Learning Strategies and Second Language Vocabulary Development of
Young English Language Learners
Learning Strategies and Second Language Vocabulary
Development of Young English Language Learners
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 TEACHING CONTEXT
This report is written with the intention to not only
review the literature in the field of vocabulary learning
strategies but to also identify implications of such
learners on the author's learners.
Presently, the author of this paper works with two
preschool classes. One preschool class consist of
sixteen, three year olds and who are engaging in foreign
language learning for the first time. The other class
consists of twenty learners with an average age of four,
all of whom are entering the second year of the preschool
program.
The program emphasises the teaching of spoken English in
the initial year and then develops the skills of reading
and writing in the second year and the third year
prepares them for working in the elementary program
across all four language skills.
1.2 BACKGROUND
Ellis (1997) highlights the dysfunctional relationship
between theory and practice in second language
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acquisition and argues that for the relationship to
become more functional, both researchers and teachers
need to be more allied in their quest to understand each
other and each other's roles within the field. One area
that has been affected by this is second language
vocabulary teaching. Sokmen (1997) argues that second
language teachers have been guided away from the teaching
of vocabulary and instead been focused and trained on the
teaching of grammar, giving grammar the spotlight in
second language teaching. By giving grammar the central
focus in teaching materials, vocabulary instruction has
often been treated as inferior and has not gained the
same respect nor standing that grammar instruction has
achieved within the field.
However, vocabulary instruction and its importance in the
second language classroom has seen a resurgence in the
literature and the pedagogy associated with vocabulary
teaching has also changed dramatically within the same
time frame, putting vocabulary back in the spotlight as
an area that needs to be addressed with more vigour in
the classroom (Nation 1990, 2001 and O'Malley and Chamot
1990).
Beimiller & Slonim (2001) identify that first language
learners have acquired between five and seven thousand
words prior to being taught how to read and that second
language learners who are to begin reading in the second
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language have no where near the same range of acquired
lexical items in the second language, putting them at a
disadvantage when learning to read in the second or
foreign language.
This conclusion, drawn by Umbel et al. (1992) has further
implications for the learners of the author of this
paper. The comparison drawn between first and second
language learners was based on the second language being
taught and learned in a naturalistic setting where the
learners were Hispanic learners learning English in the
US. In this setting learners are totally immersed in
English and have maximum exposure to it's use within and
out with the school day due to teaching, participation
and peer relationships with first language speakers which
drives the need to communicate in the L2 (Cameron 2001).
Such advantages and motivations are not readily available
to the author's learners as they are not learning English
as a second language but as a foreign language. The
distinction between both has been highlighted in the
literature but stems from an initial distinction offered
by Ellis (1985). Ellis identifies second language
learning as the process of acquiring a language through
immersion in settings which provide natural and informal
exposure of the target language, just like the learners
of the Umbel et al. (1992) study. Ellis then identifies
the learning of a foreign language as processes that take
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place in formal learning contexts where learners are
aware of what is going on and are consciously involved in
the process of learning and where exposure is limited to
the classroom setting.
The latter description correlates with the author's
teaching context in Taiwan where he teaches a range of
young learner (YL herein) classes using a mixed
methodology. The curriculum design is based on a mix of
methods that strongly advocate the teaching of grammar in
a systemic way and does not actively promote vocabulary
development. This is one of the issues that Sokmen (1997)
highlights in his work whereby course design
methodologies assume that vocabulary will be learned
incidentally and does not provide learners with adequate
skills nor teaches them learning strategies in the area
of vocabulary development.
With regards to how a minimal breadth of vocabulary can
negatively impact literacy development in L2 learners,
this report identifies vocabulary learning strategies and
how their implementation can assist L2 learners in
developing their vocabulary range and in turn develop not
only the reading skills of his learners but also their
autonomy in developing their vocabulary range.
The report itself is guided by the following questions:
1. What is the role and importance of vocabulary within
SLA?
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2. What vocabulary learning strategies exist within the
literature and which ones can be exploited most in
the author's teaching context?
3. How can such strategies inform the author's teaching
practice in the young learner classroom?
Having discussed these questions the author goes onto
identify how this report could be used a departure point
for future research in the field of second language
vocabulary learning strategies.
2 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT
This chapter highlights the important role that
vocabulary plays in second language acquisition and
identifies some of the key issues that are common within
the literature with regards to how vocabulary is learned
and what should be taught.
