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Rendiconti LinceiSCIENZE FISICHE E NATURALI ISSN 2037-4631 Rend. Fis. Acc. LinceiDOI 10.1007/s12210-011-0161-1

Holocene environmental evolution of thecostal sector in front of the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area (Sele plain,southern Italy)

Vincenzo Amato, Pietro Patrizio CiroAucelli, Bruno D’Argenio, SimoneDa Prato, Luciana Ferraro, GerardoPappone, Paola Petrosino, et al.

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LAND SEA INTERACTION IN CAMPANIA (ITALY)

Holocene environmental evolution of the costal sector in frontof the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area (Sele plain,southern Italy)

Vincenzo Amato • Pietro Patrizio Ciro Aucelli • Bruno D’Argenio •

Simone Da Prato • Luciana Ferraro • Gerardo Pappone • Paola Petrosino •

Carmen Maria Rosskopf • Elda Russo Ermolli

Received: 15 June 2011 / Accepted: 28 December 2011

� Springer-Verlag 2012

Abstract The Sele river plain is located along the wes-

tern Tyrrhenian margin of the southern Apennine Chain

and is confined seaward by a straight sandy coast formed

during the Last Interglacial and the Holocene. The coastal

plain is characterised by beach-dune ridges which inter-

finger landwards with lagoon and fluvio-palustrine depos-

its. This belt, which progressively grew up, represents the

evolution of a barrier–lagoon system alternatively shifting

landwards and seawards. The knowledge on the Holocene

evolution of the Sele river coastal plain, along the coast

of the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area, was

improved by the drilling of two new cores and the col-

lection of several archaeo-tephro-stratigraphic data. The

area experienced the Holocene marine transgression which

cut high cliffs in the travertine deposits. During the second

half of the Holocene, the shoreline shifted seawards and a

lagoon–beach bar system (Fossa Lupata-Laura) formed.

The archaeological remains (VI cent. B.C.) and the Agnano

Monte Spina tephra layer (4.1 ky BP) constrain chrono-

logically this morpho-sedimentary system. After the VI

cent. B.C., and mostly after the deposition of the 79 A.D.

tephra layer, the shoreline shifted seawards and an addi-

tional beach ridge formed, while the flat area at the back

(Fossa Lupata) was rapidly aggraded and dried up.

Keywords Sea level changes � Barrier–lagoon system �Greek–Roman times � Tephrostatigraphy � Facies analysis

1 Introduction

The Holocene glacio-eustatic sea level rise after the Last

Glacial Maximum led to a worldwide flooding of shelf

areas and controlled the evolution of marine embayments,

fluvial mouths and rocky coasts, while its significant

deceleration in mid-Holocene times resulted in the over-

compensation by sediment yields and shoreline prograda-

tion in many Mediterranean alluvial-coastal plains

(Pirazzoli 1996; Galili et al. 2005; Antonioli et al. 2007;

Amorosi et al. 2009; Primavera et al. 2011). The shoreline

shifts forced ancient societies to continuously adapt their

lives and settlements to the changing natural patterns. Such

This paper is an outcome of the FISR project Vulnerability of the

Italian coastal area and marine Ecosystem to Climate changes and

their role in the Mediterranean carbon cycles (VECTOR), subproject

Vulnerability of Coastal environments to climate changes

(VULCOST) on Land–sea interaction and costal changes in the Sele

River plain, Campania.

V. Amato (&) � C. M. Rosskopf

Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie per l’Ambiente e il

Territorio, Universita del Molise, C.da Fonte Lappone,

86090 Pesche, IS, Italy

e-mail: vincenzo.amato@unimol.it

P. P. C. Aucelli � G. Pappone

Dipartimento di Scienze per l’Ambiente, Universita di Napoli

Parthenope, Centro Direzionale, Isola C4, 80143 Naples, Italy

B. D’Argenio � L. Ferraro

Istituto per l’Ambiente Marino Costiero, CNR,

Calata Porta di Massa, 80133 Naples, Italy

S. Da Prato

Istituto di Geoscienze e Georisorse, CNR, Via Moruzzi 1,

56124 Pisa, Italy

P. Petrosino

Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita degli Studi

‘‘Federico II’’ di Napoli, Largo S. Marcellino 10,

80138 Naples, Italy

E. R. Ermolli

Dipartimento ARBOPAVE, Universita degli Studi ‘‘Federico II’’

di Napoli, Via Universita 100, 80055 Portici, Italy

123

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DOI 10.1007/s12210-011-0161-1

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rapid changes in sedimentary environments have been

investigated in detail throughout the Mediterranean, com-

bining methods and research projects including a great

number of disciplines such as geomorphology, geology,

paleobiology and archaeology (e.g., Schmiedt 1971; Kraft

et al. 1975; Pirazzoli 1976, 1996; Laborel et al. 1994;

Leoni and Dai Pra 1997; Morhange et al. 2001; Lambeck

et al. 2004, 2005). These studies assert that the Holocene

sea level rise first caused a general marine transgression in

the alluvial-coastal plains of the Mediterranean Sea, and

then a strong progradational trend of shorelines. The

coastal progradation is linked to the decrease in the rate of

sea level rise and to the increase in the sediment load of

rivers. In the last 2.5 ky the latter was enhanced by the

increase in man-induced impact on vegetation and rivers

(Vita-Finzi 1969; Bradley 1999; Messerli et al. 2000;

Amato 2006). The alluvial-coastal plain of the Sele river

was interested by the same morpho-sedimentary phases

with a shoreline transgressive trend during the early

Holocene and a progradational trend starting from middle

Holocene (Cinque 1986; Brancaccio et al. 1987, 1988;

Barra et al. 1998, 1999; I.S.P.R.A a cura di Cinque A 2009

and references herein). The Sele plain, located along the

western Tyrrhenian margin of the southern Apennine Chain

(Fig. 1), shows the geomorphological evidence (dune rid-

ges and flat depressed areas) of the Late-Quaternary glacio-

eustatic sea level changes and in particular of the sea level

high stand of the last interglacial periods: Tyrrhenian High

Stand Sea Levels, HSSLs of MIS 5, and Holocene High

Stand Sea Level, HSSL of MIS 1 (Fig. 1b). In fact, the

coastal belt, which progressively grew during the late

Quaternary, represents the evolution of a barrier–lagoon

system, shifted alternatively landwards and seawards as a

result of the eustatic sea level changes.

