PYC4807 Assignment 03
Unique Assignment number: 739624
Name: Tanja Bohler
Student Number: 30440351
Address: PO Box 17139
Dubai
United Arab Emirates
A Discussion on Psychological
Assessment in Early Childhood.
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Table of Contents Page
1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 3
2. Reasons for Assessing Young Children……………………………………………………….. 4
3. Tests for Infants and Preschoolers……………………………………………………………… 5
4. Factors of Childhood Assessment……………………………………………………………….. 6
4.1 Characteristics of the Child……………………………………………………….. 6
4.2 Social Context of Assessment……………………………………………………. 8
4.3 The Examination Context of Assessment…………..………………………. 12
4.4 The Test as a Method of Assessment….……………………………………… 14
5. Principles of Assessment……………………………………………………………………………… 15
6. Predictive Validity of Early Childhood Assessment………………………………………. 19
7. Ethical Considerations of Assessing Young Children……………………………………. 20
8. Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 21
9. Maya’s Assessment……………………………………………………………………………………… 23
10. References………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
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1. Introduction
Children develop at different rates and in different ways. Parents and caregivers who
are concerned about a child's development would seek developmental assessment
and intervention from a health professional in order to support that child to reach
his/her maximum potential.
Young children are difficult to assess due to their high activity levels, distractibility,
short attention span, and limited ability to concentrate. As a result, the assessment
practitioner needs to have a good knowledge on how to work with children (Tutorial
Letter 101 Psychological Assessment, 2013). The assessment of these young children
therefore requires full investigation into the child's background, knowledge of testing
limitations and other factors that may affect a child's performance, including cultural
differences and language barriers.
The below discussion on psychological assessment of young children addresses the
purpose for assessing young children and the factors that needs to be taken into
consideration during such an assessment in order to obtain results that would lead to
the development of the best possible intervention strategy for the child.
To illustrate the factors and principles in assessing young children, I have assessed a
six year old girl named Maya. Maya is a Swedish-Egyptian girl currently living in Dubai,
United Arab Emirates. She was born in Egypt, and moved to Dubai with her parents at
the age of two years old. Maya speaks three languages (English, Swedish, and Arabic),
and attends a private International American school where she has just completed
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class KG2 in June 2013. Maya’s mother is happy with her development and her school
grades, and currently there seems to be no concern around Maya’s abilities.
2. Reasons for Assessing Young Children
Growth and development of young children has a significant impact on their later
development in life (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). In order to help children with achieve
their maximum potential in life, it is important to identify those with developmental
delays or difficulties as early as possible so that early intervention can take place.
The goal of any early childhood assessment is to get a multi-dimensional view and
understanding of a child’s developmental and functional abilities so that one could
help the child overcome their difficulties and challenges within the family and
community setting (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
According to Foxcroft and Roodt (2009), two main types of developmental measures
are used when assessing young children. These are screening measures and
diagnostic measures. Screening measures are short evaluations of the child’s
developmental skills and abilities to attempt to identify if any child is at risk of any
developmental difficulties. These can be administered by any trained non-specialist,
like a teacher, nurse, or even a parent. Examples of such screening measures are the
Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST), and the Vineland Adaptive Behavioural
Scales. Diagnostic measures on the other hand are more in depth comprehensive
measures which are administered by trained health professionals and can be used for
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diagnostic purposes. Examples of such diagnostic tests are the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale, and the Junior South African Individual Scales.
Maya is from a multicultural family (European and Middle Eastern), where there may
be conflicting ideals between her parents regarding certain aspects of her needs and
development. She is also attempting to master three different languages. While
Maya’s teachers have not pointed out any reason for any concern in Maya’s
development, it may be necessary for her to be monitored closely and possibly
undergo a screening to ensure that she is not delayed in any area, so that early
intervention strategies can be put in place for her.
3. Tests for Infants and Preschoolers
Age is the key factor differentiating tests for infants from tests for pre-schoolers. A
child’s chronological age has a direct affect on his/her test performance.
