Year book - Carnegie Institution of Washington

CARNEGIE INSTITUTIONOF

WASHINGTON

YE^R BOOK I^o. 18

1919

PUBLISHED BY THE INSTITUTIONWASHINGTON, U. S. A.

March 1920

PRESS OF GIBSON BROTECERS, INC.

WASHINGTON, D. C.

OFFICERS FOR THE YEAR 1919.

President of the Institution.

Robert S. Woodward.

Trustees.

Elihu Root, Chairman.

Charles D. Walcott, Vice-Chairman.

Cleveland H. Dodge, Secretary.

Robert S. Brookings.

John .J. Cartt.

Cleveland H. Dodge.

Charles P. Fenner.

Myron T. Herrick.

tHENRY L. HiGGINSON.

Charles L. Hutchinson.

Henry Cabot Lodge.

Andrew J. Montague.William W. Morrow.James Parmelee.

Wm. Barclay Parsons.

Stewart Paton.

George W. Pepper.

Henry S. Pritchett.

Elihu Root.

Martin A. Ryerson.

Theobald Smith.

Charles D. Walcott.

Henry P. Walcott.

William H. Welch.Henry White.

George W. Wickersham.

Robert S. Woodward.

Cleveland H. Dodge.

Wm. Barclay P.^rsons.

Executive Committee.

Charles D. Walcott, Chairman.

Stewart Paton. *Elihu Root.

Henry S. Pritchett. Henry White.

*RoBERT S. Woodward.

Finance Committee.

Clevel.^nd H. Dodge, Chairman.

Henry S. Pritchett. George W. Wickersham.

Auditing Committee.

R. S. Brookings, Chairman.

Charles L. Hutchinson. George W. Wickersham.

*Ex officio member. fDied November 14, 1919.

(Ill)

LIST OF PRESENT AND FORMER TRUSTEES.

•Alexander Agassiz,

*JohnS. Billings,

Robert S. Brookings,

*J0HN L. CuiWALADER,John J. Carty,

Cleveland H. Dodge,*WiLLiAM E. Dodge,Charles P. Fenner,Simon Flexner,*WiLLiAM N. Frew,Lyman J. Gage,*DanielC. Oilman,

*John Hay,

Myron T. Herrick,

*Abram S. Hewitt,*Henry L. Higginson,

*Ethan A. Hitchcock,

*Henry Hitchcock,

*William Wirt Howe,Charles L. Hutchinson,

*Samuel p. Langley,

*WiLLiAM Lindsay,

Henry Cabot Lodge,

*Seth Low,

1904-05

ASSOCIATES OF THE INSTITUTION.

DIRECTORS OF DEPARTMENTS OF RESEARCH.

Loris A. Bauer, Department of Terrestrial Magnetism.Fran'cis G. Bexedict, Nutrition Laboratory.Bexjamix Boss, Department of Meridian Astrometry.Charles B. Davexport, Department of Experimental Evolution.Arthur L. Day. Geophysical Laboratory.George E. Hale, Mount Wilson Observatory.J. Frax'klix Jajiesox, Department of Historical Research.Daxiel T. MacDougal, Department of Botanical Research.Alfred G. AL\yor, Department of Marine Biology.George L. Streeter, Department of Embryology.

INVESTIGATORS PRIMARILY CONNECTED WITH THE INSTITUTION.

William Churchill, Associate in Primitive Philology.Frederic E. Clemexts, Associate in Ecology.Oliver P. Hay, Associate in Paleontology-.Elias a. Lowe, Associate in Paleography.Sylvaxus G. Morley, Associate in American Archeology.George Sartox, Associate in the Historj- of Science.Esther B. Vax Demax, Associate in Roman Archeology.George R. Wiel^^jn'd, Associate in Paleontology.

OTHER INVESTIGATORS.

Carl Barus (Brown L^niversity), Research Associate in Physics.Hexry Bergex, Research Associate in Early Enghsh Literature.V. Bjerkx-es (University of Bergen, Norway), Research Associate in Meteorology.E. C. Case (L'niversity of Michigan), Research Associate in Paleontology.W. E. Castle (Harvard University), Research Associate in Biolog>'.

T. C. Chamberlix (University of Chicago), Research Associate in Geology.Hexry E. Cramptox (Columbia L^niversity), Research Associate in Biology.H. D. Fish (Denison L'^niversity), Research Associate of Department of Experimental

Evolution.Dixox R. Fox (Columbia L'niversity), Research Associate in History.J. C. W. Frazer (Johns Hopkins L^niversity), Research Associate in Chemistry.JoHX F. Hayford (Northwestern L'niversity) , Research Associate in Physics.Hexry AL Howe (Columbia L'niversity), Research Associate in Metallurgy'.

J. C. Kapteyx (LTniversity of Groningen), Research Associate of the Mount Wilson Observ-atory.

C. C. Little (Harvard L'niversity), Research Associate of Department of ExperimentalEvolution.

Albert Max"x, Research Associate in Biology.L. B. Mexdel (Yale Universitj'); Research Associate in Physiological Chemistry.A. A. MicHELsox (LTniversity of Chicago), Research Associate of the Mount Wilson Observ-

atory.

T. H. MoRGAX (Columbia University), Research Associate in Biology.Frax^k Morley (Johns Hopkins University), Research Associate in Mathematics.H. N. Morse (Johns Hopkins University), Research Associate in Chemistry.F. R. Moultox (L'niversity of Chicago), Research Associate in Mathematical Physics.E. L. Nichols (Cornell L'niversity), Research Associate in Physics.A. A. NoYES (Throop College of Technology), Research Associate in Chemistry.Thomas B. Osborxt: (Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station), Research Associate in

Physiological Chemistry.T. W. RicH-UiDS (Harvard University), Research Associate in Chemistry.H. C. Shermax (Columbia LTniversity), Research Associate in Chemistry.Edgar F. Smith (University of Pennsj-lvania), Research Associate in Chemistry.JoHX S. P. Tatlock (Leland Stanford Junior LTniversity), Research Associate in Literature.

(V)

CONTENTS.

PAGE.Organization, Plan, and Scope ix

Articles of Incorporation x-xii

By-Laws of the Institution xiii-xvi

Minutes of the Eighteenth Meeting of the Board of Trustees 1-3

Report of the President of the Institution 5-32

Bibliography of Pubhcations relating to work of Investigators, Associates, and

CoUaborators 33-42

Report of the Executive Committee 43-54

Aggregate Receipts and Disbursements 46

Report of Auditors and Financial Statement 47-54

Reports on Investigations and Projects:

Department of Botanical Research 57-102

Department of Embryology 103-122

Department of Experimental Evolution 123-144

Eugenics Record Office 145-152

Geophysical Laboratory 153-174

Department of Historical Research 175-184

Department of Marine Biology 18.5-210

Department of Meridian Astrom^etry 211-216

Mount Wilson Observatory 217-264

Nutrition Laboratory 265-276

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism 277-316

Other Investigations:

Archeology

:

Morley, Sylvanus G 317-321

BibUography:

Garrison, Fielding H 321-322

Biology

:

Mann, Albert 322-323

Castle, W. E 323-324

Morgan, T. H 324-325

Chemistry:

Noyes, Arthur A 325-326

Richards, Theodore W 326-328

Sherman, H. C 328-330

Ecology

:

Clements, F. E 330-343

Geology

:

Chamberlin, T. C 343-345

Vaughan, T. Wayland 345-346

History:

Fox, Dixon R 347Sarton, George 347-349

Literature:

Bergen, Henry 349

Tatlock, John S. P 349

(VII)

VIII CONTENTS.

Other Investigations—continued

:

Mathematical Physics: page

Moulton, F. R 349-351

Meteorology

:

Bjerknes, V 351-352

Nutrition:

Osborne, Thomas B., and L. B. Mendel 352-361

Paleontology:

Case, E. C 361

Hay, Oliver P 361-362

Wieland, G. R 362-363

Physics

:

Barus, Carl 363-365

Howe, Henry M 365-366

Nichols, Edward L 366-368

Ind^-x 369-380

ORGANIZATION. PLAN AND SCOPE.

The Carnegie Institution of Washington was founded by Mr. AndrewCarnegie, January 28, 1902, when he gave to a board of trustees an endow-ment of registered bonds of the par value of ten milHon dollars. To this

fund an addition of two million dollars was made by Mr. Carnegie onDecember 10, 1907, and a further addition of ten million dollars was madeby him January 19, 1911; so that the present endowment of the Institution

has a par value of twenty-two million dollars. The Institution was origi-

nally organized under the laws of the District of Columbia and incorporated

as the Carnegie Institution, articles of incorporation having been executed

on January 4, 1902. The Institution was reincorporated, however, by anact of the Congress of the United States, approved April 28, 1904, under the

title of The Carnegie Institution of Washington. (See existing Articles of

Incorporation on the following pages.)

Organization under the new Articles of Incorporation was effected May18, 1904, and the Institution was placed under the control of a board of

twenty-four trustees, all of whom had been members of the original corpora-

tion. The trustees meet annually in December to consider the affairs of

the Institution in general, the progress of work already undertaken, the

initiation of new projects, and to make the necessary appropriations for the

ensuing year. During the intervals between the meetings of the Trustees

the affairs of the Institution are conducted by an Executive Committeechosen by and from the Board of Trustees and acting through the President

of the Institution as chief executive officer.

The Articles of Incorporation of the Institution declare in general "that

the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the broadest and mostliberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery, and the application

of knowledge to the improvement of mankind." Three principal agencies

to forward these objects have been developed. The first of these involves

the estabhshment of departments of research within the Institution itself,

to attack larger problems requiring the collaboration of several investigators,

special equipment, and continuous effort. The second provides meanswhereby individuals may undertake and carry to completion investigations

not less important but requiring less collaboration and less special equip-

ment. The third agency, namely, a division devoted to editing and to print-

ing books, aims to provide adequate publication of the results of research

coming from the first two agencies and to a limited extent also for worthyworks not likely to be pubHshed under other auspices.

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION.

PxjBLic No. 260.—An Act To incorporate the Carnegie Institution of

Washington.

Be in enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United

States of America in Congress assembled, That the persons follo"Rdng, being

persons who are now trustees of the Carnegie Institution, namely, Alexander

Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader, Cleveland H. Dodge,WiniamN. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman, John Hay, Henry L.Higginson,William Wirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson, Samuel P. Langley, William

Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius O. ]\Iills, S. Weir Mitchell,

William W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock, Elihu Root, John CTSpooner,Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D. Weight, their associates

and successors, duly chosen, are hereby incorporated and declared to be a

body corporate by the name of the Carnegie Institution of Washington andby that name shall be known and have perpetual succession, with the powers,

limitations, and restrictions herein contained.

Sec. 2. That the objects of the corporation shall be to encourage, in the

broadest and most liberal manner, investigation, research, and discovery^

and the application of knowledge to the improvement of mankind ; and in

particular

—

(a) To conduct, endow, and assist investigation in any department of

science, literature, or art, and to this end to cooperate with governments,

universities, colleges, technical schools, learned societies, and individuals.

(b) To appoint committees of experts to direct special lines of research.

(c) To pubhsh and distribute documents.

(d) To conduct lectures, hold meetings and acquire and maintain a library.

(e) To purchase such property, real or personal, and construct such build-

ing or buildings as may be necessary to carry on the work of the corporation.

(f

)

In general, to do and perform all things necessary to promote the

objects of the institution, with full power, however, to the trustees herein-

after appointed and their successors from time to time to modify the con-

ditions and regulations under which the work shall be carried on, so as to

secure the application of the funds in the manner best adapted to the con-

ditions of the time, provided that the objects of the corporation shall at all

times be among the foregoing or kindred thereto.

Sec. 3. That the direction and management of the affairs of the corpora-

tion and the control and disposal of its property and funds shall be vested

in a board of trustees, twenty-two in number, to be composed of the follow-

ing individuals: Alexander Agassiz, John S. Billings, John L. Cadwalader,

Cleveland H. Dodge, William N. Frew, Lyman J. Gage, Daniel C. Oilman,

John Hay, Henry L. Higginson, WilliamWirt Howe, Charles L. Hutchinson,

Samuel P. Langley, William Lindsay, Seth Low, Wayne MacVeagh, Darius

O. Mills, S. Weir Mitchell, WiUiam W. Morrow, Ethan A. Hitchcock,' Elihu

Root, John C. Spooner, Andrew D. White, Charles D. Walcott, Carroll D.

ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. XI

Wright, who shall constitute the first board of trustees. The board of trus-

tees shall have power from tirae to time to increase its membership to not

more than twenty-seven members. Vacancies occasioned by death, resigna-

tion, or otherwise shall be filled by the remaining trustees in such manner as

the by-laws shall prescribe; and the persons so elected shall thereupon

become trustees and also members of the said corporation. The principal

place of business of the said corporation shall be the city of Washington, in

the District of Columbia.

Sec. 4. That such board of trustees shall be entitled to take, hold andadminister the securities, funds, and property so transferred by said AndrewCarnegie to the trustees of the Carnegie Institution and such other funds

or property as may at any time be given, devised, or bequeathed to them,

or to such corporation, for the purposes of the trust; and with full powerfrom time to time to adopt a common seal, to appoint such officers, membersof the board of trustees or otherwise, and such employees as may be deemednecessary in carrying on the business of the corporation, at such salaries or

with such remuneration as they may deem proper; and with full power to

adopt by-laws from time to time and such rules or regulations as may benecessary to secure the safe and convenient transaction of the business of

the corporation; and with full power and discretion to deal with and expendthe income of the corporation in such manner as in their judgment will best

promote the objects herein set forth and in general to have and use all powersand authority necessary to promote such objects and carry out the purposes

of the donor. The said trustees shall have further power from time to time

to hold as investments the securities hereinabove referred to so transferred

byAndrew Carnegie, and any propertywhich has been or may be transferred

to them or such corporation by Andrew Carnegie or by any other person,

persons, or corporation, and to invest any sums or amounts from time to

time in such securities and in such form and m.anner as are permitted to

trustees or to charitable or literary corporations for investment, according

to the laws of the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or IVIassachusetts, or

in such securities as are authorized for investment by the said deed of trust

so executed by Andrew Carnegie, or by any deed of gift or last will andtestament to be hereafter made or executed. ^

Sec. 5. That the said corporation may take and hold any additional dona-tions, grants, deiises, or bequests which may be made in further support of

the purposes of the said corporation, and may include in the expenses thereof

the personal expenses which the trustees may incur in attending meetings or

otherwise in carrying out the business of the trust, but the services of the

trustees as such shall be gratuitous.

Sec. 6. That as soon as may be possible after the passage of this Act ameeting of the trustees hereinbefore named shall be called by Daniel C. Gil-

man, John S. Billings, Charles D. Walcott, S. Weir ]\Iitchell, John Hay,Elihu Root, and Carroll D. Wright, or any four of them, at the city of Wash-ington, in the District of Columbia, by notice served in person or by mailaddressed to each trustee at his place of residence; and the said trustees, or amajority thereof, being assembled, shall organize and proceed to adopt by-laws, to elect officers and appoint committees, and generally to organize the

said corporation; and said trustees herein named, on behalf of the corpora-

XII ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION.

tion hereby incorporated, shall thereupon receive, take over, and enter into

possession, custody, and management of all property, real or personal, of the

corporation heretofore kno\\Ti as the Carnegie Institution, incorporated, as

hereinbefore set forth under *'An Act to estabUsh a Code of Law for the

District of Columbia, January fourth, nineteen hundred and two," and to all

its rights, contracts, claims, and property of any kind or nature; and the

several officers of such corporation, or any other person having charge of

any of the securities, funds, real or personal, books or property thereof, shall,

on demand, deliver the same to the said trustees appointed by this Act or

to the persons appointed by them to receive the same; and the trustees of

the existing corporation and the trustees herein named shall and may take

such other steps as shall be necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act.

Sec. 7. That the rights of the creditors of the said existing corporation

known as the Carnegie Institution shall not in any manner be impaired bythe passage of this Act, or the transfer of the property hereinbefore men-tioned, nor shall any liability or obligation for the payment of any sums dueor to become due, or any claim or demand, in any manner or for any cause

existing against the said existing corporation, be released or impaired; but

such corporation hereby incorporated is declared to succeed to the obliga-

tions and liabilities and to be held liable to pay and discharge all of the debts,

liabilities, and contracts of the said corporation so existing to the same effect

as if such new corporation had itself incurred the obligation or liability to

pay such debt or damages, and no such action or proceeding before any court

or tribunal shall be deemed to have abated or been discontinued by reason

of the passage of this Act.

Sec. 8. That Congress may from time to time alter, repeal, or modify this

Act of incorporation, but no contract or individual right made or acquired

shall thereby be divested or impaired.

Sec. 9. That this Act shall take effect immediately.

Approved, April 28, 1904.

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Adopted December 13, 1904. Amended December 13, 1910, and December 13, 1912.

Article I.

THE TRUSTEES.

1. The Board of Trustees shall consist of twenty-four members, with

power to increase its membership to not more than twenty-seven membersThe Trustees shall hold office continuously and not for a stated term.

2. In case any Trustee shall fail to attend three successive annual meet-

ings of the Board he shall thereupon cease to be a Trustee.

3. No Trustee shall receive any compensation for his services as such.

4. All vacancies in the Board of Trustees shall be filled by the Trustees

by ballot. Sixty days prior to an annual or a special meeting of the Board,

the President shall notify the Trustees by mail of the vacancies to be filled

and each Trustee may submit nominations for such vacancies. A list of the

persons so nominated, with the names of the proposers, shall be mailed to the

Trustees thirty days before the meeting, and no other nominations shall bereceived at the meeting except with the unanimous consent of the Trustees

present. Vacancies shall be filled from the persons thus nominated, but noperson shall be declared elected unless he receives the votes of two-thirds of

the Trustees present.

Article II.

MEETINGS.

1. The annual meeting of the Board of Trustees shall be held in the City

of Washington, in the District of Columbia, on the first Friday following the

second Thursday of December in each year.

2. Special meetings of the Board may be called by the Executive Com-mittee by notice served personally upon, or mailed to the usual address of,

each Trustee twenty days prior to the meeting.

3. Special meetings shall, moreover, be called in the same manner by the

Chairman upon the written request of seven members of the Board.

Articxe III.

OFFICERS OF THE BOARD.

1. The officers of the Board shall be a Chairman of the Board, a Vice-

Chairman, and a Secretary, who shall be elected by the Trustees, from the

members of the Board, by ballot to serve for a term of three years. All

vacancies shall be filled by the Board for the unexpired term; provided, how-ever, that the Executive Committee shall have power to fill a vacancy in the

office of Secretary to serve until the next meeting of the Board of Trustees.

XIV BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION.

2. The Chairman shall preside at all meetings and shall have the usual

powers of a presiding officer.

3. The Vice-Chairman, in the absence or disability of the Chairman, shall

perform his duties.

4. The Secretary shall issue notices of meetings of the Board, record its

transactions, and conduct that part of the correspondence relating to the

Board and to his duties. He shall execute all deeds, contracts or other

instruments on behalf of the corporation, when duly authorized.

Article IV.

EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATION.

The President.

1. There shall be a President who shall be elected by ballot by, and hold

office during the pleasure of, the Board, who shall be the chief executive

officer of the Institution. The President, subj ect to the control of the Board

and the Executive Committee, shall have general charge of all matters of

administration and supervision of all arrangements for research and other

work undertaken by the Institution or with its funds. He shall devote his

entire time to the affairs of the Institution. He shall prepare and submit to

the Board of Trustees and to the Executive Committee plans and sug-

gestions for the work of the Institution, shall conduct its general corre-

spondence and the correspondence with applicants for grants and with the

special advisers of the Committee, and shall present his recommendations

in each case to the Executive Committee for decision. All proposals and

requests for grants shall be referred to the President for consideration and

report. He shall have power to remove and appoint subordinate employees

and shall be ex o^cio a member of the Executive Committee.

2. He shall be the legal custodian of the seal and of all property of the

Institution whose custody is not otherwise provided for. He shall affix the

seal of the corporation whenever authorized to do so by the Board of Trus-

tees or by the Executive Committee or by the Finance Committee. Heshall be responsible for the expenditure and disbursement of all funds of the

Institution in accordance with the directions of the Board and of the

Executive Committee, and shall keep accurate accounts of all receipts and

disbursements. He shall submit to the Board of Trustees at least one

month before its annual meeting in December a written report of the opera-

tions and business of the Institution for the preceding fiscal year with his

recommendations for work and appropriations for the succeeding fiscal year,

which shall be forthwith transmitted to each member of the Board.

3. He shall attend all meetings of the Board of Trustees.

Article V.

COMMITTBES.

1. There shall be the following standing Committees, viz., an Executive

Committee, a Finance Committee, and an Auditing Committee.

BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION. XV

2. The Executive Committee shall consist of the Chairman and Secretary

of the Board of Trustees and the President of the Institution ex officio and,

in addition, five trustees to be elected by the Board by ballot for a term of

three years, who shall be eligible for re-election. Any member elected to fill

a vacancy shall serve for the remainder of his predecessor's term: Provided,

however, that of the Executive Committee first elected after the adoption of

these by-laws two shall serve for one year, two shall serve for two j^ears, and

one shall serve for three years; and such Committee shall determine their

respective terms by lot.

