To:

Mrs Moloye

Prepared by:

Gaspard Diane Louise 1412875

Goolamy Abdool Rahman 1413992Marie Lori Debora John 1415291

Mohamudally Zainab 1411632

Peerbocus Hayfaa 1415305Pooja Teeluck 1410902

Bsc(Hons) Human Resource Management

Date: 17 April 2015

ContentsDefinition of Negotiation............................................2Negotiation goals and outcomes :........................................3

Types of negotiation................................................3Importance of negotiation in communication...........................4

Stages in Negotiations...............................................5Roles and Responsibilities of a negotiator...........................7

Skills needed for effective Negotiation..............................9Ethical aspects of negotiation......................................10

Difficulties and Challenges in Negotiation..........................10Organizational settings for negotiation............................12

PERSUASION.........................................................13Definition of Persuasion...........................................13

“ Persuasion is often more effectual than force. “ – Aesop.........13It is a symbolic system in which communicators try to convince other person to alter by beliefs or behaviours regarding an issue through the transmission of a message or spoken words to collect information,feelings or reasoning in an atmosphere of free choice..............13Persuasive communication consists of 5 processes :.................13

1. Stimulation....................................................132. Convincing.....................................................13

3. Call to action.................................................134. Increasing consideration.......................................13

5. Tolerance for alternative......................................13Types of Persuasion................................................13

Effective Persuasion...............................................14Principles of persuasion...........................................15

The Persuasive communication Model :...............................16

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Disadvantages of Persuasion........................................18PERSUASIVE SKILLS:.................................................18

Ethical Factors in Persuasive communication........................18Conclusion.........................................................20

Luanne Kelchner, Demand Media; Top Ten Effective Negotiation Skills[ Online], Avaialable: http://smallbusiness.chron.com/top-ten-effective-negotiation-skills-31534.html [3 April 2015].............21

Definition of Negotiation

Negotiation is the bargaining process or a strategic discussion that speakers go through in order to clearly understand each other. Here, each party tries to persuade the other to agree to his/her point of view. Participants also learn as much as possible about the other party’s position, the strengths and weaknesses of that position and are prepared to defend their positions and the arguments the other party will likely make to defend their position are countered.Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, government branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life.Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators,or may work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators orbrokers.. Definitions of Negotiation in Different Fields :

1 Banking : It is accepting or trading a negotiable instrument.

2 Contracting :It is the use of any method to award a contract other than sealedbidding.

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3.Trading :It is the process by which a negotiable instrument is transferredby endorsement or delivery. The transferee takes the instrument in good faith, for value and without notice of any defect in the title of the transferor and obtains an indefeasible title.

Negotiation goals and outcomes : Substance goals - Outcomes that relate to content issues. Relationship goals - Outcomes that relate to how well people

involved in the negotiations and any constituencies they represent are able to work with one another once the process is concluded.

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Effective negotiation occurs when substance issues are resolved and working relationships are maintained or improved.

Criteria for an effective negotiation:

Quality Harmony Efficiency

Types of negotiation Distributive negotiation - Focuses on positions staked out

or declared by the conflicting parties. Parties try to claimcertain portions of the existing pie

Integrative negotiation - Sometimes called principled negotiation. Focuses on the merits of the issues. Parties try to enlarge the available pie.

Distributive negotiation

The key question is: “Who is going to get this resource?” Hard” distributive negotiation - Each party holds out

to get its own way. Soft” distributive negotiation - One party is willing

to make concessions to the other party to get things over.

Integrative negotiation

The key question is: “How can the resource best be utilized?” Also it is less confrontational than distributivenegotiation, and permits a broader range of alternative solutions to be considered.

Opportunity for a true win-win solution

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Range of feasible negotiation tactics - Selective avoidance, Compromise, True collaboration.

Gaining truly integrative agreements rests on: Supportive attitudes, Constructive behaviors, Good information

Importance of negotiation in communication

There is a direct relationship between negotiation and persuasion. Negotiation is involved in our daily life in many circumstances and it is a skill that everybody make use of.

One's feel confident

Through the negotiation skill one feels at ease and is not intimidated when have to deal with other persons or having to voice out .A better proposal can then be made for the satisfaction of the two parties.

Having a sense of fair-play

Negotiation allows equity in both parties. The communication is atwo-way traffic allowing each to express their thoughts ideas,

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opinions and perceptions. Through such there is a good flow of communication and feedback is found to be a positive one.