Piaget’s theory of development explains that children’s development occurs in stages
(Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). During the first two years of life, development is marked by
a sensorimotor period. Assessment of infants during this timeframe would be focused
on the child’s sensory and motor competencies and milestones. Examples of tests
that would be appropriate are the Denver II for screening, and the Bayley Scales of
Infant Development as a diagnostic test (Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological Assessment
2013). After two years old, the child begins to develop verbal and cognitive skills and
reasoning abilities. Assessment of pre-schoolers would therefore focus more on the
child’s verbal and conceptual abilities (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). Examples of
appropriate pre-school tests are the Junior South African Individual Scales and the
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McCarthy Scales. These tests are more appropriate to measure the cognitive and
symbolic abilities of the child during the pre-school period (Tutorial Letter 101,
Psychological Assessment 2013).
4. Factors of Childhood Assessment
According to Tutorial Letter 101 for Psychological Assessment (2013), there are four
main factors that need to be taken into account by the assessment practitioner when
assessing young children. These factors affect both the process as well as the
outcome of the assessment of the child. These factors can be grouped as:
• The Child
• The Social Context
• The Test
• The examination situation
4.1 The Characteristics of the Child
The child being the main target of the assessment process possesses numerous
characteristics which may affect the results and outcomes of the assessment.
Firstly, when assessing the child, the assessment practitioner needs to take the age
and development status of the child into consideration (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
Children’s development happens rapidly, and skills and abilities quickly increase as the
child’s chronological age increases. For this reason, skills measured during infant
assessment are not great predictors of later developmental abilities.
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Secondly, the assessment practitioner needs to consider the biological history of the
child. Physical and medical conditions can have an impact on the validity of the results
of the assessment (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). For example, a child with a hearing
impairment would not be able to listen or understand test instructions clearly. Other
medical history that can negatively affect the outcome of an assessment measure
includes previous or current illnesses, disturbed sleep, medication, pain, etcetera.
Finally, the assessment practitioner needs to account for any intrapsychic factors that
may influence the outcome of the assessment. The child’s personal experiences and
feelings about him/herself needs to be considered. Every day events naturally cause
stress and anxiety which negatively influences the child’s ability to think clearly and
concentrate on what is required of him/her. A test situation with a practitioner that
may be a stranger to the child could cause underlying stress that may negatively effect
the results of the test. The child could also be feeling ill, worried, or tired on the test
day, which could also impact the results (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
In order to conduct a small assessment on Maya, I first discussed some of her
development with her mother. Maya’s appears to be developing normally and does
not have any medical concerns. She has regular check-ups with her pediatrician and is
also fully vaccinated.
It was important for me to first spend some time to introduce myself to Maya and
chat with her so that she could feel more at ease with me. I explained to her that I
wanted to see how good she was at showing me a few things that she could do before
beginning the test. Maya was eager to please, and tried very hard in all test questions.
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4.2 The Social Context of Assessment
The social environment that the child belongs to has an important impact on the
child’s developmental status and abilities, and should be taken into consideration in
the assessment process. This includes the child’s socio-economic status, the
relationship between the child and the parents, the home environment, the quality of
schooling of the child, whether the child is test-wise, the language that the child
speaks, as well as the culture of the child (Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological
Assessment 2013).
Socio-Economic-Status
The major indices of SES are education, occupation, and income. The SES of the family
determines the type of facilities that are available for the child to develop to his/her
full potential (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). For example: type of schools, access to a good
library, access to health care and medical services. The SES of the family also
determines what opportunities are presented to the child to succeed and the general
attitudes of others within the same group. These opportunities influence the abilities,
attitudes, and behavior of the child (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
A major disadvantage of psychological tests in low SES groups is that the tasks
presented in the tests may be unfamiliar to the child, and the child may not regard the
test as important (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). Therefore results obtained from the test
would not measure the full ability of the child and validity of the test would be
questionable.