3. The Executive Committee shall, when the Board is not in session and

has not given specific directions, have general control of the administration

of the affairs of the corporation and general supervision of all arrangements

for administration, research, and other matters undertaken or promoted by

the Institution; shall appoint advisory committees for specific duties; shall

determine all payments and salaries; and keep a written record of all trans-

actions and expenditures and submit the same to the Board of Trustees at

each meeting, and it shall also submit to the Board of Trustees a printed or

tjTpewritten report of each of its meetings, and at the annual meeting shall

submit to the Board a report for publication.

4. The Executive Committee shall have general charge and control of all

appropriations made by the Board.

5. The Finance Committee shall consist of three members to be elected bythe Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

6. The Finance Committee shall have custody of the securities of the cor-

poration and general charge of its investments and invested funds, and shall

care for and dispose of the same subject to the directions of the Board of

Trustees. It shall consider and recommend to the Board from time to timg

such measures as in its opinion wall promote the financial interests of the

Institution, and shall make a report at each meeting of the Board.

7. The Auditing Committee shall consist of three members to be elected

by the Board of Trustees by ballot for a term of three years.

8. The Auditing Committee shall, before each annual meeting of the

Board of Trustees, examine the accounts of business transacted under the

Finance Committee and the Executive Committee. They may avail them-

selves at will of the services ar d examination of the Auditor appointed by

the Board of Trustees. They shall report to the Board upon the collection

of moneys to which the Institution is entitled, upon the investment and

reinvestment of principal, upon the conformity of expenditures to appro-

priations, and upon the system of bookkeeping, the sufficiency of the

accounts, and the safety and economy of the business methods and safe-

guards employed.

9. All vacancies occurring in the Executive Committee and the Finance

Committee shall be filled by the Trustees at the next regular meeting. In

case of vacancy in the Finance Committee or the Auditing Committee, upon

request of the remaining members of such committee, the Executive Com-mittee may fill such vacancy by appointment until the next meeting of the

Board of Trustees.

10. The terms of all officers and of all members of committees shall con-

tinue until their successors are elected or appointed.

XVI BY-LAWS OF THE INSTITUTION.

Article VI.

FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION.

1. No expenditure shall be authorized or made except in pursuance of 8

previous appropriation by the Board of Trustees.

2. The fiscal year of the Institution shall commence on the first day of

November in each year.

3. The Executive Committee, at least one month prior to the annual

meeting in each year, shall cause the accounts of the Institution to be audited

ty a skilled accountant, to be appointed by the Board of Trustees, and shall

submit to the annual meeting of the Board a full statement of the finances

and work of the Institution and a detailed estimate of the expenditures for

the succeeding year.

4. The Board of Trustees, at the annual meeting in each year, shall makegeneral appropriations for the ensuing fiscal year; but nothing contained

herein shall prevent the Board of Trustees from making special appropria-

tions at any meeting.

5. The securities of the Institution and evidences of property, and funds

invested and to be invested, shall be deposited in such safe depository or in

the custody of such trust company and under such safeguards as the Trus-

tees and Finance Committee shall designate; and the income available for

expenditure of the Institution shall be deposited in such banks or deposi-

tories as may from time to time be designated by the Executive Committee.

6. Any trust company entrusted with the custody of securities by the

Finance Committee may, by resolution of the Board of Trustees, be rnade

Fiscal Agent of the Institution, upon an agreed compensation, for the trans-

action of the business coming within the authority of the Finance Committee.

Article VII.

AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS.

1. These by-laws may be amended at any annual or special meeting of the

Board of Trustees by a two-thirds vote of the members present, provided

written notice of the proposed amendment shall have been served personally

upon, or mailed to the usual address of, each member of the Board twenty

days prior to the meeting.

MEVUTES

OF THE

EIGHTEENTH MEETING OF THE BOARD OF

TRUSTEES

ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF EIGHTEENTH MEETING OF BOARDOF TRUSTEES.

The meeting was held in Washington, in the Board Room of

the Administration Building, on Friday, December 12, 1919,

and was called to order at 10 a. m. by the Chairman, Mr. Root.

Upon roll call the following Trustees responded: John J.

Carty, Myron T. Herri ck, Charles L. Hutchinson, Henry Cabot

Lodge, Andrew J. Montague, William W. Morrow, James Par-

melee, Wm. Barclay Parsons, Stewart Paton, Henry S. Pritchett,

Ehhu Root, Theobald Smith, Charles D. Walcott, WiUiam H.

Welch, George W. Wickersham, Robert S. Woodward.The minutes of the seventeenth meeting were approved as

printed and submitted to members of the Board.

The Secretary reported the death of Mr. Henry L. Higginson

and the Trustees unanimously directed that suitable resolutions

be placed in the Minutes concerning his death, with expressions

of the profound regret of his associates on the Board of Trustees.

Reports of the President, the Executive Committee, the Audi-

tor, the Finance Committee, and of Directors of Departments,

Associates, and Research Associates of the Institution were

presented and considered.

The following appropriations for the year 1920 were author-

ized:

Reserve Fund $250,000

Insurance Fund 25,000

Pension Fund 40,000

Administration 55,000

Publication 60,000

Division of Publications 15,000

Departments of Research 882,316

Associates of Institution 25,900

Minor Grants 75,800

Index Medicus 17,200

Total 1,446,216

It was decided to hold an adjourned meeting of the Board of

Trustees, in Washington, on January 24, 1920.

3

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT

OF THE

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

FOR THE YEAR ENDING OCTOBER 31, 1919

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT

OF THE

CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON,

In conformity with Article IV, section 2, of the By-Laws of

the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the President has the

honor to submit the following report on the work of the Institu-

tion for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1919, along with recom-

mendations of appropriations for the ensuing year and with

sundry suggestions concerning other matters of general or special

interest.

This report is the seventeenth annual administrative report

of the Institution and is presented under the following principal

heads

:

1. Salient events of the year.

2. Researches of the year.

3. Financial records.

4. Publications of the year.

5. Proposals for budget for 1920.

6. Bibliographical appendix.

SALIENT EVENTS OF THE YEAR.

In the vast aggregate of phenomena of which man becomesmore or less conscious, there are often observed remarkable

coincidences and sequences. These must occur,

c^gie. indeed, by reason of fortuitous combinations of

causes as well as by reason of causal connections,

although it is rarely possible, outside the domains of the older

sciences, to determine in any case whether the law of chance or

the law of causation is chiefly concerned. Thus the past year

which has witnessed the chmax of the world's greatest national

and international calamities has witnessed also the Institution's

greatest losses by death; for the Founder, three of the initial

7

8 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

Trustees, and a Research Associate have died within the fiscal

interval to which this report refers.

Andrew Carnegie, man of affairs, idealist, and philanthropist,

was born at Dunfermline, Scotland, November 25, 1835, and

died at his summer home, Lenox, Massachusetts, August 11,

1919. The history of his singularly active, diversified, and

productive career is too well known in all its essentials to require

restatement or elaboration here. His hfe was peculiarly open

and transparent; and although some of his contemporaries have

seemed prone to discover necromantic as well as romantic

elements in his activities, few men have been so easy to under-

stand and few have preached and practiced the homeUer virtues

of humanity with greater simplicity and sincerity and with

greater personal and public advantage. His biography is,

indeed, already recorded in surpassing degree in his achievements

as a pioneer in American industries, in the remarkable legal

instruments establishing his world-wide philanthropies, and in

his pubhshed popular writings, wherein he has disclosed, with

the utmost frankness, the ideas and the ideals which have served

as guides to conduct in association with his fellow-men. It

appears appropriate here, therefore, to mention only some of

the less well-known facts concerning his relations to the Insti-

tution whose evolution he has watched with the liveliest interest

and with a degree of patience attained rather rarely even by

the founders and the best friends of such novel enterprises.

To understand and to appreciate Mr. Carnegie's attitude

toward the Institution and his attitude in general toward the

organizations he has endowed, it is essential to recall the maxims

expressed in his deeds of trust to the altruistic organizations he

has founded and the sentiments expressed by him frequently

also in conversation concerning the administration of such es-

tabHshments. In his deed to the Board of Trustees of the

Institution, under date of January 28, 1902, there are, amongmany others, the following significant paragraphs:

"The Trustees shall have the fullest power and discretion in dealing with

the income of the Trust, and expending it in such manner as they think best

fitted to promote the objects set forth in the following clauses:*******"The specific objects named are considered most important in our day,

but the Trustees shall have full power, by a majority of two-thirds of their

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1919. 9

number, to modify the conditions and regulations under which the funds

may be dispensed, so as to secure that these shall always be applied in the

manner best adapted to the changed conditions of the time."

In the deed of trust establishing the Endowment for the

promotion of International Peace, under date of December 14,

1910, the same idea with respect to administration is stated with

increasing emphasis

:

* 'Lines of future action can not be wisely laid down. Many may have to

be tried, and having full confidence in my Trustees I leave to them the widestdiscretion as to the measures and policy they shall from time to time adopt,

only premising that the one end they shall keep unceasingly in view until it

is attained, is the speedy abolition of international war between so-called

civilized nations."

And finally, under date of November 10, 1911, in his deedfounding the Carnegie Corporation of New York, this precept is

given still more emphatic expression

:

"Conditions upon the earth inevitably change; hence, no wise man will

bind Trustees forever to certain paths, causes or institutions. I disclaim

any intention of doing so. On the contrary, I give my trustees full authority

to change policy or causes hitherto aided, from time to time, when this, in

their opinion, has become necessary or desirable. They shall best conformto my wishes by using their own judgment."

Herein may be found the key to the relations Mr. Carnegie

sustained to the Institution, and the principal key hkewise to

the successes he attained in the great industrial and philanthropic

enterprises to which his energies were mainly devoted. He did

not seek to dominate, or even to guide, his trustees. He sug-

gested fields for exploration and cultivation; but he committed

the more difficult details of elaboration and development, with

the largest liberties, to those who could give them direct andcontinuous attention and assume accountability for the outcome.

He was thus able at once to enhst the cooperation of superior

coadjutors and to secure the prime requisites for administrative

efficiency, namely, authority to act and coordinate responsibility.

Close adherence to this attitude on the part of Mr. Carnegie

has been of the greatest advantage to the Institution. Initially

it was a subject of the most varied and contradictory conjecture

and expectation. In its earUer years it was often facetiously

remarked that one might quote equally eminent opinion on all

sides of every question concerning its possibilities. A vastly

greater volume of excellent advice was available than could pos-


sibly be used. There were thus the amplest of opportunities

for the generation of misunderstandings between the partisans

of equally worthy but necessarily rival or conflicting interests;

and a saving sense of humor, as well as great patience, was

needed to enable one to see that all of the admirably desirable

aims suggested could not be realized simultaneously. Inevitably,

in spite of his theory and practice to the contrary, some of these

conflicting interests were pressed by their advocates upon Mr.

Carnegie for his decision. But he never deviated from the

uniform practice of relegating all such matters for final determ-

ination to the Trustees of the Institution. He not infrequently

expressed opinions, pro or con, with respect to questions under

consideration, but he disclaimed authority and often cautioned

his coadjutors against the dangers of personal bias on his part.

The rare wisdom of this Uberal attitude toward a research

establishment has been verified repeatedly in the history of the

Institution. In the nature of things it was destined to venture

into many undertakings that would appear debatable, or even

hazardous, to those who had not given them special attention.

Doubts, indeed, were entertained, properly enough, by Mr.

Carnegie, and by many highly esteemed contemporaries, with

regard to the practicability and the ultimate value of such pro-

jects as the Solar Observatory, the Geophysical Laboratory, the

Magnetic Survey of the Earth, and the larger projects generally

of the Institution. To those even whose duty appeared to

require vigorous and sustained support for these undertakings

there was an element of doubt, while there was a degree of hazard

to those especially who planned them, in the possibility that

sufficient time might not be granted to prove their feasibility

and to justify their costs. That Mr. Carnegie, as well as other

people, should entertain some misapprehensions in respect to

the aims and details of these complex matters was, therefore,

unavoidable. Thus, to cite a single example, which illustrates

his characteristic frankness and fairness, shortly before the

construction of the non-magnetic ship was authorized he

requested an interview in respect to quite other affairs than those

of the Institution. Before these were approached, however,

he proceeded to remark emphatically, "1 don't approve that

project you are urging for a non-magnetic ship." ''But," he


added, ''maybe I don't understand it?" The opportunity thus

gracefully extended was speedily utilized and Mr. Carnegie was

readily convinced that the project in question was not one

merely of an enthusiastic dreamer, but one based on the care-

fully verified calculations and plans of competent engineers.

It should be understood, however, that Mr. Carnegie's special

interest in and confidence in the larger projects of the Institution

did not depend to any great extent on explanations, on argu-

ments, or on the results of the elaborate preliminary studies

that have preceded all these developments. His sympathy

and faith rested rather on the general induction from experience

that discoveries and advances require boldness in concepts sup-

plemented by untiring patience and persistence as well as byample financial means. These projects appealed to his imagina-

tion in the same way that similar departures from precedent

had appealed to him in the steel industry several decades earlier.

In this latter connection he used to relate with great good humorhow he was roused by an inquiry addressed to him by James B.

Eads (about 1870) when the first great steel bridge across the

Mississippi River, at St. Louis, was projected. Eads desired

to learn whether Mr. Carnegie's company would undertake to

supply steel bars having a much higher "modulus of elasticity"

than had been previously attained. Mr. Carnegie promptly

replied that an order for such steel would be accepted, and

production speedily followed. In recounting this incident (in

1911) Mr. Carnegie explained that while he did not hold a very

clear notion of the meaning of the term "modulus of elasticity,"

he was confident that one of his partners, who was a professional

engineer and a pupil of the distinguished Rankine of the Uni-

versity of Glasgow, would know all the technicalities, and hence

that it would be practicable for his company to fill the order if

it could be filled at all.

Throughout the history of the Institution Mr. Carnegie has

been deeply solicitous for its financial stability and continuity.

Thus, in 1907, when accumulated and current income was

approaching absorption in the rapidly expanding work under-

taken, he recognized the need of additional funds and increased

the Institution's endowment by $2,000,000. But in doing so

he administered a rational caution against the dangers of such


extravagances as result only in buildings whose value is chiefly

architectural. This was a critical period, since opinion was still

somewhat divided on the very practical question whether the

Institution should conduct its work directly, or indirectly by

acting mainly as a disbursing office for other agencies. Counsels

were even more divided on the equally practical question whether

the Institution should have a specially designed home for its

administrative staff and storage-room for its publications, or

whether it should continue to rent such quarters as could be

found. While Mr. Carnegie did not take sides strongly in these

controversial matters, he departed from his usual custom to the

extent of addressing a letter to the President calhng attention

especially to the protests of those who thought it unessential to

construct the Administration Building in Washington. But this

letter is closed by the following sentence: "As an antidote to

this I inclose a note, and with sincere congratulations on the

success already achieved by you, I am always very truly yours."

The "note" was the following letter:*

New York, December 4> 1907.

Dear Sir: I have watched the progress of the Institution under yourcharge and am dehghted to tell you that it has been such as to lead me to addtwo millions of dollars more to its endowment.

It has borne good fruit and the Trustees are to be highly congratulated.

In their hands and yours I am perfectly satisfied it is going to realize not only

our expectations, but our fondest hopes, and I take this opportunity to thankone and all who have so zealously labored from its inception.

Very truly yours,

Andrew Carnegie.Dr. R. S. Woodward,

President, Carnegie Institution,

Washington, D. C.

Again, in November 1910, when called to consult with him

about another subject, he announced that as soon as he could

arrange the preliminaries he would increase the endowment

of the Institution by $10,000,000. He added that the main

reason which led him to this decision was that the Institution had

proved capacity to live within income. Formal tender of this

gift was made in his letter to the Trustees of January 19, 1911,

published in full in the Year Book of that year. An important

stipulation in this remarkable letter required setting apart

* Hitherto unpublished so far as the writer is aware.


annually, for a period of a decade, one-half of the income of

this addition to endowment, as a reserve fund "against losses,

emergencies, reduction in income, and the diminishing pur-

chasing power of money."

His interest in the work of the Institution continued to the

end. His last signed letter to the President, dated September

27, 1918, begins with the characteristic sentence: "Your very

kind letters reporting from time to time the progress of the

Institution give me rare pleasure." He was especially glad to

learn of the numerous ways in which the Institution and its

staffs were able to assist the United States Government during

the world war. That our archeologists, biologists, historians,

philologists, and other speciaUsts should be called into service;

that the Geophysical Laboratory should undertake the manu-facture of optical glass; that the Mount Wilson Observatory

should engage to construct optical adjuncts for artillery, or that

the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism should be able to

render technical aid to the Army and the Navy, furnished an

unexpected and impressive experience to him as well as to others

not intimately acquainted with the details of these affairs.

Even as late as June 1919, about two months before his death,

when his strength was evidently rapidly waning, he was eager

to learn of the latest developments of what he familiarly called

the "Research Commission." His ideaHsm was still as domi-

nant as it was when he expressed the hope in his letter to the

Trustees of January 19, 1911, referred to above, that "the work

on Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so

anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should hke to be

satisfied, before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old

land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more

clearly than ever to them the new heavens." He did not live to

reahze this hope. The world war postponed, for nearly two

years, the use of the 100-inch telescope, in which he was par-

ticularly interested, so that the results he anticipated from it

are only now beginning to appear. But he was content, as

indeed all of his contemporary Trustees must be content, with

the reflection that the best work of the Institution is not so

much for the present and for us as for the future and for our

successors.


A complete list of the men who have thus far been connectedwith the Institution in the capacity of Trustee embraces 51

names. Of these, 6 were members ex officio,

Tmttees. during the years 1902 and 1903, under the terms

of the original charter. Of this total number, 23

are now deceased; and of the initial Trustees, 27 in number,including members ex officio, only 7 remain. Those who, during

the year just ended, have passed on to increase the majority of

this initial company are Andrew Dickson White, TheodoreRoosevelt, and John Coit Spooner. All of these men are so well

known and so highly esteemed that it would be a work of super-

erogation to make mention of them here except for the proba-

bility that in the multitude of their national services the fact

that they were among the builders of the Institution might beoverlooked. The procession of current events is fatefully swift,

and we are constantly in danger of forgetting our obligations to

the dead while seeking to fulfil our obligations to the Uving.

Andrew Dickson White was born at Homer, New York,

November 7, 1832, and died at his home in Ithaca, New York,November 5, 1918. The history of his remarkable career as

student, teacher, author, university administrator, legislator,

diplomatist, man of letters, and man of the world, has beenvery fully recorded in his admirable autobiography pubHshedin 1905.* His richly varied experience in all these departmentsof life gave him an uncommon equipment for consideration of

the questions which arose at the foundation of the Institution.

Although nearly 70 years of age when he became a Trustee, hecontinued to serve in this capacity with the keenest of interest

and unfailing regularity for 15 years, resigning only when the

infirmities of age prevented him from attending the meetings

of the Board of Trustees. During the early part especially of

the present administration he was a counsellor of rare value.

The difficulties and the dangers which beset the Institution werein many respects similar to what he called the ''rocks, storms, andperil" encountered by him in the early development of Cornell

University. He was therefore a very sympathetic as well as a

very competent adviser concerning the courses that might be

* The Century Company, New York, N. Y.


followed with safety by the new establishment. As an eminent

historian he knew well the tangled array of favorable and un-

favorable precedents set up by mankind in the slowly upward

processes of development; as an accompHshed man of the world

he knew well the rules for appUcation of appropriate corrections

for personal equation; and to these and other capital qualifica-

tions of a counsellor he added an outlook of confident optimism,

seldom manifested by a septuagenarian, toward all that makes

for rational progress. He lived a long and uncommonly fruitful

altruistic life, noteworthy throughout for its happy combination

of the enthusiasm of youth with the wisdom of age.

Theodore Roosevelt, twenty-sixth President of the United

States, was born at New York City, October 27, 1858, and died

at his home at Oyster Bay, Long Island, New York, January 6,

1919. At the time of his death he was probably the most widely

known and the best understood of Americans . He was by nature

a public character in the best sense of the phrase. Like Mr.

Carnegie, he may be said to have capitalized the more familiar

virtues. He was a modern apostle of the golden rule, or of the

''square deal"; and he won his way to public position by the

generation of universal confidence in his integrity. He was a

bold champion of the ''merit system" and an implacable foe

of "invisible government." He was, along with Washington,

Jefferson, and Franklin, among the regrettably small number of

American statesmen who have shown any considerable acquaint-

ance with, or just appreciation for, that sort of learning called

scientific. Like Andrew D. White, he was one of those broader,

though relatively rare, humanists who have adequately esti-

mated the significance of the modern doctrine of evolution.

Mr. Roosevelt was a member ex officio of the Board of Trus-

tees during the years 1902-1904, under the terms of the original

charter, which gave to the Institution a quasi-governmental

connection. It does not appear from the official records that

he found time, in the strenuous hfe he then led, to attend any of

the meetings of the Board. His sole but important part in the

recorded history of the Institution consists in his official approval

of the act of incorporation granted by the Congress of the United

States under date of April 28, 1904.


John Coit Spooner, distinguished lawyer and ex-Senator of the

United States, was born at Lawrenceburg, Indiana, January 6,

1843, and died at New York City, June 11, 1919. He was one of

those virile Americans who were disciplined in the great Civil Con-

flict of 1861-1865 and who have figured so prominently, if not

predominantly, in all national developments of the fifty years

following that war. He was conspicuous for his independence

and courage in the political life of his times. During his long

term of 16 years of service as Senator he displayed remarkable

constructive capacity, especially in dealing with the legislative

problems resulting from the Spanish-American war and from

other national and international compUcations following that

disturbed period. Like all his colleagues of the Board of Trus-

tees, he was busily preoccupied with other affairs; and it is not

surprising that along with a few others he should not have found

time to take a very active part in the administrative proceedings

of the Institution. He regretted this fact, and on resigning his

senatorship, in 1907, in order that he might resume the arduous

tasks of his profession, he relieved himself also of the duties of

his trusteeship.

