr Noel Blundell, Dr
Rosie Stanimirovic, Dr Deidre Anderson, Tanya White and Dr Hannah Macdougall
for your contributions, knowledge and support. To Dr Natalie Borg for your
mentorship and keeping me on track. To my fellow PhD students Nicole Bijlsma and
Negar Jamshidi, for whom it’s been a pleasure to share this roller-coaster ride with.
To all of the world-class athletes who volunteered their time. Without which, none of
this work would be possible. Sharing your stories and lived experience has been an
incredible contribution to this work and from which many future athletes will benefit.
From the bottom of my heart, thank you.
My sincere appreciation for all of the supporters and collaborators who contributed to
bringing this project to fruition: Victorian Institute of Sport (VIS), Australian
Paralympic Committee (APC), Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), New South Wales
Office of Sport, New South Wales Institute of Sport, Australian Olympic Committee
(AOC), Sports Australia Hall of Fame (SAHoF), and Cogstate.
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Eternal gratitude to The Jacka Foundation of Natural Therapies and RMIT University
for providing a scholarship throughout my candidature.
Lastly, but certainly not least, my family; Nath, Mac and Piper, who kept me sane,
gave me balance and made me down the books at 3pm every weekday, ready for
school pick up.
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Table of Contents
Declaration .................................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................... iii
List of Tables .............................................................................................................. xi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................ xiii
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................. xiv
Abstract ....................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................ 4
1.1. Introduction ................................................................................................ 4
1.2. Lifestyle and Wellbeing: Theoretical Underpinnings and Frameworks ...... 4
1.3. Being an Elite Athlete ................................................................................ 6
1.4. Classification ............................................................................................. 8
1.5. Complexities in Supporting the Developing Athlete .................................. 9
1.6. Alignment of Olympic and Wellbeing Values ........................................... 12
1.7. Wellbeing, Lifestyle and its Importance for the Athlete ........................... 13
1.8. Looking Back to Move Forward ............................................................... 14
1.9. Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement ........................................................ 15
1.10. Aim of Research, Research Objectives, and Research Questions ....... 17
1.11. Research Aims ...................................................................................... 18
1.12. Thesis Summary ................................................................................... 18
1.13. Flow of Research .................................................................................. 19
Chapter 2: The Role of Lifestyle in Facilitating Elite Sport Performance .................. 23
2.1. Lifestyle ................................................................................................... 23
2.1.1. Psychological ................................................................................. 24
2.1.1.1. Mindfulness ........................................................................ 24
2.1.1.2. Meditation ........................................................................... 25
2.1.1.3. Visualisation / Mental Imagery ........................................... 25
2.1.1.4. Resilience ........................................................................... 26
2.1.2. Diet ................................................................................................. 26
2.1.3. Activities ......................................................................................... 27
2.1.3.1. Yoga ................................................................................... 27
2.1.3.2. Pilates ................................................................................ 28
2.1.3.3. Recreation / Time Out ........................................................ 28
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2.1.4. Support Network ............................................................................ 28
2.1.4.1. Interpersonal Relationships / Social Connection ................ 28
2.1.4.2. Coach ................................................................................. 29
2.1.5. Therapies ....................................................................................... 29
2.1.5.1. Massage ............................................................................. 29
2.1.5.2. Physiotherapy .................................................................... 30
2.1.6. Recovery ........................................................................................ 30
2.1.6.1. Water Immersion and Hot and/or Cold Therapy ................ 30
2.1.6.2. Sauna ................................................................................. 31
2.1.6.3. Ice Bathing and Cryotherapy .............................................. 31
2.1.6.4. Flotation ............................................................................. 31
2.1.7. Vocation / Education ...................................................................... 32
2.2. Summary ................................................................................................. 32
Chapter 3: Athlete Development - A Narrative Review ............................................. 34
3.1. Application of Lifestyle Factors ................................................................ 42
Chapter 4: Qualitative Methodology .......................................................................... 47
4.1. Introduction and Overview ....................................................................... 47
4.2. Rationale for Qualitative Research Design ............................................. 48
4.3. Research Sample .................................................................................... 48
4.4. Research Design Overview ..................................................................... 49
4.5. Publications of Relevance ....................................................................... 50
4.6. Review of Current Models ....................................................................... 50
4.7. Ethics Approval ....................................................................................... 50
4.8. Data Collection and Methods .................................................................. 51
4.9. Interviews ................................................................................................ 52
4.10. Data Analysis and Synthesis ................................................................. 53
4.11. Ethical Considerations ........................................................................... 53
4.12. Trustworthiness ..................................................................................... 54
4.13. Limitations and Strengths ...................................................................... 55
4.14. Chapter Summary ................................................................................. 56
Chapter 5: Lifestyles and Mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and World Champions: Is
an Integrated Approach the Key to Elite Performance? ............................................ 59
5.1. Abstract ................................................................................................... 60
5.2. Introduction .............................................................................................. 61
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5.3. Method .................................................................................................... 62
5.3.1. Participants .................................................................................... 62
5.3.2. Participant Involvement .................................................................. 63
5.3.3. Procedures ..................................................................................... 65
5.3.4. Data Analysis ................................................................................. 66
5.4. Results .................................................................................................... 67
5.5. Discussion ............................................................................................... 76
5.5.1. Overview ........................................................................................ 76
5.5.2. Limitations and Strengths .............................................................. 77
5.5.3. Conclusions ................................................................................... 78
Chapter 6: Supportive Interpersonal Relationships – A key Component to High-
Performance Sport .................................................................................................... 80
6.1. Social Scaffolds Support Athletes ........................................................... 81
6.2. Having A Laugh ....................................................................................... 82
6.3. Creating A High Performance Culture ..................................................... 83
6.4. Overcoming Barriers ............................................................................... 83
Chapter 7: A Survey of Lifestyle and Performance Factors in Mastery and Pre-Elite
Athletes ..................................................................................................................... 88
7.1. Introduction .............................................................................................. 88
7.2. Abstract ................................................................................................... 88
7.3. Introduction .............................................................................................. 89
7.4. Aims ........................................................................................................ 90
7.5. Methods ................................................................................................... 91
7.5.1. Instrument – The Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP)
Online Survey .......................................................................................... 91
7.5.2. Ethical Considerations ................................................................... 91
7.5.3. Recruitment, Participants and Procedures .................................... 92
7.5.4. Data collection ............................................................................... 94
7.6. Analysis ................................................................................................... 94
7.6.1. Checks for statistical violations ...................................................... 94
7.6.2. Qualitative Data ............................................................................. 95
7.7. Results .................................................................................................... 95
7.7.1. Performance Factors / Strategies .................................................. 97
7.7.1.1. Daily Training Environment (DTE) ..................................... 97
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7.7.1.2. Time Spent Training/Travelling (Table 7.2) ........................ 97
7.7.1.3. Weight Division Practices ................................................... 99
7.7.1.4. Recovery Practices (Table 7.3) .......................................... 99
7.7.1.5. Service Providers (Table 7.4) ........................................... 101
7.7.2. Interpersonal Relationships ......................................................... 103
7.7.2.1. Social Support and Support Network (Table 7.5) ............. 103
7.7.3. Lifestyle Practices ........................................................................ 105
7.7.3.1. Relaxation ........................................................................ 105
7.7.3.2. Sleep (during competition/training) .................................. 105
7.7.3.3. Diet ................................................................................... 105
7.7.4. Psychological Skills and Attributes (Table 7.10) .......................... 111
7.7.5. Written Response Questions (Tables 7.11 – 7.13) ...................... 112
7.8. Discussion ............................................................................................. 116
7.8.1. Recovery Practices and Psychological Support .......................... 117
7.8.2. Perceived Support ....................................................................... 118
7.8.3. Nutrition and Sleep ...................................................................... 119
7.8.4. Able-Bodied/Athletes with a Disability .......................................... 119
7.8.5. Additional analysis not included in submitted manuscript ............ 120
7.9. Limitations and Strengths of this study .................................................. 120
7.10. Future Directions ................................................................................. 121
7.11. Conclusion ........................................................................................... 122
Chapter 8: General Discussion ............................................................................... 124
8.1. Overview ............................................................................................... 124
8.2. Overview of Key Findings ...................................................................... 126
8.2.1. Study 1: Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers – (LEAP) interviews
............................................................................................................... 126
8.2.2. Study 2: Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers – Survey ............. 129
8.3. Mastery Athlete Framework .................................................................. 131
8.4. Theoretical Implications and Considerations ......................................... 133
8.4.1. Advocating an Integrated Holistic Approach to related theory and
research ................................................................................................. 133
8.4.2. Lifestyle Factors ........................................................................... 134
8.4.3. Three-Dimensional Athlete Development Model (3D-AD) ........... 135
8.4.3.1. Performance Alliance ....................................................... 135
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8.4.3.2. Gold Medal Teamwork ..................................................... 136
8.5. Practical Implications and Considerations ............................................. 137
8.5.1. Limitations .................................................................................... 138
8.6. Conclusion ............................................................................................. 139
8.6.1. Implications and Scope ................................................................ 141
For a List of Publications, Conference Presentations, Business / Community
Presentations and Awards see appendices 16 – 19. .............................................. 142
Chapter 9: Addendum: Impact ................................................................................ 143
9.1. LEAP Research Impact Summary ......................................................... 143
9.1.1. Publications .................................................................................. 143
9.1.2. Industry Application ...................................................................... 143
9.1.3. Informing Theoretical Application ................................................. 144
9.1.4. Presentations to Wider Sporting Community ............................... 145
9.1.5. Social Media ................................................................................ 146
9.1.6. Statement of Support from Primary PhD Supervisor Professor
Stephen Bird .......................................................................................... 147
9.1.7. Letter of Support from Rosanna Stanimirovic, Psychologist and
Program Manager: Gold Medal Ready, Australian Institute of Sport ..... 148
9.1.8. Letter of Support from Daniela Di Toro, Paralympic Australia Athlete
Welfare and Engagement Officer ........................................................... 149
9.1.9. Award Confirmation – Vice Chancellor’s Prize for Research Impact
HDR ....................................................................................................... 150
References .............................................................................................................. 151
Appendices ............................................................................................................. 164
Appendix 1: Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world
champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite performance? .......... 165
Appendix 2: Participant Information Sheet/Consent Form ........................... 174
Appendix 3: ASEHAPP 15-16 COHEN-BURNS Approval Letter ................. 177
Appendix 4: Interview Script ......................................................................... 178
Appendix 5: Representative Quotes from Athletes ...................................... 183
Appendix 6: Supportive interpersonal relationships – a key component to
high-performance sport ................................................................................ 188
Appendix 7: PIS LEAP Survey ..................................................................... 193
Appendix 8: SEHAPP 72-18 BIRD-BURNS Approval Letter Copy .............. 196
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Appendix 9: NSO Information Sheet ............................................................ 198
Appendix 10: Letter of Support and Email Sent from the AOC .................... 200
Appendix 11: Letter of Invitation from Lauren to Athletes ............................ 202
Appendix 12: LEAP Survey .......................................................................... 203
Appendix 13: FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) Developmental
Framework ................................................................................................... 220
Appendix 14: The Integrated Performance Health Management and Coaching
Model ............................................................................................................ 221
Appendix 15: International Congress on Complementary Medicine Research
(ICCMR), Abstract ........................................................................................ 222
Appendix 16: The Holistic Athlete Career Model .......................................... 223
Appendix 17: NSW Office of Sport Impact and Application .......................... 224
Appendix 18: List of Publications ................................................................. 225
Appendix 19: Conference Presentations ...................................................... 226
Appendix 20: Business / Community Presentations ..................................... 227
Appendix 21: Awards ................................................................................... 228
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List of Tables
Table 1.1. Research Objectives, Questions, Chapter and Aim(s) of the Study ........ 21
Table 3.1. Overview and Lifestyle Applications in Influential Athlete
Development Models, Constructs & Frameworks .................................... 36
Table 5.1. Summary of participant sample and number of key international
events competed at, along with gold medals won ................................... 64
Table 5.2. Sample questions from the interview guide ............................................. 65
Table 5.3. Higher order emergent themes and sub-themes ..................................... 67
Table 5.4. Representative Quotes from Athletes ...................................................... 69
Table 5.5. What are the new findings? ...................................................................... 79
Table 5.6. How might it impact on clinical practice in the near future? ..................... 79
Table 6.1. Athlete representative quotes and summary of number of Olympic
Games attended, along with gold medals won ........................................ 84
Table 7.1. Athlete classification, sports included in the survey along with
number of athletes as per FTEM classification and AB / AwD
athletes .................................................................................................... 96
Table 7.2. Comparison between athlete categories for travel and training time. ...... 98
Table 7.3. Recovery Practices: Percentage of IP and n-IP athletes, and AB
and AwD athletes who practiced these techniques and procedure,
statistical comparisons made using chi-square with contingency
tables. .................................................................................................... 100
Table 7.4. Athletes utilisation of service providers, their perceived
effectiveness and referrals, comparisons made using chi-square
with contingency tables. ......................................................................... 102
Table 7.5. Support Network: importance, achievement classification (IP/n-IP),
Able-Bodied/Athletes with a Disability classification, nature of the
relationship and times of support ........................................................... 104
Table 7.6. Source of Dietary advice by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD
athletes .................................................................................................. 105
Table 7.7. Types of Diets consumed by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD
athletes .................................................................................................. 107
Table 7.8. Type of meal preparation by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD
athletes .................................................................................................. 109
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Table 7.9. Type of Beverages consumed by IP and n-IP athletes .......................... 110
Table 7.10. Psychological Attributes: percentage of IP / n-IP and AB / AwD
athletes who agree these psychological attributes are vital to their
success .................................................................................................. 111
Table 7.11. Representative quotes in response to the question: ............................ 112
Table 7.12. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to the
question: ................................................................................................ 113
Table 7.13. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to the
question: ................................................................................................ 114
Table 7.14. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to: ........................ 116
Table 8.1. Relationships: support, coaches, and the power of laughter ................. 128
Table 8.2. Higher-order emergent themes and sub-themes - UPDATED ............... 130
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1. The FTEM Framework18 ........................................................................... 9
Figure 1.2. The Athlete Development Triangle (ADT) ............................................... 10
Figure 1.3. Flow of Research .................................................................................... 19
Figure 2.1. Lifestyle Categories ................................................................................ 24
Figure 5.1. Contributors to World Class Performance .............................................. 75
Figure 6.1. Strengthening Interpersonal Relationships in Elite Sport – A Visual
Summary .................................................................................................. 87
Figure 7.1. Source of Dietary advice for IP / n-IP athletes ...................................... 106
Figure 7.2. Source of Dietary advice for and AB / AwD athletes ............................. 106
Figure 7.3. Types of Diets eaten by IP and n-IP athletes ........................................ 108
Figure 7.4. Types of Diets eaten by AB / AD athletes ............................................. 108
Figure 7.5. Type of meal preparation by IP and n-IP athletes ................................. 109
Figure 7.6. Type of meal preparation by AB and AwD athletes .............................. 109
Figure 7.7. Type of Beverages consumed by IP and n-IP athletes ......................... 110
Figure 7.8. Type of Beverages consumed by AB and AwD athletes ...................... 110
Figure 8.1. Research Summary .............................................................................. 125
Figure 8.2. Mastery Athlete Framework .................................................................. 132
Figure 8.3. Lifestyle Categories – A Holistic Framework ........................................ 134
Figure 8.4. Levers for Change ................................................................................ 142
Figure 9.1. Previous 3D-AD2 .................................................................................. 145
Figure 9.2. 3D-AD3: Updated to include Performance & Lifestyle Practices,
Complementary Practitioners and Other Pursuits .................................. 145
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List of Abbreviations
AIS Australian Institute of Sport
AWE Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement
DOMS Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness
FTEM Foundation, Talent, Elite and Mastery Athlete Development Framework
HREC Human Research Ethics Committee
IOC International Olympic Committee
LEAP Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
LTAD Long Term Athlete Development
MAC Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment
NSO National Sporting Organisation
PIS Participant Information Statement
TD Talent Development
TI Talent Identification
3D-AD Three-Dimensional Athlete Development Model
VIS Victorian Institute of Sport
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Abstract
This research aimed to explore the lifestyle practices and mindset to which world-
class champion athletes attribute their success and how these practices are utilised
by elite and pre-elite athletes. The intention was to begin by learning from the greats;
the mastery level athletes who have time and time again succeeded at the highest
levels of international competition within their sport. To engage the voice of these
athletes utilise their practical and meaningful knowledge and learnings, and to apply
their lived experience to inform underpinning strategy, education and support.
Following this, the aim was to ascertain the awareness, knowledge, and practical
application of athletes underneath these mastery level athletes, to establish
recommendations and effective strategies to support them.
A narrative review of influential athlete development models, constructs and
frameworks, revealed that lifestyle factors such as diet and nutrition, sleep, recovery,
and recreational activities are rarely considered in such models. This suggested that
these important influences that contribute to athlete success and career longevity are
often neglected.
To gain a deeper understanding of elite athletes’ lifestyles, the ‘Lifestyles of Elite
Athletic Performers (LEAP)’ Study 1 was conceived, and interviews with ten World,
Olympic, and Paralympic champion athletes were conducted. A thematic analysis of
these interviews revealed four dominant and overlapping themes that included: (i)
psychological attributes, (ii) interpersonal relationships, (iii) performance strategies,
and (iv) lifestyle practices. Notably, every athlete (inclusive of able-bodied and
athletes with a disability) attributed their ultimate success to psychological skills
rather than physical factors. Furthermore, most athletes reported their strong belief
in; and systematic application of; mental rehearsal skills and recovery practices; as
essential contributors to their success. This culminated in developing a new model:
‘Contributors to World Class Performance,’ which emphasised that championship
level performances are likely to occur at the nexus of a robust psychological profile,
effective performance strategies, interpersonal support, and positive lifestyle
practices. The key to this model was recognising that these elements did not work in
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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isolation, and athletes need to shift focus across these domains as needed and
balance these elements through effective self-regulation, experience, exposure, and
adaptation. This study was published in the esteemed British Journal of Sports
Medicine (BJSM), which holds one of the highest impact factor ratings in sport
(12.68).
In particular, the findings from the LEAP Study 1 established the importance of
interpersonal relationships on performance and explored the athlete/coach
relationships, social scaffolds supporting athletes, laughter, and creating a high-
performance culture. This led to the publication of an editorial piece in the BJSM that
highlighted how quality relationships assist in attenuating the stress response and
presented a new model: Strengthening interpersonal relationships in elite sport—a
visual summary.
Following the interviews, LEAP Study 2 was conducted. This involved a survey with
134 athletes who were classified as International Podium (IP) or non-International
Podium athletes (n-IP). The aims of the study were to ascertain if there were
differences in the aforementioned domains between: IP & n-IP athletes or between
able-bodied athletes & athletes with a disability. The results of this study confirmed
the themes of the LEAP Study 1, with a key finding being that a robust psychological
profile, along with effective recovery practices and supportive interpersonal
relationships were perceived to be critical elements of successful performance.
Notably, this study revealed that many athletes in particular pre-elite level athletes
wished they had access to psychological skills and support services earlier in their
career. Furthermore, many athletes said in retrospect; they wished they had left or
changed their club earlier in their athletic careers. Additionally, athletes shared a
desire for greater knowledge, information, mentoring, and fostering of their autonomy
earlier in their developmental journey.
The key outputs from this body of research stress the importance of interpersonal
relationships for athlete success and career longevity. This key finding has
substantial implications for supporting emerging and elite athletes and their support
providers (i.e., policy, strategy, education, support and prioritisation of resources,
etc.) as well as a notable theoretical contribution to the existent body of knowledge
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specific to athlete development and high performance. This research adds to existing
models of interdisciplinary practice and provides vital information for those
responsible for overseeing and managing athlete development, existing models of
interdisciplinary practice, and has already informed related policy, strategy,
education, and research at a state and federal level within Australia.
Keywords: lifestyle, athlete, Olympic, Paralympic, holistic
Publications resulting from the work are presented within this thesis.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. Introduction
This chapter will provide a brief overview and context of what it takes to become a
successful elite athlete and refers to the lifestyle and wellbeing issues associated
with attaining this level of performance. This work aims to better understand the
lifestyles and perceptions of elite athletic performers, and how they link to success in
the sporting arena.
1.2. Lifestyle and Wellbeing: Theoretical Underpinnings and
Frameworks
Many factors contribute to success in elite sporting performance such as training,
intrinsic motivation, skill and genetics. However, all athletes must also contend with
general living and effectively manage their dietary and nutritional needs, stress,
mental wellbeing, and engage in various lifestyle practices and social activities that
impact them both personally and as athletes.
Although some individual lifestyle factors including visualisation, diet and mental
preparation have been explored in the context of how they enhance elite sport
outcomes, the broader concept of the athlete’s whole lifestyle has not been
comprehensively studied, particularly in the context of how it relates to athletic
performance. This research aims to compile an overview of the lifestyle and mindset
practices commonly adopted by elite athletes and explore these practices in relation
to their effects on sporting performance.
Athletes are not just the sum of their athletic performance. Rather, they are
individuals who, through their specialised training, along with other practices such as
strength and conditioning, recovery, physiotherapy and sports psychology become
conditioned to attain peak performance in their chosen field. The culmination of
factors involved in each individual’s lifestyle is the focus and interest of this work.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Lifestyle in its simplest form is simply what we do with our lives. All the things we do
as part of our activities of daily living contribute to our lifestyle. ‘Lifestyle’ is the all-
encompassing term for what we do, and the choices we make within our days, such
as working, studying, eating, drinking, sleeping and socialising, along with activities
such as taking the dog for a walk, yoga or going to the gym.
‘Lifestyle’ by its very nature is vast, ubiquitous and constantly in flux. Defining
lifestyle is not as easy as one might think. This is largely as it pertains to so many
elements of a person’s life and spans cultural, geographical and environmental
considerations. Furthermore, a person’s lifestyle is constantly changing. For
example, an athlete who may have a regimented program, may find one year their
lifestyle involves vast amounts of international travel, followed by years of home-
based domestic competition. These lifestyles are very different yet by the same
athlete in the same sport.
In his paper ‘Defining Lifestyle’, Mikael Jensen1 reflects “lifestyle at the individual
level is intertwined with a self-identity. An alternative view at the individual level is
that lifestyle is intertwined with individual habits, goals and beliefs.” (p. 71) Giddens2
definition is inclusive of this changeability and also sits within the lens of self-identity:
“Lifestyles are routine practices, the routines incorporated into habits of dress,
eating, modes of acting and favoured milieus for encountering others; but the
routines followed are reflexively open to change in the light of the mobile nature of
self-identity.” (p. 81)
Chaney3 provides a more simplistic explanation: “Lifestyles are sets of practices and
attitudes that make sense in particular contexts” (p. 5) Whereas Lutzenhiser and
Gossard4 define lifestyle as “distinctive modes of existence that are accomplished by
persons and groups through socially sanctioned and culturally intelligible patterns of
action.” (p. 215)
Within the domain of athletic performance the term ‘lifestyle’ is rarely used or defined
in this context. Through the lens of health, the Oxford University Press,5 define a
healthy lifestyle as:
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A lifestyle which includes activities and habits that encourage the development of total physical, mental, and spiritual fitness, and which reduces the risk of major illness. Healthy activities and habits include regular exercise; a balanced, nutritious diet; adequate sleep and relaxation; abstaining from smoking and taking nonessential drugs; and moderating the intake of alcohol.
The National Wellness Institute of Australia6 define a wellness lifestyle as:
The commitment and approach adopted by an individual aiming to reach their highest potential.
Lifestyle factors and their effect on health and wellbeing, in the context of the general
population, have been well described.7 8 The importance of addressing modifiable
lifestyle factors which are detrimental to our health such as drinking alcohol,
smoking, eating junk food or inactivity have also been widely researched and
reported in the published literature.9 10 Additionally, there is strong evidence showing
the benefits of a wellness lifestyle that promotes health through exercise, eating
nutritious food and encourages a strong social network.10 The lifestyle of an elite
athlete is therefore fundamentally intertwined with their sport. Given the clear
association between modifiable dietary and lifestyle factors associated with health
and wellbeing these considerations should underpin the positive lifestyle practices of
elite athletes to enhance their success. The question moving forward is: to what
lifestyle practices do elite athletes attribute their success?
1.3. Being an Elite Athlete
Sporting expertise is the result of highly experienced individuals dedicating many
years to extended deliberate practice,11 often from a young age. The commitment,
drive, and determination to reach high levels of achievement is significant. To
succeed as an athlete requires an enormous amount of hard-work, perseverance
and teamwork. Not only physically but also mentally. Training at high levels has
various challenges depending on the sport or how well funded the athletes are.
Nonetheless, being a high-performance athlete often requires sacrifices and
pressures such as:
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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• moving interstate
• costs of getting to training
• international travel
• pressure of making a team
• performing domestically and internationally
• focus
• restructuring other areas of the athlete’s life to accommodate training
• balancing relationships with friends, peers, and family
• expenses for services such as massage, physiotherapy, strength and
conditioning
• meticulous planning of diet and supplement intake
• having time out and balancing, study and work commitments
The unique range of stressors that an athlete experiences, can potentially increase
their vulnerability to mental health problems. These factors include the psychological
impacts of overtraining, injury and burnout, intense public and media scrutiny, social-
media pressures, and managing ongoing competitive pressures to perform.12
It is important to note that it is not always the goal to remove exposure to stress but
to facilitate psychological resilience to deal with various life stressors. Fletcher and
Sarkar found that ‘exposure to stressors was an essential feature of the stress-
resilience-performance relationship in Olympic champions.’13 Most Olympic
champions they interviewed concluded that without the experience of certain types of
stressors (including highly demanding adversities), they would not have won their
gold medals.13 The pursuit of success in the sporting arena itself, involves the athlete
actively engaging and seeking challenging and stressful situations.13
A phenomenon of competing despite mental health problems has been widely
reported in elite sport.14 ‘Playing hurt’ is also widespread and is often associated with
the use of painkillers, disregarding medical guidelines and hiding pain from coaches,
teammates and medical staff.14 The effect of these decisions can have
consequences for an athlete’s long-term health and career success. Trivialising pain,
ignoring injuries and having insufficient rehabilitation can lead to irreversible physical
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damage, chronic overuse or recurring traumatic injuries.15 16 Injuries can also take
their toll on mental health. In their assessment, Appaneal et al. showed depression
ratings for athletes with injuries exceeded those of healthy athletes after 1 week,
remaining elevated above healthy controls up to 1 month post injury.17 This is
consistent with previous research on depression and other forms of emotional
distress.17
1.4. Classification
In order to maintain consistency in terminology, the athlete classification in this thesis
will follow the FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) Framework.18 This
framework is inclusive of the athlete continuum, from the recreational level through to
the elite and mastery level. See Figure 1.1.
Athlete classification can be confusing and inconsistent,19 therefore it was important
to select a classification which spanned the trajectories of athlete performance yet
also provided sufficient depth of experience of the athlete along with its applicability
to a variety of sports. This is particularly evident in the FTEM application of snow
sports for Snow Australia.20
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Figure 1.1. The FTEM Framework18
1.5. Complexities in Supporting the Developing Athlete
Unfortunately, short-sighted and questionable coaching and club practices exist,
which do not recognise the holistic nature of athlete development, the impact of
biological maturation on adolescent sporting development and performance along
with the importance of injury prevention.21
The athlete development pathway is summarised by Gulbin et al.22 in their ‘The
Athlete Development Triangle’ (ADT), which clearly delineates progressive levels of
an athlete’s competition levels along with the inter-relationships between junior and
senior representative experiences. Highlighting the variance of developmental
trajectories based on competition levels. See Figure 1.2.
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Figure 1.2. The Athlete Development Triangle (ADT)
There is a significant gap in the system affecting athletes’ wellbeing and lifestyle
practices and a disconnect in providing solutions and valuable and applicable
education to emerging athletes as they move along their development pathway.22
Often, practical recommendations and communications comes either too late or at a
time when other habits have been developed and emotional and mental resilience is
not sufficiently honed to cope with the stressors of the elite sporting world.
The very nature of the lifestyle of an elite athlete brings with it many stressors and
pressure, such as frequent high level competitions, team selections, losses, injuries,
financial considerations. Fletcher et al.23 provide a comprehensive analysis of
stressors which are inherent to sport and associated with the activities of this
lifestyle. These were categorised as follows:
• Factors intrinsic to the sport such as training, competition, nutrition, risk of
injury.
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• Roles in the sport organisation behaviours and demands associated with the
sport such as demand on time, roles and responsibilities and role ambiguity.
• Sport relationships and interpersonal demands such as a personality type,
leadership type, and lack of social support.
• Athletic career and performance development issues such as career or
position security, income and funding, and career and performance
advancement.
• Organisational structure and climate of the sport including factors resulting
from the operation of the sport such as coaching and/or management style
and the cultural and political environment.
In view of the highly complex social and organisational environment in competitive
sport, psychological resilience is required to deal with stressors and pressures of an
athlete’s lifestyle. Fletcher and Sarkar24 suggest resilience training (mental fortitude)
should be both proactive (robust) and reactive (rebound) and administered before,
during, and after stressful or adverse encounters. In contrast to a resilient individual,
a vulnerable person tends to succumb to pressure adverse consequences for their
wellbeing and/or performance. As a result, they then have to attempt to cope with
and recover from their negative experiences.24
The International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus statement on youth athletic
development leads with a clear goal to:
Develop healthy, capable and resilient young athletes, while attaining widespread, inclusive, sustainable and enjoyable participation and success for all levels of individual athletic achievement.25
Although this aim is clear, it is not simple, and is a considerable challenge for
sporting stakeholders such as coaches, parents, administrators, governing bodies
and young athletes. It is imperative a focus on emerging athletes, provides them with
the sporting and life skills to equip them adequately for the journey ahead. The IOC
consensus is a promising place to start. It provides clear recommendations including
perceiving success as healthy, meaningful and varied life-forming experiences for
the whole person (and not just the athlete), implementing evidence-based inclusive
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athlete development frameworks that allow for flexibility in addressing individual
athlete needs, promoting psychological resilience, high self-regulation and enduring
personal excellence qualities; encouraging early diversification and unstructured play
and assisting in the management of sport-life balance.25 Coaching recommendations
that include practices that are evidence-based and provide an enjoyable and
challenging environment can include education programs that assist in building
meaningful relationships, training more efficient training that avoids injuries and
providing up to date and applicable nutrition and hydration education. Sport and
sports medicine governing bodies and organisations should also be encouraged to
protect the health and wellbeing of youth in sport by providing ongoing education.25
1.6. Alignment of Olympic and Wellbeing Values
Although some of the commercial and political aspects of the Olympic movement
have been questionable, when we consider the athlete’s main goal; the pursuit of
excellence, the striving to be the best they can be, it may be helpful to look back to
the tenants of this ancient construct:
Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will, and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles.26
At the very heart of the Olympic ideals is to become one’s best self in mind, body
and spirit, and to embrace the international community in which we live as a global
society. However, it is often within the striving for success, performance outcomes,
funding, power and prestige that these ideals are lost.
In order create a healthy, robust and integrated platform to excel and strive to be
better within ourselves, we need to take a holistic approach. To integrate the
collective support network as a team, focused on the individual human being, rather
than the athlete machine. Only then can we move forward, together, within the
international, cultural and educational platform on which the Olympic movement is
founded.
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Without wanting to sound trite, or overly idealistic, particularly given the corruption
and political overlay that is synonymous with the Olympic Games;27 when one
examines the Olympic construct in its purest form, there is a clear synergy with the
ideals of wellness and wellbeing theory. The individualistic pursuit of achieving
human potential along with the broader context of community and relationships, both
in the microcosm of our own lives and also within the macrocosm of the global
environment. It is this endeavour, within the challenges and opportunities of life, the
imperfections of living, the reality of relationships that not everyone shares the same
opinions or values, but yet in-spite of these struggles, humans seek to connect and
form quality relationships, and seek to bring out the best in themselves and their
world.
1.7. Wellbeing, Lifestyle and its Importance for the Athlete
The definition of wellbeing is multidimensional with many definitions reported in the
literature.28 At a more basic level, wellbeing has been described as to ‘function at
one’s optimal capacity.’29 Cowen30 defined wellness as a collection of positive
functioning attributes, such as strong attachment relationships, coping skills and self-
regulation, exposure to empowering environments, acquisition of age-appropriate
cognitive skills and interpersonal social interactions, rather than the absence of
psychopathology.30
Two perspectives; eudaimonism and hedonism have been used to understand
human needs and desires. Although theoretical constructs differ, there are some
shared overlapping and complementing features. The eudaimonic approach focuses
on psychological wellbeing such as the degree to which a person is functioning, and
places more meaning on self-realisation. The hedonic approach defines wellbeing
more subjectively, that is in terms of pleasure-seeking and pain avoidance, with a
greater focus on happiness and life satisfaction.29 Ryan believes that a more
constructive approach to understanding wellness includes a combination of the
individual’s wellbeing along with the collective wellness of humanity and the planet to
achieve both eudaimonic and hedonic outcomes that are globally sustainable.29
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In a sporting context, we have a duty of care to support the wellbeing and human-
flourishing of each individual athlete, along with the larger sporting community as it
exists within society.31 In this regard, there appears to be a gap in the literature
concerning athlete wellbeing with respect to lifestyle practices. The primary aim of
this thesis is to identify what are the lifestyle practices that elite athletes engage in,
and how do these practices support or inhibit their endeavours in the pursuit of
sporting excellence?
Some positive lifestyle practices such as yoga and saunas are deliberately
incorporated into the lifestyles of athletes as behaviours that they choose and are
within their control. Whereas other factors such as personal or financial stress may
lie outside of their control. Whether or not these factors are within the athlete’s
control, it is interesting to gain insight into how they may impact their elite athletic
performance. Identification of potentially modifiable factors that may either inhibit or
enhance success, may inform the development of lifestyle and training regimens by
elite athletes, coaching staff and the general public. Indeed, such information may
enable effective refinements to athlete development programs.
Devaney discusses the importance of lifestyle support in relation to lifestyle
practitioners supporting Elite Youth Cricketers.32 This highlights the ‘paradox
between the perception that lifestyle concerns are removed from the performance
agenda and the realisation that lifestyle issues and lifestyle support are often
explicitly linked to performance.’32 There is also often a perception and even
expectation that to be a successful elite athlete, the level of focus and commitment
required, means an ‘unbalanced’ lifestyle is required.
1.8. Looking Back to Move Forward
Historically, athletes have adopted an ad-hoc approach to achieving a ‘balanced’ life
and incorporating supporting measures in their lives to help achieve a state of
personal wellbeing whilst optimising their sporting performance. This is evident in the
current understanding of athlete mental health,12 in particular the transition from
‘being an athlete’ to retirement and a career outside of the athlete-identity.12 Within
the sporting environment, athletes are often subjected to discrimination, accidental
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and non-accidental physical, sexual and psychological violence, with the likelihood of
this occurring increasing as they move along the high performance pathway.33 A key
predictor of discrimination, accidental and non-accidental violence is an imbalance in
power relationships, which is a structural feature of sport.34 The power of authority
figures to use manipulative, coercive and intimidating tactics in the selection or
(de)selection of athletes means that athletes often have little bargaining power in
negotiating terms that govern their relationship with National Sporting Organisations
(NSO’s), which can significantly impact athlete wellbeing. Furthermore, the ‘culture of
silence’ prevents athletes from speaking out about grievances in fear of the
ramifications.34 The consequences of discrimination, accidental and non-accidental
violence for the athlete are serious and long-term. In accordance with the Olympic
Charter, the International Sporting Federations and the IOC are obliged to support
and encourage the protection of athlete health and encourage the development and
support for all citizens participating in sport.33 It is therefore critical that athlete
development pathways embrace athlete wellbeing and promotion of healthy lifestyles
to foster athlete mental health and wellbeing.