Ability to actWhenever something is not fair, possessing the negotiation skill will help the negotiator to act upon the situation to bring things right. On the other hand the latter can easily distinguishif the other party lacks in the negotiation skills and he will then bring a turning point to such effect.

Knowing what works

Psychology skills is also acquire. This help for better decoding and understanding of the message sent. The negotiator can paint himself in a better light

Ability to get a way frequentlyThe negotiation skill permit to obtain a better offer or deal at each time. It can be in many arenas-at home ,at school ,at work, in a business.

 On a business arena negotiation skills assist one to build, maintain, and excel in important workplace relationships. Furthermore, being a good negotiator promote efficiency and effectiveness. Possessing such skills in communication will easily convince people about the decision taken instead of spending hours arguing with people and trying to force them to dowhat the negotiator wanted. Hence this will bring self-satisfaction and motivation to attain important objectives of thecompany.

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Stages in NegotiationsI. Prepare

Preparation is the first important element to a successful outcome. It is whereby all relevant information is gathered.That is, it includes researching standards and principles bywhich negotiating parties may reach a common ground. It alsoconsists about knowledge of your own values on the issue being negotiated as well as knowledge of the perceived need and values of the other parties in the discussion.

Specific goals about the negotiation need to be set and in order to do so, the objectives or purpose need to be clearlydefined and all the variables affecting the achievement of that purpose are to be well understood.

II. Exchange informationIn the exchange information process, there is the opening stage whereby the parties will identifies their need. Havingestablished what each party wants, now they move toward one another, seeking a way forward.It is better to explore than making the mistake of going toofast during a negotiation.

Exploration not only helps the parties gain more information

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about each other but it also builds the relationship betweenthem and thus making it easier to reach an agreement.

III. BargainingBargaining is the heart of many negotiations as it is the modification of what is being traded until both parties are satisfied with the agreement. Many view this activity as being what negotiation is all about, even though much betterresults can be achieved with attention to other stage as well.

Bargaining begins with an opening discussion of the deal andthen, as soon as the number of term is mentioned by one party, they began to move out of information exchange into bargaining. In negotiations where the stage of information exchange has well proceeded, this transition of bargaining occurs smoothly as a natural extension of how to enact the ideas that have been put forward.

A crucial part in bargaining is trading, where parties effectively say “If you give me that, then I will give you this”. Trading may be about individual items or the whole package, it may as well be non-materialistic aspect such as support given.

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IV. Closing When various possibilities have been fully explored, weighted by each party, and often modified and adjusted, where the deal is broadly agreed, closing may occur. It is formalized in a way that makes it difficult for eitherparty to back out of the negotiation or change their commitment.The first step is to agree what you have agreed and then confirm the agreement by signing legitimate contracts, wherethe deal is more businesslike and lastly seal the deal with a firm handshake.

The ultimate goal should be achieved at the end by producingtwo satisfied parties and paved the way for future negotiations when and where necessary.

Roles and Responsibilities of a negotiator

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Negotiate with people, not companies, departments or organizations.

The negotiator helps to bring motivation and closed bonds betweenemployees .He /She assist them to obtain what they aspire personally and professionally

Make perception is a reality.

The  Negotiator create a favored perception in the minds of the people. This will satisfy their wants and convince them about theproposal. Through such motivation is strengthened.

Always be willing to walk away from a deal. 

The person who negotiate must has a sense of authority and power in order to bring out the decision that he has proposed and it shall be brought done and accepted by others. At each time a better deal is obtained making use of the negotiation skills.

Negotiate from interests, not positions. 

There is identification of the real interests behind the positions and seek way for other ways to satisfy those needs. Thenegotiator need to make a follow up in regards of the employees and see what are their needs in order to find strategies to satisfy them.

When the negotiator make a concession, he get a concession.

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When the concession is of great importance as it costs something in return, the latter hope to raise up the value of what has beengiven to the other party.

Avoidance of confrontational negotiation.

The negotiator ensures that there is fair-play among him and the other party. Through such negotiation takes place in an peaceful and orderly manner. As a result, such approach decreases conflicts, tensions and create strong bonds between them.

Skills needed for effective Negotiation Problem Analysis:

This Process should be carried out by effective negotiators in order to figure out the interests of each party in the negotiation. A detailed problem analysis identifies the issue, the interested parties and the outcome goals.

For example, in an employer and employee contract negotiation, the problem or area where the parties disagree may be in salary or benefits. Identifying the issues for both sides can help to find a compromise for all parties.

