International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91
http://www.openscienceonline.com/journal/ijaes
Castor (Ricinus communis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
Aliyu Ahmad Warra
Centre for Entrepreneurial Development, Federal University, Gusau, Nigeria
Email address
To cite this article Aliyu Ahmad Warra. Castor (Ricinus communis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications. International Journal of
Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. Vol. 3, No. 5, 2018, pp. 78-91.
Received: August 9, 2018; Accepted: September 10, 2018; Published: October 10, 2018
Abstract
Ricinus communis L. a bioenergy crop shows great potential for many domestic and industrial uses. The bean of the castor
plant (Ricinus communis, L) has been recognized since antiquity in many parts of the world for its value. The potential of
castor plant products in industrial and domestic uses made castor a valuable resource with multiple applications. Due to
organic richness and less side effects of medicinal plants, researches have been in the increase. Despite its toxic effects,
Ricinus communis L. has been used in many parts of the world for treatment of various ailments. In this review an attempt was
made to have insight at developing commercial products from castor plant. Concise overview of present findings and literature
reports are in favour of steps for the development of cultivation of the plant and better processing of its products that could
substantially be useful for environmental and industrial applications. The review mainly centred on the prospects for castor in
phytoremediation of contaminated lands, medicinal uses, industrial and domestic applications of its products. It showed that
the plant has wide applications in environmental phytoremediation, generation of feed-grade supplements, production of
bioenergy from biofuels, preparation of cleansing agents, polymer and composites production, industrial preparation of
polyurethanes, application in textile and dyes, production of corrosion inhibitors, medicinal and pharmaceutical applications,
possession of antimicrobial activity, possession of phytochemicals, applications in biotechnology, nanotechnology and
conversion of waste to wealth.
Keywords
Ricinus communis L., Environmental, Domestic, Industrial, Bioresource
1. Introduction
The castor (Ricinus communis L.; Family: Euphorbiaceae)
is the sole member of the genus Ricinus and of the sub tribe
Ricininae. The castor plant is native to the Ethiopian region
of east Africa. It grows in tropical and warm temperate
regions throughout the world [1], mostly growing wild on
waste land and also cultivated for its oil seeds [2]. It is an
oleaginous plant that can potentially be used as a bioindicator
plant owing to its rapid growth and large leaves, which have
a wide surface area of contact with the air and the pollutants
therein [3]. Ricinus communis L.(Castor bean) is a potential
multi-purpose environmental crop for improved and
integrated phytoremediation [4].
It has high traditional and medicinal value for maintaining
the disease free healthy life. Traditionally the plant is used as
laxative, purgative, fertilizer and fungicide etc. whereas the
plant possess beneficial effects such as anti-oxidant,
antihistamic, antinociceptive, antiasthmatic, antiulcer,
immunemodulatory, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective,
antifertility, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, central
nervous system stimulant, lipolytic, wound healing,
insecticidal and larvicidal and many other medicinal
properties. This activity the plant possesses is due to the
important phytochemical constituents like flavonoids,
saponins, glycosides, alkaloids and steroids [5]. Known since
antiquity, castor oil has been first used in medicine. Now,
even if it remains present in small quantities as an excipient
in many pharmaceutical specialties, it finds a lot of
applications in cosmetics, industrial applications and
chemical industry. Castor oil specificity comes from its high
content of ricinoleic acid (up to 85%) that combines a double
bond and an hydroxyl function in the heart of a 18 carbons
79 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
linear chain. This particular structure is the key of a unique
chemistry that gives by thermal cracking a wide range of
compounds with either 7 or 11 carbon atoms. A whole range
of innovative chemistries and end use products are generated
from these base reaction products [6].
In Nigeria, castor is grown in the northern and middle belts
where the weather is favourable [7] Castor bean was
cultivated on over 6,000 hectares across most of the states.
The crop grows in the wild even where it is not cultivated.
Benue, Gombe, Yobe, Cross Rivers, Kogi, Ebonyi, Kwara,
Zamfara and FCT are the promising producers where the
bulk of the hectares are cultivated. The output is estimated at
twelve thousand metric tonnes (12,000MT) [8]. Castor bean
seeds sourced from different locations in Nigeria vary in
proximate and mineral composition and can be good gene
pool for breeding programmes [9]. Varieties of castor differ
regarding the branching habits of the plant, colour of the
stem, the branches and leaves, the nature of the capsule, the
duration of maturity and the size of the seeds. Two varieties
were found in Nigeria; the big seed variety the cultivated
type and small seed variety which are the wild variety.
Around 160 million hector unused is available in India. India
is the world’s largest producer of castor oil producing over
75% of the total world’s supply. There are over a hundred
companies in India small and medium those are into castor
oil production, producing a variety of the basic grades of
castor oil. All the above factors make it imperative that the
India industry relooks at the castor oil sector in order to
devise suitable strategies to derive the most benefits from
such an attractive confluence of factors [10]. Castor oil is
unique owing to its exceptional diversity of application. The
oil and its derivatives are used in over 100 different
applications in diverse industries such as paints, lubricants,
pharma, cosmetics, paper, rubber and more. Recent
developments have successfully derived polyol from natural
oils and synthesized range of polyurethane (PU) products
from them. However, making flexible solution from natural
oil polyol is still proving challenging [10]. The crop is now
widely revived as an agricultural solution for all tropical and
subtropical regions, addressing the need for commercial
crops with low input costs and viable returns. Castor is a
hardy crop, easy to establish on the field, resistant to drought,
tolerate different types of soil even marginal soil and yield
350 – 900 kg oil per hactare. Castor is an important oilseed
crop with great utilitarian value in industry, pharmaceutical
and agricultural sectors [11]. In this review, the aim is to
explore various environmental and industrial applications of
castor.
Plant Description
The Plant
Castor is a perennial, erect, branched, herb, typically less
than 2 meters in height. Large leaves are alternate, palmately
lobed with 5-11 toothed lobes. Leaves are glossy and often
red or bronze tinted when young. Flowers appear in clusters
at the end of the main stem in late summer. The fruit consists
of an oblong spiny pod which contains three seeds on
average. Seeds are oval and light brown, mottled or streaked
with light and dark brown and resemble a pinto bean. There
are two varieties of seeds, the wild castor seeds and castor
beans (Figures 1-10).
Figure 1. Castor bean plant.
Figure 2. Wild castor plant.
Figure 3. Flowers of wild castor variety.
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 80
Figure 4. Flowers of Castor bean.
Figure 5. Castor bean fruits.
Figure 6. Wild castor fruits.
Figure 7. Dried undeshelled wild castor seeds.
Figure 8. Dried undeshelled castor bean seeds.
Figure 9. Wild castor seeds.
81 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
Figure 10. Castor beans.
Autumnal sowings might be advantageous for castor grown
as semi-perennial crop, mainly with no irrigation [12].
2. Environmental Application for
Phytoremediation
Ricinus communis L. shows great potential for
phytoremediation of lands contaminated by toxic metals and
wastes and or pollutants (Figure 11-12).
Figure 11. Phytoremediation of water banks with wild castor plants.
Figure 12. Phytoremediation of eroded lands using wild castor plants.