1.9. Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement
The Australian Sports Commission is committed to athlete wellbeing and mental
health and is one of the key strategic priorities of the National Sport Plan.35 The
recent explosion in our understanding and knowledge of athlete wellbeing has led to
an Australian federal initiative to build a national approach, and the rolling out of
‘Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement Programs’36 through the Australian Institute of
Sport (AIS). The aim of these programs is to create high performance environments
that foster meaningful conversations about training and athlete wellbeing between
coaches and athletes.
Within the program is a team of Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement (AWE)
managers across Australian sports. These AWE managers provide support in areas
of mental health, career and education, community engagement, conduct,
professionalism and personal development.36 This initiative is coupled with the
launch of the Mental Health Referral Network.35 This is a hotline providing
assessment and services to support AIS-funded athletes by way of professional
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guidance and counselling from high-quality mental health practitioners via a national
network of endorsed psychiatrists and neuropsychologists.35 This hotline can be
directly accessed by Australian elite athletes and, friends, family, sporting
organisations, and general practitioners. Allied health professionals can also refer
athletes to the service.37 This program recognises that ‘wellbeing and performance
go hand-in-hand’ and by increasing athlete wellbeing, athletes and sports are better
able to achieve more sustained performance and success at the highest level.37
Most elite athletes have an intense, myopic focus simply by the very nature of their
pursuit of excellence. The challenge for many athletes is to balance this intense
training and a competitive environment with the demands of daily life.38 Building
resilience along with developing and broadening life skills,13 may assist in greater
levels of self-awareness to help expand athletes’ limited focus to better equip them
to succeed in both their personal and sporting life.38 The fundamental aspects that
make up the ‘balanced’ self may include sport, family, friends, professional
development, personal development and social connections.38 In turn, creating a
professional environment which strengthens overall life skills is essential for
developing resilience.38 This is critically important as sporting bodies have a duty of
care for these athletes to be safe and experience wellbeing both during their sporting
life and beyond.
These initiatives represent a promising development and more progressive steps
compared with the historical stigma and silence associated with mental health.12
However, many of these initiatives are provided at a Federal level, through NSO’s or
local sporting clubs, are often administered too late. Rather than being reactive,
athlete wellbeing and mental health programs should ideally adopt a proactive
approach beginning at the grass-roots level.39 This requires an inclusive approach -
educating athletes, club coaches and parents.12 39 40 Roberts et al. call for a change
in attitude towards sport as a whole.34 To address the embedded structural and
cultural factors present today, an attitude aimed to preserve the ‘integrity of individual
athletes while collectively striving for success’ is required.34 This also requires a
change pertinent to society as a whole, including governments, the public, sports
organisations, sponsors and current and future athletes and their families.34
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1.10. Aim of Research, Research Objectives, and Research
Questions
At the elite level, athletes are highly scrutinised and monitored. They are often
determined to strive for the Olympic ideals; ‘faster, higher, stronger’, to achieve their
best in their chosen sport. Whilst a holistic approach to athlete profiling and
commensurate strategies and support, are strongly advocated in the contemporary
literature, including the IOC’s consensus statement on Youth Athlete Development,25
key lifestyle and performance practices are commonly overlooked. Accordingly, the
purpose of this research is to identify the key lifestyle practices and other
contributing factors such as training, preparation and mindset that athletes perceive
to contribute to podium performances in elite competition.
Although there has been research on athletic performance and psychological
profiling, there is little in the way of qualitative information detailing general lifestyle
habits outside of specific training regimens. The closest research to date is The
German Young Olympic Athletes' Lifestyle and Health Management Study (GOAL
Study) which encompasses health and lifestyle.41 However, much of the results of
this study are not publicly available. In order to better understand the role of
resilience in athletes lives, Fletcher and Sarkar interviewed Olympic champions to
look at the relationship of psychological resilience and optimal sport performance,
and found a culmination of factors 'protect the world's best athletes from the potential
negative effects of stressors'.13 These factors include: a positive personality,
motivation, confidence, focus, and perceived social support.13 This knowledge,
along with the GOAL Study41 provides understanding in specific areas of awareness.
Understanding mastery level performance and the aligned athlete profile is critical to
informing the athletes following their trajectory, and the required alignment. This
thesis aims to engage the athlete’s voice. To capture the mastery level athlete’s
wisdom and identify their perceptions of what has contributed to their success, along
with their longevity and therefore, how these aspects can inform and underpin
strategy and provision. The overarching aim of this research is to determine what
lifestyle factors athletes perceive to support their performance and what lifestyle
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practices inhibit athletic performance. Similarities along with unique individualised
practices are also explored across different sports.
When identifying lifestyle factors, the following categories are considered and
expanded on in the following chapter: Psychological, Diet, Activities, Support
Network, Therapies and Vocation / Education.
1.11. Research Aims
1. Identify the lifestyle practices and mindsets that champion athletes attribute
to their success.
2. Explore if these practices are used down the athlete development pathway
with pre-elite and elite level athletes.
3. Provide practical recommendations for athletes and support staff such as
partners, mentors, teachers, educators, and collaborators on improving
athletic performance.
4. Provide theoretical recommendations.
1.12. Thesis Summary
To achieve this aim, two studies were conducted. Firstly, we asked ten of the world’s
best athletes – world, Olympic and Paralympic champions – about their lifestyle and
mindset practices. Qualitative research by way of interviews were chosen for the first
study. Specific research objectives were outlined, with corresponding questions
developed, and appropriate methodologies utilised with no preconceived ideas, to
allow for continual redirection.
The results from these interviews, were used to inform a larger study of 135 pre-elite
and elite athletes. The aim of this study was to gain an understanding of whether the
lifestyle skills and psychological attributes identified in the first study are used across
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a larger sample of athletes, across a broader distribution of sports and further down
the athlete pathway in pre-elite athletes.
1.13. Flow of Research
Figure 1.3. Flow of Research
This thesis is presented as a series of published and unpublished papers, and each
of these chapters is presented in manuscript format. The entire thesis can be read in
order, however, each publication can also stand-alone. The exception to this is the
current chapter, which introduces key topics and outlines the background of the
research, and Chapter 8, which summarises the work in its entirety and discusses
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key findings, limitations and practical recommendations for future directions and
education. The following Table 1.1 provides an overview of the research objectives,
questions, relevant chapters and aims of the studies conducted.
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Table 1.1. Research Objectives, Questions, Chapter and Aim(s) of the Study
Objective Research Questions Chapter Aim(s) of Study
Objective 1: Qualitatively explore lifestyle and mindset practices of elite athletic performers.
• Are there any lifestyle practices that elite athletes attribute their success?
• Are there any lifestyle practices that elite athletes consider inhibit their performance?
• Are there specific lifestyle practices common across elite athletes?
• What is the level of awareness and implementation of these practices by emerging athletes?
Ch 5 Paper Ch 6 Paper, Editorial
This project aimed to gain insight into the lifestyle practices and mindset of elite athletes. The purpose of this project was to identify the key lifestyle practices and other factors such as training and preparation that contribute to podium performances in elite competition. We aimed to assess the similarities within this group of elite performers along with unique individualised practices. The findings of this research will be used to assist other athletes, coaches and sporting organisations identify key elements to include in their training regimens.
Objective 2: Exploring if these skills are used down the pathway and with current and past athletes – survey with a larger cohort of athletes.
• As above, plus: • Is there a difference between:
- pre-elite athletes from mastery level athletes
- able-bodied athletes and athletes with a disability
- athletes in different categorisation of sports CGS / non CGS
Ch 7 Survey Paper
The aim of this investigation was to gain information and insight specific to the utilisation of lifestyle practices and attributes of Olympic, Paralympic & High Performance Australian athletes, from state level to podium level. Our aim was to further understand the role and impact of these key factors, which are critical to informing current athlete and system level support. This was achieved by surveying a broader sample (more sports, broader age range, and achievement levels from state to international champions). The findings of this study inform an integrated approach which encompasses these four dimensions, and can potentially be used to inform the development of a valid and reliable screening tool that assesses a developing athlete’s competency in each of these domains, and is a pre-cursor to tailored education and intervention that
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Objective Research Questions Chapter Aim(s) of Study can maximise an athlete’s longevity and performance success. In order to provide recommendations on future education and implementation strategies, we aimed to gain a deeper, empirical understanding of the utilisation and impact of key lifestyle and athlete practices from across the athlete pathway. The conceptual representation of the athlete development pathway as depicted by the FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) framework18 was used to guide the athlete classification. The online Athlete Questionnaire hosted by Qualtrics (Qualtrics Labs. Inc) was utilised to capture information specific to: 1. The quantity and quality of lifestyle practices (e.g., recovery, sleep practices, support and interpersonal relationships, extra-curricular activities, relaxation and psychological factors such as self-regulation) and commensurate awareness and knowledge, across the athlete pathway. 2. Compare any differences between able-bodied athletes and athletes with disabilities; male and female athletes, professional and Olympic/Paralympic athletes, state, pre-elite and elite athletes, individual and team based athletes.
Objective 3: Provide recommendations and future directions
Ch 8 To outline practical recommendations for strategy and practice.
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Chapter 2: The Role of Lifestyle in Facilitating Elite Sport Performance
A multi-factorial athlete profile is key to elite sport performance.42 43 This chapter
outlines various lifestyle factors utilised by athletes, and their application to sports
performance.
2.1. Lifestyle
As discussed in Chapter 1, in its simplest form, lifestyle is quite simply the way a
person lives. A wellness lifestyle is inclusive of a person’s emotional, physical, social,
spiritual and intellectual lives, along with environment, finances and cultural values,
which all impact one’s overall balance.
While there is widespread understanding that lifestyle habits are important for health
and wellbeing and unhealthy lifestyles can have dire consequences including
lifestyle diseases such as type 2 diabetes, cancer and heart disease,9 this research
focuses on the specific effect of lifestyle practices on athletic performance. Lifestyle
practices such as yoga, meditation, mindfulness and recovery practices may be
incorporated into an athlete’s weekly schedule and may either be provided by the
NSO or undertaken at the athlete’s own initiative. These practices are often
incorporated into an athlete’s regular routine, but more understanding is required as
to how they sit in the performance context, and how they are evaluated within the
program as a whole.
Based on reading and analysis of the relevant literature, lifestyle practices have been
categorised into the following seven groups. The synthesis of these groups has been
refined following the thematic analysis which emerged from the interviews. Some
aspects could be considered in more than one category. For example, some
recovery practices could be categorised in Physical Factors, however we have found
this distribution allows for the best representation and relevance of these elements.
An explanation of how each one impacts sporting performance, is expanded in this
chapter, other than Physical Factors as it is ubiquitous in relevance here.
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Figure 2.1. Lifestyle Categories
2.1.1. Psychological
2.1.1.1. Mindfulness
Mindfulness and acceptance of internal processes (thoughts, emotions, feelings) has
been gaining momentum in elite sport. This approach has been seen to be
advantageous and many athletes and coaching staff have begun incorporating
mindfulness into training regimes to reduce stress and anxiety, increase focus and
improve sporting performance.44 45
There has been a shift in the sports psychology approach, from a more traditional
cognitive behavioural skills training (controlling negative thoughts either by
eliminating, suppressing or replacing them), to looking at a more mindful or
acceptance based approach.46 Gardener et al. suggest these more traditional
practices may in fact have a more deleterious effect for athletes.46 This is supported
by growing evidence that suppressing emotions leads to a range of negative physical
and mental health consequences.47
Mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches, particularly Mindfulness-
Acceptance-Commitment (MAC), are based on the premise that internal emotional
and cognitive states are not eliminated or controlled in order to facilitate positive
behavioural outcomes.47 Instead, it is suggested enhancement of athletic
performance may be achieved via techniques and strategies which develop the
mindful (nonjudgmental) present-moment acceptance of internal experiences
(thoughts, feelings, and physical sensations). These are supported by clarification of
valued goals and enhanced attention to external cues, responses, and contingencies
which are required for optimal performance.46
Psychological
• mindfulness• meditation• visualisation/
mental imagery
• resilience
Diet
• food• beverages• supplements
Activities
• yoga• Pilates• recreation/
time-out
Support Network
• coach• friends / family• support staff
Therapies
• massage• physiotherapy• recovery (spa,
sauna, ice-bathing/ cryotherapy, flotation)
Vocation / Education
• career, work, education
Physical Factors
• sport specific training / practice
• physiology / genetics
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The application of mindfulness practice in sport has been found to be a protective
factor in buffering against stress and burnout.48 It has also shown benefit in
supporting mental health, facilitating general wellbeing, remediating subclinical and
clinical psychological concerns,47 along with enhancing sporting performance.44-46
2.1.1.2. Meditation
Meditation is known to have positive effects on physical and mental health, and
adaptation to life stressors.49 Meditation practice may increase self-reported
mindfulness, which has been linked to reductions in cognitive perseverations.50
Meditation practice can assist with sleep.51 Aiding and improving both the quality and
length of sleep, along with enhancing immune function and the ability to recover from
cold and flu illness.52 53 The use of relaxation skills such as meditation can assist
athletes in coping with competitive (and everyday) anxiety, promote recovery and
enhance self-regulation.54
2.1.1.3. Visualisation / Mental Imagery
The use of visualisation and mental imagery has long been practiced by athletes.
The practice is where an athlete imagines in their mind the training session,
competition-move or activity without making any physical movements.55 Visualisation
or mental imagery practice often involves all of the senses, including sight, hearing,
smell, taste, touch and movement. It is a form of simulation. As the athlete imagines
themselves performing a skill or competing, they are creating muscle memory within
the nervous and muscular systems of how to do the skill.55
Visualisation and mental imagery can be practiced from two perspectives: from an
internal or external perspective. Internal perspective is when the athlete sees the
image from behind their own eyes - as if they were actually performing. External
perspective is where they see the image from outside their body as if watching a
video of themselves performing the activity.55 Athletes use imagery to improve
performance such as improving technique, assist practice when they are too tired or
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if they are injured, to increase competition confidence or to increase/decrease
activation levels.55
2.1.1.4. Resilience
Resilience can be defined as the ‘dynamic process encompassing positive
adaptation within the context of significant adversity’56 and ‘the positive role of
individual differences in people’s response to stress and adversity.’57 Psychological
resilience, as defined by Fletcher and Sarkar,24 is ‘the ability to use personal qualities
to withstand pressure,’ and plays a role in optimal sports performance. There are
multiple psychological factors, which protect the world’s best athletes from the
negative effects of stressors which supports performance success and increases
resilience. Some of which include; self-confidence, perceived social support, positive
expectations about the future (optimistic, hopeful); enjoyment from doing activities
and tasks (intrinsically motivated); has an awareness of oneself, others, and the
environment (self-awareness, social awareness); direct thoughts and mental images
(self-talk, imagery, mental rehearsal, visualisation); ability to regulate arousal levels
(relaxation, activation, arousal control), sets effective goals and motivation.13 24
Conversely, individuals who are less psychologically resilient and more vulnerable,
tend to succumb to pressure. This can affect their wellbeing and sporting
performance significantly, resulting in them having to recover and cope with their
negative experience.24 Teaching and fostering psychological skills and attributes to
enhance resilience is a key attribute for high performance, along with supporting
overall mental health and wellbeing.
2.1.2. Diet
Quality diets are important for human health, and are associated with better mental
health outcomes, particularly depression58 59 and cognitive function.60 Sports nutrition
is no exception and is a dynamic area of science and practice which is constantly
evolving.61 Sports nutrition is used to enhance performance and recovery. As with
training, an individual athlete’s nutrition goals are periodised to enhance adaptations
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of training. Their personalised nutritional plan needs to adjust according to their
training load, periodisation, competition schedule and overall nutritional goals.61
To maximise an eating regimen for an athlete to achieve optimal energy
requirements, balance and availability, appropriate body composition, macro and
micronutrient requirements specific to their sport and competition schedule,
consultation with a qualified practitioner is recommended.61
A tailored plan can assist with strategies to optimise performance and recovery for
competition and during training. This includes pre-, during and post event eating,
proper hydration and electrolyte balance, along with any appropriate
supplementation.61-63
2.1.3. Activities
There are many activities that athletes engage in as part of their weekly schedule.
These are either set as part of a routine dictated by their sport, or they participate in
via their own volition. They can be recreational, performance enhancing or as part of
a recovery program. This is by no means an exhaustive list but highlights some
common activities athletes participate in alongside their sport:
2.1.3.1. Yoga
Yoga has a myriad of general health effects including positive effects on heart rate
variability, mood and mental stress.64 It can improve anxiety and/or depressive
disorders and may reduce cardiovascular risk.65 Yoga practice has been shown to
provide athletes with the ability to achieve higher work rates with reduced oxygen
consumption, without an increase in blood lactate levels - with blood lactate levels
remaining significantly low at rest.66 Yoga practice has also been used to enhance
sporting performance by improving flexibility and balance,67 and assist with
competitive anxiety.68
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2.1.3.2. Pilates
Joseph Hubertus Pilates founded the Pilates method in the early 1920’s. It was
originally called ‘Contrology’, or the art of control, as it was based on the principle of
attaining a complete coordination of body, mind, and spirit.69 Athletes often use
Pilates to improve flexibility,70 attain greater skill refinement,71 improve general
training,72 and for injury rehabilitation and recovery.72 73
2.1.3.3. Recreation / Time Out
Assisting an athlete to rest, or make time for recreational activities, or even
strategically inserting longer periods of rest which follow intense periods of stress is
important. This can assist in effective recovery from intense training loads, aid in
preventing overtraining, fatigue, injury, illness, and burnout.74 A balanced approach
to life, which is inclusive of training, along with an athlete’s other interests is
advantageous. Long hours spent in a single activity, can lead to exhaustion and
inefficiency, ultimately stifling performance.38
2.1.4. Support Network
2.1.4.1. Interpersonal Relationships / Social Connection
Interpersonal relationships are vital to human health and individuals with strong
social ties have increased resistance to somatic diseases.75 76 77 Social support can
attenuate downstream physiological stress responses which are relevant to health.
Having at least one quality relationship in a person’s life, significantly reduces the
likelihood of a negative mental health outcome following a major life stressor.78 Lack
of social relationships is now established as a contributing major risk factor for
health, similar to obesity, smoking and high blood pressure.79 80
Athletes do not flourish in isolation, they are a part of a complex web of interpersonal
connections where subtle and indirect influences can impact their overall wellbeing
and athletic performance.81 Bloom82 proposes there are few predictors of a child's
future success but concludes great achievement can be ‘grown’ by parents,
coaches, schools, and constructive mentors and role models. Social environments
can assist in shaping young talented athletes across the early, middle and late
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stages of their sporting careers.83 Having supportive parents, a stimulating and
permissive coach, and the dedication and commitment to spend hours and hours
practising and relearning skills are the real determinants of excellence.83 Links
between perceived social support and performance have been well documented,85-87
and can have stress-buffering effects which is an important component of resilience
in high-performance sport.13 87 88 An athlete’s support from team-mates is positively
associated with increased self-confidence.85
2.1.4.2. Coach
The coach-athlete relationship is complex and may influence athletes’ motivation. A
coaches’ actions in the form of autonomy-supportive behaviours, provision of
structure and involvement have beneficial impacts on athlete’s needs for autonomy,
competence and relatedness. This in turn, nurtures an athletes’ intrinsic motivation
and self-determined types of extrinsic motivation, which bears a positive influence on
athletes’ intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation.89 Both of which are
required for an athlete’s optimal functioning.89 90 Hampson and Jowett indicate the
quality of coach–athlete relationships add to the prediction of an individuals’
collective efficacy.84 Shared confidence for both coaches and athletes’ is important
for individual performance and team success.84 Coaches need to know when to push
athletes, and when to reduce the intensity of training and also their expectations.83
2.1.5. Therapies
2.1.5.1. Massage
Massage has long been used as a therapeutic modality to treat a variety of injuries
and illnesses.91 Sports massage is used to aid recovery from exercise and
competition and in the treatment and rehabilitation of musculoskeletal injuries.92
However, whilst sports massage is a tool widely used to support and prepare an
athlete for training and competition, it’s efficacy is not as widespread as often
touted.93 94 Massage has been used as a treatment to increase blood flow and assist
with Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) by facilitating blood lactate clearance,
yet this is not supported in the scientific literature.94 Hemmings et al., conclude
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perceived psychological benefit may be a factor rather than physiological restoration
for repeated sports performance.94
In a review of the role of massage in sports performance and rehabilitation, Brummit
concludes evidence of massage significantly contributing to the reduction in DOMS,
or enhancing sports performance and rehabilitation failed to demonstrate these
effects.93 Further research is warranted both for physiological and psychological
application.93
2.1.5.2. Physiotherapy
Sports and exercise physiotherapy is utilised by athletes for prevention and
management of injuries. Physiotherapists are utilised throughout the training
schedule as well as during competitions and peak events.95 Along with their
professional competency, the role of the physiotherapist is knowing when to
refer, and also to understand the emotional and psychological demands of the
athlete, their sport and be able to communicate well with the coaching staff and
support team.96
2.1.6. Recovery
Recovery practices are an important element in an athlete’s training schedule. Below
are some examples of practices commonly utilised by athletes:
2.1.6.1. Water Immersion and Hot and/or Cold Therapy
The use of water immersion and hot and/or cold techniques by athletes has been
used in various ways including cold water (plunge), contrast hot/cold (sauna/spa
then cold plunge or hot/cold showers), ice bathing and cryotherapy.97
Cold water immersion (plunge) is often used after training sessions, when training in
the heat, or during the acute phases of muscle injury, soreness or bruising. Duration
in the cold water is up to 10 minutes or 3 minutes in / 2 minutes out (repeated three
times).97
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Contrasting water therapy (e.g., spa/plunge) is mostly used following training or
instead of cold water immersion between training sessions.97
The spa is often used as a relaxation technique and/or to aid muscle stiffness.97
2.1.6.2. Sauna
The use of saunas for health and wellbeing have been used since ancient times. The
health benefits of sauna bathing are compelling and include cardiovascular and
mental health,98-100 along with athletic endurance.101
Regular sauna use acclimatises the body to heat which in turn optimises the body’s
response to future exposures (hormesis), triggering protective mechanisms which
repair cell damage along with providing protection from other more harmful
stressors.102 Long-term sauna use has been seen to improve blood-pressure,
endothelial function and inflammation.103 Heat stress from sauna bathing may
increase athletic endurance and assist in maintaining or promoting gains in muscle
mass and enhance cognitive function.99-101
2.1.6.3. Ice Bathing and Cryotherapy
Ice bathing and Cryotherapy are also hormetic stressors and involve exposing the
body (or specific areas of the body) to extremely cold temperatures for a set period
of time. Cold exposure increases norepinephrine which influences mood, focus and
attention. Cold exposure increases cold shock proteins which can stimulate repair of
damaged synapses and prevent muscle atrophy.104 It can lower inflammation by
decreasing inflammatory mediators so is often used to relieve pain, injuries and
overuse symptoms.104
2.1.6.4. Flotation
Float tanks are often used by athletes as a stress management tool; to reduce
cortisol levels, lower blood pressure, enhance cognition, improve sleep and increase
general wellbeing and performance.105
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2.1.7. Vocation / Education
Committed athletes are often fulltime but are far from fully funded, juggling work and/
or study alongside training and competition schedules. An athlete’s lifestyle is
inclusive of their commitments in work or study. A life-span perspective which
incorporates this inclusivity along with forethought specific to transition out of sport is
holistic and supportive for the athlete at an individual, psychosocial, and
academic/vocational level.106
Supporting an athlete with dedicated career planning, lifestyle management and
identity development whilst they are still engaged in their sport, supports this holistic
perspective.107 Early intervention programmes endeavour to broaden the life skills of
the athlete and can assist in protecting them from potential anxiety and uncertainty
about their futures, resulting in a smoother, less traumatic transition within and after
elite sport.38
Retirement from sport is a process, rather than a single step.38 Career transitions
can be difficult when an athlete measures their identity, self-worth and self-
perception entirely around their sport.38 106 108 The development of a lifespan
perspective to hone an athlete’s life skills can increase self-awareness and allow the
athlete to create a stronger base to support the pillars that make up the self (sport,
social connections, family, friends, professional development and personal
development). A professional, considered environment which builds and develops
the overall life skills of the athlete is essential for developing resilience.38
2.2. Summary
In summary, greater understanding and recognition of lifestyle factors for athletes is
required to support athlete wellbeing along with elite sporting performance.
In the next chapter, a selection of athlete development models, frameworks and
constructs are reviewed in the context of the extent to which they consider ‘lifestyle
factors’.
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The following chapter explores the current constructs, frameworks and models
utilised in relation to athletes and performance, and the extent in which they
incorporate lifestyle.
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Chapter 3: Athlete Development - A Narrative Review
The lifestyle factors outlined in the previous chapter are often considered in the
athletic domain, however they are not always considered within the whole athletic
lifestyle.
Athlete development pathways and aligned concepts, constructs, frameworks and
models have long been used to give structure to the continuum from early childhood
development of physical activity to high-level elite competition and beyond. The race
for coveted medals and sporting excellence at an international level propels research
in this domain, and the elusive ability to predict and develop a child into an
international superstar continues to drive change and development.
This chapter reviews lifestyle factors featured within the current influential models,
frameworks and constructs of athlete development. In order to cover a wider range
of these influential structures, and allow for more comprehensive coverage, a
narrative review was chosen to illustrate the inclusion and application of lifestyle
factors within these constructs.109
Over time, analysis and understanding of the complexities of identifying and shaping a human has evolved. The layers of depth in continuing to understand nuances in this field is both varied and heartening. Many influential models have been updated
and iterated,43 110 to provide a deeper and more comprehensive practical application for both physical literacy and elite performance.
There is some overlap between Talent Development (TD) and Talent Identification
(TI). Talent Identification relates to events and processes where an athlete has their
potential identified, whereas Talent Development covers a broad period of athlete
development. The emphasis in this review is on TD, however there is mention of TI
as a result of the overlapping nature of these principles within the models and
frameworks discussed. Many TD models are comprehensive at a community or
grass-roots level, providing principles relevant to the general community and
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fostering lifelong physical movement and lifestyle. In these instances, they offer a far
more holistic perspective which supports the athlete for life outside sport.
More recently, athlete wellbeing has become a catalyst for understanding and
incorporating a more holistic perspective. Although there are many benefits of
physical activity, participation in sport can have potentially damaging effects on a
child’s wellbeing.39 Rice et al., established that elite athletes ‘experience a broadly
comparable risk of high-prevalence mental disorders such as depression and
anxiety, relative to the general population.’12 The IOC has provided safeguards to
ensure the child athlete can engage in enjoyable athletic pursuits and reach their
sporting potential and flourish.39
Table 3.1 highlights the lifestyle factors covered in each construct, framework and
model, along with an overview of their overarching concept, methodology and
limitations.
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Table 3.1. Overview and Lifestyle Applications in Influential Athlete Development Models, Constructs & Frameworks
Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
Developing Talent in Young People. Bloom, 198582
Achievement is not the result of genetic endowment but rather training, coaching, & perseverance. Personal capabilities are not predetermined but can be developed & shaped by the individual’s environment. Learning, attitudes & relationships determine transition between stages, rather than chronological ages. 3 Stages of Talent Development: Initiation, Development & Perfection. Expanded with: Early Years: exposure, playfulness, often with immediate rewards. Free of immediate judgment/ critique. Middle & Late Years: investment of time, emotion, & money. Often involves parents finding new and challenging instruction for their child’s continued growth. Child taking more responsibility for their learning environment & allowing the them to master their domain & work toward additional goals.
Educational Psychology. Retrospective qualitative data (interviews) with world-class performers from three specific vocations: music, arts, sport.
Recreational, pre-elite & elite.
Athlete & Environmental Factors (support). The Environment: Some pre-determined instincts & coded behaviour. But ultimately humans have huge potential to develop ‘as needed by whatever environment they encounter.’
Child Growth & Development: Children ‘require a rich stimulating environment to fully develop, they require more hands-on experience & less coddling, they need positive feed-back & encouragement, & they must learn to apply themselves, to work hard, & develop self-reliance & determination.’ Keep it light & simple, value the child’s interest, & be informal. Gradually, ramp-up instruction, making it increasingly structured & challenging.
Parents, coaches, schools, & constructive mentors & role models. Great achievement can be ‘grown’ by these relationships. IQ not an indicator success. Rather -influence of ‘the enthusiastic support of their family, early exposure to required chores, the development of a sound work ethic, lots of practice and determination, & coaching by devoted teachers.’
Not included. Not included. Promotes autonomy. Not included. Not included.
The Role of Deliberate Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance. Ericsson, et al., 199311
Expert performance is attributed to long periods of deliberate practice, along with motivational & environmental characteristics which allow for the individual to self-regulate & stick with sustained practice.
Psychology Qualitative & quantitative case studies (musicians).
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete & Environmental Factors (support).
Motivation. Holistic: Look at the ‘lives’ of the individual. What differentiates the expert performer, is the commitment to deliberate practice. This commitment exceeds that of the majority of children & adults that find difficulty in meeting even lower demands of practice in physical exercise, school & adult education.
Parental support & other influential individuals.
Not included. Not included. Motivation - to sustain years of deliberate practice, Concentration.
Not included. School & adult education considered.
Talent identification & development in soccer. Williams et al., 200083
Various situational factors & the role of family members & mentors override the natural ability of the performer. Appropriate familial, educational & socio-cultural environments are keystones in a balanced approach to child development. Having supportive parents, a stimulating & permissive coach & the dedication & commitment to spend hours & hours practicing & relearning skills are the real determinants of excellence.
Social/ Developmental Psychology & Pedagogy. Review of physical, physiological, psychological & sociological research presented to form a multi- disciplinary perspective.
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete Factors.
General wellbeing. Socio-cultural environments are keystone factors in development. Injury prevention.
Parents, friends, quality coaches. Family members & mentors override the natural ability of the performer.
Not included. Not included. Concentration, commitment, self-confidence, less prone to anxiety under pressure. Perceptual-cognitive skills (anticipation, decision-making), intelligence & creative thinking.
Sports science & sports medicine.
Not included.
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Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
Life-span Model of the Acquisition & Retention of Perceptual- Motor Expertise. Starkes et al.111
Descriptive model of skill acquisition & retention through assessment of perceptual-cognitive-motor skill components. Synopsis of observed behaviours. Four phases of development: Phase 1: Acquisition Phase 2: Condensation/ Elaboration Phase 3: Routine expertise Phase 4: Transcendent expertise. Performance is constantly in transition. Phases are linked to types of behaviours which are characteristic of particular times. The two streams A and B influence behaviour. Dynamic & constant interaction between the two; what people are able to perceive & understand & what people are able to perceive & do. Performance results from these streams & is either hindered or facilitated by their interaction. Additionally they have identified ‘anchor points’ (Phase 1-4).
Psychology, Motor Learning & Control. Review, case studies, new model.
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete Factors. Not included. Not included. Not included. Not included. Perceptual-motor & perceptual-cognitive behaviours, in relation to skill acquisition.
Not included. Not included.
The Developmental Model of Sports Participation (DMSP). Côté et al. 2007112
Link between deliberate practice and deliberate play, along with social connection. Caution against early specialisation. Distinguish between: Practice - organised activities where the principal focus is on skill development & performance enhancement. Play - activities undertaken for intrinsic enjoyment but may contribute to acquisition of expertise. Hours of deliberate practice: accumulated hours of practice relationship with performance. Sampling years (ages 6-12). Low frequency deliberate practice and high frequency deliberate play. Specialisation years (ages 13-15). Relatively equal deliberate practice/deliberate play. Investment years (age 16+). High frequency deliberate practice / low frequency deliberate play.
Social/ Developmental Psychology & Pedagogy. Review of literature.
Recreational, pre-elite & elite.
Athlete & Environmental Factors (support)
Play - High levels of play leads to the athletes self-motivation & understanding of their own abilities.
Social connection, child-centred coaches, parents, are essential to developing athlete motivation to engage in deliberate practice later.
Deliberate play: facilitates intrinsic motivators (playing catch in the street with friends). Thus, facilitating willingness to engage in more structured participation. High levels of play lead to the athletes self-motivation and understanding of their own abilities.
Not included. Intrinsic motivation, self-regulation and self-directed participation, resultant from deliberate play. Self-determination theory & motivation in sport promote intrinsic regulation, autonomy based decisions, develop competence & connection with others.
Not included. Not included.
Differentiated Model of Giftedness & Talent (DMGT) 2.0. Gagné, 2013110
Transformation of outstanding natural abilities ‘gifts’ into outstanding knowledge or skill “talent”. 6 natural ability domains. Mental Realm:
Psychology & Education. Review of literature & empirical observations.
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete & Environmental Factors: Intrapersonal, Developmental &
General health & influences of environment.
Parents, family, peers, teachers, mentors.
Values, needs, interests & passions Leisure.
Not included. Psychological characteristics & psycho-behaviours. Motivation.
Not included. Not included.
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Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
1. Intellectual 2. Creative 3. Social 4. Perceptual Physical Realm: 5. Muscular 6. Motor Control Two catalysts: Intrapersonal & Environmental with Chance influencing both of these. Interpersonal Catalysts personal traits & self-management processes. Environmental Catalysts socio-demographic factors, psychological influences - from parents, teachers, or peers, or special talent development facilities and programs. with Chance influencing both interpersonal & environmental catalysts. Biological roots (basements) exert their influence to moderate these natural abilities. (e.g., neurotransmitter activity, personality traits, genetic foundations).
Environmental plus Chance. Biological Basements: behavioural, anatomical & physiological phenotypes & genotypic foundations.
Eliminating the dichotomy between theory & practice in talent identification & development: considering the role of psychology. Abbott et al., 2004113
Importance of psychological characteristics in developing sporting excellence & effective TD & TI programs. Psychological determinants of performance: Psychological factors are key in explaining sustained athletic success. Prerequisites for learning & development: variables e.g. parental support, test-takings skills, past experiences & physical maturity. Use of meta-cognitive strategies to fulfil potential. Favourable environmental conditions & active learning processes which are supported through internal motivational & learning strategies. Multidimensional & dynamic concept of talent consisting of four stages: sampling, specialising, investment & maintenance. Overarching role of psycho-behaviors in facilitating the successful negotiation of developmental transitions through these stages.
Performance Psychology. Review of literature. Proposal of new model.
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete & Environmental Factors.
General to support a child’s overall development. ‘Performance’ may be a false indicator to identify potential. A child’s own interests can be an excellent, indicator of adult attainment. Distinguish between ‘determinants of performance’ & ‘determinants of potential.’
Parental support Promoting a child’s interests.
Not included.
Psychological attributes & psycho-behaviors such as motivation (for sustained practice), self-regulation, self-talk, imagery, goalsetting. Motivation to commit to high training loads over an extended period is a (if not ‘the’) crucial determining factor in acquiring and maintaining expertise.
Not included. Not included.
Talent Development: A Guide for Practice & Research Within Sport.
Focus on nurturing & development rather than early TI. 3 PARTS
Psychology & Education. Review of literature. Plus model of
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete & Environmental Factors.
Focus on nurturing & development rather than early TI.
Support network. Skill level around relationships involved in
Not included. Nutrition - mentioned in regard to overall balance.
Fundamental psychological skills such as emotional attachment, intrinsic pleasure & motivation.
Not included. Not included.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
Martindale et al., 2005114
Part 1 5 main generic characteristics of effective Talent Development Environments: 1) Long-term aims & methods. 2) Wide-ranging coherent messages & support. 3) Emphasis on appropriate development not early success. 4) Individualised & ongoing development 5) Integrated, holistic & systematic development. Part 2 Summary and Guide For Effective TDEs. Part 3 Comparison of Current Practice With Key Messages Literature. Long-Term Coherent Messages & Support Emphasis on Appropriate Development & Not Early Success. Integrated, Holistic, & Systematic Approach.
effective talent identification & development procedures.