In the SE sector of the Sele plain, near the Poseidonia-

Paestum archeological area, the morphologies linked to the

HSSLs are not recognisable, because they were absent and/

or interfingered and/or covered by several generations of

travertine deposits (Travertini di Paestum), formed during

the Last Interglacial and the Holocene, now hanging as a

terrace above the plain (Amato et al. 2009).

Using geomorphological and stratigraphic methods,

integrated by geo-archeological and tephro-stratigraphic

data, the present study focused on the Holocene morpho-

stratigraphic changes occurred in this sector of the Sele

plain to reconstruct its palaeogeographical and palaeoen-

vironmental evolution.

2 Geological and geomorphological setting

The Sele plain developed from the aggradation of a Plio-

cene-Quaternary depression located along the western

Tyrrhenian margin of the southern Apennine Chain

Fig. 1 Schematic

geomorphological map of the

Sele river alluvial-coastal plain.

a Fluvio-palustrine and

colluvial deposits (Holocene).

b Sandy dune ridges; Gromola:

Tyrrhenian (MIS 5), Laura:

Holocene, Sterpina: historical

age. c Alluvial fans (Late

Pleistocene-Holocene).

d Travertines (Late Pleistocene–

Holocene). e Marine terraces

(Middle–Late Pleistocene).

f Alluvial terraces (Middle–Late

Pleistocene). g Eboli

Conglomerates (Early

Pleistocene). h Pre-quaternary

bedrock. i Main faults.

l Alluvial terrace rims. m Paleo-

cliffs. n m a.s.l

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(Fig. 1). It is about 400 km2 wide and shows a triangular

outline which is defined seawards by a straight sandy coast

stretching. The boundaries of the plain are defined by NW–

SE and NE–SW trending faults which were active during

the Early and the Middle Pleistocene. The easternmost

portion of this structural depression was characterised since

the Late Pliocene–Early Pleistocene by continental condi-

tions as testified by the huge sedimentary aggradation of

the ‘‘Eboli Conglomerates’’ auct., which compensated the

Quaternary tectonic subsidence (Bartole et al. 1984;

Lippmann-Baggioni and Gars 1984; Cinque 1986; Cinque

et al. 1988; Zuppetta and Sava 1992). Further seaward, a

strip of coastal plain formed during the Last Interglacial

(MIS 5) is characterised by the presence of three orders of

beach-dune ridges which interfinger landward with lagoon

and fluvio-palustrine deposits (Fig. 1). Only the youngest

and most external Tyrrhenian coastal ridges still have a

clear morphological evidence (Gromola-Arenosola paleo-

ridges). The present elevation above sea level (a.s.l.) of

such Tyrrhenian deposits proves that the plain has been

moderately uplifted since the Last Interglacial period

(Cinque 1986; Brancaccio et al. 1988; Barra et al. 1998,

1999; I.S.P.R.A. 2009).

Between the Tyrrhenian sandy-coastal ridges and the

present shoreline, a younger coastal sector occurs, which is

elevated up to 5 m a.s.l. This sector progressively devel-

oped and represents the evolution of a barrier–lagoon

system shifted alternatively landward and seaward during

the Holocene. It includes a composite sandy ridge which is

partly exposed along the present coast and disappears

inland under a muddy flat depression. After being exposed

to subaerial conditions during the Last Glacial regression,

this belt gradually entered brackish conditions at the

beginning of the Holocene, when a transgressive trend

occurred, due to the effect of rapid sea level rise. The

inversion of tendency, from retrogradational to prograda-

tional, may be ascribed to the fall in the rate of sea level

rise under the threshold of balance with the progradation

due to fluvial sedimentation. The progradational trend was

interrupted by at least three phases of formation of sandy

coastal ridges, known as Laura ridge (dated from 5.3 to

3.6 ky BP) and Sterpina ridges (I and II, dated before 2.6

and about 2.0 ky BP, respectively; Brancaccio et al. 1986,

1988; Barra et al. 1998, 1999). During these intervals, the

flat depression behind the ridges witnessed palustrine

conditions which persisted partially until very recent times,

when the plain underwent man-induced reclamations.

In the southern sector of the Sele plain, near the Greek–

Roman archaeological area of Poseidonia-Paestum, lobate

and self-terraced morphologies of the ‘‘Travertini di

Paestum’’ are found (Fig. 2), generated by the carbonate

waters flowing from the springs located at the base of the

Soprano Mt and by the Capodifiume river. The recognised

lithofacies of travertine (stromatolitic, microhermal, phy-

tohermal, phytoclastic and calcareous tufa) allowed the

depositional system of ‘‘Travertini di Paestum’’ to be

referred to fluvial marshy conditions that favored the

emergence of a large sector hanging above the surrounding

plain (D’Argenio et al. 1999; Amato et al. 2009).

Recently, Amato et al. (2009) have provided a detailed

chronological reconstruction of the various stages of the

Travertini di Paestum depositional system, based on

Fig. 2 Geological and geomorphological map (1:5,000) of the

coastal sector of the southern Sele river plain. A Soils and colluviums;

B beach deposits (Actual); C alluvial deposits: 1 Actual, 2 Holocene,

3 Battipaglia-Persano synthem; D Dune ridge deposits: 1 Sterpina

(before 2.5 ky BP/after 79 A.D.), 2 Laura (Post Glacial/5.3 ky BP), 3Gromola-M.Stregara: P. Barizzo (MIS 5); E back ridge flat depression

deposits: 1 after 2.5 ky BP–Actual, 2 before 2.5 ky BP; 3 Pre-

Holocene; F Paestum Travertines depositional system: 1 Cafasso Unit

(Middle Late Pleistocene, before 50 ky BP), 2 Gaudo Unit (Late

Middle Pleistocene–Late Pleistocene), 3 Paestum Unit (Late Pleisto-

cene–Early Holocene), 4 Mancone Unit (Middle Holocene), 5Arcione Unit (Middle Holocene: before 2.5 ky BP), 6 Spinazzo Unit

(Holocene: 2.5 –1.7 ky BP), 7 Linora and Fossa Lupata Unit

(Holocene: after 1.7 ky BP), 8 Licinella Unit (Holocene: Middle

Age–Actual); G Palaeocliff; H alluvial fan; I Cores; J geological

cross-section trace; K archaeological area of Poseidonia-Paestum;

L Capodifiume paleo-course

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radiometric dating, archaeo-tephro-stratigraphic data and

geomorphological constraints (Fig. 2). The age of the

deposits suggests that the depositional systems have

migrated from NE to S from the Pleistocene to the Holo-

cene, to form thick travertine successions in the Capodifi-

ume valley even in modern times. In particular, the

deposition was active during the Last Interglacial (Tyr-

rhenian) and the early Holocene until about 5000 BP, and

in the historical period during the Late-Ancient and Middle

Ages (V–IX century A.D.).