W. Max Miiller, eminent orientalist and a Research Associate

of the Institution since 1904, was born at GHessenburg, Germany,

May 15, 1862, and died from drowning at Wildwood Crest, NewJersey, July 12, 1919. He was an indefatigable student of

Egyptology and made three archeological expeditions under the

auspices of the Institution to that country. He was one of the

last to make competent observations on some of the temples of

the upper Nile. His studies at Philse, especially, present him as

a pathetic figure seeking to save from oblivion the inscriptions

on those ancient temples when the waters of the Assouan Damwere gradually rising to obhterate them. Thus, in a letter to

Dr. S. Weir Mitchell dated September 26, 1910, Dr. Muller writes

:

"I am sitting on the highest temple tower of Philae and looking down onthe rocky island, on the wonderful scenery along the Nile, and on the incom-

parably beautiful temple. What a charming place! All out of the water

now, the temple seems to be in a better state of repair than ever; even a little

green vegetation of desert character now spreads over the island, once so

green with trees and shrubs, but now having only three date palms left. It is

as though Philse appeared once more before its death, a coquette with the


'face of Hippocrates' and yet painted and adorned to deceive the public andto catch a last glimpse of admiration. How beautiful is everything! In the

distance, however, I see its doom, the fatal dam of Assouan, and I hear the

roaring of the floods passing through it. The rocky islands of Bigeh andKonosso frame this picture, to the east a few verdant fields ashore and the

miserable little railway and steamer station Shellal. If it were not so very

lonely it would be more beautiful here. I am absolutely alone on the deserted

island. My servant uses every pretext to go to Assouan; he forgets things, I

fear, only to have another chance of crossing the Nile. The Nubian guard

of the Temple is rarely seen ; he mostly is over on Bigeh with his family, and

he rows over to Philae only when he sees a boat coming to the island. Thusit is a perfect hermit Ufe I am leading now."

Reports of Dr. Miiller's researches in Egypt have been given

in publication No. 53, volumes 1 and 2, while a third volume,

bearing the title 'The Two BiHngual Decrees of Philse," is nownearly ready to issue. This latter was in press at the time

of his premature death. Fortunately for him and for this work

the sympathetic and critical aid of his friend and colleague,

Dr. H. F. Lutz, has been secured to complete this volume and to

add it to the enduring contributions the author had already

registered for himself in the world of scholarship.

When the armistice was agreed to by the contending nations

in November 1918, the Institution had become more of an

agency for the promotion of warfare than one

from wS! fo^ t^^ promotion of peaceful pursuits. About

two-thirds of the staffs connected directly with

the Institution, or somewhat more than 200 men, were engaged

in war work, and about the same proportion appHes to the

Research Associates of the Institution and their collaborators.

Nearly every expert of the Institution was able to render assist-

ance and many of them devoted their entire time and energies

to Government work. Of the larger undertakings in this work,

the most conspicuous are the development to the point of quan-

tity production of the optical glass industry by the Geophysical

Laboratory; the manufacture of precision micrometers for the

U. S. Bureau of Standards and the manufacture of optical

adjuncts for artillery by the staff of the Mount Wilson Observa-

tory; the construction of special devices for the Navy in the

shops of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism; the con-

tributions of the Nutrition Laboratory to knowledge of the

effects of undernutrition; and the information service rendered


by the Department of Historical Research. These undertak-

ings required many men in arduous researches and involved no

inconsiderable costs to the Institution, since it assumed, in most

cases, the principal overhead expenses. Not less important

relatively than these larger operations were many special andindividual contributions to the general cause. That essential

occupations were quickly developed for what are sometimes

called ''narrow specialists" in nearly every branch of learning

cultivated by the Institution affords striking evidence at once

of the diversity of modern warfare and of the ultimate practical

value of recondite researches.

Although formal requests from the Government for services

ceased nominally toward the close of the calendar year 1918,

they actually continued until nearly the middle of 1919. Thus,

the optical work and the researches on the concentration of

nitrates for the War Department did not end until June 1919;

the information work of the Department of Historical Research

continued until mid-July; some special work for the Navy wasdone by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism as late as

September of this year; while a few other relations in Govern-

ment undertakings still remain to be severed. It is only recently,

also, that members of the Institution in the miUtary and other

services of the Government have returned to their posts; so that

emergence from the untoward conditions in which we find our-

selves has only fairly begun.

Naturally, this deflection of interest from the normal activities

of the Institution has led to many changes, to some dislocations,

and to the suspension, or even abandonment, of a number of

projects. The war, in fact, has brought some sinister conse-

quences to the Institution as well as to most other organizations.

Fortunately, of those who entered the military and naval service

only two lives were lost, namely, Karl Edward Anderson andBilUngs Theophilus Avery, both of the Department of Experi-

mental Evolution, who died during the year 1918. Fortunately,

Ukewise, while some members of the investigatory staffs of the

departments of research have been drawn off, by reason of their

abihties, into industrial or other occupations, the number of

such is not only small but not in excess of an inevitable and


healthy exchange between a progressive estabhshment and its

contemporaries.

Detailed reports concerning the war activities of the Institu-

tion, and particularly concerning the work done by the depart-

ments of research, are on file in the office of administration; so

that if it should become necessary to publish an account of these

activities the essential data are at hand. The time for publi-

cation of such an account does not appear to have arrived, since

the Government is entitled to initiative and priority in all these

matters.* Hence only the briefest references to them are madein this and other parts of the current Year Book.

It should go without saying that the disturbed conditions,

social, industrial, economic, and governmental, under which the

world is now laboring are not without untoward effects on the

Institution. Being a part of and not apart from contemporary

life, it must share to a greater or less extent in the consequences

which follow from an unparalleled attempt at national suprem-

acy based on the desperate doctrine of''dominance or downfall."

But obvious as these consequences are in the abstract, there

appear to be many outside and some within the Institution whothink that it may continue to expand regardless of the Umits

of its income and regardless of the fact that the purchasing

capacity of this income has diminished by one-half during the

past decade. In line with these vagaries there is a recrudescence

also of the juvenile notion so commonly held of the Institution

in its earHer years, that it may play the role of paternaHsm for

other estabhshments and for individuals, and that it may act

generally as a salvager in the wreckage of the world. Similarly,

just as in political affairs it is often assumed that the prevailing

scarcity of necessities and the burdens of taxation may be re-

lieved by other means than by productive labor, so it is assumed

that the Institution may meet the increasing costs of its opera-

tions, not by appropriate restrictions and economies, but byincreasing appropriations drawn from mythical sources. Thusthe distribution of necessary disappointment, which has been so

large a part of the unproductive business of the administrative

* A concise history of the production of optical glass is given by Dr. Fred E. Wright (majorEngineer Corps, U. S. A.)i of the staff of the Geophysical Laboratory, in "America's Muni-tions," published by the War Department in 1919,


office hitherto, is now increasing, stimulated by two generations

of men unaccustomed to the practice of thrift and justified bythe widely prevalent but immoral theory that the Institution

may proceed "regardless of expense."

One of the distinct, if relatively unimportant, misfortunes of

the world war was the delay in testing the capacities of the 100-

inch telescope named after Mr. John D. Hooker,

?ele?cope" ^^ ^^^ Angeles, who made the initial contribu-

tion toward the construction of this instrument

thirteen years ago. It was substantially completed shortly

before the United States became a participant in the conflict.

About this time, also, the Director of the Observatory becamechairman of the National Research Council and he continued to

give all his time to this governmental organization until May of

this year. In the meantime, likewise, as already indicated, the

staff of the Observatory was preoccupied largely with military

rather than with astronomical affairs. Hence, opportunity has

only recently arrived for determination of the critical question

whether this ''largest telescope," which is 28 inches larger thanits largest predecessor, and 40 inches larger than the highly

successful 60-inch instrument completed by the Observatory

in 1908, would meet expectations in optical capacity andpracticability of operation. The construction of so large a

telescope has been regarded as one of the hazardous under-

takings of the Institution. Its optical perfection depends

on the stability of the glass used for its mirror; the stability

of the latter depends in turn on the rigidity of its mountings;

the requisites in both cases must take into account the elastic

mobility of materials and the disturbing effects on them of tem-

perature changes; and all these considerations must unite to

secure a combination which is manageable. The problems in

engineering thus presented have appealed very strongly to all

parties interested in such constructions, perhaps almost as

strongly as the astronomical possibilities anticipated from such

an extensive addition to visual apparatus. But the Director of

the Observatory now reports that the optical and the engineering

difficulties have been overcome and that the instrument under


repeated tests has proved efficient quite beyond the conservative

theoretical predictions of attainable capacities.

As related in the report of the preceding year, it was deemedexpedient, in April 1917, on account of dangers to navigation,

to suspend the cruise contemplated by the De-^^ ^

sh^^^°'"*' partment of Terrestrial Magnetism for additional

surveys in the Atlantic Ocean by the ship

Carnegie. As related also in that report, this ship was brought

safely, by way of the Pacific Ocean and the Panama Canal, to the

port of Washington, District of Columbia, arriving there June 10,

1918. She lay here until the spring of 1919, when it was decided

to send her out again on her mission as soon as necessary repairs

and alterations could be made. Of the alterations required, the

most important was the adaptation of her engine for auxiUary

propulsion to the use of gasolene as fuel. When this ship waslaunched, in 1909, it was easier to get anthracite coal than gaso-

lene or other liquid fuel in remote parts of the world. Hencethe engine was constructed to use gas derived from such coal bythe so-called producer process. In the meantime, anthracite

coal has become much less and gasolene much more accessible

at distant seaports, and this circumstance has led to the note-

worthy, and in these times expensive, but highly advantageous

change here specially referred to. After delays which serve to

emphasize the inefficiency of mankind under post-war condi-

tions, on October 19, the Carnegie, under the command of Mr.

J. P. Ault, put to sea from the Virginia Capes, on her sixth

cruise, to comprise surveys in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans

not yet adequately covered by previous circuits.

Of all branches of the Institution the one least affected by the

war is the Division of PubUcations. Although it has undergone

some changes in staff and encountered the ob-

^"Se YeS!°^ stacles due to a rapid rise in the costs of printing

and illustrations, its work has gone on without

serious interruption; and the output of books for the year, as

may be seen by reference to the detailed Hst given in a later

section of this report, is rather greater than the average annual

output for the past decade. Of the entire Hst of twenty-nine


volumes issued, only two classes of them, selected mainly for the

purpose of showing trends of progress, may be referred to here.

The most elementary, the most essential, and hence the most

widely used, if not esteemed, of the sciences is arithmetic. It

is a fundamental requisite, in fact, of all exact knowledge.

Ability to add, subtract, multiply, and divide affords probably

the simplest test of capacity for correct thinking. Conversely,

inability or indisposition to make use of these simple operations

affords one of the surest tests of mental deficiency, as witnessed,

for example, by numerous correspondents who are unable to

or who refuse to apply these operations to the finances of the

Institution. But the familiar science of arithmetic lies at the

foundation also of a much larger and a far more complex

structure called the theory of numbers. This theory has been

cultivated by many of the most acute thinkers of ancient andmodern times. It has more points of contact with quantitative

knowledge in general than any other theory except the theory of

the differential and integral calculus. These two theories are

complementary, the first dealing with discrete or discontinuous

numbers and the second with fluent or continuous numbers.

Naturally, a subject which has attracted the attention of nearly

all of the great mathematicians of the past twenty centuries

has accumulated a considerable history. The more elementary

contributions of Euclid, Diophantus, and others of the Greek

school; the extensions of Fermat, Pascal, Euler, Newton, Ber-

noulli and many others in the seventeenth and the eighteenth

centuries; and the work of Lagrange, Laplace, Gauss, and their

numerous contemporaries and successors of the nineteenth cen-

tury, make up an aggregate which has stood hitherto in need

of clear chronological tabulation and exposition. This laborious

task was undertaken about ten years ago by a Research Asso-

ciate of the Institution, Professor Leonard E. Dickson, of the

University of Chicago. A publication under the title ''History

of the Theory of Numbers" has resulted, and volume I (8vo,

XII + 486 pp.), devoted to divisibihty and to primality of

numbers, has appeared during the past year; and a second

volume devoted to diophantine analysis is now in press. This

work is remarkable for its condensation of statement. It con-

tains more information per unit area than any other work issued


thus far by the Institution. It is remarkable also for the care

taken by the author and by his collaborators to secure precision

and correctness, a number of experts having assisted in the ardu-

ous labors of verification required during the process of printing.

It is the object of science primarily to find answers to the

question ''How?" rather than to the question ''Why?"; or, to

seek to describe phenomena rather than to try to explain them.

Words, however, constitute, in general, a rather imperfect

medium for the communication of ideas, and as a consequence

the intellectual world, like the political world, often finds itself

involved in misunderstandings which lead to nothing better

than that metaphorical and degenerate form of energy called

the heat of controversy. Thus, about a half-century ago there

arose, as we now see, a quite needlessly bitter discussion over

the question whether and to what extent the phenomena of life

may be traced back to the properties of matter with which

they are obviously intimately associated. The new science of

biology was just then arising and the limitations of its domainand the conditions of its existence and development were widely

disputed, as is best shown probably by the lay sermon of Huxley,

delivered at Edinburgh, November 8, 1868, "On the Physical

Basis of Life." In this remarkable address Huxley defines, with

prophetic clearness and completeness, the Hmitations and the

conditions in question and these, as he defined them, are nowgenerally admitted as essential to all fruitful inquiry. More-over, the principles expounded by Huxley have been justified in

amplest measure by the extraordinary progress since accom-

plished, not only in biology, but in all the physical sciences.

It is a good fortune for a research establishment to have been

founded during the course of this progress and to be able to take

part in it; and although the publications of the Institution are

not restricted to any domain of learning, a considerable numberof them bear directly or indirectly on this profoundly interesting

and increasingly important problem of "the physical basis of

Ufe." The past year has been unusually productive in this

line, for no less than a dozen volumes have been added to the

Institution's series of contributions to evolution, heredity, andthe application of thermodynamics to the interpretation of


metabolism in man. These contributions are particularly

noteworthy also for the extent to which cooperation has been

required, since more than twenty authors and more than twice

that number of collaborators are represented in the dozen vol-

umes referred to.

The desirability of making provision for retirement on ac-

count of age or other disability for members of the staffs of the

Institution has been under consideration for

Retirement several years. A definitive plan for this purposeand Insurance.

^^^ approved by the Trustees at their meeting

of December 14, 1917; it was made apphcable by action of the

Executive Committee April 11, 1919; and it became effective

July 1, 1919.

The plan in question is drawn in conformity with the compre-

hensive system of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Associ-

ation of America and is to be administered in cooperation with

that organization. A pamphlet setting forth in detail the con-

ditions of apphcabiUty of the plan to members of the Institution

has been pubhshed and distributed during the year, so that its

general features need only be mentioned here. These consist

of two provisions which are separate and distinct from one

another, namely: (1) for annuities payable after retirement

from active service, and (2) life insurance, purchasable by the

beneficiary at cost from the Teachers Insurance and Annuity

Association of America.

(1) Annuities are provided by means of equal annual con-

tributions from the annuitants and from the Institution; each

contributing in any case 5 per cent of the individual's salary,

the amount of the latter used in computations for any year being

the amount on the first of January of that year. In this co-

operation the Institution assumes the overhead expense of

administration.

(2) Provision for Ufe insurance, on the other hand, under

the specially favorable terms accorded to members of the

Institution, rests wholly with the individuals concerned, although

the office of administration stands ready to make such division

of any member's salary as he may direct in order to facilitate

payments on account of life insurance.


The inauguration of such a measure at the present epoch

would appear to be both appropriate and opportune. Its

adoption assumes that the Institution may continue indefinitely,

and it recognizes the value of foresight and thrift at a time whenthese more obvious essentials to rational existence are quite too

commonly overlooked. The world has recently spent, if not

wasted, a large share of its reserves and there appears to be

no way to replace them except the old ways of production

and economy. Conferences, legislation, and a redistribution of

supplies and responsibilities may help; but the main source of

relief is to be found in the individual practice of industry, pru-

dence, and frugahty. The success of this measure, therefore,

will depend, plainly, on the continuity of the Institution and on

the recognition by trustees and members therein of the principles

of reciprocity and probabiHty founded on centuries of experience

and fortified by the demonstrations of indubitable mathematical

theory.

RESEARCHES OF THE YEAR.

It has been sufficiently indicated in the preceding section and

in the report of a year ago that the programs of the Departments

of Research and of the Research Associates of the Institution

have been, in most cases, materially deranged by the exigencies

of national defense. Most investigations under way or pro-

jected have been delayed or suspended and few new projects

not requisite to emergencies have been started. Nevertheless,

much work under way prior to the war has been completed, and

nearly all of the more important researches interrupted have

been conserved to such an extent that they may be resumed as

soon as the world returns to conditions more nearly peaceful

than those now prevalent. It is surprising as well as gratifying

that the departments of research, whose staffs have been drawn

on heavily for quite other occupations than those to which

they are severally devoted, have maintained their organizations

without serious impairment; while in a number of cases they

have had the good fortune to continue and to intensify their

specialties in order to render effective aid to the Government.

The experience of the Division of Research Associates is not

quite so fortunate, since a considerable number of important


investigations have had to be wholly suspended while the

individuals having them in charge and their more narrowly

limited numbers of assistants have been attached to the various

branches of the Government service. In most cases, however,

it will be practicable to resume these researches as soon as

national and international conditions will permit.

Following the precedents of the past two years the reports

of the Directors of Departments of Research and of Research

Associates are printed as usual in the current Year Book and are

confined strictly to the work proper of the Institution. Special

reports from the Departments of Research as to war activities

have been filed in the Office of Administration, but their contents

are reserved for such disposition as may be deemed fitting by the

Board of Trustees at a later date.

FINANCIAL RECORDS.

. ,^ , , The sources of funds available for expenditureFinancial Statement , . , n ^ p i

for Fiscal Year durmg the past tiscal year, the allotments for the191 1919- year, the revertments made during the year, and

the balances unalloted at the end of the year are shown in detail

in the following statement:

Financial Statement for fiscal year 191S-1919.

Object of appro-

priation.

Balancesunallotted

Oct. 31,

1918.

Appropri-ation

Dec. 13,

1918.

Revert-mentsNov. 1,

1918, to

Oct. 31,

1919.

Totalsfor fiscal

year.

Aggregates of

allotments

and amountstransferred.

Balancesunallotted

Oct. 31,

1919.

Large grants . . .

Minor grants. .

.

Publication . . .

.

Administration,

Reserve fund. .

.

Insurance fund

.

Pension fund. . .

68,204.108,603.65

$918,490116,64060,00065,000

250,00025,00040,000

$37,809.4436,396.0611,189.905,000.00

$956,299.44161,240.1679,793.5560,000.00

250,000.0025,000.0040,000.00

$956,299.44156,840.0670,593.4360,000.00

250,000.0025,000.0040,000.00

$4,400.109,200.12

Total

.

16,807.75 1,465,130 90,395.40 1,572,333.15 1,558,732.93 13,600.22

The aggregates of receipts from interest on endowment, from

interest on bond investments, from interest on deposits in banks,

Receipts and from sales of publications, from refunds on grants,

^e tistkitfon^ and from miscellaneous sources, for each yearto Date. since the foundation of the Institution, are shown

by the following table; the grand total of these to date is

$17,501,356.75.

REPORT OF THE PRESIDENT, 1919.

Aggregates of financial receipts.

27

YearendingOct.31.


table shows the actual expenditures under these heads for each

year since the foundation of the Institution:

Purposes for which funds have been appropriated.

Yearend-ing

Oct.

31.


Geophysical Laboratory (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Building, library, operating appliances $169 , 373 . 86Laboratory apparatus 75 , 000 . 03Shop equipment 10,888.36

Department of Historical Research (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Office 2 , 575 . 72Library 3 , 926 . 55

Department of Marine Biologj- (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Vessels 31,180.43Buildings, docks, furniture, and library 12, 120.36Apparatus and instruments 8 , 745 . 30

Department of Meridian Astrometry (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Apparatus and instruments 2,453.41Operating 2, 146.37

Nutrition Laboratory (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Building, office, and shop 120,854.54Laboratory apparatus 24 , 546 . 09

$255,262.25

6,502.27

52,046.09

4,599.78

145,400.63Mount Wilson Observatory (Aug. 31, 1919):

Btiildings, grounds, road, and telephone line 174,748.22Shop equipment 37,533.51Instruments 422,056.26Furniture and operating appliances 134 , 679 . 57Hooker 100-inch reflector 516,903.30

1 , 285 , 920 . 86Department of Terrestrial Magnetism (Sept. 30, 1919)

:

Building, site, and office 145,391.62Vessel and survey equipment 145,730. 18

Instruments, laboratory, and shop equipment 80,686.99

Publications:

Stock on hand at sale price (Oct. 31, 1919) 292,272.45Outstanding accounts (Oct. 31, 1919) 2, 686 .91

371,808.79

294,959.36

3,165,047.13

The cost of maintenance of the Administration Building,

including the items of fuel, Hghting, janitorial services, mainte-

^ „ . nance of grounds, repairs, and other incidentalExpenses of Mam- ° j l- ?

tenance of Admin- expeuses, has been, for 1910, $2,981.65; for 1911,istration BuUding.

|2,641.53; for 1912, $2,919.89; for 1913, $2,601.15;

for 1914, $3,251.08; for 1915, $3,955.60; for 1916, $2,870.51;

for 1917, $3,272.50; for 1918, $3,891.80, and for 1919, $3,834.38.