Problem Solving: A range of solutions should be able to be sought. Focus should be drawn on the solutions which may reap benefit for both sides, rather than the eventual goal for the negotiation.

Preparation:

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Planning beforehand for a negotiating meeting, makes one a skilled negotiator. Preparation includes figuring out objectives, areas for trade and substitutes to the stated objectives. Moreover Negotiators study the history of the relationship between the two parties and past negotiations to find areas of agreement and common goals. Furthermore, past precedents and outcomes can set the tone for current negotiations.

Active Listening:It constitutes the ability to read body language as well as verbal communication. It is vital to listen to the other party to look for compromise during the meeting.

Emotional Control: Emotions should be kept in check while negotiation. When argumentative issues crop up, it is normal to feel emotions,but there must be avoidance of emotions controlling oneself to prevent the meeting from leading to unfavorable results.

For example, a manager annoyed with the stagnancy during a salary negotiation may concede more than is acceptable to the organization in an attempt to end the annoyance. On the other hand, workers negotiating a pay raise may become too emotionally involved to accept a compromise with management and take an all or nothing approach, which breaks down the communication between the two parties.

Verbal Communication:Clear and Effective Communication is needed for a Skilled Negotiator. If not stated clearly, misunderstandings may occur. An effective Negotiator must be able to voice out clearly his desired outcome as well as his reasoning.

Team Spirit:

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Effective negotiators must know how to work together as a team and foster a cooperative atmosphere during negotiations. Those involved in a negotiation on both sides of the issue must work together to reach common grounds.

Decision Making :Effective Negotiators must have the ability to act decisively during a negotiation. All aspects pf the problem should be calculated for the Decision to be taken.

Interpersonal:Effective negotiators have the interpersonal skills to support a good working relationship with those involved in the negotiation. Patient Negotiators and the ability to persuade others without using manipulation can retain a positive atmosphere during a complex negotiation.

Ethical aspects of negotiationTo maintain good working relationships, negotiating parties should strive for high ethical standards. The negotiating parties should avoid being side tracked by self-interests, thereby being tempted to pursue unethical actions

Difficulties and Challenges in NegotiationNegotiation takes into account the personal interests of all and helps individual to come to a common conclusion. However, during the process of negotiation conflicts and problems sometimes occurs and therefore it becomes a little difficult to reach to a conclusion and satisfy all parties. Below are some common

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negotiation challenges:

Fails to listen attentivelyOne of the biggest challenges in negotiation is when individuals are not ready to understand the second party at all, that is, they only think about their interests and failto listen attentively to the demands, interests and needs ofthe other.

Lack of timeIt is also a significant challenge to effective negotiationsas a lack of time may lead negotiators to take wrong decisions. Time is needed to convince others and to analyze things carefully before coming to any conclusions.

Lack of patienceThis also leads to a bad negotiation. No interference shouldbe made when one is making his/her speech as every individual has the right to express his/her views. They needto remain calm when they disagree with the other party because if they lose their patience, the deal will turn intoa chaos.

ConfrontationParticipants in a negotiation can ruin the outcome by characterizing the exchange as a confrontation or a conflict. An adversarial or uncooperative attitude can easily be a barrier in an effective negotiation. Also, language plays an essential role in determining the tone of a negotiation.

Negative emotionsNegotiation can be stressful and therefore, can give rise tofeelings of fear and anger. And it is understandable, that

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everyone involved in a thorny negotiation will experience some negative emotion.They key to overcome this barrier is to acknowledge that various perspectives and interest exist and to address them openly.

Aggressive behaviorsSarcastic comments, patronizing, bullying, attempts to make you feel guilty, attempts to make you feel inferior, bribery, belittling and derogatory remarks and dismissive words are the biggest threats to an effective negotiation and are all forms of inappropriate influencing.These behaviors create resentment, poor relationship and retaliation. To avoid these problems, there need to be clear, open, honest and respectful communication. Also one should be a little diplomatic and intelligent to be able to gain from the negotiation.

Avoid last minute changesLast minute changes it results in confusions and

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misunderstandings. The two parties must be very clear on their goals and what they expect from each other, and shouldstick to it. Once a conclusion is reached and the deal is closed, it is best to sign an agreement in the presence of both parties.

Lack of confidenceLack of confidence is another major threat to fruitful negotiation. So to offset this lack, it better to go well prepared and check out even the smallest details before going for a negotiation.

