Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

From cnidarians to mammals: The use of animals as remediesin fishing communities in NE Brazil

Romulo R.N. Alves a,b,∗, Ierece L. Rosa c

a Departamento de Biologia, Universidade Estadual da Paraıba, Campus Universitario do Bodocongo, Campina Grande, Paraıba, Brasilb Programa de Pos-Graduacao em Ciencias Biologicas (Zoologia), Universidade Federal da Paraıba, 58051-900 Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil

c Departamento de Sistematica e Ecologia, Universidade Federal da Paraıba, 58051-900 Joao Pessoa, PB, Brazil

Received 22 September 2005; received in revised form 10 March 2006; accepted 13 March 2006

Abstract

This work documents zootherapeutic practices in Northeast Brazil. It is primarily based on field surveys carried out in fishing villages located inthe states of Maranhao and Paraıba, where 60 respondents (38 men and 22 women) provided information on animal species used as medicine, bodyparts used to prepare the remedies and illnesses to which the remedies were prescribed. A total of 100 animal species (72 families), distributed in1l(c©

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2 taxonomic categories, was used as medicine. Zootherapeutic resources were used to treat 62 different diseases. The local medicinal fauna isargely based on wild animals, including some endangered species. Threatened species, such as the seahorse (Hippocampus reidi, Ginsburg, 1933)Syngnathidae) and the green turtle (Chelonia mydas, Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae) represented important medicinal resources for the studiedommunities. This shows the need to integrate traditional knowledge into strategies to conserve and manage faunistic resources in Brazil.

2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

eywords: Conservation; Ethnozoology; Traditional medicine; Zootherapy

. Introduction

Naturally occurring substances of plant, animal and min-ral origin have provided a continuing source of medicinesince the earliest times known to man (David and Anderson,969), and their use has been perpetuated through the use ofraditional medicines. Traditional forms of medicine have beentrongly incorporated by contemporary societies, phytotherapynd zootherapy being among the various therapeutic alternativessed around the globe (Alves and Rosa, 2005).

Animals and plants have been broadly used since ancientimes in Brazilian traditional medicine (Almeida, 2005), andave played a significant role in healing practices. This is noturprising given the estimate that Brazil possesses between 15nd 20% of all the world’s biological diversity, as well as a sig-ificant cultural mega diversity, represented by more than 200ndigenous peoples as well as by a large number of local com-

unities which detain a considerable knowledge of the flora andauna, and of traditional systems of renewable natural resources

∗

management (MMA, 2003). Animal species have been medici-nally used in the country by indigenous societies for millennia,and by descendants of the European settlers for the last fourcenturies (Costa-Neto, 1999a).

Expressions of traditional medicine in the country, particu-larly of zootherapy, represent an interaction of native, Africanand European elements, since the beginning of colonization(Almeida, 2005), resulting in a rich ethnomedicine used by peo-ple belonging to different social classes in Brazil (Costa-Neto,1999a). Nevertheless, the use of animal species as remedies,although representing an important component of traditionalmedicine (sometimes in association with plant species), has beenmuch less studied than medicinal plants in the country. WhileCalixto (2005) recorded 3722 published full paper on medicinalplants in Brazil, inventories of animal species used as medicineare still relatively rare in the country.

Moreover, a substantial portion of the information availableon zootherapeutic practices in Brazil was obtained in the north-eastern State of Bahia alone (Costa-Neto, 1996, 1999a,b,c,d,2000a,b, 2001, 2002; Costa-Neto and Marques, 2000; Andradeand Costa-Neto, 2005; Costa-Neto and Pacheco, 2005). Theremaining brazilian studies were based on field work con-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +55 83 32167775; fax: +55 83 32167775.

E-mail address: romulo nobrega@yahoo.com.br (R.R.N. Alves). ducted in the states of Para (Branch and Silva, 1983; Figueiredo,

378-8741/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.oi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.03.007

JEP-4184; No. of Pages 18

2 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

1994); Maranhao-Tocantins (Begossi and Braga, 1992); Per-nambuco (Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004;Almeida, 2005); Alagoas (Marques, 1995; Marques and Costa-Neto, 1997); Rio de Janeiro (Seixas and Begossi, 2001); SaoPaulo (Begossi, 1992).

Regrettably, some of the zootherapeutic resources used in thecountry are already included in Brazil’s official lists of threat-ened species (IBAMA, 2003; MMA, 2004). As pointed out byMarques (1997), the medical potential of the Brazilian fauna andthe possibility of its exhaustion through overexploitation or evenspecies extinction, requires urgently an ecological evaluation ofthis process by assessing not only its zoological dimension butalso its cultural dimension.

Given Brazil’s significant cultural and biological diversity,the country can be used as a useful case study to increase ourknowledge of faunistic resources used as medicines, and to drawattention to the need to protect traditional knowledge and bio-diversity. In that context, the aim of this paper is to documentzootherapeutic practices in two fishing communities located inthe Northeastern region of Brazil. The study is primarily basedon field surveys, and was centered around the following ques-tions: which animal species are used as medicine by the twocommunities? Which are the body parts used to prepare theremedies? Which are the illnesses treated by the remedies? Howare geographical discontinuity and local landscapes reflected inthe zootherapeutic practices of the two communities?

2

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tation consists of remnants of the Atlantic forest and ‘restinga’(coastal forest vegetation), and mangrove ecosystem coveringmore than 6000 ha on the banks of the rivers Mamanguape andMiriri, and their tributaries. Other ecosystems represented in the‘APA’ are lagoons, beaches and reefs.

According to Paludo and Klonowski (1999), the dwellers ofthe ‘APA’ originated from miscegenation of white, Amerindi-ans and black people. Most people living in the studysites consider themselves Christian (76.69% at the Marcacaosite and 81.98% at Mamanguape) (http://www.zillner.eng.br/infobrasil/municipioslista.php). Most of the riverine humancommunities depend on the estuary and mangrove habitats fortheir survival and maintenance of their culture. According toVidal (2000), in some areas of the ‘APA’ there are subsistencecrop plantations and even livestock owned by local farmers.APA’s settlers face a number of social problems, such as lack ofhealth care system, of water treatment, and of an adequate schoolsystem and use local natural resources as source of energy, foodand of building materials (Pereira, 1995). In some areas closerto the mouth of the Mamanguape river tourism has emerged asan additional economic activity for the locals.

Interviewees’ age ranged from 28 to 87 years (the average agebeing 52.7 years). With regards to schooling, 76.7% (n = 23) ofthe interviewees were illiterate, 13.3% (n = 4) attended schoolfor 8 years (completing what is known in Brazil as “ensino fun-damental”), 6.7% (n = 2) attended school for less than 8 yearsaitw

2

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g the

. Methods

.1. Sites of study

.1.1. APA Barra do rio Mamanguape—Paraıba StateThe ‘APA’ Barra do rio Mamanguape has a total area of

4,460 ha, and encompasses the estuaries of the rivers Maman-uape, Miriri and Estiva (Alves et al., 2005) (Fig. 1). Its vege-

Fig. 1. Map showin

nd 3.3% (n = 1) attended the 3 years of high school (complet-ng what is known in Brazil as “ensino medio”). With regardso monthly income, most interviewees (70%) earned minimumage (R$ 300 = US$ 131.34) or less.

.1.2. Municipality of Raposa—Maranhao StateThe municipality of Raposa is located on the island of

ao Luıs, at about 37 km from the city of Sao Luıs, capi-al of the state of Maranhao. According to Rangel (2003),

surveyed localities.

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 3

modern occupation of that municipality began in the 50s,when fishers from the neighbour state of Ceara moved to theRaposa area. That coastal municipality covers ca. 63.9 km2,and encompasses a population of 16,057 people, whose mainsources of income are artisanal fisheries and production of crafts(Rodrigues et al., 2001; Zoneamento Costeiro do Estado doMaranhao, 2003). The coastal physiography of the region wherethe Raposa municipality is located includes sandy beaches,paleodunes, mangroves, etc. (Feitosa, 1998), and the munic-ipality is considered the main producer of fish in the stateof Maranhao (Stride, 1988). Most people in the Raposa areaconsider themselves catholics (56.17%), followed by evan-gelicals (35%). Some (24%) informed they had no religion(http://www.zillner.eng.br/infobrasil/municipioslista.php).