2.1 THE ROLE OF VOCABULARY IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING
Whilst Aitchison (2010) argues phonics and phonology are
the corner stone of languages, Richards and Rogers (2001,
p132) disregard this notion and advocate that ''a lexical
approach in language teaching refers to one derived from the belief that the
building blocks of language learning and communication are not grammar,
functions, notions, or some other unit of planning and teaching but lexis, that
is, words and word combinations''.
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For language learners to be successful in the second
language they need to be able to participate within it
and across the four skills of language. As Birdsong
(2005) points out that such participation allows success
to be measured and compared to the language abilities of
the native speaker. It can therefore be seen that second
language learners need to develop many different
linguistic skills that allow them to read, write, hear,
read and comprehend the meanings and discourse of the
second language (Cook 2008).
In developing such L2 linguistic devices that support L2
success, learners need to have a wide ranging vocabulary
base to help them operate in the L2 much like a native
speaker within a variety of settings and discourse.
Nation (2001) and Roberts (2008) both agree that
vocabulary plays an integral role in second language
acquisition and that it needs specific focus during
instruction to facilitate its development. Therefore
lending support to the above argument put forward by
Richards and Rodgers (2001) with regards to the
importance of developing the learners’ lexicon to enable
success in the L2.
In summary, if learners are to be successful in the
second language by means of comparing them to native
speakers, they need to have a wide ranging vocabulary
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that allows them to operate within the four language
skills.
Having highlighted that vocabulary acquisition correlates
with L2 success, the next section looks at current issues
in the teaching and learning of vocabulary.
2.2 KNOWING A LEXICAL ITEM
One of the main issues that Vivian Cook (2008, 2009)
raises with regards to second language vocabulary, is
that it has proven to be an area within SLA that is hard
to research. She argues that it is possible to identify
which words people need to know in the second language to
be successful in the L2 and that the measurement of such
items can be undertaken and tested using a number of
norms. Yet, the literature is limited in addressing how
vocabulary is acquired. This is due to the complexities
related to lexical items, which are explored further
below.
2.3 WHAT DOES IT MEANS TO KNOW A WORD?
Singleton (1999), Cook (2008) and Nation (2001) all
address the question of what it means to understand a
lexical item and each author's answer to this question is
detailed below.
Singleton (1999) proposes that knowing a word involves
knowledge that goes beyond recognising the basic unit and
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that the learner must also have knowledge of how a
lexical item can be used in isolation and within phrases.
Cook (2008) extends on Singleton's generalization and
provides us with a categorized list of what a learner
needs to know about a word to truly understand it. This
list is presented in table 1, below.
Forms of the word
Pronunciation
SpellingGrammatical Properties
Grammatical categories
Possible and impossible structures
Idiosyncratic grammatical information
Word buildingLexical Items
Collocations
AppropriatenessMeaning
General meanings
Specific meaningsTable 1.1. Knowing a word. Adapted from Cook (2008, p50-51).
This comprehensive list provides language teachers with a
signpost to the importance that vocabulary teaching
should play in their class and gives credence to the
argument given above by Richards and Rodgers (2001) that
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vocabulary is the building block of language development
and as such needs to be taught with prominence.
In chapter two of Learning Vocabulary in Another Language,
Nation (2001) considers word knowledge from two other
perspectives, receptive and productive lexical
understanding. Below, I summarize Nation's descriptors
of each perspective.
For a learner to receptively understand a word, they must
be able to do the following:
recognise a lexical item when heard (spoken form)
recognise a lexical item in text (written form)
separate words into sub units to deduce meaning
understanding its use in different contexts
aware and able to use appropriate word
associations
understand deviations of use at the syntax level
understand and recognise collocation use
understand word frequency and items which have
high/low frequency status
(Adapted from Nation, 2001, p24-26)
There are different criteria applied to the understanding
of a lexical item at the productive level and these are
summarized below.
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Learners must be able to produce the lexical items
with the correct spoken form, or in other words,
with the right pronunciation (spoken form)
Construct words in their morphological states so
that the correct meaning is implied and delivered to
the listener (spoken form)
Learners must be able to produce the written form of
the word using the correct spelling constructs
Learners must be able to use the words in different
contexts
Use the word with appropriate collocations.
Learners must be able to select words and use them
depending on the situation (formal/informal)
(Adapted from Nation, 2001, p24-26)
The above descriptors from all three authors highlight
the complexities of learning words to build a large
vocabulary base. Nation (2001) identifies this amount of
work as burdensome with regards to the amount of effort
required of the learner in learning a lexical item to its
fullest extent.
This leads the author to address the question of how
children come to acquire and grow their vocabulary base
and take on the challenge of acquiring vocabulary in a
second language; a task that requires so much of a
learner.