PUBLICATIONS.

The publication of 22 volumes has been authorized by the

Executive Committee during the year, at an aggregate estimated

T, uv . ^ .u cost of $59,200.00. The following hst gives thePublications Author- ' ® ^ized and Issued titles and names of authors of the pubUcationsunng e ear.

jgg^^^ during the year; it includes 29 volumes,

with an aggregate of 5,834 octavo pages and 2,431 quarto


pages. Of the 29 volumes, three were new editions of former

books which had become out of print and were reproduced by

photographic processes. Thirty additional volumes are now in

press.

List of publications issued during the year.

Year Book, No. 17, 1918. Octavo, xvi+331 pages, 1 plate, 3 figures.

Photographic reproductions of Year Books Nos. 1 and 2, for the years 1902 and 1903, respectively,

721 pages, octavo.

Index Medicus, Second Series, Vol. 16, 1918. Octavo, 929 pages.

Index Medicus, War Supplement. Octavo, 262 pages.

No. 100. Ward, William Hayes. The Seal Cylinders of Western Asia. Reprint. Quarto,

XXIX +428 pages, 1,500 figures.

No. 248. Britton, N. L., and J. N. Rose. The Cactacese. Descriptions and Illustrations of

Plants of the Cactus Family. Quarto, Vol. 1, vn-f-236 pages, 36 pis. 301 figs.

No. 249. Barus, Carl. The Interferometry of Reversed and Non-reversed Spectra.

Part III: Displacement Interferometry by the Aid of Achromatic Fringes. Octavo,

100 pages, 71 figures.

Part IV: Displacement Interferometry by the Aid of Achromatic Fringes. Octavo,

172 pages, 117 figures.

No. 256. Dickson, L. E. History of the Theory of Numbers. Vol. 1 : Divisibility and Pri-

mality. Octavo, xii +486 pages.

No. 257. Whitman, Charles Otis. Posthumous Works of. Edited by Oscar Riddle. (Paper

No. 28, Station for Experimental Evolution.)

Vol. I: Orthogenetic Evolution in Pigeons. Quarto, x+194pages, 88 plates, 36 figs.

Vol. II : Inheritance, Fertility, and the Dominance of Sex and Color in Hybrids of WildSpecies of Pigeons. Quarto, 224 pages, 39 plates, 11 figures.

Vol. Ill: The Behavior of Pigeons. Edited by Harvey A. Carr. Quarto, xi+161pages, 2 figures.

No. 259. Davenport, Charles B., and Mary F. Scudder. Naval Officers: Their Heredity andDevelopment. (Paper No. 29, Station for Experimental Evolution.) Octavo,

IV +236 pages, 60 charts.

No. 263 Tower, W. L. The Mechanism of Evolution in Leptinotarsa. Octavo, viii +340pages, 19 plates, 156 figures.

(Appendix). Breitenbecher, J. K. The Relation of Water to the Behavior of the

Potato Beetle in a Desert. Octavo, pp. 341-384, 5 figures.

No. 265. Laughlin, Harry H. The Duration of the Several Mitotic Stages in the Dividing

Root-tip Cells of the Common Onion. (Paper No. 30, Station for Experi-

mental Evolution.) Octavo, 48 pages, 19 charts.

No. 270. Reichert, E. T. A Biochemic Basis for the Study of Problems of Taxonomy, Heredity,

Evolution, etc., with especial reference to the Starches and the Tissues of

Parent and Hybrid-Stocks, and to the Starches and the Hemoglobins of Varieties,

Species, and Genera. Quarto.

Part I : Summaries and Comparisons of the Properties of the Starches and of the

Tissues of Parent-stocks and Hybrid-stocks. Applications of the Results of

the Researches to the Germ-plasm, Variations, Fluctuations, Sports, Mutants,

Species, Taxonomy, Heredity, etc. Notes and Conclusions. Pages xi +376, 34 plates, 820 charts.

Part II: Special, General, and Comparative Laboratory Data of the Properties of

the Starches and of the Tissues of Parent-stocks and Hybrid-stocks. Pages

VII +458.No. 278. Morgan, T. H., C. B. Bridges, and A. H. Sturtevant. Contributions to the Genetics

of Drosophila melanogaster. Octavo, v+388 pages, 12 plates, 105 figures.

I: The Origin of Gynandromorphs, by T. H. Morgan and C. B. Bridges.

II : The Second Chromosome Group of Mutant Characters, by C. B. Bridges andT. H. Morgan.

Ill: Inherited Linkage Variations in the Second Chromosome, by A. H. Sturte-

vant.

IV: A Demonstration of Genes Modifying the Character "Notch," by T. H. MorganNo. 279. Harris, J. Arthur, and Francis G. Benedict. A Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism

in Man. Octavo, vi +266 pages, 30 diagrams.

No. 280. Benedict, F. G., W. R. Miles, Paul Roth, and II. Monmouth Smith. Human Vitality,

and Efficiency under Prolonged Restricted Diet. Octavo, xi+702 pages.

124 figures.


No. 281. Papers from the Department of Marine Biology of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-ington. Vol. XIII. Octavo, 128 pages, 19 plates, 3 figures.

Speidel, Carl Caskey. Gland Cells of Internal Secretion in the Spinal Cord of

the Skates. 31 pages, 9 plates.

Drew, Oilman A. The Structure and Ejaculation of the Spermatophores of Octopuamericana. 14 pages, 3 plates.

Clark, Hubert Lyman. The Distribution of the Littoral Echinoderms of the WestIndies. 25 pages, 3 plates.

Harvey, E. Newton. Further Studies on the Chemistry of Light Production in

Luminous Organisms. 35 pages.

Gudger, E. W. The Ovary of Felichthys felis, the Gaff-topsail Catfish : Its Structure

and Function. 17 pages, 4 plates.

No. 283. Case, E. C. The Environment of Vertebrate Life in the Late Paleozoic in NorthAmerica: A Paleogeographic Study. Quarto, vi-(-275 pages, 8 figures.

No. 285. Morgan, T. H. The Genetic and the Operative Evidence relating to Secondary Sexual

Characters. Octavo, 108 pages, 5 plates.

No. 286. Weaver. John E. The Ecological Relations of Roots. Octavo, 128 pages, 33 plates,

58 figures.

No. 287. Spoehr, H. A. The Carbohydrate Economy of Cacti. Octavo, 79 pages, 2 figures.

No. 288. Castle W. E. Studies in Heredity in Rabbits, Rats, and Mice. Octavo, 56 pages, 3

plates, 5 figures.

No. 291. Contributions to the Geology and Paleontology of the West Indies. Octavo, 184

pages, 53 plates.

Vaughan, Thomas Wayland. Introduction. 4 pages.

Howe, Marshall A. Fossil Calcarous Algse from the Leeward Islands. 11 pp., 6 pla.

Cushman, Joseph A. Fossil Foraminifera from the West Indies. 11 pp., 15 pis.

Canu, F., and R. S. Bassler. Fossil Brj-ozoa from the West Indies. 30 pp., 7 pis.

Cooke, C. W. Fossil Mollusca from the Leeward Islands and Cuba. 54 pp., 16 pis.

Rathbun, Mary J. Fossil Decapod Crustacea from the West Indies. 28 pp., 9 pis.

No. 295. Mohr, O. L., and Chr. Wriedt. A New Type of Hereditary Brachyphalangy in Man.Octavo, 64 pages, 7 pis, 4 figures.

, ^ ^,. The followine; table shows the amounts receivedSales of Pubhca-tions and Value of froHi Subscriptions to the Index Medicus, from

an.

gg^igg Qf Year Books, and from sales of all other

publications for each year since the foundation of the Institution

:

Table showing sales of publications.

Year.


At the end of the fiscal year there are on hand 99,207 volumes

of miscellaneous pubUcations and Year Books, having a sale

value of $271,679.20; also 37,789 numbers of the Index Medicus,

having a sale value of $20,593.25. The total value of publica-

tions on hand is therefore $292,272.45.

In connection with the above statement it is fitting to add

that since the foundation of the Institution there have been

distributed, chiefly by gifts to hbraries and to authors, but to a

noteworthy extent also by sales, a total of 190,404 volumes of

pubhcations of the Institution.

t. ., T. X . The data furnished in the following table are ofGrowth and Extent

, i i /> i

of Institution's statistical interest m respect to the work of pub-

lication of the Institution. Four hundred and

one volumes, embracing a total of 111,023 pages of printed

matter, have thus far been issued by the Institution.

Table showing number of volumes, number of pages {octavo and quarto), and totals of

pages of publications issued by the Institution for each year and for the

eighteen years from 1002 to 1919.


APPENDIX.

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PUBLICATIONS RELATING TO WORK OF INVESTIGATORS.ASSOCIATES, AND COLLABORATORS.

Under this heading it is sought to include titles of all publications proceeding from work doneunder the auspices of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, exclusive of the regular publica-

tions. A list of the latter which have appeared during the year will be found in the President's

Report (pp. 30-31).

Adams, L. H. Tables and curves for use in measuring temperatures with thermocouples. Bull.

Amer. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 2111-2124 (1919).

, and E. D. Williamson. Some physical constants of mustard "gas." Jour. Wash. Acad.

Sci., vol. 9, 30-35 (1919)., . Relation between birefringence and stress in various types of optical glass.

(Papers on Optical Glass, No. 21.) Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci.. vol. 9,609-623 (1919).

,, and John Johnston. The determination of the compressibility of solids at

high pressures. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 41, 12-42 (1919).

See Hall, R. E. ; White, W. P. ; Williamson, E. D.Adams, Walter S. The absorption spectnim of the Novae. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4,

355-360 (1918) ; Mt. Wilson Communications, No. 55.

. The cause of Cepheid variation. Observatory, vol. 42, 167-168 (1919).

-:, and Alfred H. Jot. The motions in space of some stars of high radial velocity. Astro-

phj's. Jour., vol. 49, 179-185 (1919); Mt. Wilson Contr., No. 163; Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol.

5, 239-241 (1919)., . The orbits of three spectroscopic binaries. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 49, 186-195

(1919) ; Mt. Wilson Contr., No. 164.

, . Spectroscopic notes. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 30, 306-307 (1918).

, . Fourteen spectroscopic binaries. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 40-42 (1919).

. . The structure of the emission bands in the spectnun of Nova Aquilse No. 3.

Read at Pasadena meeting, A. S. P. (1919); Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 182-184 (1919).

, . Eighteen stars with spectra similar to those of the Cepheid variables. Read at

Pasadena meeting, A. S. P. (1919); Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 184-186 (1919).

-, and Gtjstaf Stromberq. On the use of the spectroscopic method for determining the

paraUaxes of the brighter stars. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, 228-232 (1919).

Allen, E. T., and E. G. Zies. A contribution to the methods of glass analysis, with special

reference to boric acid and the two oxides of arsenic. (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 5.)

Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, vol. 1, 739-786 (1918).

, . The condition of arsenic and its r61e in glass-making. (Papers on Optical

Glass, No. 6.) Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, vol. 1, 787-790 (1918).

Andersen, Olaf. A method for the determination of the volatile matter in oxides of lead.

(Papers on Optical Glass, No. 18.) Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, vol. 2, 782-783 (1919).

. The volatilization of lead oxide from lead silicate melts. (Papers on Optical Glass,

No. 19.) Jour. Amer. Ceram. Soc, vol. 2, 784-789 (1919).

Anderson, John A. The expedition of the Mount Wilson Observatory to the solar eclipse of

June 8, 1918. Read at general meeting, Amer. Philos. Soc. (1919); Proc. Amer. Philos.

Soc, vol. 58, 255-258 (1919).

. The Stark effect for metals in the ultra violet. Read at Pasadena meeting, Amer.Phys. Soc. (1919).

ArLT, J. P. The cruise of the Carnegie for 1919-1921. Terr. Mag., vol. 24, No. 3, 132

(Sept. 1919).

Avery, B. T., Jr. See Blakeslee, A. F.

Babcock, E. B. See Carpenter, T. M.Babcock, Harold D. See St. John, Charles E.

Baldwin, M. E. See Sherman, H. C.Banta, a. M. Sex and sex intergrades in Cladocera. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, 373-379

(Dec 1918).

. The extent of the occurrence of sex intergrades in Cladocera. Anat. Rec, vol. 15,

355-356 (Jan. 1919).

. The results of selection with a Cladocera pure line (clone). Proc. Soc. Exper. Biol, andMed., vol. 16, 123-124 (May 1919).

Barnett, S. J. A report on electromagnetic induction. Proc. Amer. Inst. Elec Engin., vol. 38, No.10, 1151-1169 (Oct. 1919).

Barus, Carl. Non-reversed spectra of restricted coincidence. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 2,

614 (1916).

. Path differences within which spectrum interferences are observable. Proc. Nat.

Acad. Sci., vol. 2, 609 (1916).

. Hygrometry in terms of the weight of a film of gelatine. Science, n. s., vol. 48, 374(1918).


Barus, Carl. Polarization of moving electrodes. Science, n. s., vol. 48, 253 vl918).. Interferences of vibrating systems. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, 328 (1918).. Gravitational attraction in connection with the rectangular interferometer. Proc. Nat

Acad. Sci., vol. 4, 338 (1918).. The rectangular interferometer with displacement fringes, in connection with the hori-

zontal pendulum. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, 349 (1918).. Spectrum phenomena due to moving motes. Science, n. s., vol. 49, 72 (1919).. On Herschell's fringes. Science, n. s., vol. 49, 72 (1919).

. An adjustment in relation to the Fresnel coefficient. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5,

120 (1919).

. Note on the self-adjusting interferometer in relation to the achromatic fringes. Proc.Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, 53 (1919).

Interferometer contact lever experiments relating to the elastics of small bodies. Proc.Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5, 44 (1919).

. Note on a contact lever using achromatic displacement fringes. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.,

vol. 5, 39 (1919).

. An electrodynamometer using the vibration telescope. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5211 (1919).

Bauer, L. A. Results of magnetic observations during solar eclipse of June 8, 1918. (Abstract.)

Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 9, No. 1, 22 (Jan. 4, 1919).

. Some interesting results of eclipse magnetic observations. (Abstract.) Phys. Rev.,ser. 2, vol. 13, No. 2, 160-161 (Feb. 1919).

. Proposed magnetic and allied observations during total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919.

Terr. Mag., vol. 24, No. 1, 41-43 (Mar. 1919); Science, n. s., vol. 49, No. 1263, 260-261(Mar. 14, 1919); Nature, vol. 103, No. 2577, 44-45 (Mar. 20, 1919); Pop. Astron., vol. 27,No. 4, 267 (Apr. 1919).

. The field of a uniformly magnetized elliptic homceoid and applications. (Abstract.)

Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 9, No. 9, 267-269 (May 4, 1919).

. Informal remarks regarding the work of the Carnegie and eclipse observations, May 29,

1919. Observatory, vol. 42, No. 539, 190-191 (May 1919).

. Preliminary meeting of official Weather Bureau Directors at London, July 3-9, 1919.

U. S. Dept. Agric, Monthly Weath. Rev., vol. 47, No. 7, 449 (July 1919).. International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, at Brussels, July 12-28, 1919. U. S.

Dept. Agric, Monthly Weath. Rev., vol. 47, No. 7, 449-450 (July 1919).. Terrestrial magnetism and electricity at the Brussels meetings, July 18-28, 1919.

Terr. Mag., vol. 24, No. 3, 105-112 (Sept. 1919).. Some observations of the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, at Cape Palmas, Liberia.

(Abstract.) Pop. Astron., vol. 27, No. 8, 524-526 (Oct. 1919).. Geophysics at the Brussels meetings, July 18-28, 1919. Science, n. s., vol. 50,

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DosDELL, Louise. Water requirement and adaptation in Equisetum. Plant World (1919).


DuESBERG, J. On the interstitial cells of the testicle of the Didelphys. Biol. Bull., vol. 35,175-194 (1918).

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Harris, J. W. Influenza occurring in pregnant women: A statistical study of 1,350 cases.

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Hay, Oliver P. On some proboscideans of the State of New York. Science, n. •., vol. 49,

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III,Themodifiability of salient traits, 78; The field of genealogy, 79; A famous ancestress, 86;

Eugenics and migration, 87; The making of a master of finance, 90. Vol. IV, Heredity of

Theodore Roosevelt, 10; From generation to generation, 19; Well-known American families,

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Vol. Ill, Four motives for human pedigree study, 54; The Nevada sterilization law, 62; Theintimate fife of Alexander Hamilton, 65 ; A fertile field for eugenics, 72 ; Future immigration,

91. Vol. IV, Alumni roster of the eugenics course, 21; The Eugenics Research Association,

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Osborne, Thomas B., and Lafayette B. Mendel. Vitamines in green leaves. Proc. Soc.

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. Le Nouvel Humanisme. Scientia, vol. 23, 161-175 (1918).

. The teaching of the history of science. Sci. Month., vol. 7, 193-211 (1918).

. The message of Leonardo. His relation to the birth of modern science. Scribner'a

Mag., vol. 65, 531-540 (May 1919).

ScHULTZ, A. H. Changes in fetuses due to formalin preservation. Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthropol.,

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. Observations on the canalis basilaris chordae. Anat. Rec, vol. 15, 225-229 (1918).

ScHUMB, W. C. See Richards, T. W.Seares, Frederick H. Relation of color to intrinsic luminosity in stars of the same spectral

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-, Adriaan van Maanen, and Ferdinand Ellerman. Deviations of the sun's general

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Sbniob, H. D. The development of the arteries of the human lower extremity. Amer. Jour"

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Shaplet, Harlow. Studies of magnitudes in star clusters: IX. The distances and distribution

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. The age of the earth. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 30, 283-298 (1918) ; Sci. Amer., vol. 87, 34-

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. On radiation and the age of the stars. Read at Pasadena meeting, A. S. P. (1919);

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 178-180 (1919).

. Nineteen new variable stars. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 226 (1919).

. The "new star" in Serpens, 7. 1917. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 226-230 (1919).

. Globular cluoters, Cepheid variables, and radiation. Nature, vol. 103, 25-27 (1919).

. The age of the stars. Nature, vol. 103, 284 (1919).

. Note on the explanation of the absence of globular clusters from the midgalactic regions.

Observatory, vol. 42, 82-84 (1919).

. Darkening at the limb of a pulsating variable star. Observatory, vol. 42, 168-170 (1919)

.

. Star clusters. Read at general meeting, Amer. Philos. Soc. (1919).

, and Myrtle L. Richmond. Note relative to the local cluster. Read at Pasadena

meeting, A. S. P. (1919); (Abstract) Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 186 (1919).

, and Martha B. Shapley. Studies based on the colors and magnitudes in stellar clusters:

Thirteenth paper. The galactic planes in 41 globular clusters. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 50,

42-49 (1919); Mt. Wilson Contr., No. 160,

, . Studies based on the colors and magnitudes in stellar clusters: Fourteenth

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See Seares, Frederick H.

Shapley, Martha B. The light curve and orbital elements of the eclipsing binary Y Leonis,

Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 30, 343-346 (1918).

. See Shapley, Harlow.Shepherd, E. S. The composition of the gases of Kilauea, Bull. Hawaiian Volcano Obs., vol,

7, 94-97 (1919).

Sherman, H. C. Fundamental requirements of human nutrition. Proc. Inst. Med. of Chicago,

vol. 2, 33 (1918).

. Permanent gains from the food conservation movement. Columbia Univ, Quart., vol.

21, 1 (Jan. 1919).

, A. W. Thomas, and M. E. Baldwin. Influence of hydrogen-ion concentration upon enzy-

mic activity of three typical amylases. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 41, 231 (Feb, 1919),


Sherman, H. C, F. Walker, and M. L. Caldwell. Action of enzymes upon starches of different

origin. Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc, vol. 41, 1123 (July 1919).

, J. C. Winters, and V. Phillips. Efficiency of oat protein in adult human nutrition.

Jour. Biol. Chem., 39, 53-62 (Aug. 1919).

Shreve, Edith B. A thermo-electrical method for the determination of leaf temperature.Plant World, vol. 22, 118-122 (1918).

-. Investigations of the absorption of water by gelatine. Jour. Franklin Inst., vol. 187,319-337 (1919).

The r61e of temperature in the determination of the transpiring power of leaves byhygrometric paper. Plant World, vol. 22, 100-104 (1919).

Shreve, Forrest. The establishment of desert perennials. Jour, of Ecol., vol. 5, 210-216 (1917).. The vegetation of the Pinaleno Mountains of southern Arizona. Plant World, vol. 22,

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Spoehr, H. a. The development of conceptions of photosynthesis since Ingen-Houaz. Sci.

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St. John, Charles E. The present condition of the problem of solar rotation. Pubs. A. S. P.,

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, and Harold D. Babcock. Are the wave-lengths of the atmospheric absorptionlines variable? Read at Pasadena meeting, A. S. P. (1919) ; (Abstract) Pubs. A. S. P.,

vol. 31, 178 (1919).

-, and Louise W. Ware. On the source of discordant values for solar rotation. Read atPasadena meeting, A. S. P. (1919); (Abstract) Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 186 (1919).

Stock, Leo F. An early Jesuit work on the writing and judging of history. Catholic Hist. Rev.,66-70 (Apr. 1919).