Growth response and remediation applicability of castor oil
plant (Ricinus communis L.) to crude oil contaminated soil,
specifically soil contaminated with 1%, 3% and 5% (w/w)
crude oil was reported. The growth response of two different
local varieties (green variety and red variety) of castor was
observed for a period of 180 days. Parameters taken into
account for study of growth responses were plant height, stem
girth, leaf area and days to flowering. Soil samples collected
from the rhizosphere of the experimental plants were analyzed
for total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH) amount and an
assessment of hydrocarbon utilizing bacteria (HUB) count was
also done. It was observed that at 1% crude oil concentration,
the plant shows more vigorous growth than that of the control
(without crude oil), though at 3% and 5% plant exhibit
reduction in the growth. GC-MS data analysis confirms the
presence of some hydrocarbon compounds in the experimental
plant roots. The amount of TPH was observed to be decreasing
and the mean value of the HUB count was observed to be
increasing along with time. It was found that the rhizosphere of
the plant supports the growth of hydrocarbon degrading
bacteria. This suggests that oil loss from the soil might be due
to rhizodegradation. This may provide us an alternative
method for removing crude oil contaminants from the polluted
soil while promoting seed production which definitely has
great economic importance [13]. Ricinus communis L. was
reported to have great potential for removing DDTs and Cd. A
comparison of the ability of 23 genotypes of Ricinus communis
L. in mobilizing and uptake of Cadmium (Cd) and
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was attributed to its
fast growth, high biomass, strong absorption and accumulation
for both DDTs a priority pollutant and Cd a toxic metal [14].
3. Industrial and Domestic
Applications of Castor Products
Competitive nature of castor plant products in industrial
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 82
and domestic uses made castor a valuable resource with
multiple applications.
Castor seed oil A rigorous study and characterization of seven Mexican
Ricinus communis L. seeds and its respective extracted oil
was reported. Several physicochemical properties were
measured in order to know moisture, total lipid content, fiber
content, starch presence, morphology, acidity, free fatty acid
profile, ricinoleic acid content, and viscosity and crude oil
density. The results showed that quality, composition,
physicochemical properties, and the nature of castor oil vary
according to the implemented extraction method. The
insights exposed will be of high relevance when the final use
of castor oil is required in the production of lubricant,
biodiesel or crude [15]. Physico-Chemical and GC/MS
Analysis of both castor bean and wild Castor (Ricinus
communis L.) oils (Figures 13-14) reportedly showed the
fatty acids profile [16, 17]
Figure 13. Castor bean seed oil.
Figure 14. Wild castor seed oil.
Castor seed cake The possibility to generate a feed-grade supplement based on
a detoxified castor bean residue enriched with tannase and
phytase was reported, making it possible to combine the
biotechnological production of these two enzymes, which are
important in the feed enrichment process, with the biological
detoxification of the castor bean residue, enabling its use as a
rich protein source in animal feed [18]. Production of oil from
castor (Ricinus communis L.) seed powder (Figure 15) generates
two main by-products: husks and meal. For each ton of castor oil,
1.31 ton of husks and 1.13 ton of meal are produced. Castor
meal is the most important by-product due to its high nitrogen
content and presently optimized blends is reportedly useful as an
organic fertilizer [19]. The parameters of an extraction process
of protein from castor bean cake (Figure 16) by solubilisation in
alkaline medium was reported [20]
Figure 15. Castor seed powder.
Figure 16. Castor bean cake.
Biofuel and Lubricants
Biodiesel production from castor oil by using calcium
oxide derived from mud clam shell was reported [21]. FTIR
spectroscopic analysis and fuel properties of wild castor
(Ricinus communis L.) seed and castor bean oils showed
biofuel potential of castor oil [22; 23]. Production and
characterization of biodiesel from seed oil of castor (Ricinus
83 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
communis L.) plants was made by Al-Harbawy and AL-
Malla [24]. The effects of Trans-Esterification of castor Seed
oil using ethanol, methanol and their blends on the properties
and yields of biodiesel was reported [25]. Lubricating oil is
one of the most widely used commercial and industrial oil.
The process of manufacturing lubricating oil can be
differentiated into three ways: by refining crude petroleum
oil, by extracting from crude vegetable oil, and by synthetic
processes. Lubricating oil from the castor plant is regarded as
one of the best sources of quality lubricating oil [26].
Estolide ester from Ricinus communis L. seed oil for
biolubricant purpose was developed [27].
Cleansing Agents Green detergent synthesize from the biodiesel of castor
seed (Ricinnus comminus L.) oil is a recent trend in detergent
industry, The green detergent compared favourably with the
controls except in biodegradability where it was better,
indicating that an environmental friendly detergent was
synthesized from castor seed oil [28]. Extraction,
characterization and optimization of castor oil from castor
seeds for production of synthetic detergent was reported [29;
30; 31]. Production of transparent soap (Figure 17) from an
indigenous castor bean oil extracted using n-hexane solvent
was reported [32]. Modification of castor oil through the
melainization of castor oil carried out with the use of maleic
anhydride to form maleinized castor oil was achieved. In this
method of addition of unsaturation compound to the
unsaturated part of the oil molecule, thus increasing its
complexity and heat reactivity. The product obtained from
maleic addition is known as the adduct which when
neutralized with inorganic alkali, ammonia gives water
miscible oils. Their solubilized oils may be used for different
applications like cosmetics, detergents etc. The application of
melainized castor oil has been done in the formulation of
liquid detergent. Liquid detergents prepared by this resin
with acid slurry in different proportions are giving excellent
results in comparison with that of commercial products [33].
A scanning electron miscroscopy study reported the
evaluation of dentin cleansing by a detergent derived from
castor oil (Ricinus communis L.) used as root canal irrigant,
the cleaning was of root canal walls after biomechanical
preparation and irrigation with castor oil [34].
Figure 17. Castor seed oil soap.
Polymer and Composites
Recent research interests have increase significantly on
polymeric materials from renewable resources because of
their environmental and economic importance. The use of
natural fibers as reinforcement in polymeric composites for
technical applications has been a research subject of
scientists. Nowadays, there is a great interest in the
application of sisal fiber as substitutes for glass fibers,
motivated by potential advantages of weight saving, lower
raw material price, and ecological advantages of using green
resources which are renewable and biodegradable. Castor oil,
a triacylglycerol vegetable that has hydroxyl groups, was
reacted with 4, 4’ diphenylmethanediisocyanate (MDI) to
produce polyurethane matrix. As reinforcements woven sisal
fiber and woven fiber glass were used in separate, and the
composites were processed by compression molding. Sisal
fibers were used untreated and thermal treated at 60°C for
72h. The composites were also characterized by scanning
electron microscopy. It showed that the use of laminates to
reinforce structures is viable once these laminates present
considerable strength. It also showed mechanical behavior of
natural fiber composites [35, 36]. Castor oil found
application in Curaua fibers which were used as reinforcers
of high-density biopolyethylene (HDBPE), which is prepared
by polymerization of ethylene obtained from sugar cane
ethanol, thus being a material derived from a renewable
source. Additionally, liquid hydroxyl-terminated
polybutadiene (a rubber, LHPB) and castor oil (CO, a natural
product) were added to the formulation to reduce crack
propagation during impact and also as coupling agents, since
LHPB and CO have hydrocarbon chains with affinity for
biopolyethylene, and hydroxyl groups with affinity for the
polar groups of lignocellulosic fibers [37]. Production and
analysis of mechanical properties of polymeric composites
using a castor oil polyurethane matrix reinforced with sisal
fiber to use as wall panel was reported [38]. Selected results
of the research on biocomposites of a long-chain polyamide
(Suzhou Hipro Polymers, China) obtained from castor oil
were presented (Kuzniar, nd). To produce final conductive
polymer composites, peach palm fibers (PPFs) with
polypyrrole (PPy), and particles was incorporated into a
polyurethane (PU) matrix that was derived from castor oil
[39]. The effects of the epoxidized castor oil (ECO) and
Al2O3 content on the thermal stability and fracture toughness
of the diglycidylether of bisphenol-A (DGEBA)/ECO/Al2O3
ternary composites using a range of techniques was reported
[40]. Bio-based nanocomposite from Epoxidized castor oil,
layered silicate and their characterization was also developed
[41]. Two steps synthesis of Polyurethane (PU) based on
castor oil, 4. 4’diphenyl methylene diisocyanate and 1,3-
propane diol was reported. The composites were obtained by
blending the PU with various amounts of cellulosic fibers
extracted from the Moroccan Alfa stems (esparto grass plant)
[42]. Crude glycerin (RG/CG) and castor oil cake (COC), the
two byproducts of biodiesel production were used in the
development of “Green” composites based on those with
plant fibers [43]. The potential use of castor oil in preparation
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 84
of novel biodegradable polymeric pressure sensitive
adhesives and fiber reinforced polyester composites was
investigated which indicate that castor oil-based PSA films
and tapes have applications in various fields including
flexible electronics and medical devices because of their
thermal stability, transparency, chemical resistance, and
potential biodegradability from triacylglycerols [44]. Castor
stalk is a byproduct of the production of castor oil. As a
natural material, castor stalk has a great potential in the
production of bio-composites as reinforcement materials [45].