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2.4 VOCABULARY DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDHOOD
One issue that is evident in the literature is in how we
understand first language development and what drives
vocabulary development (Ramirez et al. 2012). During the
initial stages of first language development, children go
through a period of exponential growth in language
development (Cameron 2001 and Saville-Troike 2012).
Saville-Troike (2012) discusses first language
development and presents a sequence of first language
development as presented in table 2.
Age Parameters Observed Language
Development0-6 months Children can discriminate
between sounds and in turn
discard those which are not
of use to them<>3 years old Children have mastered the
prominent sounds of their
first language>3 years old Children have developed an
understanding of how
conversation works with
reference to turn taking and
other discourse use.>4-5 years old Children gain mastery of the
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grammatical system and
further develop it as they
progress through the school
years.Table 2.1: First Language Development. Adapted from Saville-Troike
(2012, p12-13).
Table 2, illustrates how children develop their first
language with reference to sound, discourse and grammar
but does not address how, when and the stages involved in
vocabulary development; lending support to the need to
investigate the questions stated above by Ramerez et al.
(2012). What the literature does highlight is an initial
pattern of vocabulary development which I have summarized
below.
Children first begin by employing nouns to label the
world around them and as they begin to communicate by
using such labels and receive more input from their
parents, care givers and others, their vocabulary base
grows (Cameron 2001). Cameron (2001) goes on to report
that children then begin to use two word noun structures
to express their demands, needs and wants and as children
become more cognitively mature and more involved in
discourse, they start to employ more complex lexical
items and in turn through usage and familiarity build not
only a strong vocabulary base but a grammatical one too
(Gillette et al. 1999).
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If young children therefore start to communicate using
singular lexical items, then surely this is the same for
the young foreign language learner? If so, then it is
important to identify best practices for the teaching of
vocabulary and in turn provide learners with strategies
that will not only allow them to learn and expand their
vocabulary base in the second language but to also lead
learners to be autonomous in their learning too.
3. FROM TEACHER CENTRED TO LEARNER CENTRED INSTRUCTION
IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASSROOM
This section of the report identifies changes in teaching
methodology and how the role of the learner has
transitioned from a passive to an active one.
Chapter 3.1 discusses how changes in methodology have
placed the learner at the centre of learning and how such
placement has led research to focus on the strategies
that learners employ to support and develop their own
learning is discussed in chapter 3.2. In chapter 3.3, the
report explores specific strategies that relate to the
learning of second language vocabulary.
3.1 CHANGING ROLES: FROM PASSIVE LEARNER TO ACTIVE
LEARNER.
Griffiths and Parr (2001) provides an overview of how
changes in language methodologies have resulted in the
foreign language classroom being learner centred as
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opposed to teacher centred, as it was in the early days
of second language teaching and learning.
One of the initial teaching and learning strategies used
by teachers in the field of second language teaching and
learning was that of the grammar translation method.
Griffiths and Parr (2001) describe this method as one
that concentrates on the teaching of the productive
skills of reading and writing, one that did not have a
communicative aspect to it and one that was more
concerned with accuracy other than fluency. Cook (2008,
p238) gives two examples of how much emphasis is given to
grammar in the method and by looking at the discourse
transcription it is easy to see that learners taught
using this method are being taught to be highly
grammatically aware but that all communication is
conducted in the first language and the only time the
second language is used is to translate and explain
singular speech parts.
Cook (2008), Griffiths and Parr (2001) identify that the
grammar translation method leaves little room for
learners to take control over their own learning but Cook
(2008), goes on to identify that the method itself does
have a place in the modern classroom, and I concur in my
own experience.
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The author has seen how the use of direct and immediate
translation can bring instant meaning to a student and
reported so in his classroom based research project
(Mitchell 2014) but would never use it as an extended
teaching method due to the fact that he teaches within a
communicative language setting and this would lead the
learner to know that by waiting for the translation they
would not need to create their own meaning in their L2
lexicon, as it would be given as a translated item later,
creating a redundancy in teaching and learning (Cameron
2001).
As the grammar translation method lost momentum, the
audio -lingual approached emerged. This approach differed
heavily from that of the grammar translation method as it
addressed the teaching of the four skills and emphasised
the productive skill of speaking, unlike its predecessor
Griffiths and Parr (2001) and Cook (2008).
When discussing the audio lingual method, Griffiths and
Parr (2001) state the behaviourist view of language
teaching as 'a system of habits which can be taught and
learnt on a stimulus/response/reinforcement basis (ibid
2001, p248) much like any other skill according to
Richards and Rodgers (2001).