Further seaward, downstream of the hanging travertine

terrace, a low coastal belt is present. It consists of a con-

tinuous sandy dune ridge (not more than 6 m a.s.l.), which

characterises the sector near the present beach (Fig. 3).

The dune belt stands before a depressed area, situated at

an altitude not exceeding 3 m, only recently reclaimed by a

complex drainage system. In the coastal sector, in front of

the Poseidonia-Paestum archaeological area, Lippmann-

Provansal (1987) proposed, on the basis of pottery frag-

ments found at Porta Marina (the door of the Greek–

Roman town), that a coastal lagoon had already established

in the Iron Age (3.0 ky BP), while Guy (1990a, b), on the

basis of surveys and the interpretation of satellite images

and aerial photographs, suggested that, during the Classic

period (2.5 ky BP), there was only a small lagoon (pond or

anthropically preserved and open to the sea).

3 Materials and methods

A multidisciplinary study of the SE sector of the Sele plain,

based on detailed sedimentological, geomorphological and

structural analyses, was carried out within the Vektor-

Vulkost Project (thematic line 2) to reconstruct the envi-

ronmental and landscape changes occurred during the

Holocene. The sedimentary infilling of the SE sector of the

Sele plain was studied in detail through two new cores (S2

and S3), 15-m-long, which were drilled in the coastal

sector in front of the archaeological area of Poseidonia-

Paestum (Figs. 2, 3). Further stratigraphic data were

obtained from the interpretation of ca. 200 stratigraphic

logs of cores drilled for geotechnical purposes and from

some archaeological trenches. On the basis of lithofacies,

unconformities, tephra layers and paleosoils, the core and

trench successions were subdivided into sedimentary units

using the unconformity boundary stratigraphic unit method

(UBSU, after Salvador 1994) (Tables 1, 2). The most sig-

nificant layers detected in the cores were sampled for

laboratory analyses, such as biostratigraphy, palynology

and tephrostratigraphy, to reconstruct the UBSU facies and

their chronology.

The foraminiferal and ostracoda analysis was carried out

on 10 samples from core S2 and on 14 samples from core

S3. All samples were collected at approximately 100-cm-

interval. Almost 300 g of sediment was wet-sieved through

a 125 lm mesh, dried at 60�C and then weighed. In the

present study, the size fraction [125 lm was analysed.

When abundant, the residue was split by a microsplitter

into small portions for counting foraminifera and ostra-

coda. Taxomonic identification and counting was realised

with a binocular microscope and each species was deter-

mined on the basis of previous studies on the Mediterra-

nean fauna (Cimerman and Langer 1991; Sgarrella and

Moncharmon-Zei 1993; Fiorini and Vaiani 2001). For the

genus Ammonia, we referred to Carboni and Di Bella

(1997).

Because of the scarcity of foraminifera and ostracoda in

all the analysed samples, only a qualitative analysis was

performed. A complete census data set of the benthic

foraminifera of all samples is available in Tables 1 and 3.

Five samples were collected in core S2 (2.45, 3.65, 4.75,

5.80 and 6.80 m depth) and three in core S3 (6.50, 7.40 and

11.00 m depth) for pollen analysis. For each sample, 10 g

of sediment was treated with HCl and HF for mineral

dissolution, followed by physical enrichment procedures

such as heavy fluid separation and ultrasound sieving. Only

the sample at 2.45 m depth in core S2 yielded a significant

pollen content while all other samples proved to be barren.

Four-hundred and five pollen grains were counted and 42

taxa were identified. The complete list of recovered taxa is

shown in Table 2.

Four tephra layers were found in the surveyed cores S2

and S3. In core S2 a 10-cm-thick tephra layer was sampled

between 1.90 and 2.0-m-depth (T1) and a second tephra

layer was sampled between 4.65 and 4.75 m (T2). In core

Fig. 3 Porta Marina and Fossa Lupata area: A digital elevation model

with location of the S2 and S3 cores, Paestum travertine dome,

Sterpina dune ridge and Fossa Lupata back-ridge area. B Photo of the

area

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S3, a 10-cm-thick tephra layer was sampled between 8.10

and 8.20-m-depth (T3) and a second tephra layer was

sampled between 11.10 and 11.20 m (T4). All samples

were altered mainly within the glassy matrix, generally

presenting a clayey consistence, due to partial to complete

argillification. To eliminate the clayey fraction, samples

were repeatedly washed in deionised water keeping the

water-sample mixture for at least 24 h on an oscillating

platform. During each washing step, the suspended fraction

was removed. The final mixture was washed in an ultra-

sonic tank for 6 h and repeatedly rewashed in deionised

water. The residual solid material was ovendried for 24 h

and finally sieved at 1u intervals. The single grain size

classes were carefully investigated under a binocular

microscope. Major-element analysis on glass fragments

was performed on a SEM JEOL JSM 5310 (15 kV, ZAF

Correction Routine) with EDS at Centro Interdipartimen-

tale di Servizio per Analisi Geomineralogiche (CISAG) at

the University of Naples Federico II. Instrument calibration

was based on the international mineral and glass standards.

Individual analyses of glass shards with total oxide sums

lower than 95% were excluded. Table 3 reports the

Table 1 S2 core: facies analysis with UBSU Unit (US), thickness (m) (T), description of the UBSU unit, foraminifera and ostracoda

assemblages

US T (m) Description Foraminifera and ostracoda assemblages Facies

1a 2 Brown and brown-grey clayey silts and silty sands

with rounded and angular coarse sands and gravels,

very rich in reworked volcanic clasts (pumices and

ashes), organic matter (roots and plants), reworked

travertine clasts, pulmonata shells and pottery sherds

Barren Soils and man-induced fills

T1 0.3 Yellowish to grey slightly indurate layer, containing

whitish and greyish pumice fragments (5 mm) in a

yellowish sand sized matrix made up of altered glass

fragments

79 A.D. Tephra

1b 1.2 Brown-grey and brown silty clays and silty sands very

rich in Roman age pottery sherds (0.5–5 cm),

organic matter (roots and plants), coal remains and

pulmonata shells

Barren Paleosoils with Roman age

pottery (I cent. B.C. to I

cent. A.D.)