Assessing Maya, I took into consideration that she was from an economically
advantaged family. Maya attends a private international school, and is constantly
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surrounded with stimulating enrichment activities. Although Maya’s mother works,
she still makes time to spend with Maya in the evenings and on weekends. Maya
spends most of her free time on the beach, at parks, playing with neighbours, or
outings with her mother. Maya also participates in private extra activities like piano
lessons and dance. She loves to paint and draw, and her mother frequently takes her
to Café Ceramic (an art café designed for children), and the Community and Art
Theatre.
Parent-Child Relationships
The growth and development of the child is highly dependent on the care giving
environment that the child lives. According to Foxcroft and Roodt (2009), the
development of affective communication patterns between parents and their children
are linked to more positive outcomes in the child’s development.
The Home Environment
Child rearing practices in the home which promotes child development includes the
responsivity of the parents, the provision of stimulation at home for the child to
explore and develop his/her cognitive and language skills, and encouraging the child to
explore and interact with his/her environment (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
The assessment practitioner needs to understand the child within the family
environment, and in relation to the socio-cultural environment in which he lives. It is
important to also have consideration for individual differences even within cultures, as
most parents act in the best interest of the child irrespective of their culture (Foxcroft
& Roodt, 2009). Not all parents within a specific culture would automatically follow
the stereotype parenting model of that specific culture.
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The structure of the household also has implications in the development of the child.
For example: A child in an overcrowded house may have limited opportunity to
explore his environment, have less intimate moments with his parents, and be
subjected to high noise levels (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
Maya is a child of Egyptian and Swedish parents. Although there are vast cultural,
ethnic, and religious differences between Maya’s parents, they have adopted a
western approach to raising her. Maya is also an only child, and so enjoys the full
attention of both of her parents on a daily basis.
Schooling and Test-Wiseness
Foxcroft & Roodt (2009) point out that traditional psychometric test measures are
highly correlated with scholastic academic achievement. Achievement of a specific
school grade level however is not an indicator of the child’s true ability to achieve.
The quality of schooling has a direct impact on the outcome of assessment tests.
Children from advantaged schools have higher levels of cognitive skills which are
important in successful test performance. They are also test-wise, meaning that they
know how to work fast and accurately through a test. This is important to be taken
into consideration when interpreting standardized test scores.
More recently, tests have been designed to measure the child’s potential ability rather
than current ability.
Maya enjoys a privileged education from a private international school in Dubai. Due to the
multi-cultural nature of the school, personal individuality and respect for others are qualities
that are openly taught in school. The school not only focuses on academic achievement, but
also personal achievement of the children. Maya has completed Grade KG2 in June, and will
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begin Grade 1 in September. At this age, assessment at school is mostly observational and
done by the teacher. Maya is therefore not test-wise at this point, and so during the
assessment, she often wondered off to get another toy or picture to show me. She was eager
to show her abilities, though she did not recognize the need to remain focused on the task of
the assessment in totality.
Language and Culture
Language as a source of bias is the most important factor that affects the performance
of the child on an assessment measure (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). When a child
completes a test in a language other than his home language, he may not be able to
understand specific concepts, as these may not be directly translatable in the child’s
mother tongue.
The assessment practitioner cannot change the test into the child’s home language to
assist the child in understanding, as some facets of the test cannot be translated into
equivalent forms. For example: In the verbal component of the test, words may not
have equal difficulty levels in two different languages (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
In South Africa, a challenge faced by practitioners is in deciding which language a child
should be assessed in (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013). For
example: A child who speaks Zulu at home, and English at school, and has both
English and Afrikaans friends may be compromised in his competence in all languages.
The test results of such a child cannot be compared to the test results of a child who
speaks English at home and at school.
The case of Maya is similar, her mother speaks to her in Swedish, her father speaks to
her in Arabic and broken English, and she attends an international school where her
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friends and teachers are of numerous nationalities, most of them second or third
language English speakers. If Maya were to undergo any formal developmental
assessment, the assessment practitioner would need to factor into her assessment the
fact that she speaks three different languages, none of which she is fully capable in.
This was particularly noticed in the task where Maya was asked to name as many
animals as possible in a given time. She was only able to list seven animals in English
before she stopped. After discussing this with her mother, her mother again asked
the question in Swedish, and Maya was able to list many more animals for her mother.