The key teaching strategies employed within this method
are dialogue drills and controlled substitution practice.
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The idea behind the method is that for second language
learning to be successful, the learner only needs to be
involved in an environment that only promotes habit
formation (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
Such an environment requires that learners be engaged
with the language by memorizing dialogues and performing
drills so that errors can be reduced through practice and
that correct responses to stimuli shall become automatic.
When correct responses are produced the learner is given
some form of reward that will inspire future growth and
development in the language (Richards and Rodgers 2001).
Such reinforcement and the continued need for it via this
method should result in the preferred habit (behaviour)
being assimilated into the learners language repertoire
and allow for automatic response when the stimulus is met
in a natural setting (ibid 2001).
The audio lingual method, just like the grammar
translation method does not give learners any control in
what they were learning and it does not offer them any
opportunity to participate or engage on their terms,
instead all learning is conducted with the teacher being
in control of what and how learning takes place in the
classroom (ibid 2001 and Griffiths and Parr 2001).
The role of the learner is to learn to react to stimuli
and respond accordingly and with the correct learned
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response. They are to be passive and reactive to the
stimuli given and by engaging in this way they will
acquire a 'a new form of verbal behaviour' (Richards and
Rodgers 2001, p62).
The method itself has been criticised and lost its place
as a teaching strategy due to the following reasons given
by Richards and Rodgers (2001, p65) below:
the theory behind the method did not stand up to
empirical rigour
the skills taught were not useful in natural
communicative settings
learners were not engaged due to boredom and lack of
progress
In questioning the validity of the audio-lingual method,
researchers such as Corder (1976) found that the learner
was more than something than a willing passive
participant in a learning environment but instead was
capable and eager to be an active agent in the process of
second language acquisition.
As the learner became the focus of research in second
language acquisition, researchers wanted to understand
how a learner organises their linguistic knowledge,
access it and in turn wanted to know how successful
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learners strategise their learning to be successful
(Griffiths and Parr 2001).
3.2 LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
Previous discussion highlights with evidence that
learners must engage in much work to learn, memorize and
build their L2 lexicon. Chapter three of this report
identifies what strategies teachers can offer their
learners to help them within this area of second language
learning.
3.2.1 DEFINING 'STRATEGY'
Collins (2014) identifies the word as being derived from
the Greek, strategia, and identifies it as being
synonymous with the duties of a general. However, in its
modern use, Collins (2014) defines it as 'a long term plan for
success'.
These two meanings can be seen in an alternate way and
relate the role of general to that of the teacher,
leading his students to success by employing a number of
plans to enable such success.
However, this definition as proposed by myself does not
fit with current methodology. The main reason for this is
highlighted by O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Oxford
(1990) whereby learners take control over the learning
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strategies that they employ and which they utilise in
language acquisition.
Therefore it can be seen that the 'strategic general' is
now the learner and the teacher's role is more of the
general's advisor.
3.2.2 LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES, DEFINITIONS AND
TAXONOMIES
The above definition of strategy identifies the role of
the learner and the teacher. Here in this section, a
presentation of definitions, strategies, and the
categories of such are presented.
3.2.3 DEFINING LEARNING STRATEGIES
Rubin (1975, p43) defines learning strategies as ''the
techniques or devices which a learner may use to acquire knowledge.''
Oxford (1990, p8) identifies strategies that language
learners use as ''specific actions taken by the learner to make learning
easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more
transferrable to new situations.'' Griffiths (2013, p36) provides
the most current definition, one born of her review of
learning strategy research and defines them as ''activities
consciously chosen by learners for the purpose of regulating their own
language learning''.
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The first two definitions identify strategies as
something that have been given to the learner to utilised
at their discretions whilst the third given by Griffiths
makes the case that the learner is actively choosing and
engaging in methods of learning that apply solely to them
in their situation. However, all three definitions attend
to the notion that learners have to be trained in such
strategies so that they can consciously access and apply
them to their learning (Cameron 2001).
Research into language learning strategies stemmed from
the changes in second language methodology as previously
discussed and the main focus of research in this area was
to gain insight and understanding into what strategies
successful L2 learners used in mastering their chosen L2
(Wong 2005).
Rubin (1975) found through a series of data collection
instruments, concluded that good language learners are
learners who participate with ease and with good
linguistic judgement, are driven by the need to
communicate, have little anxiety when using the second
language, engage in all practice opportunities, focus on
the meaning of what is being said, heard and conveyed and
ones who diligently monitor their interlocutors.