Balance - Balanced skill base, along with other factors such as nutrition, flexibility, strength, fundamental skills, mental skills, decision-making skills etc.
developmental stages. Promotes social system stability to facilitate a positive environment. Education for parents, schools, peers, coaches, & important others.
Psychological factors are causative drivers of success. Encourage responsibility & autonomy in Learning & development. Promote personal relevance & athlete understanding - high levels of intrinsic motivation & commitment are required.
Towards a model of talent development in physical education. Bailey, 2006115
Model of talent development in physical education. Framework for investigating the actualisation of abilities related to physical education. Abilities are multi-dimensional. Abilities and outcomes - distinguishes between expression of 5 abilities: Physical, Cognitive, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Creativity. Talent Development - Abilities. Practice, Identification. Provision. A variety of factors influence development of ability. Focus on physical education.
Psychology & Education. Review of literature.
Pre-elite & elite.
Environmental characteristics – Multifactorial Access and opportunity - Influences of different learning environments.
School environment. Teachers, coaches, family environment social & cultural connection.
Not included. Not included. Personal characteristics - Psychological characteristics stronger indicators of elite performance. Intrapersonal skills: self-control, self-efficacy, emotional intelligence. Determination, persistence, autonomy, self- efficacy, ambition, motivation & intrinsic motivation.
Not included. Not included.
Long-term Athlete Development model (LTAD). Balyi, 201343
A systematic approach to optimal sport & physical activity development inclusive of healthy child development. 7 stages of athlete development. Recommendations at each stage, for measures of physicality to guide practitioners in regard to appropriate involvement in training & competition. 7 Stages: 1. Active Start 2. FUNdamentals 3. Learn to Train 4. Train to Train 5. Train to Compete
Exercise Physiology & Anatomy Early Childhood Development. Literature review. Plus observations & anecdotal evidence.
Recreational, pre-elite & elite.
Athlete Factors Child centred. Inclusive of athletes with a disability.
Sport for Life Philosophy. Promotes skills for quality of life & health. Fosters continuous improvement & relationships between school sport, physical education, and organised sport at all levels.
Inclusiveness, Diversity. Fosters a holistic development of children & youth. Articulates the far-reaching effects of physical activity, e.g., expression of non-verbal representation, the ability to appropriately read situations and
Fostering engagement through encouraging participation in activities for enjoyment.
Reference to nutrition.
Intellectual, emotional & moral development.
Not included. Not included.
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Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
6. Train to Win 7. Active for Life 10 Key Factors: 1. Physical Literacy 2. Age 3. Specialisation 4. Trainability 5. Intellectual, Emotional & Moral Development 6. Excellence Takes Time 7. Periodisation 8. Competition 9. System Alignment 10. Continuous Improvement
respond intelligently & imaginatively. Concepts align with the wellbeing principles supporting human flourishing.
Athletic Talent Development Environment (ATDE) model. Henriksen et al., 2010116
A holistic ecological approach to athlete TD. Focus: whole environment, rather than individuals. Designed as a supplement to contemporary literature on TD and career development. Two concurrent models: ATDE working model - environment's components & structure. Micro level Macro level Athletic domain Non-athletic domain Environmental Success Factors (ESF) working model – structures factors contributing to the environment's success: Preconditions Process Individual development & achievements & Team achievements Organisational culture. Explanatory Empirical Model: The Environment Success Factors (ESF) Model – optimize learning, strong culture, performance process, individual responsibility.
Ecological & Organisational Psychology within a Systems Theory Framework. Review of literature & qualitative data. Case study. In depth interviews with administrators, coaches & athletes + document analysis 49er sailing team.
Pre-elite & elite. Environmental Factors.
Engagement with society as a whole & inclusive of organisational culture of the society in which the athlete lives. Considers athletes in context of their psychological, psycho-social & academic/ vocational development, rather than sport context alone. Holistic approach (not solely focused on sport and the micro-environment) for nurturing potential.
Emphasis on relational development & influence. Family, peers, school, coaches, support staff, other athletes (older/ younger), club mates)
Inclusive of: Non-athletic domain - all other aspects of the athletes’ lives. Micro level - daily life, real communication & interactions Macro level - settings (social) which affect the athlete but the athlete is not involved. Values/ customs of the cultures to which the athletes belong.
Not included. Psycho-social competencies: autonomy, responsibility, drive for excellence, resilience and social skills.
Reference to ‘experts’ within the athlete’s inner circle.
Academic/ vocational development.
The Youth Physical Development Model. Lloyd et al., 2012117
Physical development model with specific iteration to physical strength & conditioning. Distinguishing that fitness components are trainable throughout childhood. Debunking ‘Windows of opportunity.’ Spans from 2-21yrs 2 figures, each specific to male of female athletes, inclusive of hormonal adaptations.
Strength & Conditioning. Review of the literature. Plus new model.
Pre-elite & elite. Athlete Factors.
Promotes development of the child over performance outcomes. Athlete centred. Permits individualisation General wellbeing. Providing valuable & transferable life skills, through positive experiences.
High quality coaches with appropriate qualifications.
Not included. Not included. Intrinsic motivation. Sports Science.
Not included.
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Model / Construct Overview
Discipline Origins & Methodology
Performance Level
Athlete & /or Environmental Factors of Support
Lifestyle Factors
General Lifestyle / Wellbeing Support Network Activities /
Recreation Diet / Nutrition Psychological attributes
Therapies Practitioner Support / Recovery
Education / Vocation
Components of YPD: Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) & Sport-Specific Skills (SSS), Strength, Hypertrophy, Power, Speed, Agility, Mobility, Endurance & Metabolic Conditioning. Individualised to account for: Sex Differences, Early vs Late Maturing Individuals & Initial Training Status. Peak Height Velocity (PHV) & Peak Weight Velocity (PWV) are used to determine individual maturation rates. PWV being a phase of development characterised by rapid increases in muscle mass as a result of increasing sex hormone concentrations.
FTEM: Foundations, Talent, Elite, Mastery Gulbin et al., 201318
Non-linear movements featuring variable entry & exit points within the developmental pathway. Accounts for recreational physical activity to the elite high performance pathway. Devoid of fixed age boundaries. Comprehensive framework of physical activity which spans the lifetime, inclusive of elite & mastery level athletic performance. Characteristics: Foundations: fundamental movement skills, physical literacy & active lifestyle Talent: strategy to enter talent pathway. Elite / Mastery: support (domestic/international, autonomy, transition) Complimented by 3D-AD model to articulate the multidimensional, longitudinal & interactive nature of athlete development (non-elite, pre-elite, elite).
Psychology & Education. Review of the literature. Theoretical research perspectives plus empirical observations: New framework.
Recreational, pre-elite & elite.
Athlete & Environmental Factors.
General and specialised phases of development. Promotes recreational activity through the lifespan.
Support network inclusive of parents, friends, peers & other family members.
Provides wellbeing, educational, coaching & vocational support along with transitional support.
Not included. Promotes autonomy Health professionals assist in supporting greater skill acquisition, reinforcement & motivation which are essential to achieving competency.
Inclusive of educational, & vocational support.
3 Dimensional Athlete Development Model (3D-AD) Complement to FTEM Gulbin & Weissensteiner, 201342
Three-dimensional representation of athlete development. Highlighting the leading factors supporting athlete development: athlete, environmental, system, & chance, modulating this outcome & which permeate through the developmental sequence: non-elite, pre- elite & elite phases. Particular skills increasing in size to represent increased importance as athlete moves along development pathway e.g. psychological attributes, physiological capacity, sports specific skills, practice & competitive investment, physical capacity.
Psychology & Education. Complement to FTEM framework.
Recreational (refered to as ‘non-elite’), pre-elite & elite.
Athlete & Environmental Factors.
Community. Parents, friends, peers, family members.
Not included. Not included. Psychological attributes – gaining importance as athlete moves along elite pathway. Self-regulation, mental toughness, coping abilities, confidence, self-belief, motivation.
Sports science, sports medicine.
Not included (although represented in overarching framework FTEM).
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3.1. Application of Lifestyle Factors
When discussing athlete development, there is often reference to ‘the child’ or ‘the
child athlete’. This is because athletes are often children or adolescents, or at least,
began their sporting trajectory in their youth. Any significant change to athlete
development pathways needs to happen both a grass-roots and systemic level, so
although this thesis focuses on elite athletes, their journey through the athlete
development pathway as a young person is notable.
The IOC consensus statement: ‘Training the elite child athlete’ recommends;
‘parents/ guardians should develop a strong support system to ensure a balanced
lifestyle including proper nutrition, adequate sleep, academic development,
psychological well-being and opportunities for socialisation.118 Further
recommendations include reducing stress and pressure, ensuring quality coaching,
prioritising injury prevention, continuing scientific endeavour to better understand
training the child athlete and importantly, that emphasis is placed on the
developmental process being pleasurable and fulfilling.118
These recommendations support themes identified within TD, such as play (both
deliberate and unstructured),43 112 119 interpersonal relationships, which was strongly
iterated by all models/constructs82 83 110 112 113 115-117 120 except Balyi.43 However, this
was the only model/construct which referenced nutrition (in the Train to Train
phase).43 The lack of consideration for diet and sports nutrition is surprising,
considering it is a huge aspect of an athlete’s life and performance.61
In regard to lifestyle, there is little mention of the overall ‘life’ in any comprehensive
detailed application of what this actually means. However, Gulbin et al. consider
‘vocation and life outside sport’ in the FTEM framework.18 Henriksen et al. consider
the non-athletic domain broadly set to encompass ‘all other aspects of the athletes’
lives’ (e.g., sport, studies, work and relationships).116 Erricsson et al.11 elaborate; ‘We
believe that a more careful analysis of the lives of future elite performers will tell us
how motivation is promoted and sustained.’ Gagné’s Differentiated Model of
Giftedness and Talent (DMGT) 2.0110 is probably the most comprehensive in regard
to lifestyle, stating ‘a number of lifestyle factors bear influence on application of the
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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model, including; health, social affection, leisure, academic level, and technology.’
Extra-curricular activities such as walking, yoga, Pilates, swimming etc are devoid of
any mention. However, although the DMGT provides a holistic model, it is not
specific to application within sport.
Henriksen et al.116 strive to provide a truly holistic application. Endeavouring to not
focus solely on sport to nurture potential, but to foster engagement with society as a
whole, inclusive of organisational culture of the society in which the athlete lives.
This application considers the athlete in the context of their psychological, psycho-
social & academic/ vocational development, rather than sport context alone.116
The importance of interpersonal relationships is highly regarded yet not always well
defined. Williams et al.83 suggest the real determinants of excellence are having
supportive parents, a stimulating and permissive coach and the dedication and
commitment to spend hours and hours practicing and relearning skills are the real
determinants of excellence. Bloom concurs and suggests, ‘various situational factors
and the role of family members and mentors override the natural ability of the
performer.82
The IOC consensus statement on youth athletic development25 sets out
recommendations for the development of resilient, healthy and capable athletes,
whilst providing the opportunity to engage in enjoyable, fulfilling participation in sport
at all levels. In particular, they highlight areas which that are not strongly represented
in the TD models (Table 3.1) such as: sleep, wellbeing, psychological overload and
nutrition.25
Sleep is critical in the developing athlete as many hormonal changes affect
homoeostatic and circadian regulation of sleep and insufficient sleep can lead to
injury and affect health, attention, learning, behaviour and athletic performance.25
Youth athletes face the sleep problems of other teenagers (often compromised sleep
due to early start times and late bedtimes), but with the added pressures of training
and competition schedules, further exacerbating the sleep debt.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
44
In regard to wellbeing, Bergeron et al. caution against early specialisation, as
‘diverse athletic exposure and sport sampling enhance motor development and
athletic capacity, reduce injury risk and increase the opportunity for a child to
discover the sport(s) that he/she will enjoy and possibly excel at.’25 Although the
development of psychological skills and attributes are highlighted, athletes are often
at the peril of psychological overload from excessive demands and expectations.
Safeguarding the youth athlete from abuse in sport includes sexual harassment and
abuse, relational abuse such as emotional or physical abuse including over training
or forced physical exertion. The ‘utilisation of selection procedures that promote
eating disorders’, or ‘competing with an injury’, and medical mismanagement.25 The
IOC consensus statement25 recognises the importance of nutrition and dietary
requirements, along with education and appropriate supplementation which should
be structured and provided by a qualified professional to optimise energy and
nutrient needs, and prevent eating disorders.25
Athlete development in the early years should include a diversity of activities,
including practice and different variations of play. These are strong contributors of
continued participation in sport, elite performance, and sustained involvement in
more intense activities later in life.121 High amounts of deliberate play, early
diversification in multiple sports, child-centred coaches and parents, along with being
around peers who are involved in sports, are shown to be essential characteristics of
environments for young children which encourage their later investment in structured
practice activities.121
Also of note, is ‘The Holistic Athlete Career Model’ by Wylleman et al.122 Although,
this model is not included in Table 3.1 (as it is not a TD model), it is worth mentioning
as it represents the transitions and stages which athletes are faced, inclusive of
athletic, psychological, psychosocial, academic/vocational, and financial levels. It
also strongly articulates lifestyle factors. The “lifespan” model combined a
developmental (i.e., initiation into post-athletic career) with a holistic perspective (i.e.,
athlete’s multilevel development).122 See Appendix 16.
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Considering, an elite athletic career can often span 15-25 years106 and requires
juggling training and travel, along with study/and or work demands, it is important to
understand the transitional challenges which athletes face. In particular, the
concurrent multilevel nature of many of these transitions.122 As an athlete moves
from adolescence into young adulthood, they are also shaping their identity,
requiring both greater independence, discipline and responsibility along with stronger
self-regulation and appropriate coping skills to deal with situations, pressures and
expectations. This is all while adopting the everyday lifestyle of an elite athlete (time
management, nutrition, recovery and recuperation, good sleep hygiene and training
load).122 At the same time, relationships with significant others are developing or
changing. There may be higher expectations from coaches and teammates,
interaction with parents diminishes (possibly even improving), and friendships
outside of sport may be impacted (positively or negatively) with the increased
demands of their elite sporting career. Romantic relationships may also become
more important.122
The cessation of sport can be confronting for an elite athlete and they can face a
number of challenges including; identity, change of lifestyle and withdrawal from
many relationships within the sporting environment.38 106 122 Crisis around identity,
can impact psychological wellbeing and result in feelings of dysphoric mood, a sense
of hopelessness, depression or suicidal behaviour.122 Retired athletes can be at a
higher risk of difficulties with sleep, relationships, physical exercise and finances.38
122 A holistic application of career transition is critical and should run concurrently
with athlete developmental models. Proactive retirement and wellness planning
should run alongside developmental training programs to support and educate
talented athletes in preparation for transition challenges such as entering senior
level, starting in higher education or becoming a parent.38 122
The area of athlete lifestyle is expanding slowly,32 41 however presently there is more
of an ad hoc approach to lifestyle and wellbeing factors and their inclusion in
developmental models. Further research in understanding the components that
make up an athlete’s lifestyle and all its iterations, is warranted.
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46
In order to gain a greater understanding of the lifestyles of top athletes, and what
they attribute their success, a qualitative analysis was decided upon. This
methodology is outlined in the following chapter.
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47
Chapter 4: Qualitative Methodology
This chapter details the methodology and data analysis used for the LEAP
interviews. The research described in this chapter was used in the production of 2
publications (see below). This methodology and underlying theoretical
considerations apply to both publications. As the two manuscripts have already been
peer reviewed and published, this chapter sits separately to expand on aspects of
methodological rigour that were not able to be included in the publications due to
word count restrictions.
Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M. Lifestyles and Mindsets of Olympic,
Paralympic and World Champions: Is an Integrated Approach the Key to Elite
Performance? British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018; 53:818-824.
doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217
Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M. Supportive interpersonal relationships:
a key component to high- performance sport. British Journal of Sports Medicine.
2019; 53(22):1386-1389 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100312
4.1. Introduction and Overview
The LEAP Interviews utilised a qualitative grounded theory approach involving a
series of in-depth semi-structured interviews that provided insight into the lifestyle
practices and mindset of elite athletes. World, Olympic and Paralympic Champions
from a variety of sports and ages were identified and invited to participate in a HREC
approved study where they were asked to be involved in an in-depth semi-structured
interview. The purpose of these interviews was to gain better understanding of the
lifestyle practices of this elite group. The research questions examined are:
• Are there particular lifestyle practices and behaviours to which elite athletes
attribute their success?
• Are there particular lifestyle practices and behaviours to which elite athletes
consider to inhibit their performance?
• Are there specific lifestyle practices and behaviours that are common across
elite athletes?
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This chapter is organised by introduction and overview along with the rationale
behind selection of the type of research methods, research sample, an overview of
the research design, data collection and methods, followed by data analysis and
synthesis, ethical considerations, trustworthiness and limitations of this study.
Concluding with a chapter overview.
4.2. Rationale for Qualitative Research Design
The research design chosen for this study is a grounded theory approach, to best
engage the athletes’ voice123 and explore the perspectives of this sample of athletes.
This is intended to elicit the key themes related to lifestyle and other factors to which
they attribute their success, without any preconceived ideas induced by a particular
theoretical perspective. This qualitative approach was adopted because of its fluid
nature124 providing data rich in context and allowing for insights directly from lived
experiences.125 Grounded theory uses a systematic approach as a way of studying
social phenomena and psychological processes.124 Qualitative methodology
facilitates focus on discovery and description, with objectives often focused on
understanding and interpreting the meaning of experience.126 127 128
4.3. Research Sample
The participant sample included ten athletes (6 females and 4 males) from various
able-bodied, Paralympic, team and individual sports all of whom had won a gold
medal at an Olympic, Paralympic Games or World Championship event over varying
length of sporting careers. The participants included multiple mastery-level athletes
who had competed at elite levels for at least ten years with collective careers
spanning from the 1992 Barcelona Olympics to the 2016 Rio de Janiero Olympics.
Medal performances range from a single gold-medal performance at an Olympic
Games or World Championship event, to multiple gold-medal performances over a
20-year career.
Participants were purposefully sampled, and a snowball recruitment campaign was
initiated through the Victorian Institute of Sport (VIS) and the lead author’s network.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Athletes were given a Participant Information Statement (see Appendix 2) and gave
written consent to be interviewed and identified.
In order to address the research questions pertaining to lifestyle factors of high elite
performers, inclusion criteria was determined athletes needed to have won a gold
medal at an Olympic, Paralympic or World Championship event. Athletes’ career
information including gold medals at these events along with the number of
Olympic/Paralympic Games attended was collated in a table distinguishing further
characteristics: able bodied, Paralympic, team sport, individual sport, team and
individual, female and male. This table is presented in the following chapter as it sits
within the published work. See table 5.1. No participant declined to be audiotaped.
4.4. Research Design Overview
A summary of the steps to carry out the research is summarised below, with a
lengthier discussion to follow:
• Preceding data collection, a review of current athlete development models
and support systems, was carried out, determining lines of questioning which
expands on current literature and identifying potential areas to expand on to
gain deeper understanding.
• After designing the interview structure guide (Table 5.2) and interview script
(Appendix 4), a proposal was submitted to the RMIT Human Ethics
committee, which gained approval.
• Potential participants were contacted by email, either by the VIS or by the
lead researcher. Those who agreed to participate were emailed a Participant
Information Statement and a copy of the interview questionnaire.
• Semi-structured, in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 World, Olympic
and Paralympic champions.
• Analysis of interview data responses between interviewees was conducted
between researchers.
• Further research, expanding on these themes was planned as a result of the
data analysis.
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4.5. Publications of Relevance
Relevant articles pertinent to this research were Fletcher and Sarker,13
Weissensteiner et al129 and Holt et al.130 These papers have provided a guide as a
reference to how to effectively incorporate participant quotes into the paper, linking
them and providing relevance to the associated theme or subtheme. For example,
Fletcher and Sarker discuss focus and attach a representative quote:
The ability to focus was an important aspect of resilience for the world’s best athletes. Specifically, they were able to focus on themselves, not be distracted by others, focus on the process rather than the outcomes of events, and were able to switch their sport focus on and off to suit the demands they faced. One Olympic champion recalled how his single-minded focus on himself and the team resulted in him being almost unaware of the stressors around him: It’s funny, in a way I was kind of oblivious to pressures because I think in some ways you just go so into yourself. well, it’s a hugely selfish thing isn’t it? You’re concentrating on yourself and this group of five people and you’re living in each other’s pockets. 13
These papers used a grounded theory approach and utilised interviews to elicit data.
Similarly, they were all largely exploratory in nature requiring a highly generative
methodology which allowed an inherent freedom to explore situation dynamics along
with the interrelationships of critical components. This provided sufficient flexibility
and therefore facilitated the ability for continual redirection of the focus of inquiry to
concentrate on areas of emerging importance.
4.6. Review of Current Models
A review of the existing literature informed this study. This is detailed in Chapter 3.
4.7. Ethics Approval
Following the review of current literature, researchers developed designed a
proposal for this study including background and context, purpose and research
questions, methodology, interview script and ethical considerations (see below). The
study was approved by the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee (ASEHAPP
15-16). See Appendix 3.
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4.8. Data Collection and Methods
Strauss and Corbin’s method of grounded theory124 131 was used to develop the
substantive theory because the underlying premise is that knowledge is dynamic and
socially and situationally constructed, rather than fixed and discoverable. Grounded
theory allows the exploration in the real experiential world of complex interacting
individuals, and also facilitates the study of the complexity of whole interacting
systems. This inquiry looking at the lifestyles and mindsets of elite athletes is located
in the dyadic network and the interactions of the person within the lifestyle and
sporting environment where reality is emergent. The purpose of using grounded
theory here is to abstract from practical lived experiences to concepts and
propositions that explain social interactions, habits or processes.
This inquiry was not intended to test or validate existing theories or to interpret
personal experiences numerically. The aim of this study was to elucidate any
commonalities amongst a variety of athletes from different sports, pertaining to
lifestyle choices, mindset and what this elite group of individuals attribute their
success. Given the experiential context of the participants, grounded theory allows
for the exploration of depth and detail of concepts, propositions, and contextual and
influencing factors. It offers the potential for information-rich data126 which captures
the typical or exemplar and variable experiences of athletes within a complex
framework of coaches/family/friends/support staff.124
Data sources included participant interviews, interview notes, and literature pertinent
to athlete pathway development. Data source selection was based on the potential to
provide and elaborate on information necessary for the emerging theory and further
contribute to this field of research. Collection, interpretation and analysis of data
concluded when saturation was reached. That is when no new insights into the
emerging theory were forthcoming and the categories and concept relationships
were fully developed.124 126 131
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4.9. Interviews
In preparation for the interviews, a semi-structured interview guide was developed
and featured a broad-line of questioning on developmental background, athlete
profile, lifestyle practices, support networks and key support services. See Table 5.2
for interview guide structure. Following this, a full interview script was prepared. See
Appendix 4. At the beginning of each interview general questions on the athlete’s
background were posed to assist in developing rapport. All questions were asked in
a conversational tone. Probe questions were utilised where required, to expand on a
theme or gain a deeper understanding.132 Interviews were conducted by the lead
researcher and recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Interviews were scheduled to allow time in between for transcription and preliminary
analysis before the next interview, as with accordance with constant comparative
analyses. Constant comparison is the process of data collection, analysis,
comparison and ongoing comparison of the data to the theory which is developing.
Incidents are compared to incidents, similarities and differences are evaluated,
leading to categories with definition, description or properties, and differentiation.124
With each interview, the researcher was able to develop and revise the emergent
theory, as is congruent with grounded theory.
The lead researcher emailed individual participants outlining the purpose of the
study, inviting their participation, and requesting a convenient time and date for a
face to face interview. Following this, the researcher sent a follow up email to confirm
location and time along with the interview questions and Participant Information
Statement. Interviews took place between July – October 2016. Of the 10 interviews
conducted, 8 were face-to-face and 2 were via video conferencing. All interviews
were recorded in their entirety and transcribed verbatim. An Interview Guide
Structure was developed and published within the manuscript. See Table 5.2
Sample questions from the interview guide.
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4.10. Data Analysis and Synthesis
Initial themes were extracted by sentence-by-sentence open-coding using NVivo
qualitative software (version 11.3).124 In accordance with constant comparative
analyses, interviews were spread to allow for transcription, analyses and reflection to
occur so that evolving themes and subthemes could be further explored and
elucidated in the next interview.124 131 133 Participants were purposively sampled to
fully explore and confirm the evolving theory and model.131 133 Emergent higher-order
themes (e.g., psychological factors) and lower-order themes representing relevant
sub-components (e.g., self-regulation) were identified. See Table 5.3 Higher order
emergent themes and sub-themes. Coding continued until theoretical saturation
occurred and no further themes emerged.133 Lastly, a conceptual model
incorporating all relevant themes, including the inter-relationships between them was
created from the analysis. See Figure 5.1 Contributors to World Class Performance.
Although discussion and data analysis occurred between each interview with
researchers discussing and explored emerging themes, most of the higher order
emergent themes and sub-themes became apparent when all data was collected.
The lead researcher collated each participants comments into groupings for each
question, highlighting similarities and differences in themes along the way.
Information was distributed between the three researchers for discussion, reflection
and comparison. Emergent themes were colour coded as were sub-themes, as the
conceptual framework began to take shape. Collaboration between researchers
confirmed emergence of themes and was helpful in cross-checking data analysis.
4.11. Ethical Considerations
In order to protect the rights of the participants and the information which they
provide, ethical considerations were examined by researchers.127 As per
recommendations from the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee, researchers
communicated clearly to participants that participation was voluntary and they could
withdraw at any time. Participants were informed of the study’s purpose and
informed they could access their transcript, and that the information they provided
was stored on an encrypted computer. It was deemed by the researchers and the
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
54
RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee that there were no serious threats posed
to any participants or their well-being. No sensitive or deeply personal information
was asked of them during the interview process.
4.12. Trustworthiness
Methodological rigor and trustworthiness was ensured throughout via a complement
of strategies to control for potential bias through design, implementation and
analysis.134 To ensure credibility and accurate portrayal of the participants
perceptions any potential biases were listed up front 134 (eg, the lead researcher was
also an Olympic gold medallist), monitoring by way of regular meetings between
researchers, any subjective perspectives and diligent recording of a journal for
reflective notetaking. The lead researcher also utilised a journal to record notes,
observations, reflections, potential themes and questions between interviews.
Regular meetings between researchers were held throughout the data-analysis
phase to discuss and confirm emergent themes and sub-themes and provide ‘peer
debriefing’134 to ensure accuracy. Analysis of the transcription of interviews was
spread amongst the researchers to establish inter-rater reliability and check for
consistency between raters in order to reduce potential bias of one researcher. A
hallmark of qualitative research is ‘thick description’126 which is used as a tool to
communicate a comprehensive, holistic and real picture for the reader. To provide
this richness and to ensure representativeness, quotations from participants were
applied to illustrate and support each emergent theme and sub-theme. For example:
Intrinsic Motivation
Strong intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic reward and recognition was evident. A hunger for self-challenge and being the best was prevalent, along with a connection to something meaningful.
AIF2 shared: My earliest memory of what drove me to run was just feeling happy when I ran. I felt so free …so untouchable. I was never the type of person who needed to be watched. I didn't need to have an audience. I just took off and it was like I'd left everything or everybody behind me. It made me happy to take notice of nature. The Athlete-Coach Partnership
Athletes reported the most valued support from their coach was not technical but inter-personal and relational (e.g., emotional support and encouragement, open and honest communication and strong rapport). Some athletes also acknowledged the paramount importance of their coach’s technical ability.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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AT/IM2 talks about the role of a coach being more than just technical: The coach that I had in my best years was an Italian guy, he was an Olympic medallist in his own right and fully understood coaching doesn’t stop until you go to bed at night. Because he'd become a part of your life, he's nearly a part of your family. Then they become good coaches and they become a dual role of a coach and a manager. I think at the top level, you don’t need a technical coach. We've worked out what we need to do. It's what’s going on in your brain will determine how you shoot. And that's often all you need, distract you, just keep you calm, keep you calculated, give you confidence.
PI/TM2 shares: He’d never coached anyone with a disability, so he probably didn't know where to start except I know a friend had the discussion with him about if he would take me on, and he was like, “Oh, I never had anyone with a disability.” And she was like, “… just treat him like another athlete. He'll be fine.” And once he did that, once he made that conscious decision that if I was down on the ground, about to spew and I had another rep to go, and if it was another athlete in the squad he'd kind of kick him on the leg a bit and say, “Hey, get up, you've got another one to go,” once he kind of did that with me I was kind of like, “Yes, great,” because the last thing I wanted was a coach that would say, “Oh yeah, but it's okay, you've got one arm.”
See Appendix 5 for representative quotes pertaining to each higher order theme and
sub-themes.
4.13. Limitations and Strengths
A limitation of this study is the small sample of subjects from different sports and it is
therefore not possible to make conclusions about any specific sport or make
meaningful conclusions about differences between athletes. It is the firm intent of the
researchers to further explore and confirm the relative impact of the emergent
themes from this study, utilising a customised survey tool administered to a large
participant sample that includes varying types of athletes including Paralympic
athletes from a pre-elite to an elite level.
The fact that the sporting achievements of many of these athletes spanned over two
decades, further raises the likelihood of generational differences in education and
awareness, technology, culture, sports science and sports medicine support,
nutrition and training methods, along with differences in self-disclosure, self-
awareness, subjectivity and recall of key events and their reflections, that may be
impacted upon with the passing of time.
Other relevant limitations of this methodology are the positioning of the researchers,
namely the lead researcher who is also an Olympic gold medallist and achieving
appropriate distance and trustworthiness whilst collecting and analysing data.
However, the researcher also brings relevance with their own values, interests and
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interpretation.135 Other limitations are that grounded theory often results in large
amounts of data which can be difficult to analyse and there are no standard
procedures to adhere to when identifying categories and key emergent themes.136
The strengths of this study are the world-class quality of the sample. The main
researcher being an athlete, greatly facilitated trust leading to generosity and
honesty of insight by interviewees and was a methodological advantage in effectively
‘tapping into the athlete voice’.31 However, care was taken to ensure separateness
between researcher and participant in order to maintain objectivity and
trustworthiness.135 Another notable strength is the inclusion of the experiences and
perspectives of world-class Paralympic athletes.
4.14. Chapter Summary
Qualitative inquiry differs from quantitative research in that it is primarily explorative
research which is fluid in nature.124 134 It seeks to gain an understanding and assign
meaning to opinions, motivations, behaviours and reasons which leads to more
descriptive and narrative reporting from the data generated.137 It is rich in context as
it is derived from studying people in their environment which allows for descriptions
and conceptualisations of human experience which are abstracted from practical
lived experiences.125 Qualitative data analysis interprets and classifies linguistic or
visual material to make statements regarding explicit or implicit dimensions or
structures and make meaning of the representation.138 Grounded theory is provides
a qualitative methodology using a systematic approach to study social
phenomena.124
This chapter, in summary detailed the research methodology implemented for this
study. A grounded theory phenomenology was utilised to illustrate key lifestyle,
support, psychological, recovery and relational factors to which elite athletes attribute
their success. This resulted in a new model: Contributors to World Class
Performance (see Figure 5.1), along with updating the well-recognised 3D-AD
model.18
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A grounded theory was chosen as it presents a framework to systematically develop
theories related to psychological processes which is relevant to our research
question.124 Theory is generated via the transaction of researcher and data,131 133
which is enabled by axial coding, whereby inductive reasoning (begins with a
conclusion – moves specific to general) and deductive reasoning (begins with a
premise - moves general to specific) are employed to result in the interpretation of
data and formulation of a grounded theory. This application is increasingly used in
relation to understanding athletic performance.13 139
The strengths of qualitative research and application and purpose of using grounded
theory in this study is to abstract from practical lived experiences to concepts and
propositions that explain social interactions, habits or processes. Although there are
many models pertaining to athlete pathway13 42 116 140 as described earlier, there are
none that are inclusive of lifestyle, nutrition and recovery, support and psychological
factors in a holistic framework.
Data collection resulted from informant interviews and research interview notes with
integration of athlete pathway literature. Constant comparison methods were used
for data analysis.124 This study resulted in a deeper understanding of factors which
are key to success in elite sport, a representative conceptual model for these
contributing factors and their dynamic nature. Further analysis on the importance of
inter-personal relationships and self-regulation, along with updating the 3D-AD
model.18 A substantive grounded theory has been developed encompassing a more
holistic approach to athlete development. This study has met the demands of rigor
and trustworthiness for qualitative research.
Findings from the perspectives offered by the current champion sample, confirmed
that the athletic profile and support required to reach and sustain podium level
performance is multi-dimensional, integrated and individualised and that
psychological factors are paramount. Understanding more about the role and impact
of these key factors is critical to informing current athlete and system level support.
An integrated approach encompassing these four dimensions can potentially be
used to inform the development of a valid and reliable screening tool that assesses a
developing athlete’s competency in each of these domains and is a pre-cursor to
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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tailored education and intervention that can maximise an athlete’s longevity and
performance success. Aims for this research is to provide more specific guidelines
for athlete education to ensure these performance and lifestyle strategies are utilised
effectively, particularly at the pre-elite and elite level. To facilitate greater education
for coaches and support staff, in the area of interpersonal skills and rapport with
athletes. For athlete frameworks to hone strategies to strengthen and facilitate
interpersonal relationships within the athlete’s support network and the inclusion of
lifestyle factors within athlete development frameworks to guide system level
implementation.
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Chapter 5: Lifestyles and Mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic
and World Champions: Is an Integrated Approach the Key
to Elite Performance?
Introduction Following the methodology and study design and application outlined in the previous
chapter, the following paper was submitted and published in the British Journal of
Sports Medicine.
The contents of this chapter have been published and are presented in the format of
the accepted manuscript: Burns L, Weissensteiner JR, Cohen M. Lifestyles and
mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: is an integrated approach
the key to elite performance? British Journal of Sports Medicine 2018;53(13):818-
824. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217. For the published format see Appendix 1.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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5.1. Abstract
Objectives: The holy grail of any nation in the global sporting race is to better
understand, replicate and sustain podium winning performances on the world stage.
International sporting bodies advocate a holistic approach to the athletic profile and
environmental and system level factors required for world-class sporting
performance, yet key lifestyle, relational, training, and performance practices are
commonly overlooked. We aimed to explore the contribution, interplay, and impact of
lifestyle and psychological factors amongst a sample of world-class, champion
athletes.
Methods: Open-ended, semi-structured face-to-face interviews were conducted with
10 World, Olympic and Paralympic Champion athletes that covered their sporting
development and athletic profile including their mindset, training and competition
practices, along with lifestyle and other key factors to which they attributed their
success. A thematic approach guided by Grounded Theory principles, was employed
to source and analyse their perspectives and experiences and determine common
themes.
Results: Four dominant and overlapping themes emerged: psychological attributes,
interpersonal relationships, performance strategies and lifestyle practices. All
athletes attributed their success to psychological rather than physical factors, and
the vast majority relied on mental-rehearsal skills and recovery practices.
Conclusion: The athletic profile and support required to reach and sustain podium
level performance is multi-dimensional, integrated and individualised and
psychological factors are paramount. Championship performance is likely to occur at
the intersection of psychological prowess, interpersonal support, effective
performance strategies, and lifestyle. An integrated approach inclusive of these
dimensions can be used to guide athlete development and support at both at an
individual and collective level.