Organizational settings for negotiationTwo-party negotiation

Group negotiation

Intergroup negotiation

Constituency negotiation

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PERSUASION

Definition of Persuasion“ Persuasion is often more effectual than force. “ – AesopIt is a symbolic system in which communicators try to convince other person to alter by beliefs or behaviours regarding an issuethrough the transmission of a message or spoken words to collect information, feelings or reasoning in an atmosphere of free choice.Persuasive communication consists of 5 processes :

1. Stimulation2. Convincing3. Call to action4. Increasing consideration5. Tolerance for alternative

Types of Persuasion Logos

It refer to the use of reasoning.

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It make use of evidence or facts. For instance, we buy a

product that we have full knowledge of, which will not cause

ham, death or eve loss quality of life.

Logos can be:

o Presenting objective information as a reason to

supplement the argument

o Present enough amount of credible examples to advice

something

Ethos

It appeal for morality.

Ethos is based on ethics, that is, refer to what is right or

wrong. It shows good character and credibility. Ethos can

also be based on religious arguments or needs of human

rights.

Ethos can be:

o Appearing knowledgeable, dynamic and trustworthy

o Refer to reliable sources

o Using correct grammar and language

Pathos

It refer to emotion and experience.

Make use of emotion and experience is to make the reader

feel something not only that but enable them to identify the

author’s point of view. It make use of emotional

intelligence to impact the decision of the audience.

Pathos can:

o Provide self-stories or for others

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o Use different vocal, repetition and rhythm.

Effective Persuasion

Steps to Effective Persuasion

Step #1: The first step in effective persuasion is to precisely state your objective –what is it you want to do?

Step #2: Once your goal is set, Figure out who you must persuade,spotting all persons or groups.

Step #3: The third goal is to begin to develop methods of persuasion. First, you should carefully analyze the situation andthe persons and groups whom you hope to persuade by answering these questions: -Does what you want offer little or no perceived benefit to the person or persons you want to influence?

Step #4: After the analysis, select your approaches and organize them into a process you will utilize.

You are more likely to persuade others when you:

• give logical reasons – statements that answer the question “why?”

• link the reasons directly to the persons you are undertaking to persuade

• use facts to support your reasons

• share genuine feelings about the affair

• relate feelings directly to the persons you are undertaking to persuade.

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You are more likely to be an effective persuader in the long runwhen you are ethical. Lying, name-calling, exaggeration and misrepresentation of facts have no place in ethical persuasion. You are also more likely to persuade people when you and your organization have integrity. This means that you are more likely to be prosperous when people like you, trust you and have confidence in you.

You have integrity if people see you as:

• competent – you have done your work assignment and know what you are talking about

• well-intentioned – you have a positive motive

• ethical – you are truthful and exhibit high standards and positive values

• likeable – you are not looking for a fight

Principles of persuasion Principle of Reciprocity

It is the correlative expectation for barter of value or

service. This means that when someone gives something, the

respondent is expected to have a something in return too. In

such cases, the giver has influence and power over the

respondent.

Example: when someone says “thank you”, you say it’s a

pleasure/ you’re welcome and third action has shown that

barter has taken place.

I. Principle of Scarcity

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This is the perception inadequate supply and there are

limited resources. Therefore, someone may persuaded that

they must react to the event before termination taken place.

It is the fear of losing out something.

Example: act now while supplies last.

II. Principle of Authority

It involves referencing experts and expertise. The principle

is that someone are instantly respectful to those in

position of power. It does not comprises only of security

guard or whatever but anyone with specific knowledge,

authority and etc.

Example: a salesperson will have the knowledge of the field,

product and advantages of the field and further research so

that to persuade someone that this product or service is the

one and only one.

III. Principle of Commitment and Consistency

Consistency means that people have the tendency to base

their future behavior onto the past one. According to

psychologist consistency principle is called “decision

heuristic”, a shortcut for decision making. If analyses is

made, it will take too much time therefore this shortcut is

seem to be reliable and reasonable.

Commitment is the key to stimulate the principle of

consistency.

According to Dr. Robert B. Cialdini, the psychologist and

author responsible for collating most of the research, "Once

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we have made a choice or taken a stand, we will encounter

personal and interpersonal pressures to behave consistently

with that commitment. Those pressures will cause us to

respond in ways that justify our earlier decision."

IV. Principle of Consensus

It is the proof and a first-hand reports experience with a

product or a service which can be very persuasive. This

often arises when there are two person purchasing something.

For example, if one of them said that this product is great

or effective, it would be surely effective and will buy it.