Polyurethanes
It is commonly known even for undergraduate chemistry
students how to make mattresses out of castor oil. Current
trend pose the need for polymer research using renewable
natural sources as a substitute for petroleum-based polymers.
The use of polyols obtained from renewable sources
combined with the reuse of industrial residues such as lignin
is an important agent in this process. Now there is the
possibility to develop polyurethane-type materials, varying
technical grade Kraft lignin content, which cover a wide
range of mechanical properties (from large elastic/low Young
modulus to brittle/high Young modulus polyurethanes) [46].
Analysis of the effect of matrix mixing on the properties of
castor oil based polyurethane foams was made. By using the
one sheet technique, castor oil based polyurethane foams
were prepared from two formulations at different stirrer
speed ranging from 120 – 1180 rev/min [47]. Graphite-castor
oil polyurethane composite electrode surfaces - AFM
morphological and electrochemical characterization was
reported [48]. Scanning microscopy electronic images (SEM)
indicated that castor oil-based polyurethane adhesive
occupies the gaps between the particles, a factor that
contributes to improved physical and mechanical properties
of the panels [49] Castor oil-based polyurethane as a
renewable resource polymer has been synthesized for
application as a host in polymer electrolyte for
electrochemical devices [50]. Physico-mechanical properties
of rigid polyurethane foams synthesized from modified
castor oil polyols was reported [51]. Effect of different
formulations of MDI on rigid polyurethane foams based on
castor oil was also reported [52]. Attempt to understand
natural oil polyols showed that flexible foams could be
synthesized from castor oil, a naturally occurring polyol [53.
The use of castor oil as a reactive monomer has been studied
in order to evaluate the use in synthesis of flexible
polyurethane foam [54]. Effect of castor oil as an auxillary
stabilizer in the production of flexible polyurethane foams
was also reported [55]. A literature reported a preparation of
chain extended polyurethane and its composites based on
castor oil and coir fiber [56] Polyurethane foam samples
were prepared with varying quantity of castor oil as a
reactant with polyisocyanate and their flammability test was
carried out using various flame test procedures indicating the
use of castor oil as a flame retardant in polyurethane foam
[57]. A study reported the biodegradation of a polymer
derived from castor oil, which is a renewable, natural
material that is a practical alternative for the replacement of
traditional polyurethane foams [58]. Influence of castor oil-
based polyurethane on Physico-chemical properties of
calcium silicate cement was presented [59]. A Comparative
study of castor oil and commercial thermoplastic
polyurethane membranes modified with polyanilinewas made
[60]. A review on synthesis and characterization of castor oil
based polyurethane adhesive was presented by Gaykiet al.
[61]. Synthesis and characterization of castor oil based
polyurethane adhesive for wood substrates was also reported
by Gaykiet al. [62]. A study made comparison between
polyurethanes containing castor oil (Soft Segment) and
cancellous bone autograft in the treatment of segmental bone
defect induced in rabbits [63]. Firm polyurethane (PU) foams
were prepared using Nigerian grown brown and white castor
seed oil starting materials extracted at ambient temperature.
Polyol with terminal primary hydroxyl groups synthesized
from crude castor oil were reacted with aromatic
diphenylmethanediisocyanate to prepare the foams [64].
Textile and Dyes
The stem (Figure. 18) of the plant is used in the textile
industry [65]. The roles played by four major functional
groups (amine, carboxyl, azo, hydroxyl groups) in the
biomass of castor seeds in adsorption of seven dyes were
investigated. These functional groups in castor seeds were
chemically modified individually to determine their
contribution to the adsorption of ionic dyes [66]. With the
rising environmental concerns and the need for bio-based
products to replace synthetic wetting agents, castor oil have
the potential to be used in many industries, Synthesis of
wetting agents from castor oil for the dyeing of cotton fabric
was reported [67]. Ede and Demissie [68] reported the characterization of biocides and biodyes from castorseed oil.
Figure 18. Cross-sectional view of cultivated Ricinus communis L. stem.
Corrosion Inhibitors
Production of corrosion inhibitor from castor oil for carbon
steel pipeline was reported. The preparation was by two steps;
the first step includes sulfonation of castor oil and the second
step includes amination the sulfonic castor oil with ammonia
solution the final product characterized by FTIR. The
effectiveness of the synthesized compounds is studied as
85 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
corrosion inhibitors for carbon steel [69]. A study reported
factorial design application for the protection of mild steel
from corrosive medium using castor seed oil as inhibitor [70].
Corrosion inhibition of mild steel in 1.0 M HCl with castor
oil extract as inhibitor was also reported [71]. Ricinus
communis L. was assessed as corrosion inhibitor for
aluminium alloy in 2M HCl and H3PO4 acid solution using
gravimetric and potentiodynamic polarization techniques was
investigated at 298K. The results revealed that
Ricinuscommunisoil in 2M HCl and H3PO4-aluminium
environment decreased the corrosion rate at various
concentrations considered [72]. Castor Oil as Corrosion
Inhibitor forIron in Hydrochloric acid was also reported [73].
Medicinal and Pharmaceuticals
Due to organic richness and less side effects of medicinal
plants, researches have been in the increase. Ricinus
communis L. has been used in many parts of the world for
treatment of various ailments. However in most case, the
active phytochemical constituents that participated in
alleviating these ailments cannot be justified. Against this
background Ricinus communis L.(castor) whole plant parts
for phenolics and saponins constituents for medicinal and
pharmaceutical applications was assessed [74]. Castor plant
possesses essential phytochemicals such as flavonoids and
tannins, which could be exploited for
medicinal/pharmaceutical applications [75]. It was reported
that, traditionally, the fresh leaves (2-3) of Ricinus communis
L. are crushed and the juice is obtained. Five to six drops are
put into the eyes twice a day for about two days to cure the
redness in eyes (Allergic conjunctivitis) [76]. Root decoction
along with half a gram sunthi (dried and powdered rhizomes
of Zinziber officinale Rosc), one pinch of heeng (ferula as
foetida Linn) and common salt is taken twice daily for 7 days
to treat kidney stones [77]. Root of Ricinus communis Linn.
is also used to treat inflammation and liver disorders [78].