. Summary of war legislation of the 65th Congress. Hist. Outlook, 401-419 (Oct. 1919).Streeter, G. L. Factors involved in the formation of the filum terminale. Amer. Jour. Anat.,

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. A very young monozygotic twin. Anat. Rec, vol. 16, 164 (1919).

Stromberq, Gustaf. See Adams, Walter S.

Sturtevant, a. H., C. B. Bridges, and T. H. Morgan. The spatial relations of genes. Proc.Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 5. 168-173 (May 1919).

Takamine, Toshio. The Stark effect for metals. Astrophys. Jour., vol. 50, 23-41 (1919); Mt.Wilson Contr., No. 169.

Thomas, A. W. See Sherman, H. C.

Vance, Harry W. The structure of the clasmatocyte. Anat. Rec, vol. 16, 166 (1919).

Van der Stricht, O. The development of the pillar cells, tunnel space, and Nuel's spaces in theorgan of Corti. Jour. Compar. Neurol., vol. 30, 283-314 (1919).

TAN Maanen, Adriaan. Investigations on proper motion: First paper. The motions of 85stars in the neighborhood of Atlas and Pleione. Mt. Wilson Contr., No. 167.

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. The distances of six planetary nebulse. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 4, 394-396 (1918);Mt. Wilson Communications, No. 56.

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. The parallax of the Andromeda nebula. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 30, 307 (1918).

. The paraUax of B. D. +36° 3956. Pubs. A. S. P.. vol. 30, 308 (1918).

. Parallax notes. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 30, 342-343(1918).

. A very faint star of spectral type F. Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 42-43 (1919).

. The masses and absolute magnitudes of visual binaries. Read at Pasadena meeting,A. S. P. (1919); Pubs. A. S. P., vol. 31, 231-233 (1919).

. Stellar parallaxes derived from photographs made with the 60-inch reflector of the MountWilson Observatory. Astron. Jour., vol. 32, 86-88 (1919).

. J. C. Kapteyn. California Southland, No. 5 (1919).

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e


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Weaver, J. E. The quadrat method in teaching ecology. Plant World (1918).

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See Adams, L. H.Winters, J. C. See Sherman, H. C.

Wright, Fred Eugene. War-time development of the optical industry. (Papers on Optical

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Wtckoff, Ralph W. G. The nature of the forces between atoms in solids. Jour. Wash.Acad. Sci., vol. 9, 565-592 (1919).

Wtnne, H. M. N. See Meter, A. W.ZiES, E. G. See Allen, E. T.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

43

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

To the Trustees of the Carnegie Institution of Washington:

Gentlemen: Article V, Section 3, of the By-Laws provides that

the Executive Committee shall submit, at the annual meeting of the

Board of Trustees, a report for publication; and Article VI, Section 3,

provides that the Executive Committee shall also submit, at the sametime, a full statement of the finances and work of the Institution anda detailed estimate of the expenditures for the succeeding year. In

accordance with these provisions, the Executive Committee herewith

respectfully submits its report for the fiscal year ending Oct. 31, 1919.

During this year the Executive Committee held nine meetings,

printed reports of which have been mailed to each Trustee.

Upon the adjournment of the meeting of the Board of Trustees of

December 13, 1918, the members of the Executive Committee met andorganized by the election of Mr. Walcott as Chairman for 1919, andby voting that the Assistant Secretary of the Institution act as Secre-

tary of the Committee for the same period.

The President's report gives in detail the results of the work of the

Institution for the fiscal year 1918-1919, together with itemized

financial statements for the same period and a summary of receipts

and expenditures of the Institution to date. The President also sub-

mits a report and an outline of suggested appropriations for the year

1920. The Executive Committee hereby approves the report and the

recommendations of the President as the report and recommendationsof the Committee.The Board of Trustees at its meeting of December 13, 1918, in-

structed the Executive Committee to appoint Messrs. Arthur Young& Co., of Chicago and New York, to audit the accounts of the Institu-

tion for the fiscal year ending October 31, 1919. The report of the

auditor, including a balance sheet showing the assets and liabilities of

the Institution on October 31, 1919, is herewith submitted as a part

of the report of the Executive Committee.There is also submitted a statement of receipts and disbursements

since the organization of the Institution on January 28, 1902.

No vacancies exist in the membership of the Board of Trustees or of

any of its standing committees.

Charles D. Walcott, Chairman.

Cleveland H. Dodge.Wm. Barclay Parsons.Stewart Paton,Henry S. Pritchett.

Elihu Root.Henry White.Robert S. Woodward.

November 14, 1919. 45

46 REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

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REPORT OF AUDITORS.

ARTHUR YOUNG & COMPANYAccountants and Auditors, 71 Broadway (Empire Building) .

Auditors' Certificate.

Hon. Elihu Root,Chairman of the Board of Trustees,

Carnegie Institution of Washington,

Washington, D. C.

Sir: In accordance with instructions we have audited the books

and records of The Carnegie Institution of Washington for the

year ended October 31, 1919.

Income from investments and other sources has been duly accounted

for and all disbursements were evidenced by properly approved

vouchers. The bank and cash balances have been verified. Weexamined and agreed the securities belonging to the various funds as

detailed in Schedule 1. The details of the expenditure of the Depart-

ments of Research have been audited by the Bursar of the Institution

and were not examined by us.

We certify that the accompanying Balance Sheet and the statements

attached thereto correctly set forth the financial condition of the

Institution at October 31, 1919.

Yours truly,

Arthur Young & Co.

New York, November 20, 1919.47


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Schedule 1.—Schedule of Investments at October 31, 1919.

Par Value SECURITIES Investment Value Total

Endowment.$21,200,000 U. S. Steel Corporation, Registered 50-year

5% Gold Bonds, Series A, B, C, D, E, F,

due April 1, 1951 $21,200,000.00175,000 Chicago, Milwaukee & Puget Sound Railway

Company, First Mortgage 4% Gold Bonds,due January 1, 1949 159,268.00

14,000 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul RailwayCompany, General Mortgage 4j% GoldBonds, due May 1, 1989 13,953.75

325,000 Lehigh & Lake Erie Railroad Company, First

Mortgage 4|% 50-year Gold Bonds, dueMarch 1, 1957 331,568.30

237,000 New York City 4J% Registered Bonds, dueMarch 1, 1963 253,557.50

160,000 South & North Alabama Railroad Company,Consolidated Mortgage 5% Bonds, dueAugust 1, 1936 160, 875 . 00

500 United States of America Third Liberty Loan . . 500 . 00$22,119,722.55

Colburn Fund.20,000 Acker, Merrall and Condit Company, De-

benture 6% Bonds 13,600.004,000 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Com-

pany, General Mortgage 4j% Bonds, due1989 4,070.00

8,000 Park and Tilford Company, Sinking Fund,Debenture 6% Bonds 6,400.00

50,000 Pennsylvania Railroad Co., General Mort-gage 4^% Bonds, due June 1, 1965 51,062.50

42,000 Pittsburg, Shawmut & Northern Railroad,

First Mortgage 4% Bonds, due February1, 1952 4,200.00

6,000 United States of America Second LibertyLoan of 1917 5,000.00

3,100 United States of America Third LibertyLoan of 1918 3,058.20

3,100 United States of America Fourth LibertyLoan of 1918 '.

. 3,036.642.600 United States of America Victory Liberty

Loan of 1919 2,600.0093,027.34

Harriman Fund.100,000 Southern Pacific Company, San Francisco

Terminal, First Mortgage 4% Bonds, due1950 100,000.00

200,000 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy R. R. Co.,

Illinois Division, 4% Bonds, due 1949 200,000.00

Insurance Fund.28,000 American Telephone & Telegraph Company,

4^% Convertible Bonds 28,978.0050,000 Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway Com-

pany, General Mortgage, 100-year, 4%Registered Gold Bonds, due 1995 50,056.25

25,000 Bell Telephone Company of Canada, Deben-ture 5% Bonds, due April 1, 1925 24,760.00

30,000 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Com-pany, General Mortgage 4% Bonds, dueMarch 1, 1958 28,237.50

1,000 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul Railway Com-pany, General Mortgage 41% Gold Bonds,due May 1, 1989 995.00

21,000 Great Northern Railway First and Refunding

4i% Bonds, due 1961 20,944.00

300,000.00

22,694,300 Carried forward 153,970.75 22,512,749.89


Schedule 1.—Schedule of Investments at October SI, 1919 (Cont'd).

$22,694,300 Brought forward $153,970.75 $22,512,749.89

Par Value. SECURITIES. Investment Value. Total.

Insurance Fund (Cont'd).

21 , 000 Illinois Central Railroad Company, RefundingMortgage 4% Bonds, due November 1,

1955 19,008.75

24,000 Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Consoli-

dated Mortgage 4J% Bonds, due August1, 1960 25,095.01

4,000 United States of America Second Liberty

Loan of 1917 4,000.00

29,500 United States of America Third Liberty

Loan of 1918 '. 29,500.00

3,000 United States of America Fourth Liberty

Loan of 1918 3,000.00

32,400 United States of America Victory Liberty

Loan of 1919 32,400.00

Reserve Fund.

50,000 American Telephone & Telegraph Company,Collateral Trust 4% Bonds, due 1929 45,500.00

96,000 American Telephone & Telegraph Company,4i% Convertible Bonds 99,456.25

100, 000 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad Company, General

and Refunding 5% Bonds, due 1995 102 , 375 . 00

50,000 Central Pacific Railway Company, First Re-funding Mortgage 4% Registered GoldBonds, due 1949 48,250.00

150,000 Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Com-pany, General Mortgage 4% Bonds, dueMarch 1, 1958 141,263.75

15,000 Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul RailwayCompany, General Mortgage 43% GoldBonds, due May 1. 1989 14,925.00

120,000 Chicago and North-Western General Mort-gage 3^% Bonds, due November 1, 1987 100,300.00

155,000 General Electric. 5% Gold Debenture Bonds. . 158,213.47

48,000 Great Northern Railway Company, First andRefunding Mortgage 4i% Bonds, due 1961 48,109.25

100 , 000 Illinois Central Railroad Company, Refunding

4% Bonds, due 1955 89,668.75

280,000 Interborough Rapid Transit Company, First

Refunding Mortgage 5% Bonds, due 1966

.

276,701 .00

50,000 Lake Shore & Michigan Southern RailwayCompany, Registered 25-year 4% GoldBonds, due September 1, 1928 47,000.00

50,000 Long Island Railroad Company, RefundingMortgage 4% Bonds, due 1949 48, 285 . 00

50,000 New York, Westchester & Boston RailwayCompany, First Mortgage 4^% Bonds, due1946 49,187.50

50,000 Northern Pacific-Great Northern (Chicago,

Burlington & Quincy Collateral), Joint

4% Bonds, due 1921 49,037.50

50,000 Northern Pacific Railway Co., General LienRailway and Land Grant 3% Bonds, dueJanuary 1, 2047 33,101.25

50,000 Oregon-Washington Railroad & Navigation

Company, First and Refunding 4% Mort-gage Bonds, due 1961 46,375,00

30,000 Pennsylvania Railroad Company, GeneralMortgage 4^% Bonds, due June 1, 1965. . . . 29,837.50

101,000 Pennsylvania Railroad Company, Consoli-

dated Mortgage 4^% Bonds, due August 1,

1960 105,608.12

266,974.61

24,403,200 Carried forward 1,533,194.34 22,779,724.40


Schedule 1.—Schedule of Investments at October SI, 1919 {Cont'd).

$24,403,200 Brought forward $1,533,194.34 $22,779,724.40

Par Value. SECURITIES. Investment Value. Total.

Reserve Fund (Cont'd).

100,000 Southern Pacific Railroad First RefundingMortgage, 4% Bonds, due 1955 92, 148.75

140,000 Union Pacific Railroad Co. First Lien andRefunding 4% Bonds, due June 1, 2008 128,722.50

112,500 United States Liberty Loan, 2d Converted4*3, due 1947 112,500.00

85,500 L^nited States of America Second LibertyLoan of 1917 85,600.00

272,000 United States of America Third Liberty

Loan of 1918 267,513.70364,000 United States of America Fourth Liberty

Loan of 1918 357,181.30120,800 United States of America Victory Liberty

Loan of 1919 120,800.00 2,697,560.59

Pension Fund.

50,000 United States of America Victory Liberty

Loan of 1919 50,000.00 50,000.00

25,648,000 25,527,284.96


Schedule 2.—Schedule of Real Estate and Equipment at October 31, 1919.

Adtninistraiion :

Building, Site, and Equipment $337,312.97

Department of Botanical Research {September 30, 1919):

Buildings and Grounds $31,816.94

Laboratory and Library 17, 869 . 27

Operating Appliances 17,331.04 67,017.26

Eugenics Record Office {September SO, 1919):

Library, Furniture, and Operating Appliances $11,696.63

Archives 45 , 368 .52

BuUdings and Land 130,033.82 187,098.97

Department of Experimental Evolution {September 30, 1919):

Buildings, Office, Library, and Grounds. $126,051.77

Laboratory Apparatus 10, 669 . 42

Field 20,396.72 157,117.91

Geophysical Laboratory {September SO, 1919):

Building, Library, Operating Appliances $169,373.86

Laboratorj' Apparatus 75 , 000 .03

Shop Equipment 10,888.36 255,262.25

Department of Historical Research {September 30, 1919):

Office $2,575.72

Library 3,926.55 6,502.27

Department of Marine Biology {September 30, 1919):

Vessels $31,180.43

Buildings, Docks, Furniture, and Library 12, 120.36

Apparatus and Instruments 8,745.30 52,046.09

Department of Meridian Astrometry {September SO, 1919):

Apparatus and Instruments $2,453.41

Operating 2,146.37 4,599.78

Nutrition Laboratory {September SO, 1919):

Building, Office, and Shop $120,854.54Laboratory Apparatus 24,546.09 145,400.63

Mount Wilson Observatory {August 31, 1919):

Buildings, Grounds, Road, and Telephone Line $174,748.22

Shop Equipment 37,533.51

Instruments 422,056.26

Furniture and Operating Appliances 134,679.57

Hooker 100-inch reflector 516,903.30 1,285,920.86

Department of Terrestrial Magnetism {September SO, 1919):

Building, Site, and Office $145,391.62

Vessel and Survey Equipment 145,730. 18

Instruments, Laboratory, and Shop Equipment 80,686.99 371,808.79

2,870,087.77

EEPOETS ON INVESTIGATIONS AND PROJECTS

The following reports and abstracts of reports show the

progress of investigations carried on during the year, including

not only those authorized for 1919, but others on which work

has been continued from prior years. Reports of Directors of

Departments are given first, followed by reports of recipients

of grants for other investigations, the latter arranged according

to subjects.

55

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANICAL RESEARCH.^

D. T. MacDougal, Director.

The fundamental features of growth, nutrition, and metaboUsm,especially of the carbohydrates, soil aeration, and the problems of

physiology and phytogeography of plants of arid regions continue to

claim the major part of the attention of the investigative members of

the staff. The results of the activities of the year on subjects wdthin

the implied range are detailed on the following pages.

The improvement in industrial conditions early in the year made it

possible to secure supplies and appliances not available during the

war, although standardized instruments urgently needed in manyfields of work are not yet readily obtainable. On the other hand, cer-

tain processes developed in connection with military activities are

proving to be of value in facilitating research, as, for example, in the

production of helium, the experimental use of which with organisms

is described for the first time.

The earlier plans for field work in the arid regions of the Southwesthave necessarily been curtailed and modified by the continuance of

conditions along the Mexican boundary, which lies 60 miles to the

southwest of the Desert Laboratory. Material for the solution of

many major problems in phytogeography may be obtained only byfree access to the regions between our base and the Gulf of Cahfornia.

Meanwhile, geographic work has been continued on the Californian

coast and in a coastal mountain range and in Australia.

GROWTH AND HYDRATION.

Character of Protoplasm Fundamental to Growth, by D. T. MacDougal.

In my extended studies on growth, it has been necessary to go behind

current assumptions as to the composition and nature of protoplasmand reconsider the data in older chemical determinations and to havenew analyses made. Living matter, of course, may not be subjected

to an analysis hke a sample of ore or a mixture of salts, but its actual

constitution must be inferred from the substances which may be

obtained by chemical treatment. Its essential components are pro-

teins, pentosans, lipins, and salts. The substances of the first twogroups are of especial importance and together make up all but the

minutest portion of protoplasts. The proportion which these twosubstances bear to each other largely determines the character of the

living matter in any cell or in any organism.

The protoplast of the animal is highly proteinaceous, and this

is also true of spores, bacterial cells, etc., in plants. The plant cell is

mainly characterized by a predominance of pentosans. The metabo-

* Situated at Tucson, Arizona.

57


lism of a predominantly proteinaceous unit includes the derivation of

amino-aeids by breaking down albumins, while the amino-compounds

may be synthetized in the plant in which the amination of the car-

bohydrates is the theoretical step in the construction of nitrogenous

material.

The main components of living matter are not soluble or diffusible

in each other, and they are therefore in an intimate non-homogeneous

mixture in a colloidal condition in which the separate particles are so

small as to give play to surface forces of great intensity.

Growth, as has been defined, consists of two processes. First, the

molecules or aggregates of molecules of the two kinds, the carbo-

hydrates and the albumins, combine with and absorb water, thus

increasing the volume of these units, regardless of whether such par-

ticles be in the form of droplets or fibrillse of a mesh-work. Instances

of growth are known in which water only has been added to the colloidal

structure in which in all probability the solid particles have been

variously rearranged. In general, however, growth is accompanied

by the accretion of molecules of solid material in such manner that as

development proceeds their proportion to that of the water taken upincreases, and organs are then said to show an increase of relative dry

weight with age.

On the other hand, my own studies have shown that succulent

organs or stems, such as leaves of the Crassulacese, joints of cacti,

fruits, etc., do not show such increase, and the proportion of solid

matter and of water undergo but little change, their incorporation

being at a rate which keeps them near the initial proportion. It is

suggested that such action may be shown by the fleshy fungi, although

I have not seen any data bearing directly upon this matter.

The conditions under which hydration may ensue are by no means

identical for the two main constituents of living matter. Thus, the

albumins and their derivatives, as exemplified by the behavior of

gelatine, show a swelling determined or facihtated by the hydrogen-ion

concentration or acidity of the solutions, being increased as this rises.

The pentosans, on the other hand, show no such increase, and, being

weak acids, their hydration is retarded by the hydrogen ion. Theswelling of a mixture of the two ^vill therefore be a resultant of these

effects and of the proportion of the two elements in the living mixture,

and as the unceasing action of respiratory metabolism results in the

formation of some residues of acids, the condition of hydration of any

mass of protoplasm may be said to reach a volume determined by

these opposed reactions. The fundamental properties of a colloidal

mixture or of living matter will depend upon the proportion of albumins

and of pentosans, and upon the properties of the particular substances

of each group which may be present. Hydrogen ions within the pos-

sible range of concentration increase hydration of the albuminous

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANICAL RESEARCH. 59

substances and depress that of the pentosans. Bases or cations exert

a reverse effect on the albuminous substances and depress hydration

of the pentosans sUghtly. Certain amino-compounds depress the

swelHng of albuminous compounds, but facilitate the hydration of

pentosans, and dried sections of pentosan-albumin mixtures undergo

hydration in solutions of these substances to a degree equivalent to or

even greater than that in water.

As to the second phase of growth, that of the incorporation of mole-

cules of sohd matter, it is ob\4ous that the mass of living matter maynot be increased simply by the addition or diffusion of sugars into the

mesh-work, as is supposed by some writers.

Before the material in these carbohydrates may actually become a

part of the colloidal living mesh, it is undoubtedly broken down to

some extent by enzymatic or respiratory action, part of the material

being carried through transformations to organic acids or carbon

dioxide; some of the material is combined with the ammonia group

(NH2) to form amino-compounds, some with the lipins, while someof these sugars may be converted to the pentosan form, in which they

would so markedly affect the hydration capacity of the mass.

Protoplasm might be regarded as the wick of a lamp which draws

sugar into its meshes, burns the sugar, and in the burning some of the

sugar not completely consumed unites with other substances to form

additional fibers of the wick, of which the pentosans or mucilages are

examples.

The so-called ''nutrient salts," in fact, yield no energy and furnish

no building-material. They may act as catalyzers or as releasing

agents, and as controls of water absorption or as guides in colloidal

arrangement, but they are not "food-material" in any sense.

The enlargement of the individual masses of living cells in organisms

entails a certain amount of work which in the earlier stages is derived

almost entirely from imbibition or absorption, and while such action

continues throughout the growth or life of the living matter, there is in

addition the stretching action exerted by the expanding vacuoles byosmotic action. The growing regions of plants at all times include

cells in all of these stages, from the newly separated protoplasm which

is expanding entirely by imbibition of water and incorporation of newmaterial, others in which the syneretically formed vacuoles are increas-

ing and thus adding to the volume of the cell by osmotic action, andothers approaching maturity, in which the vacuole may have attained

such size as to occupy many times the space of the hving matter, which

may indeed now be but a sac with its layers of irregular thickness lying

internal to the wall, which now has become dense and rigid.

Growth in plants is therefore a hydration expansion or swelling of a

mass of pentosan-protein colloid or jelly which forms a sac or inclosing

layer of greater density, which takes in water and solutions by adsorp-


tion, imbibition and osmosis being controlled or affected by the

hydrogen-ion concentration, salts and amino-compounds of the cell

sap, and also by the composition of the medium or substratum andother environmental conditions, such as temperature.