Interviewees’ age ranged between 33 and 85 years (mean:48.36). With regards to schooling, 26.7% (n = 8) of the intervie-wees were illiterate, 16.7% (n = 5) attended school for 8 years(completing what is known in Brazil as “ensino fundamental”),50% (n = 15) attended school for less than 8 years and 6.67%(n = 2) attended the 3 years of high school (completing what isknown in Brazil as “ensino medio”). With regards to monthlyincome, most interviewees (70%) earned (R$ 600 = US$ 264.68)or less.

2.2. Procedures

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To respect intellectual property rights, we adopted the fol-lowing protocol in the field: before the survey, we introducedourselves, explained the nature and objectives of our researchand asked the respondents for permission to record the informa-tion. A formal approach using consent forms was hampered dueto the illiteracy found among most of the interviewees.

We used the native visualization or emic approach, avoidingthis way the introduction of comments or terms used by theresearcher (or interviewer), which could influence the answergiven by the informants (see Sturtevant, 1964; Posey, 1986).

Species’ vernacular names were recorded as quoted by inter-viewees. Zoological material was identified with the aid of spe-cialists, through (1) examination of voucher specimens donatedby the interviewees; (2) photographs of the animals or their parts,taken during interviews; (3) vernacular names, with the aid oftaxonomists familiar with the study areas’ fauna. Voucher spec-imens and/or photographs were deposited at the Department ofSystematics and Ecology, Universidade Federal da Paraıba.

2.3. Data analysis

The first step employed in the data analysis was calculationof the informant consensus factor (ICF), adapted from Heinrichet al. (1998). A value near zero indicates a high variation in theuse of species, if animals are chosen randomly, or if informantsdhiiacum

I

ai

U

wp

tn

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Field research was conducted in APA Barra do rio Maman-uape from September to December 2003, and in the Raposarea from January to February 2004. During the first contactsith the local population, we attempted to identify local peopleith a specialized knowledge of medicinal animal use, followingavis and Wagner (2003). A specialist is defined as “a person

ecognized by the community as having deep knowledge abouthe use of animals in manufacturing remedies and in promotingures”, following Gazzaneo et al. (2005). Information on the usef animal in traditional medicines was collected through inter-iews with 60 persons (30 in each locality), mainly from thelderly populations, who still retain the major portion of tradi-ional knowledge in their respective communities (see Pieronit al., 2002a). Additional interviewees were chosen by usinghe snowball technique, based on information initially providedy the specialists. Interviews were conducted on a one-to-oneasis.

Data were gathered through interview-questionnairesAdeola, 1992), with some questions left open-endedHuntington, 2000). Questionnaires were applied to 38 men and2 women who detained knowledge of zootherapeutic practices,nd encompassed the following aspects: local name of the animalsed as remedy; parts used as medicine; conditions treated withhe remedy; preparation and usage; restrictions of use; adverseffects; spiritual aspects linked to the use; use of live or deadnimals; how animals were obtained; storage conditions; col-ection sites; gear used to collect the animals; efficacy of theemedies; traditional uses of the remedies in the community;ow knowledge was acquired by the interviewees; reliance onnimal-based remedies; why the interviewee used animal-basedemedies.

o not exchange information about their use. Values will beigh (near 1) indicates a high intra-cultural consensus, if theres a well-defined selection criterion in the community and/orf information is exchanged between informants (Gazzaneo etl., 2005). The ICF was calculated as follows: number of useitations in each category (nur) minus the number of speciessed (nt), divided by the number of use citations in each categoryinus one.

CF = nur − nt

nur − 1

The use-value (adapted from the proposal of Phillips etl., 1994), a quantitative method that demonstrates the relativemportance of species known locally, was also calculated:

V = �U

n,

here UV is the use-value of a species, U the number of citationser species and n is the number of informants.

Application of the use-value of each species is based objec-ively on the importance attributed by the informants and doesot depend on the opinion of the researcher.

The diseases treated with zootherapeutic resources quotedy the interviewees were distributed in 18 categories, based onhe classification used by the Centro Brasileiro de Classificacaoe Doencas (1993) (Brazilian Center for the Classification ofiseases), as follows: (1) respiratory system; (2) osteomus-

ular system and conjunctive tissue; (3) external causes oforbidity and mortality; (4) skin and subcutaneous tissues;

5) digestive system; (6) circulatory system; (7) some typesf infection and parasitic diseases; (8) ear (middle and innerar) and mastoid apophysis; (9) urinogenital system; (10) blood

4 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 1Categories of diseases treated with zootherapic remedies in two surveyed communities, according to the Brazilian Centre for the Classification of Diseases

Categories Diseases and illnesses mentioned by respondents Total

Some infections and parasitic diseases Amoebiasis, athlete’s foot, diarrhoea, erysipelas, measles,tuberculosis, rabies, schistosomiasis, wart, whooping cough

10

Respiratory system Asthma, bronchitis, chesty cough, cough, flu, pneumonia, shorethroat, shortness of breath

8

Digestive system Ulcer, hernia, poor digestion, stomach ache, gastritis, appendicitis,toothache

7

Undefined illnesses Healing of umbilical cord of newborn baby, infection, irritationwhen milk teeth are erupting, the evil eye, venereal disease

5

External causes of morbidity and mortality Alcoholism, dog bite, stings (fishes, crustaceans, snakes andinsects), suck a splinter out of skin or flesh, swelling

5

Osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue Arthritis, arthrosis, backache, osteoporosis, rheumatism 5Injuries, poisoning and other consequences of

external causesBerne, bleeding (wounds), burns, intoxication from poisonousanimals, wounds

5

Urinogenital system Menstrual cramps, renal failure, womb disorders 3Circulatory system Hemorrhage, haemorrhoids, thrombosis 3Skin and subcutaneous tissue Boil, skin spots, tumour 3Nervous system Epilepsy, headache 2Neoplasias (tumours) Cancer (in general), breast cancer 2Ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid

apophysisDeafness, earache 2

Blood and haematopoeitic organs, and somedisorders of the immune system

Anaemia 1

Pregnancy, parturition and puerperium Disorders after partutirion (to accelerate recovery after parturition) 1Symptoms, signs and abnormal findings from

medical and laboratorial examination, notcategorized in other part or section

Incontinence 1

Mental and behavioural perturbations Male impotence 1Diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolism

and nutritionWeakness 1

Total 65

A, Respiratory system; B, osteomuscular system and conjunctive tissue; C, external causes of morbidity and mortality; D, skin and subcutaneous tissues; E, digestivesystem; F, circulatory system; G, some infections and parasitic diseases; H, ear (middle and inner ear) and mastoid apophysis; I, urinogenital system; J, blood andhaematopoeitic organs and some disorders of the immune system; L, injuries, poisoning and other consequences of external causes; M, symptoms, signs and abnormalfindings from medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized in other part or section; N, mental and behavioural perturbations; O, undefined illnesses; P,pregnancy, parturition and puerperium; Q, nervous system; R, neoplasias (tumours); S, diseases of the endocrine glands, metabolism and nutrition.

and haematopoeitic organs, and some disorders of the immunesystem; (11) injuries, poisoning and other consequences of exter-nal causes; (12) nervous system; (13) pregnancy, parturitionand puerperium; (14) symptoms, signs and abnormal findingsfrom medical and laboratorial examination, not categorized inother part or section; (15) neoplasias (tumours); (16) mentaland behavioural perturbations; (17) diseases of the endocrineglands, metabolism and nutrition; (18) undefined illnesses(Table 1).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Zootherapheutical resources

Since the 1980s various publications have shown the impor-tance of zootherapy for traditional communities from distinctsocio-cultural–environmental landscapes in Brazil. Branch andSilva (1983) inventoried 33 animal species used as remedies inthe Northern state of Para; Begossi (1992) reported the use of10 animal species at Buzios Island, off the state of Sao Paulo;Marques (1995) reported the use of 56 species in the ecoregionof Varzea de Marituba, state of Alagoas; Seixas and Begossi

(2001) identified 16 species used by fishers at the island of IlhaGrande, state of Rio de Janeiro.