Naimen et al. (1978) argued that knowing what constitutes
a good language learner needed more clarification. From
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their research they found that an in-depth understanding
of how strategies were acquired, exploited and related to
current pedagogical methods was needed.
3.2.4 LEARNING STRATEGIES
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) undertook research based on
the above work by Naimen et al. (1978) and identified
that three main strategies were being employed by
learners in being successful in second language
acquisition. These strategies are:
metacognitive strategies
cognitive strategies
socio/affective strategies
O'Malley and Chamot (1990) and Ungureanu and Georgescu
(2012) explain metacognitive strategies as those used
more by experienced learners as they engage the learner
in a cycle of reflection and through participating in
this cycle, analyse their own learning process and seek
to use strategies that they have found work for them in
their former learning experiences. Ungureanu and
Georgescu (2012, p5001) listed seven metacognitive
strategies in their study as they pertain to language
learning. These are:
anticipating or planning
directed attention
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selective attention
self-management
self-monitoring
problem identification
self-evaluation
Whilst the above strategies are used by those who have
the abilities and knowledge required to control and
direct their learning, Ungureanu and Georgescu (2012)
also identified strategies that learners who are being
taught use and termed these as cognitive strategies.
These strategies allow learners to learn an item by
relating it to the learner through an activity whereby
the learner can interact with it, modify it and use it to
complete the learning objective of the task.
Ungureanu and Georgescu (2012, p5001) define the
cognitive strategies as:
repetition
resourcing
grouping
note taking
deduction
induction/ deduction
substitution
elaboration
summarization
translation
transfer
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inference
The last category is that of socio-affective strategies
and these can be seen as strategies that allow the
learner to work with others and use language in a way
that is both meaningful to the learner and in a way that
the learner can understand the learning point. Ungureanu
and Georgescu (2012, p5001) list four strategies under
socio-affective strategies, they are:
questioning for clarification
cooperation
self-talk
self-reinforcement.
3.2.5 TAXONOMY OF LANGUAGE LEARNING STRATEGIES
Table 3.1, taken from Oxford (1990, p9) provides taxonomy
of the features of language learning strategies as they
pertain to communicative competence of learners.
Features of Language Learning Strategies
Language Learner Strategies1. Contribute to the main goal, communicative
competence.
2. Allow learners to become more self-directed.
3. Expand the role of teachers.
4. Are problem-orientated.
5. Are specific actions taken by the learner.
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6. Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the
cognitive.
7. Support learning both directly and indirectly.
8. Are not always observable.
9. Are often conscious.
10. Can be taught.
11. Are flexible.
12. Are influenced by a variety of factors. Table 3.1 Features of Language Learning Strategies,
Oxford (1990 p9).
There is an evident relationship between the taxonomies
of Oxford (1990) and O'Malley and Chamot (1990) in that
learners and teachers can employ different strategies
during learning and teaching that allow learners to focus
on their learning in the three strategy types.
However, Schmitt (1997) identifies issues within the
works of both Oxford (1990) and O'Malley and Chamot
(1990) with specific regards to vocabulary acquisition
strategies. He argues that whilst the taxonomy presented
by Oxford (1990) gives a broad overview of strategies it
fails to address the learning of lexical items by the
individual learner without consultation of another
person. Schmitt (1997) therefore added a fourth strategy
type; determination strategies, to address the gap in
Oxford's (1990) taxonomy.
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Schmitt (1997) identified further complications in
Oxford's (1990) work stating that the categories given
overlapped in practice and that the classification of
strategies being used by learners could be hard to
classify during observation. However, Oxford had the
foresight of this argument occurring and stated in her
(1990) work that strategy research had not been explored
nor presented enough in detail in the literature and that
it was still in a state of fluidity and open to debate.
The author also agrees with Cameron (2001) in that the
work above does not address how such strategies could or
should be applied to YLs, especially those who cannot
operate nor control their own learning owing to age and
experience.
This section of the report has given definitions, insight
and a brief overview of the themes that are evident in
the literature that surrounds learning strategies and
demonstrates some of the issues that are in debate when
it comes to categorization and application of such to
vocabulary learning. In the next chapter, vocabulary
learning strategies are presented and discussed.
3.3 VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
Research into vocabulary learning strategies has been
extensive but very little has been done to address the
use of strategies used by learners in the primary and in
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the preschool ages (Cameron 2001). Such a gap presents
issues for the author's learners as it is within these
age ranges that his learners are acquiring English as a
second language.
Schmitt (1997) also identifies that when working with
YLs, it is advisable to employ a range of strategies
within the classroom so that learners can choose and
adopt learning strategies that match their learning
styles. However automatic choosing may not occur
naturally during this stage of learning development but,
as Cameron (2001) states, they may have a longer lasting
impact on learners strategy use as they continue to learn
the second language.