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5.2. Introduction
Being a world-class athlete is more than the outcome of an event, it is a way of life
that encompasses all aspects of the athlete’s lifestyle and becomes an integral part
of their identity.141 Athletes progressing from pre-elite to elite levels need to balance
multiple factors including: the demands of competition, stressors, and negative
chance events; interactions with family, peers, coaching and support staff; and the
need to effectively ‘negotiate several key life transitions’.13 39 42 106 140 142 Lifestyle
practices and daily routines such as sleep, relaxation, diet, hydration, water-
immersion therapy, entertainment and social networks are therefore critical to
achieving and maintaining elite performance. The quest to ‘unlock the secrets’ of
world-class performance involves understanding the attributes, skills, strategies,
support, environment and lifestyles of elite performers.42
International governing sport agencies such as the International Olympic Committee
(IOC) suggest that support for an athlete must be holistic, integrated and evidence-
based.25 Whilst current and predominant athlete development frameworks notably
the FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite and Mastery) Athlete Development framework
and complementing 3DAD (Three Dimensional Athlete Development) model,42 140
LTAD (Long Term Athlete Development) framework,43 Developmental Model of Sport
Participation,112 Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent,143 and Psychological
Characteristics of Developing Excellence144 145 models seek to describe the
development and maintenance of elite performance in terms of the required athlete
profile, environmental and system level factors,13 116 120 140 none to date consider the
contribution and impact of lifestyle factors.13 116 120 140 Even the more recent ‘Great
British Medalists project’,146 ‘My Sporting Journey’ project,21 and studies performed
by Fletcher and Sarkar13 which tap into and utilise the athlete’s voice, provide great
insights regarding key factors contributing to success, but do not consider the impact
of nutrition, hydration, sleep, recovery, support and the recreational practices of elite
athletes. This is at odds with current high-performance strategy where the provision
and impact of educational and practical support specific to disciplines such as
nutrition, recovery and wellbeing, are well recognised. In this investigation, we
engaged the athletes’ voice by exploring the perspectives of elite athletes through a
qualitative approach in order to understand the lifestyle and other factors to which
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
62
they attribute their success with the intent of informing a grounded and truly holistic
athlete framework that will in turn, guide future research, strategy and practice.
5.3. Method
A qualitative thematic approach guided by grounded theory principles and
incorporating one-on-one semi-structured interviews with World, Olympic and
Paralympic gold medal winning athletes was utilised to gain further insight regarding
what athlete and environmental factors contribute to success and explore the relative
contribution and interplay of lifestyle factors to athlete wellbeing and sustained high
performance. Due to the exploratory nature of this study, this methodological
approach was deemed to be the most appropriate given its generation of rich data
grounded in the lived experience of the participant.124 Such an approach also affords
inherent flexibility to permit continual redirection of the focus of the inquiry to fully
elucidate key factors and their interaction leading to the development of a grounded
conceptual model of the phenomenon.125 131 133 This qualitative approach has been
used more frequently in the field of athlete development and expertise13 130 139 as it
meets these requirements.
The research team consisted of an Olympic gold medallist and naturopath/
nutritionist; a registered medical practitioner and Professor of Health Sciences; and a
principal advisor with PhD qualifications within the Sport Development section at the
New South Wales Office of Sport with extensive experience in qualitative research
methods.
5.3.1. Participants
The participant sample included ten athletes (6 females and 4 males) from various
able-bodied, Paralympic, team and individual sports all of whom had won a gold
medal at an Olympic, Paralympic Games or World Championship event and varying
length of sporting career. A snowball recruitment campaign was initiated through the
Victorian Institute of Sport (VIS) and the lead author’s network. Athletes were given a
Participant Information Statement and gave written consent to be interviewed and
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identified. The study was approved by the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee
(ASEHAPP 15-16).
5.3.2. Participant Involvement
Participants in this study were not involved in the design if the research question or
outcome.
All interviews were conducted by the first author. Eight interviews were conducted
face-to-face and two via video, with an average duration of 1 hour. Breadth of
experience of the participant sample and their gold medal results are presented in
Table 5.1.
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Table 5.1. Summary of participant sample and number of key international events competed at, along
with gold medals won
Athlete Sample
KEY A = Able bodied P = Paralympic T = Team sport I = Individual sport
T/I = Team & Individual F = Female M = Male
Athlete Olympic/Paralympic
Games Attended Gold Medals
World Championship/Cup
Gold Medal Performances
Gold Medals
AIF2
Barcelona 1992 Atlanta 1996 Sydney 2000
Gold World Championships 2x Gold
AT/IM1
Sydney 2000 Athens 2004
3x Gold 2x Gold World Championships 11x Gold
AT/IM2
Seoul 1988 Barcelona 1992
Atlanta 1996 Sydney 2000 Beijing 2008 London 2012
Gold World Cup
World Championship
5x Gold 4x Gold
PI/TM1
Atlanta 1996 Sydney 2000 Athens 2004
- World Championships Gold
ATF4
Atlanta 1996 Sydney 2000 Athens 2004
Gold - -
PI/TM2
Atlanta 1996 Sydney 2000 Athens 2004
Gold 2x Gold
World Championships ’98 Gold
AIF1
Not an Olympic Sport - World Titles 7x Gold
AIF3
Beijing 2008 London 2012
Rio 2016 - World Championships Gold
AIF4
Lillehammer 1994 Nagano 1998
Salt Lake City 2002 Torino 2006
Vancouver 2010
- World Titles 9x Gold
ATF5
Rio 2016 Gold - -
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5.3.3. Procedures
A semi-structured interview guide was developed and featured a broad-line of
questioning on developmental background, athlete profile, lifestyle practices, support
networks and key support services (see Table 5.2 for interview guide structure). At
the beginning of each interview general questions on the athlete’s background were
posed to assist in developing rapport. All questions were asked in a conversational
tone. Probe questions were utilised where required, to expand on a theme or gain a
deeper understanding. Interviews were recorded and transcribed verbatim.
Table 5.2. Sample questions from the interview guide
Interview Guide Structure
Interview Section Aim Exemplar Questions
I. Introduction, Sport Background & Rapport Building
To explain the research and identify sporting achievements and developmental background and develop trust and rapport between the researcher and athlete.
Tell me about how you got involved in your sport? What is the highest level of competition you have achieved? How long have you been competing at senior international level? Please explain your training regimen during the peak of your career.
II. Identification of the Athlete Profile
Identify and explore physical and psychological attributes, motivation and strategies and sport-specific skill competency.
To what (factors/attributes) do you attribute your success? What planning and preparation did you do leading up to a major event? Tell me about your ability to cope and adapt with changing circumstances? What recovery tools did you utilize during your training? Do you use any mental imagery techniques? Can you tell me about your practice?
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Interview Guide Structure
Interview Section Aim Exemplar Questions III. Lifestyle Practices
Explore lifestyle practices and routines.
Did you have any ‘extra-curricular’ training activities you implemented that were separate to the set team training program? As part of your preparation did you see any complementary health practitioners? Can you describe your daily diet during a pre-competition and competition day?
IV. Support Networks & Key Support Services
Identify the role and influence of support networks both in and out of their sport.
Do you have someone in your life who makes you laugh? Who provided you with support during the hard times of your sporting career? How would you describe your relationship with your coach?
V. Balance, Rest & Relaxation
Identify practices employed outside of their main sport for time out, rest and relaxation.
What did you do to relax when you weren’t training or competing? Did you have any specific treats, rituals, or rewards?
5.3.4. Data Analysis
Initial themes were extracted by sentence-by-sentence open-coding using NVivo
qualitative software (version 11.3).124 In accordance with constant comparative
analyses, interviews were spread to allow for transcription, analyses and reflection to
occur so that evolving themes and subthemes could be further explored and
elucidated in the next interview.124 131 133 Participants were purposively sampled to
fully explore and confirm the evolving theory and model.124 131 Emergent higher-order
themes (e.g., psychological factors) and lower-order themes representing relevant
sub-components (e.g., self-regulation) were identified. Lastly, a conceptual model
incorporating all relevant themes, including the inter-relationships between them was
created.
Methodological rigor and trustworthiness were ensured throughout via a complement
of strategies. Firstly, the main researcher utilised a journal to record notes,
observations, reflections, potential themes and questions for the next interviewee.
Secondly, regular meetings between researchers were held throughout the data-
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analysis phase to discuss and confirm emergent themes and sub-themes. Lastly, to
ensure representativeness, quotations from participants were applied to illustrate
and support each emergent theme and sub-theme.
5.4. Results
Four dominant themes emerged from the interviews: psychological factors,
performance strategies, interpersonal relationships and lifestyle practices. The
psychological dimension was the strongest and most impactful theme to emerge
from the data analysis along with its underpinning sub-themes (see Table 5.3). The
athletes’ psychological attributes, cognitive competence, strong self-regulation and
utilisation of mental rehearsal or imagery were closely related, and directly impacted
the other emergent themes. These included getting the right match of support in and
out of sport; adoption of key complementary lifestyle and performance practices (i.e.
utilisation of complementary therapies; yoga, meditation, recovery, sleep and
nutrition); embracing competition exposure and accrued experience within the daily
performance environment; and refining their sport-specific skill, in particular their
tactical and technical preparation and performance.
Table 5.3. Higher order emergent themes and sub-themes
Psychological Attributes
Superior Self-Regulation Intrinsic Motivation Effective Visualisation and Imagery Strategies Reliance on Faith, Routines or Rituals Strong Work Ethic Self-Confidence and Dominance Effective Coping Strategies and Positive Mindset
Performance Strategies
Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities Effective Utilisation of Sports Science Physical Therapies and Recovery
Interpersonal Relationships
Having the Right Support Team The Athlete-Coach Partnership
Lifestyle Practices
Nutrition and Hydration Utilisation of Complementary Therapies Importance of Time Out
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When athletes were asked ‘To what do you attribute your success?’ all athletes
referred to psychological competencies, with none crediting their physical attributes.
The psychological profiles of these athletes were multi-dimensional and refined,
featuring strong and enduring self-regulation, strong intrinsic motivation, effective
coping skills, self-confidence, dominance and resilience, strong work ethic and
preparation, hunger for self-challenge, a positive mindset, and effective coping with
injury and other seemingly negative chance events. When asked ‘What advice would
you give other athletes?’ their responses were psychological in nature, and included
themes around self-belief, not getting distracted, using detailed mental imagery and
visualisation, meticulous preparation prior to an event, embracing challenging
competitive experiences, mental preparation, having a good support team and
feeling comfortable being alone.
The following section addresses the commonalities elicited from the data.
Representative quotes are provided in Table 5.4. to illustrate and expand on each
theme and sub-theme.
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Table 5.4. Representative Quotes from Athletes
Psychological Attributes Superior Self-Regulation All athletes possessed high cognitive competence enabling them to maximise learning and performance opportunities continually honed through self-reflection and self-awareness of their strengths and limitations. They were meticulous with planning and preparation and adept at problem-solving and proactively seeking and experimenting with potential solutions, which enhanced their self-efficacy, confidence, resilience, and dominance.
AIF1 comments: There are three things that I attribute to my success. Vision, a real clear sense of what I want. Courage, to keep getting up and fighting, courage to surround myself with the right people and put my hand up and ask for help; and resilience to keep getting up, because I failed a lot more than I succeeded.
Intrinsic Motivation Strong intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic reward and recognition was evident. A hunger for self-challenge and being the best was prevalent, along with a connection to something meaningful.
AIF2 shared: My earliest memory of what drove me to run was just feeling happy when I ran. I felt so free …so untouchable. I was never the type of person who needed to be watched. I didn't need to have an audience. I just took off and it was like I'd left everything or everybody behind me. It made me happy to take notice of nature.
Effective Visualisation & Imagery Strategies All athletes incorporated and heavily relied on mental rehearsal and visualisation as a preparatory strategy or way to refine their sporting skills, sharing their preferred approaches, experimentation with different perspectives, and engaging their senses.
AIF4 revealed: I visualised myself from a judge’s perspective, from a helicopter angle and, in my own eyes what I see. It takes a lot of skill to be able to do that and get it to play the right images and not negative ones or crashing. When I sat in the wheelchair (due to injury), that's all I did, visualise, even my body healing. I used to visualise myself at the gym and doing everything that I couldn't do…it's just training smarter.
Reliance on Faith, Routines or Rituals All athletes utilised routines, however some maintained they purposely refrained from superstitions or religious faith whereas others followed these fastidiously.
AIF3 responded: It gives me strength. It helped me a lot to let go of superstitions. It’s sort of like everything’s predestined. Everything’s going to turn out the way it's supposed to. Believing in God and doing my prayers, it settles me and it's important for me.
ATF4 said: I think it's more important to believe in yourself than to believe in something else. Maybe by believing in something else that helps somebody believe in themselves more, fantastic if that's the way they want to be, but I just learned to believe in myself.
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Strong Work Ethic Independent rigor and meticulousness in preparation and actively seeking out and engaging with knowledge or experts to assist in their training, performance or recovery was applied by all athletes. Considerable time and effort in seeking, experimenting with, and honing potential strategies and solutions and placing themselves in uncomfortable situations (e.g., tough competition or training) to challenge themselves further was evident.
Preparation was important to AT/IM2: I religiously got ready the night before so when I woke up the next morning everything was in place. I’d come home from the last practice session and the next morning was the comp, the first thing I would do is get everything ready. All the physical things I had the control over. I was very regimented like that.
AT/IM1 describes his process before a competition: Shaving down. You know what it's like to get into sheets. It just feels great. The same with the water. It’s more to do with the sensory side of how that feels, it heightens your awareness of the water and where it's moving, and you feel like you're going through silk. That was end of the training phase, and then I'm straight into competition mode. Nine times out of 10, I knew the outcome.
Self-Confidence & Dominance Self-assurance resounded strongly across all athletes and much of this confidence developed as a result of accrued experience in both training and competition.
When asked ‘how mentally strong did you feel on the day of competition?’ AIF 1 responded: Unbeatable, most of the time. AIF 4 was asked if she studied her opponents: I didn't study anybody. I figured they were studying me. I never ever wasted the time in thinking about anybody else, ever.
Effective Coping Strategies & Positive Mindset Mental strength and competition experience were used to enhance the athletes’ ability to cope with and adapt to changing circumstances. Whilst all athletes faced differing levels of adversity through seemingly negative chance events, their ability to cope, by adopting a pragmatic yet calm, confident and methodical approach was evident. Some athletes had minimal or virtually no injuries, whereas others had life-changing injuries that culminated in major operations, extensive rehabilitation and modification of their training program. The Paralympians who had rehabilitation and management as a result of their impairment and the athletes who suffered major injuries all showed incredible mental fortitude and positivity, with a big picture attitude and clear goals that helped their rehabilitation and resilience.
ATF4 describes her response after a career-changing knee injury: Instead of just going, “Well, just wait and see what happens” I put a plan together. I put dates on it, then when I couldn't do one thing, I'd miss it and go to the next one. Because it was written on a ball, it was in front of me every single day, it was a reminder; “This is what I'm going for.” It wasn’t something that was deep in the back of my mind, it kept me accountable to do the work, to do the rehab, to keep trying, pushing to the next step. Then other people saw it and we talked about it. They'd come into the house and see the ball and we'd chat about it. So that was good, by having the goal out there, it helped people support me.
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Performance Strategies Maximising Training & Performance Opportunities All athletes described getting the most out of their training, initiated either by the coach or the athletes. Many attributed embracing rigorous competition exposure as a contributing factor to their success.
AT/IM2 recommends seeking competition exposure: There are a lot of good practice people out there, a very small percentage of good competitors. You can learn it, but you've got to be put under pressure. Just find me competitions with pressure. Lots of competition. That's what I've always told people. Get as much competition as you physically can get and then find some more, because the more times you are exposed to pressure the better you get. A lot of people don’t like competition, they like to train a lot but when they get to a big competition it then becomes foreign.
Effective Utilisation of Sports Science A variety of sports science methods were used, including monitoring breathing patterns with heart rate monitors, individualised sports specific exercises and urine testing to monitor hydration. Video analysis was common across all athletes, either self-initiated or via their coaching and sports-science team. Various applications were employed, including analysis of their own and their competitors’ techniques and strategies. Utilisation of the latter was sport dependent e.g., sports featuring strategic interaction with opponents relied on this feedback. Contrastingly, sports without this interaction mostly used video analysis to study their own performance rather than their opponents.
AT/IM2 describes working with a sports scientist from the VIS: We worked on a technique through breathing that in the 10 seconds before you actually shot. Your heart rate had to be on a decline. You had to be able to drop at 10 beats per minute in that 10 seconds and we worked out through breathing, exactly how to do it. I think it was world-breaking. I shot so many targets with a heart rate monitor on. 10 seconds, the 10 seconds before you shoot, is the only time you need to be concentrating or getting your breathing right. You really concentrate on hearing yourself exhale and just by doing that it distracts your mind from the pressure of the competition. When you're under extreme pressure you tend to think negative thoughts, when you're concentrating on your breathing it just puts this little man in your head to sleep because he's got nothing to do. If he's concentrating and listening to your breathing, he's not telling you you're about to miss the next target and you're not going to win the Olympic final.
Physical Therapies & Recovery Physical therapies and recovery strategies were heavily utilised, in particular: massage, sleep and water-immersion therapy, which was mostly in the form of ice-baths and hot/cold showers and was practiced by all athletes except one who competed in an ocean-water sport. All athletes attributed improved recovery, decreased muscle-stiffness and less injuries to the practice, some also reported ice-baths induced a meditative state that put them ‘in the moment’.
PI/TM1 shares: One thing that I took from ice-baths is the importance of being present. If you're going to get an Ice-bath, don’t put your toe in it to feel if it's cold. It's an ice-bath, it's going to be cold. When you immerse yourself in the present and you feel that blood run through your veins, it's a special thing to be so in tune just being you and going, “Wow, feel those pins and needles splash over me, feel what this is like to be here, yup,” By doing that mentally it connects you physically what you're doing and, again, you mentally get recharged.
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Interpersonal Relationships Having the Right Support Team All athletes mentioned a significant person in their life who was influential and supportive in their sporting career. This person varied from a parent, team-mate, partner or someone within the athletes’ support team (coach, masseur or physiotherapist), yet they were all highly valued for their ability to share a laugh and helped the athletes unwind, relax and feel removed from the pressures of training and competition.
AIF4 described the influence of a talent scout: I felt like if I just rubbed him I'd feel better. Just standing next to him I felt so much confidence. So, sports psych, partner, scout and my coach, they were the four people I would say that I needed.
ATF5 commented: Our physio is the only female in the program. We think there should be another female but there's not at the moment, so it's quite refreshing having her.
The Athlete-Coach Partnership Athletes reported the most valued support from their coach was not technical but inter-personal and relational (e.g., emotional support and encouragement, open and honest communication and strong rapport). Some also acknowledged the paramount importance of their coach’s technical ability.
AT/IM2 talks about the role of a coach being more than just technical: The coach that I had in my best years was an Italian guy, he was an Olympic medallist in his own right and fully understood coaching doesn’t stop until you go to bed at night. Because he'd become a part of your life, he's nearly a part of your family. Then they become good coaches and they become a dual role of a coach and a manager. I think at the top level, you don’t need a technical coach. We've worked out what we need to do. It's what’s going on in your brain will determine how you shoot. And that's often all you need, distract you, just keep you calm, keep you calculated, give you confidence.
PI/TM2 shares: He’d never coached anyone with a disability, so he probably didn't know where to start except I know a friend had the discussion with him about if he would take me on, and he was like, “Oh, I never had anyone with a disability.” And she was like, “… just treat him like another athlete. He'll be fine.” And once he did that, once he made that conscious decision that if I was down on the ground, about to spew and I had another rep to go, and if it was another athlete in the squad he'd kind of kick him on the leg a bit and say, “Hey, get up, you've got another one to go,” once he kind of did that with me I was like, “Yes, great,” because the last thing I wanted was a coach that would say, “Oh yeah, but it's okay, you've got one arm.”
Lifestyle Practices Nutrition & Hydration Only one athlete was in a weight division sport, yet most were conscious of maintaining a ‘competition weight’. All athletes saw a Nutritionist or Sports Dietician at some point during their career. Despite this, the area of diet, performance-nutrition and hydration practices varied. Athletes who competed at the 2016 Rio Olympics, shared a deeper understanding of nutritional demands, which was reflected in the complexity of their diet regimen. Other athletes who had competed earlier, were under the guidance of nutritionists who recommended strategies that have now been expanded and/or superseded. Other athletes either forged their own path, seeking to go against the norm of nutritional advice of the day, or had little nutritional understanding. Athletes with long careers (e.g., over 20-years), noted stark changes in their nutritional knowledge over their career.
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All athletes revealed that they drank water for hydration and most didn’t drink coffee. Consumption of sports drinks varied; some never consumed them, some had them regularly and others only drank them on competition days.
AT/IM2 says: The best was sending a dietitian/nutritionist on tours. They used to do all the urine tests for hydration, which was important because you're out in the hot weather. Every morning and every night we did a urine test. I was always conscious of my competing weight. I always tried to be the same weight. The guns are made for you're a certain weight and when you lose or put on weight the first thing you do is put it on your face, and that makes a big difference. If you lose it quickly, your face changes and it changes where your gun shoots. These are $40,000 guns made so it shoots perfectly every time. AT/IM1 was very organised in his meal preparation: As a general rule, I would make sure my plate was colourful. A combination of good carbs with protein and fat. I ate more fat than what a lot of the other athletes were eating. Like seeds and nuts. I kind of disagreed with the high-carb thing, refined carbohydrates from pastas and rice. I want to sustain energy, so that's what I tried to do with diet. Listening to my body.
Utilisation of Complementary Therapies Having regular massage was deemed critical to an athletes’ preparation due to the physical benefits and as a means of mentally debriefing with the trusted masseur. Other complementary practices relied upon included: plyometrics, yoga, meditation, acupuncture, osteopathy, kinesiology, chiropractic, naturopathy and nutrition.
AIF 1: I realised that my behaviors were as inconsistent as my mindset. I'd be bitching about my weight and then I'd reward myself for a workout with apple pie or cheesecake. I didn't have enough discipline. I had a naturopath. I met him after I won my sixth world title, he's played an instrumental role in keeping me alive. A lot of herbal remedies. Musashi, Magnesium. Vitamin C. Vitamin B.
Importance of Time Out All athletes had their own way of switching off, ‘escaping’ and creating balance between rest and relaxation and the rigors of training and competition. These strategies included taking a bath, shopping, catching up with friends, interacting with nature, watching movies, reading and listening to music.
AIF4 described how she would relax: Movies and get into bed … You're watching a movie – it's escapism, you're lying down, you're warm, you actually feel safe, not dying right now. You're not going to kill yourself going off a jump at 70K an hour.
The four domains identified, Psychology, Performance, Relationships, Lifestyle, are
multi-dimensional, dynamic and individualised. They are also strongly interrelated
and have significant overlap. It is suggested that podium performance is best
supported when all domains are integrated and contribute positively to the whole.
This is represented in the generated conceptual model presented in Figure 5.1. The
complementary and dynamic nature of these dimensions is depicted by the juncture
in the centre where the domains overlap. The nature of this overlap is dynamic, and
this model does not attempt to represent relative contributions but rather implies that
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if any one of these domains is not present then performance will be compromised. It
is the utilisation of these attributes when needed by way of a tilt which can lean in
many directions and is dependent upon the ability of the athlete to shift focus within
these domains. This skill, becoming sub-conscious with practice and experience and
thus creating an equilibrium of balancing between a group of important principles
and practices.
While the domains identified as important for elite performance are distinct and serve
specific needs, the psychological domain provides the context for linking all other
domains. Psychological attributes, skills and strategies are instrumental in
coordinating all aspects of life including lifestyle practices, interpersonal relationships
and performance strategies. For example, the current sample of champions viewed
the psychological domain as vital to provide the vision of the desired performance
outcome within both a training and competition context as indicated by their use of
visualisation and mental imagery by all participating champions. The psychological
domain is also required to ensure the intrinsic motivation, self-confidence,
dominance, resilience, work-ethic, self-regulation, positive-mindset, determination
and mental resilience necessary to endure the training regimens and implement
effective coping strategies for dealing with setback.
The performance domain ensures athletes are adequately prepared for elite
performance by maximising training and performance opportunities, ensuring
adequate competition exposure and effective utilisation of sports-science and sports-
medicine strategies, along with maximising physical-therapy and recovery. Recovery
strategies such as massage, water-immersion therapy (ice-baths) and optimising
sleep may be of particular importance and were widely used by champion athletes.
Whilst there was strong commonality in adopted practices and strategies, some
practices such as the use of video analysis and studying opponents, were dependent
on the individual and/or the type of sport. Such athlete specific-findings suggest a
need for athlete development frameworks to recognise and cater for individualised
approaches.
The relationship domain, which includes having an effective athlete/coach
partnership and the right support-team, is necessary to provide support and
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encouragement as well as to help athletes unwind, relax and feel removed from the
pressures of training and competition, thereby maintaining adequate balance in and
out of sport. Athletes all mentioned their reliance on social support and someone
with whom they could laugh with and de-stress, and who helped make them feel like
a regular person. For some, it was the massage therapist, for others it was a coach
who simply asked about their day and shifted their focus to regular human issues
other than sport.
The lifestyle domain is required to ensure athletes’ physical wellbeing, sustenance
and robustness through appropriate nutrition and hydration, utilisation of
complementary therapies and practices and taking time-out to relax and obtain
perspective. The lifestyle domain is important during both training and non-training
periods and helps to ensure career longevity and sustain the appropriate
psychological attributes, interpersonal relationships and performance factors.
Figure 5.1. Contributors to World Class Performance
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5.5. Discussion
5.5.1. Overview
Lifestyle is ‘what we do with our lives’ and for an athlete, this is all-encompassing
and includes training, work, entertainment and is inclusive of identity, self-image, and
values. While current literature on elite athletic-performance stresses the importance
of socio-developmental, physical, sport-specific skill and psychological factors, the
interviews with elite athletes in this investigation suggest that championship
performance also requires a particular way of life that integrates mindset,
performance, relationships and lifestyle factors and supports the athlete in navigating
their way through life’s challenges and the challenges of their sport.
Utilising a qualitative approach and a world-class sample of athletes, the findings of
the present study expands on the existing literature and understanding of the athlete
profile required to reach a world-class level and achieve and sustain international
sporting success, albeit with individualistic nuances. The findings confirm the critical
importance of an athlete’s psychological profile, in particular their strong self-
regulatory skills in coordinating and maximising their learning and achievement in
and out of the sporting arena and also highlights the perceived psychological and
physical benefit of recovery strategies such as ice-baths.
It is well accepted that autonomy-supportive behaviours have a beneficial impact on
athletes intrinsic and self-determined extrinsic motivation89 and are important
determinants of performance and persistence.89 The ability of coaches to facilitate
and empower the needs of the athlete’s own autonomy and competence increases
their potential for improved performance and enhanced motivation,89 and honest and
open communication between this particular dyad, fosters more effective
collaboration.147 Furthermore, social relationships promote health and wellbeing.148
In particular, the adolescent brain (note that many athletes’ competitive phase is
during adolescence), relies on complex social connections outside the family unit to
form an independent sense of identity.149 150 The quality and quantity of an
individuals’ social connections during adolescence are linked to their behaviour and
mental health.148 Fletcher and Sarkar13 incorporate this into their model which
encompasses a multidimensional psychological profile coupled with perceived social
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support which allows elite athletes to negotiate and manage the realistic stressors
they will face in high performance sport. Social support is seen as stress-buffering
and integral to building resilience.13 85 Based on interpersonal relationships emerging
as a major theme for these high performers, it is critical that we place importance on
facilitating and valuing the relationships they form amongst peers, team-mates,
coaches, family and support staff throughout the elite athlete journey.
Extending on existent athlete development frameworks, key lifestyle practices were
identified that were integral and intertwined, complementing conventional
performance strategies. At a practical level, these findings have promising
implications specific to how and when tailored education should commence specific
to these recognised performance and lifestyle strategies to ensure they are utilised
effectively. And how, at a high-performance level, the athlete’s voice and empowered
decision making can directly inform an individualistic and effective approach for
refining athletic preparation and performance.
A personal wellness plan as suggested by Anderson38 which is inclusive of athlete
lifestyle factors as a whole, and involves nutrition, recovery, sports psychology, injury
prevention and promotes interpersonal connections, may be the best way to provide
a comprehensive and overarching framework to support and develop the athlete as a
whole person and prove the best outcomes for resilience, self-regulation, podium
performances and longevity on the world stage and beyond.
5.5.2. Limitations and Strengths
A limitation of this study is the small sample of subjects from different sports and it is
therefore not possible to make conclusions about any specific sport or make
meaningful conclusions about differences between athletes. It is the firm intent of the
researchers to further explore and confirm the relative impact of the emergent
themes from this study, utilising a customised survey tool administered to a large
participant sample that includes varying types of athletes including Paralympic
athletes from a pre-elite to an elite level.
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The fact that the sporting achievements of many of these athletes spanned over two
decades, further raises the likelihood of generational differences in education and
awareness, technology, culture, sports science and sports medicine support,
nutrition and training methods, along with differences in self-disclosure, self-
awareness, subjectivity and recall of key events and their reflections, that may be
impacted upon with the passing of time.
The strengths of this study are the world-class quality of the sample. The main
researcher herself is an Olympic gold-medallist, this greatly facilitated trust leading to
generosity and honesty of insight by interviewees and was a methodological
advantage in effectively ‘tapping into the athlete voice’.40 However, care was taken to
ensure separateness between researcher and participant in order to maintain
objectivity and trustworthiness.135 Another notable strength is the inclusion of the
experiences and perspectives of world-class Paralympic athletes.
5.5.3. Conclusions
Our findings from the perspectives offered by the current champion sample,
confirmed that the athletic profile and support required to reach and sustain podium
level performance is multi-dimensional, integrated and individualised and that
psychological factors are paramount. Championship performance is most likely to
occur at the intersection of psychological prowess, interpersonal support,
performance strategies and lifestyle. Understanding more about the role and impact
of these key factors is critical to informing current athlete and system level support.
An integrated approach encompassing these four dimensions can potentially be
used to inform the development of a valid and reliable screening tool that assesses a
developing athlete’s competency in each of these domains and is a pre-cursor to
tailored education and intervention that can maximise an athlete’s longevity and
performance success.
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Table 5.5. What are the new findings?
What are the new findings?
• Champion athletes attribute their psychological attributes as the major factor contributing to their success.
• Championship performance requires a particular way of life that integrates
mindset, performance, lifestyle and relationship factors.
• High-performance strategies include the use of honed mental rehearsal skills and recovery practices.
• Championship performance is likely to occur at the intersection of a strong
psychological profile, interpersonal support, effective performance strategies, and lifestyle. The utilisation of these attributes when needed are dependent upon the ability of the athlete to shift focus within these domains by way of a tilt which can lean in many directions. This skill is adaptive through self-regulation and becomes habitual with accumulated experience and exposure.
Table 5.6. How might it impact on clinical practice in the near future?
How might it impact on clinical practice in the near future?
• Specific guidelines for athlete education to ensure these performance and lifestyle strategies are utilised effectively, particularly at the pre-elite and elite level.
• Facilitating greater education for coaches and support staff, in the area of
interpersonal skills and rapport with athletes.
• Athlete frameworks honing strategies to strengthen and facilitate interpersonal relationships within the athlete’s support network.
• Inclusion of lifestyle factors within athlete development frameworks to guide
system level implementation.
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Chapter 6: Supportive Interpersonal Relationships – A key
Component to High-Performance Sport
Introduction Interpersonal relationships were a key theme to emerge from the LEAP interviews.
An editorial piece was written to explore this further and develop the new model:
Strengthening interpersonal relationships in elite sport – a visual summary.
This was published in the British Journal of Sports Medicine and is presented in the
format of the accepted manuscript: Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M.
Supportive interpersonal relationships: a key component to high- performance sport.
British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2019; 53(22):1386-1389 doi:10.1136/bjsports-
2018-100312. See Appendix 6 for the published version.
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Supportive interpersonal relationships –
A key component to high-performance sport
Social health determinants, including human social-connections are critical to sustain
health and wellbeing,151 and are central to elite sporting performance. Athletes live in
high-pressure environments and supportive relationships with coaches, support staff
and/or others, are vital to both athletic performance and wellbeing. Our study of
World, Olympic and Paralympic champions, revealed that while interpersonal
relationships are a key contributor to high performance, they are not easily
prescribed.152
Quality relationships can induce positive physiological changes that improve
adaption to stress and enhance performance.153 The ability of relationships to
mitigate stressful experiences is highlighted by Coan et al. who found access to
social resources altered physiological and neuronal responses to a threat or
stress.153 This study, which used fMRI scans to document neuronal responses of
women confronted with the threat of electrical shock, found high-quality relationships
reduced threat-related brain activation. This is consistent with research that suggests
quality relationships attenuate physiological responses such as cardiovascular
arousal, cortisol and glucocorticoid levels, reduce threat-related brain activity and
enhance general health and longevity.151 154
6.1. Social Scaffolds Support Athletes
An athlete’s progression and transition from novice to expert is greatly influenced by
their social environment including peer-interaction and culture.116 Like the general
population, athletes have innate needs when it comes to building relationships, and
interpersonal relationships can shape developmental experiences and perspectives
for either better or worse. The stress associated with the highs and lows of
competition, negative chance events (i.e., injury, illness etc), and the typical
demands of high-performance sport (travel, funding, juggling a dual-career,24 non-
selection, self-perceived poor performance, losses, relegation and the impact of
social media), can be alleviated by a strong social scaffold. In contrast, non-
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accidental violence and maltreatment in sport, which includes psychological
(bullying, harassment, ostracism), sexual and physical violence, is more prevalent in
elite athletes and can lead to a host of negative mental health and wellbeing
outcomes.33
While fostering supportive interpersonal relationships within high performance sport
is important, it raises many questions such as:
How can young and emerging athletes be empowered to establish strong
interpersonal relationships that foster stability, trust, and confidence, and support
their personal and athletic development?
How can athletes build and establish secure relationships when there may be power
differentials or differing priorities between athletes and support staff such as coaches
and administrators?
6.2. Having A Laugh
Facilitating positive relationships goes beyond the relationship with a coach and/or
parent.152 Our research shows elite level athletes exhibit strong autonomy and self-
regulation and are highly selective regarding their support network. Interpersonal
relationships that allow athletes to laugh and have time out from the pressures of
high-stakes competition were particularly valued and came in many forms including
with friends and team-mates, or with experts such as a masseurs, physiotherapists
or coaches, who expand on a purely technical or professional relationship. Our
findings revealed high performance athletes felt more supported by coaches who
related to them in an empathetic way e.g., shared a meal or asked about their day,
than coaches who merely communicated technical knowledge. In addition, whilst
parental support was highly valued by some athletes, others preferred to limit
parental contact, especially around big events. (See Table 5.1. AT/IM1 & AIF4)
An integrated approach including lifestyle, competition and training along with a
supportive social network is key to building a successful environment for athletes to
flourish both on and off the field.24 151 Our research found highly successful elite
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athletes considered human-connection and being able to be relaxed and be present
with someone, or to have a laugh or a chat, was an important factor in their
success.152 (See Table 6.1) While the need for technical coaching expertise varies
along the athlete pathway, the importance of strong interpersonal relationships
remains paramount throughout the sporting journey. Therefore, while dedication to
training practices and utilisation of sports-science and sports-medicine are integral to
performance, there may be an undue emphasis on skill or expertise, when a more
powerful interaction could be as simple as asking ‘how are you?’ These
communication skills however, can be the catalyst for building supportive
interpersonal relationships.
6.3. Creating A High Performance Culture
The ability of interpersonal relationships to attenuate stress responses153 154 is critical
to achieving sustained success in the elite sporting domain152 (See Figure 6.1). If we
look at an athlete as a whole person, there is a fundamental duty of care to ensure
they are supported to become their best, most resilient self, both on and off the field.
Athletes therefore need to be encouraged to seek interpersonal support that evolves
as they move along their development pathway. An effective support network
requires a team of people who embrace a pro-active and collaborative approach to
performance management and maintain a culture of integration and open
communication. The support network also requires clear roles, responsibilities and
strategies to manage high-pressure environments and respect the athlete’s
perspective, knowledge and wisdom. In addition to professional psychological
services, the use of techniques such as motivational interviewing155 and solution
oriented counselling offer a framework for all support staff (including masseurs,
physiotherapists and other service providers) to develop collaborative,
compassionate, professional relationships that support athlete autonomy.