1c 0.7 Dark-brown silty clays with organic matter (roots and

plants), volcanic clasts (ashes and rare pumices),

phytoclasts and pottery sherds. At the base grey–

green laminated silty clays very rich in volcanic

clasts (pumices and ashes)

Barren Paleosoils and marshy

deposits with Roman age

pottery (III cent. B.C.)

2a 0.8 P/P laminated dark-brown and grey-yellow silty clays

and rare rounded and sub-rounded coarse sands and

gravels, very rich in organic matter, complete and

fragmented shells and rare Greek age pottery sherds

(3–5 cm)

Ostracoda: rare Loxoconcha elliptica,

Cyprideis torosaMarshy and sheltered

lagoon deposits with

Greek pottery (VI cent.

B.C.)

2b 2 P/P laminated brown-dark and grey-yellow silty clays

and some cm peat layers, very rich in organic matter

(frequently algae) and fragmented shells (mm and

cm)

Benthic foraminifera: Ammonia tepida,

Ostracoda: Loxoconcha elliptica,

Cyprideis torosa

Sheltered and open lagoon

deposits

T2 0.1 Yellowish indurate layer, containing whitish pumice

fragments (1 mm) in an altered sandy matrix made

up of argillified glass fragments

Agnano Monte Spina

tephra (4.1 ky BP)

2c 2.3 P/P laminated dark-grey silty clays (frequently in mm

peat layers) and brown-yellow silty sands, very rich

in organic matter and nodular and platy calcareous

concretions

Benthic foraminifera: Ammonia tepida,

Ostracoda: Loxoconcha elliptica,

Cyprideis torosa, Pontocythere turbida

Open and sheltered lagoon

deposits

3a 0.75 Yellow-orange coarse and fine sands and rare fine

rounded and flattened gravels (fining upward

sequence) with upward increase of the brown sandy

silts component. Very rich in mm fragmented shells

Specimens with evidence of breakage and

abrasion, probably reworked and/or

transported

Dune and beach deposits

3b 3.15 Polygenic rounded and flattened coarse gravels and

coarse sands with, at the base, [10 cm travertine

blocks

Barren Beach and sea cliff toe

deposits

4 1.7 Phytoclastic and microhermal travertine layers Travertine

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chemical analysis of the glass fragments extracted from the

volcaniclastic layers. Their chemical composition was

classified according to the total alkali–silica diagram (TAS:

Le Bas et al. 1986, Fig. 5).

4 Main morpho-stratigraphic features

The coastal strip in front of the archaeological area of

Paestum shows a very articulated landscape, consisting in

an inner area located at an altitude between 10 and 20 m

a.s.l., some meters higher than the average level of the

plain, that does not exceed 5 m a.s.l. (Figs. 2, 3). Such

morphological high, slightly sloping towards the sea, is

composed of polyphasic depositional travertine bodies,

generated during the late Quaternary, now forming self-

terraced bodies hanging above the average level of the

plain. The travertine terrace developed above the tracks

and remains of archaeological settlements, particularly

those of the Greek–Roman town of Poseidonia-Paestum.

Landward, the hanging travertine bodies are connected to

the piedmont belt and seaward to the coastal strip by a

steep escarpment cut into travertine, whose remains are

still visible at Porta Marina. This steep escarpment gently

downgrades to a depressed area, located at an altitude of

about 4 m a.s.l. (Fossa Lupata), behind a large sand dune

ridge which reaches an altitude of about 6 m a.s.l., ca.

1 km from Porta Marina (Fig. 3).

Table 2 S3 core: facies analysis with UBSU Unit (US), thickness (m) (T), description of the UBSU unit, foraminifera and ostracoda

assemblages

US T (m) Description Foraminifera and ostracoda assemblages Facies

A1 0.8 Brown silt matrix-supported fine sands with roots

at the top

Barren Modern soil

A2 1.9 Yellow-brown rounded fine sands very rich in

quartz and carbonatic granules

Barren Dune deposits

A3 0.3 Yellow-brown silt matrix-supported fine and

medium sands gradually passing to the

underlying layer. Nearby the core, many Greek

age tombs (Ponte di Ferro Necropolis) were

engulfed in this layers

Barren Paleosoil with Greek tombs

(VI cent. B.C.)

A4 1 Yellow-brown rounded fine and medium sands

very rich in quartz and carbonatic granules

Barren Dune deposits

B1 3 Fining upward sequence from coarse to medium-

fine sands, very rich in mollusc shells

(0.1–2 cm)

Benthic foraminifera: Ammonia tepida,Ammonia gaimardi and, subordinately,

Elphidium and Quinqueloculina, Ostracoda:

Cytheretta subradiosa, Pontocythere turbida,Urocythereis gr margaritifera

Beach deposits

B2 0.9 P/P laminated dark-grey silty clays and sandy

silts very rich in organic matter (frequently mm

peaty layers)

Benthic foraminifera: Oligothipic, rare

specimens of Ammonia tepida

Ostracoda: Candona sp., Ilyocypris gibba,Candona neglecta

Marine-lagoon deposits

C1 1 Grey clayey silts and rounded phytoclasts coarse

sands rich in volcanic clasts (pumices and

ashes)

Barren Floodplain deposits

T3 0.2 Pale grey indurate layer made up of mm-sized

pumice fragments embedded in a deeply

altered ash matrix

Neapolitan Yellow Tuff

tephra (15 ky BP)

C2 2.7 Cm dark-grey clayey silts layers, cm yellow–

grey calcareous phytoclasts medium-coarse

sands layers, with interbedded 2 cm thick peaty

layers and mm reworked volcaniclastic layers

Marshy and calcareous tufa

deposits

T4 0.1 Yellowish slightly indurate layer made up of

glassy fragments embedded in a deeply

argillified ash matrix

Y-3 tephra

(30 ky BP)