The Hydration of Biocolloids simulating certain Features of Protoplasm,

by D. T. MacDougal.

Extensive experimentation with various biocolloids has given amplesupport to the conclusion that a mixture of carbohydrates and proteins

may be made which will exhibit hydration relations similar to those

of protoplasm.

Agar which has been specially purified for this purpose by E. R.Squibb & Sons has been found a useful pentosan, and others are cherry

gum, acacia gum, and the mucilage of Opuntia. The last-named productsare prepared by precipitation with alcohol, but the degree of purity

of such preparations is not as great as that of the agar. These pento-

sans may vary not only in the proportions of the pentoses and hexoses

present, but also in their acidity, which may be due to the presence of

amino-acids.

The replacement of some of the agar in an agar-albumin mixture byone of these gums or mucilages modifies the swelhng reactions, as illus-

trated by the data in the table on page 61.

The pH values were calculated from colorimetric tests after the

method perfected by Dr. B. M. Duggar. Soy albumin was tested in

a 0.5 per cent solution, gelatine in an 8 per cent solution, Opuntia

mucilage, cherry gum, acacia gum, and agar in a 1 per cent solution.

Among other facts, it is to be seen that the hydration capacity of

agar-albumin is less in water than other biocolloids in which some of the

agar is replaced by another pentosan group.

Next it is obvious that the hydration in water, which was renewed

at regular intervals, is not conditioned directly upon the hydrogen-

ion concentration of the components.

The maximum swelling is greatest in the biocolloid containing the

mucilage of Opuntia, which is at the same time the most "sensitive"

of all the combinations, as its swelling in hydroxides, salts, and acids

is very low, especially in the acids, a fact which corresponds to the

inferred action of acidity in the living cacti.

The single salt used determines a hydration of gelatine less than in

water, of agar and agar-protein half or less than in water, and whensome of the agar is replaced by another pentosan the swelling capacity

is lessened. The foregoing reactions are obviously of primary signifi-

cance in the mechanics of growth.

The swelling of dried sections of the above mixture also yields someinformation as to the influence of deposition and other historical


features of a colloidal mass on its swelling reactions. The colloids in

question are poured on glass, gold-foil, or filter-paper in a layer 0.8mm.in thickness, and are prevented from shrinking superficially while

coming down to a thickness of 0.11 to 0.2 mm. The result is a definite

structure and a capacity for swelling determined by the conditions of

Percentage of swelling of biocolloids at 15° C. in water, acids, hydroxides, and potassium

nitrate at 0.01M.

Parts.KOH,

pH = 11.99.

NH4OH.pH = 10.61

KNO3,pH=6.6.

HNO3,pH=2.01.

HCl,pH=2.01.

Water.

AgarSoy albumin . .

.

O.ll mm.

AgarOpiintia mucilageSoy albumin. .

0.14 mm.

AgarCherry gumSoy albumin . . .

.

0.17 mm.

AgarAcaciaSoy albumin

.

0.16 mm.

AgarAcaciaGelatine . .

.

0.19 mm.

Agar0.16 mm.

Gelatine

0.25 mm.Thickness.

Volume. .

.

8 6.52 6.2

4 6.54 5.82 6.2

4 6.54 5.1

2 6.2

4 6.54 5.1

2 6.2

4 6.54 6.22 5.2

6.4

5.2

1,000

530

700

700

1,200

844

1,6403,190

910

700

1,000

r50

1,000

1,000

1,5603,090

910

1,310

1,400

1,400

1,060

2,000

640

600

650

650

525

1,060

455

440

685

600

525

970

8751,246

2,0403,852

1,9604,700

2,000

2,785

2,415

2,100

2,000

3,7004,200

9601,570

dehydration. Thus sections of agar and cherry gum, which swelled

2,400 per cent in thickness, extended only 4 per cent or less in water.

Such action is not to be predicated of all colloids.

Gelatine plates prepared as above seem to take on a modification

of this heterotropic structure. The increase in the length and widthof a small section of such plates may be from 40 to 80 per cent or ten

times as much as that of agar-cherry gum, yet it is not more than onefortieth or fiftieth of the expansion in thickness. This action may well

be suggested as the physical basis of cytological performances in the

plant cell.


The Effects of Organic Acids and Their Amino-Compounds on Hydration and

Growth, by D. T. MacDougal and H. A. Spoehr.

The biocoUoids of the plant are pentosan-protein mixtures in which

the substances of these two main groups vary widely in their propor-

tions, with a smaller proportion of lipins probably more or less localized.

The variables are so large that generalizations concerning the action

of the plasmatic mass are not easily to be founded. Of the more impor-

tant assertions concerning the action of protoplasm, the earliest and

most widely used, that protoplasm undergoes hydration like an am-photeric colloid and is exemplified by sweUing gelatine, has long since

failed to satisfy the experimental conditions or to offer parallels to the

action of cell-masses of the higher plants.

If protoplasm were entirely or dominantly proteinaceous, the actual

acidity or hydrogen-ion concentration might be taken as the chief

factor in maintaining the rate and determining the course of hydration

and growth. The predominance of the pentosans in plant cells, how-

ever, offers a set of conditions much more complex than that of the

comparatively simple ionization of gelatine, for, as has been noted,

the conditions which facilitate the action of protein gels retard and

limit the hydration of the carbohydrate gels to an extent and in a

manner which depend upon the structure and character of the pento-

sans present.

The results of Borowikow and of Dachnowski show that the growth

of plants, the higher green forms, does not depend upon the hydrogen-

ion concentration alone. Acids and bases both influence hydration

and growth. In addition, the accelerating effects of amino-acids and

amines on hydration of biocoUoids and cell-masses, living and dead,

go far to support the conclusion that these substances facilitate or

increase total growth. These substances are built up from simpler sub-

stances in the plant in a manner which is by no means clear, although

under investigation and discussion for a quarter of a century. The evi-

dence favors the assumption that they come together in the field of

photosynthetic activity. These amino-groups occur only as disinte-

gration products of the proteins or albumins in animal metabolism.

The total amount of amino-compounds in a cell-mass of a plant

varies widely during the course of a day, and, as has been noted above,

the proportion of nitrogenous material in the organs of the cell or the

members of a shoot may be greatly different.

As the hydrogen-ion concentration of the sap is known to remain

fairly constant, as the salts or bases which affect growth also change

but slowly, attention naturally focuses on the amino-compounds as a

factor in modifying the rate, course, and total amount of growth. As

the acids and their salts may be assumed to act invariably in the

presence of amino-groups, a series of tests was planned which should

make possible a comparison of the action of some of the commonerorganic acids and their amino-compounds.


Two groups were chosen for the tests: succinic acid and its amino-

compound, amino-succinic or aspartic, which are dibasic, and its amide

as noted above, which is monobasic, and acetic acid and its amino-

compound, glycocoll, which are monobasic. Sections of plates of

agar, gelatine, agar-gelatine, agar-protein, and other mixtures w^ere

used. Swellings were carried out in the equable-temperature chambers

of the Coastal Laboratory at 16° to 17° C. A compilation of the

principal results is given in the following table

:

Hydration of agar, gelatine, agar-gelatine, and agar-oat protein in organic adds andtheir amino-compounds at 16 to 17° C.

[Expansion in percentages of dried thickness.]

Concentration.


The deductions to be drawn from these figures, all being averages

of 3 to 9 measurements, are numerous, but attention must be confined

to a few pertinent cases.

(1) It is to be seen that equimolecular concentrations of the three

organic acids present small divergence of effect on agar and more

positive differences in agar-protein.

(2) Agar swells more in succinic acid than in its amino-compound,

but reverses this relation notably in the acetic-glycocoll couple.

(3) The agar-protein biocolloid shows notably greater hydration

in the amino-acids than in the related organic acids, and greater even

than the hydration in distilled water.

(4) Equimolecular concentrations of amino-acids produce notably

greater swellings of the biocoUoids in comparison with related organic

acids implying the positive action of factors other than the hydrogen-

ion concentration.

(5) Glycocoll facilitates hydration in all concentrations above 0.01

M. in both agar and agar-proteins, and also in agar-gelatine, the data

of which are not given in this paper. This fact goes far in explanation

of the scattered results obtained by various workers, in which accel-

erated growth or increased total growth has been seen to result from

the addition of glycocoll to nutrient solutions. Such increases have

been attrituted to catalytic action by Dakin and others.

(6) The amine, asparagin, induces a maximum hydration, greater

even than that possible in agar in distilled water, and very high at all

concentrations. Similar action was exerted on agar-gelatine and agar-

protein plates. The positive action of both glycocoll and asparagin

is indicated by the fact that the maximum effect is reached at certain

concentrations above the minimum concentration.

The Solution and Fixation accompanying Swelling and Drying of BiocoUoids

and Plant Tissues, by D. T. MacDougal and H. A. Spoehr.

The hydration of a colloidal mass, whether it be a dried plate of a

biocolloid, a dried plant-section, or a mass of living protoplasts, is all

but invariably accompanied by the solution or extraction of some of

the substances of the colloidal mass. The material found in such

extracts will in all cases be determined by the diffusibility of the com-

pounds present. These diffusions encounter highly specialized condi-

tions at the external limits of the protoplasts, where a colloidal phase

boundary separates the elastic gels and highly viscid emulsoids of the

pentosan-protein-lipoid protoplasm from the denser, more rigid cellu-

lose-pectose walls inclosing the cells.

In the course of some work on the imbibition and growth of plants,

the analyses of which show that the water relation of the protoplasm

is determined by the pentosan-protein proportion, and that the activ-


ities of such living material are not to be simulated by the imbibi-

tional action of the amino-compounds of gelatine, attention was paid

to the following matters

:

(a) Extractions from living cell-masses.

(b) Extractions or solutions of sections of biocolloids.

(c) Acidity of fresh or living tissues.

(d) Acidity of desiccated tissues,

(e) Swelling of fresh sections.

(/) Re-swelling of extracted and dried tissues.

(g) Swelling of dried tissues.

(h) Repetition of swelling and drying treatments.

These treatments as applied to median slices of maturing joints of

Opuntia discata grown at Carmel gave measurements as below at 18° C.

The flat joints at 10 to 12 mm. in thickness and the median portion

include but little chlorophyll. Sections suitable for swelling, free from

any except the smallest fibro-vascular strands, were readily procurable.

The solution of material from a section of a plant with its thousands

of cellulose walls presents physical features that are not easily to be

duplicated. Amino-acids, hexoses, malates, and salts, however, con-

stitute the bulk of the extracted material, together with, other sub-

stances set free by the bursting walls of some of the cells, in addition

to those crushed in taking out the section. Diffusion of the pentosans

would take place slowly, although the derivation of large proportions of

this material by extraction after killing wath ether suggests that the

rate is not inconsiderable and may be subject to various modifications.

The lessened hydration capacity of a section previously extracted

is probably a resultant of various losses. The amino-acids mixed with

the pentosans form a colloid with a high hydration coefficient. Thesalts and free acids would operate to limit imbibition of a carbohydrate-

protein colloid and their extraction would remove this limit. Extrac-

tion may therefore remove acids and salts which lessen swelling, andat the same time some amino-acids which give to pentosans a high

hydration capacity. The second swelling of a section of a plant maytherefore represent a series of reactions widely different from those of

the first treatment.

We are indebted to Professor H. M. Richards for determinations of

the acidity of the "^vater in which fresh slices of Opuntia were swelled,

and it was found this might be expressed as follows: 10 c.c. solution

from dish in which set of fresh sections w^ere swelled in water = 0.44

c.c. N/20 KOH. Dried slices of the above material, when swelled in

water 24 hours, gave a solution the acidity of which might be expressed

as: 10 c.c. of solution = 0.10 c.c. N/20 NaOH. When such sections

were immersed in citric acid 0.01 N., the strength of the solution wasincreased so that at the end of 24 hours the acidity was expressible as

10 c.c. of solution = 2.25 c.c. N/20 NaOH.


The rapid penetration of cell-masses by acids is a well-known

reaction and is accompanied or followed by the extraction of electro-

lytes, and it has been held by some authors that when the preliminary

swelling which takes place in acids changes to a shrinkage death is

imphed. This last distinction is one without special meaning in connec-

tion with the present paper.

The hydration of colloidal plates, of dried sections of plants, and of

fresh sections presents parallel reaction in hundredth normal organic

acids. The chief features of such swellings consist in an initial rapid

expansion followed by shrinkage due to solution or dispersion of the

sections. The swelling of the pentosan, agar, which has been used so

widely in the imbibition measurements in connection with growth,

would be accompanied by the solution or dispersion of material of the

external part of the sections and by the diffusion of whatever salts or

acids might be present in the interior of the mass.

A test was carried out to determine what such loss might be in sec-

tions of agar and in a simple biocolloid. The agar was cast in plates

which came down to 0.25 mm. in thickness from a 2.5 per cent solution.

Strips equivalent to 200 sections, with a surface of 2,520 sq. mm., were

now placed in beakers of distilled water, 10 c.c. to each section of 12

sq. mm., for a period of 24 hours, at the same temperature. The

evaporation of the water showed 0.2570 gram of material had been

dissolved from the plates or sections which weighed 1.6731 grams at the

beginning, which was equivalent to about 15 per cent. This proportion

is to be contrasted with the 7 per cent of the soluble material dissolved

from sections of Opuntia, allowing for the non-soluble cellwalls.

Another series of extractions was made with sections of biocolloids

consisting of 8 parts agar and 2 parts gelatine, which were heavier,

having a thickness of 0.38 mm. Strips of this material weighing

1.0316 grams, with a surface of 2,542 sq. mm., were placed in water

at temperatures as above for 24 hours, and when this was evaporated

a residue of 0.1865 gram was found, which was equivalent to about

18 per cent of the original. Most of this and of the material dissolved

from agar sections in all probability is derived from the surface layer

of the material, as both gelatine and agar are so nearly non-diffusible

as to render their extraction from the interior of the section all but

impossible.

A test was arranged to estimate the relative amount of material

which might be extracted from plant tissues by a treatment which

would parallel the immersions used in obtaining swelling measurements.

Sections of joints of Opuntia have been used extensively in work on

swelling, and in order to obtain sufficient material, 24 of the custom-

ary size for testing under the auxograph were placed in 250 c.c. of

water at temperatures of 16° to 18° C, at which swellings under instru-

ments were also made. At the end of 24 hours the mucilaginous solu-


tion was measured off, 50 c.c. being allotted for acidity determinations

(see results above), and 180 c.c. was used for determination of the

solid matter present. It was found that this amounted to 0.28 gramfor the 240 c.c. of juice obtained from sections having a total volumeof 40 c.c. when fresh. The actual solid matter of the sections, including

the cell-walls, may be taken as 10 per cent of the whole, or as 4 grams.

Of this, 7 per cent was dissolved out in water. The extraction of this

amount of material could readily be held to account fully for the

changes which take place in hj^dration and which give different expan-

sions in the second immersion.

It is quite clear that no explanation of absorption of solutions bycell-masses or of plasmolysis may be adequate or greatly useful whichdoes not take into account certain fundamental mechanical features of

the cell-structure. Among these are to be included the phase boun-daries of the colloids of the cell-wall, of the vacuoles, of the proto-

plast, and of the multiple and varying structures in the protoplasm.

Plasmolysis by osmotic action is accompanied by losses and bypenetrations and perfusions of complex character in the many phases

of the cell colloids. Plasmolysis in wilting is in some respects a simpler

matter. Vaporization of water from the cell-walls is followed byreplacement movements from the cell colloids, which result first in a

lessened volume of the protoplast and finally in the progressive con-

centration of all substances, especially those dissolved in the vacuoles,

and in the more liquid phases of the colloids. The fact that the acids

may be readily extracted in greater proportion from dried specimens

than from fresh tissues suggests that these substances may have crys-

tallized out to some extent after the manner of amino-acids incorpo-

rated in colloidal mixtures. The same may be true to some extent of

the salts. There is also much in favor of the conclusion that changes

take place in the colloidal mesh, as a result of a loss of water and of the

action of adsorbed bases which cause coagulations not reversible bysimple hydration.

Measurement of Growth in Terms of Volume, by D. T. MacDougal.

Measurement of growth in the higher plants usually denote the rate

of increase of stems, roots, etc., in which the variation in length or

thickness is taken without reference to the volume of the enlarging

cell-masses. The growing joints of Opuntia offer some features for

more exact computations, but the rounded or globular fruits offer the

best material for a consideration of the actual and relative accretions

to the enlarging organs.

The usual method of expression of increase in a tomato would be in

terms of varying diameter, but the actual increase is to be calculated

from the formula V = 4/3 PiR^—4/S Pir^, in which r = the radius at the

beginning of the measurement and R = the increased diameter, the


fruit being taken as a globe. The relation of the two sets ofmeasurements

is to be seen by comparison of the data in section A of the table.


The Daily Course of Growth in Two Types of Fruits, by D. T. MacDougal.

Two different types of organs or shoots with respect to the variations

in the water-content and dry weight are recognizable. The commonertypes of woody stems, thin leaves, and the organs of the greater numberof the higher plants undergo a development which terminates in amature stage in which the proportion of solid material is very muchhigher than that found in younger material. A parallel procedure is

the prevalent one in the tissues of the higher animals.

Etiolated plants furnish examples of growth \\dth a diminished

increase in dry weight, but chief interest attaches to plants which nor-

mally show such action, and the most striking illustrations are to befurnished by the organs of succulent plants and by fruits. The relative

amounts of solid material in the flattened joints of Opuntia do notincrease with the course of development toward maturity, and joints

which have reached full size may contain over 91 per cent of water.

Secondary thickening, especially that which results from branching andthe development of additional fibro-vascular tissue, may cause an addedamount to be formed. The proportion of dried material and water in

the leaves of Mesembryanthemum does not vary greatly with age.

Extended discussions of the growth of these succulents have been givenin previous publications of this Department. Following a full recog-

nition of the two types of growth in 1918, a final series of experimentswas arranged in which the enlargement of fruits with increasing dryweights and with small dry weights should be measured. The walnutwas taken to represent a structure with accumulating solid matterand the tomato for the other type.

The walnut consists of a thick fleshy exocarp and a heavy endocarpwhich finally becomes hard and bony wdth the deposition of anhy-drous wall-material. The inclosed embryo also accumulates a large

amount of condensed food-material. The tomato is a large globose

berry in which deposition and thickening is confined to the small,

hard seeds. The greater part of the fruit is a fleshy, watery pulp, whichbecomes more highly hydrated as progress is made toward maturity.

The measurement of walnuts, beginning at a stage when they hada diameter of but 3 mm. and extending to maturity, showed that these

nuts displayed a daily variation corresponding with the balance betweentranspiration and absorption of such character that enlargementbegan after noon and continued until sunrise, at which time a retarda-

tion or shrinkage set in, which continued until midday. It is notable

that the young growing nuts exuded water when cut into, and were so

nearly saturated that they showed but slight swelling in water, drewtheir supply from stems with such a water deficit that a swelhng of 10

per cent was displayed, and an amount of water equivalent to 25 per

cent of their volume might be taken up when immersed. Such absorp-


tion could of course take place only by the absorptive or imbibitionary

action of colloids rather than osmosis.

The fruit of the tomato {Lycopersicum) presents some daily varia-

tions similar to the walnut and is characterized by a dry weight which

lessens proportionately with development. Four fruits less than a

week old, with radial diameters of 14, 16, 17, and 18 mm., were found

to weigh 14.650 grams. These were fragmented and dehydrated,

showing a dry weight of 1.90 grams. From this it is to be seen that the

young fruit contained 87 per cent of water and 13 per cent of dry

material. Mature fruit of the same kind weighed 93.050 grams and

contained 8.400 grams dried material, being 9 per cent of the total.

These watery fruits showed in a very marked manner the effect of

water-loss or transpiration on the growth of the fruits. As the daily

temperatures of the fruits rose from 12° and 14° C. to 26° and 28° C,acceleration ensued up to a point where the rise caused a water-loss

overbalancing the gain by hydration. Higher temperatures, there-

fore, did not facilitate or accelerate growth unless accompanied byhigh relative humidity. Thus, the highest rates are those of middayand afternoon, with fog and showers. This is especially marked in a

record in which a 50-hour rainy period was anticipated and followed byhigh humidity. It was not possible to increase the water-supply bywatering the soil around the roots in such manner as to cancel the

midday shrinkage or slackening in growth at other times. One espe-

cially striking effect is that in which the rise in temperature conse-

quent upon the cessation of the rain from 20° to 25° C. at 3 p. m. was

followed by a lessened rate of growth, and the rate on the cloudy days

was uniformly high.

The water deficit of the stems as measured by swelling includes that

of the entire structure. The fruits, however, receive their supply

through special conduits which sustain only a mechanical relation to

the other parts of the stem, which may be active in its swelling. Such

non-conducting tissues of course draw their supply from this system

of conduits also, but it is highly probable that the disproportion

between the water-content of the fruit and of the tracts in the stem

from which it receives its supply is not so great as might be indicated

by the measurements given. The hydration capacity of the fruits

would be the resultant of many factors, including the pentosan-protein

ratio, the hydrogen-ion concentration, the action of salts, and the

effect of the amino-compounds, and the course of growth does not

follow the above daily procedure in all plants. I have described in

previous publications the manner in which the concurrent action of

transpiration, nydration capacity of the cell-colloids, and temperature

cause the highest rate of growth in Opuntia in the daytime. This

behavior is conditioned on the fact that the cacti show the greatest

transpiration at night, at which time the acidity rises until it is ten

times as great as in the daytime.