It occur especially when we do not know the product well.

Principle of consensus is the tendency of following groups

or peers.

V. Principle of Liking

It is the recognition of safety and be part in

communication. A person is more likely to participate in

communication if he/she feel at ease. A person is more

likely to say “Yes” to those he/she knows and like.

The Persuasive communication Model : The Elaboration Likelihood model (ELM)

The Elaboration likelihood model of persuasion is a dual process theory explaining how attitudes form and change. This model is essentially a theory about the thinking processes that will probably occur when we attempt to change a person’s attitude through communication, the different effects that particular

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persuasion variables play within these processes, and the strength of the judgments that results.

The message is more like to be elaborated further basing on an individual’s motivation and ability to evaluate the argument being presented.

The ELM model put forward two major routes to persuasion:

Central route -involves a high level of message elaboration whereby great amount of consideration are generated by the individual receiving the message.

-The resulting attitude change will be relatively lasting, resistant, and predictive of behavior.

Peripheral route - is used when the message recipient has little or no interest in the subject and/or has lesser ability and lower motivation to process the message.Therefore, examination of information is reduced.

-Message recipient is more likely to process the informationsuperficially, i.e, they are more likely to rely on general impressions, early parts of the message, or even depending on the recipient's mood, etc

-The persuasion outcome is therefore a temporary change.

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Disadvantages of Persuasion A manager can manipulate another party and eventually cheat

him into making a contract with him Persuasion is a double-edged weapon as sometimes the

dominant party may be fulfilling his own self-interest. Misunderstandings can result as the other party may see

persuasion as harassment such leading to resentments.

PERSUASIVE SKILLS:

Persuasive communication is the process of guiding people towardsthe adoption of ideas, attitudes or actions by rational and emotional means. Communication skills are important and there area number of things appreciated by successful persuaders. These elements can be largely emotional. They include keeping promises,

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being reliable and taking responsibility, being sincere, genuine and honest, knowing their subject and believing in it, building rapport, and being entertaining, as well as, not arguing and providing solutions that work.The key skills for successful persuasion, then, are pretty wide. First of all, successful persuaders tend to have high self-esteemand good emotional intelligence more generally. They really believe that they will succeed.One also needs to remain motivated and believe in oneself and one’s ideas.Additionally, the thoughts of the audience should be understood. Therefore, empathy and good listening skills become key factors and helps to be able to build rapport. It’s essential that one can get his point across succinctly and effectively, otherwise one is never going to persuade anyone of the merits of his position.

Ethical Factors in Persuasive communication

Rhetoric: is defined as an antique art of argumentation and discourse. Rhetoric is implanted in the communicational persuasive theories of logos, pathos and ethos

Aristotle best describe in his work the rhetoric’s use to motivate and persuade, where he defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion”.

Ethical Persuasion:

Ethical persuasion can be described as an individual’s ability give fairness and respect as a form of understanding others. In ethical persuasion, individuals must consider the viewpoint of others and should not lead them astray. Persuasion, as previously

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seen is rooted in rhetoric and ethical persuasion aims to use rhetoric in a way that is moral to everyone involved.

The Ethics of Rhetoric:

The ethics of rhetoric is concerned with morality and an individual’s ability to not be tempted into serving their own interests by negatively impacting others. This principle works inboth ways, because it is unethical to use persuasion to increase individual interests without knowing the impact that it may have on others.

Some methods of persuasion that are completely written off as unethical are for example :

o Coerciono Brainwashingo Torture, etc.

Ethical persuasion has a series of common characteristics wherebyit seeks to achieve the following 3 goals:

1) Explore the other person's viewpoint2) Explain your viewpoint3) Create resolutions

The TARES test

The five-part TARES test was proposed by Sherry Baker and David Martinson and it designed to help guide the PR practitioner to

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define ethical persuasion. An ethical persuasive speech must haveall of the following components:

If all five principles are applied in communication, it is deemedas having met the ethics for persuasive practice.

ConclusionOn a concluding note, it can be said that negotiation & persuasion are indeed key elements in the communication process. It should however also be known that it takes time to develop these skills but once developed, ‘authentic powers’ are as well developed as then, people believe in what are being said. Therefore once negotiating and persuasive skills are achieved, persuading and influencing others become successful, which may also mean communications becomes successful.

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TARES

Truthfulness of the messag

eAuthenticity of the

persuader

Respect for the

persuadee

Equity of the

appeal

Social responsibility for

the common good

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