The seeds are used traditionally to treat conjuctivitis, diarrhea,
anaemia constipation headache [79]. Oil obtained from seed
is highly purgative [80]. Castor seed oil was reported to have
a disincentive effect on E. coli isolated from recurrent urinary
tract infections [81]. A gel prepared from the oil is
traditionally useful in skin diseases particularly dermatitis
and eczema. The castor oil is also used to make contraceptive
jellies and creams [82]. Castor oil was used as model oil in
formulation development and evaluation of injection of
poorly soluble drug using mixed solvency concept [83]. Self-
Emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) of valsartan
using castor oil was described [84]. In investigating the
efficacy and safety of natural oils (castor oil and olive oil)
based phase transition microemulsion systems for ocular
delivery with reference to ethyl oleate systems, castor oil
based systems were comparable to the control. With respect
to ocular irritation castor oil based system were the least
irritant followed by olive oil systems with ethyl oleate
systems being the most irritant. Tropicamide was used as
model drug and was incorporated in the formulation at a
concentration of 0. 5% w/w [85]. It was reported that solid
dispersions with hydrogenated castor oil increase solubility,
dissolution rate and intestinal absorption of praziquantel [86].
A mini review of castor seed oil and its potential cosmetic
and pharmaceutical applications was reported [87].
Antimicrobial potential
The Ricinus communis L. is reported to possess
antimicrobial activity, various extracts of Ricinus communis
L. showed Antimicrobial potential [88; 89]. Antibacterial
properties inherent in fermented seed extracts (both alcohol
and water) of Ricinus communis was ascertain by Jombo and
Enenebeaku [90]. Antimicrobial activity of the seed extract
was also reported [91, 92]. The powder methanol extracts of
the plant showed antimicrobial activity [93]. Ricinus
communis among other herbs; Senna auriculata and
Euphorbia hirta were screened for their antimicrobial
efficiency. The herbal extracts were applied on the four
variant of denimfabric directly by using dip method. The
antimicrobial activity of the finished fabrics was assessed
against bacteria that normally exist like Escherichia coli and
staphylococcus aureus. To enhance the durability of the
finished fabric, micro encapsulation and nano encapsulation
of the herbal extracts were performed and the results showed
good resistance for microbes [94]. The antimicrobial activity
of the essential oil of castor (Ricinus communis L.) seeds
extracted using soxhlet extractor in 98% n-hexane was
assessed using in-vitro assay. Twenty microorganisms made
up of fourteen bacteria and six fungi were used in the
bioassay. The study suggested that castor oil could be used in
treating infections caused by the test organisms used [95].
Antimicrobial activities of methanolic extract of Ricinus
communis seeds against some human pathogens was reported
[96]. Antimicrobial activities of aqueous, methanol and
ethanol extracts leaf and stem of Ricinus communis were
determined on selected bacteria [97]. Mature leaf sample of
wild Ricinus communis L was also reported to show
antimicrobial activity [98]. Leaf extracts of Ricinus
communis showed the highest antibacterial activity among
Allium ampelo prasum, Solanum incanum fruits and Porrum
leaves tested. The ethanol extract of the tested plants could
be considered as an alternative source of new antibacterial
drugs [99]. Screening of antibacterial activity of Ricinus
communisL. leaves extracts against Xanthomonas
axonopodis pv. Punicae was reported [100]. Isolation and
screening of endophytic bacteria from fresh and
asymptomatic leaves of Ricinus communis L. for
antimicrobial activity was also reported [101]. Potential of
the roots as an effective antimicrobial agent was established
[102]. In-silico Antimicrobial activity of bioactive
compounds of Ricinus communis against DNA Gyrase of
Staphylococcus aureus as Molecular Target was reported
[103]. Antifungal Properties of Ricinus communis L. was
assessed by Khan and Yadav [104]. The seed oil also showed
antimicrobial activity, antimicrobial activity of a calcium
hydroxide and Ricinus communis L. oil paste against
microorganisms commonly found in endodontic infections
showed greater antimicrobial activity [105].
Phytochemicals
Various phytochemicals of nutritional, medicinal and
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 86
cosmetic importance can be derived from seed oils.
Indigenous Ricinus communis L. (Bean) and Wild castor seed
oils were reported to contain some phytoconstituents [106].
Ethanolic extract of seeds of Ricinus communis were rich
source of various phytochemicals [107]. A novel oleanen
type triterpenoid, has been isolated from butanolic extract of
the seeds of Ricinus communis L. Its structure was elucidated
as 3-O- [β -D-glucoronopyranosyl-(1→3)-α –L-
rhamnopyranosyl-(1→ 2)β-D-glucopyranosyl]-4α,20α-
hydroxy methyl olean-12-ene-28-oic acid on the basis of
spectral evidences i.e. FTIR, 1HNMR, 13C NMR and FAB-
MS data [108] Ricinus communis L. leaves was also reported
to contain some phytochemicals [109]. Phytochemical and
pharmacological investigations of Ricinus communis Linn
was explored [110]. The percentages of crude protein and fat
obtained as well as phytochemical constituents present
suggest that Ricinus communis L. seeds could be a good
source of protein for humans consumption and livestock
feeding, oil for industrial uses and medicine for treating
various ailments [111].
Biotechnological resource
Biotechnology offers many opportunities to alter the
molecular composition of fatty acids to create entirely new
substitutes for traditional oils and fats. Castor oil is just one
target of current biotechnology research [112]. The role of
biotechnological tools in the genetic improvement of castor
was enumerated. Castor is monotypic and breeding
programme has mostly relied on the variability available in
the primary gene pool. The major constraints limiting
profitable cultivation are: vulnerability to insect pests and
diseases, and the press cake is toxic which restrict its use as
cattle feed. Conventional breeding techniques have limited
scope in improvement of resistance to biotic stresses and in
quality improvement owing to low genetic variability for
these traits. Genetic diversity was assessed using protein
based markers while use of molecular markers is at infancy.
In vitro studies in castor have been successful in shoot
proliferation from meristematic explants, but not callus-
mediated regeneration. Genetic transformation experiments
have been initiated for development of insect resistant and
ricin-free transgenics with very low transformation frequency
[113]. Molecular diversity study for varietal identification
and phylogenetic relationships among thirteen castor
genotypes and identification of those with distinct DNA
profiles was reported [114].
Nanotechnology
An attempt was made to create an optimized protocol for
nanoparticles due to their wide applicability in various areas
such as electronics, catalysis, chemistry, medicine and energy.
The use of environmentally benign materials like plant leaf
extract, bacteria, fungi and enzymes for the synthesis of
silver nanoparticles offers numerous benefits of eco-
friendliness and compatibility for pharmaceutical and other
biomedical applications as they do not use toxic chemicals
for the synthesis protocol [115]. Green synthesis of silver
nanoparticles synthesized from aqueous plant extract of
Ricinus communis L. and its antimicrobial activity was
studied. The synthesized nanoparticles of Ricinus communis
L. have shown good antimicrobial efficacy as compared to
plant extract and may prove to be better antimicrobial agent
against wide range of microbes [116].
Waste to Wealth
Waste generation during industrial production is always in
the increase, therefore there is the need to get rid or minimize
its amount by recycling and other means. It was reported that
useful coating products may be obtained by chemical
valorization (glycolysis) of post consumed poly (ethylene
terephthalate) (PET) wastes. Glycolysis of PET waste carried
out using poly (propylene glycol) (PPG) of molecular weight
2000. The depolymerized oligoesters obtained were trans-
esterified with Castor oil and Jatropha oil which results in the
formation of saturated hydroxyl-functional polyester polyols.
Two-pack coating systems were formulated using these
resins as base component and melamine formaldehyde resins
as hardener component [117]. A new bio-based monomer, 2-
octyl acrylate, has been derived from a waste product of the
processing of castor oil in alkyd manufacture. It was
substituted for n-butyl acrylate in three different types of
emulsion. In all cases good polymerisation was obtained and
paints showed improvements in some properties [118].