In the present work, we recorded the use of 100 animal species(72 vertebrates and 28 invertebrates) for medicinal purposes, ofwhich 31 were common to both communities studied. Amongthe 31 species used by both communities, 81% were prescribedfor the same illnesses at each locality (e.g., the shared use ofHippocampus reidi and of Megalops atlanticus Valenciennes,1847 to treat asthma). Furthermore, of the 15 species, whichwere quoted more than 10 times during the interviews, most(n = 11, 73.3%) were used by both surveyed communities, sug-gesting a geographic continuum in the selection of species usedas medicine in NE Brazil.

Respondents at the APA da Barra do rio Mamanguape used74 animal species as remedies, whereas the Raposa communityused 57 (Table 2). The species inventoried comprised 12 tax-onomic categories, belonging to 72 families (Fig. 2; Table 2),which represent a significant part of their medicinal armamen-tarium.

Fishes were the best represented group (27 species), fol-lowed by mammals (22) and reptiles (18). This agrees withthe results obtained by previous authors, who have shown that

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 5

Table 2Animals species used in popular medicine at the study sites (PB = Paraıba and MA = Maranhao)

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

CnidariansPhysaliidae

aPhysalia physalia—Portuguese-man-of-war,“Caravela”

1 1 0.03 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma

MolluscsOstreidae

Crassostrea rhizophorae (Guilding,1828)—mangrove oyster, “ostra do mangue”

15 3 0.53 0.17 Flesh (6), shell (3) Osteoporosis, pneumonia, stomachache, cancer, flu, weakness, painrelief in injuries caused by the dorsalfin spine of a species of catfish,anaemia, tuberculosis

VeneridaeaAnomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin,

1791)—clam, “marisco”2 1 0.07 0.03 Flesh (6), shell (3) Asthma, flu, stomach ache

LittorinidaeaLittorina angulifera (Lamarck,

1822)—periwinkle snail, “mela-pau”4 – 0.2 – Flesh (6, 7) Chesty cough, shortness of breath

MytilidaeMytella guyanensis (Lamarck, 1819)—mussel,

“sururu”– 1 – 0.03 Flesh (6) Weakness

LoliginidaeLoligo sp.—squid, “lula” 11 – 0.37 – Shell (1) Asthma

AmpullariidaePomacea lineata (Spix, 1827)—snail, “arua” 1 – 0.03 – Extract obtained from ova

(10)Ulcer

ChelicerataBothriuridae

Bothriurus sp.—scorpion, “escorpiao-preto” – 1 – 0.03 Whole animal (9) Pain relief caused by the species’sting

CrustaceansOcypodidae

Ocypode quadrata (JC Fabricius, 1787)—ghostcrab, “Maria farinha”

5 1 0.17 0.07 Carapace (1), bile (4) Flu, asthma, to alleviate thesymptoms of intoxication withpoison of poison of ‘niquim’ (Pisces,Batrachoididae)

Ucides cordatus (Linnaeus, 1763)—land crab,“caranguejo-uca”

1 – 0.03 – Bile (10) Incontinence

Uca maracoani (Latreille, 1802)—fiddler crab,“maracoani”

– 3 – 0.17 Whole animal (1) Asthma, whooping cough

SesarmidaeaAratus pisoni (H. Milne Edwards,

1837)—mangrove crab, “aratu preto”6 – 0.2 – Whole animal (1), flesh (6) Epilepsy, to alleviate the symptoms

of intoxication with poison ofColomesus psittacus (a species ofpufferfish)

GrapsidaeaGoniopsis cruentata (Latreille,

1802)—mangrove root crab, “aratu domangue”

2 – 0.07 – Flesh (6), bile (4) Venereal disease

PalaemonidaeMacrobrachium acanthurus (Wiegmann,

1836)—cinnamon river shrimp, camarao deagua doce

1 – 0.03 – Flesh (4) Irritation when milk teeth areerupting

Macrobrachium borellii (Nobili,1896)—freshwater shrimp, camarao de aguadoce

1 – 0.03 – Flesh (4) Irritation when milk teeth areerupting

SquillidaeSquilla sp.—mantis shrimp, “Siriboia”,

“tamburutaca”– 11 – 0.4 Whole animal (9) Pain relief in injuries caused by sting

of the insect itself, snake bites and theinjuries caused by the spines of thefishes ‘niquim’, ‘bagre’ and ‘arraia’)

6 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued )

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

PenaeidaeLitopenaeus schmitti (Burkenroad,

1936)—southern white shrimp, camaraobranco

– 2 – 0.07 Fat (4) Irritation when milk teeth areerupting, skin spots

Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (Heller, 1862)—Atlanticseabob, camarao branco

– 2 – 0.07 Fat (4) Irritation when milk teeth areerupting, skin spots

ChilopodaScolopendridae

Scolopendra sp.—centipede, “centopeia” – 2 – 0.07 Whole animal (9) Pain relief in injuries caused by stingof insects and snake bite

InsectsFormicidae

Atta cephalotes (Linnaeus, 1758)—aleaf-cutter ant, “tanajura”

1 – 0.03 – Abdomen of winged adults(7)

Sore throat

aDinoponera quadriceps (Santschi,1921)—“trinca cunhao”

1 – 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma

BlattidaePeriplaneta americana (Linnaeus,

1758)—American cockroach, “barata”1 1 0.03 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma

ApidaeMelipona scutellaris (Latreille, 1811)—a

species of stingless bee, “urucu”3 – 0.23 – Honey (10, 8) Flu, amoebiasis

Melipona compressipes (Fabricius, 1804)—aspecies of stingless bee, “tiuba”

– 1 – 0.07 Honey (10, 8) Asthma, cough

Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758)—Africanisedhoney bee, “abelha italiana”

1 – 0.03 – Honey (10, 8) Flu, amoebiasis

EchinodermsOreasteridae

aOreaster reticulatus (Linnaeus,1758)—starfish, “Estrela do mar”

10 – 0.33 – Whole animal (1) Asthma

AstropectinidaeAstropecten sp.—starfish, “Estrela do mar” 10 – 0.33 – Whole animal (1) Asthma

MellitidaeaEncope sp.—notched sand dollar, “bolacha de

praia”1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (1) Asthma

FishesMyliobatidae

aAetobatus narinari (Euphrasen,1790)—Spotted eagle ray, raia chita

5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail(1), mucous from ventralregion (4), liver (6)

Asthma, pain relief caused in injuriesby the species’ sting, burns

DasyatidaeaDasyatis marianae (Gomes, Rosa & Gadig,

2000)—Brazilian large-eyed stingray, raiamariquita

5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail(1), mucous from ventralregion (4), liver (6)

Asthma, pain relief caused in injuriesby the species’ sting, burns

Dasyatis guttata (Bloch & Schneider,1801)—longnose stingray, raia branca

5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail(1), mucous from ventralregion (4), liver (6)

Asthma, pain relief caused in injuriesby the species’ sting, burns

UrolophidaeaUrotrygon microphthalmum (Delsman,

1941)—Smalleyed round stingray, raia5 – 0.2 – Tooth (1), liver oil (4), tail

(1), mucous from ventralregion (4), liver (6)

Asthma, pain relief caused in injuriesby the species’ sting, burns

GymnotidaeElectrophorus electricus (Linnaeus,

1766)—Electric eel, “poraque”2 1 0.07 0.03 Fat (4) Rheumatism

CarcharhinidaeCarcharhinus porosus (Ranzani,

1840)—Smalltail shark, “Junteiro”– 1 – 0.03 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis

aGaleocerdo cuvier (Peron & Lesueur, 1822)(Tiger shark) “Jaguara”

– 2 – 0.07 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis

Carcharhinus limbatus (Ranzani,1840)—Blackfin shark, “Sucuri preto”

– 2 – 0.1 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 7

Table 2 (Continued )

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

Rhizoprionodon porosus (Poey,1861)—Sharpnose shark, “cacao”

3 – 0.13 – Cartilage (3), oil (4) Rheumatism

Rhizoprionodon lalandii (Muller & Henle,1839)—Brazilian sharpnose shark, “cacao”

3 – 0.13 – Cartilage (3), oil (4) Rheumatism

SphyrnidaeSphyrna sp.—Hammerhead shark, “Martelo” – 3 – 0.1 Cartilage (3) Osteoporosis

TetraodontidaeColomesus psittacus (Bloch & Schneider,

1801)—banded puffer, “baiacu”– 3 – 0.1 Bile (4), liver oil (4) Breast cancer, backache, warts