C3 3.9 Cm dark-grey clayey silts layers, yellow–grey

matrix-supported medium-coarse sands layers,

with interbedded peaty layers and cm thick

reworked volcaniclastic layers

Barren Fluvial marshy deposits

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Table 3 Chemical composition, recalculated to 100 water free, of investigated tephra layers and of volcanic products used for correlation

T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 T1 79 A.D.a

SiO2 55.33 54.58 54.74 54.76 55.37 54.97 55.11 54.76 55.16 55.37 55.01 55.25 56.06

TiO2 0.21 0.62 0.49 0.57 0.46 0.14 0.46 0.47 0.35 0.44 0.47 0.46 0.45

Al2O3 23.13 21.12 21.32 21.44 21.24 23.32 21.17 21.62 21.49 23.20 21.78 21.51 21.21

FeO 2.37 4.68 3.91 3.91 3.58 2.61 4.12 3.87 3.79 2.92 3.74 4.38 3.52

MnO 0.18 0.11 0.18 0.06 0.19 0.21 0.18 0.10 0.13 0.18 0.21 0.11 0.04

MgO 0.13 0.74 0.55 0.63 0.67 0.14 0.67 0.47 0.27 0.46 0.68 0.46 0.6

CaO 2.91 5.17 4.33 5.09 4.70 3.15 5.13 5.12 4.20 5.25 4.45 5.17 4.76

Na2O 7.87 6.35 5.59 5.92 6.62 9.08 7.03 6.34 6.50 5.29 7.17 6.18 6.74

K2O 7.87 6.62 8.89 7.61 7.15 6.37 6.12 7.26 8.11 6.89 6.48 6.48 6.61

Real sum 95.71 96.88 95.66 98.54 97.32 97.43 95.32 96.45 95.54 95.65 98.11 97.98

T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 T2 AMSb

SiO2 60.06 60.10 60.10 60.14 60.25 59.89 60.25 60.82

TiO2 0.43 0.44 0.47 0.41 0.45 0.50 0.54 0.38

Al2O3 18.82 18.99 19.00 18.84 18.97 19.20 18.51 18.44

FeO 3.65 3.61 3.66 3.68 3.61 3.60 3.78 3.51

MnO 0.12 0.13 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.10 0.22

MgO 0.76 0.70 0.75 0.78 0.79 0.76 0.70 0.56

CaO 2.77 2.55 2.73 2.74 2.68 2.65 2.50 2.46

Na2O 4.08 4.31 4.03 3.96 4.06 3.87 4.34 4.49

K2O 9.30 9.16 9.16 9.30 9.07 9.39 9.28 9.15

Real sum 96.26 97.18 95.43 95.83 96.29 95.55 96.50

T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 T3 NYTc

SiO2 60.91 60.92 61.13 61.07 61.44 61.63 61.19 61.52 61.21 62.50 61.61 61.63 61.42

TiO2 0.45 0.16 0.49 0.38 0.43 0.46 0.40 0.43 0.64 0.35 0.56 0.46 0.42

Al2O3 19.02 19.33 19.33 18.88 18.98 19.01 18.90 19.05 18.92 18.78 18.93 19.34 19.05

FeO 3.39 3.33 2.85 3.63 3.09 3.21 2.97 3.07 3.18 3.12 2.95 3.13 3.17

MnO 0.10 0.00 0.07 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.21 0.15 0.00 0.11 0.19 0.07 0.12

MgO 0.32 0.76 0.42 0.57 0.33 0.33 0.49 0.36 0.35 0.14 0.24 0.48 0.39

CaO 2.35 2.21 2.29 2.41 2.37 2.29 2.20 2.09 2.19 2.08 2.30 2.18 2.26

Na2O 4.10 4.55 4.01 3.23 3.58 3.71 4.49 4.34 4.59 3.85 4.20 3.92 3.96

K2O 9.36 8.74 9.40 9.72 9.70 9.28 9.15 8.99 8.92 9.06 9.02 8.78 9.22

Real sum 98.36 95.87 96.66 95.87 98.16 97.46 96.76 97.12 98.11 98.32 96.15 96.29

T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 T4 Y-3c

SiO2 62.44 62.48 62.56 62.83 62.73 62.42 62.81 62.79 62.37 62.34 62.76

TiO2 0.29 0.26 0.42 0.29 0.33 0.26 0.43 0.31 0.33 0.48 0.36

Al2O3 18.15 18.31 18.26 18.24 18.06 18.12 18.28 18.30 18.16 18.47 18.21

FeO 3.30 3.09 2.96 3.24 3.07 3.28 3.10 3.18 3.26 3.01 2.98

MnO 0.23 0.19 0.28 0.20 0.13 0.26 0.19 0.00 0.21 0.14 0.17

MgO 0.49 0.51 0.47 0.29 0.49 0.49 0.50 0.47 0.42 0.58 0.25

CaO 2.24 2.06 2.18 2.20 2.13 2.22 2.12 2.15 2.29 2.00 2.07

Na2O 4.12 4.22 4.14 3.93 4.22 4.12 4.04 4.00 4.01 4.44 4.44

K2O 8.75 8.88 8.73 8.77 8.85 8.84 8.53 8.81 8.95 8.56 8.75

Real sum 96.75 98.12 97.64 96.44 96.53 5.32 95.78 97.56 96.87 98.11

a From Lirer et al. (1993)b Unpublished datum: sample from Vallone del Corvo (Napoli)c From Munno and Petrosino (2007)

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In addition to the numerous data from archaeological

excavations and stratigraphic logs, two new cores (Vektor

S2 and S3) were drilled down to 15-m depth. S2 and S3

were drilled, respectively, in the area immediately west-

wards of the travertine escarpment of Porta Marina (5.5 m

a.s.l.) and in the outer dune ridge, behind the coastal road

(2.5 m a.s.l.; for location see Figs. 2, 3). The escarpment is

largely erosional, except that of the western side of the

door, where the scarp corresponds to sub-vertical waterfall

travertine deposits.

In Table 1 the S2 core deposits are described with their

fossil content and facies interpretation (Fig. 4).

From the bottom to the top the S2 succession is made of

four units:

Unit 4 (1.7-m thick) Phytoclastic and microhermal trav-

ertine deposits with a clear uncorformity at the top. This

unconformity may represent an erosion surface located at

-7.5 m a.s.l which could be related to the maximum

transgression of the Holocene high stand.