Formulation of biogrease from castorwaste was also reported
[118] Benes et al. [120] reported the chemical recycling of
waste poly (ethylene terephthalate) (PET) using castor oil
(CO) as a reagent. Tayone et al. [121] reported how
glycolyzed product (GP) is transesterified with castor oil to
convert into polyester polyol during microwave assisted
depolymerization of post-consumer pet bottles for the
reduction of rigid thermal insulating polyurethane foams.
4. Conclusion
Conclusively Castor plant products showed various
potential for industrial and domestic uses of which includes
among others; potential for phytoremediation of lands
contaminated by wastes, its products could substantially be
used for medicinal, cosmetic and pharmaceutical
preparations and also as valuable green cleansing agents.
Acknowledgements
The author acknowledged the funding of Tertiary
Education Trust (TetFund), Nigeria. Project No.
TETF/ESSD/KSUST/ALIERO/AMB/11-12/02
References
[1] K. Satyagopal, S. N. Sushil, P. Jeyakumar, G. Shankar, O. P. Sharma, D. R. Boina, R. A. Sain, K. S. Kapoor, S. Arya, S. Kumar, C. S. Patni, D. Suresh, K. Ekabote, R. M. Lakshminarayana, H. Narayanaswamy, B. K. Shivanna. AESA based IPM package for Castor. (2014). p38.
[2] P. L. Ladda, R. B. Kamthane, Ricinus communis L. (Castor): An Overview. International Journal of Research in Pharmacology and Pharmacotherapeutics. (2014) 3 (2): 136-144.
87 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
[3] M. G. Mendes, C. D. Santos Junior, A. C. C. Dias, A. M Bonetti. Castor bean (Ricinus communis L.) as a potential environmental bioindicator. Genetic and Molecular Research. (2015). 14 (4): 12880-12887.
[4] M. N. V. Prasad, B. R. Kiran Ricinus communis L. (Castor bean), a potential multi-purpose environmental crop for improved and integrated phytoremediation. TheEuroBiotech Journal. (2017) 1 (2): 1-16.
[5] J. Jena, A. K. Gupta. Ricinus communis Linn: a phytopharmacological review International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. (2012). 4 (40) 25-29.
[6] P. Borg, G. Lê, S. Lebrun, B. Pées, Example of industrial valorisation of derivative products of Castor oil. OCL (2009). 16 (4): 211-214.
[7] A. A. Annongu, J. K Joseph. Proximate Analysis of Castor Seeds and Cake. Journal of Applied Science and Environmental Management. (2008). 12 (1): 39-41.
[8] Raw Materials Research and Development Council. Survey Report of Ten Selected Agro Raw Materials in Nigeria: Castor. Raw Materials Research and Development Council (Federal Ministry of Science and Technology), Abuja, Nigeria. (2009). p28.
[9] V. N. Onyia, F. U. Offiah, E. I. Eze, G. E. Ilo, N. C. Onwubiko. Proximate and mineral composition of some Nigerian castor (Ricinus communis L.) accessions. Academia Journal of Biotechnology. (2015) 3 (5): 093-096.
[10] B. Pankhaniya, R. N. Desai, B. H. Shah. Synthesis of polyurethane solution (Castor oil based polyol for polyurethane). IJARIIE. (2015) 1 (2): 37-42.
[11] B. Z. Salihu, A. K. Gana, B. O. Apuyor. Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis L.): Botany, Ecology and Uses. International Journal of Science and Research. (2014) 3 (5): 1333-1341.
[12] U. Anastasia, O. Sortinoa, S. L. Cosentinoa, C. Patanèb. Seed yield and oil quality of perennial castor bean in a Mediterranean environment. International Journal of Plant Production. (2015) 9 (1): 99-118.
[13] M. Baishya, M. C. Kalita. Phytoremediation of crude oil contaminated soil using two local varieties of castor oil plant (Ricinus communis L.) of Assam. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. (2015). 6 (4): 1173-1182.
[14] H. Huang, N. Yu, L. Wang, D. K. Gupta, Z. He, K. Wang, Z. Zhu, X. Yan, T. Li, X. EYang The phytoremediation potential of bioenergy crop Ricinus communis L. for DDTs and cadmium co-contaminated soil, Bioresource. Technolology. (2011). 102 (23): 11034-11038.
[15] F. A. Perdomo, A. A. Acosta-Osoriob, G. Herrera, J. F. Vasco-Leal, J. D. Mosquera-Artamonov, B. Millan-Malo, M. E. Rodriguez-Garcia, Physicochemical characterization of seven Mexican Ricinus communis L. seeds & oil contents. Biomass and Bioenergy. (2013) 48: 17-24.
[16] A. A. Warra. Physico-Chemical and GC/MS Analysis of wild Castor (Ricinus communis L.) Seed Oil. Applied Science Reports. (2015a) 9 (3): 123-128.
[17] A. A. Warra. Physico-Chemical and GC/MS Analysis of Castor Bean (Ricinus communis L.) Seed Oil. Chemistry and Materials Research. (2015b). 7 (2): 56-60.
[18] J. V. Madeira Jr., J. A. Macedo, G. A. Macedo. Detoxification of castor bean residues and the simultaneous production of tannase and phytase by solid-state fermentation using Paecilomycesvariotii. Bioresource Technology. (2011) 102: 7343–7348.
[19] R. L. S. Lima, L. S. Severino, L. R., Sampaio, V. Sofiatti, J. A. Gomes, N. E. M Beltrão Blends of castor meal and castor husks for optimized use as organic fertilizer. Industrial Crops and Products (2011) 33: 364–368.
[20] B. S. Lacerda, G. LA. Makishi, H. N. M., Chambib, A. M. Q. B. Bittante, C. A. Gomide, P. A. Costa, Paulo J. A. Sobral, P. J. A (2014). Castor Bean (Ricinus communis L.) Cake Protein Extraction by Alkaline Solubilization: Definition of Process Parameters. Chemical engineering transactions. 37: 775-780.
[21] N. B. Ismail. Formulation of biogrease from castor waste. Bsc thesis Faculty of Chemical & Natural Resources Engineering, Universiti Malaysia Pahang (2014).
[22] F. A. Atiku, A. A. Warra, M. R. Enimola (2014a). FTIR spectroscopic analysis and fuel properties of wild castor (Ricinus communis L) seed oil. Open Science Journal of Analytical Chemistry. (2014a) 1 (1): 6-9.
[23] F. A. Atiku, A. A. Warra, M. M. Bashar. FTIR analysis and fuel properties of castor (Ricinus communis L) bean oil. World Research Journal of Organic Chemistry. (2014b). 2 (1), 31-34.
[24] A. W. AL-Harbawy, M. K. AL-Mallah. Production and Characterization of Biodiesel from seed oil of Castor (Ricinus communis L.) plants. International Journal of Science and Technology. (2014) 3 (9): 508-513.
[25] Enontiemonria, E. V., Ayodeji, A., Lucky, A. P. A., Ogheneofego, O (2012). The Effects of Trans-Esterification of Castor Seed Oil Using Ethanol, Methanol and their Blends on the Properties and Yields of Biodiesel. International Journal of Engineering and Technology. 2 (10): 1734-1742.
[26] J. Paguiligan, V. Villanueva. Agro-industrial production of lubricating oil and castor beans. Feasibility study. Mapúa Institute of Technology. School of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry (2005).
[27] N. A. Tajuddin, N. H. Rosli, N. Abdullah, M. E. Mohd Firdaus Yusoff, J. Salimon. Estolide ester from Ricinus communis L. seed oil for biolubricant purpose. The Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences. (2014). 18 (1): 85-93.