MegalopidaeMegalops atlanticus (Valenciennes,

1847)—tarpon, “Camurupim”6 3 0.17 0.1 Scale (1) Asthma

AspredinidaeaAspredo aspredo (Linnaeus, 1758)—Banjo

catfish, “viola”– 1 – 0.03 Barbels (1) Asthma

aAspredinichthys tibicen (Valenciennes,1840)—Tenbarbed banjo, “viola”

– 1 – 0.03 Barbels (1) Asthma

BatrachoididaeThalassophryne nattereri (Steindachner,

1876)—venomous toadfish, “niquim”– 1 – 0.07 Flesh (6) Pain relief caused in injuries by the

species’ sting

BalistidaeBalistes vetula (Linnaeus, 1758)—queen

triggerfish, “cangulo”– 25 – 1.03 Skin (1), tooth (1) Asthma, haemorrhage, ascites

(schistosomiasis), appendicitis,menstrual cramps, gastritis

SyngnathidaeHippocampus reidi (Ginsburg,

1933)—longsnout seahorse,“Cavalo-marinho”

29 22 1 0.97 Whole animal (1) Asthma, gastritis

MuraenidaeaGymnothorax funebris (Ranzani,

1840)—Green moray, “moreia verde”1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds)

aGymnothorax moringa (Cuvier,1829)—Spotted moray, “moreia pintada”

1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds)

aGymnothorax vicinus (Castelnau,1855)—Purplemouth moray, “moreia”

1 – 0.03 – Flesh (6) Bleeding (wounds)

GinglymostomidaeaGinglymostoma cirratum (Bonnaterre,

1788)—nurse shark, “Cacao lixa”3 3 0.13 0.13 Cartilage (1), oil (4) Rheumatism

OgcocephalidaeOgcocephalus vespertilio (Linnaeus,

1758)—batfish, “Peixe morcego”– 1 – 0.03 Whole animal (1) Asthma

ClupeidaeaOpisthonema oglinum (Lesueur,

1818)—Atlantic thread herring, “Sardinha”1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (12) Alcoholism

ErythrinidaeHoplias malabaricus (Bloch, 1794)—Trahira,

“traıra”1 – 0.07 – Fat (5) Deafness

ExocoetidaeExocoetus sp.—Tropical two-wing flyingfish,

“peixe voador”1 – 0.03 – Fat (10) Asthma

ScorpaenidaeScorpaena sp.—scorpionfish, “peixe-pedra” – 1 0.03 Flesh (6) Wounds

AmphibiansBufonidae

Bufo sp.—toad, “sapo” 1 – 0.03 – Whole animal (2) Wounds

ReptilesCheloniidae

Chelonia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758)—Green seaturtle, “Tartaruga verde”, “aruana”

10 4 0.5 0.17 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat,swelling, whooping cough, arthritis

8 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued )

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

Eretmochelys imbricata (Linnaeus,1766)—Atlantic hawksbill, “tartaruga depente”

11 – 0.57 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat,swelling

Caretta caretta (Linnaeus, 1758)—loggerheadturtle, “tartaruga cabecuda”

5 – 0.4 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat,swelling

DermochelyidaeDermochelys coriacea (Vandelli,

1761)—leatherback turtle, “tartaruga decouro”

5 1 0.4 0.03 Fat (4), oil from skin (4 or 10) Rheumatism, earache, sore throat,swelling

ChelidaePhrynops geoffroanus (Schweigger,

1812)—Geoffroy’s side-necked turtle,“cagado”

1 1 0.07 0.03 Fat (4) Sore throat, swelling

TestudinidaeGeochelone carbonaria (Spix,

1824)—Red-Footed Tortoise, “jabuti”– 1 – 0.03 Carapace (1) Asthma

TeiidaeTupinambis sp.—tegu, “tejuacu” 20 4 0.97 0.13 Fat (4 or 10), tongue (1), skin

(1)Asthma, tumour, swelling,rheumatism, earache, sore throat,infection, bronchitis

TropiduridaeTropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825)—a lava

lizard, “lagartixa”3 – 0.1 Whole animal (11) Sore throat, erysipelas, healing of

umbilical cord of newborn baby

GekkonidaeHemidactylus mabouia (Moreau de Jonnes,

1818)—Afro-American house gecko,“lagartixa de lajedo”

1 – – 0.03 Whole animal (11) Sore throat

AlligatoridaeCaiman latirostris (Daudin, 1801)—cayman,

“jacare”4 8 0.13 0.33 Tooth (13), skin (1), fat (4) Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as a

protection against snake bite,rheumatism, milk teeth eruption,hernia

Paleosuchus palpebrosus (Cuvier,1807)—Cayman, “jacare”

4 8 0.13 0.33 Tooth (13), skin (1), fat (4) Asthma, sore throat, amulet used as aprotection against snake bite,rheumatism, milk teeth eruption,hernia

BoidaeBoa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758)—Boa,

“jiboia”1 8 0.07 0.43 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, arthrosis,

insect sting, dog bite, boils.Epicrates cenchria (Linnaeus,

1758)—Rainbow boa, “salamanta”1 – 0.07 – Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat

Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus,1758)—anaconda, “sucuruju”, “sucuri”

– 3 – 0.13 Fat (4 or 10) Rheumatism, boils, male impotence,headache

IguanidaeIguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758)—common

iguana, “camaleao”7 2 0.3 0.07 Bone (1), Fat (4), tail (1) Asthma, athlete’s foot, rheumatism,

sore throat, swelling, burn, tumour, tosuck a splinter out of skin or flesh

ViperidaeBothrops sp.—lancehead, “jararaca” – 1 – 0.03 Fat (4) Tumour, furuncleLachesis muta (Linnaeus, 1766)—bushmaster,

“surucucu pico de jaca”– 1 – 0.03 Fat (4) Tumour, furuncle

Crotalus durissus (Linnaeus,1758)—Neotropical rattlesnake, “cascavel”

19 9 0.97 0.4 Fat (4), rattle (1) Rheumatism, backache, asthma,tumour, furuncle, headache, earache,osteoporosis, sore throat, toothache

BirdsPhasianidae

Gallus domesticus (Linnaeus, 1758)—domesticchicken, “Galinha”

6 1 0.2 0.07 Fat (4 or 10), gizzard (6) Asthma, sore throat, tumour, poordigestion, healing of umbilical cordof newborn baby

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 9

Table 2 (Continued )

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

CathartidaeCoragyps atratus (Bechstein, 1793)—black

vulture, “urubu”2 1 0.1 0.03 Feather (3), liver (6) Bronchitis, anaemia, flu (catarrh),

alcoholism

PsittacidaeAmazona sp.—parrot, “papagaio” 1 1 0.03 0.07 Faeces (5 or 3) Earache, alcoholism

MeleagrididaeaMeleagris gallopavo (Linnaeus,

1758)—turkey, “peru”3 – 0.1 – Feather (1) Asthma

MammalsDelphinidae

Sotalia fluviatilis (Gervais and Deville,1853)—Amazonian dolphin, “boto”

3 5 0.1 0.23 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4or10)

Asthma, headache, rheumatism,hernia, womb disorders, sore throat

Sotalia guianensis (P.J. Van Beneden,1864)—Guianan river dolphin, “boto”

3 5 0.1 0.23 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4or 10)

Asthma, headache, rheumatism,hernia, womb disorders, sore throat

IniidaeInia geoffrensis (Blainville, 1817)—Amazon

river dolphin, “boto rosa”1 – 0.1 Fat (4 or 10), oil from skin (4

or 10)Asthma, headache, rheumatism,hernia, womb disorders, sore throat

BalaenopteridaeBalaenoptera acutorostrata (Lacepede,

1804)—minke whale, baleia minke3 1 0.13 0.1 Fat (4 or 10), oil (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds

PhyseteridaePhyseter macrocephalus (Linnaeus,

1758)—sperm whale, “cachalote”4 1 0.13 0.13 Fat (4 or 10), oil (4 or 10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds

TrichechidaeTrichecus manatus (Linnaeus,

1758)—manatee, “peixe-boi”4 3 0.2 0.17 Fat (4 or 10), milk (10) Rheumatism, sore throat, wounds

Trichecus inunguis (Natterer,1883)—Amazonian manatee, “peixe-boi”