Unit 3 (3.9-m thick) Coarse and fine sands and rounded

and flattened gravels with[10 cm travertine blocks at the

base. The textural characters point to a beach environment

with proximity of a cliff and river mouths. In particular,

the fining upward sequence (3a) reflects a decrease in

sea-wave energy, from cliff-toe to beach environment,

while the 3b sub-unit reflects a cliff-toe, high-energy

environment.

Fig. 4 Stratigraphic logs and unconformity boundary stratigraphic units of the S2 and S3 cores

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Unit 2 (5.2-m thick) Laminated dark-grey silty clays with

mm peat layers and brown-yellow silty sands. The bio-

stratigraphic characters allow to identify three sub-units,

separated by the Agnano M. Spina tephra layer (T2 unit,

see Sect. 4.1), dated by De Vita et al. (1999) at 4.1 ky BP,

and by Greek potteries. The 2c and 2b sub-units can be

related to open and sheltered lagoon environments,

because, they are characterised by a very high content of

organic matter and by prevailingly ostracoda assemblages.

The foraminiferal association is oligotypic and counts the

presence of rare specimens of Ammonia tepida. This spe-

cies is known to be tolerant to hypoaline and highly

schizohaline conditions (Bradshaw 1957; Jorissen 1988).

So, this assemblage can be considered to reflect a marine-

lagoon environment undergoing fluvial influence. The 2a

sub-unit contains potteries of the VI cent. B.C. and rare

ostracoda while benthic foraminifera are absent, testifying

a narrow/sheltered lagoon environment gradually passing

to marsh, with fluvial influxes.

Unit 1 (4.2-m thick) Clays and silty sands very rich in

pottery sherds (0.5–5 cm), organic matter (roots and

plants), coal remains and complete and fragmented pul-

monata shells, volcanic clasts (ashes and pumices), phyt-

oclasts. The biostratigraphic characters allow to identify

three sub-units, separated by 79 A.D. tephra and by paleo-

soils. At the base, two paleosoils are present (1b and 1c),

characterised by a high content of pottery sherds. The

uppermost paleosoil (1b) contains potteries of the I cent.

B.C. to I cent A.D, while the lowest (1c) contains potteries of

the III cent. B.C. These two sub-units are separated from the

present soil and man-induced fills (1a sub-unit) by the

tephra of the 79 A.D Vesuvius (T1sub-unit, see Sect. 4.1).

Pollen analysis of the 1b sub-unit revealed a rich and

diversified association, image of a typical cultural land-

scape of Roman times.

Clear signs of land use are mixed to the natural

vegetation around the site. In particular, intensive arboreal

cultivation is witnessed by the significant percentages of

walnut (Juglans 3.2%) and chestnut (Castanea 3.8%)

whereas high amounts of cabbage (Brassicaceae 8.6%)

reflect horticultural practices. This evidence is supported

by the recognition of tracks, in a wide area around the site,

which were interpreted as clear signs of agricultural

parceling. Other plants which could be either natural or

cultivated, such as olive (Olea 0.3%) or grapevine (Vitis

0.8%), show rather low percentages and thus their culti-

vation or use cannot be demonstrated.

Concerning the natural vegetation, a deciduous forest

dominated by oaks (Quercus dec.) occupied the surround-

ing plain and slopes. The presence of alder (Alnus), willow

(Salix) and grapevine (Vitis) testifies to the occurrence

of humid soils around the investigated site. The

Mediterranean vegetation (Q. ilex, Olea, Phillyrea, Ligu-

strum, Pistacia, Myrtus) is scarce and was probably located

towards the sea-coast on the thin soils covering the most

rocky sectors. Herbs are rather diversified and some

families, such as Poaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae,

possibly represent the part of the cultivated varieties.

Finally, the significant occurrence of water and marshy

plants testify to the vicinity of wet environments most

likely represented by ponds or temporary bogs.

The deposits of S3 core are described in Table 3 with

their fossil content and facies interpretation (Table 2;

Fig. 4).

From the bottom to the top the S2 succession can be

subdivided into three units:

Unit C (8-m thick) Characterised by alternating layers of

clays and peaty silts, sands and calcareous tufa and gravels

of fluvial-marshy environments. In this unit, the fall vol-

caniclastic deposits of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (T3:

15 ky BP, Deino et al. 2004) and of the Y-3 (T4:

30 ky BP, Munno and Petrosino 2004) are intercalated at a

depth of 8 (-5.5 m a.s.l.) and 11 m (-8.5 m a.s.l.),

respectively (see Sect. 4.1). All processed samples were

barren, confirming the facies interpretation of fluvial mar-

shy environments. The presence of the two tephra layers

(NYT and Y-3) allows this unit to be referred to the Last

Glacial Maximum low stand.

Unit B (3-m thick) Laminated dark-grey silty clays and

sandy silts very rich in organic matter (frequently mm

peaty layers), gradually passing to fining upward sequence

from coarse to medium-fine sands, very rich in mollusc

shells (0.1–2 cm). The biostratigraphic characters allow to

identify two sub-units. The B2 sub-units can be considered

to reflect a marine-lagoon environment, subject to fluvial

influence, because the benthic foraminifera assemblage is

oligothipic and worth the presence of rare specimens of

Ammonia tepida. The fining upward sequence of sub-unit

B1 (3-m thick) is very rich in mollusc shells (0.1–2 cm). In

particular in the interval from 5.00 to 6.20 m, benthic

assemblage is entirely composed by the species A. tepida

and A. gaimardi. On the whole, the fossil assemblage is

consistent with an infralittoral environment with reduced

dissolved oxygen content and/or with abundance of organic

matter, suggesting a moderate riverine influence.

Unit A (4-m thick) Rounded fine sands very rich in

quartz and carbonatic granules passing to the top to silt

matrix-supported fine sands with roots. The sedimento-

logical characters allow to identify four sub-units. Two

eolian units (A4 and A2 sub-units) separated by a palaeo-

soil and covered by the modern soil. The A1 sub-unit is the

modern soil developing on the coastal dune sandy layers of

A2 whilest A3 is the buried soil developed over the coastal

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dune sandy layers of A4. In some archaeological excava-

tions very close to the S3 core (Ponte di Ferro Necropolis,

Fig. 3), the A3 paleosoil separating the eolian sands con-

tains archaeological materials of the VI–V cent. B.C. and is

partly covered by the fall deposits of the 79 A.D. eruption.