6.4. Overcoming Barriers
Common barriers to the creation of supportive networks, may include a lack of
integration, collaboration, alignment or supportive team culture.40 Sporting
organisations are in a key position to help overcome these barriers by ensuring
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effective interdisciplinary case management of athletes. This may involve educating
service providers on how they can build on their technical expertise and contribute to
athlete wellbeing. Preceding this, encouragement of self-regulatory strategies,
personal wellness plans38 and dedicated mental fortitude training24 with emerging
athletes and their coaches and parents can facilitate the long and stressful journey to
the podium. Creating supportive interpersonal relationships is not a passive process,
but rather a dynamic interplay which evolves and grows as the athlete moves along
their development pathway. After all, athletes are not machines, they are human
beings who strive to have healthy, socially engaging and rewarding relationships
while also succeeding at their chosen sport.
Table 6.1. Athlete representative quotes and summary of number of Olympic Games attended, along
with gold medals won
Representative Athletes Quotes KEY A = Able bodied P = Paralympic T = Team sport I = Individual sport T/I = Team & Individual F = Female M = Male AIF 1 World titles x7 I made sure that my friends at home didn't surf. So I always had balance and the person I was on tour, I didn't have to bring that home all the time. Support It started with my dad giving me the freedom to go off and travel the world as a 17-year-old fresh out of high school. Dad also taught me the importance of making friends and asking for help and also adapting to change and the ability to sleep on couches. My personal trainer invested his heart and soul into my professional development, and then surrounding myself with world champions. My surf coach who I started working with in the mid-nineties, in ’95, who I still work with today. And then my partners, my boyfriends and my husband who are incredibly supportive and patient. My ex-partner mitigated a lot of my distractions and was able to identify several flaws in my technique that he made me work on daily. AT/IM2 Olympic Games attended: Seoul 1988, Barcelona 1992, Atlanta 1996 - x1 Gold, Sydney 2000, Beijing 2008, London 2012 World Cup x5 Gold, World Championship x4 Gold The masseur was just as important as anyone in the team. You're favouring one side of your body all the time. My right side was built up far greater than my left all the time. I would have rather have had the sports masseur than the coach some days because the coach became a team manager and the sports masseur was a part of the team and a friendly guy. We always sent the coach—if I had to pick one, I'd pick the massage therapist.
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Coaches and Cultural Differences It was hard because the shooting team forever was changing coaches. The sports commission kept finding Russian coaches for us that have got no people skills. I mean, the Russian coaches that they gave us, they look at their clock and at 5 o'clock you don’t see them again. The coach that I had in my best years was an Italian guy and he was an Olympic medallist in his own right at the ’84 Olympics and fully understood coaching doesn’t stop until you go to bed at night, and because he'd become a part of your life and you're talking about cars and boats and women, not just shooting. It's sort of sad because the coach isn't really a technical coach. He's nearly a part of your family, and then they become good coaches and they become a dual role of a coach and a manager. But I think at the top level, you don’t need a technical coach. We've worked out what we need to do. It's what’s going on in your brain will determine how you shoot. But a good coach that I found was someone that can sit with you at dinner and talk about something else other than what’s about to happen the next day. And that's often all you need, distract you, just keep you calm, keep you calculated, give you confidence. The high-performance manager we had at the Atlanta Olympics, I didn't realize how good he was for our team until he'd gone but he was a very calming influence with me. I remember talking to him the day before the Olympics—this was the high-performance manager, not the coach—and he just said, “You're just doing things so well. You just look so good out there in that last training session.” Now, I don’t even know if he saw me shoot. I've got no idea if he even saw but he went out of his way to come down out of the grandstand to say it and he got me believing, “Yeah, you're right. I am doing it.” But the Russian coach, he would never do that. He'd be on the bus back at the village and he wouldn't be there to actually wait around till you put all your gear away. They're on the first bus out of there and they watch their clocks and its sort of sad. I can honestly say that we never have eaten dinner once from 2008 until 2014 with the Russian coach, not a single team member, but every coach prior to that, that was nearly mandatory. He didn't have to, but you wanted him to. And that's a really terrible thing to say, but he doesn’t want to socialize with us. AT/IM1 Olympic Games attended: Sydney 2000 x3 Gold, Athens 2004 x2 Gold World Championships x11 Gold Support In the swim team at the time, we were all kind of like mates growing up and quite a few of us were jokers, so it was quite light, and in some of the harder times it kind of broke what would be a stunned silence as well. And you know, we're not saving lives, so it shouldn't be serious. When asked about who provided support AT/IM1 responded: I didn't really seek it. That was part of my problem. . . . I struggled to find someone that I felt was a peer that I could go to. So I struggled a bit with that during my career, but there were definitely people that supported me and assisted me whether it was my squad or my family, my coach, my friends, but no one knew everything that I was going through. I never would unload everything to one person in particular. Parents Mum helped me prepare homecooked meals. She came around on a Monday and would make something that would last in the fridge in case I'm too tired to make something…also, your parents are supportive. It doesn’t matter if you come home grumpy. They understand. All of those things I think help. Coach When I changed coaches, I started enjoying swimming again and I knew it was something that I actually cared about. By no means, you know, neither of my coaches were perfect coaches. They weren't. But that was the right coach for me then. I needed more kind of support. I knew what to do in training. I just needed someone to support me through that. I didn't really need a huge stick. It was more I needed the carrot to motivate me at that stage.
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AIF4 Olympic Games attended: Lillehammer 1994, Nagano 1998, Salt Lake City 2002, Torino 2006, Vancouver 2010 World titles x9 Coach My coach for the last three years…he wasn’t employed really as a technical coach because I was more successful than he ever was in his career as ex-athlete. He didn't even have a great technical knowledge but what he was – he was fun, and he was light. At this point in my career I was getting older and had less energy. He was that funny, upbeat guy who made me laugh…we just laughed the whole way through the last three years, and I'm telling you I needed it. It was bloody terrible. He would sing songs, he was so funny. As bad as it was and what I was going through, he made it so enjoyable. I'd be crying one minute, and he would be there being so funny that it didn't matter anymore. He was good fun. Support The talent scout who found me, if he came to a competition, I wouldn't even stand next to the coach. I'd go and stand next to him. It was like I felt if I just rubbed him I'd feel better. I always stood next to him. Just standing next to him I felt so much confidence. Family My mum would either worry too much and say things on the phone that…just, “Mom, why would you say that? I'm trying to compete.” Like, “You know, darling, do you think that that leg will stay in? Do you think it might fall off on the end of the jump?” So I just didn't call her that much. …So she could be watching, hmm, I'm doing a triple twisting triple somersault, highest degree of difficulty in the world, and she’d say: “Well, it's nice darling,” and sometimes it annoyed me. PI/TM1 Paralympic Games attended: Atlanta 1996, Sydney 2000, Athens 2004 World Championships, x 1 Gold I think my success came from absolutely loving what I was doing. I love being around likeminded people. Getting out of bed at 5 o'clock in the morning to go to the gym, that's hard work, but when you get there and you know other athletes are going to be there and you go, “Oh yes, that’s awesome.” Everyone brings that same energy and for me that’s is a massive driver. Being in a space where you want to be surrounded by likeminded people, anything can be achieved. And if you enjoy it, game on. When asked about having someone who made him laugh PI/TM1 responded: To be honest, in most teams, it was me. I think humour absolutely plays a part and I think that's why I enjoy that role, that responsibility because it allowed other people just to destress and not be focused on being so serious. I mean, we're not saving lives. We're not at a doctors’ conference, not in the theatre. We're playing sport. So yeah, I definitely think it's important. When I travelled, that was incentive, to be around the group that were laughing. It just turned out that a lot of the time it was me. But just being around other people that shared a view that life is worth living.
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Figure 6.1. Strengthening Interpersonal Relationships in Elite Sport – A Visual Summary
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Chapter 7: A Survey of Lifestyle and Performance Factors
in Mastery and Pre-Elite Athletes
7.1. Introduction
In the aforementioned studies, the importance of a complement of lifestyle factors
were investigated with mastery level high-performance athletes and the inclusion of
such considerations within athlete development constructs and frameworks have
previously been addressed. In this chapter the awareness and implementation of
lifestyle factors was surveyed amongst a broad range of athletes who were
established at both a pre-elite (emerging) and elite (high performance) level within
their sport, contributing or in other words underpinning levels on the athlete pathway
for World or Olympic and Paralympic level. The purpose of this study was to
ascertain the level of awareness, knowledge and practical application of identified
lifestyle factors from the first study by these groups, and then reflect on the
implications for supporting the future education and support of emerging level
athletes.
7.2. Abstract
Background: Success at the elite level in sport is often attributed to physical
prowess, technical skill, and mental attitude. However, underpinning these factors
are various lifestyle and social influences that further contribute to successful
performance, yet may be ignored when designing athlete development programs.
Objectives: This investigation aimed to provide insight into the use of support
services and lifestyle practices of Olympic, Paralympic, National, and state-level
Australian athletes. A secondary objective was to assess any association of the
prevalence of these practices across levels of athletic achievement (International
Podium (IP) / Non-Podium (n-IP)), in order to inform an industry approach to athlete
development.
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Methods: An online mixed-methods survey was carried out to examine the
perceptions of support services, knowledge, strategies, and lifestyle practices of 135
Australian athletes across 25 Olympic sports, at state level and above.
Results: IP and n-IP athletes perceived psychological skills and attributes, along with
strong interpersonal relationships vital to their success. Recovery practices rated
highly, especially amongst IP athletes. Athletes wanted greater knowledge,
mentoring, and autonomy earlier in their careers.
Conclusions: Results suggest high-level performance requires education and
development of psychological skills and attributes, along with support services
implemented early in the athlete development pathway. Creating system-level
implementation may assist in generating an environment to facilitate repeated
podium performances, retain athletes in high-performance sport for longer,
encourage human-flourishing and smooth transitions for retiring athletes.
Keywords: Athlete, Olympic, Paralympic, Lifestyle
7.3. Introduction
The pursuit of excellence requires elite athletes to have an intense, myopic focus,
yet they must also contend with the demands of daily life.38 Athlete wellbeing and
performance may be influenced by family, friends, professional and personal-
development programs, spirituality and social-connections.13 38 Strengthening life-
skills is essential for developing resilience,38 and those overseeing athlete
development must maintain a duty-of-care to ensure the wellbeing of athletes
throughout their sporting life and beyond.
International sporting bodies advocate a holistic approach to the athletic profile and
environmental and system level factors required for world-class sporting
performance,13 yet key lifestyle, relational, training, and performance practices are
commonly overlooked. Our preliminary research aimed to explore the contribution,
interplay, and impact of lifestyle and psychological factors in a sample of world-class,
champion athletes. From the LEAP interviews, four main themes emerged:
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90
Psychological Attributes, Interpersonal Relationships, Performance Strategies and
Lifestyle Practices.123 This further confirmed current literature that the athletic profile
and support required to reach and sustain podium level performance is multi-
dimensional, integrated and individualised with psychological factors being
paramount.
The aim in this study was to further understand the role and impact of these key
factors, which are critical to informing current athlete and system level support. This
was achieved by surveying a broader sample (variety of sports, broader age range,
and achievement levels - from state to international podium). The findings of this
study can be used to inform an integrated approach which encompasses these four
dimensions, and can potentially be used to inform the development of a valid and
reliable screening tool that assesses a developing athlete’s competency in each of
these domains and serve as a pre-cursor to tailored education and intervention that
can maximise an athlete’s longevity and performance success. In order to provide
recommendations on future education and implementation strategies, our aim was to
gain a deeper, empirical understanding of the utilisation and impact of key lifestyle
and athlete practices from across the athlete pathway incorporating a large sample
We previously explored the contribution, interplay, and impact of lifestyle and
psychological factors in world-class athletes and identified four themes: (i)
Psychological Attributes, (ii) Interpersonal Relationships, (iii) Performance Strategies
and (iv) Lifestyle Practices.152 This suggested achieving world-class podium-level
performance is multi-dimensional, integrated and individualised with psychological
factors being paramount.152 156 These themes were therefore integrated into the
structure of the survey.
7.4. Aims
To gain a deep, empirical understanding of the utilisation and perceived impact of
key lifestyle, relational, and support practices of athletes across a variety of sports at
different stages of their development pathway. This included the quantity and quality
of lifestyle practices (e.g., recovery, sleep practices, support and interpersonal
relationships, extra-curricular activities, relaxation and psychological skills and
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attributes) and commensurate awareness and knowledge, across the athlete
pathway. As well as assessing any differences between International Podium (IP)
and Non n-IP athletes, able-bodied (AB) athletes and athletes with disabilities (AD);
male and female athletes, and sports in which winning was determined by cgs
(centimetres, grams and seconds) and non-cgs sports.22
7.5. Methods
7.5.1. Instrument – The Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP) Online Survey
A mixed methods approach was taken to capture a comparative analysis using
quantitative research along with qualitative methodology to expand on initial
investigations152 informed by grounded theory, to best engage the athletes’ voice123
and explore the perspectives of the athlete sample.
An online survey using QualtricsXM software included 35 questions with four written
response questions, and was designed to: (i) collect data on the type, frequency and
quality of lifestyle practices (recovery, sleep practices, support and interpersonal
relationships, extra-curricular activities, relaxation and psychological skills/attributes);
(ii) determine athlete knowledge and awareness of the potential impact of support
services and lifestyle practices; and (iii) compare athletes with different
demographics and sporting achievement. The survey was informed by the major
themes identified in previous research.152 To ensure reliability, a pilot survey was
completed by five retired elite athletes who competed at senior international level.
Each participant completed the pilot twice and was assessed for reliability
(individually and collectively), to refine the line of questioning and the functionality of
the survey.
7.5.2. Ethical Considerations
In order to protect the rights of the participants and the information which they
provide, ethical considerations were examined by researchers.127 As per
recommendations from the RMIT HREC, researchers communicated clearly to
participants, via the PIS, that participation was voluntary and they could withdraw at
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any time. See Appendix 7. Participants were informed of the study’s purpose and
informed that no identifying information about them would be used in the results of
the study. It was deemed by the researchers and the RMIT HREC that there were no
serious threats posed to any participants or their wellbeing. No sensitive or deeply
personal information was asked of them during the survey. The study was approved
by RMIT University’s Human Research Ethics Committee (SEHAPP 72-18). See
Appendix 8.
7.5.3. Recruitment, Participants and Procedures
Australian athletes in Olympic and Paralympic sports, who competed at state level or
above in the past 10 years, were invited to participate. Purposive sampling was used
for recruitment, participation was voluntary, and only researchers had access to the
data.
Participants were recruited by receiving an email from one of the following
organisations: National Sporting Organisations (NSO’s), State Institute and
Academies of Sport, State Sporting Organisation, Australian Olympic and
Paralympic Committee. This email contained an invitation to be a part of the study, a
participant information form, and a link to the online survey. A social media campaign
(Facebook, Instagram) was released to raise awareness for the survey and
encourage participation and compliance. Athletes aged over 18 years were emailed
this information from their relevant sporting body (listed above), whilst for athletes
aged less than 18 years, the email was sent to their parents/guardians with a request
to forward the information and survey link on the athlete. The forwarding of this
information by the parent/guardian, was deemed to indicate that they had consented
to their child's participation in the study. A Participation Information Statement (PIS)
was provided at the beginning of the survey for athletes to gain full understanding of
the survey. See appendices 7, 8 and 9 for NSO information sheet, letter of support
from the AOC and letter of invitation to athletes.
For athletes under the age of 18, the email containing the PIS and link to the survey
was sent to their parents. The following statement was contained in the email: Dear
Parent, Your child has been invited to be involved in this survey as they meet the
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93
criteria of having achieved State or National level their sport. Please read the
Participant Information Statement regarding this survey. If you consent to your child
being involved, please forward this email to them. By forwarding this email, you are
giving consent for your child to participate. See appendix 12 for complete survey.
Minimal personal and identifying information was asked for in the survey (age, sex).
However, it is acknowledged that in a few cases the sporting achievements reported
by the athlete, such as individual medals in international competition in a specific
sport, may enable the researchers to identify the respondent. No identifying
information was presented in publications or reports.
Anonymity and confidentiality were assured and no identifying information shared
was used publicly. The overall results are set to be published in the scientific
literature and no individual will be identifiable from the publication. A summary of the
published results will be available on the survey website. Once participants
submitted their information researchers would not be able to identify individual
responses. There is a chance that an athlete could be identified by the researchers if
they have a significant milestone, such as reporting winning an international medal in
an individual sport. However, no identifying information is published in the results.
Within the survey, the FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) developmental
framework18 was used to classify achievement levels:
M = Multiple Senior International Podium
E2 = Single Senior International Podium
E1 = Senior International (no medal)
T4 = Junior International / Senior State/ Senior National
T3 = Practicing/Achieving
See Appendix 13.
The ‘Foundation’ level athletes were omitted from the inclusion criteria, as this
category did not meet the objectives of the study. Athletes meeting the criteria were
categorised into two groups: (i) M and E2 athletes who had achieved an International
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
94
Podium (IP) and (ii) E1, T4 and T3 athletes who had not (yet) achieved an
International Podium (n-IP). Additional classifications were: Able-Bodied (AB), and
Athletes with a Disability (AwD).
7.5.4. Data collection
Participation involved the athlete clicking on the link to the online survey and
completing the questionnaire. This process took the participant approximately twenty
minutes to complete.
Data were collected via Qualtrics Software and initially stored in Qualtrics. Once all
data were collected, the data were transferred and stored on the RMIT server. All
study data initially stored on Qualtrics were expunged.
7.6. Analysis
Once the survey was closed, data was exported from Qualtrics (Qualtrics Labs Inc.)
into SPSS (v 25) and cleaned. Cleaning involved: removing all participants who did
not meet inclusion criteria. A total of 331 responses were recorded. One-hundred
and ninety-six were excluded due to not meeting the inclusion criteria (e.g., not an
Olympic sport, or competed more than 10 years ago), incomplete responses, or
duplicates, leaving 135 for analysis. SPSS (v25) statistical software program was
used to analyse the data, with descriptive (mean and SD) and comparative (ANOVA
and t-tests) statistics being used for parametric data, with α set at p <.05, whilst
frequencies, percentages and chi-square analyses were used for categorical data.
7.6.1. Checks for statistical violations
When analysing the results for t-tests it was identified that for both the travel time
categories the SD was very large compared to the mean. In some cases the SD is
greater than the mean. Given these values cannot be negative, this suggested there
may be some ‘outliers’ with very high values, and/or the data is not normally
distributed. Minimum and maximum values along with SD were identified, anomalies
cleaned and data were then tested for a normal distribution along with sleep data.
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7.6.2. Qualitative Data
Results for qualitative analysis (written response questions) were categorised, using
Strauss and Corbin’s method of grounded theory124 131 into headings consistent with
previous higher order themes: Performance Factors / Strategies, Psychological Skills
and Attributes, Interpersonal Relationships and Lifestyle Practices. This allowed
abstraction from practical lived experiences to concepts and propositions that explain
social interactions, habits or processes. Initial themes were extracted by sentence-
by-sentence open-coding124 131 and representative quotes were coded into emergent
higher-order themes and sub-themes consistent with initial research and allowing for
new themes to emerge.152
For the written responses, initial themes were extracted by sentence-by-sentence
open-coding124 and representative quotes were coded into emergent higher-order
themes and sub-themes consistent with initial research.152
7.7. Results
A total of 135 athletes (58 male and 77 female) were included for analysis. Twenty-
five different Olympic and Paralympic sports were represented, with combat sports
strongly represented (n = 33). All quantitative data are presented as mean ± SD,
unless otherwise stated. Statistical significance was accepted at p<0.05. The results
and findings are presented under the established themes of Performance Factors /
Strategies, Psychological Skills and Attributes, Interpersonal Relationships, and
Lifestyle Practices.
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Table 7.1. Athlete classification, sports included in the survey along with number of athletes as per
FTEM classification and AB / AwD athletes
Sport
Achievement
Total n-IP
(E1/T4/T3) IP
(M/E2) AB AwD AB AwD
Archery
Athletics
Baseball/Softball
Beach Volleyball
Boxing
Canoe
Cycling
Diving
Fencing
Golf
Gymnastics
Hockey
Judo
Karate
Rowing
Sailing
Snow Sports
Sport Climbing
Swimming
Taekwondo
Triathlon
Water Polo
Wheelchair Basketball
Wheelchair Rugby
1
10
5
0
7
0
4
0
19
4
2
7
0
1
0
1
1
5
1
11
1
3
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
0
0
4
2
5
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
2
0
2
1
1
0
3
6
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
3
5
11
9
2
12
1
8
2
19
4
2
8
2
1
3
2
2
5
4
18
1
4
6
4
Total 83 10 30 12 135
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7.7.1. Performance Factors / Strategies
7.7.1.1. Daily Training Environment (DTE)
Forty-five percent of athletes described their DTE as centralised (services provided
e.g. massage, physiotherapy), 48% were de-centralised, and 7% selected ‘other’.
44% of athletes had a scholarship with a state sporting institute, 3% with a regional
academy, 15% with a professional club, and 37% checked other. 23% were M
athletes, 31% were E1/E2, and 45% were T3/T4.
7.7.1.2. Time Spent Training/Travelling (Table 7.2)
Three independent-sample t-tests were conducted to compare the training hours per
week of IP and n-IP athletes at time periods: (i) lead-up to a competition, (ii)
throughout the year, (iii) during competition. The mean training hours of IP-athletes
throughout the year and in the time leading up to competition was higher for IP-
athletes with the time spent throughout the year being statistically significantly (19.7
± 11.2 versus 14.1 ±7.7) (p = .005). Training hours during competition were not
different between groups. Time spent on international travel was significantly higher
for IP-athletes (p= < .001) while time spent on domestic travel were similar.
Factors such as male v female and AB vs AwD were not associated with any
differences in training or travel time, an exception was for hours training in the lead
up to competition, for which female athletes reported more training hours. Further
analysis using ANOVA did not reveal this difference to be associated with any other
factor. It cannot therefore be explained based on the type of sport or level of sporting
achievement.
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Table 7.2. Comparison between athlete categories for travel and training time.
Factor Category n Mean SD t p-value
Domestic Travel Time (weeks per year)
IP 40 6.2 4.9 -1.34 .182
n-IP 92 8.1 8.3 Male 57 6.4 5.6
-1.42 .158 Female 75 8.3 8.6 Able-bodied 111 7.7 7.9
0.87 .385 With disability 21 6.2 4.2
International Travel Time (weeks per year)
IP 39 10.9 7.8 3.97 < .001**
n-IP 81 5.2 7.2 Male 50 6.0 5.6
-1.34 .183 Female 70 7.8 9.1 Able-bodied 100 7.1 8.4
0.13 .897 With disability 20 6.8 4.7
Average training hours per week in the lead up to competition
IP 41 19.2 7.7 1.80 .074
n-IP 93 16.3 9.0 Male 58 15.4 8.5
-2.01 .046* Female 76 18.5 8.7 Able-bodied 112 17.1 8.9
.-0.23 .822 With disability 22 17.5 8.0
Average training hours per week out of competition time
IP 41 19.7 11.2 2.93 .005**
n-IP 88 14.1 7.7 Male 56 14.7 9.4
-1.24 .218 Female 73 16.8 9.1 Able-bodied 108 15.9 9.8
0.01 .989 With disability 21 15.9 6.3
Average training hours per week during competing
IP 40 11.7 9.2 1.21 .227
n-IP 87 9.7 7.9 Male 55 8.6 7.5
-2.09 .039* Female 72 11.7 8.7 Able-bodied 106 10.6 8.7
0.72 .475 With disability 21 9.1 6.4
Average Sleep hours per day
IP 41 7.06 1.14 -0.12 .908
n-IP 82 7.09 1.08 Male 54 6.9 1.0
-1.19 .235 Female 69 7.2 1.2 Able-bodied 102 7.1 1.0
0.96 .344 With disability 21 6.8 1.3
* Significant at p < .05 ** Significant p <.01
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7.7.1.3. Weight Division Practices
Around one quarter (n=35) of participants were required to make a competition
weight division (89% from combat sports). Nine athletes dropped 1-2kg below what
they considered their baseline training weight, 12 athletes dropped 5kg below
baseline, 6 athletes dropped 6-8kg below baseline, and one athlete dropped 10kg
below baseline weight. Fifteen athletes reported using a sauna to lose weight before
competing. Other weight-loss strategies included running, skipping, walking, and
sports specific exercise.
7.7.1.4. Recovery Practices (Table 7.3)
The most common recovery practices were Remedial Massage, Stretching,
Mindfulness, and Visualisation. Eight recovery practices were identified with
statistically significant differences in the prevalence of utilisation, with IP-athletes use
being higher than n-IP-athletes for: Remedial Massage, Mindfulness, Hot/Cold
Immersion, Ice-bath, Meditation, Plunge-pool, Infrared sauna, and Neuro Linguistic
Programming (NLP). Finnish sauna was significantly used more by AB-athletes, and
NLP used significantly more by AwD-athletes.
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Table 7.3. Recovery Practices: Percentage of IP and n-IP athletes, and AB and AwD athletes who
practiced these techniques and procedure, statistical comparisons made using chi-square with
contingency tables.
Recovery Practice % IP % n-IP p-value % AB % AwD p-value
Remedial Massage 95 65 0.0001** 73 85 0.13
Stretching 90 84 0.173 86 85 0.44
Mindfulness 83 62 0.010* 70 67 0.396
Visualisation 80 67 0.064 74 57 0.061
Hot/Cold Immersion 76 50 0.004* 59 55 0.358
Ice Bath 76 54 0.012* 63 55 0.252
Hot/Cold Shower 74 61 0.080 62 81 0.052
Walking 71 69 0.433 79 25 < .001**
Meditation 66 50 0.049* 58 43 0.103
Plunge Pool 59 27 0.0003** 38 35 0.401
Relaxation Massage 56 47 0.186 51 50 0.484
Yoga 51 36 0.058 44 30 0.131
Spa 46 44 0.416 50 20 0.007**
Cold Water Swimming 45 31 0.064 34 45 0.213
Pilates 37 25 0.086 28 30 0.444
Progressive Muscle Relaxation 34 37 0.396 37 29 0.226
Infrared Sauna 20 4 0.002** 11 0 0.061
Finnish Sauna 15 13 0.382 16 0 0.028*
Neuro Linguistic Programming 15 4 0.016* 4 25 0.001**
Dance 15 14 0.448 16 5 0.102
Intermittent Hypoxic Training 7 8 0.478 8 5 0.322
Floatation Tank 5 7 0.298 7 5 0.38
* Significant at p < .05 ** Significant p <.01
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7.7.1.5. Service Providers (Table 7.4)
All athlete referrals to frequently used practitioners were via their State Institute,
except the family GP, where the referral was usually by parents. Overall, IP-athletes
had higher utilisation than n-IP-athletes for all services except for osteopathy. Of
these, there was a significant difference in the use of four service providers, with
utilisation by IP-athletes being greater for Massage Therapist; Dietician/Nutritionist;
Sports Medicine Doctor; and Sports Psychologist. Chiropractors and Naturopaths
were used significantly more by AB-athletes than AwD-athletes. Sports
Psychologists were used significantly more by females than males.
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Table 7.4. Athletes utilisation of service providers, their perceived effectiveness and referrals, comparisons made using chi-square with contingency tables.
Physiotherapist Family GP Masseur Dietician
/Nutritionist Sports Psychologist
Sports Medicine Doctor
Acupuncturist Chiropractor Osteopath Myotherapist Naturopath / Herbalist
% Utilisation 91 84 83 70 55 50 30 24 21 20 13
% Effectiveness 96 94 96 88 76 77 57 45 50 45 34
Referred by (top ranking) State Institute Parent
Self / State Institute
State Institute
State Institute
State Institute Self Self / Parent Friend Friend Friend
% Utilisation by achievement classification (p-value)
IP: 95 n-IP: 89 (0.113)
IP: 88 n-IP: 82 (0.217)
IP: 98 n-IP: 76 (0.001**)
IP: 85 n-IP: 62 (0.004**)
IP: 74 n-IP: 46 (0.002**)
IP: 76 n-IP: 38 (< 0.001**)
IP: 32 n-IP: 29 (0.370)
IP: 25 n-IP: 23 (0.230)
IP: 20 n-IP: 22 (0.411)
IP: 23 n-IP: 18 (0.278)
IP: 15 n-IP: 12 (0.335)
% Utilisation by Able-Bodied/ with a Disability (p-value)
AB: 89 AwD: 100 (0.051)
AB: 82 AwD: 95 (0.064)
AB: 83 AwD: 85 (0.421)
AB: 70 AwD: 70 (0.5)
AB: 53 AwD: 67 (0.141)
AB: 49 AwD: 60 (0.175)
AB: 28 AwD: 39 (0.174)
AB: 27 AwD: 5 (0.02*)
AB: 22 AwD: 17 (0.306)
AB: 23 AwD: 6 (0.265)
AB: 16 AwD: 0 (0.037*)
% Utilisation by gender (p-value)
Male: 54 Female: 55 (0.861)
Male: 9 Female: 12 (0.611)
Male: 42 Female: 59 (0.047*)
Male: 16 Female: 19 (0.654)
Male: 12 Female: 20 (0.282)
Male: 2 Female: 11 (0.063)
Male: 2 Female: 6 0.334()
Male: 4 Female: 10 (0.243)
Male: 2 Female: 7 (0.207)
Male: 4 Female: 13 (0.097)
Male: 0 Female: 5 (0.136)
* Significant at p < .05 ** Significant p <.01
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7.7.2. Interpersonal Relationships
7.7.2.1. Social Support and Support Network (Table 7.5)
The vast majority of all athletes (>93%) agreed that having someone in their life who
made them laugh was important to their success. The vast majority (>98%) also
attributed having people to support them during their career was important for their
success and most (>88%) said their coach’s ability to relate on a personal level was
as important as their technical ability. Importance of family members was valued
significantly higher by AwD (100%) than AB-athletes (87%).
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Table 7.5. Support Network: importance, achievement classification (IP/n-IP), Able-Bodied/Athletes with a Disability classification, nature of the relationship and times of support
Coach Team-mate Parents Spouse/ Partner Physiotherapist Family
Members Sports Science Sports Medicine
Sports Medicine Doctor
Sports Psychologist Sibling
Non- Sporting Friend
Masseur
How important is this person in providing support? %
94 92 91 90 88 84 83 80 79 77 74 72
% Between achievement classification
IP: 100 n-IP: 93
IP: 97 n-IP: 91
IP: 97 n-IP: 88
IP: 96 n-IP: 88
IP: 97 n-IP: 84
IP: 90 n-IP: 81
IP: 94 n-IP: 76
IP: 89 n-IP: 74
IP: 89 n-IP: 73
IP: 82 n-IP: 74
IP: 90 n-IP: 68
IP: 92 n-IP: 61
% Between Able-Bodied / Athletes with Disability
AB: 97 AwD: 100
AB: 95 AwD: 100
AB: 95 AwD: 90
AB: 71 AwD: 62
AB: 84 AwD: 90
AB: 87 AwD: 100
AB: 65 AwD: 76
AB: 59 AwD: 65
AB: 63 AwD: 62
AB: 73 AwD: 76
AB: 76 AwD: 90
AB: 59 AwD: 76
With this person… (Top 2 highest rankings)
I depend on for my technical prowess Helps me find balance & perspective
I can let my hair down Helps me find balance & perspective
I share my worries & concerns Helps me find balance & perspective
I share my worries & concerns I don't discuss my sport with them
I depend on for my recovery strategies I depend on for my technical prowess
I don't discuss my sport with them Helps me find balance & perspective
I depend on for my recovery strategies I don't discuss my sport with them
I depend on for my recovery strategies I don't discuss my sport with them
I share my worries & concerns I don't discuss my sport with them
We can laugh together I don't discuss my sport with them
I can let my hair down Helps me find balance & perspective
I depend on for my recovery strategies I don't discuss my sport with them
This person provided support when… Top 1 highest ranking
During my early participation in sport
During my early participation in sport
During my early participation in sport
At senior elite level
At senior elite level
During my early participation in sport
At senior elite level
At senior elite level
At senior elite level
During my early participation in sport
During my early participation in sport
At senior elite level
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7.7.3. Lifestyle Practices
7.7.3.1. Relaxation
The vast majority of all athletes (>91%) agreed that activities that helped them relax
when not training or competing was important to their success.
7.7.3.2. Sleep (during competition/training)
The mean hours of sleep per/night were not statistically significantly different
between athletes, and the importance of sleep was a common theme in
recommendations athletes would make to younger athletes. (See Table 7.13 in
Written Responses)
7.7.3.3. Diet
The types of dietary advice sought by athletes are summarised in Table 7.6 and
Figures 7.1-7.2. Athletes predominantly sought advice from either a qualified
naturopath or herbalist (95% IP 94% n-IP) or qualified dietician or nutritionist (44% IP
36% n-IP). The prevalence of source of dietary advice was not statistically
significantly between athlete categories.
Table 7.6. Source of Dietary advice by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD athletes
Source of diet advice IP n-IP p-value AB AwD p-value
Qualified Naturopath or Herbalist 95 94 0.386 94 95 0.855
Qualified Dietician or Nutritionist 44 36 0.221 40 30 0.385
Coach 15 20 0.263 20 10 0.260
Unqualified person 13 21 0.128 19 14 0.612
Internet 13 21 0.122 18 0 0.035
Books 8 19 0.053 21 5 0.078
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Figure 7.1. Source of Dietary advice for IP / n-IP athletes
Figure 7.2. Source of Dietary advice for and AB / AwD athletes
Results for the type of diet consumed by the athletes are summarised in Table 7.7
and Figure 7.3-7.4. The proportion of n-IP-athletes on a ‘high protein’ diet was
significantly higher than for IP-athletes (54% v 38%) (p= 0.047). There were no other
statistically significant differences between IP and n-IP athletes in diet. The meal
0
20
40
60
80
100
QualifiedNaturopath or
Herbalist
QualifiedDietician orNutritionist
Coach Unqualifiedperson
Internet Books
Perc
enta
geSource of diet advice for IP / n-IP athletes
Podium Non-Podium
0
20
40
60
80
100
QualifiedNaturopath or
Herbalist
QualifiedDietician orNutritionist
Coach Unqualifiedperson
Internet Books
Perc
enta
ge
Source of advice for AB/AwD Athletes
Able-bodied With disability
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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types consumed by n-IP and IP are summarised in Table 7.8 and Figure 7.5-7.6.
Most athletes (>94%) ate home-cooked meals predominantly. Results for beverages
consumed are summarised in Table 7.9 and Figure 7.7-7.8. The percentage of IP-
athletes who regularly consumed coffee was significantly higher than for n-IP-
athletes.