3 3 0.1 0.17 Fat (4 or 10), skin (1) Rheumatism, burns, asthma,menstrual cramps

MephitidaeConepatus sp.—a species of skunk, “tacaca” 1 – 0.03 – Bone (3) Osteoporosis, renal failure

ProcyonidaeProcyon cancrivorus (G. [Baron] Cuvier,

1798)—crab-eating raccoon, “guaxinim”1 3 0.03 0.1 Skin (1 or 13) Thrombosis, amulet used as a

protection against snake biteNasua nasua (Linnaeus, 1766)—Coati, “quati” 1 – 0.03 – Bone (13) Backache

CanidaeCerdocyon thous (Linnaeus,

1766)—crab-eating fox, “raposa”6 – 0.2 – Fat (4 or 10), bone (1) Rheumatism, flu, haemorrhoids,

disorders after parturition (toaccelerate recovery after parturition)

Canis familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758)—dog,“cachorro”

5 1 0.17 0.03 Faeces (1) Measles, menstrual cramps

ErethizontidaeCoendou prehensilis (Linnaeus,

1758)—Brazilian porcupine, “Coandu”,“porco espinho”

9 – 0.33 – Spines or quills (1) Asthma

DidelphidaeDidelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840)—common

opossum, “timbu”7 – 0.23 – Fat (4) Hernia, boils

Didelphis marsupialis (Linnaeus,1758)—southern opossum, “mucura”

– 2 – 0.07 Fat (1 or 4) Stomach ache, rheumatism, diarrhoea

LeporidaeSylvilagus brasiliensis (Linnaeus,

1758)—rabbit, “coelho”1 – 0.03 – Fur (4) Burns

DasypodidaeEuphractus sexcintus (Linnaeus,

1758)—armadillo, “tatu peba”3 1 0.1 0.07 Tail (5), skin (1) Earache, amulet to protect against

“evil eye”, asthmaDasypus novemcinctus (Linnaeus,

1758)—nine-banded armadillo, “tatugalinha”

– 2 – 0.1 Tail (5), skin (1) Earache, amulet to protect against“evil eye”, asthma

10 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Table 2 (Continued )

Family/species/local name Number of mentions Use Value Part used and way ofadministration

Disease (or illness)

PB MA PB MA

BradypodidaeBradypus sp.—sloth, “preguica” 12 1 0.47 0.07 Claw (1), skin (1) Rabies, asthma, rheumatism

SuidaeSus scrofa (Linnaeus, 1758)—pig, “porco” 1 – 0.07 – Fat (lard) (4) Athlete’s foot, berne, wounds

MyrmecophagidaeTamandua tetradactyla (Linnaeus,

1758)—collared anteater, “tamandua”5 – 0.17 – Bone (1) Thrombosis

BovidaeOvis aries (Linnaeus, 1758)—sheep, “carneiro” 1 – 0.03 – Fat (4) Arthritis, arthrosis, rheumatism

1, Tea; 2, powder, to be spread on the affected area; 3, powder, to be ingested with food; 4, ointment to be rubbed on the affected area; 5, ear drops; 6, ingestion ofthe cooked part; 7, ingestion of the crude part; 8, beverage (‘garrafada’), obtained by mixing medicinal plants and animals; 9, mixed with alcohol and rubbed on theaffected area; 10, taken as a drink; 11, concoction, taken as a drink; 12, mixed with alcoholic beverage and take as a drink; 13, worn as a talisman.

a Species not recorded in previous studies.

fishes, reptiles and mammals are the groups with the highestnumber of species used as medicine in Brazil (Branch and Silva,1983; Begossi, 1992; Costa-Neto, 1999a; Seixas and Begossi,2001; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Silva et al., 2004).The species most frequently quoted were Hippocampus reidi(Ginsburg, 1933) (Syngnathidae)—seahorse (n = 51), Crotalusdurissus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Viperidae)—rattlesnake (28), Bal-istes vetula (Linnaeus, 1758) (Balistidae)—queen triggerfish(25), Tupinambis sp. (Teiidae)—tegu (24) and Crassostrea rhi-zophorae (Guilding, 1828) (Ostreidae)—oyster (18).

While the medicinal use of 20 animal species had not beennot recorded in previous studies conducted in coastal loca-tions in Brazil (Table 2), many of the medicinal species usedat the Mamanguape and Raposa sites appear to have a morewidespread used within the country (see Begossi, 1992; Seixasand Begossi, 2001; Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002). The valueuse (VU) of zootherapeutic resources ranged from 0.03 to 1.03.At the APA Barra do rio Mamanguape, the species whichattained the highest use-value were Hippocampus reidi (1.00),

Tupinambis sp. (0. 97), Crotalus durissus (0.97), Eretmochelysimbricata (Linnaeus, 1766) (Cheloniidae) (0.57), Crassostrearhizophorae (0.53) and Bradypus sp. (Bradypodidae) (0.47).In the Raposa municipality, the highest use-value was for thespecies Balistes Vetula (1.03), followed by Hippocampus reidi(0.97), Boa constrictor (Linnaeus, 1758) (Boidae) (0.43) andCrotalus durissus (0.40). Most species exhibited low use-values.The high use-value of the threatened seahorse species Hip-pocampus reidi in both surveyed localities confirms its impor-tance as a medicinal resource in Brazil (its main importanceresiding in its attributed healing effects on asthma), and rein-forces the need to further address the links between zoothera-peutic practices, and seahorse conservation and management inthe country (see Rosa, 2005).

Most medicinal animals used by the surveyed communitieswere obtained within the limits of their villages; only a fewspecies were obtained from adjacent localities, usually throughtraders who sold their products in markets. The links between thecommunities and their surrounding landscape became apparent

xonom

Fig. 2. Number of animal species used as remedies per ta ic category at the Raposa and Mamanguape study sites.

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 11

when relating the species used as remedies to the habitattypes found in the study sites. Most animals inventoried werefrom marine and estuarine (53%) habitats, followed by terres-trial (39%) and freshwater (8%); furthermore, at Mamanguape(where remanescents of coastal forest are found) a higher num-ber of terrestrial species were quoted than at the Raposa site.This use of local, more easily accessible resources possibly isrelated to historic aspects (i.e., medicinal knowledge focusing onspecies familiar to the locals, reflecting transmission of knowl-edge through generations) and to financial constraints, whichlimit access to alloctonous resources.

A similar trend has been observed by Adeola (1992) in Nige-ria, where the utilization of wildlife was related to the ecologicalzone in which the people concerned live, and to the relativeabundance of species in each zone. Also, Apaza et al. (2003)has shown that animal abundance correlated with a higher prob-ability of using animals in the Bolivian rainforest.

Some of the quoted animal species have been used in Brazilsince colonial times (e.g., Iguana iguana (Linnaeus, 1758)(Iguanidae), Caiman latirostris (Daudin, 1801) (Alligatoridae)and Dasyatis guttata (Bloch and Schneider, 1801) (Dasyatidae),corroborating what Almeida (2005) described as the “high capa-bility of reproduction of zootherapeutic practices in Brazil”.

Table 2 shows the animal species used as medicines at thetwo surveyed localities. Most of raw materials were harvesteddirectly from the wild, and only six species of domestic animals(w

3

t(

were used to treat 65 different diseases. The most widely treatedcondition were asthma, rheumatism and sore throat, conditions,which had a wide variety of animals to treat them with (Table 2).The categories with the highest number of diseases cited were:infections and parasitic diseases, 10; diseases of the respira-tory and digestive apparatuses, with 8 and 7 illnesses, respec-tively. Costa-Neto (1999b) found that animal-based remedieswere frequently used to treat respiratory diseases (asthma andbronquitis), while Almeida and Albuquerque (2002) indicatedthat digestive problems represented the category with the high-est use-value, followed by respiratory diseases, diseases of theosteomuscular system and of the conjunctive tissue. A similartrend in relation to medicinal plants was found in the state ofPernambuco, where, according to Gazzaneo et al. (2005), thetwo most frequently quoted categories of use referred to gas-trointestinal and respiratory diseases.

In our work, the various disease groups showed different lev-els of cultural consensus, and the categories with the highestnumber of quoted species were: respiratory system (55); osteo-muscular system and conjunctive tissue (33); external causesof morbidity; mortality (23) and skin and subcutaneous tissues(19). Those categories presented the highest ICF values: 0.78,0.72, 0.62 and 0.69, respectively (Table 3).