So, the unit A may represent two depositional phases of

coastal eolian sands (A2 and A4) formed before the VI–V

cent. B.C. and after the 79 A.D., respectively.

4.1 Tephrostratigraphy

The occurrence of distal tephra layers embedded to the

sedimentary sequences surveyed in the Poseidonia-Paes-

tum area represents an added value aiming at defining the

chronostratigraphy of the investigated subset of the Sele

plain. When distal tephra layers, in fact, can be related to a

well-known and precisely dated eruptive event, they rep-

resent one of the best chronological constraints to be used

for paleogeographical reconstructions. Aiming at identify-

ing the eruption that emplaced the tephra layers, we ana-

lyzed componentry and chemical composition of juvenile

fragments and compared them to those of the products of

well known explosive events aged Late Pleistocene-Holo-

cene, possibly emplaced in the Posidonia-Paestum area.

The single grain size classes analysis of the four tephra

layers found in the cores S2 (T1 and T2) and S3 (T3 and

T4) led to the following characterisation of componentry:

T1 The juvenile fraction is represented by grey vesicu-

lated pumice fragments, containing leucite microcrystals.

The loose fraction contains feldspar and clinopyroxene

crystals, together with minor lava and limestone lithic

fragments.

T2 The juvenile fraction of this layer is very poorly

preserved, being represented by fragile tiny jagged

pumice fragments. The washed residual solid material

contains a good deal of feldspar, brown and green

clinopyroxene crystals, together with rare lithic

fragments.

T3 The well-preserved juvenile fraction of this tephra

layer after pretreatment results made up of pumice

fragments with ovoidal vesicles and glass shards both

platy and Y-shaped. The crystal fraction is mainly made

up of feldspar and clinopyroxene grains. Very rare lava

lithic fragments can be detected.

T4 The juvenile fraction of this tephra layer is made up

of very fragile vesiculated pumice fragments, deeply

altered. The layer contains feldspar and clinopyroxene

crystals.

The results of the componentry analyses made it possi-

ble to identify the Campi Flegrei and Somma-Vesuvio

volcanoes as the possible sources of the tephra layers found

in the drilled sequences.

As far as the chemical composition of juvenile frag-

ments is concerned, according to the total alkali–silica

diagram (TAS, Le Bas et al.1986; Fig. 5), sample T1 plots

in the phonolite fields, sample T2 along the phonolite-tra-

chyte boundary, and samples T3 and T4 are high-alkali,

low-silica trachytes.

By comparing the obtained chemical compositions and

mineralogical assemblage with those of well-known pyro-

clastic deposits of the Campania sources, possibly embedded

in the late Quaternary sedimentary sequences of the Paestum

area, and taking into account the relative stratigraphic posi-

tion of the tephra layers, we identified the most reliable

correlations. To point out the reliability of our correlations,

Table 3 reports the results of single point analyses both of the

investigated tephra glasses and of the ones used for com-

parison; moreover, in Fig. 5, we report the compositional

fields of the correlated products, as deduced from the review

most recent tephrostratigraphic literature.

T1 The layer well resembles chemical composition and

mineralogical assemblage of the products of the 79 A.D.

Somma-Vesuvius eruption (Fig. 5). Results of the pre-

vious studies corroborate this correlation, since the

pumice fall products of this eruption are dispersed

towards the SE and can be found in many outcrops of the

Salerno area. Moreover, deep sea gravity cores in the

Salerno Gulf (Insinga et al. 2008), offshore the Sele river

mouth (Munno and Petrosino 2004) and in the Policastro

Gulf (Buccheri et al. 2002) record the presence of a

some 10-cm-thick pyroclastic layer emplaced by the 79

A.D. plinian eruption.

T2 Although poorly preserved, chemical composition of

glass fragments from T2 pyroclastic layer and its

Fig. 5 Total alkali–silica classification plot for the Paestum tephra

layers. Yellow field A.D. 79 glass samples: data from Lirer et al. (1993);

red field Agnano Monte Spina glass samples: unpublished data, sample

from Vallone del Corvo (NA), same analytical method reported in the

text and data from and Bourne et al. (2010); orange field, Neapolitan

Yellow Tuff glass samples: data from Munno and Petrosino (2007) and

Bourne et al. (2010); dark-grey field, Y-3 glass samples: data from

Munno and Petrosino (2004) and Bourne et al. (2010)

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mineralogical assemblage corresponds well with those of

the Agnano Monte Spina Campi Flegrei explosive event,

occurred at 4.1 ky (de Vita et al. 1999) (Fig. 5). Inasmuch,

the Agnano Monte Spina eruption is the highest VEI event

of Campi Flegrei recorded in the last 5 ky, and its products

spread towards the NE, have been found in many deep sea

cores from the Adriatic Sea (Calanchi and Dinelli 2008;

Bourne et al. 2010). This is the first signal of the AMS

products along the Tyrrhenian coast, although not incom-

patible with the wide dispersal of the Monte Spina 2

phase. De Vita et al. (1999), in fact, report dispersal area

larger than 700 km2 for the pyroclastic fall products of the

phase D of the AMS eruption. The AMS products,

however, were found in the Monticchio maar lacustrine

sequence by Wulf et al. (2004).

T3 This layer is the best preserved out of the four found

in the Paestum area. As to the chemical composition of

juvenile fragments and mineralogical assemblage, it

correlates well with the tephra layer emplaced by the

Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Fig. 5), a high-size explosive

event occurred at Campi Flegrei slightly before the end

of Late Pleistocene. The occurrence of the Neapolitan

Yellow Tuff at Paestum is well corroborated by the

presence of this marker tephra layer in the Monticchio

core (Wulf et al. 2004), in the San Gregorio Magno

lacustrine sequence (Munno and Petrosino 2007) and in

many deep sea gravity cores of the Tyrrhenian Sea

(Paterne et al. 1988).

T4 The chemical composition and mineralogical assem-

blage of this poorly preserved tephra layer were

paralleled with those of the Y-3 tephra layer (Fig. 5), a

ca. 30 ky tephra (Zanchetta et al. 2008) originating at

Campi Flegrei, possibly by explosive event with vent

located in the Soccavo area (Di Vito et al. 2008).