[28] E. V. Ndubuisi, J. I. Ugbeh, C. C. Iwuorah, O. M. Abayeh, O. J. Abayeh. Synthesis of a green detergent from castor seed (Ricinnus comminus) oil. Journal of Chemical Society of Nigeria. (2015). 40 (1): 76-82.
[29] Mogose, I. N (2016). Extraction, characterization and optimization of castor oil from Castor seeds for production of synthetic detergent. Msc thesis. Research and Graduate School of Addis Ababa University.
[30] A. G. Isah. Production of Detergent from Castor oil. Leonardo Journal of Practices and Technologies. (2006). 9: 153-160.
[31] A. O. Gideon. Production of detergent from castor oil. Bsc Project School of engineering and engineering technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria. (2005).
[32] A. A. Warra, I. G. Wawata, R. A. Umar, S. Y. Gunu Extraction of Oil from Castor Beans using n-hexane: Chemical Analysis and Transparent Soap Preparation. World Research Journal of Chemistry. (2013) 1 (2): 39-41.
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 88
[33] B. P. Vibhute, R. R. Khotpal, V. Y. Karadbhajane, A. S. Kulkarni. Preparation of Maleinized Castor oil (MCO) By Conventional Method And its Application in the Formulation of Liquid Detergent. International Journal of ChemTech Research. (2013) 5 (4): 1886-1896.
[34] L. M. Aguiar, L. E. Maekawa, A. Chung, M. R. G. Nassri. Evaluation of dentin cleansing by a detergent derived from castor oil (Ricinus communis) used as root canal irrigant: a scanning electron miscroscopy study. Rev Sul-Bras Odontol. (2010) 7 (4): 445-449.
[35] A. C. Milanese, M. O. H. Cioffi, H. J. C. Voorwald (2011a). Mechanical behavior of castor oil-based polyurethane composites: reinforcement comparison. Proceedings of COBEM 21st Brazilian Congress of Mechanical Engineering. Pp 1-10.
[36] A. C. Milanese, M. O. H. Cioffi. H. J. CVoorwald, (2011b). Mechanical behavior of natural fiber composites. Procedia Engineering 10: 2022–2027.
[37] D. O. Castro, A. Ruvolo-Filho, E. Frollini. Hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene and castor oil: impact modifier and coupling agents in biopolyethylenecuraua fibers composites. Proceedings of the 16th International Conference on Composite Structures. (2011). pp 1-2.
[38] L. Karoline de Sousa, L. Aparecida de Castro Motta. Study of sisal reinforced castor oil polyurethane composites for use as wall panel. Proceedings of the 16th European conference on composite materials. (2014) Pp 1-6.
[39] C., Merlini, G. M. O., Barra, D. P. P. Matth¨aus da Cunha, D. A. S., Silvia, B. G. S. Ramoa,, A. A. Pegoretti. Reducing the filler content of electrically conductive composites. Plastic Research Online. (2015) Pp 1-3.
[40] L. Zhu, F. Jin, S. Park. Thermal Stability and Fracture Toughness of Epoxy Resins Modified with Epoxidized Castor Oil and Al2O3 Nanoparticles. Bulletin of. Korean Chemical Society. (2012) 33 (8): 2513-2516.
[41] C. Thamaraichelvi, C. Priyatharsini, C. Barathiselvam. Development of Bio-Based Nanocomposite from Epoxidized Castor Oil, Layered Silicate and Their Characterization. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry. (2016) 9 (2): 26-29.
[42] F. Malek, S. Giraud, P. Vroman, J. Isaad. New composite materials based on biosourced polyurethane: Elaboration and study of their thermal and mechanical properties. Journal of Materials and Environmental Science. (2016) 6 (11): 3217-3225.
[43] J. L. Guimarães, A. C. T. Cursino, C. K. Saul, M. R. Sierrakowski, L. P. Ramos, K. G. Satyanarayana. Evaluation of Castor Oil Cake Starch and Recovered Glycerol and Development of “Green” Composites Based on Those with Plant Fibers. Materials. (2016) 9 (76): 1-18.
[44] J. Shakina, A. Muthuvinothini. Development Studies of Biodegradable Pressure Sensitive Adhesives and Fiber Reinforced Polyester Composites from Castor Oil. International Research Journal of Pure andApplied Chemistry. (2015) 8 (4): 198-211.
[45] X. Li, G. Du, S. Wang, Y. Guanxia. Physical and mechanical characterization of fiber and wall in castor (Ricinus communis L) Stalk. Bioresources. (2014) 9 (1): 1596-1605.
[46] L. B. Tavares, C. V. Boas, G. R. Schleder, A. M. Nacas, D. S. Rosa, D. J Santos. Bio-based polyurethane prepared from
Kraft lignin and modified castor oil. RESS PolymerLetters. (2016) 10 (11): 927–940.
[47] Adogbo, G. M., Atiwurcha, V. E (2014). The Effects of Matrix Mixing on the Properties of Castor Oil Based Polyurethane Foams. IOSR Journal of Engineering. 4 (8): 1-6.
[48] A. M. Chiorcea-Paquim, V. C. Diculescu, P. Cervini, E. T. G. Cavalheiro, A. M. O. Brett, (2014). Graphite-castor oil polyurethane composite electrode surfaces - AFM morphological and electrochemical characterisation, Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry. 1-29.
[49] J. Fiorelli, D. D. Curtolo, N. G. Barreroa, H. Savastano Jr., E. M. A. Pallone, R. Johnson (2012). Particulate composite based on coconut fiber and castor oil polyurethane adhesive: An eco-efficient product. Industrial Crops and Products. 40: 69-75.
[50] S. Ibrahim, A. Ahmad, N. S. Mohamed. Characterization of Novel Castor Oil-Based Polyurethane Polymer Electrolytes. Polymers. (2015) 7: 747-759.
[51] A. K. Yusuf, P. A. P. Mamza, A. S. Ahmed, U. Agunwa, Physico-Mechanical Properties of Rigid Polyurethane Foams Synthesized From Modified Castor Oil Polyols. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. (2016) 6 (7): 548-556.
[52] M. Kumar, R. Kaur. Effect of Different Formulations of MDI on Rigid Polyurethane Foams based on Castor Oil. International Journal of Scientific Research and Reviews. (2013) 2 (1): 29-42.
[53] L. Zhang. Structure-Property Relationship of Polyurethane Flexible Foam Made from Natural Oil Polyols. PhD thesis Faculty of the Graduate School of the University of Minnesota. (2008).
[54] O. S. Ogunfeyitimi, A. O. Okewale, P. K. Igbokwe. The Use of Castor Oil as a Reactive Monomer in Synthesis of Flexible Polyurethane Foam. International journal of multidisciplinary sciences and engineering. (2012) 3 (10): 10-14.
[55] I. A. Ajayi, O. M. Adenowo, O. O. Kolawole. Effect of Castor Oil as an Auxillary Stabilizer in the Production of Flexible Polyurethane Foams. IOSR Journal of Applied Chemistry. (2015). 8 (6): 51-55.
[56] N. J. Sangeetha, A. M. Retna. Preparation of chain extended polyurethane and its composites based on castor oil and coir fiber. Green Chemistry and Technology Letters. (2015) 1 (1): 67-70.
[57] Salisu, A. A., Said, M. D (2012). The use of castor oil as a flame retardant in polyurethane foam. Chemsearch Journal 3 (1): 24-27.
[58] J. M. Cangemi, A. M. dos Santos, S. C. Neto, G. O. Chierice. Biodegradation of Polyurethane Derived from Castor Oil. Polímeros: Ciência e Tecnologia. (2008) 18 (3): 201-206.