In this section of the report, an overview of discovery
and consolidation strategies are given and then a
discussion of how such strategies can be applied to the
author's teaching practice is discussed in chapter four.
3.3.1 TAXONOMY OF VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
Schmitt (1997) presents his taxonomy of fifty eight
vocabulary learning strategies but states that this
number should not be considered as the final count of
strategies used in this area but that the sum gives a
working register of available vocabulary learning
strategies. These fifty eight items were then classified
and grouped under the following strategy labels: social,
memory, cognitive, metacognitive (Schmitt, 1997). These
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items are discussed as general learning strategies by
Ungureanu and Georgescu (2012) but, Schmitt (1997)
categorized the fifty eight items that pertained
specifically to vocabulary learning strategies. These
strategies were then listed under two strategy types
suggested by Cook and Mayer (1983) and Nation (1990);
discovery and consolidation strategies, thereby
simplifying the categorisation system.
3.3.2 DISCOVERY STRATEGIES
Schmitt (1997) describes discovery strategies as the way
in which learners encounter new lexical items and that
such discovery is often related to social and
determination strategies as discussed above. During the
discovery process learners may discover more about the
lexical item with reference to context, guessing from L1
cognates, referring to a dictionary or simply by asking
their teacher, peer or other interlocutor.
Below, is an overview of some of the discovery strategies
that are available for learning second language
vocabulary.
3.3.2.1 DISCOVERING NEW WORDS IN CONTEXT
Guessing from context is one of the most fundamental
resources for learning and developing second language
vocabulary (Nation 2001). For correct guessing to occur
when discussing the contextual item, learners must
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already be familiar with at least 95% of the content
being used (Liu and Nation 1985). This highlights an
issue for the YL teacher in that some YL learners do not
have any L2 vocabulary knowledge when they begin their L2
education, this is especially true in the author's
teaching context whereby learners start as young as two
and seldom have had any L2 input since birth. However,
with practice, guessing through context is taught by
using pictures and short videos.
Cameron (2001) suggests that this strategy should be
encouraged as it draws the learner to consider all of the
information available to them within the contextual item
and prepares them for making correct guesses as they
advance in their L2 knowledge.
When working with older learners though, the strategy
above allows learners to consider such contextual
information and guess with more accuracy. They are also
more able to guess using Liu and Nation's (1980, cited
Nation 2001) framework to support guesswork. This
framework allows learners to first, identify the unknown
lexical item, secondly, identify its working role within
the surrounding text both at the simple and complex
level. Having completed these steps the learner can then
guess and the guess can be checked by the learner by
several interventions. They can identify if the guess
belongs in the same speech part category, manipulate the
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new lexical item to see if it works in relation to the
guess, use synonym and antonyms to establish meaning and
finally check in a dictionary to confirm that the guess
is correct (Nation and Coady 1988). This framework allows
learners to discover new words by employing three
distinct discovery strategies; guessing through context,
word analysis and dictionary use (Schofield 1982, Bauer
and Nation 1993, Nation 2001)
It can be highlighted here that learners need to be
trained in the latter skills but with determination
strategies, learners may be able to ascertain if their
guesses are correct by consulting their interlocutor
either by asking or even by checking their paralinguistic
response, a strategy that may be best exploited in the
young learner classroom, especially in the context of the
author where most of his learners are not yet able to
read let alone use a dictionary.
3.3.3 CONSOLIDATION STRATEGIES
After the discovery of a new lexical item occurs,
learners need to have strategies for retaining the
item(s) (Schmitt 1997). This section of the report will
look at the three consolidation strategies proposed by
Schmitt (1997) in his taxonomy of vocabulary learning
strategies. The three area strategies that will de
presented are that of memorization, cognitive and
metacognitive strategies.
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3.3.3.1 MEMORIZATION STRATEGIES
For learners to successfully store new vocabulary items
then they must engage in deep mental processing
procedures (Schmitt 1997) such as that defined in the
Depth of Processing Hypothesis (Craik & Lockhart 1972 and
Craik & Tulving 1975). Such processing can occur by
engaging learners in strategies that allow them to
connect new lexical items to established ones in the L2
lexicon, through visual input and grouping (Schmitt 1997)
Therefore it can be deduced that such strategies are
highly important when it comes to developing L2
vocabulary.