Influence of Soil Aeration upon Growth of Shoots, by W. A. Cannon.

In connection with studies on the direct reaction of roots to aeration

conditions of the soil, which have been reported from time to time,

work has been begun on the influence of soil aeration as a factor in the

growth of shoots. This as an environmental factor of plants has not

been properly evaluated. It is impossible to tell by inspection, or field

studies, in what way and to what degree the aeration of the soil affects

growth of the shoot. Because, for example, plants may occupyporous soils, it does not necessarily follow that the oxygen requirement

of the roots is high. That, as a matter of fact, adequate aeration is

necessary in some species to water absorption is known, ^ and it is also

known and reported^ that different species of land plants which maylive in the same community may nevertheless have unhke root-oxygen

relations. Such being the case, it is expected that survival may in

some instances be found to be largely bound up with the relation of

the roots to oxygen in the atmosphere of the soil. It must be con-

sidered especially important in this connection, particularly whereoxygen deprivation causes cessation of the growth of the root, to deter-

mine the relation of this fact to the possible continuation of the growthof the shoot, as well as to determine the relation of the growth of the

shoot under such circumstances to environmental factors, aside fromand in addition to inadequate soil aeration. In fact, the general rela-

tion of the plant to soil aeration is of very great ecological importanceand merits investigation.

In the preliminary experiments, a variety of garden forms have beenmainly used, and in addition a potato hybrid, Solanum fendleri XS. tuberosum Fs^, and Eriogonum sp., a species native to the vicinity

of the Coastal Laboratory, were experimented with. The methodsused were the same as in the case of the root-soil-air studies abovereferred to, with the addition of the employment of a MacDougalauxograph to record shoot-growth. Nitrogen was used to replace the

soil-air. The experiments were conducted in the greenhouse at the

Coastal Laboratory and the shoots were exposed to the ordinary con-

ditions obtaining in the house. The following are some of the leading

results

:

In all of the plants of which the behavior of the root was observed,

root-growth ceased in an atmosphere of nitrogen, although in certain

species it continued 24 hours or over in such an oxygen-free soil atmos-phere.

Usually the replacement of the ordinary soil-air by nitrogen induces

a slowing of the growth-rate of the shoot. Upon the renewal of the

usual soil-air conditions, shoot-growth increases in rate, and maybecome normal, provided the exposure to nitrogen has not been of

1 Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book for 1916, p. 78.2 Ihid., p. 74; 1917, p. 82; 1918, p. 81.

* Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book for 1918, p. 87.


excessive length. Where the roots have been deprived of oxygen anexcessive length of time and are injured thereby, a delayed recovery

on the part of the shoot may be related to the necessity of forming newroots upon the return to normal conditions of soil aeration. A few

selections can be made of typical experiments where the growth of the

shoot has been affected by inadequate root aeration.

In the case of the cultivated sweet pea, culture No. 5 with this form,

shoot behavior was observed 3 days. The roots were in normal soil-

air the first and last days and in nitrogen continuously the second day.

In this experiment root-growth ceased in nitrogen and did not begin

again during the course of the experiment. The shoot grew as follows:

first day, roots in normal soil-air, 7 mm. ; second day, roots in nitrogen,

3.7 mm. ; third day, roots in normal soil-air, 8 mm.The results of work with the cultivated sunflower, on the other hand,

were not so consistent. Both root and shoot growth appeared to con-

tinue longer, however, than in the sweet pea or the garden bean.

Shoots of Eriogonum sp., with the roots continuously in nitrogen for

8 days, had a daily growth-rate as follows: 8 mm., 11.3 mm., 8 mm.,13.3 mm., 15.5 mm., 11.7 mm., 13.5 mm., and 8.5 mm. In this instance

the temperature of the air as well as of the soil did not vary over 1° C.

in any day.

The shoots of the potato hybrid, with the tubers still attached, ceased

growth very promptly upon the replacement of the ordinary soil-air

with nitrogen, or at least the growth-rate very markedly declined. For

example, in the experiment with culture No. 6 of this form, the shoot

increased 3.9 mm. in length in 41 hours, while the tuber and roots were

in normal soil-air, but during the subsequent 70 hours, when nitrogen

was used, the shoot-growth was only 2.3 mm., and this occurred mainly

at the commencement of the gas administration.

In the morning-glory, Ipomoea sp., exposure of the roots for 48 hours

to nitrogen did not stop shoot-growth, although it slightly checked it.

The shoot of tomato continued to grow, but at a decreasing rate,

for 4 days with root in nitrogen, and on the fifth day, when air was

again run in the culture, the growth-rate immediately increased.

The roots of corn were exposed to nitrogen for 4 consecutive days,

and on the fifth day air was introduced. The daily growth amountsof the shoot are as follows: 13.7 mm., 14.5 mm., 6.5 mm., 4.5 mm.,3.0 mm., and in air, 2.9 mm. In this case a renewal of a normal shoot-

growth rate would probably not be expected before fresh roots were

formed.The Dendrograph, by D. T. MacDougal.

Two designs for a dendrograph which would obtain a continuous

record of growth and other changes in volume of tree-trunks during

an entire season were used in the construction of working models

which were used in preliminary tests on pines and oaks in 1918.


One of these designs was taken for immediate development. Sixinstruments were completed early in the year, and these were attachedto trees at Baltimore, St. Louis, Tucson, Santa Catalina Mountains,Arizona, and Carmel, California, as described below, with the result

that the seasonal activities of six species of trees during one season arenow included in the records.

These measurements were made of the bases of trunks of trees 30 to

45 cm. in diameter at a height of 1.2 to 1.5 m. above the ground, andare therefore directly comparable to the figures obtained by the tape-line and calipers of the forester.

The variations of the base of a trunk are, however, but an imperfectindex of the activities of a tree, and any adequate study of the physicsof growth, the formation of wood, the development of bark, or theascent of sap must be based upon measurement of the entire trunk or"cone" of the stem. It has been important, therefore, to constructan instrument which might be attached to trees at various heights up to

50 or 60 feet above the base, which would be so perfectly automaticas to need a minimum of attention. This has been accompHshed, asevidenced by the fact that an instrument attached to a Chihuahua pineat an elevation of 6,000 feet, at a distance of 22 miles from the DesertLaboratory, was put in place during the first week in April and hasmade a perfect record during the season of 200 days, with no attentionexcept a weekly visit to remove and replace record shps and wind theclock of the recording drum.The essential part of the dendrograph is a "yoke" constructed of

strips of some alloy, such as bario or invar, with a low temperaturecoefficient, 25 by 0.2 cm., arranged in the form of a U or of a poly-gon in such manner as to inclose the tree-trunk, with a clearance of

2 to 5 cm. on all sides. At one side (on the curve of the U) two contact-screws work in a horizontal position to a suitable pressure on seatings

in the bark. The bearing end of a short lever seated on the instrumentbar which bridges the end of the U or closes the polygon makes a con-tact on the opposite side, and any variations in the diameter of thetree between the end of the lever and of the two contact-screws (con-sidered as one) will cause movements of the lever which will be trans-

mitted to the pen arm which traces an inked hne on the recording drum.The yoke and the recording instrument are supported by a belt of

hinged wooden blocks which have been boiled in paraffine. Sectionsof spring brass 1 mm. in diameter and 8 cm. long, fastened in smallbrass plates seated on the blocks, form a flexible support for the yokeand hold it with an adjustable tension. The recording instrument, of

a design recently perfected for this use and with the auxograph, is

seated on a large block which closes the circle of the belt. The leversystem of the recorder engages the free end of the bearing lever onthe instrument bar of the yoke and records all variations in diame-


ter. The only adjustments during the season are those which maybecome necessary by the enlargement of the tree.

A further study is being made of encircUng flexible bands which might

be used to replace the yokes in certain cases.

Growth of the Arizona Ash, hy D, T. MacDougal.

An Arizona ash {Fraxinus arizonica), 14 years old, in the grounds of

Dr. H. W. Fenner at Tucson, was selected for measurement. This

tree had been transplanted to this place when 2 years old and wassubject to irrigation, a condition not unusual to the tree in its habitat

along streamways. The trunk was slightly compressed in one diameter

and had a circumference of about 1 meter. An instrument with a

yoke of bario was adjusted to this tree on March 8, 1919, at which

time the flowers (staminate) were beginning to open, but no leaf-

surface had yet been displayed.

Enlargement of the trunk began about March 10, although the enor-

mous daily variation in this tree made it difficult to fix upon the dayin which the increase was greater than the shrinkage. Enlargement

was interrupted for 6 days early in April, probably due to low tempera-

tures follo^ving a rainstorm, and in the latter part of July the increase

had been such as to jam the lever, giving a record simulating shrinkage.

Readjustment of the yoke and its bearing-points was followed byrecords showing growth. Enlargement had ceased by the end of

October, at which time a total net increase of about 43 mm. had taken

place, showing that this young tree, which had made an average

increase of an inch in diameter yearly, was now approaching its

maximum stage of activity.

The bearing-points of the yoke were seated on prepared places in

the bark which had been thinned down to 1 mm. at the beginning. Noexamination has yet been made to ascertain what bark formation mayhave taken place at these places, but it may be safely estimated to

amount to not more than 1 or 2 mm.The daily variation in thickness of the trunk, the difference between

the diameter at sunrise and at 4 p. m., was such as to indicate a shrink-

age of as much as 0.4 mm. daily in March, and the increase by the

following morning was 0.6 mm. In mid-April the shrinkage amountedto 1.1 mm. and the overnight increase 1.4 mm. This type of variation

reached its maximum about May 1, when the daily shrinkage was as

much as 1.6 mm. and the following swelling as much as 2.1 mm. This

wide variation, which can be ascribed only to direct water-loss, wasprobably controlled or lessened by the formation of new corky tissues,

although this matter needs morphological confirmation. The daily

shrinkage during the summer rainy season was reduced to a minimumof 0.1 mm. or even less, and was not more than 0.2 or 0.3 mm. in anyday during the remainder of the season.


The care of this instrument and of the records of temperature wereshared by Dr. H. W. Fenner in May and June, and the entire experi-

ment was in the hands of Mr. B. R. Bovee during June, July, andAugust. Mr. Bovee also made weekly trips to the instrument attached

to the Chihuahua pine, 22 miles distant, with a chmb of 4,000 feet.

Growth of the Chihuahua Pine, by D. T. MacDougal.

A dendrograph with a yoke of bario was carried by pack animals upa trail in the Santa Catalina Mountains in Arizona and attached to a

tree of Pinus chihuahuana, 40 cm. in diameter, on April 4, 1918. This

tree stood at an elevation of about 6,000 feet, at the extreme lower

margin of its habitat. Some enlargement was exhibited from April 14 to

May 4. After a period of quiescence and shrinkage, enlargement again

began on May 28 and continued to June 14. A second period of quies-

cence intervened, with marked shrinkage during late June, which con-

tinued well into the summer rainy season, enlargement not being

resumed until Julj'^ 20. This continued until mid-October.

The increase of the trunk and included bark during the first period

was about 2 mm., of which 1 mm. was lost in the ensuing quiescent

period. A gain of 2 mm. was made in the second period, with a shrink-

age of 3 mm. during the hot midsummer period preceding the summerrains. While presumptively some wood may have been formed, the

diameter on July 20 was no greater than on April 4. An increase of 3

mm. had taken place by August 16 and was still in progress on that

date. The daily variation was of the type which is described for the

Monterey pine in the following paragraph. The shrinkage was great-

est late in June, before the midday formation of cumulus clouds

began, and the cambial region at this time took on temperatures of

25° and 27° C.

The fact that enlargement did not begin until after 3 weeks of the

summer rainfall had passed is of no small interest. The temperatures

of the cambial region at this time were about 18° and 20° C. Youngcones had been formed and the pollen crop shed before measurementswere begun, and some elongation of the branches had taken place.

It is to be noted that the trunks of this tree show a double annual

ring, a fact discovered and described by Dr. Shreve. (The density

of stand and rate of growth of Arizona yellow pine as influenced

by climatic conditions. Jour. Forestry, vol. 15, 695-707. Oct. 1917.)

The Growth of the Monterey Pine, by D. T. MacDougal.

The Monterey pine (Pinus radiata), which is native in a restricted

region within a short radius of the Coastal Laboratory, is noted for

its rapid growth and short life period. The conditions about Carmelare such that the species shows growth practically throughout the year,


either in seedlings, tips of branches, leaders, or trunks, although so far

no member has been measured which shows continuous growth.

The auxograph records of the leader and of laterals of young trees

showed elongation during August, September, and October 1918, with

a decrease, retardation, or shrinkage during the midday periods, whenwater-loss was excessive, the general course of variation being parallel

to that of the base of the trunk, as described below.

The action of the main stems 1 year old of trees 3 m. in height pre-

sents a special case. Such a stem, about 2.4 cm. in diameter, still bore

leaves, had an unbroken epidermis, a chlorophyllose cortex layer over

1 mm. in thickness, a heavy cambial layer, the rays still composed of liv-

ing cells, and a medulla or pith 3 to 4 mm. in diameter. The mechanical

features presented may be roughly compared to those of a sunflower

stem which had attained its growth in length but not in thickness.

The record of this stem was begun August 5, 1919, and nothing is

known concerning its behavior earlier in the season. In August, Sep-

tember, and October, in which period some increase in thickness took

place, the daily variations were the reverse of those displayed by the

trunk, as an abrupt expansion began at 9 a. m. and continued for 3 or

4 hours, after which a retardation or shrinkage ensued.

The instrument was adjusted to the same position in May 1919,

and this young stem, now 2 years old, was seen to enlarge at an irregu-

lar rate throughout the season ; the daily variation was of the type in

which the greatest enlargement occurs during the midday period.

The measurements of the base of the trunk of this pine were madeon a tree about 42 cm. in diameter, and a yoke was adjusted to it at a

height of 1.3 m. on March 24, 1918. Reproductive organs had been

formed earlier, the crop of pollen had been shed a month earlier, and

the tips of branches had elongated 3 or 4 cm., while the leaders of

young trees had grown ten times as much. It appeared, however,

that the base of the trunk had not begun to enlarge, as no increase was

recorded until March 30.

The first interruption of growth occurred during a period of high

temperatures and low humidity at the end of May, after which time

the rate ^vas lower and subject to long interruptions, although increases

occurred as late as September, during which time the trunk, including

the thin layer of inner bark under the contact points, underwent a total

increase in thickness of 9 mm. or over a third of an inch. The actual

thickness of the shell of wood or "annual ring" may be safely esti-

mated at about 3 mm. The daily variation in thickness was such

that in the earlier part of the season the actual diameter of the trunk

at 2 p. m. might be 0.5 mm. less than at 8 a. m., and this increased to

0.7 or 0.8 mm. in June, but lessened to 0.4 nrni. in August. During the

period of active growth and greatest daily variation a trunk might show

a diameter at sunrise as much as 0.9 mm. greater than at 3 p. m. the

previous day.


If the data obtained from plantlets, from young trees, and trunks of

mature trees be taken to apply to the corresponding parts of a large tree,

a composite picture is obtained in which the growing tips and trunks

are seen to be growing most rapidly at night or on foggy days, the stems

1 and 2 years old enlarge during the midday period, and the trunks

shrink during this same period, indicative of a mechanism which maybe of importance in the ascent of the sap.

The Growth of an Oak Trunk, by D. T. MacDougal.

A dendrograph with a U-shaped yoke of bario was attached to the

trunk of an oak {Quercus agrifolia) 35 cm. in diameter, standing near

the main building of the Coastal Laboratory at Carmel, California,

on February 17, 1919. The system w^as arranged to give an ampli-

fication of 12 and temperatures were taken by a mercurial thermometer,

the bulb of which was thrust in a hole prepared for it to a position

between the bark and the wood. The meteorological record was also

kept.

Actual growth began on the afternoon of March 10, about a weekbefore nevv' leaves began to unfold on this tree, although some hadbeen formed on other individuals of the species in the vicinity. Thetemperature of the trunk ranged from 9° to 14° C. Enlargement, with

interruptions of a day or a few days, continued until August 5, a total

period of 148 days, in w^hich time the total increase in diameter of the

trunk and bark was 6.2 mm. The bark of this oak remains alive

until the trunk reaches some size and has a complete external layer

upon which the contacts are made directly. The layers immediately

beneath are chlorophyllose. Three large rifts formed previously in the

lower part of the trunk widened irregularly, as shown by variations in

the record, in which the deformations due to wind action on the

crown are also discernible. Periods of retardation or cessation of

growth and of shrinkage were coincident with conditions of low

humidity and high temperature making for excessive water-loss.

Growth of Beech and Sycamore Trees, by D. T. MacDougal.

A dendrograph w^as attached to a beech tree {Fagus grandifolia)

in the grounds of Johns Hopkins University, Homewood, Baltimore,

in mid-April, under the care of Mr. W. F. Gericke. Some enlargement

was discernible on May 12, immediately upon the attainment of full

foliage. Enlargement continued at a low rate during the remainder of

this month, June, and July. During the latter part of July the rate

was especially high. Enlargement continued until about October first.

The daily variation did not amount to more than 0.3 or 0.4 mm.,being of the type of the live-oak at Carmel, representing the action of

trunks with living bark, from which direct water-loss is much less

marked than in the case of the pine and ash.


An instrument was attached to a sycamore {Platanus occidentalis)

in the grounds of the Missouri Botanical Garden, under the care of

Dr. Hermann von Schrenk and associates, in March 1918. This

observation was interrupted several times and the yoke was changed

to one of bario in April. When a satisfactory adjustment had been

obtained on May 5, enlargement was in progress and continued through

all records up to September.

METABOLISM AND NUTRITION.

The Interrelation of Photosynthesis and Respiration, by H. A. Spoehr andFrances Long.

A question on which there has always been a great deal of specula-

tion and controversy is whether photosynthesis is a process intimately

associated with the vital activity of the plant and thus dependent uponthe general protoplasmic metabolism, or whether photosynthesis is anactivity which proceeds more or less independently of these functions,

contributing the material necessary for the release of energy andgrowth, but independent of metabolic activity. There is no definite

experimental evidence applicable to this question, which is of prime

importance in the interpretation of existing data, as well as for de-

termining the direction of subsequent investigation. If such a direct

interdependence exists, it is to be expected that factors influencing

respiration would then also affect the photosynthetic activity. Forthis reason a comprehensive investigation of respiratory activity of

leaves was also undertaken. There are, of course, a number of factors

which work together to determine the rate at which carbon dioxid is

emitted by the mature leaf. The most immediate of these for the

present consideration is the supply of carbohydrates. As the store of

carbohydrates in the leaf becomes reduced, the rate of respiratory

activity exhibits a decided decrease. From such data as is available

now, it may be inferred that a reduced respiratory activity represents

also a lowered energy release. Were there, then, an intimate relation

between the photosynthetic activity and the metabolism of a leaf,

corresponding difTerences in the rate of carbon-dioxid fixation should

appear under conditions of active and reduced respiratory activity as

affected by the supply of carbohydrates.

An extensive series of experiments was inaugurated to determine

the rate of photosynthesis of isolated leaves in various stages of car-

bohydrate depletion. These may be summarized to the effect that

leaves exhibiting high respiratory activity show a correspondingly

high photosynthetic activity, while leaves which are respiring at a

low rate also fix carbon dioxid slowly. There are, of course, upper andlower extremes, where the rule is altered, owing to the introduction

of other disturbing factors. That this is not due to the varying amountsof carbon dioxid available to the plant was established by the use of


atmospheres enriched with carbon dioxid. So far as has been investi-

gated, this interdependence of respiration and photosynthesis appHes

not only in the course of activity of individual leaves, but also to the

differences exhibited between different species.

From all of our experiments thus far completed, a metabolic inter-

pretation of the phenomenon of photosynthesis seems most plausible.

That is in the sense that the energy released in the processes of respira-

tion contributes to the series of endothermal reactions involved in the

synthesis of carbohydrates. The radiant energy absorbed thus would

be considered as complemental in the reaction, and the whole process

might be placed under that group of chemical changes designated as

coupled reactions.

The most profitable conception of photo-chemical change is that

which is based upon the principle of photo-electricity, and this favors

the Luther theory that prerequisite to a photo-chemical reaction is the

loosening of electrons. In applying the results and conceptions of

photo-electricity to the process of photosynthesis it must be borne in

mind that pure photo-chemical reactions have very small temperature

coefficients. However, it has been known for a long time that the

photosynthetic activity of a plant is very decidedly affected by tem-

perature.

The manner in which the energy released by the respiratory actions

is utilized by the plant is still entirely unknown. Probably the mostnoteworthy result of the energy release of respiration in plants is the

formation of new compounds. These compounds may be designated

as of higher energy content, although they may not again serve the

plant as food material, but enter only into structural or plasmic ele-

ments of the organism. The yield of new material thus formed is

indeed usually very low as compared with the total amount of material

consumed in the respiratory activity. The important point, however,

for the present consideration, is the fact that the breaking-do\\'n of

food material, such as the relatively simple monosaccharids, yields

energy in such a form and manner as to make possible these synthetic

activities. Since the photosjTithetic activity is greatly increased bythe same agencies and conditions which augment respiratory activity,

i. e., by those factors which afford a greater release of energy, it would

appear that such a greater release of energy favors a higher synthetic

activity not only in the purely chemo-synthetic reactions of the auto-

trophic plants, but also those reactions involving photo-chemical

changes. From the thermo-dynamic point of view it seems improbable

that a synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxid and water wouldbe possible from the energy made available by the reverse process, the

combustion of carbohydrates. For further information on this highly

important phase of plant energetics, consideration is being given to the

energy relations of those organisms which, by means of their metabolic


activities in the oxidation of hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, methane,etc., Hberate relatively enormous quantities of energy and are thus

capable of fixing the carbon dioxid of the atmosphere without the

action of radiant energy.