According to Foxcroft & Roodt (2009), Piaget’s developmental pattern and sequence is
universal amongst all children, however, the rate at which children develop varies
amongst cultures. It is therefore important to consider culture when interpreting
performance of children in assessments.
The content of any assessment measure will reflect the culture of the people who
have designed the measure, and the country the measure was designed to be used in.
The results of assessment measures are therefore do not have the equivalent meaning
across different cultures and countries, as the behavior of children is shaped by their
culture, and its values and ideals. The closer the child’s values and practices are to the
culture of the measure, the more appropriate the measure will be to assess the child
(Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
4.3 The Examination Context of Assessment
The reason one has for testing a child influences the choice of test one would use. The
most appropriate test for the child would be one that is standardized for the same
population as the child in terms of age, SES, education, language and culture, as well
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as having sound psychometric properties (Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological
Assessment 2013).
There is a recent move away from traditional assessment measures towards
conducting assessments within more naturalistic settings which are comfortable,
familiar and interesting to the child (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment
2013).
The assessment practitioner should consider the social validity of the test in order to
obtain accurate assessment results. The social validity of a test includes the ecological
characteristics of assessment information, the acceptability of the methods used, and
the importance of the data obtained (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment
2013). For example, different assessments would yield different results due to the
following elements: Motivation and health of the child, the relationship the examiner
has with the child as well as his competence in assessment, the physical and
emotional comfort of the child, and whether or not the child is familiar with the
materials used in the test (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
Assessing young children is particularly difficult as they have restricted ability to
understand assessment cues. Their verbal and perceptual motor capabilities are
limited in development, and they may not have the complex information processing
skills which are required to solve certain problems in assessment measures. These
developmental factors all have an effect on the social ecology of the assessment,
which contributes to the instability of early childhood assessment results (Tutorial
Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
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When assessment practitioners focus on natural systems during testing, like the
family, classroom, school, and community, they are better able to understand and
adjust the test situation, and plan intervention strategies for the child as they will be
able to obtain multiple perspectives for each stage of problem solving required during
the test.
4.4 The Test as a Method of Assessment
Taking into consideration the above factors which influence the outcome of an
assessment, the assessment practitioner should have some flexibility in the choice of
assessment methods used. He needs to use a multi-dimensional team based
approach that would be in the best interest of the child and ensure the best possible
results (Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological Assessment 2013).
Traditional psychometric tests are inappropriate to use for certain sub-groups of
populations. They are biased against children of low SES groups and disabled children.
These tests render the results as irrelevant in any intervention process.
Due to Maya’s single language capabilities, and the multi-cultural society that Maya
lives in, a traditional psychometric test would not be appropriate to assess Maya. It
would not be possible to compare her scores to any standardized norm tables, as she
is a Multi-cultural child trying to communicate in three languages. An assessment
practitioner would need to consult other various sources of data and information in
assessing Maya’s potential for development and risk areas for intervention.
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5. Principles of Assessment
In order to effectively assess young children, the assessment process possesses special
requirements for the assessment practitioner, as well as requirements around the
methodology adopted and the way results are interpreted (Tutorial Letter 101,
Psychological Assessment 2013).
The below principles of early childhood assessment discusses these requirements.
Interdependence of Development
The child is an integrated being, meaning that any single area of development within
the child is directly influenced by the development of other areas (Tutorial Letter 103,
Psychological Assessment 2013). In order to fully understand all the child’s abilities
and challenges, one would need to consider all areas of development. The child’s
emotional state is particularly important in early childhood development, as their
temperament and affective state has an influence of the Child’s cognitive abilities. For
example: A child who is nervous or afraid may not perform as well on a test as a child
who is outgoing and eager to participate.