Further evidence supporting the importance of
memorization strategies is in Schmitt's taxonomy where
memorization strategies account for more than fifty
percent of strategies for learning vocabulary (Schmitt
1997). Examples of Schmitt’s strategies are presented
below and pertain to the young learner classroom as per
the author's teaching context:
use visual images that contain explain the word by
form and in context
use stories that emphasise the use of the word
practice the spelling of the new word
associate a physical action to the word
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Another strategy, the Keyword Method, presented by Nation
(1990) was designed for the teaching of low-frequency
lexical items and directs learners to make a connection
to the L2 item with reference to a similar one in the L1
and applying their own mental image, so that the word
could be consolidated in the mind of the learner. Whilst
Pressley, Levin and Miller (1982) found this to a
successful strategy for retention and recall of L2
vocabulary, this author feels that it is one that is best
suited to experienced learners who have a higher
knowledge of their L1 vocabulary because translation,
self-direction and attention are not strategies yet
acquired by his learners, especially those in the
preschool. He also sees that the typological distances
between Mandarin and English may present difficulties in
presenting this method to young learners.
3.3.3.2 COGNITIVE STRATEGIES
To facilitate vocabulary acquisition at the cognitive
level, Schmitt (1997) promotes repetition strategies,
much like those favoured by the behaviourist theories of
learning such as the audio-lingual method previously
discussed (Griffiths and Parr 2001) and argues against
the Depth of Processing Hypothesis with regards to these
strategies. This hypothesis dismisses the use of such
strategies for consolidation; however Schmitt (1997)
found that a large proportion of learners used written
and oral repetition strategies when it came to
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consolidation of new lexical items in a study he
conducted on the topic. It can be seen here then that
their is still a role for the behaviourist methods in the
language classroom and one that is being adopted by
learners as opposed to imposed by teachers.
3.3.3.3 METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES
Metacognitive strategies allow learners to work at a
level of self-assessment and such strategies allow them
to engage in ways that allow them to control, organise
and assess their own learning and development (Schmitt
1997). In Schmitt's taxonomy he advises the use of spaced
word practice, develop lexical knowledge through focused
and continued study of lexical items and through self
assessment. By transferring these strategies to learners,
learning responsibility is also transferred and learning
effects may be more enhanced (Gu and Johnson 1996). Gu
and Johnson (1996) noted that learners employing such
strategies in their learning were likely to have a higher
proficiency level and larger vocabulary base. Therefore
this demonstrates that such strategies play an
influential role pertaining to successful outcomes in not
only vocabulary development but language development as a
whole.
4 APPLYING THEORY IN PRACTICE: TEACHING VOCABULARY
STRATEGIES IN THE YL CLASSROOM
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This review has stated quite clearly that the learning of
new vocabulary is a task that is highly involved and
requires a lot of the learner (Nation 2001) and that for
second language vocabulary development to be successful
it needs specific instruction and focus in the classroom,
Nation (2001) and Roberts (2008). One issue that Schmitt
(1997) and Cameron (2001) highlight above is that
teachers must employ a range of teaching strategies when
teaching vocabulary to YLs and such strategies can then
be adopted as learning strategies by learners later on in
their language learning.
Below an example of a lesson plan is given to demonstrate
how this report has informed pedagogy to promote
vocabulary learning strategies in the YL context. The
class that will be subject to this teaching plan are the
author's youngest class of learners as detailed above.
4.1 APPLYING DISCOVERY STRATEGIES IN THE YL CLASSROOMWithin the teaching plan below it evident that the author
has seen that he can lead his learners to discover new
lexical items through differing methods of discovery. The
above plan shows that discovery can take the form of
being introduced to YLs in a variety of ways, such as
through song, storybooks but that the initial context for
teaching is in using real life materials so that new
items are relevant and real for the learners and are
encountered in fun and varied ways that are age
appropriate. It is also evident that the discovery of new
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items is not an isolated event and the author realizes
that for acquisition to occur, learners must engage in
numerous encounters with the new items (Nation 2001).
Theme 1: My School Week 1: Sentence Pattern: What is this? This is my (noun)Vocabulary items: book bag, classroom, school, pencil box and teacherTeaching Section
Discovery strategies: learning through context
Teach new lexical items
Introduce students to the new lexical items by using flashcards and realia.
Take students on a tour of the school and have them look for and name preplaced realia and people
Return to class and discuss the new items again using theme poster and flashcards
Place realia in a bag, have one studentat a time come and feel items inside and guess which item they are going to pull out
Check guess and reward for both correctand incorrect guesses
Model pronunciation and have students repeat the lexical item
Musical Time
Review lexical items again using flashcards and realia
Teach song, word by word. Listen to the song Review lexical items again, show
students how to clap when they hear a new item when listening to the song
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Learners listen and clap when they heara new lexical item
Reward correct and incorrect guesses Review new lexical items again
Story Time Use the teacher's reading book and havestudents look at cover page and identify any of the new lexical items.