Interviewees quoted the following animal parts/productsused as remedies: flesh, bone, cartilage, skin, tail, fur, feather,tooth, nail, head, tongue, stomach, viscera, liver, bile, milk,fsarBiiB

TI

C

Uscit

A 84B 63C 19D 17E 15F 7G 8H 3I 6J 1L 0M 5N 6O 1P 3Q 0R 1S 0

e.g., chicken, sheep and turkey) whose products and body partsere readily available were used.

.2. Illnesses and remedies

Wild animals, their parts and products are considered impor-ant ingredients for preparing curative and preventive medicinesAnyinam, 1995). In the study sites, zootherapeutic resources

able 3nformant consensus factor (ICF) by corporal systems or diseases

ategory Raposa and Mamanguape combined Raposa

Species (%) Allspecies

Usecitations

(%) All usecitations

ICF Species (%) Allspecies

55 55.0 249 39.2 0.78 27 47.433 33.0 119 18.7 0.72 27 47.423 23.0 60 9.4 0.62 6 10.519 19.0 60 9.4 0.69 9 15.817 17.0 31 4.9 0.46 9 15.817 17.0 22 3.5 0.23 7 12.315 15.0 29 4.6 0.5 8 14.012 12.0 16 2.5 0.26 2 3.5

9 9.0 9 1.4 0 6 10.52 2.0 2 0.3 0 1 1.88 8.0 8 1.3 0 0 0.06 6.0 6 0.9 0 5 8.86 6.0 6 0.9 0 6 10.56 6.0 11 1.7 0.5 1 1.83 3.0 4 0.6 0.33 2 3.51 1.0 1 0.2 0 0 0.01 1.0 1 0.2 0 1 1.81 1.0 1 0.2 0 0 0.0

at, rattle (from rattlesnakes), spine, shell, abdomen and bodyecretions. Previous authors (Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossind Braga, 1992; Marques, 1995; Costa-Neto, 1999a,b) haveeported the use of similar raw materials as remedies in otherrazilian localities, which suggests that their use is widespread

n the country. This evidenciates the importance of understand-ng such uses in the context of biodiversity conservation inrazil.

Mamanguape

eations

(%) All usecitations

ICF Species (%) Allspecies

Usecitations

(%) All usecitations

ICF

35.1 0.69 45 60.8 165 40.4 0.7326.4 0.58 22 29.7 66 16.2 0.68

7.9 0.72 19 25.7 42 10.3 0.567.1 0.5 12 16.2 43 10.5 0.736.3 0.42 8 10.8 16 3.9 0.532.9 0 11 14.9 15 3.7 0.283.3 0 9 12.2 21 5.1 0.61.3 0.5 10 13.5 13 3.2 0.252.5 0 3 4.1 3 0.7 00.4 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 00.0 0 8 10.8 8 2.0 02.1 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 02.5 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 00.4 0 6 8.1 11 2.7 0.51.3 0.5 1 1.4 1 0.2 00.0 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 00.4 0 0 0.0 0 0.0 00.0 0 1 1.4 1 0.2 0

12 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

Although a number of species quoted (47%) were prescribedto treat a single disease, according to interviewees, different partsof a single species provided the raw materials to prepare differentremedies, which were prescribed to treat various diseases. Forinstance, while the shell of the mangrove oyster Crassostrearhizophorae was prescribed to treat osteoporosis, its flesh wasused to treat anaemia, pneumonia, stomach ache, cancer, flu andweakness. Mangrove oysters were also was also used as a painrelief in injuries caused by the dorsal fin spine of a species ofcatfish (family Ariidae).

On the other hand, different animals species were sometimesused to treat the same illness. For instance, products obtainedfrom 38 different species were used to treat asthma, while prod-ucts from 27 species were prescribed to treat rheumatism. Thepossibility of using various remedies for the same ailment ispopularly valued (Ngokwey, 1995), as it renders an adaptationto the availability/accessibility of animals possible.

It is known that the use of medicinal plants is frequent in sev-eral Brazilian regions (Carvalho, 2004), and that often there areoverlaps in the medicinal use of plants and animals (Almeidaand Albuquerque, 2002). A close association between phy-totherapeutic and zootherapeutic practices was also found inthe present study. According to 42% of the respondents, someanimal species (e.g., Balistes vetula, Crotalus durissus, Chelo-nia mydas (Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae)) can be replaced withplants to treat some diseases, or be used in association with themiNpwtr1

tqoabaot

pfC1da2arcmscT

impacts should be properly assessed and contextualized. Aspointed out by McMichael and Beaglehole (2000), many oftoday’s public-health issues have their roots in the same socioe-conomic inequalities and imprudent consumption patterns thatjeopardise the future sustainability of health.

Different ways of preparing and administering animal reme-dies were reported by the interviewees. Hard parts, such as teeth,nails, shells, rattles from snakes, fish scales, bone and cartilagewere generally sun-dried, grated and crushed to powder, beingthen administered as tea or taken during meals. Fat, body secre-tion and oil were ingested or used as an ointment.

Medicinal products were stored in plastic or glass jars, exceptfor perishable products (e.g., flesh of fishes and oysters, eggsand milk), which are only obtained when needed. Intervieweesalso mentioned that non-perishable ingredients, particularly hardparts (e.g., claws, teeth, rattles, shells) could be stored for overa year (see Fig. 3). The same applied to animals kept in alco-hol (e.g., snakes, crustaceans, fishes) and fats. This agrees withSeixas and Begossi (2001), who have suggested that the use ofanimals as medicines might be related to the durability of theproducts extracted, animal fat (which is easily extracted andstored at room temperature) being the most used part; otherproducts (except for eggs and milk) are dehydrated, toasted andground, being also easily preserved.

It is known that some natural products (from plants, animals,minerals) used in traditional medicine may cause serious adversestdwpwwram

bphttDcoudc

sali2acs

n garrafadas, a concoction defined by Camargo (1975) andgokwey (1995), as a therapeutic drink composed of variouslants soaked in cachaca (Brazilian sugar cane liquor) or whiteine and contained in a bottle (garrafa in portuguese, hence

he name garrafada). Examples of animals species used in gar-afadas are Hippocampus reidi and Uca maracoani (Latreille,802) (Ocypodidae).

Parts, such as feather and fur were extracted without the needo kill the animal, however in most cases (89% of the speciesuoted) remedies were prepared from dead specimens. The usef live or dead specimens was determined by the raw materi-ls extracted, by popular beliefs and by the type of illness toe treated. For instance, a lizard could be used live (directlypplied to the skin or to a child’s navel) or dead, to treat casesf sore throat (the lizard is boiled in water; the person gargleshe concoction).

Some of the species harvested in the wild, besides beingrescribed as remedies, were used for other purposes, such asood (e.g., Opisthonema oglinum (Lesueur, 1818) (Clupeidae),rassostrea rhizophorae, Anomalocardia brasiliana (Gmelin,791) (Veneridae), Ucides cordatus (Linnaeus, 1763) (Ocypo-idae), Balistes vetula). The seahorse Hippocampus reidi is solds ornamental fish, souvenir or folk-religious talisman (Rosa,005). Field ethnomedical studies carried out in the last decadesround the world described more than 40 animal food-medicinalemedies (Pieroni and Grazzini, 1999). A study conducted inentral Italy showed that an important part of the recorded ani-al remedies was represented by food-medicines. In particular,

ome meat preparations were considered as having a specialharacter as ailments for light diseases (Pieroni et al., 2002b).he multiple uses (including the medicinal aspects) and their

ide effects (De Smet, 1991). Nevertheless, in the present study,he majority of the respondents had a perception that most reme-ies had no adverse side effects if their dosage and administrationere appropriate (the dosage depending upon the age of theatient, being usually lower for children). A similar perceptionas found by Ngokwey (1995) at Feira de Santana, NE Brazil,here the administration of herbal medicines followed certain

ules concerning dosage, the quantity of a remedy used varyingccording to the age group of the patient (an adult would needore than a child).In the present study, only three interviewees reported that a

ad use of a remedy could result in serious adverse effects, androvided three examples: (1) the medicine extracted from sea-orses and from starfish to treat asthma should not be adminis-ered until the third of the manifestation of symptoms, otherwisehe patient could die; (2) the remedy extracted from opossumidelphis albiventris (Lund, 1840) (Didelphidae) to treat hernia

ould cause impotence if not administered correctly; (3) the fatf the snake Eunectes murinus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Boidae) wassed to treat headache and male impotence; however, the dailyosage should be limited to one spoon, otherwise the remedyould affect the nervous system.