[59] E. R. Magdaluyo, Jr. C. M., Aranas, Jr., J. D. Masiglat. Influence of Castor Oil-Based Polyurethane on Physico-Chemical Properties of Calcium Silicate Cement. Philippine Journal of Science. (2011) 140 (1): 25-32.
[60] J. H. S. Almeida Júnior, D. A. Bertuolb, A. Meneguzzia, C. A. Ferreiraa, F. D. R. Amado. Castor Oil and Commercial Thermoplastic Polyurethane Membranes Modified with Polyaniline: A Comparative Study. Materials Research. (2013) 16 (4): 860-866.
89 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
[61] B. K. Gayki, P. V. Thorat, S. S. Tayde. A Review on Synthesis and Characterization of Castor Oil Based Polyurethane Adhesive. International Journal of Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering. (2015) 5 (3): 95-97.
[62] Gayki, B. K., Thorat, P. V (2013). Synthesis and Characterization of Castor Oil based Polyurethane Adhesive for Wood Substrates. International Journal of Science and Research. 4 (6): 605-607.
[63] O. C. Pereira-Junior, S. C. Rahal, P. Iamaguti, S. L. Felisbino, P. T. Pavan, L. C. Vulcano. Comparison Between Polyurethanes Containing Castor Oil (Soft Segment) and Cancellous Bone Autograft in the Treatment of Segmental Bone Defect Induced in Rabbits. Journal of Biomaterials Applications. (2007) 21 (3): 283-297.
[64] A. Imasuen, F. Inegbedion, C. Erhabor, Rehabber, M. OsuideIsolation and haracterization of Castor Seed Oil and Its Utilization Potential in the Production of Polyurethane Foam. Walailak Journal of Science and Technology. (2014). 11 (5): 421-427.
[65] D. G. Williams. Castor oil - Natural Protection from Deadly Viruses. Complementary Newsletter. (1995) 6 (1).
[66] V. Dharmalingam, A. K. Ramasamy, V. Balasuramanian. Chemical Modification on Reactive Dye Adsorption Capacity of Castor Seeds. E-Journal of Chemistry. (2011) 8 (S1): 335-343.
[67] M. C. Tadesse. Synthesis of wetting agents from castor oil for the dyeing of cotton fabric. Applied Research Journal. (2015) 1 (1): 1-8.
[68] A. G. Ede, A. G. Demissie. Bioactivity Guided Characterization of Biocides and Biodyes from Castor (RicinuscommuniusL.) Seed Oil. International Journal of Modern Biology and Medicine. (2013) 4 (2): 64-70.
[69] H. A. Ali. Modification of Caster Oil and Study Its Efficiency as Corrosion Inhibitors in Formation Water Media. Engineering. (2017) 9, 254-262.
[70] A. Begum, S. HariKrishna. Factorial design application for the Protection of mild steel from corrosive medium using Castor seed oil as inhibitor. International Journal of ChemTech Research. (2014) 6 (4): 2385-2390.
[71] M. Omotioma, O. D. OnukwuliCorrosion inhibition of mild steel in 1. 0 M HCl with castor oil extract as inhibitor. International Journal of Chemical Science. (2016) 14 (1): 103-127.
[72] M. Abdulwahab, A. P. I. Popoola, O. S. I. Fayomi. Inhibitive Effect by Ricinus communis on the HCl/H3PO4 Acid Corrosion of Aluminium Alloy. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. (2012) 7 (2012) 11706-11717.
[73] S. Yas, S. Soni. Castor Oil as Corrosion Inhibitor for Iron in Hydrochloric acid. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. (2011) 27 (4): 1743-1746.
[74] B. N. Inayor, O. O. Ibraheem. Assessing Ricinus communis L. (castor) whole plant parts for Phenolics and Saponins constituents for Medicinal and Pharmaceutical applications. International Journal of Advances in Pharmacy, Biology and Chemistry. (2014) 3 (4): 815-826.
[75] C. I. Alugah, O. Ibraheem. Whole plant screenings for flavonoids and tannins contents in Castor plant (Ricinus
communis L.) and evaluation of their biological activities. International Journal of Herbal Medicine. (2014) 2 (2): 68-76.
[76] Z. A. Lone, S. S. Khan, F. Khan. Plant sources for the healing of ophthalmic diseases by the tribals of district raisen (m. p.), India. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. (2014) 4 (5): 2374-2378.
[77] R. S. Chauhan. Studies on Medicinal Plants Used by Tribal Communities in District Singrauli of Madhya Pradesh. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications. (2017) 7 (1): 17-19.
[78] A. Singh, S. Mittal, R. Shrivastav, S. Dass, J. N. Srivastava. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Ricinus communis L. leaf extract and its antibacterial activity. Digest Journal of Nanomaterials and Biostructures. (2012) 7 (3): 1157-1163.
[79] R. K. Upadhyay, S. S. Ahmad. Ethno-medicinal plants and their Pharmaceutical Potential. Journal of Pharmacy Research. (2012) 5 (4): 2162-2173.
[80] P. Chauhan, D. Kumar, M. S. Kasana. Medicinal plants of Muzaffarnagar district used in the treatment of urinary tract and kidney stones. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. (2009). 8920; 191-195.
[81] R. S. H. Al-Kuraishi, L. M. Al-Shamma, H. J. F. Al-Mathkhury. Effect of seed oil Ricinus communis on E. coli isolated from Recurrent Urinary Tract Infections. Iraqi Journal of Science. (2013) 54 (4): 851-855.
[82] S. Sharma, A. A. Kumar. Pharmacognostical studies on medicinal plants of semi-arid region. Prime Research on Medicine. (2012) 2 (2): 81-88.
[83] R. K. Maheshwari, R. Shilpkar. Formulation development and evaluation of injection of poorly soluble drug using mixed solvency concept. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. (2012) 3 (1): 179-189.
[84] A. K. Gupta, D. K. Mishra, S. C. Mahajan. Preparation and in-vitro evaluation of self-emulsifying drug delivery system of antihypertensive drug valsartan. International Journal of Pharmacy and Life Sciences. (2011). 2 (3): 633-639.
[85] H. E. El Agamy, G. M. El Maghraby. Natural and synthetic oil phase transition microemulsions for ocular delivery of tropicamide: efficacy and safety. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. (2015) 5 (2): 067-075.
[86] M. V. Chaud, P. Tamascia, A. Cristina de Lima, M. O. Paganelli, M. P. D. Gremião, Osvaldo de Freita Solid dispersions with hydrogenated castor oil increase solubility, dissolution rate and intestinal absorption of praziquantel. Brazilian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. (2010) 46 (3): 473-481.
[87] A. A. Warra. Castor Seed Oil and Its Potential Cosmetic and Pharmaceutical Applications. Achieves of Scientific Research. (2015c) 1 (1): 19-22.
[88] V. M. Kensa, Y. S. Syhed. Phytochemical screening and antibacterial activity on Ricinus communis L. Plant Sciences Feed. (2011) 1 (9): 167-173.
[89] M. Sharma, M. I. Mir, M. Y. Malla, A. H. Mir, S. H. Bhat, S. Nazir, J. J. Tripathi. Antimicrobial potential of various extracts of Ricinus communis L. Journal of Natural Products and Plant Resources. (2013) 3 (2): 72-75.
International Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences 2018; 3(5): 78-91 90
[90] G. T. A. Jombo, M. N. O. Enenebeaku. Antibacterial profile of fermented seed extracts of Ricinus communis L: Findings from a preliminary analysis. Nigerian Journal of Physiological Sciences. (2008) 23 (1-2): 55-59.
[91] B. Javaid, N. Rana, Misbah, K. Javed. Antimicrobial studies of Ricinus communis seeds extracts. International Journal of scientific research and management. (2015) 3 (5): 2752-2759.