Review all items again Discuss each page in detail and ask
many comprehension questions about the new lexical items
Have students come to the front and identify by touching the lexical items in pictorial form in the book
At then end of the story, review the lexical items once more using the book and other contextual materials.
Table 4.1 Discovery Strategies for vocabulary instructionin the YL classroom.
4.2 APPLYING CONSOLIDATION STRATEGIES IN THE YL CLASSROOM
Having encountered the new lexical items through
discovery strategies, like those above, the next step is
for the learner to retain them in their L2 lexicon. The
lesson plan below identifies consolidation strategies
below that can be used to help YLs retain new lexical
items.
Teaching Consolidation by memorization strategies
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Learning Strategies and Second Language Vocabulary Development of
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SectionTeach new lexical items
teach new lexical items following the discovery approach above with reference to pictorial aids and in context
with each new item taught apply a gesture having taught each item with a gesture
play games that allow learners to combinethe two together and establish a connection in the mind
employ the TPR method where appropriate to establish connections between word andactions
Musical Time
reinforce actions and lexical item connections by making them key actions inthe teaching and singing of songs and rhymes
Story Time draw attention to the new lexical item inpictorial and written form in the story book to make a connection in the learnersmind of its importance within the story
have learners use the gesture assigned tolexical items when they hear it during story time
Table 4.2: Consolidation by memory strategies
By using such techniques to aid in memorization, learners
engage in deep processing as outlined by Schmitt (1997)
and allows them to make connections in the brain and
store L2 lexis. This may lead to learners adopting the
Key Word Method later in learning if success is gained
using similar methods in the YL classroom.
4.3 APPLYING COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES IN
THE YL CLASSROOM
Teaching Section
Consolidation by cognitive strategies
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Teach new lexical items
teach new lexical items following the discovery approach above with reference to pictorial aids and in context
with each new item taught apply a gesture drill new items in chant play simple pair games that allow
learners to engage with new items and encourage repetition. One such game is concentration whereby learners turn two cards, say the lexical item and keep cards only when they match.
Musical Time
reinforce actions and lexical item connections by making them key actions inthe teaching and singing of songs and rhymes
practice theme song and leave on repeat during class time so that new lexical items can be subconsciously acquired
Story Time draw attention to the new lexical item inpictorial and written form in the story book to make a connection in the learnersmind of its importance within the story
have learners use the gesture assigned tolexical items when they hear it during story time
when new lexical items are met, repeat drill and combine with action
Table 4.3. Consolidation by cognitive strategies
It can be seen from the previous three tables that
repetitive cognitive strategies run throughout the lesson
giving maximum exposure to new lexical items. By
combining memorization and cognitive strategies, it would
be evident that a teaching model could be made by
combining the latter two strategies and teach using a
formula based on visual input, gestures, repetition and
activities and harness a framework for exploiting maximum
exposure to new L2 lexis.
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So, what about metacognitive strategies? To some extent
one area, proposed by Schmitt (1997) that the author has
detailed throughout all three strategy applications above
is that learners benefit from metacognitive strategies
through continued study of lexical items.
Within the teaching context of these learners, vocabulary
items are recycled and reused and therefore such
strategies can be applied by continually drawing
attention to items that have also been previously taught
and space for such recognition would need to be
incorporated into the strategic plan above as these
learners progress in the L2 program.
5 FUTURE RESEARCH IN VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES
This report has given an overview of learning strategies
and ones related to vocabulary learning however it does
not offer an in-depth review of a specific area of
research within vocabulary learning. The author of this
report would therefore like to use this report as a
departure point and go onto research more in depth the
role of cognitive strategies in second language
vocabulary development in the early years.
6 CONCLUSION
Vocabulary has been shown to be of high value within the
realms of second language learning and has been referred
to as the cornerstone of language itself by Richards and
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Rogers (2001). With such defined importance, the author
presented and discussed the literature that surrounds
learning strategies as a whole and those which pertain to
vocabulary learning so that he could understand how such
strategies can inform his teaching . The author concludes
that by engaging in this report that he has been able to
actively apply what he has read and understood and
discovered useful insights into his own teaching practice
with young learners. He has also found that the
literature surrounding cognitive strategies in vocabulary
learning is limited and this has led him to consider this
field as an avenue for further study having compiled this
report.
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WORD COUNT 6572
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