Traditional drugs and traditional medicine in general repre-ent a still poorly explored field of research in terms of ther-peutic potential or clinical evaluation (De Smet, 1991), andittle research has been done so far to prove the claimed clin-cal efficacy of animal products for medicinal purposes (Still,003). The implementation of sanitary measures to the use ofnimal or their parts for medicinal purposes poses considerablehallenges, among them ensuring adequate participation of alltakeholders involved (Alves and Rosa, 2005).

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 13

Fig. 3. Examples of animal products used as remedies at the Raposa and Mamanguape study sites. From left to right: dried seahorse (Hippocampus reidi), driedbatfish (Ogcocephalus vespertilio), ‘rattle’ of rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus), dried tongue of ‘tejuacu’ (Tupinambis sp.), spine of ‘coandu’ (Coendou prehensilis)and claw of sloth (Bradypus sp.) (Photo: Andre Castro).

In the present study, one of the interviewees remarked thatcontrolling the diet was a necessary measure for those takinganimal-cased medicines, otherwise the medication would notwork. A similar situation was described by Ngokwey (1995) withregards to the use of herbal medicine at Feira de Santana, Brazil,where the administration of herbal medicines was regulated byeating restrictions.

Begossi (1992), in a study carried out at Buzios, state ofSao Paulo, observed the use of the term “carregado”, whichincludes a set of supposed attributes of an animal (such asteeth, blood, agressive behavior, “strong flesh”, fattiness) andfactors that could cause inflamation if eaten by someone whois wounded or unhealthy. Seixas and Begossi (2001) recordedthe use of that term by fishing communities at Ilha Grande,state of Sao Paulo, to describe some types of meat which were“strong” or caused indigestion, and that should be avoided by illpeople.

Among the species quoted by interviewees in the presentstudy, some are widely used in modern medicine. For exam-ple, snakes belonging to the families Viperidae, Crotalidae andElapidae present in their venom analgesic substances, whichare stronger than morphine, used in terminal patients of cancer(Bisset, 1991). Marval and Aroucha-Pinango (1993) reportedreptilase or botroxobine (prepared from the venoms of Bothropsatrox) being used for thrombosis. Other example is the use ofhoney in the treatment of wounds, ulcers and burns (Farouk eta

sasoo

3.3. Cultural beliefs

Folk-illnesses exist within the cultures that create them, “eti-ology, diagnosis, preventive measures and regimens of healing”(Rubel, 1977) being provided by the culture. Cultural issues arerecognized as important components of the provision of effectivehealth care (Zweber, 2002). Because medical systems are orga-nized as cultural systems, the use of animal substances shouldbe understood according to a cultural perspective (Costa-Neto,2004).

In every society certain general beliefs exist. Some of theseare easily changed, while others are deeply rooted in the cul-ture and are quite difficult to alter. This is of particular rele-vance when it comes to contagious diseases, in particular, toissues, such as how individuals contract diseases, how thesediseases are spread and how they can best be treated (Ezinna,1999).

As noted by Straker (1994), the supernatural world is as rele-vant in the diagnosis of illness as the natural world, with the maincauses of illness being magical, mystical and animistic forces.Maher (1999) showed that Aboriginal people have categorizedillness as natural, environmental, direct supernatural, indirectsupernatural and emergent or western causes. Pieroni and Quave(2005) found, in a study carried at Ginestra/Zhure, Italy, that theaetiologies of various folk-illness are commonly linked to spir-itual transmission, and that the treatments were often magicalodi

uaa

l., 1988; Nazrul-Islam et al., 1993).As pointed out by Pieroni et al. (2002b), the chemical con-

tituents and pharmacological actions of some animal productsre already known to some extent and ethnopharmacologicaltudies focused on animal remedies could be very important inrder to clarify the eventual therapeutic usefulness of this classf biological remedies.

r psychotherapeutic in nature. Furthermore, for many illnesseseriving from relations with the supernatural, modern medicines considered ineffective (Stone, 1976; Molnar, 1981).

Animals provide the raw materials for remedies prescribedsing the clinical method and are also used in the form of amuletsnd charms in magico-religious diagnosis. Popular beliefs maylso have implications to the way species are used in zootherapy.

14 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

For instance, an animal species can be used live or dead basedon the belief system of the community.

In the present study, respondents (58%) associated the useand efficacy of some remedies to popular beliefs locally knownas ‘simpatias’. As examples they mentioned that animals parts(e.g., caiman’s teeth) were used as amulets against diseases,and that a person receiving a given treatment cannot know whatthat he/she is taking, otherwise the effect ceases. Links betweenpopular beliefs and zootherapy have also been found in otherBrazilian localities (Branch and Silva, 1983; Begossi and Braga,1992; Costa-Neto, 1999a,b; Marques, 1995), and those linksshould be taken into consideration when interpreting resultsof field surveys, and when designing public health programsfor communities where traditional medicine is used. In somecases, integrative approaches encompassing an understandingof traditional cultural views and insights concerning the cause,dissemination and treatment of a disease might be required toeffectively treat it.

In herbal medicine, it is very common, the presence of ashaman or herbalist, who combines the roles of pharmacist andmedical doctor with the cultural/spiritual/religious beliefs of aregion or people, which are often regarded as magic or mys-ticism (Desmarchelier et al., 1996; Fabricant and Farnsworth,2001; Bourdy et al., 2004). This approach is widely practicedin Africa and South America (Rastogi and Dhawan, 1982).Although present in some Brazilian communities (particularly intnsBaAdwBa

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The linkages between biodiversity and human health areespecially important for developing countries. Biodiversity isa source of the invaluable information and raw materials thatunderpin medicinal and health care systems. The traditionalmedicine is widely available and affordable, even in remoteareas, and generally accessible to most people. In many devel-oping countries, a large part of the population, especially in ruralareas, depends mainly on traditional medicine for their primaryhealth care, because it is cheaper and more accessible than ortho-dox medicine (Sofowora, 1993; Luoga et al., 2000; World HealthOrganization, 2002). Traditional medicine is also more accept-able because it blends readily into the peoples’ socio-culturallife (Tabuti et al., 2003).

Local people recognized the socio-cultural importance ofzootherapic resources, showing an understanding of the rel-evance of the human–animal connection. Additionally, mostrespondents (93.3%) informed that they know someone whohas been cured by using traditional medicines obtained fromanimals. Nazarea et al. (1998) highlight that social, economicand cultural factors play a large role in determining how indi-viduals and communities use natural resources. Furthermore,it has been documented that people sometimes resort to tra-ditional home remedies as a means of resisting urban modernmedicine (Boltanski, 1977) and of asserting their traditional cul-ture (Ngokwey, 1995).

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he Northern region), shamanic practices involving animals wereot found in the sites surveyed in the present work. Nevertheless,hamanic practices have been incorporated into umbanda (Afro-razilian religion), in the sense that some of the species useds medicine in the study areas are also used in religious rituals.ccording to Voeks (1997), the role of herbalist, folk healer,iviner and shaman, as well as that of magician and sorcerer,ould come to be occupied by pais and maes-de-santo Afro-razilian priests and priestesses of the Yoruba religion knowns Candomble.

.4. Socio-economic aspects of traditional knowledge

In the present study, all respondents informed that the use ofnimals as remedies is ancient and that knowledge has passedhrough generations. They claimed that they cannot afford to buyllopathic remedies, and thus viewed zootherapic resources ashe most accessible way to treat their health problems. In fact, asointed out by Smith et al. (2001), the explanations for difficul-ies in access to essential drugs in the poor countries relate notnly to the population precarious socio-economic conditions,ut also to lack of organization health services, inadequate sup-ly system management and irrational prescription.