[92] H. Rahmati, S. Salehi, A. Malikpour, F. Farhangi. Antimicrobial Activity of Castor Oil Plant (Ricinus communis) Seed Extract against Gram Positive Bacteria, Gram Negative Bacteria and Yeast. International Journal of Molecular Medicine and Advance Sciences. (2015) 11 (1): 9-12.
[93] N. Rao, S. Mittal, Sudhanshu, E. Menghani. Assessment of Phytochemical Screening, Antioxidant and Antibacterial Potential of the Methanolic Extract of Ricinus communis L. Asian Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. (2013) 3 (1): 20-25.
[94] M. Sumithra V. N. RaajaAntibacterial Efficacy Analysis of Ricinus communis, Senna auriculata and Euphorbia hirta Extract Treated on the Four Variant of Denim Fabric against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Textile Science and Engineering. (2012) 2 (3): 1-4.
[95] A. O. Momoh, M. K. Oladunmoye, T. T. Adebolu. Evaluation of the Antimicrobial and Phytochemical Propertiesof Oil from Castor Seeds (Ricinus communis Linn). Bulletin of Environmental Pharmacology and Life Sciences. (2012). 1 [10]: 21-27.
[96] K. Pooman, S. K. Pratab. Antimicrobial activities of Ricinus communis seeds against some human pathogens. International Research Journal of Pharmacy. (2012) 3 (7): 209-21.
[97] S. Das, S. Jamal, M. Dutta, S. Rej, S. Chatterjee. Comparative Phytochemical Analysis and Antimicrobial Activity of Four Medicinal Plants. European Journal of Medicinal Plants. (2015). 6 (4): 191-199.
[98] S. Rampadarath, D. Puchooa, M. Ranghoo- Sanmukhiya. Antimicrobial, Phytochemical and Insecticidal Properties of JatrophaSpecies and Wild Ricinus communis L. Found in Mauritius. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. (2014). 6 (4); 831-840.
[99] S. A. Alamri, M. F. Moustafa. Antimicrobial properties of 3 medicinal plants from Saudi Arabia against some clinical isolates of bacteria. Saudi Med J. (2012) 33 (3): 272-277.
[100] V. A. Gargade, D. Kadam. Screening of antibacterial activity of Ricinus communis L. leaves extracts against Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. punicae International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences. (2015) 2 (9): 47–51.
[101] P. Jain, P. Sharma. Isolation and screening of endophytic bacteria from Ricinus communis for antimicrobial activity. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. (2015) 4 (6): 2012-2017.
[102] S. K. Verma, S. Yousuf, S. K. Singh, G. B. K. S. Prasad, V. K. Dua. Antimicrobial potential of roots of Ricinus communis against pathogenic microorganisms. International Journal of Pharma and Bio Sciences. (2011) 2 (1): 545-548.
[103] S. Rajeswari, In-silico Antimicrobial Activity of Bioactive Compounds of Ricinus communis against DNA Gyrase of Staphylococcus aureus as Molecular Target. International Journal of Bioengineering and Life Sciences. (2015). 2 (4): 536.
[104] J. A. Khan, K. P. Yadav. Assessment of Antifungal Properties ofRicinuscommunis. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences. (2011) 11 (11): 1-3.
[105] L. R. Garcia, G. Lemos de Almeida, F. P. Pires-de-Souza, S. Consani, Antimicrobial activity of a calcium hydroxide and Ricinus communis oil paste against microorganisms commonly found in endodontic infections. Rev. odontociênc. (2009). 24 (4): 406-409.
[106] A. A. Warra, R. A. Umar, F. A. Atiku, A. Nasiru, M. K. Gafar. Physical and Phytochemical Characteristics of seed Oils from Selected Cultivars Grown in Northern Nigeria. Research and Reviews: Journal of Agriculture and Allied Sciences. (2012) 1 (1): 4-8.
[107] R. S. Patil, K. K. Bhise. Evaluation of phytochemicals and in vitro antimicrobial activity of aqueous and ethanolic extract from seeds of Ricinus communis Linn. European Journal of Biotechnology and Bioscience. (2015) 3 (3): 19-23.
[108] N. A. Khan, C. Dubey, A. Srivastava. A TriterpenoidSaponin from the Seeds of Ricinuscommunis. Proceedings of the 14th International Electronic Conference on Synthetic Organic Chemistry. (2010) Pp 1-10.
[109] R. Khursheed, A. N. Erumnaz, H. Sharif, C. Rizwani. Antibacterial, Antimycelial and Phytochemical Analysis of Ricinus communis Linn, Trigonellafoenumgrecum Linn and Delonixregia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf of Pakistan. Romanian Biotechnological Letters. (2012) 17 (3): 7237-7244.
[110] R. Singh, Geetanjali. Phytochemical and Pharmacological Investigations of Ricinus communis Linn, Algerian Journal of Natural Product. 3 (1): 120-129.
[111] O. Akinyemi, E. W. Iyebor, C. O. Osadebe, N. S. Oniroko. Proximate and Phytochemical Compositions of Ricinuscommunisin Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. American Journal of Food Science and Nutrition Research. 2016 3 (5): 96-101.
[112] Rural Advancement Fund International. Biotechnology and Castor oil. Rafi Comminique. (1990) Pp 1-4.
[113] M. Sujatha. T. P. Reddy, M. J. Mahasi. Role of biotechnological interventions in the improvement of castor (Ricinus communis L.) and Jatropha curcas L. Biotechnology Advances (2008) 26: 424–435.
[114] H. N. Lakhani, S. Y. Patel, N. P. Bodar, B. A. Golakiya. RAPD analysis of genetic diversity of castor bean (Ricinuscommunis L.). International Journal of. Current. Microbiology and Applied Sciences (2015) 4 (1): 696-703.
[115] V. Singh, S. Sharma, K. L. Dhar, A. N. Kalia, Activity Guided Isolation of Anti-Inflammatory compound/Fraction from Root of Ricinus communis Linn. International Journal of PharmTech Research. (2013) 5 (3): 1142-1149.
[116] S. P. Vinay, N. Chandrashekar. Synthesis and Characterization of Silver Nanoparticles using Ricinus communis Plant and Study of their Biological Activity. International Journal of Science, Engineering and Management. (2016) 1 (8): 63-68.
[117] J. Purohit, G. Chawada, B. Choubisa, M. Patel, B. Dholakiya. Polyester Polyol Derived From Waste Poly (Ethylene Terephthalate) for Coating Application on Mild Steel. Chemical Sciences Journal. (2012) CSJ-76: 1-7.
91 Aliyu Ahmad Warra: Castor (Ricinuscummunis L.) Plant: Medicinal, Environmental and Industrial Applications
[118] S. Austin, B. Foster, M. Conrads. From waste to wall: Sustainable monomer improves performance of emulsion binders. European Coat Ings Journal. (2017) 03: 110-114.
[119] S. Ismail, A. S. Ahmed, R. Anr, S. Hamdan. Biodiesel Production from Castor Oil by Using Calcium OxideDerived from Mud Clam Shell. Journal of Renewable Energy. (2016) 1-8.
[120] H. Beneš, J. Slabá, Z. Walterová, D. Rais. Recycling of waste
poly (ethylene terephthalate) with castor oil using microwave heating. Polymer Degradation and Stability. (2013) 98 (11): 2232–2243.
[121] R. F. Tayone, M. S. Silagan, R. M. B. Igdon, E. R. R. Ortiz, K. P. Ong. Microwave assisted depolymerization of post-consumer pet bottles for the production of rigid thermal insulating polyurethane foams. Proceedings of Academics World 28th International Conference. (2016) pp 87-91.
Top Related