Previous papers record the presence of Y-3 in the Sele

river mouth offshore (Munno and Petrosino 2004), in the

Policastro Gulf (Buccheri et al. 2002) and in many deep

sea cores of the Tyrrhenian Sea (Paterne et al. 1988). On

land, it has been found in some outcrops of the Punta

Licosa area (Marciano et al. 2008), in the Monticchio

maar (Wulf et al. 2004) and in the San Gregorio Magno

lacustrine sequence (Munno and Petrosino 2007).

The results of the proposed correlations were integrated

with geoarcheological and stratigraphic data to support the

reconstruction of the paleogeographical evolution of the

Posidonia-Paestum sector of the Sele plain.

5 Discussion

The schematic geological section of Fig. 6, passing

through the S2, S3 and the by-hand cores of Guy (1990a)

(Mp and Pm in Fig. 6), was drawn perpendicular to the

present shoreline, from the sea to the escarpment of Porta

Marina, where the rest of the Greek–Roman walls of Po-

seidonia-Paestum are located.

By correlating tephra layers, such as the 79 A.D., the

Agnano M. Spina (4.1 ky BP), the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff

(15 ky BP) and the Y-3 tephra (30 ky BP) with archeo-

logical rich layers, and referring the data to the known Late

Quaternary morpho-sedimentary trends, it was possible to

scan the Late Quaternary paleogeographical evolution of

this coastal sector:

• The sea level low-stand of the Last Glacial Maximum

(20 ky BP) led to a strong progradation of the shore-

line. Therefore, the whole studied area was in conti-

nental environment, and was represented in the S3 core

by deposits (Unit C) containing the Neapolitan Yellow

Tuff tephra and the Y-3 tephra. In the S2 core, the

deposits of this phase may have been eroded by the

subsequent transgressive trend and/or obliterated by the

deposition of travertine bodies.

• The rapid sea level rise of the first part of the

Postglacial period led to a rapid submergence of the

area of Porta Marina of Paestum, modeling a steep cliff.

At the foot of the latter, the beach deposits of Unit 3 (S2

core) were accumulated. The presence of fluvial

clusters in Unit 3 (S2 core) could witness the proximity

of one or more river mouths.

• As soon as the rate of the Holocene sea level rise

decreased, a rapid shoreline progradational trend

started, and a barrier–lagoon coastal system developed.

In fact, the sands of Unit A and B in the S3 core

represent the barrier beach that isolated the depressed

area of Fossa Lupata, where the open and sheltered

lagoon clays and silts of Unit 2 (S2 core) were

deposited. The presence of the AMS tephra layer

(4.1 ky BP) and the archaeological remains of the VI

cent. B.C. in Unit 2 (S2 core) allowed us to hypothesize

the presence of a barrier–lagoon coastal system during

this period. The collected chronological data are in

agreement with the previous dating of the paleo-ridge

deposits (5.3–2.5 ky BP; Brancaccio et al. 1988; Barra

et al. 1998, 1999).

• At the foundation of the Greek town of Poseidonia (540

B.C.), the Fossa Lupata depression, connected to the sea

through fluvial mouths, was probably used as a natural

port and/or sea port of the Greek town.

• From the Greek age and the 79 A.D., the area around the

S2 core was in a continental environment subject to

marshy episodes (Unit 1) while the area around the S3

core was in a coastal dune environment (Unit B).

During this period, the shoreline prograded a few

hundred meters because an additional sandy dune ridge

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formed seawards. The progradation could be responsi-

ble for palaeoenvironmental changes recorded in the

Fossa Lupata depression, from open/sheltered lagoon to

fluvial-marshy.

• After the 79 A.D. and up to the present, the shoreline

progradational trend was emphasised through the

addition of another sandy dune ridge, testified in the

S3 core by the deposits of sub-Unit A2. In the area of

the S2 core, a strong aggradation of the ground level

took place due to man-induced fills, reworked volca-

niclastic deposits of the 79 A.D. and historical deposi-

tion of travertines.

6 Conclusion

The integrated stratigraphic data obtained through the

study of the cores and their chronological framework

allowed some important stages of the Holocene paleogeo-

graphical evolution to be outlined for the SE sector of the

Sele river alluvial-coastal plain. The main results concern

the coastal sector in front of the archaeological site of

Poseidonia-Paestum, where the previous knowledge was

improved through the multiproxy study of two new cores

(Fig. 7).

In particular, during the early Holocene the morpho-

sedimentary trend points to a clear transgressive trend,

while the late Holocene points to a progradational trend.

In the area of Paestum, the transgressive trend favored

the formation of a cliff largely cut in travertine, now partly

buried by travertine deposits mostly of medieval age. The

progradational trend started when an extensive sandy dune

ridge, now located at about 0.7 km from the Porta Marina

paleocliff, formed. This ridge isolated a large depression at

its back (Fossa Lupata depression). The archaeological

remains related to the VI–V cent. B.C. and the AMS tephra

layer (4.1 ky BP) confirm the presence, during this period,

of a barrier–lagoon morpho-sedimentary system. The Fossa

Lupata depression, perhaps connected to the sea through

fluvial mouths, was probably used as a natural port and/or

sea port of the Greek town.

After this period, and mainly after the deposition of the

79 A.D. pyroclastic fall deposits, the shoreline shifted sea-

wards a few hundred meters through the formation of

Fig. 6 Geological cross-section along S2, S3 and others cores

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another dune ridge (Sterpina ridge). The Fossa Lupata

depression, no longer connected to the sea, was filled with

fluvial-marshy deposits and slowly dried up.

Aknowledgements Authors wish to thank the Soprintendenza Ar-

cheologica of Avellino-Salerno (Paestum Office), in particular, Dr.

Marina Cipriani for having kindly granted the permission for the

coring within the Porta Marina archaeological area, and Dr. Alfonso

Santoriello of the Salerno University (Beni Culturali Department) for

the interpretation of the ceramic materials of the cores.

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Fig. 7 Holocene paleo-geographical and paleo-environmental evo-

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ridge deposits, g Arcione travertine unit, h Linora travertine unit,

i Paestum travertine deposits, j Cafasso travertine unit, k paleo-

courses, l palaeocliff

b

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