Multiple Sources of Data Collection
In order for a professional to have a meaningful understanding of the child’s
functioning, one needs to combine the information obtained from the tests together
with other information gathered regarding the child from parents, teachers, and
caregivers. This multi-dimensional profile created of the child is important in order to
correctly assess the child’s key strengths and capacities in order to create the correct
intervention methods that will promote the further development of the child (Tutorial
Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
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Assessment Sequence
The goal of assessment for the child is to create the best intervention methods in
order to support and enhance his/her development (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological
Assessment 2013). In order to do this effectively, the following sequence should be
followed: Firstly, it is important to establish an alliance within the child’s support
system. There needs to be a mutual level of trust, respect and openness between the
health professional and the parents, teachers and other caregivers of the child.
Secondly, multiple sources of data need to be gathered and integrated into the
assessment of the child. This includes the relevant test scores as well as any
information that can be gathered from any significant person in the child’s life. And
lastly, the combination of the test scores and the open information shared by others
on the child needs to result in an action plan that is created by the health professional
which will support the child in developing to his/her full potential.
Child-Caregiver Relationship
One goal of assessment of children is to determine the level of involvement of the
family in the intervention process that is most beneficial to the child as well as the
family in general. This can be accomplished by observing interactions between the
parent and child and understanding the parent-child relationship. This understanding
can be used to offer support to the family for better interactions with the child,
thereby helping the child to develop the ability to organize and respond to his world in
a more effective way (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
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Framework of Typical Development
The development of children occurs on a continuum. Following from this framework,
different children develop at various paces. It is therefore important to rather
measure a series of steps or experiences that are expected for a child to achieve on a
normal continuum of accomplishments, than to simply state that a child has failed to
achieve a certain milestone. One should also take into consideration that
developmental delays of milestones could be related to various external factors,
including cultural influences, access to resources, other disabilities, language barriers,
etc (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
Emphasis on the Organizing and Functional Capabilities of the Child
The primary aim of an early intervention strategy is to make a child’s world more
meaningful. The child will be able to learn and participate in his surroundings if he is
able to organize his experiences. Therefore, assessment should only be used in order
for a professional to gain an understanding of how the child uses specific skills and
abilities in order to cope in the world, and intervention strategies should be designed
to enhance the child’s capacity to explore, use and master the challenges he faces on a
day to day basis (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
Identify Current and Emerging Competencies and Strengths
As children develop, they gain certain competencies which they are then further able
to utilize together with their surroundings to meet further developmental milestones.
An assessment of development needs to measure what specific strengths a child has,
as well as how he uses these abilities in order to create the correct intervention
strategy for the child to further his development. It is important to understand the
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context under which certain skills and abilities can be performed as well, so that
individualized interventions can be designed (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological
Assessment 2013).
Assessment is a Collaborative Process
The effective assessment of young children is highly dependent on the development
of a collaborative relationship between parents, teachers, caregivers, and
professionals. In order to have a multi-dimensional view of the child, the professional
needs to establish good rapport, respect, trust, and flexibility with the family and
significant others of the child (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment 2013).
While creating intervention strategies, the professional needs to identify and consider
cultural differences, and resources available for the child in order to find the most
effective means of adapting recommendations to meet the child’s needs and fit in
with his/her culture.
Assessment as the Beginning of Intervention
As children are continually developing and changing every day, assessment needs to
be continuous and incorporated into intervention so that the two function together
seamlessly. Information that is gained from the assessment should be used to change
the context and the content of the intervention to match the current functioning and
continuous development of the child (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment
2013).
Reassessment as an Ongoing Process
To ensure that children with developmental delays are not abandoned in special
classes or programs, there should be continuous reassessment of the child’s needs.
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This reevaluation should be used to reflect on the intervention that has been put in
place for the child, as well as to establish new goals and targets for the child to
achieve (Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessement 2013).
6. Predictive Validity of Early Childhood Assessment
As discussed previously, Piaget’s Theory of Development describes how children go
through specific stages in their development at certain ages. The first two years of life
is a sensorimotor period, where children rely mostly on modifying their reflexes to
adapt to the world around them (McLeod, 2010). The next stage of development in
Piaget’s Theory is the pre-occupational stage, which ranges from 2-7 years old
(McLeod, 2010). Here the child’s verbal and cognitive skills develop and the child
begins to reason with his surrounding world.