Table 7.7. Types of Diets consumed by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD athletes
Type of diet IP n-IP p-value AB AwD p-value
High Protein 38 54 0.047* 49 43 0.582
Omnivore 36 39 0.367 38 37 0.931
High carb 32 37 0.274 33 48 0.196
Mostly organic 24 13 0.078 17 15 0.826
Vegetarian 23 14 0.132 19 10 0.357
Not organic 23 32 0.174 31 16 0.178
Partially organic 20 21 0.447 23 10 0.196
Low carb 15 25 0.114 24 10 0.175
Gluten free 11 7 0.232 9 5 0.599
Ketogenic 11 23 0.062 3 0 --
Paleo 8 3 0.087 3 11 --
Vegan 5 4 0.368 5 0 --
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Figure 7.3. Types of Diets eaten by IP and n-IP athletes
Figure 7.4. Types of Diets eaten by AB / AD athletes
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
High Prot
ein
Omnivore
High ca
rb
Mostly
orga
nic
Vegeta
rian
Not org
anic
Partial
ly org
anic
Low ca
rb
Gluten
free
Ketoge
nicPale
oVeg
an
Perc
enta
geType of Diet of IP / n-IP Athletes
International Podium Non-International Podium
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
High Prot
ein
Omnivore
High C
arb
Not org
anic
Low C
arb
Partial
ly org
anic
Vegeta
rian
Mostly
Orga
nic
Gluten
Vegan
Paleo
Ketoge
nic
Perc
enta
ge
Type of Diet of AB / AwD Athletes
Able-bodied With disability
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Table 7.8. Type of meal preparation by IP / n-IP athletes and AB / AwD athletes
Type of meals IP n-IP p-value AB AwD p-value
Home-cooked 95 94 0.429 94 95 0.886
Ready-made 15 17 0.376 16 19 0.734
Take away 10 12 0.361 10 19 0.233
Figure 7.5. Type of meal preparation by IP and n-IP athletes
Figure 7.6. Type of meal preparation by AB and AwD athletes
0
20
40
60
80
100
Home-cooked Ready-made Take away
Perc
enta
ge
Type of Meals of IP / n-IP Athletes
Podium Non-Podium
0
20
40
60
80
100
Home-cooked Ready-made Take away
Perc
enta
ge
Type of Meals of AB / AwD Athletes
Able-bodied With disability
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Table 7.9. Type of Beverages consumed by IP and n-IP athletes
Type of Beverages IP n-IP p-value AB AwD p-value
Water 98 96 0.368 97 95 --
Coffee 68 47 0.017* 53 57 0.730
Herbal Tea 23 18 0.257 19 19 0.988
Tea 20 26 0.226 23 29 0.588
Commercial Isotonic Drinks 18 22 0.569 21 19 0.858
Liquid carbohydrate 3 0 -- 0 5 --
Figure 7.7. Type of Beverages consumed by IP and n-IP athletes
Figure 7.8. Type of Beverages consumed by AB and AwD athletes
0
20
40
60
80
100
Water Coffee Herbal Tea Tea CommercialIsotonicDrink
Liquidcarbohydrate
Perc
enta
ge
Type of Beverages
International Podium Non-International Podium
020406080
100
Water
Coffee Tea
Herbal
Tea
Commerc
ial…
Liquid
…
Perc
enta
ge
Type of Beverages
Able-bodied With disability
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7.7.4. Psychological Skills and Attributes (Table 7.10)
Athletes were unanimous in perceiving psychological attributes as vital to their
success. All 100% of IP-athletes agreed their Ability to Change (94% n-IP) and
Resilience (96% n-IP) was vital to their success. AB-athletes were more likely to
perceive Ability to Manage Performance Nerves and Rituals as being vital to their
success than AwD. Analysis of psychological attributes within the ‘Written Response’
questions is presented below and in Tables 7.11 – 7.13.
Table 7.10. Psychological Attributes: percentage of IP / n-IP and AB / AwD athletes who agree these
psychological attributes are vital to their success
Psychological Attributes IP n-IP p-value AB AwD p-value
Ability to adapt to change 100 94 0.053 96 95 --
Resilience 100 96 -- 98 95 --
Self-discipline 98 100 -- 99 100 --
Mental toughness 98 94 0.188 95 95 0.489
Ability to recover after injury 98 89 0.052 93 86 0.129
Being self-aware 98 91 0.099 93 95 0.362
Ability to manage emotions during competition
98 94 0.188 96 90 0.140
Goal setting and planning 95 94 0.392 94 95 0.423
Routines 95 87 0.190 90 86 0.272 Ability to manage performance nerves 95 91 0.232 95 81 0.012*
Strategic thinking 90 88 0.345 89 86 0.323
Reflection 90 90 0.500 91 86 0.222
Coping skills 90 90 0.500 90 90 0.484
Problem Solving 88 91 0.260 91 86 0.222
Breathing 88 80 0.156 85 71 0.063
Ability to create a supportive network 85 82 0.306 83 81 0.396
Being a knowledge seeker 83 78 0.264 78 86 0.226
Rituals 61 46 0.064 55 33 0.036* * Significant at p < .05 ** Significant p <.01
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7.7.5. Written Response Questions (Tables 7.11 – 7.13)
When asked - If they achieved a medal at a benchmark event, why, in their opinion,
did they succeed compared to their less successful counterparts? Athletes’
responses fell under the sub-themes: superior self-regulation, effective coping
strategies and positive mindset, maximising training and performance opportunities,
strong work-ethic, and having the right support team. The latter being the most
frequent response amongst IP-athletes: IP 79% n-IP 21%. Most frequent responses
from n-IP-athletes were strong work-ethic IP 21% n-IP 79%.
Table 7.11. Representative quotes in response to the question:
If you have achieved a medal at a benchmark event - why, in your opinion did you succeed compared to your lesser successful counterparts?
Psychological Attributes FTEM
Superior Self-Regulation
Train hard, believe in yourself, maintain perspective and be in the moment. IP
Strong Work Ethic
We set out the goal to win, and everything we did, every training session, every meeting, every recovery session, was all very much focused on that and it was consistently at the forefront of our mind. That melted away any complaints, of too much hard work, or too boring meetings, or being tired, it drove us to DO the right things, even if and when we didn't FEEL like it, because the goal was bigger than any obstacle.
n-IP
Effective Coping Strategies and Positive Mindset
Confidence in the process and the training IP Performance Strategies
Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities
Preparation on the day. Mental preparation leading up to and during competition. Mental and physical focus. n-IP
Interpersonal Relationships
Having the Right Support Team
Focus and getting on the same page with my teammate.... emotional resilience was strong. Purposeful practice and visions. IP
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Responding to the question - What could be done better to educate and empower
athletes regarding their knowledge and effective usage of athlete and lifestyle
strategies etc.? Two new sub-themes emerged within Performance Strategies:
education (for athletes & coaches), which was mentioned by more than 98% of
athletes and get advice from experienced/retired athletes. The sub-themes: effective
use of sports science sports medicine (SSSM), maximising training, and
performance opportunities, along with the major theme of interpersonal relationships,
were of equal importance. Lifestyle practices such as nutrition/hydration, balance,
and the importance of having time-out, also elicited similar responses.
Table 7.12. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to the question:
What could be done better to educate and empower athletes regarding their knowledge and effective usage of athlete and lifestyle strategies etc? Performance Strategies FTEM Get Advice from Experienced/Retired Athletes New sub-theme Other elite athletes being available to share their experiences and be available to meet with developing athletes to help guide and mentor them.
IP
Have more top athletes visiting younger athletes in sport to give them a better perspective of life in their sport.
n-IP
Education (for athletes & coaches) New sub-theme More podcasts / e-Learning modules sent to athletes. IP Coaches set up the program from the beginning to incorporate the WHOLE plan, not just the technical plan!
IP
Effective use of SMSS More balanced lifestyles, a more scientific approach to elite performance, psychological / nutritional services etc. etc. is relatively new, at least its significant importance to performance has only recently been realised.
IP
Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities Opportunities that provide greater flexibility to undertake education and work, in a capacity that still allows training and travel to work as expected by sporting bodies/ SIS/SAS & sponsors etc
n-IP
Educational videos and support from officials. n-IP Subtle information throughout each training session rather than hour long info sessions. n-IP Interpersonal Relationships Having the right support team Ensuring that those who are around young/newer athletes in a sport have the athletes best interests at the heart of their core priorities. I witnessed first-hand in two sports parents/coaches living their goals & expectations through young athletes. It often destroyed the athlete and most certainly their passion for the sport.
n-IP
Lifestyle Practices The importance of not just 2 hours at training but the other 22 and how you utilise them. n-IP Emphasising the importance of sport/life balance, particularly in sports with limited or non-existent support mechanisms and difficult sporting politics.
n-IP
Importance of time out Reminder that athletes need downtime as well from high intensity schedules n-IP Honestly finding time to relax is key. Having a healthy balance between work, training and life is essential. Alongside that, realising that this is a marathon not a sprint. It’s going to take a long time and you’re going to fail sometimes, but never be afraid of failure. Also find a supportive and encouraging partner. Because life as a HP athlete is a selfish one and it’s important that family and spouses realise that.
n-IP
Balance Conversations and advocate a balanced life. IP Don't forget to live. This will help you contextualise yourself in your sport as it relates to your life. Perhaps, then you will regain an enjoyment for your sport.
n-IP
Plan school, rest and training. Not the other way around. Career/school is important. n-IP
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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When asked - What KEY advice/strategies would you advocate for younger
athletes? Insights were provided, extrapolating themes of being proactive, being a
knowledge-seeker, and standing up for yourself. The new sub-theme of ‘balance’
was interlinked with social activity and connection/support, where athletes made
recommendations to connect with other aspects of life such as study, family, and
friends.
Table 7.13. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to the question:
What KEY advice/strategies would you advocate for younger athletes? Psychological Attributes FTEM Superior Self-Regulation Self-reflection. To know the good in the bad, and the bad in the good and to subulate each into your performance. For me, being an athlete is about the movement of your own performances throughout your career. Incorporate your previous performances into how you will perform in the present.
n-IP
Intrinsic Motivation You have to be tough. And I also feel that if you are able to cultivate an internal motivational complex, you are far more likely to be successful. For example, if your motivation come from within, you are more likely to train harder every session, miss less training sessions and put yourself in the necessary uncomfortable situations without prompting.
n-IP
Effective Coping Strategies and Positive Mindset Mental training is the key to success, invest time in this. IP Performance Strategies Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities Avoid 'junk' training - more is not better! n-IP Physical Therapies and Recovery Eat, drink & sleep well - naps are not just for nannas! n-IP Interpersonal Relationships Having the Right Support Team Establish a support team around the athlete as early as possible. These support members will then be able to guide the athlete and help develop the mental framework so that the athlete exhibits better thoughtful action and awareness, as suitable for the individual athlete and their individual sport.
IP
Find a great coach who understands you and who you are as a person as well as who you are as an athlete, and the ways to support you best. Find the best people to support you and guide you and to train with as early as possible so you don't miss out on valuable time, or waste time learning poor techniques/skills/ideas/strategies. Work hard so you have no regrets.
IP
To insure sport/life/school balance. The earlier you can see a counsellor or sport psych is important, particularly if you are competing at a high-level during puberty. Insuring support is always in place at training, not always sporting related but social support for LGBTQI and gendered related issues as the dynamic at training with a group of young people can bring up a lot of issues/concerns in this area.
n-IP
Support from friends and family is crucial, let them know you appreciate it. n-IP Lifestyle Practices Nutrition and Hydration Eat food to fuel your body. Whole foods are the best for you and if you are eating a balanced diet you don't need supplements. n-IP Meal preparation is key to success. During competition you need to work out the snacks & meals that will best fuel you for performance. IP
Younger athletes bodies are continuously growing and developing, therefore avoid dieting or starving strategies to make weigh-ins. In essence, chose divisions that correspond to your natural weight rather than lower/higher weight classes that require extreme weight fluctuations.
IP
Balance New sub-theme A well-rounded person makes a good athlete. You must love what you do but also live a fulfilling and nourishing life. If that means a drink of alcohol or a block of chocolate here and there, it will not be detrimental to your performance. Eat lots, have fun!
n-IP
Maintain a good balance between sport and other parts of life - otherwise it is easy to get burned out. Spend time to plan out each day to make sure you have time for everything you need to do. n-IP
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Always keep in mind that even though you love the sport and you want to be the best in the business, you have a life outside of it. Learn another skill, socialise and always think about the future. Have the support of your family is important and have a team behind you.
IP
Keep it fun and have something else to fall back on. Sport is not life. n-IP Planning and Goal Setting New sub-theme Focusing and setting goals and having a plan but also making sure you don’t overwork yourself and allow yourself to unwind and relax and recover between training and competing. IP
Know the importance of being an elite athlete and eating, planning and structuring your day and overall year to make you the best performer. n-IP
Set your goals and then set mini goals within those goals. Don’t give up and keep moving forward. Worry about how what you do makes you feel, not anyone else. Know your ‘Why’ New sub-theme My advice to make sure you understand your driver. What drives you to do the sport. Knowing your why? When you know why you do something, the driver, energy, passion, dedication and desire to succeed is very clear. When you don't know your why, then it’s very hard to commit, pursue and persist with elite level sport. When hardships, sacrifices, adversity and everything else that gets thrown at athletes, the WHY needs to be clear so the pull and the want to keep moving forward with focus it automatic and STRONG when road blocks appear. The WHY creates a clear vision!!
IP
Find your 'why'. n-IP Know why you are doing it. Understand how you are going to do it. Do it. IP Take Control / Know yourself New sub-theme Ensure you have the right people around you for 'YOU'! n-IP Focus on who you want to be and what you want to achieve, don’t let anyone change you into someone you don’t want to be. Stay true to yourself, know your emotions and feelings, know your body. Don’t be afraid to seek help.
IP
Be organised. Take time to be by yourself when you need it. Reach out for support. Be fit. Be healthy. Be happy. n-IP
You need to learn how to have tough skin in any sport and how to have self-motivation be disciplined enough to keep you going. Support systems may come and go, the biggest and loyal support you have is in yourself. If you don’t believe in yourself or have the discipline to continue to push yourself and strive for greater, you will never gain success.
n-IP
Is there anything in your sporting journey so far that you would have done
differently? Elicited a resounding response that seeking professional assistance
earlier would have been beneficial, i.e. sports psychology, dietician. Having a greater
understanding of nutritional strategies and the implementation of recovery strategies
was strongly reflected, particularly concerning preventing burn-out, fatigue, and
injuries. Another frequent comment was ‘change clubs earlier.’
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Table 7.14. Representative quotes of most frequent responses to:
Is there anything in your sporting journey so far, that you would have done differently?
Psychological Attributes FTEM
Superior Self-Regulation
Invested in mental training earlier. IP
Performance Strategies
Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities
Started earlier! x 3 responses n-IP, IP
Effective Utilisation of Sports Science
I would change some of the events that led to injury IP
Physical Therapies and Recovery
Injury stopped me competing. More time developing fundamental athletic capacity rather
than sport specific skills may have provided more longevity. Would generally have benefitted from multi-disciplinary input (especially nutrition, physiotherapy, strength and conditioning,) from an earlier point.
n-IP
Interpersonal Relationships
Having the Right Support Team
Find better qualified people e.g. a coach earlier in my sporting career. n-IP
Worked with sports psych earlier (x 3 responses) n-IP
I would have spoken to more sports psychologists to manage the demands of my career on and off the diamond, to minimise breakdowns. n-IP
Made the effort to find the right people to speak to when I missed on achieving goals IP
I wish I had asked for help sooner from professionals regarding my coping strategies and stress levels. The pressure and stress of hitting my peak in sport at a young age has permanently affected my mental and physical health and at the time I had severe effects on my mental health, weight and sleeping habits. I wish I had diversified my support network to outside of the sport itself.
n-IP
7.8. Discussion
A key objective of this survey was to explore the awareness, knowledge, culture,
SSSM support, nutrition, training, and lifestyle practices of elite athletes at varying
levels of achievement. Results revealed IP-athletes spent significantly more hours
training throughout the year than n-IP-athletes and were more likely to utilise support
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services for recovery practices (hot/cold immersion, infrared sauna etc.), massage
therapists, dietician/nutritionists, sports medicine doctors and sports psychologists,
and perceived support from these service providers along with family and friends.
7.8.1. Recovery Practices and Psychological Support
The difference in recovery practices may reflect access to facilities such as hot/cold
immersion, or massage. In our previous research, the use of ice-baths was reported
as a common practice amongst world-class athletes152 and the finding that hot/cold
immersion, plunge-pools and ice-baths was more common amongst IP-athletes
suggest possible merit in introducing contrast bathing to athletes earlier in their
career. The differences between IP and n-IP athletes in their use of massage and
psychological techniques may reflect increased access, rather than these services
contributing to athletic success - as professional services are often recommended by
NIN/NSO’s who also offer financial support. However, many athletes expressed they
would have liked access to these services earlier, suggesting these services are
highly regarded and perceived as beneficial.
I wish I had asked for help sooner from professionals regarding my coping strategies and stress levels. The pressure and stress of hitting my peak in sport at a young age has permanently affected my mental and physical health….I wish I had diversified my support network to outside of the sport itself. (n-IP-athlete)
Psychological skills and attributes were seen as vital to success, with ability to
change and resilience rating the highest. While the importance of resilience and
adaptation is well documented,13 24 most athletes wished they had access to these
skills earlier in their career. A holistic psychological support program, inclusive of
training in mental fortitude,24 emotional intelligence,157 mental toughness,158 and
mindfulness-acceptance-commitment (MAC) practices,47 108 159 could be used to
support athlete wellbeing. Assisting them to enhance performance and embrace the
pressure and expectation to perform and succeed at important benchmark events.
Responses indicated pre-elite athletes are thirsty for deeper knowledge,
understanding, and autonomy. Given the focus on psychological skills being critical
to performance, there is an opportunity to hone and develop psychological skills
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earlier, so they are practiced once the athlete reaches career maturity. Contrary to
the written responses, the second most common response for sports psychologist
was ‘I don’t discuss my sport with them’. Further clarification is required to
understand the role of a sport psychologist better to provide education, strategies,
and support in athlete wellbeing, mental health, stress, and coping versus
competition performance optimisation. Education about this service earlier in the
developmental pathway may provide more targeted use of this professional service.
7.8.2. Perceived Support
While there were notable differences between IP and n-IP-athletes, there were many
similarities. All athletes perceived interpersonal relationships as vital and valued
people who made them laugh and supported them during their careers. Most also
valued their coach’s ability to relate on a personal level equal to their technical
ability.
Perceived support is understood to affect emotional and informational esteem
positively,85 160 and have stress-buffering effects on self-confidence and resilience,13
85 including performance factors.88 The coach-athlete relationship can directly
influence athletes’ motivation as the coaches’ ability to facilitate autonomy-supportive
behaviours, beneficially impact an athletes’ intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, and
drive performance and perseverance.89 Conversely, with pressure to perform and
high stress levels, controlling behaviours are more likely,89 and accidental violence,
non-accidental violence, maltreatment, harassment, coercion, and abuse are not
uncommon in elite sport.33 34 A culture of personal support and respectful
interpersonal relationships may not only prevent potentially harmful interactions, it
may serve to drive higher levels of performance and enhance athletes lives both on
and off the sporting arena.156 Athletes also expressed a desire for access to
experienced athletes for guidance:
Other elite athletes being available to share their experiences and be available to meet with developing athletes to help guide and mentor them. (IP-athlete)
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These reflections contributed to new sub-themes under established152 higher-order
themes being identified:
Performance Strategies: balance, take control/ know yourself, planning/goal
setting.
Lifestyle Practices: get advice from experienced/retired athletes, education
for athletes & coaches.
The advice to ‘change clubs earlier’ highlighted: (i) athlete autonomy and (ii) need for
better support at a grass-roots level. Clubs require education to (i) facilitate high-
performance athletes and (ii) know when to refer or recommend a more specialised
club or DTE. Athletes commented the choice to remain at their club was often due to
loyalty or ‘aiming to please’ rather than making the right career choice.
7.8.3. Nutrition and Sleep
The vast majority of athletes also ate home-cooked meals predominantly and valued
sleep and activities that helped them relax when not training or competing. While
sleep and its impact on health and performance is well understood,161 the survey
measured perception of sleep, and sleep monitoring would provide more accurate
individual information.
7.8.4. Able-Bodied/Athletes with a Disability
Although some statistical differences were seen between AB and AwD, some
differences may be due to their disability e.g., ‘walking’ was utilised more as a
recovery practice amongst AB athletes (79%) compared to AwD (25%). Family
support was greater for AwD, perhaps indicating support for managing various
disabilities. Significance was seen with AB athletes practicing more rituals than AwD.
Further investigation is required to determine why athletes who were AB practiced
more rituals than AwD.
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7.8.5. Additional analysis not included in submitted manuscript
In comparing the variable gender; the significance between males and females for
each recovery strategy was significant for only 6 recovery strategies, yet the
prevalence is higher for females for virtually all recovery strategies, ‘The Sign Test’
was applied for further analysis to assess greater use of ‘recovery practices in
general’. Whilst we are not calculating medians, The Sign Test is applicable here on
the basis of testing the number of positive v negative differences in a set of paired
observations. The outcome of the sign-test was the identification of a statistically
significant difference, with for the 25 activities, 22 showed negative difference,
implying male percentages are lower than those of females. With males reporting a
higher percentage for only 3 activities. The p-value (Exact Sig. (2-tailed)), .000) (this
value is not exactly 0. It is: .000157. But when rounded off to 3 decimal places, it’s
.000) is less than .05. This result implies that percentages of females doing the
activity is significantly higher than males’.
When looking at the average number of training hours per week in the lead up to
competition, it was identified that females were training more hours than males.
Whilst it was not statistically significant (p = 0.074), there was a possible trend for
female athletes to undertake more training than males in the week leading up to a
major competition. This possible trend was further analysed with other factors, such
as ‘International success’ (Podium vs non-Podium), and Type of event (cgs/non-cgs)
using 2-way ANOVA, but no significant interaction was detected. It’s therefore not
possible to suggest an explanation for this possible trend.
7.9. Limitations and Strengths of this study
A limitation of this study was gaining access to athletes. As the contact came either
via their NSO or via the AOC to the NSO, then to the AWE coordinator and then to
the athlete, researchers relied on other people to pass on the survey link and did not
have direct contact with the athletes.
In the results section (Q12 – See Appendix 12), the question was posed: ‘Please
indicate the number and type of podium performances you have had in the past 10
years?’ In hindsight, this should have been worded differently. We were after best
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career performances to gauge the athlete’s achievement level e.g., State or Olympic
level. The question as it was posed in the survey did not allow for any performances
outside that 10 year window. In hindsight, asking athletes to classify themselves
against FTEM would have been simpler and more appropriate. Sample size was also
a limitation to effectively compare across different types of sports.
A strength of this study was the inclusion of current athletes who have been
competing within the last ten years. The aim was to get a snapshot of current
education and awareness, culture, sports science and sports medicine support,
nutrition, training and lifestyle practices. Another strength of this study is the quality
and diversity of the sample. Twenty-five sports were included in the data and a
strong proportion of athletes were Paralympic or athletes with a disability.
The sample size was limited by the number of participants, which may have
impacted on statistical significance. This was due to constraints in recruiting athletes
through third-parties (i.e. NSOs). The large representation of combat sports may
reflect the fact that the lead researcher is an Olympic Gold Medallist in taekwondo,
and hence is highly visible to athletes competing in combat sports. Many athletes
exited the survey when asked to detail their sporting achievements, possibly due to
the complexity of reflecting on their performance history. In retrospect, asking
athletes to classify themselves against FTEM would have been simpler and more
appropriate.
A strength of the study is the quality and diversity of the sample, which provided a
strong cross-section across 25 Olympic and Paralympic sports that included athletes
with a range of sporting success.
7.10. Future Directions
Success both within sport and transition out of sport requires a holistic approach to
athlete development that includes a complimentary mix of wellbeing, lifestyle
practices, performance strategies, psychological attributes, education, and
supportive interpersonal relationships.12 Pre-elite athletes have been identified as the
most vulnerable population coming through athlete development pathways and are
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subject to drop-out and burn-out.17 Therefore, it is essential to quantify and
understand gaps in the system and provide support, screening, and education
platforms that can assess a developing athlete’s competence, facilitate sport-specific
education, and implement interventions to maximise an athlete’s longevity,
performance-success, and transition to retirement.
7.11. Conclusion
These preliminary results confirm the importance of lifestyle, performance strategies,
and social support in sporting success and indicate implementation of educational
strategies, recovery practices, and access to service providers earlier in an athlete’s
career is warranted. Success may also be enhanced through assisting athletes in
better knowing themselves, thus facilitating more robust autonomy. Athlete
development programs would benefit from monitoring and facilitating athletes’ social
support networks and implementing specific programs to foster a culture of
respectful interpersonal relationships amongst athletes and their friends, coaches,
family and support staff.
In summary, the new findings confirmed themes consistent with LEAP interviews:
Inclusive of performance factors, lifestyle, and strong support networks, IP-athletes
attribute their psychological attributes as vital to their success. IP and n-IP athletes
perceive psychological skills/attributes to be vital to their performance, yet many do
not discuss their sport with their sports psychologist.
New sub-themes under higher-order themes: Performance Strategies: Balance,
Take Control/ Know yourself, Planning/Goal Setting. Lifestyle Practices: Get
Advice from Experienced/Retired Athletes, Education for athletes & coaches.
Practical implications for the future are to provide access to support services and
cultivate strong interpersonal relationships, earlier in the athlete development
pathway. To prioritise measurement and development of psychological attributes via
State and National Sporting Organisations at a pre-elite level. Education platforms
that embrace the specific themes highlighted in this study may also help to empower
athletes and coaches and foster athlete-autonomy.
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What are the new findings?
• Results confirmed themes consistent with LEAP interviews: Inclusive of
performance factors, lifestyle, and strong support networks, IP-athletes attribute
their psychological attributes as vital to their success.
• IP and n-IP athletes perceive psychological skills/attributes to be vital to their
performance, yet many do not discuss their sport with their sports psychologist.
• • New sub-themes under higher-order themes:
Performance Strategies: Balance, Take Control/ Know yourself, Planning/Goal
Setting.
Lifestyle Practices: Get Advice from Experienced/Retired Athletes, Education
for athletes & coaches.
How might it impact on clinical practice in the future
• Provide access to support services and cultivate strong interpersonal
relationships, earlier in the athlete development pathway.
• Prioritise measurement and development of psychological attributes via State
and National Sporting Organisations at a pre-elite level.
• Provide an education platform specific to themes highlighted in this study to
empower athletes and coaches and foster athlete-autonomy.
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Chapter 8: General Discussion
8.1. Overview
The overall aim of this thesis was to explore the lifestyle practices and mindset of
elite athletes. As outlined in Chapter 1, the following research objectives were
developed:
1. Identify the lifestyle practices and mindsets that champion athletes attribute
to their success.
2. Explore if these practices are used down the athlete development pathway
with pre-elite and elite level athletes.
3. Provide practical recommendations for athletes and support staff such as
partners, mentors, teachers, educators, and collaborators on improving
athletic performance.
4. Provide theoretical recommendations.
These aims were pursued via a complement of methods, including a review of
athlete development models, frameworks and constructs; interviews with elite
champion athletes; and a survey of athletes at state, national and international level.
See Figure 8.1 for research summary.
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Figure 8.1. Research Summary
The information gained through the course of the interviews and survey provided
new insights into the understanding of lifestyle factors, including, what athletes do
with their lives, extracurricular activities, the role of nutrition, sleep, recovery,
interpersonal relationships, and support.
Elite athletes encounter many challenges in pursuing sporting excellence (injuries,
travel, juggling dual-career etc.) In ideal circumstances, there are however, healthy
outcomes, but on occasion there can be both physical and mental health
consequences. Programs that support high-level (state, national and international)
athletes have traditionally focused on aspects of physical fitness, technique and
skills relevant to their sport, and the mental preparation for competition. This
research identified the importance of including supporting knowledge, behaviours
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and lifestyle factors, including positive relationships with key people, as a vital aspect
for success and to support the athlete’s overall mental and physical health. These
findings have already been used to modify the approaches, models and support
structures advocated and provided to athletes (senior and junior) by major sporting
organisations and support the health and performance of athletes. This research
also contributes to further strengthening the models of athlete support and care. See
8.1.7 and 8.1.8 for letters from the AIS and Paralympic Australia.
Findings from this research specific to psychological strategies, self-regulation and
support have been utilised within education sessions for athletes, parents, coaches
and sporting organisations and schools through the New South Wales Office of
Sport. Of particular note is their inclusion within their Future Champions Strategy,162
a critical policy document from the NSW Government to inform better awareness and
support of athletes and all supporting stakeholders. This research has also already
informed strategy, education, resource provision and support of participants and
emerging athletes within NSW163 and compliments current educational initiatives
delivered by the NSW Office of Sport regarding importance of wellbeing and balance
and facilitating self-regulation. See appendix 17.
Two new models were established and published:
1. Contributors to world-class performance152
2. Strengthening interpersonal relationships in elite sport – a visual summary156
8.2. Overview of Key Findings
8.2.1. Study 1: Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers – (LEAP) interviews
In this study, ten World, Olympic, and Paralympic, Champions were interviewed
using a semi-structured approach. The subsequent thematic analyses identified four
dominant overlapping themes: psychological attributes, interpersonal relationships,
performance strategies, and lifestyle practices. Of note was the fact that all athletes
attributed their world-class success to psychological rather than physical factors, with
the clear majority employing mental rehearsal skills and recovery practices.
Once sport-specific training and physical prowess are accounted for, athletes are
established at an elite level, champion athletes attribute their psychological attributes
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as the major factor contributing to their success. A way of life integrates and
balances mindset, performance, lifestyle and relationship factors and aligns
knowledge and strategies as commonalities amongst these world class athletes.
The collective evidence revealed that gold medal performances are likely to occur at
the intersection of a robust psychological profile, interpersonal support, effective
performance strategies, and lifestyle. Utilising these integrated attributes and
strategies as needed; depends on the athlete’s ability to shift focus within these
domains by way of a tilt that can lean in many directions. This skill is adaptive
through effective self-regulation and becomes habitual with accumulated experience
and exposure.152
Further to the published work summarising the LEAP interviews,152 an editorial piece
was published, expanding specifically on the importance and impact of healthy
interpersonal relationships. The criticality and power of interpersonal relationships to
attenuate the potential stress of an athlete was discussed. Additionally, within this
editorial, potentially harmful relationships and the power dynamics within high
performance sport were addressed, along with the value of allied health practitioners
and friends and family, in providing important support for athletes.
Human social-connection is critical for sustaining health and wellbeing for all
individuals and central to elite sporting performance. Quality relationships can induce
positive physiological changes that improve adaption to stress (cardiovascular
arousal, cortisol/glucocorticoid levels, reduce threat-related brain activity), enhance
general health, longevity, and performance.87 Interpersonal relationships are critical
to achieving sustained success in the elite sporting domain.
As evidenced from our findings, such relationships may be developed through
partnerships with support staff (including masseurs, physiotherapists and
complementary medicine practitioners), as the close professional working
environment can offer a framework to develop collaborative, compassionate,
professional relationships that are respectful of the athlete’s perspective, knowledge
and wisdom, and support athlete autonomy. Creating supportive interpersonal
relationships is not a passive process but ideally should be a dynamic interplay
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which evolves as individuals move along their development pathway. This research
spans beyond the athlete-practitioner relationship and applies to many relationships
and partnerships inclusive of all patients, mentors, teachers, educators, and
collaborators. See table 8.1 for illustrations of relationships in the context of support,
coaches, and the power of laughter.
Table 8.1. Relationships: support, coaches, and the power of laughter
SUPPORT
"The masseur was just as important as anyone in the team. (When performing in my sport)…you are favouring one side of your body all the time. My right side was built up far greater than my left all the time. I would rather have had the sports masseur than the coach some days because the coach became a team manager and the sports masseur was a part of the team and a friendly guy. We always sent the coach—if I had to pick one, I would pick the massage therapist."
AT/IM2
COACHES PI/TM2 reflects on starting to work with his coach: “He’d never coached anyone with a disability, so he probably didn't know where to start expect I know a friend had the discussion with him about if he would take me on, and he was like, “Oh, I never had anyone with a disability.” And she was like, “… just treat him like another athlete. He'll be fine.” And once he did that, once he made that conscious decision that if I was down on the ground, about to spew and I had another rep to go, and if it was another athlete in the squad he'd kind of kick him on the leg a bit and say, “Hey, get up, you've got another one to go,” once he kind of did that with me I was kind of like, “Yes, great,” because the last thing I wanted was a coach that would say, “Oh yeah, but it's okay, you've got one arm.”
LAUGHTER AIF4 was asked if she had someone in her life who made her laugh: "My coach for the last three years. I made a lot of decisions with the Olympic Winter Institute on my planning. He wasn’t employed really as a technical coach because I was more successful than he ever was in his career as an athlete. He didn't even have a great technical knowledge but… he was fun, and he was light. At this point in my career I was getting older and had less energy. He was that funny, upbeat guy who made me laugh, we just laughed the whole way through the last three years, and I'm telling you I needed it. It was bloody terrible.
He would sing songs. He was so funny. As bad as it was and what I was going through, he made it so enjoyable. I'd be crying one minute, and he would be there being so funny that it didn't matter anymore. He was good fun.”
KEY: A = Able bodied P = Paralympic T = Team sport I = Individual sport T/I = Team & Individual F = Female M = Male
Having identified critical factors related to lifestyle, mindset and high-performance in
the LEAP interviews, the next step was to ascertain if these factors were confirmed
within a larger sample of high performance athletes, and if these strategies and
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related knowledge structures were employed and utilised effectively by emerging
(pre-elite level) athletes.
With the line of questioning and themes informed by the LEAP interviews results, a
comprehensive online survey was developed and administered to state, national and
international level athletes including those affiliated with the National Institute
Network and related State and National sporting organisations.
8.2.2. Study 2: Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers – Survey
The LEAP Survey was administered online with support and endorsement by several
sports governing bodies and institutes and endorsed by the Australian Olympic
Committee. Its purpose was to ascertain information concerning current lifestyle
practices and support amongst this wider group (including juniors), to identify
important lifestyle and support components that facilitated positive mental health and
performance in these aspiring individuals. Furthermore, it aimed to assess these
practices across the cohort. The LEAP Survey utilised a mixed-methods approach
involving an online survey expanding on the LEAP interviews (see chapter 4).
Australian athletes in Olympic sports who have competed at State level or above in
the past 10 years were invited to participate. The investigation aimed to gain
information and insight specific to the utilisation of lifestyle practices and attributes of
Olympic, Paralympic and High-Performance Australian athletes, from state level to
podium level. To compare any differences between International Podium (IP) and
Non n-IP athletes, able-bodied (AB) athletes and athletes with disabilities (AD), male
and female athletes.
Survey results identified IP and n-IP athletes perceived psychological skills and
attributes, along with strong interpersonal relationships as vital to their success,
confirming the evidence gleaned from the LEAP Interviews. Recovery practices were
also considered integral to performance, especially amongst IP athletes. All athletes
expressed a desire for greater knowledge, mentoring, and autonomy earlier in their
careers.
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A table was produced in LEAP Study 1, title: Identifying Higher-order emergent
themes and sub-themes. See Table 5.3. These Higher-order themes were expanded
to include new subthemes under Performance Strategies and Lifestyle Practices.
• Performance Strategies: Get advice from experienced/retired athletes,
education (for athletes & coaches)
• Lifestyle Practices: Balance, planning, and goal setting, know your ‘why’ and
take control / know yourself
See Table 8.2 for updated higher-order emergent themes and subthemes.
Table 8.2. Higher-order emergent themes and sub-themes - UPDATED
Psychological Attributes Superior Self-Regulation Strong Intrinsic Motivation Effective Visualisation and Imagery Strategies Reliance on Faith, Routines or Rituals Strong Work Ethic Strong Self-Confidence and Dominance Effective Coping Strategies and Positive Mindset
Performance Strategies Maximising Training and Performance Opportunities Effective Utilisation of Sports Science Physical Therapies and Recovery Get Advice from Experienced/Retired Athletes Education (for athletes & coaches)
Interpersonal Relationships Having the Right Support Team The Athlete-Coach Partnership
Lifestyle Practices Nutrition and Hydration Utilisation of Complementary Therapies Importance of Time Out Balance Planning and Goal Setting Know your ‘Why’ Take Control / Know yourself
These results suggest high-level performance requires education and development
of psychological skills and attributes, and support services implemented early in the
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athlete development pathway. Incorporating these elements within system-level
implementation could help create an environment to facilitate repeated podium
performances, retain athletes in high-performance sport for longer, and encourage
human-flourishing and smooth transitions for retiring athletes.