Compared to western medicine, zootherapeutical resourcesere perceived as cheaper and more readily available; also,

he use of animals is considered a trusted therapeutic practice.t the two surveyed localities, the limited access to westernedicine resulted both from financial limitations and deficien-

ies in the local public health care system. In that context, animaledicines, associated with herbal medicines, often represented

n important alternative to the local communities.

inked to natural resources, specifically biodiversity (Alves andosa, 2005), the recognition of traditional knowledge and asso-iated biodiversity use being important in the conservation andustainable use of biological diversity (Tabuti et al., 2003).ecently, concern about the ethics of exploiting indigenousnowledge and resources from tropical countries, without shar-ng the benefits with those who are the traditional custodi-ns of the knowledge and land, has gained attention throughhe convention on biological diversity (CBD), which requireshat such knowledge be protected, respected and preservedhttp://www.biodiv.org/; article 8(j)) and related provisions).raditional knowledge related to traditional medicine may berotected and conserved through the development of intellectualroperty rights (IPRs) and/or through benefit sharing (Moran etl., 2001; Zhang, 2000). Intellectual property rights are rightsver intangible information that provides incentives for futurennovations (Moran et al., 2001).

The compensation of indigenous people can validate theirnowledge of the biodiversity they manage and also providehem with an equitable reward for sharing it, thereby compen-ating biological stewardship and encouraging conservation (seevarstad, 2000; Moran et al., 2001).

.5. Sustainability of zootherapheutical resources use

Some of the animal species mentioned by the respondentsgure in Brazil’s official list of endangered species: the spermhale Physeter macrocephalus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Physeteri-ae); the manatees Trichechus manatus (Linnaeus, 1758) andrichecus inunguis (Natterer, 1883) (Trichechidae); the greenurtle Chelonia mydas and the leathery turtle Dermochelys

R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx 15

coriacea (Vandelli, 1761) (Dermochelyidae); the hawksbill tur-tle Eretmochelys imbricata and the loggerhead turtle Carettacaretta (Linnaeus, 1758) (Cheloniidae) (IBAMA, 2003). Theland crab Ucides cordatus, the Atlantic seabob Xiphopenaeuskroyeri (Heller, 1862) (Penaeidae); the starfish Oreaster reticu-latus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Oreasteridae); the seahorse Hippocam-pus reidi are listed in the National List of species of aquaticinvertebrates and fishes endangered, overexploited or threatenedof exploitation (MMA, 2004).

According to some respondents (n = 11), although materi-als obtained from whales, manatees and turtles were prescribedas medicines; currently they were rarely used, because of thelow number of specimens available (they claimed they onlyused stranded specimens). Some informants (n = 8), however,informed that many species were illegally captured and used asfood or medicine. Various Brazilian authors (Marques, 1995;Almeida and Albuquerque, 2002; Alves and Rosa, 2005) havediscussed the conservation concerns of the use of medicinalproducts from animal species, many of which threatened.

Seixas and Begossi (2001) have suggested that new reg-ulations should be more in tune with the local populationneeds, thereby increasing compliance in management. Costa-Neto (2001) has shown that on the coast of Bahia, new regula-tory measures have turned the formerly free-collection into anexogenous taboo, generating cultural disconnections betweenthe animal source and fishers.

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traditional medicinal uses of animals by communities around theworld should be addressed when designing strategies to conservebiodiversity.

The needs of local populations with regard to traditionalhealth care should be respected, and support offered to improvethe management of sources where medicinal plants (and ani-mals) are threatened. The protection of intellectual property overtraditional health care systems also needs attention (http://www.undp.org/biodiversity/biodiversitycd/biobrief%20health.pdf).

Celso (1992) pointed out that natural medicine is one impor-tant form of the use of biodiversity, while Begossi (1992)suggested that the conservation of animals used in popularmedicine might be happening because of their use by local peo-ple. Anyinam (1995) pointed out that, like the current spasmof plant and animal species extinction, the practitioners of eth-nomedicine appear to be at a greater risk of extinction than evenforests and other biomes. He also pointed out that for centuries,Indian peoples have collected plants and animals without threat-ening the species population dynamics because of the low levelof exploitation. According to Calixto (2005), despite the manyindividual efforts of the governments to preserve the biodiversityfor future generations in Latin American, traditional knowledge,especially that of derived from traditional medicine, such asindigenous knowledge, is also disappearing.

There is a growing recognition of the need to consider thesocio-cultural aspects in all discussions on sustainable devel-oAct

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Ingredients sourced from wild plants and animals are not onlyidely used in traditional medicines, but are also increasinglyalued as raw materials in modern medicine and in herbal prepa-ations. An increased demand and increased human populationsre leading to increased and often unsustainable rates of exploita-ion of wild sourced ingredients, with some wild species alreadyhreatened with extinction (Kang and Phipps, 2003). A World

ildlife Fund (WWF) report estimates that over two thirds ofhe 50,000 medicinal plants in use today are still harvested fromhe wild. Between 4000 and 10,000 of these may now be endan-ered (Hamilton, 2003). The increased use of medicinal animalsas led to over-exploitation of species like rhinos, tigers, muskeer, bears, monkeys and pangolins (Miller, 1993). Seahorsesre another example. Among other uses, those fishes are soldried for traditional medicines, particularly traditional Chineseedicine (TCM) and as tonic foods. Pre-packaged pharmaceu-

icals are also popular in traditional medicine, and offer industrychance to absorb animals previously thought undesirable forse in conventional (whole) form, including juvenile seahorsesLourie et al., 2004).

The impacts of zootherapeutic practices on wild populationshould be carefully assessed in the study areas, particularly whenonsidering that (unlike many plant-based remedies) prepara-ion of most animal-based remedies use products obtained afterilling the specimen. In that context, Almeida and Albuquerque2002) point out the need to raise awareness about the sustain-ble use of medicinal animals.

Nevertheless, some traditional medicinal systems, like thehinese Traditional Medicine, is recognized by the World Healthrganization (WHO) and accepted by one-fourth of the worlduman population (Alves and Rosa, 2005), and the reliance on

pment (e.g., Morin-labatut and Akhtar, 1992; Posey, 1997;lves and Nishida, 2002), a view that encompasses people’s per-

eption, utilization, allocation, transference and management ofheir natural resources (Johannes, 1993).

In that context, Nations (1997) emphasizes the utilitarianalue of species’ protection, and the perspective of long termse of biological diversity, while Soejarto (1996) remarks thatonservation permits the continuing use of the resources in wayshat are non-destructive and sustainable, while from the pharma-eutical point of view, it provides time to eventually demonstrateully the potentially medicinal value of the resources.

Also, there is a need to shift the focus from how to obtainhe greatest amount of zootherapeutical resources to how tonsure future uses, and to foster transdisciplinary approacheso integrate the various aspects of zootherapy (Alves and Rosa,005). As pointed out by Costa-Neto (2004), the inclusion ofootherapy in the multidimensional conception of sustainableevelopment is fundamentally important for the conservation ofaunistic resources.

. Conclusions

The results obtained in this study showed that the surveyedommunities rely on zootherapeutic practices as a form offfordable health care. From our ethnozoological findings, 100pecies represent the heritage of the folk medicine of the com-unities surveyed. The local medicinal fauna is largely based

n wild animals, including some endangered species.Culture undeniably influenced the way traditional commu-

ities perceive and use the medicinal resources of their envi-onment, their ethnomedicinal practices having a close interface

16 R.R.N. Alves, I.L. Rosa / Journal of Ethnopharmacology xxx (2006) xxx–xxx

with the local landscapes. Financial constraints, which limitedinterviewees’ mobility and access to some products, as well astheir familiarity with the local biota also constituted significantelements in the choice of the repertoire of medicinal resourcesused by studied communities. Nevertheless, there appears toa geographic continuum in the selection of species used asmedicine in NE Brazil.

Many parts of the Brazilian coast are rapidly being altered,both ecologically and culturally. Further ethnopharmacologicalstudies are necessary to increase our understanding of the linksbetween traditional uses of faunistic resources and conserva-tion biology, public health policies, sustainable management ofnatural resources and biological prospection.

Acknowledgments

To PROBIO/MMA/IBRD/GEF/CNPq and PADI Foundationfor financial support. To CNPq (Conselho Nacional de Desen-volvimento Cientıfico e Tecnologico) for providing a researchfellowship to the second author. Thanks are also due to theresearchers who assisted in species identification: Gentil Alves P.Filho (reptiles), Ana Carolina Martins Queiroz (echinoderms),Claudio Luıs Sampaio (fishes), Isabel Feitoza (aquatic mam-mals), Alberto Kioharu Nishida and Jefferson de B. Batista(mollusks and crustaceans) and Maxwell S. Silveira (bees). FieldaoRwdu

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