Foxcroft & Roodt (2009) explain that assessment of infant intelligence is generally
considered a poor predictor of later intelligence because it is highly reliant on motor
coordination tasks. Different children develop at different rates, and a child who may
seem developmentally delayed at 15 months because he is not yet walking, could
begin to walk the very next day.
Early development is malleable, where environmental events could have a great
impact on a child’s development (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009). For example, a child in an
orphanage that does not receive ample amounts of attention and support may show
developmental delays in speech, however, after adoption and reassessment a few
months later, the same child may not show the same delays.
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As children get older though, and pre-school tests are more related to cognitive
functioning, the correlation of assessment as a measure of later intelligence improves.
By the age of 5 years, the correlation factory is 0,8-0,9 as a predictor, which deems the
assessment as highly reliable (Foxcroft & Roodt, 2009).
Maya is from an economically advantaged family. However, she does not seem to
have developed any native language skills. While the predictive validity of Maya’s test
should be high due to her age, it was noticed that many instructions had to be
repeated and demonstrated for Maya to understand what was expected of her. One
would therefore have to state that the results of the test cannot be deemed valid as a
predictor of later intelligence in Maya’s case. As Maya attends an international
school, the majority of the children experience a similar situation. Maya is therefore
not disadvantaged versus her peers, and her teachers and parents to not see any area
of concern at this stage as instructions and learning at school is designed around
children’s language needs by the teachers.
7. Ethical Considerations of Assessing Young Children
In order for an assessment to be fair, the assessment practitioner needs to follow a
certain protocol to remain professional and ethical in their use of the measures and
the results. The assessment practitioner needs to be accountable for the needs and
rights of the child throughout the assessment and intervention process (Foxcroft &
Roodt, 2009).
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To pracise in an ethical manner, the assessment practitioner needs to have a good
knowledge not only of psychometrics, testing, and assessment, but also of social,
cultural and educational factors that affect test scores and results.
According to Foxcroft and Roodt (2009), ethical assessment of children is crucial due
to the imbalance of power between the child and the parties involved in using the
results of the test for intervention as well as for selection and placement in special
programs. Such ethics involves informing the parents or caregivers of the child of
their rights in having the child take the assessment, as well as informing them how the
assessment results will be used. It is crucial for the practitioner to obtain consent
from the parents for assessing their children as well as for using the results. The
ethical practitioner will have the interpersonal skills to establish rapport with the child
in order to maintain his interest and cooperation during the test process. He will also
provide feedback of the sessions to the parents, as well as reports and intervention
strategies. Most importantly, the ethical practitioner will use various sources of data
accounting for social, cultural, and political context that will affect the interpretation
and use of the results of the test.
8. Conclusion
In the process of assessing young children for development, it is important that the
most appropriate and psychometrically sound test is used specific to the child’s
population group. The examiner needs to take a special approach to testing young
children, establishing good rapport with them and the family during the assessment
procedure. Information also needs to be obtained from a variety of sources and
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combined with the test performance in order to accurately assess the child’s
development. And finally, the interpretation of the assessment results needs to be
done in terms of the child’s home environment, his socio-economic status, as well as
his culture (Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological Assessment 2013).
Maya is a happy well-adjusted young girl. An assessment practitioner would need to
consider many factors in any formal developmental screening or assessment done
with Maya. The most important of these in Maya’s case would be language and
culture. The practitioner would need to ensure that the principles of assessment are
followed, to remain ethical and in the best interests of the child, and to gather data
from many sources to ensure a comprehensive and holistic measure of not only
Maya’s current abilities, but her potential ability as well.
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10. References
10.1 Foxcroft, C., & Roodt, G. (2009). Introduction to Psychological Assessment
in the South African Context. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
10.2 McLeod, S. (2010). Sensorimotor Stage - Object Permanence - Simply
Psychology. Retrieved from
http://www.simplypsychology.org/sensorimotor.html
10.3 Tutorial Letter 101, Psychological Assessment (2013). Department of
Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria.
10.4 Tutorial Letter 103, Psychological Assessment (2013). Department of
Psychology, University of South Africa, Pretoria.