8.3. Mastery Athlete Framework
A new overarching category has been added to these four themes; psychological
attributes, performance strategies, interpersonal relationships and lifestyle factors,
and subsequent sub-themes emergent from the LEAP studies. After pondering on
the themes from this work, and as this project is reaching its conclusion, it has
become more tangible. It is: Indomitable Spirit.
This thesis examined key athlete and environmental factors that enabled elite
athletes’ superior performance, culminating in winning gold medals at bench mark
events, which occur every two or four years. To win at this podium level of sports
performance, everything must culminate together at that point, on that one day. This
striving is beyond the healthy aspirations of physical literacy or increasing
participation rates for their sport. This is about bringing forth all of their hard work,
dedication, passion, sacrifice, meticulous training, and preparation; for one goal.
Champion athletes possess an “Indomitable Spirit.” They compete with their smarts,
their honed physical attributes, their game plans but more than that; they compete
with spirit.
The idea of an “Indomitable Spirit” stems from Confucianism and is linked to the
martial art of taekwondo. It is less tangible than measuring Vo2 Max or power to
weight ratio, but it is trainable, and it is real. It is reported that gold medal-winning
athletes have often suffered adversity of some kind, and many claim without that
adversity, they would not have won their gold medals.13 It is not helpful for our
athletes’ narrative to suffer trauma to be successful. However, with the appropriate
balance between Challenge and Support, the honing of the spirit is possible.24
Establishing frameworks that are inclusive of supportive ways to challenge, grow,
and cultivate the indomitable spirit of athletes is an imperative to high-performance
culture.
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Indomitable spirit encompasses traits such as: grit, tenacity, unyielding commitment,
courtesy, perseverance, resilience, integrity, self-control, self-regulation, and
indomitable will.
The emergent themes and sub-themes (seen in table 8.2) identified by mastery level
athletes have been consolidated into a framework to guide future practice, with
indomitable spirit and self-regulation as overarching themes. Self-regulation is the
glue that facilitates the athlete to shift focus and create balance between aspects of
importance; to reflect, plan, self-monitor, and evaluate their needs and effort.164
Figure 8.2. Mastery Athlete Framework
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8.4. Theoretical Implications and Considerations
8.4.1. Advocating an Integrated Holistic Approach to related theory and research
A more integrated and holistic approach to support the athletes’ development and
subsequent performance is critical and recommended by the IOC consensus
statement on youth athletic development.25 Developing capable, healthy, and
resilient athletes is imperative.25 To establish this, knowledge structures and
prevalence of strategies utilised by athletes along the high performance pathway and
relative fit of inter-disciplinary support specific to ensuring effective nutrition,
recovery; sleep; psychological skills, minimisation of injury and optimisation of health
and wellbeing, related psychological support and safeguarding from potential abuse;
need to be central to further research inquiry into effective athlete development.25 165
Complementing this is the related inquiry of the knowledge structures and practices
of coaches supporting the development of emerging and high-performance athletes,
utilising the right fit of methodological approach.
Further dedicated research to confirm the relative importance of each of the
identified factors and their strength of interaction longitudinally across the sport
pathway and the key catalysts underpinning these factors’ acquisition would be
highly beneficial. For example, how the skills of visualisation and mental imagery
(which was heavily utilised by mastery level athletes) can be implemented and
honed early in the TD pathway.
As illustrated by Gulbin et al. an athletes’ performance development is not a
predictable linear climb from lower to higher competition levels. But instead,
development trajectories follow non-linear patterns, which are highly variable
between junior and senior competition levels.22 Therefore, to foster continued,
ongoing education for key stakeholders and maximise cohesive TD and high-
performance environments; effective approaches for promoting awareness of the
criticality of self-regulation, lifestyle balance, support and knowledge to athlete
development and performance and most importantly wellbeing, need to be
considered and measured for practical implementation.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Valuable engagement and educational strategies for emerging athletes and their
support partners (e.g., coach, parents, partners, peers) regarding the importance of
these factors to development, performance and wellbeing in and out of sport are
essential. Along with coverage of these factors, prioritisation is required to facilitate
individual case management of pre-elite and elite athletes e.g. within Individual
Athlete Performance and Wellbeing Plans,38 ongoing athlete monitoring
systems/processes and related developmental and high-performance strategy of
their sport at a regional, state, national level.
8.4.2. Lifestyle Factors
Lifestyle categories were identified in Chapter 2. These categories can be used to
promote awareness, educate and inform the development and support of
underpinning future athletes. To create a framework in which emerging athletes can
aspire to emulate and incorporate these recognised lifestyle factors, a holistic
framework is presented below in figure 8.3
Figure 8.3. Lifestyle Categories – A Holistic Framework
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8.4.3. Three-Dimensional Athlete Development Model (3D-AD)
Findings from the LEAP research importantly assisted in reviewing and refining
existent models and frameworks specific to supporting related theory and practice
within sport development and performance. For example, this body of work’s findings
have directly informed the update of the 3-Dimensional Athlete Development Model
(3D-AD).21 42 140 As described in Chapter 2, the 3D-AD model complements the
FTEM framework and provides the required operational granularity and supports its
implementation guiding the right fit of integration of key athlete, environmental and
system-level factors specific to each level to support favourable developmental and
performance outcomes FTEM and 3D-AD are utilised in concert supporting the
planning, strategy and operational implementation of Australian regional, state and
national sporting organisations and aligned research activities.
Informed by the LEAP research, the 3D-AD2 model has been updated to incorporate
emergent Performance and Lifestyle Knowledge and Practices as critical and
complementary Athlete Factors. Furthermore, ‘Complementary Practitioners’ and
‘Other Pursuits’ were added as important Environmental Factors. See Figure 8.3.
8.4.3.1. Performance Alliance
The therapeutic alliance has long framed the context for building trust and rapport in
the clinical and professional settings. In preparation for presenting at the
International Congress of Complementary Medicine Research (ICCMR), the term
Performance Alliance was coined to move from the ‘illness model’ to a ‘wellness
model.’ This research highlighted that for support staff and allied health practitioners,
building rapport can often be equal to, or greater than their expertise for health and
performance outcomes.
The strength of support networks and interpersonal relationships have been reported
as a performance factor amongst elite athletes.13 152 156 Fletcher and Sarkar attribute
perceived support to underpin the stress-resilience-performance relationship,
creating a stress-buffering effect along with enhanced resilience from this support.13
It has been suggested that perceived support influences situational control and
available esteem support is associated with higher levels of challenge appraisals,
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
136
which is associated with better performance.85 87 Athletes are highly selective
regarding their support-network and value relationships that allow them to laugh and
have time-out from pressures of high-stakes competition.
Therefore, it is apparent that partnerships with support-staff (including
complementary medicine practitioners), can offer a framework to develop quality
relationships extending beyond purely technical/professional relationships. This
research provides relevance to the client-practitioner relationship and the value of
facilitating interpersonal relationships and human connection for all individuals.
Our recommendation is to place structured emphasis on keeping support staff
proficient in skills such as social and emotional intelligence, motivational
interviewing, solution-based counselling and mental fortitude training, will support
connection, establish ‘quality relationships’ and therefore impact wellbeing and
performance. Techniques & traits which contribute to the performance alliance
include being flexible, honest, respectful, trustworthy, confident, warm, interested,
and open. Techniques include exploration, reflection, noting past success, attending
to previous experience. Positive connectedness early in the relationship is attributed
to training, consistency, non-verbal gestures (eye contact, leaning forward), verbal
behaviours (interpretation, self-disclosure), and maintenance of therapeutic frame.166
Understanding more about the role and impact of these key factors is critical to
informing current athlete and system-level support. An integrated approach
encompassing these four dimensions can potentially be used to inform the
development of a valid and reliable screening tool that assesses a developing
athlete’s knowledge and competency within in each of these domains and is a pre-
cursor to tailored education and intervention that can maximise an athlete’s longevity
and performance success.
8.4.3.2. Gold Medal Teamwork
To engage the most effective educational platform to facilitate strong support
networks and forge quality relationships, we need to measure perceived support.
Inspired by the LEAP interviews and the Burns et al. editorial piece,156 the AIS
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
137
embarked upon a research project to further engage the lived experience of Olympic
gold medal-winning athletes and coaches to share their experiences and
understanding of interpersonal support, with the author of this thesis being involved
in this initiative.
The aims were: To investigate the factors related to therapeutic/performance
alliances between athletes and support staff which have led to Olympic Gold Medals
in Australia. To establish, measure and evaluate the strength of an athlete’s support
team and provide training and resources to bring depth to service providers’ skillset,
which extends past their technical expertise. To engage the athlete’s voice123 and
draw from champion athletes’ lived experience and explore and quantify perceived
support for this elite group.
Two main aspects of relationships pertinent to the sporting context provided
background:
1. the support team (coach, service providers, SSSM, parents, teammates,
friends)
2. the therapeutic/performance alliance between professional service providers
and the athlete.13 116
This research also utilised the terminology ‘Performance Alliance’ to frame the
context of interpersonal relationships having a performance enhancing effect in the
sporting domain.
8.5. Practical Implications and Considerations
Recommendations for future consideration:
Þ Create greater awareness, education, planning, resources and monitoring of
athletes at various developmental levels specific to psychological and lifestyle
factors and balance.
Þ Develop a cohesive framework to support and promote healthy, supportive
quality relationships, and effective teamwork. Place value on the relationships
athletes have with allied health professionals such as the masseur or
physiotherapist along with family members, friends and coaches.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
138
Þ Provide education for support staff to understand the Performance Alliance
and the skills that underpin it such as motivational interviewing and solutions-
based counselling.
Þ Offer psychological skills training and access to sport psychology services
earlier in the athlete development pathway.
Þ Implement Wellbeing Plans38 for athletes, inclusive of athlete lifestyle factors a
such as nutrition, recovery, sports psychology, injury prevention, career and
transitional planning, sport-life balance including promoting the importance of
time out within recreational pursuits, along with promoting engaging and
supportive interpersonal connections.
Þ Emphasise club level coach education, with a view to recognising when an
athlete needs to move to the next developmental level.
Þ Develop and implement a valid and reliable screening tool be developed
which encompasses the four dimensions established in LEAP Study 1, and
assesses a developing athlete’s competency in each of these domains,
whereby this screening is a precursor to tailored education and intervention in
order to maximise an athlete’s longevity, performance success and transition.
8.5.1. Limitations
Despite developing new thinking in this area of athlete research there were some
limitations to each of the studies. Study one, the sample of athletes from a variety of
sports was small, therefore it was not possible to draw conclusions about specific
sports, nor make meaningful conclusions about differences between athletes.
Secondly, subjectivity and recall of many key events and the athletes’ reflections,
may be impacted upon with the passing of time given that of the athletes who were
interviewed, had sporting careers that spanned over two decades. This fact may also
increase the likelihood of generational differences in advocated strategies specific to
aspects such as diet, recovery, sleep, the use of technology, fit of culture, and
effective training methods supported by sports science and sports medicine
knowledge and evidence at that time.
A limitation of LEAP Study 2 was the relatively small number of athletes who
completed the survey, which may have impacted upon statistical significance. This
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
139
was largely due to constraints in recruiting athletes through third parties such as
National Sporting Organisations and the National Network of Sport Institutes. There
was a large representation of combat sport athletes within the cohort (in part due to
the fact that the lead researcher is herself a gold medal winning Olympic athlete in
Taekwondo) and limited representation within other sports. Additionally, many
participants exited the survey when asked to detail their sporting achievements, this
may be due to the complexity of reflecting on their competition and performance
history. Asking athletes to classify themselves against levels of sporting
representation or levels of competition (See Gulbin et al, 2013)22 would have been
much simpler in retrospect.
8.6. Conclusion
The lifestyle of an athlete is inherently a part of their sporting experience and a
critical aspect of their daily lives. Promoting a positive lifestyle which respects and
considers the wellbeing of the person is integral to a holistic approach for supporting
an athlete’s development and performance progression. The values of Olympism
alongside the placed importance on positive wellbeing encourage individuals to
flourish in mind, body and spirit, within the context of their close relationships and
local community, global society and all life on earth to which we are all connected.
This research suggests whatever our chosen pursuit; skills and attributes such as
self-regulation, quality relationships and social connectedness, and empowering
environments, are important for human flourishing and are as applicable to sport as
they are to general wellbeing. Thus, programs that acknowledge and develop these
attributes are likely to produce more successful athletes as well as more well-
rounded and higher functioning individuals.
Building literacy specific to wellbeing inclusive of self-care, recovery and
psychological skills is integral to a holistic approach to athlete development.
Performance and transition out of sport and programs such as the ‘Athlete Wellbeing
and Engagement Programs’36 and related tools such as ‘Personalised Wellness
Plans’38 are a good place to start to better support all athletes. Creating an
environment and framework to be well and teach skills that promote effective
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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communication. If we take a step back and consider the governance, duty of care,
and philosophy specific to how athletes are treated, respect is a central and critically
important aspect. We need to step outside the performance team of coach/athlete
and focus more on the philosophy around developing young people holistically and
effectively to empower them and enable their autonomy.
There is often discussion around coaching investment earlier in the athlete
development pathway, but establishing a holistic framework is much more than
coach education. It is limiting to place all responsibility on the coach to be a better
coach. Respect needs to be embedded in the philosophy of how to treat people. The
overall philosophy of the sport will directly impact the athlete and their performance.
Both Dijkstra et al.167 and Sporer et al.40 advocate for a shared model of care, with
the focus always on the health and performance for the athlete. Integrated
multidisciplinary teams which overlap between coaching staff, SSSM, along with the
athlete being involved in the decision-making process are the way forward. For
example, The Integrated Performance Health Management and Coaching Model167
which reflects a shared and shifting responsibility that is interchangeable between
practitioners within the performance support team. This model focuses on the
operational integration of the two key departments: health and coaching to improve
performance. It provides an integrated and multidisciplinary approach which is
divided into Performance Health Management and Performance Coaching and is
inclusive of complementary practitioners and nutrition and recovery practices.167 See
Appendix 16.
As Sporer et al. discuss, it is not enough to simply have a group of individual
practitioners surrounding the athlete and call it an integrated performance team.40 An
active, thoughtful, measured process is required to truly have an integrated
approach. Successful elite performance is multifactorial, however, an integrated
cohesive support team of practitioners and coaches can increase the likelihood of
predictable high performance.40
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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8.6.1. Implications and Scope
Results from this work emphasise the need for better awareness, education,
planning, resources and monitoring of athletes at various developmental levels
specific to psychological and lifestyle factors and balance. The scope of this
research directly impacts sporting stakeholders such as NSO’s and athlete pathway
development; athletes; club and elite level coaches, support staff including allied
health and SSSM practitioners.
An overarching framework comprising four distinct but integrated ‘levers of change’
to support a move forward are as follows:
1. Education – recovery, psychological skills training, nutrition
2. Governance – based on the philosophy of respect for the whole person
3. Relationships – valuing the impact of relationships on both wellbeing and
performance, along with education on how to strengthen interpersonal
relationships in sport
4. Performance Support - fundamental performance optimisation; providing the
athlete with ways to test, trial and error to hone performance strategies.
Inclusive of Support / Challenge – facilitating a healthy coach/athlete
relationship dynamic. Challenge and Support without creating trauma.
These levers of change are consolidated below in Figure 8.4.
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Figure 8.4. Levers for Change
A significant theme to emerge from this work is the importance of interpersonal
relationships, for both wellbeing and also performance. In light of this, I would like to
conclude this thesis and related body of work with the following quote:
Relationships with other humans are both the foundation and the theme of the human condition: We are born into relationships, we live our lives in relationships with others, and when we die, the effects of our relationships survive in the lives of the living, reverberating throughout the tissue of their relationship
—Ellen Berscheid, 1999
For a List of Publications, Conference Presentations, Business / Community
Presentations and Awards see appendices 16 – 19.
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Chapter 9: Addendum: Impact
The work reported in this thesis has been recognised for its impact in the sporting
and non-sporting community which resulted in the Vice-Chancellor’s Award for
Research Impact HDR.
Along with the publications listed in this thesis, following is a summary of the work’s
impact and supporting documentation.
9.1. LEAP Research Impact Summary
9.1.1. Publications
Two publications in British Journal of Sports Medicine. Impact Factor 12.68 Both publications contributed new material relevant to the field.
Published in Olympic World Library, Olympic Studies Centre:
https://library.olympic.org
Following these publications, the LEAP Research has had impact on a variety of
sectors, including major stakeholders in Australian Sport. Grass roots and
community level to the very top echelon of elite sport.
9.1.2. Industry Application
The LEAP research has been used by various stakeholders in Australian Sport:
New South Wales Office of Sport, New South Wales Institute of Sport (NSWIS) and Talent Pathways section of the NSW Office of Sport
• Incorporated into a formalised teaching platform to educate parents of young
athletes.
• Particular focus on psychological skills and strategies, athlete wellbeing and
mental health in regard to sport-life balance and strong interpersonal
relationships and support for Parents, Athletes, Coaches and State/National
Administrators
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• Assist in guiding and educating current and emerging athletes
Australian Institute of Sport
• Incorporated into education for elite athletes directly through the AIS
• Utilised in the Gold Medal Ready (GMR) program which uses Olympic Gold
Medallists to mentor medal potential athletes.
• Used to directly inform new research on the strength of interpersonal
relationships in elite sport. This research has passed ethics and pilot has
been completed. Project title: Gold Medal Ready Support – Do we have gold
medal teamwork?
Australian Paralympic Committee • Used by the Athlete Wellbeing and Engagement Officer at the APC.
9.1.3. Informing Theoretical Application
LEAP Research has directly informed the update of the 3 Dimensional Athlete
Development Model (3D-AD).42 140 3D-AD3 incorporates emergent Performance and
Lifestyle Practices as critical and complementary Athlete Factors. ‘Complementary
Practitioners’ and ‘Other Pursuits’ also informed by LEAP research and added as
required and important Environmental Factors.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Figure 9.1. Previous 3D-AD2
Figure 9.2. 3D-AD3: Updated to include Performance & Lifestyle Practices, Complementary
Practitioners and Other Pursuits
9.1.4. Presentations to Wider Sporting Community
• Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) – Winning Pathways, 2016
• New South Wales Institute of Sport (NSWIS) – LEAP Research, 2017
Learnings from PhD findings to inform and support educational content
regarding the importance of psychological skills and strategies, athlete
wellbeing and sport -life balance for Parents, Athletes, Coaches and
State/National Administrators through the Talent Pathways section of the
NSW Office of Sport
• NSWIS Pathways to High Performance Strategy – Pathways Platforms and
Partnerships Forum and Focus Group Consultation 'Athletes: Complete and
supported athletes across NSW’ 2018
• International Congress on Complementary Medicine Research (ICCMR), 2019. Presenting to practitioners and service providers. See Appendix 12
• FEPSAC (European Federation of Sport Psychology), Germany, 2019
• The Association of Independent Schools of NSW (AIS NSW) Heads of Sport
Conference ‘Tackling the Issues in Sport’. Keynote: LEAP. Hunter Valley
NSW 2019
• Corporate / Community. The research has also been incorporated into
various other corporate and community speaking engagements.
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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9.1.5. Social Media
• BJSM posted LEAP Model on Social Media to promote discussion in the wider
community. “Contributors to World Class Performance”152
• BJSM posted LEAP Model on Social Media to promote discussion in the wider
community. “Strengthening Interpersonal Relationships – A Visual
Summary”156
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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9.1.6. Statement of Support from Primary PhD Supervisor Professor Stephen Bird
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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9.1.7. Letter of Support from Rosanna Stanimirovic, Psychologist and Program Manager: Gold Medal Ready, Australian Institute of Sport
26th July 2019
To whom it may concern,
The Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) has been impressed with the Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP) Research. The evidence presented supports education programs delivered at the AIS. Particularly in relation to athlete health and wellbeing.
• Athlete Wellbeing & Engagement: Providing lived experience supporting the
importance of education about lifestyle factors, balance, time-out, support networks and facilitating access to services earlier in an athlete’s career.
• Gold Medal Ready Program: A program which draws upon the experience of Australia’s Olympic Gold Medal Alumni to educate, mentor and prepare the next generation of Olympic athletes. Alumni contribute by sharing their experiences with athletes and coaches and participate in specifically designed activities delivered in partnership with the Australian Army’s Special Operations Command.
• Performance Health & Athlete Availability: The influence of strong interpersonal
relationships and performance is a gap in the literature related to elite athletes. The LEAP research has directly informed a new study to quantify the importance of interpersonal relationships in elite sport. The proposed research has passed ethics and recently commenced. The project is titled: Gold Medal Ready Support – Do we have gold medal teamwork? We are excited to see the results and progress the research and education further in this space.
Regards,
Rosanna Stanimirovic PhD Program Manager: Gold Medal Ready
Australian Institute of Sport
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9.1.8. Letter of Support from Daniela Di Toro, Paralympic Australia Athlete Welfare and Engagement Officer
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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9.1.9. Award Confirmation – Vice Chancellor’s Prize for Research Impact HDR
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Appendices
Refer to attached document.
Appendix 1: Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world
champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite
performance? ..................................................................................... 165
Appendix 2: Participant Information Sheet/Consent Form ...................................... 174
Appendix 3: ASEHAPP 15-16 COHEN-BURNS Approval Letter ............................ 177
Appendix 4: Interview Script .................................................................................... 178
Appendix 5: Representative Quotes from Athletes ................................................. 183
Appendix 6: Supportive interpersonal relationships – a key component to
high-performance sport ...................................................................... 188
Appendix 7: PIS LEAP Survey ................................................................................ 193
Appendix 8: SEHAPP 72-18 BIRD-BURNS Approval Letter Copy ......................... 196
Appendix 9: NSO Information Sheet ....................................................................... 198
Appendix 10: Letter of Support and Email Sent from the AOC ............................... 200
Appendix 11: Letter of Invitation from Lauren to Athletes ....................................... 202
Appendix 12: LEAP Survey ..................................................................................... 203
Appendix 13: FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) Developmental
Framework .......................................................................................... 220
Appendix 14: The Integrated Performance Health Management and Coaching
Model .................................................................................................. 221
Appendix 15: International Congress on Complementary Medicine Research
(ICCMR), Abstract .............................................................................. 222
Appendix 16: The Holistic Athlete Career Model .................................................... 223
Appendix 17: NSW Office of Sport Impact and Application .................................... 224
Appendix 18: List of Publications ............................................................................ 225
Appendix 19: Conference Presentations ................................................................. 226
Appendix 20: Business / Community Presentations ............................................... 227
Appendix 21: Awards .............................................................................................. 228
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
165
Appendix 1: Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite
performance?
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
174
Appendix 2: Participant Information Sheet/Consent Form
Project Title: A study of the lifestyles and mindset of elite athletes
Investigators:
o Ms Lauren Burns (Masters student, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, [email protected] )
o Dr Marc Cohen (Project Supervisor: Professor of Complementary Medicine, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected], +61 3 9925 7440)
o Dr Liza Oates (Second Supervisor: School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected] 0412 310390)
This information sheet describes information about the project before you decide whether or not to take part in it. If you have any questions about the project, please ask one of the investigators. Why have you been approached? You have been approached because you are recognised as an expert in your field of elite athletic performance. Your consent You will be asked to sign a consent form stating that you agree to participate in a recorded interview. Who is involved in this research project? This project is being conducted by Ms Lauren Burns (BHSc (Naturopathy), Olympic Gold Medallist, Taekwondo) under the supervision of Professor Marc Cohen (Professor of Health Science, School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University) as part of a Master’s program in the School of Health and Biomedical Sciences at RMIT University. The project has been approved by the RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee. What is the project about? The purpose of this project is to identify the key lifestyle practices and other factors such as training and preparation of elite level athletes. We aim to identify similarities and nuances within lifestyle habits of podium performers. The findings of this research will be used to help assist athletes, coaches and sporting organisations identify lifestyle practices that may contribute to sporting success. If I agree to participate, what will I be required to do? You will be asked to read this statement, sign a consent form and participate in a recorded Skype, phone or face-to-face interview with the researcher – Lauren Burns. The interview will be semi-structured and involve a series of questions to discuss your performances, training program and lifestyle practices. It is anticipated that this interview will take approximately 1 to 2 hours to complete. If you would like to view a copy of the sample questions before agreeing to participate, please contact one of the investigators. What are the risks or disadvantages associated with participation? There are no risks involved in this research other than use of your time. If you are concerned about any questions, please inform the investigator who will be interviewing you. Your involvement in this interview is voluntary and you can suspend or end your participation in the project at any time.
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What are the benefits associated with participation? The information collected in this interview will be used to inform the design of training for elite high-performance sports as well as being used for grass roots development and talent identification. What will happen to the information I provide? The recording of the interview will be transcribed by the secure Upwork’s website and the recording and associated notes will be stored on a password protected University server where it will be stored securely for a period of five (5) years after which it will be expunged. This data will be collated with interview data from other athletes and analysed for specific content and themes. You may choose to allow your identity and sport to be identified or have your information remain anonymous. Due to the calibre of your achievements, allowing your information to be identified will add weight to the research and discussions with National Sporting Organisations, State and National Sporting institutes and coaches based on the findings of the interviews. You will be provided with a copy of your interview transcript to check its accuracy and you will have the ability to identify and remove any information you do not want revealed. It is anticipated that the results of the project will be published in a respected scientific journal. In accordance with the Australian Privacy Principles outlined in the Privacy Amendment (Enhancing Privacy Protection) Act 2012, you have the right to access and to request correction of information held about you by RMIT University. What are my rights as a participant? You have the right to have any questions answered at any time. Participation in this research project is voluntary. You are entitled to withdraw your participation at any time, without prejudice. In this event you may request to have any unprocessed data withdrawn and destroyed, provided it can be reliably identified, and provided that so doing does not cause any risk to you. This project will be carried out according to the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research (2007) produced by the National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia. This statement has been developed to protect the interests of people who agree to participate in human research studies. The ethical aspects of this research project have been approved by the Human Research Ethics Committee of RMIT University. Whom should I contact if I have any questions? If you have any questions about the project, you can contact the researchers by emailing Lauren Burns at [email protected] or calling Prof Marc Cohen on +61 3 9925 7440 or [email protected]. Further information is available from the Ethics Executive Officer, RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee on 9925 2251. Thank you for taking the time to read this document. Yours sincerely,
Lauren Burns Professor Marc Cohen BHSc (Naturopathy), Olympic Gold Medallist 2000 Project Supervisor: Professor of Masters candidate Complementary Medicine, School of Health Sciences, RMIT University School of Health Sciences, RMIT University
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Consent Form
Title A study of the lifestyles and mindset of elite athletes
Chief Investigator/Senior Supervisor
Dr Marc Cohen. Professor of Complementary Medicine, School of Health & Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected], +61 3 9925 7440
Associate Investigator(s)/Associate Supervisors
Dr Liza Oates. School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected] 0412 310390
Research Student(s)
Lauren Burns. Masters student, School of Health & Biomedical Sciences, [email protected]
Acknowledgement by Participant I have read and understood the Participant Information Sheet. I understand the purposes, procedures and risks of the research described in the project. I have had an opportunity to ask questions and I am satisfied with the answers I have received. I freely agree to participate in this research project as described and understand that I am free to withdraw at any time during the project without affecting my relationship with RMIT. I understand that I will be given a signed copy of this document to keep.
Name of Participant (please print)
Signature Date
Declaration by Researcher†
I have given a verbal explanation of the research project, its procedures and risks and I believe that the participant has understood that explanation.
Name of Researcher† (please print)
Signature Date
† An appropriately qualified member of the research team must provide the explanation of, and information concerning, the research project. Note: All parties signing the consent section must date their own signature.
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Appendix 4: Interview Script
What are the similarities and distinctions in lifestyle practices and mindset of Elite
Athletes?
RESEARCHER USE ONLY
Date: _____________________ Appointment time _________________________
Athlete’s name: ______________________________________________________
Email address: ________________________________ Age:__________________
Skype # _______________________ Phone number: ______________________
Suburb: ______________ State: ___________ Country: ____________________
Thank you for taking the time to participate in this interview. The purpose of this
project is to identify the key lifestyle practices and other factors such as training and
preparation that contribute to podium performances in elite level competition. We aim
to assess the similarities within this group of elite performers along with unique
individualized practices.
Please note that your answers are completely anonymous and won’t be passed on
to any other parties.
Can I confirm that you have received the ‘Project Information Statement’? If not, can
I ask you to read it now, before we proceed?
Do you have any questions you would like to ask about the study?
Do I have your verbal consent to be interviewed?
SPORTING BACKGROUND
This section of the interview aims to find out about your achievements and
background in your sport.
1. What is your sport?
2. What is the highest level of competition you have achieved?
3. How many years have you been competing at senior international level?
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4. How old were you when you started your sport?
5. At your peak, how many hours per day did you train?
6. Please outline what is your typical training regimen in the months leading up
to a competition?
7. Did you have any ‘extra-curricular’ training activities you implemented that
were separate to the set team training program? (eg yoga, walking,
meditation, running, Pilates, dance, spin, aerobics etc)
8. How many months in a year would you spend travelling (both domestic &
international)?
9. Did you have any medical conditions that needed to be monitored while you
were training/competing? (diabetes, HIV, asthma, hypertension etc)
10. Have you had any injuries during your career? And how did you deal with
them?
PSYCHOLOGICAL
The next section of the interview aims to find out about more about your mental
preparation and motivation.
11. To what do you attribute your success? (factors: (external eg contextual,
environmental) and/or personal (internal eg athlete attributes, skills)
12. What motivated you to want to compete at this level?
13. How much planning and preparation did you do leading up to a major event?
14. How did you study your opponents?
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15. What do you think gave you the edge?
16. How did you stay motivated during tough times?
17. Did you include video analysis (of your own performances and your
competitors) as part of your preparation?
18. How do you rate your ability to cope and adapt with changing circumstances?
19. How mentally tough (strong) did you feel on the day of competition?
20. Did you feel external pressure leading in to your competition day? (from
coach, sponsors, peers, parents etc)
21. If yes, how did you deal with/negotiate this pressure?
22. What would you advocate that other athletes do or focus on mentally to assist
their developmental journey and performance?
LIFESTYLE AND SUPPORT
The next section of the interview aims to find out about the influence and support of
the people around you and some of the lifestyle practices you incorporated into your
routine.
23. Do you have someone in your life who makes you laugh?
24. Who provided you with support during the hard times of your sporting career?
25. How would you describe your relationship with your coach?
26. What role did your support team play in your success? (coach, sports
psychologist, strength coach, physio etc)
27. Do you regularly see a sports psychologist?
a) If yes, what specific areas do you work on together?
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b) How do you incorporate these techniques prior, during and after
competition?
28. Do you practice visualisation?
a) If yes, how often and in what detail?
b) How did you learn to visualize?
c) How much of an impact do you think it has on your performance?
d) Can you talk me through a typical visualization routine?
29. Do you practice mindfulness?
a) If yes, how often and can you describe your practice.
b) How did you learn to practice mindfulness?
c) How much of an impact do you think it has on your performance?
30. Can you describe your routine on the day of competition?
a) Do you have a specific ritual or routine that you adhere to?
31. What personal characteristics were paramount to your success?
32. How did you react in situations when things didn’t go to plan?
33. What did you say to yourself in the moments prior to competition and during
the event?
34. How do you think your thoughts affected your result?
35. How did you control your nerves?
36. Did you have regular massage?
a) If yes, how often
b) Did you have remedial and relaxation or both?
37. As part of your preparation did you see a Naturopath, Herbalist,
Acupuncturist, Nutritionist, Dietician, Kinesiologist or other complementary
health practitioner?
a) If yes, how often?
b) What was your assistance?
38. Can you describe your daily diet during a pre-competition and competition
day?
a) Was this diet something you worked out for yourself or set specifically by a
nutritionist or dietician?
39. As part of your diet did you ever choose/buy organic food?
a) If yes, why?
b) What percentage on average, was organic?
40. Do you have any specific dietary requirements? (vegetarian, vegan, coeliac,
gluten free)
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41. What fluids did you consume as part of your training and competition? (water,
isotonic drinks, red bull, caffeine)
BALANCE
42. What did you do to relax when you weren’t training or competing?
43. Did you have any specific treats, rituals, or rewards?
44. What specific recovery tools did you use? (sauna, plunge pool, ice bath,
hot/cold, walking, stretching)
45. Did you ever include Progressive Muscle Relaxation (or other specific
relaxation techniques) in your training program?
46. Are you on technology often? (Facebook, Instagram, twitter etc)
a) How do you manage your time with this? (eg do you use it less when
competing?)
b) Do you feel any pressures being on social media?
HOME
47. Where did you live while you were training? (at home with parents/out of
home)
48. Were you working whilst you were training (how many hours p/week?) or were
you fully funded?
49. Were chemicals such as air fresheners or insect repellent used in your home?
50. Was there any mould in your house? (to the best of your knowledge)
51. Was the meter box on your house on the outside of your bedroom wall?
52. Did you live on a main road?
53. Do you sleep with your mobile phone or computer by your bed?
54. Do you have wifi in your house?
a) If yes, does this include your bedroom?
55. Would you be happy to be interviewed again for future research in this area?
56. Any other comments?
Thank you for your time.
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Appendix 5: Representative Quotes from Athletes
Psychological Attributes
Superior Self-Regulation Athletes possessed high cognitive competence enabling them to maximise learning and performance opportunities continually honed through self-reflection and self-awareness of their strengths and limitations. They were meticulous with planning and preparation and adept at problem-solving and proactively seeking and experimenting with potential solutions, which enhanced their self-efficacy, confidence, resilience and dominance.
AIF1 comments: There are three things that I attribute to my success. Vision, a real clear sense of what I want. Courage, to keep getting up and fighting, courage to surround myself with the right people and put my hand up and ask for help; and resilience to keep getting up, because I failed a lot more than I succeeded.
Intrinsic Motivation Strong intrinsic motivation rather than extrinsic reward and recognition was clearly evident. A hunger for self-challenge and being the best was common, along with a connection to something meaningful.
AIF2 shared: My earliest memory of what drove me to run was just feeling happy when I ran. I felt so, free …so untouchable. I was never the type of person who needed to be watched. I didn't need to have an audience. I just took off and it was like I'd left everything or everybody behind me. It made me happy to take notice of nature.
Effective Visualisation & Imagery Strategies All athletes incorporated and heavily relied on mental rehearsal and visualisation as a preparatory strategy or way to refine their sporting skills, sharing their preferred approaches, experimentation with different perspectives, and engaging their senses.
AIF4 revealed: I visualised myself from a judge’s perspective, from a helicopter angle and in my own eyes what I see. It takes a lot of skill to be able to do that and get it to play the right images and not negative ones or crashing. When I sat in the wheelchair (due to injury), that's all I did, visualise, even my body healing. I used to visualise myself at the gym and doing everything that I couldn't do…it's just training smarter.
Reliance on Faith, Routines or Rituals All athletes utilised routines, however some maintained they purposely refrained from superstitions or religious faith whereas others followed these fastidiously.
AIF3 responded: It gives me strength. It helped me a lot to let go of superstitions. It’s sort of like everything’s predestined. Everything’s going to turn out the way it's supposed to. Believing in God and doing my prayers, it settles me and it's important for me. ATF4 said: I think it's more important to believe in yourself than to believe in something else. Maybe by believing in something else that helps somebody believe in themselves more, fantastic if that's the way they want to be, but I just learned to believe in myself.
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Strong Work Ethic
Independent rigor and meticulousness in preparation and actively seeking out and engaging with knowledge or experts to assist in their training, performance or recovery was applied by all athletes. Considerable time and effort in seeking, experimenting with, and honing potential strategies and solutions and placing themselves in uncomfortable situations (e.g., tough competition or training) in order to challenge themselves further was evident.
Preparation was important to AT/IM2: I religiously got ready the night before so when I woke up the next morning everything was in place. I’d come home from the last practice session and the next morning was the comp, the first thing I would do is get everything ready. All the physical things I had the control over. I was very regimented like that. AT/IM1 describes his process before a competition: Shaving down. You know what it's like to get into sheets. It just feels great. The same with the water. It’s more to do with the sensory side of how that feels, it heightens your awareness of the water and where it's moving and you feel like you're going through silk. That was end of the training phase, and then I'm straight into competition mode. Nine times out of 10, I knew the outcome.
Self-Confidence & Dominance Self-assurance resounded strongly across all athletes and much of this confidence developed as a result of accrued experience in both training and competition.
When asked ‘how mentally strong did you feel on the day of competition?’ AIF 1 responded: Unbeatable, most of the time. AIF 4 was asked if she studied her opponents: I didn't study anybody. I figured they were studying me. I never ever wasted the time in thinking about anybody else, ever.
Effective Coping Strategies & Positive Mindset
Mental strength and competition experience were used to enhance the athletes’ ability to cope with and adapt to changing circumstances. Whilst all athletes faced differing levels of adversity through seemingly negative chance events, their ability to cope through adopting a pragmatic yet calm, confident and methodical approach was evident. Some athletes had minimal or virtually no injuries, whereas others had life-changing injuries that culminated in major operations, extensive rehabilitation and modification of their training program. The Paralympians who had rehabilitation and management as a result of their impairment and the athletes who suffered major injuries all showed incredible mental fortitude and positivity, with a big picture attitude and clear goals that helped their rehabilitation and resilience.
ATF4 describes her response after a career-changing knee injury: Instead of just going, “Well, just wait and see what happens” I put a plan together. I put dates on it, then when I couldn't do one thing, I'd miss it and go to the next one. Because it was written on a ball, it was in front of me every single day, it was a reminder; “This is what I'm going for.” It wasn’t something that was deep in the back of my mind, it kept me accountable to do the work, to do the rehab, to keep trying, pushing to the next step. Then other people saw it and we talked about it. They'd come into the house and see the ball and we'd chat about it. So that was good, by having the goal out there, it helped people support me.
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Performance Strategies
Maximising Training & Performance Opportunities All athletes described getting the most out of their training, initiated either by the coach or the athletes. Many attributed embracing rigorous competition exposure as a contributing factor to their success.
AT/IM2 recommends seeking competition exposure: There are a lot of good practice people out there, a very small percentage of good competitors. You can learn it, but you've got to be put under pressure. Just find me competitions with pressure. Lots of competition. That's what I've always told people. Get as much competition as you physically can get and then find some more, because the more times you are exposed to pressure the better you get. A lot of people don’t like competition, they like to train a lot but when they get to a big competition it then becomes foreign.
Effective Utilisation of Sports Science A variety of sports science methods were used, including monitoring breathing patterns with heart rate monitors, individualised sports specific exercises and urine testing to monitor hydration. Video analysis was common across all athletes, either self-initiated or via their coaching and sports-science team. A variety of methods were used, including analysis of their own and their competitors’ techniques and strategies. Utilisation of the latter was sport dependent e.g., sports featuring strategic interaction with opponents relied on this feedback. Contrastingly, sports without this interaction used video analysis to study their own performance rather than their opponents.
AT/IM2 describes working with a sports scientist from the VIS: We worked on a technique through breathing that in the 10 seconds before you actually shot. Your heart rate had to be on a decline. You had to be able to drop at 10 beats per minute in that 10 seconds and we worked out through breathing, exactly how to do it. I think it was world-breaking. I shot so many targets with a heart rate monitor on. 10 seconds, the 10 seconds before you shoot, is the only time you need to be concentrating or getting your breathing right. You really concentrate on hearing yourself exhale and just by doing that it distracts your mind from the pressure of the competition. When you're under extreme pressure you tend to think negative thoughts, when you're concentrating on your breathing it just puts this little man in your head to sleep because he's got nothing to do. If he's concentrating and listening to your breathing, he's not telling you you're about to miss the next target and you're not going to win the Olympic final.
Physical Therapies & Recovery Physical therapies and recovery strategies were heavily utilised, in particular: massage, sleep and water-immersion therapy, which was mostly in the form of ice-baths and hot/cold showers and was practiced by all athletes except one who competed in an ocean-water sport. All athletes attributed improved recovery, decreased muscle-stiffness and less injuries to the practice, some also reported ice-baths induced a meditative state that put them ‘in the moment’.
PI/TM1 shares: One thing that I took from that is the importance of being present. If you're going to get an ice bath, don’t put your toe in it to feel if it's cold. It's an ice bath, it's going to be cold. When you immerse yourself in the present and you feel that blood run through your veins, it's a special thing to be so in tune just being you and going, “Wow, feel those pins and needles splash over me, feel what this is like to be here, yup,” By doing that mentally it connects you with physically what you're doing and, again, you mentally get recharged.
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Interpersonal Relationships
Having the Right Support Team All athletes mentioned a significant person in their life who was influential and supportive in their sporting career. This person varied from parent, team-mate, partner or someone within the athletes’ support team (coach, masseur or physiotherapist), yet they were all highly valued for their ability to share a laugh and helped the athletes unwind, relax and feel removed from the pressures of training and competition.
AIF4 described the influence of a talent scout: It was like I felt if I just rubbed him I'd feel better. Just standing next to him I felt so much confidence. So, sports psych, partner, scout and my coaches, that were the four people I would say that I needed. ATF5 commented: Our physio is the only female in the program. We think that there should be another female but there's not at the moment, so it's quite refreshing having her.
The Athlete-Coach Partnership
Athletes reported the most valued support from their coach was not technical but inter-personal and relational (e.g., emotional support and encouragement, open and honest communication and strong rapport). Some athletes also acknowledged the paramount importance of their coach’s technical ability.
AT/IM2 talks about the role of a coach being more than just technical: The coach that I had in my best years was an Italian guy, he was an Olympic medallist in his own right and fully understood coaching doesn’t stop until you go to bed at night. Because he'd become a part of your life, he's nearly a part of your family. Then they become good coaches and they become a dual role of a coach and a manager. I think at the top level, you don’t need a technical coach. We've worked out what we need to do. It's what’s going on in your brain will determine how you shoot. And that's often all you need, distract you, just keep you calm, keep you calculated, give you confidence. PI/TM2 shares: He’d never coached anyone with a disability, so he probably didn't know where to start expect I know a friend had the discussion with him about if he would take me on, and he was like, “Oh, I never had anyone with a disability.” And she was like, “… just treat him like another athlete. He'll be fine.” And once he did that, once he made that conscious decision that if I was down on the ground, about to spew and I had another rep to go, and if it was another athlete in the squad he'd kind of kick him on the leg a bit and say, “Hey, get up, you've got another one to go,” once he kind of did that with me I was kind of like, “Yes, great,” because the last thing I wanted was a coach that would say, “Oh yeah, but it's okay, you've got one arm.”
Lifestyle Practices
Nutrition & Hydration Only one athlete was in a weight division sport, yet most were conscious of maintaining a ‘competition weight’. All athletes saw a Nutritionist or Sports Dietician at some point during their career. Despite this, the area of diet, performance-nutrition and hydration practices varied. Athletes who competed at the 2016 Rio Olympics, shared a deeper understanding of nutritional demands, which was reflected in the complexity of their diet regimen. Other athletes who had competed earlier, were under the guidance of nutritionists who recommended strategies that have now been expanded and/or superseded. Other athletes either forged their own path, seeking to go against the norm of nutritional advice of the day, or had little nutritional understanding. Athletes with long
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careers (e.g., over a 20-year span), noted stark changes in their nutritional knowledge over their career.
All athletes revealed that they drank water for hydration and most didn’t drink coffee. Consumption of sports drinks varied; some never consumed them, some had them regularly and others only drank them on competition days. AT/IM2 says: The best was sending a dietitian/nutritionist. They used to do all the urine tests for hydration, which was important because you're out in the hot weather. Every morning and every night we did a urine test. I was always conscious of my competing weight. I always tried to be the same weight. The guns are made for you're a certain weight and when you lose or put on weight the first thing you do is put it on your face, and that makes a big difference. If you lose it quickly, your face changes and it changes where your gun shoots. These are $40,000 guns made so it shoots perfectly every time. AT/IM1 was very organised in his meal preparation: As a general rule, I would make sure my plate was colourful. A combination of good carbs with protein and fat. I ate more fat than what a lot of the other athletes were eating. Like seeds and nuts. I kind of disagreed with the high-carb thing, refined carbohydrates from pastas and rice. I want to sustain energy, so that's what I tried to do with diet. Listening to my body.
Utilisation of Complementary Therapies
Having regular massage was deemed critical to an athletes’ preparation due to the physical benefits and as a means of mentally debriefing with the trusted masseur. Other complementary practices relied upon included: plyometrics, yoga, meditation, acupuncture, osteopathy, kinesiology, chiropractic, naturopathy and nutrition.
AIF 1: I realize that my behaviors were as inconsistent as my mindset. I'd be bitching about my weight and then I'd reward myself for a workout with apple pie or cheesecake. I didn't have enough discipline. I had a naturopath. I met him after I won my sixth world title, he's played an instrumental role in keeping me alive. A lot of herbal remedies. Musashi, Magnesium. Vitamin C. Vitamin B.
Importance of Time Out
All athletes had their own way of switching off, ‘escaping’ and creating balance between rest and relaxation and the rigors of training and competition. These strategies included taking a bath, shopping, catching up with friends, interacting with nature, watching movies, reading and listening to music.
AIF4 described how she would relax: Movies and get into bed … You're watching a movie – it's escapism, you're lying down, you're warm, you actually feel safe, not dying right now. You're not going to kill yourself going off a jump at 70K an hour.
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Appendix 6: Supportive interpersonal relationships – a key component to high-performance sport
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Appendix 7: PIS LEAP Survey
Participant Information Sheet/Consent Form Project Title: Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP) Survey
Investigators:
o Ms Lauren Burns (PhD student, School of Health & Biomedical Sciences,
RMIT [email protected])
o Professor Stephen Bird (Project Supervisor, School of Health & Biomedical
Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected])
o Professor Marc Cohen (Co-investigator, School of Health & Biomedical
Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected])
o Dr Juanita Weissensteiner (Co-investigator, New South Wales Office of Sport
Juanita. [email protected])
About this project and research statement
You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted at RMIT
University. The purpose of this project is to explore the importance and contribution
of lifestyle practices to athlete development, well-being and sporting performance.
The findings of this research will be used to inform and refine current education
approaches and resources, and related strategy and supporting pathways for
athletes, their coaches, parents and other support agents. The research is being
conducted at RMIT University, and the research team includes former international
athletes who have an interest and insight into these issues. The study is in the form
of an on-line survey with the topic areas being informed directly by earlier findings
emanating from members of this research team. A summary of this work is attached
for further information (Burns et.al.152)
What is the project about? The purpose of this project is to identify the key lifestyle practices and other factors
such as training and preparation of elite level athletes. We aim to identify similarities
and nuances within lifestyle habits of podium performers. The findings of this
research will be used to help assist athletes, coaches and sporting organisations
identify lifestyle practices and supporting strategies that may contribute to sporting
success.
If I agree to participate, what will I be required to do? You will be asked to read this statement before proceeding to the online survey (link
provided at the end of this statement) and answering a series of questions. It is
anticipated that this survey will take approximately 20 minutes to complete.
What are the risks or disadvantages associated with participation? While we do not anticipate that the survey questions are stressful, in the event that
you experience discomfort please contact Lauren Burns
[email protected]. You can suspend or end your participation at any
time.
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What are the benefits associated with participation? We cannot guarantee you will receive any immediate direct personal benefits;
however, you may appreciate contributing to knowledge and you will have access to
the published results of this study, which we hope will benefit athletes in the near
future.
What will happen to the information I provide? Anonymity and confidentiality is assured and no identifying information you share will
be used publicly. The overall results will be published in the scientific literature and
no individual will be identifiable from the publication. A summary of the published
results will be available on the survey website.
What are my rights as a participant? Participation in this research project is voluntary and you are entitled to withdraw
your participation at any time prior to your submission of the online survey. Once you
have clicked on the submit button at the end of the survey, we will not be able to
withdraw your responses, as we are not able to identify which responses came from
you.
Whom should I contact if I have any questions? You can seek more information about the project by emailing Lauren Burns
[email protected] or calling Professor Stephen Bird +61 3 9925 7257
What other issues should I be aware of before deciding whether to participate? This survey uses the internet, which is an insecure public network. Once the survey
is completed, data will be imported to the RMIT server where it will be stored
securely for a period of seven (7) years. The data on the host server will then be
deleted and expunged.
Your Consent Because of the on-line and anonymous nature of data collection, we are not
obtaining written informed consent from you. Instead, if you are over 18yrs we will
assume that you have given consent if you submit the completed survey.
If you have received this request as a parent of an athlete aged less than 18 years
and are happy for them to complete the survey: your forwarding of this information
and the link to the survey to your child will be deemed as your consent for your child
to participate.
Thank you for taking the time to read this document carefully. Upon completing the
survey, you can provide your email address to enter the draw to win a $200 Amazon
voucher. Your email address will not be linked to your survey responses.
If you have any questions, please contact the investigators at the above address.
Yours sincerely,
Lauren Burns Professor Stephen Bird BHSc (Naturopathy) Research Group Leader, Preventative & PhD student Integrative Healthcare. School of Health & Biomedical Sciences School of Health & Biomedical Sciences RMIT University RMIT University
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Further information is available from the Ethics Executive Officer, RMIT Human
Research Ethics Committee on 9925 2251.
1. Burns L WJ, Cohen M. Lifestyles and mindsets of Olympic, Paralympic and world
champions: is an integrated approach the key to elite performance? British Journal of Sports Medicine 2018 doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217
Any complaints about your participation in this project may be directed to the
Executive Officer, RMIT Human Research Ethics Committee, Research &
Innovation, RMIT, GPO Box 2476V, Melbourne, 3001. Details of the complaints
procedure are available at: http://www.rmit.edu.au/governance/complaints/research
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Appendix 8: SEHAPP 72-18 BIRD-BURNS Approval Letter Copy
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Appendix 9: NSO Information Sheet
NSO Information Sheet Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP) Survey Investigators:
o Ms. Lauren Burns (PhD student, School of Health & Biomedical Sciences,
RMIT [email protected])
o Professor Stephen Bird (Project Supervisor, School of Health & Biomedical
Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected])
o Professor Marc Cohen (Co-investigator, School of Health & Biomedical
Sciences, RMIT University, [email protected])
To Whom it May Concern,
You are invited to participate in a research project being conducted at RMIT
University. Informed directly by the findings emanating from Burns et.al.152 the
purpose of this project is to explore the importance and contribution of lifestyle
practices to athlete development, well-being and sporting performance. The findings
of this research will be used to inform and refine current education approaches and
resources and related strategy and practice supporting pathway athletes, their
coaches, parents and other support agents.
Your commitment would involve forwarding the attached ‘Letter to Athletes’ from
Lauren which contains the Survey Link, to your database of athletes through email or
social media channels encouraging their participation to complete the survey.
Athletes required for the survey are contemporary athletes e.g. have competed
within the last 10 years and meet the following requirements: athletes who have competed at State level or above within the past 10 years.
The survey will be open from 17th December 2018 – 15th March 2019 and will need
to be completed within this window. In return, we will share with you the main
findings from the study to assist in informing your current strategy and practice. A
summary of the published results will be available on the survey website.
The survey responses are anonymous and confidential and no identifying
information will be used publicly. The overall results will be published in the scientific
literature no identifying information will be published in this paper. Participation in this
research project is voluntary and athletes are entitled to withdraw their participation
at any time by not continuing with the survey.
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If you would like more information about the project, please email or call Lauren
Burns [email protected] 0438308688 or call Professor Stephen Bird
+61 3 9925 7257. This survey has been approved by the RMIT Human Ethics
Committee (SEHAPP 72-18 BIRD-BURNS CHEAN)
Yours sincerely,
Lauren Burns Professor Stephen Bird BHSc (Naturopathy) Research Group Leader, Preventative & PhD student Integrative Healthcare. School of Health & Biomedical Sciences School of Health & Biomedical Sciences RMIT University RMIT University
Further information is available from the Ethics Executive Officer, RMIT Human
Research Ethics Committee on 9925 2251.
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Appendix 10: Letter of Support and Email Sent from the AOC
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Dear NSO,
Taekwondo Olympic gold medallist, Lauren Burns is currently researching the link
between lifestyle practices and high performance in elite sport, as part of her PhD at
RMIT University.
Following her recent research highlighting the importance of lifestyle, relationships,
psychological and performance factors in elite sport, Lauren is conducting a national
survey of elite athletes. She now needs your support to ensure as many athletes as
possible within your sport complete the survey so that the results are relevant to you.
This research will produce information that will assist you and your athletes plan for
future success. For more information see attached NSO information sheet.
WHAT WE NEED FROM YOU: • Please forward the letter from Lauren (containing the link to the survey) to all
athletes within your sport who have competed at State level or above, in the past 10 years.
• Please contact Lauren Burns via email ([email protected]) to provide
the number of athletes who fit this criteria. This will allow the researchers to
calculate a response rate and determine how representative the sample is.
Thank you for your support in assisting the success of Australian athletes.
Daniel Kowalski
on behalf of the Australian Olympic Committee
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Appendix 11: Letter of Invitation from Lauren to Athletes
Dear Athlete,
As an Olympic Gold Medallist, I have wondered what lifestyle practices and mindset
strategies support championship performance. As part of my PhD I have developed
this survey to help you identify the factors that may support or inhibit your sporting
success.
To do this, I need your participation and the help of other elite athletes in completing
the following survey.
You have been chosen because you have competed at State level (or above), in your sport within the last 10 years.
Your participation will help identify practices to enhance your sporting success.
Thanks in advance,
Lauren
Begin Survey HERE
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Appendix 12: LEAP Survey
The Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers (LEAP) Survey
Start of Block: Default Question Block
Welcome ! The following survey has been designed to gather your perspectives
and experiences in relation to lifestyle factors and strategies that may contribute to
enhancing athlete development and performance. Your input is highly valued and
will help to better inform future support and lifestyle support services provided to
athletes. When completing the survey please take the time to answer each question
openly and honestly. Your responses will remain anonymous and confidential.
Please make sure you download the Participant Information Statement (PDF)
here (link) and confirm you have read the document to continue. Yes, I have read the
document and wish to continue No, I do not wish to participate further As an athlete
you have been invited to participate in this survey, completion of this survey is
voluntary and should take approximately 20 minutes to complete. If you choose not
to complete this study, this will not affect your relationship with your National
Sporting Organisation. Individual responses will not be send each sport, therefore
your NSO will not know whether you have completed the survey or not. If you do
participate, you will be de-identified and no identifying information will be used in the
results of this survey.
Thank you for your participation.
Please tell us about you Q1 What is your date of birth? ________________________________________________________________ Q2 What is your gender?
o Male (1)
o Female (2) Q3 Postcode of current address? _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________________________
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Q4 What is the highest level of education you have completed?
o No formal schooling or qualifications (1)
o School only (Primary or Secondary) (2)
o Trade Certificate (Certificate I, II, III, IV, or nfd) (3)
o Diploma/Advanced Diploma (4)
o Tertiary (Undergraduate) eg Bachelor Degree (5)
o Tertiary (Postgraduate) e.g. Graduate Diploma, or Graduate Certificate, Masters, PhD (6)
o Other (7) ________________________________________________ Q5 What is your current status?
o At secondary school (1)
o At University (2)
o Employed full time (3)
o Employed part time (4)
o Unemployed (5)
o Other (6) ________________________________________________ Q6 On average how many hours of paid work do you undertake each week? ▼ No paid work (1) ... More than 38hrs (7) Q7 What sport/s do you compete in? ________________________________________________________________ Q8 Please indicate if you are able-bodied athlete or an athlete with a disability
o I am able-bodied (1)
o I have a disability (2)
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Q9 What language do you speak at home?
o No formal schooling or qualifications (1)
o School only (Primary or Secondary) (2)
o Trade Certificate (Certificate I, II, III, IV, or nfd) (3) Q9 Do you speak a language other than English at home?
o Yes (1)
o No (2) Q10 Do you identify yourself as being an aboriginal/indigenous Australian?
o Yes (1)
o No (2) Q11 Please indicate if you are able-bodied athlete or an athlete with a disability
o I am able-bodied (1)
o I have a disability (2) Q12 Please indicate the number and type of podium performances you have had in the past 10 years?
State Title (1)
National Championships (2)
International Benchmark event (3)
World Cup (4)
World Championships (5)
Olympic Games (6)
Paralympic Games (7)
Gold (Senior) (1)
Gold (Junior) (2)
Silver (Senior) (3)
Silver (Junior) (4)
Bronze (Senior) (5)
Bronze (Junior) (6)
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Q13 Please indicate the number and type of podium performances you have had in the past 10 years?
State Title (1)
National Championships (2)
International Benchmark event (3)
World Cup (4)
World Championships (5)
Olympic Games (6)
Gold (Senior) (1)
Gold (Junior) (2)
Silver (Senior) (3)
Silver (Junior) (4)
Bronze (Senior) (5)
Bronze (Junior) (6)
Q14 Click to write the question text ▼ Click to write Choice 1 (1) ... Click to write Choice 10 (10) Q15 Do you smoke?
o Never (1)
o Occasionally (2)
o Regularly (3) Q16 How often would you drink alcohol?
o Never (1)
o A few times a week (2)
o A few times a month (3)
o A few times a year (4) Q17 Please indicate the number of hours per day on average you spend on the following activities?
Please indicate or many hours (1) Train in the lead up to a competition? (1) Train throughout the year? (2) Compete during competition? (3)
Q18 Please indicate the number of hours per day on average you spend on the following activities?
Please indicate or many hours (1) Train in the lead up to a competition? (1) Train throughout the year? (2) Compete during competition? (3)
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Q19 How many weeks in a year do you spend travelling
1-5 (1) 5-10 (2) 10-15 (3) 15-20 (4) 20-25 (5) 25-35 (6) More than 35 (7)
Domestically (1) Internationally (2)
Q20 Click to write the question text ________________________________________________________________ Q21 Click to write the question text ________________________________________________________________ Q22 Do you need to make a weight division for your sport? If yes, is this weight division
o 1-2kg below your normal weight? (1)
o 5kg below your normal weight? (2)
o 6-8kg below your normal weight? (3)
o 10+kg below your normal weight (4) Q23 Do you ever use the following methods to help achieve a desired weight?
Never (1) Regularly (few times a month) (2)
Often (few times a week) (3)
Only prior to competing (4)
Sauna (1) Running (2) Skipping (3) Sports specific exercise (4) Walking (5)
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Q24 If you use these methods to make weight, how long before an event do you begin?
< 1hr (1) 2-3hrs (2) 4-5hrs (3) 6-8hrs (4) the day before (5)
4 days before or >
(6) Sauna (1) Running (2) Skipping (3) Sports specific exercise (4)
Walking (5) Q25 Please outline your key strategies (e.g., refuelling, rehydrating) following weigh-in ________________________________________________________________ Q26 Do you ever utilise the services the following practitioners?
Never (1) Occasionally (few times a
year) (2)
Regularly (few times a month)
(3) Often (4)
Click to write Scale point 5
(5)
Acupuncturist (1)
Dietician /Nutritionist (2)
Chiropractor (3)
Family GP (4) Massage therapist (5)
Myotherapist (6)
Naturopath / Herbalist (7)
Osteopath (8) Physiotherapist (9)
Sports psychologist (10)
Sports Medicine Doctor (11)
Other (12)
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
209
Q27 How did you find out about this practitioner? Were they referred to you by:
Your
Coach (1)
Sports Science Sports
Medicine (2)
Teammate (3)
Parent (4)
Friend (5)
Myself (6) Other (7)
Acupuncturist (1)
Dietician /Nutritionist (2)
Chiropractor (3)
Family GP (4)
Massage therapist (5)
Myotherapist (6)
Naturopath / Herbalist (7)
Osteopath (8)
Physiotherapist (9)
Sports psychologist (10)
Sports Medicine Doctor (11)
Other (12)
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Q28 What were the effect of the services offered by these practitioners?
Considerable benefit (1)
Slight benefit (2)
No benefit or harm (3)
Slight harm (4)
Considerable harm (5)
Acupuncturist (1)
Dietician /Nutritionist (2)
Chiropractor (3)
Family GP (4)
Massage therapist (5)
Myotherapist (6)
Naturopath / Herbalist (7)
Osteopath (8)
Physiotherapist (9)
Sports psychologist (10)
Sports Medicine Doctor (11)
Other (12) Life Outside Sport Q29 Having someone in my life who makes me laugh is important to my success
o Strongly agree (1)
o Agree (2)
o Neutral (3)
o Disagree (4)
o Strongly disagree (5)
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Q30 Having people to support me during my career is important for my success
o Strongly agree (1)
o Agree (2)
o Neutral (3)
o Disagree (4)
o Strongly disagree (5) Q31 Having an activity to help me relax when I’m not training or competing is important to me?
o Strongly agree (1)
o Agree (2)
o Neutral (3)
o Disagree (4)
o Strongly disagree (5) Q32 My Coach’s ability to relate to me on a personal level is just as important as their technical ability
o Strongly agree (1)
o Agree (2)
o Neutral (3)
o Disagree (4)
o Strongly disagree (5)
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Q33 How important are the following people in providing support during my sporting career?
Not Applicable (1)
Not important (2)
Somewhat important (3)
Very important (4)
Extremely Important (5)
Parents (1)
Family members (2)
Spouse (3)
Sibling (4)
Coach (5)
Non-sporting friend (6)
Teammate (7)
Sports Science Sports Medicine (8)
Masseur (9)
Physiotherapist (10)
Sports psychologist (11)
Sports medicine doctor (12)
Other (13)
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Q34 With this person… Mark all that apply
We can laugh
together (1)
I can let my hair
down (2)
I share my
worries & concerns
(3)
I depend on for my technical prowess
(4)
I depend on for my recovery strategies
(5)
My friendship
goes beyond sport (6)
Helps me find
balance & perspectiv
e (7)
Parents (1)
Family members (2)
Spouse (3)
Sibling (4)
Coach (5)
Non-sporting friend (6)
Teammate (7)
Sports Science Sports Medicine (8)
Masseur (9)
Physiotherapist (10)
Sports psychologist (11)
Sports medicine doctor (12)
Other (13)
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Recovery, Relaxation and Sleep Q35 Please mark the appropriate box for each of the following activities / practices
Mark all that apply
I don’t do
this activity (1)
I do it because my coach says
so (2)
I do it but I don’t know
why (3)
I do it because it makes me
feel good (4)
I do it because it’s essential for
my performance
(5)
I do it because it’s essential for my recovery
(6)
Visualisation/self-imagery techniques (1)
Mindfulness (2) Meditation (3) Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) (4)
Floatation Tank (5) Hypnosis (6) Neuro Linguistic Programming (NLP) (7)
Intermittent hypoxic training (8) Yoga (9) Dance (10) Pilates (11) Stretching (guided / PMF) (12) Walking (13) Spa (14) Finnish Sauna (15) Infrared sauna (16) Hot/cold immersion (17) Plunge pool (18) Ice bath (19) Hot/Cold shower (20) Cold water swimming (21) Remedial massage (22) Relaxation massage (23) Electromagnetic Field Therapy (EMF) (24)
Tens machine (25) Other (26)
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Q36 How many hours sleep do you get each night, on average? ▼ less than 4hrs (1) ... more than 9hrs (4) Q37 Please mark the most appropriate statements during a COMPETITION PHASE
Mark all that apply
strongly agree (1) agree (2) neutral (3) disagree (4) strongly
disagree (5) I have no problem sleeping at night (1)
I find taking naps during the day beneficial to my performance (2)
Getting adequate sleep during competition is important for my performance (3)
Tens machine (4)
Q38 Please mark the most appropriate statements during a TRAINING PHASE
Mark all that apply
strongly agree (1) agree (2) neutral (3) disagree (4) strongly
disagree (5) I have no problem sleeping at night (1)
I find taking naps during the day beneficial to my performance (2)
Getting adequate sleep during competition is important for my performance (3)
Tens machine (4)
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Q39 Do you have any routines to ensure you get adequate sleep whilst you are travelling, away from home etc? ________________________________________________________________ Planning Q40 The following are vital to my success:
Mark all that apply
strongly agree (1) agree (2) neutral (3) disagree (4) strongly
disagree (5)
Goal setting & Planning (1)
Self-discipline (2)
Mental toughness (3)
Ability to adapt to change (4)
Resilience (5) Ability to recover after injury (6)
Strategic thinking (7)
Ability to create a supportive network (8)
Being a knowledge seeker (9)
Having a daily routine (10)
Problem solving (11)
Being self-aware (12)
Reflection (13) Coping skills (14)
Breathing (15)
Routines (16)
Rituals (17)
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Q41 Diet Q42 Please indicate the type of diet you eat:
Mark all that apply Never (1) Sometimes (2) Regularly (3) Often (4) Vegan (1) Vegetarian (2) Paleo (3) Gluten free (4) Mostly organic (5) Partially organic (6) Not organic (7) Omnivore (8) High Carb (9) Ketogenic (10) High Protein (11) Other (12)
Q43 Does your diet differ when you are training or competing? If yes, please explain. ________________________________________________________________ Q44 How often do you consume the following types of meals:
Mark all that apply
Never (1) Sometimes (2) Regularly (3) Often (4)
Homecooked (1)
Ready-made (purchased from a store or delivery service) (2)
Takeaway (3)
Other (4)
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Q45 I get dietary advice from the following Mark all that apply
Never (1) Sometimes (2) Regularly (3) Often (4)
Unqualified person such as Family, Friend or Teammate (1)
Coach (2) Qualified Dietician or Nutritionist (3)
Qualified Naturopath or Herbalist (4)
Internet (5)
Books (6)
Other (7) Q46 Please indicate the types of drinks you consume
Never (1) Occasionally (2)
1 cup p/day (3)
2 cups p/day (4)
3 cups p/day (5)
4+ cups p/day (6)
Tea (caffeinated) (1)
Herbal tea (2)
Coffee (3) Isotonic drinks (4)
Gatorade (5)
Powerade (6)
Endura (7) Other isotonic drinks (8)
Liquid carbohydrate (9)
Water (10)
Other (11)
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Your Opinions and Feedback Please take the time to share any thoughts and insights, we greatly value your opinions. Q47 What KEY advice/strategies would you advocate for younger athletes? ________________________________________________________________ Q48 Is there anything in your sporting journey so far, that you would have done differently? ________________________________________________________________ Q49 Athletes who have achieved a medal at a benchmark event - why, in your opinion did you succeed compared to their lesser successful counterparts? ________________________________________________________________ Q50 What could be done better to educate and empower athletes regarding their knowledge and effective usage of athlete and lifestyle strategies etc? ________________________________________________________________ Q51 Other comments ________________________________________________________________ End of Block: Default Question Block
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Appendix 13: FTEM (Foundation, Talent, Elite, Mastery) Developmental Framework
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
221
Appendix 14: The Integrated Performance Health Management and Coaching Model
The Integrated Performance Health Management and Coaching Model, Dijkstra et
al.167
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222
Appendix 15: International Congress on Complementary Medicine Research (ICCMR), Abstract
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
223
Appendix 16: The Holistic Athlete Career Model
The Holistic Athlete Career Model, Wylleman et al.106
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
224
Appendix 17: NSW Office of Sport Impact and Application
The LEAP research has assisted in informing the NSW Office of Sport; Future
Champions Strategy,162 which is aligned with their pathway strategy162 and
compliments current educational initiatives delivered by the NSW Office of Sport
regarding importance of wellbeing and balance and facilitating self-regulation. These
sessions are delivered on behalf of schools, NSW Regional Academies of Sport,
State Sporting Organisations etc. They highlight wellbeing, balance, psychological
skills are key areas which are advocated within TID assessments, Individual Athlete
Performance Plans for emerging athletes, ongoing athlete monitoring and case
management.
Furthermore, related research is currently underway by the NSW Office of Sport
engaging the participant and emerging athlete’s voice – Future Champions
Participant and Athlete Survey and Pathway Healthcheck tools for State Sporting
Organisations and State Sporting Organisations for People with a Disability.
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Appendix 18: List of Publications
1. Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M. Lifestyles and Mindsets of
Olympic, Paralympic and World Champions: Is an Integrated Approach the
Key to Elite Performance? British Journal of Sports Medicine. 2018; 53:818-
824. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-099217
Published in Olympic World Library, Olympic Studies Centre:
https://library.olympic.org
2. Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M. Supportive interpersonal
relationships: a key component to high- performance sport. British Journal of
Sports Medicine. 2019; 53(22):1386-1389 doi:10.1136/bjsports-2018-100312
3. Burns L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M., (2019) Supportive Interpersonal
Relationships – A Key Component to High Performance. ICCMR Conference
Book of Abstracts, Published May 2019 doi:10.1016/j.aimed.2019.03.027
Lifestyles of Elite Athletic Performers
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Appendix 19: Conference Presentations
1. Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), Canberra – Winning Pathways. Audience:
Coaches and Administrators from the majority of National Sporting
Organisations, December 2016
2. Australian Institute of Sport (AIS), Canberra – Winning Pathways. Audience:
Coaches and Administrators from the majority of National Sporting
Organisations, June 2017
3. NSW Office of Sport / New South Wales Institute of Sport (NSWIS), Sydney
Olympic Park – NSW Sport Pathways, Platforms and Partnerships Workshop,
Focus on Athlete Wellbeing, presenting LEAP Research, October 2017
4. NSW Office of Sport / NSWIS Pathways to High Performance Strategy –
Focus Group Consultation 'Athletes: Complete and supported athletes across
NSW’ 2018
5. International Congress on Complementary Medicine Research (ICCMR).
Pathways and Partnerships – Facilitating collaboration and communication
across disciplines and between researchers and clinicians. Brisbane, May,
2019. Presenting LEAP research specific to interpersonal relationships for
service providers e.g. masseurs, physiotherapists etc. See Appendix 10
6. FEPSAC (European Federation of Sport Psychology), European Congress of
Sport and Exercise Physiology. Presenting LEAP Research summary.
Munster, Germany. July 2019
7. The Association of Independent Schools of NSW (AIS NSW). Heads of Sport
Conference ‘Tackling the Issues in Sport’. Keynote: LEAP. Hunter Valley,
NSW August 2019
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227
Appendix 20: Business / Community Presentations
1. Sports Tech Innovation Day, Canberra Innovation Network. Audience: sports
tech industry leaders and businesses (start-ups and established), coaches,
students, researchers, physiotherapists, US trade experts. Presentation 1.
Panel discussion on influence of sports technology. 2. Keynote, presenting
LEAP research. Canberra August 2019
2. Association for Proposal Management Professionals - ANZ Conference,
Highlighting LEAP research for a corporate audience. Melbourne August 2019
3. Mooroolbark Umbrella Group. Audience: Mooroolbark community members.
LEAP research summary. Mooroolbark, October 2019
4. State of Wellness Summit. Audience: Women, all walks of life. LEAP research
summary. Geelong, October 2019
5. Ballarat Sports Foundation. Audience: athletes, coaches, stakeholders,
community members. LEAP research summary. Ballarat, November 2019
6. Lara Secondary College. Audience: Year 12 students. LEAP research
summary. January 2020
7. Ray White Real Estate. Audience: RWRE staff. LEAP research summary.
Ferntree Gully, January 2020
8. Macquarie Group. International Women’s Day. Audience: Macquarie Group
Staff. LEAP research summary. Macquarie Group Head Office, Sydney,
March 2020
9. Thriving to Surviving, online virtual event in response to Covid-19, LEAP
research specific to interpersonal relationships mitigating stress. Melbourne,
April, 2020
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Appendix 21: Awards
• RMIT Vice Chancellor’s Prize for Research Impact (HDR), November 2019
• RMIT HDR Candidates Network Publication Prize, 2019
Burns, L., Weissensteiner, JR., & Cohen, M., (2019) Supportive interpersonal
relationships: a key component to high-performance sport.
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