Carbohydrate Supply and Respiration, by H. A. Spoehr.

Prerequisite to a rational study of the effect of various conditions

on the respiratory activity of leaves is more precise knowledge of the

nature of the normal course of respiration. This information is, of

course, also essential in application to the study of photosjTithesis,

as has been already indicated. An extensive series of experiments

planned to determine the rate of carbon-dioxid emission was carried

out by the use of leaves cut from the plant and seedlings growing in

various nutrient solutions. A mercury-seal respiration chamber has

been devised which greatly facilitates working with various plants at

constant temperatures.

When a leaf with an abundant supply of carbohj^drates is kept in

the dark at constant temperatures, e. g., 24°, the rate of carbon-dioxid

emission falls steadily as the carbohydrate-content diminishes.

If a leaf, the carbohydrate-content of which is almost exhausted,

is placed with the petiole in a 5 to 10 per cent dextrose solution, the

carbohydrate-content of the leaf again rises. The carbon-dioxid

emission, however, does not show a corresponding increase with the

augmented sugar-supply, but increases a little and then continues to

fall. Experiments have been directed to determine the conditions or

substances necessary for regaining or maintaining the original higher

rate of respiration.

The possible influence of various mineral nutrients was tried out bystudying the effect of a series of solutions prepared on the basis of

Shive's investigations. The effect of three components was tested

—

nitrate, potassium, and magnesium. At the present stage of the

investigation it seems doubtful whether any definite information

regarding the role of mineral nutrients in respiration can be gained

from these experiments.

Other experiments were directed toward increasing the amount of

protein in the leaves. With nitrates supplied, and when the nutrient

solution contains 10 per cent dextrose, the leaves are capable of syn-

thesizing proteins in the dark. Under such conditions the reduced

rate of respiration was somewhat increased, but also only shghtly.

The most promising results w^ere obtained with combinations of

monosaccharides and amino-acids in the nutrient solution. It is,

however, still an open question in w^hat manner these combinations

operate; that is, whether they directly influence enzyme action or in

such a manner as to produce favorable conditions of solution {e. g.,

the hydrogen-ion concentration) within the protoplasmic complex.


Nutritive Value of Food Reserve in Cohjledons, hy B. M. Duggar.

Few if any quantitative studies have been made to measure the

importance and role of the cotyledons or seed-leaves in the nutrition

of the seedling and young plant during germination and later. In the

case of such seed as the pea or bean, where the cotyledons constitute

the entire food reserve, the common assumption is probably to the

effect that the seed-leaves are important during the first few days of

germination, or until the first green leaves are developed.

It had seemed possible that problems of considerable interest might

be approached through a critical study of the food reserves, and pre-

liminary tests had been made with a few seeds, especially Canada field

peas. The latter were germinated over tap-water until the plumules

were well established, and the seedlings were then used in arranging

the usual solution cultures. As soon as the young shoots exhibited

considerable chlorophyll development, the seed-leaves were cut awayin duplicate cultures containing 10 plants each, while in another lot

the seed-leaves were left intact. To both lots of cultures were added

standard nutrient solutions containing all necessary ions, including a

favorable concentration of nitrate. A marked contrast in growth was

evident after the second day, and after 2 weeks the normal seedhngs

were tmce as tall and far more vigorous than those lacking cotyledons.

Although provided with many green leaves capable of photosynthetic

activity, and with an adequate supply of nitrate in the substratum,

the seedlings without cotyledons were greatly checked in development,

and at the close of the experiment it seemed doubtful if they would

attain maturity.

During the summer of 1919 a more careful study has been made of

the effects of excising cotyledons after various time intervals up to 10

days after germination, or until the leafy shoot is 4 to 6 cm. in height.

At the same time, attempts have been made to substitute for the loss

of the cotyledons by adding singly to the nutrient salt solution glycocoll,

alanine, sodium asparaginate, urea, nucleic acid, and sodium nucleinate.

The best results were obtained when these substances were used at

considerable dilution, M/lOO for the simpler compounds and 0.1 per

cent for nucleic acid and sodium nucleinate.

The data clearly indicate that a nutrient substitute for the cotyle-

dons has not been found. Sodium nucleinate has increased more than

any other compound, the growth amounts in the cultures lacking

cotyledons; yet the growth (green weight) of the normal seedlings in

salt solution alone exceeded in every case the growth in the cultures

containing organic compounds but ^dth seed leaves excised. Removalof the cotyledons after the plants are 5 cm. or more in height has rela-

tively little effect. It is recognized that pure cultures must be employedin further work in order to eliminate bacterial action.


At present the failure to substitute for the cotyledons may be ex-

plained by one or more possibilities, among which are the following:

(1) that penetration of organic substances may be difficult; (2) that a

combination of various organic nutrients may be essential; or (3) that

the cotyledon contains an essential ''vitamine."

Some Factors in the Salt Requirements of Plants, by B. M. Duggar.

As a result of studies previously reported, the writer has drawnattention to the necessity of taking into consideration the hydrogen-

ion concentration of the salt solution furnished such plants as wheat,

corn, and peas. When phosphate is furnished as the monobasic salt of

potassium, and when the other salts employed yield solutions which

are neutral or nearly so, the pH of the mixed salt solution may not be

far from the limit of acidity which the plants mentioned will tolerate

without experiencing a marked diminution in growth. Unfortunately,

the acid salts are not constant in pH unless carefully recrystallized, andthe variations encountered may be within either the optimal or supra-

optimal range. Moreover, the effects of conditions of growth must be

taken into consideration. It has been shown, for example, that high

temperature and low humidity (high evaporation) are directly or

indirectly related to increased acid injury.

The favorable range of conditions for the growth of wheat afforded

by the climate of the Coastal Laboratory (Carmel, California) offered

an excellent opportunity to investigate further some of the factors

determining the maximum healthy growth of this plant. The usual

solution cultures were employed and all experiments were made with a

variety of wheat particularly suited to the conditions, namely, the

Pacific Bluestem, seeds of which were obtained from the Introduction

Garden of the U. S. Department of Agriculture at Chico, California.

The cultures were arranged in glass beakers exposed on a lattice table

in the open, and weighings of the plants were taken after a period of

28 days. Ten plants were included in each culture.

In an important series completed during July and August 1919,

special attention has been directed to a determination of the mostfavorable proportions of the salts in a solution consisting of potassium

nitrate, magnesium sulphate, calcium sulphate, and "soluble ferric

phosphate," previous work having indicated special merit in such a

combination of salts. In 21 cultures the compounds mentioned havebeen variously combined in concentrations ranging from a minimum upto four times this amount. In addition to varying the concentrations

of these salts, aluminium compounds have been added in certain cases

in the form either of aluminium hydroxide or postassium aluminiumsilicate. In this particular group of cultures the range of hydrogen-

ion concentration has not been considerable, the maximum andminimum pH values being 6.6 to 7.4. In all of these cultures there has


gradually developed a precipitate in the form of a suspension, con-

sisting in part of the iron salt, but in no case has this proved disad-

vantageous in the conduct of the experiments.

In general, this series of cultures has exhibited remarkable vigor andan intensity of green which contrasts strongly with the other cultures

made at the same time, in which the concentration of iron is much less.

Maximum growth occurred in those cultures in which the partial

volume-molecular concentration of the salts was as follows: KNO3,0.0099; CaS04, 0.00155; MgS04, 0.00115; and soluble ferric phosphate

0.25 gm. per 1,000 c.c. This represents the maximum concentration

of all salts employed, but at the same time it represents in all proba-

bihty approximately the most favorable concentrations in which these

salts may be used, inasmuch as previous work under conditions of high

evaporation had indicated a falling off in the growth-rate when con-

centrations above this were employed.

The next more favorable group of results are those in which the iron

salt and the magnesium are reduced to one-half concentration, the

calcium and potassium remaining at maximum. A slight increase in

magnesium with diminution in the amount of calcium has invariably

resulted in a much lower growth-rate. In these experiments there has

been no notable increase in the growth quantity as a result of the

addition of aluminium, and it is quite probable that this is related to

the fact that in no culture is the amount of iron as low as in the usual

salt solutions recommended for the growth of wheat.

A second group of experiments has included a solution of iron,

nrngnesium, and potassium salts as mentioned above, in minimumquantities, with calcium supplied as monobasic calcium phosphate.

In this case, however, the growth quantities are as low as the minimumof the preceding group, and increasing the magnesium and potassium

salt to a maximum quantity has afforded little additional growthincrease.

Comparisons have been made between the solution first discussed

and one consisting of monobasic calcium phosphate, potassium nitrate,

and magnesium sulphate, with the addition of iron either as the sul-

phate or as the soluble ferric phosphate, in both cases supplied in the

amount usually recommended, namely, 0.0044 gram per liter of solu-

tion. Such solutions have yielded growth quantities comparable only

with the poorest cultures in the group first discussed.

Elaborate experiments are now in progress to determine the influence

of various proportions of iron in the form of the soluble ferric phosphate

contrasted with the insoluble ferric pho.sphate in solutions consisting

of (1) monobasic potassium phosphate, calcium nitrate, and magnesiumsulphate; (2) monobasic calcium phosphate, potassium nitrate, andmagnesium sulphate; (3) calcium sulphate, potassium nitrate, andmagnesium sulphate (the phosphate in this case being supplied only

in the form of the iron salt).


Refinements in the Indicator Method of Hydrogen-ion Determination,

hy B. M. Duggar.

The inherent complexity of the hydrogen electrode, or gas-chain

method, of determining hydrogen-ion concentration, and the care

requisite for the maintenance of the apparatus in standardized condi-

tion, are some of the factors which operate against the general appli-

cability of this method in most biological laboratories. Further thanthis, there appear to be relatively few data bearing upon the possible

errors or complications arising from the use of the gas-chain methodwith complex biological fluids of unknown composition.

In biological work, moreover, a proximate determination promptlymade at any moment with a relatively small volume of fluid may befar more important than a delayed precise determination, accurate to

the second decimal of the pH exponent. With the relatively stable

and easily prepared thallate and phosphate standard solutions, like-

wise with the newer thymol, phenol, cresol, and other indicators,

which have recently been developed through the work of Clark andLubs, the determination of the pH of colorless solutions is readily andaccurately carried out.

The chief difficulty with the indicator method as applied to plant

juices, decoctions, etc., has been the factor of color or pigment in the

sample. Simple comparators, whereby ''shield" solutions have beenemployed in test-tubes, have been unsatisfactory in compensating for

the color of the sample. It has been shown in an earlier paper that

practically all difficulties are removed by the adaptation of certain

types of colorimeters in this work, and the development of the methodhas been pursued during the summer of 1919.

The microcolorimeter of Duboscq has proved admirable for this

work, both because of its form, the solidity of the cups, and the fact

that it may be employed, where necessary, when the total volume of

solution available does not exceed 2 c.c.

The usual method of employing a colorimeter is of course that of

comparing the sample colored solution in one cup with a standardsolution in the other cup, the latter corresponding to a known quantity

of the substance for which the test is made. The cups are raised or

lowered by the adjustment screws until a match is obtained, and the

depths of the columns are then inversely proportional to the concen-

tration, so that the value of the sample is determined in terms of the

standard.

In determining the hydrogen-ion concentration of pigmented fluids

or juices, the colorimeter has two essential functions: (1) the con-

venient use of shield solutions, thus compensating with the least

possible optical difficulty for the native color of the sample, and (2)

affording an accurate means of determining in which standard solution

(of known pH) the color-cliange of the indicator corresponds with


that of the sample containing the same indicator, both being examinedat an arbitrary but equal depth, the latter also being made equal to the

depth of the shield solutions employed.

The use of shield solutions necessitates employing a colorimeter

with hollow cylindrical plungers which screw off conveniently. If (a)

denotes the right-hand plunger and cup and (6) the corresponding left-

hand parts, the following procedure is recommended: The shield

solutions are (A) the pigmented sample and (B) distilled water. Asneither of these is changed during an examination of any particular

sample, even though different indicators are employed, a measuredquantity of (A) is placed in plunger (a), and the same quantity of dis-

tilled water in plunger (6) . The amounts to be used should be inversely

related to the intensity of color in the sample, and the depth of the

column is calculated after determining the capacity of the plunger-

tube and its length, since the quantity introduced is also known, thus

furnishing three known quantities in the proportion.

Into the colorimeter cup (6) is then placed the sample plus indicator,

and into cup (a) that standard solution (plus indicator) which mayseem more or less to correspond in color. The cups are then set bymeans of the thumb-screws at a depth corresponding to that of the

shield solutions employed, and examination is made. It is convenient

to arrange a series of serological test-tubes, each with 2 to 5 c.c. of the

standard solutions plus indicator, a series for each indicator, differing

in value by one-tenth or two-tenths of one unit of the exponential

scale. The standard solution in cup (a) is of course changed if the

color does not match, and trial is made until there is exact agreement.

In the microcolorimeter of Duboscq employed, the plunger-tube is

usually half-filled with the shield solution, corresponding to 0.625 c.c,

and to a depth of 16.5 mm. The amounts of the solutions placed in the

cups is immaterial, so long as the plunger touches the liquid, inasmuchas the depth of column examined must be set to correspond with the

shield. Moreover, the form of the cup is such that the expanded upperpart holds any surplus liquid forced out of place by the plunger. Thered indicators (red-yellow or yellow-red) have been particularly serv-

iceable, and with the colorimeter the full value of the entire range of

the indicator change may be realized. Where indicators overlap in

pH the choice would be of the one contrasting best with the sample.

Soil Aeration Experiments with Helium, hy W. A. Cannon and E. E. Free.

In previous experiments on soil aeration,^ nitrogen has been used as

an inert gas to replace the normal atmosphere of the soil. This pro-

1 Cannon, W. A. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book for 1915, pp. 63-64; Year Book for 1916,pp. 74r-75; Year Book for 1918, pp. 81-83.

Free, E. E., and B. E. Livingston. Year Book for 1915, pp. 60-61.

Livingston, B. E., and E. E. Free. Year Book for 1916, p. 78.

Cannon, W. A. Amer. Jour. Bot., vol. 2, pp. 211-224 (1915).

Cannon, W. A., and E. E. Free. Science (n. s.), vol. 45, pp. 178-180 (1917).


cedure is open to the objection that nitrogen is known to react with

numerous other substances and with certain Uving organisms, this

suggesting a possibiUty that soil atmospheres of nitrogen may not be

entirely inert as regards plant roots, soil bacteria, and other living

elements of the soil. The recent development of processes for the

procurement of helium, and the cooperation of the Bureau of SteamEngineering of the U. S. Navy in supplying a quantity of this gas,

have made it possible to repeat previous experiments, using helium

instead of nitrogen. Because of its absolute inertness chemically, it is

highly improbable that this gas could have any specific or direct

effect on any constituent of the soil. Preliminary tests with mixtures

of the helium and air have shown the gas used to be free of any impurity

harmful to ordinary plants.

Experiments on the garden sweet pea have been made, using the

technique previously described by Cannon, in which the seedlings are

grown in sand wetted with nutrient solution in glass tubes at constant

temperatures and the rate of root-growth has been observed directly.

Three tubes were used. In one the normal soil-atmosphere was replaced

by nitrogen; in the second, helium was used instead of nitrogen; in the

third, a slow stream of helium was maintained through the tube. In

the tubes containing static atmospheres of helium and nitrogen respec-

tively, root-growth stopped at once. In the tube wdth the stream of

helium, root-growth continued at a rate not greatly, if at all, below the

normal growth in air. After three days air was again supplied to

the roots. In all cases root-growth recommenced, but in the case of

the plant exposed to nitrogen the main root did not grow, although

the laterals did. In the other cases (after helium) both the main roots

and the laterals grew.

Experiments with the ordinary potato were made according to the

technique described by Livingston and Free, in which the plant-roots

and the soil in which they grow are sealed into an air-tight tin can, the

plant-stem passing through the seal. On repeated experiments wdth

potato plants, both with and without tubers, the injury to the plant

is evident substantially sooner when the normal soil-atmosphere is

replaced by nitrogen than when helium is used. Examination of the

roots shows the injury to consist in a softening and decay of all proto-

plasmic and storage tissues, in which the tuber, when present, is also

involved. This decay is similar in character in cultures with nitrogen

and helium, but progresses more rapidly in the former gas.

A comparative series of cultures, in which the carbon dioxid pro-

duced in the soil was measured, led to results summarized in the fol-

lowing table. Six cultures were included; two had potato plants with

tubers, two had plants without tubers, and two had soil only. In one

of each sort the soil-atmosphere was replaced by helium, in the other


by nitrogen. The soil was the same in all cases and the plants usedwere selected for similar age, size, and condition. Approximately 700grams of soil were used in each case and the figures are in cubic centi-

meters of carbon dioxid produced per 24 hours, these figures being

reduced to the basis of 0° C. and 760 mm. pressure.


of the soils has been mapped over a small portion of the valley in which

the vegetation has been charted in detail, and is being extended to the

entire floor of the valley. A series of photographic records has been

begun for certain areas in which erosion is active, and benchmarks have

been established from which to secure future measurements of the

changes of level to which the floor of the valley is subjected. It is

desired particularly to study the deposition and cutting of the incipient

streamways, the development of which is retarded by their very slight

gradient and by their heavy load of detrital material. Photographs

are also being secured as records of the changes of vegetation due to the

deposition on portions of the valley floor and the inundations to which

it is seasonally subjected.

A Soil-Temperature Survey of the United States and Canada, by Forrest Shreve.

The preliminary soil-temperature survey of the United States andCanada, which was begun in 1916 as a committee project of the

Ecological Society of America, has been continued during the past

year, through the reappointment of a committee consisting of Forrest

Shreve, chairman, and Dr. Alfred E. Cameron, of the Dominion Ento-

mological Service of Canada.

In the United States 3 new stations have been added to the 30 in

operation during 1917, and observations have been begun at the Domin-ion Experimental Farms in Canada. The location of the new stations

is such as to fill some of the largest gaps in the geographical distribution

of the older series. Readings at two stations in the Western States

have unfortunately been discontinued on account of the curtailment

of work at certain of the experiment stations of the Forest Service.

Special features of soil-temperature work have also been continued

by five of the cooperators, giving readings at different depths, anddata regarding the influence exerted on the temperature of the soil

by its physical character, by the nature of the cover, and by tillage of

surface. The complete elaboration of the results of the survey is being

deferred until the completion of the third year of continuous observa-

tions.

Stem Analysis and Elongation of Shoots in the Monterey Pine, by Forrest Shreve.

The Monterey pine {Pinus radiata) is of local occurrence along the

coast of central California and is strictly confined to the maritime cli-

mate of the "fog-belt." The equable conditions of temperature in this

belt give the pine a frestless season varying from 8 to 10 months in

length. The rapid growth of the Monterey pine has frequently been

noted, but no exact work has been done with it, chiefly owing to its

limited occurrence and negligible commercial value.


During the summer of 1919 advantage was taken of several small

cuttings that had been made for carrying out a stem analysis of this

tree. WTien ages are plotted against diameters a straight-Une curve is

secured up to the age of 80 years, beyond which extremely few of the

trees survive. An average diameter (inside the bark) of 33 cm. (13.2

in.) is attained at the age of 30 years and of 57 cm. (22.8 in.) at the age

of 60 years. Some of the most rapidly growing individuals showed a

diameter (outside bark) of 58 cm. (23.2 in.) at 28 years and 98 cm.

(38.3 in.) at 60 years.

On the stump of each tree measurements were made of the growth bydecades. The increase in diameter is greatest between the ages of 10

and 20 years, but the actual wood increment increases up to 80 years,

at which age the stump has an average area of 3,155 sq. cm. (489 sq.

in.). The greatest observed diameter growth was in a tree 113 cm.

(45 in.) in diameter which was felled at the age of 84 years and shov/ed

for its second decade an increase of 35 cm. (14 in.) in diameter.

The Monterey pine is found both on the sandy soil of old stabilized

dunes and on a gravelly clay. The stem analyses were made on trees

which were nearly equally di\dded between sites with the two types of

soil. On plotting ages against diameters there is no discoverable

difference of growth-rate on the two soils.

The elongation of the shoots commences at an early date in the spring

and continues at a slightly decreasing rate until September. Vigorous

young trees measured at monthly intervals showed on March 30 a

growth which proved to be an average of 38 per cent of the total growth

in height for the year. In a series of 350 young trees the percentage

of 1919 growth to previous height-growth was found to range from 86

per cent for seedhngs 10 to 20 inches in height down to 14 per cent for

saplings 200 inches in height. In exceptional cases the young seedlings

10 to 20 inches in height grew 160 per cent of their previous height in

the season of 1919. Particularly favorable conditions sometimes result

in a height-growth of as much as 10 feet in one year in trees 12 to 15

feet in height, and even greater growth has been reported.

Unhke other pines, this species commonly forms one or two whorls

of branches on the shoots which are not yet one year old. The height-

growth of previous years can not, therefore, be determined from the

length of the intervals between whorls of branches.

A comparison of height-growth with diameter-growth for the last

4 to 7 years in a number of saplings 12 to 15 feet high showed no

definite correlation, either positive or negative, between these phases

of growth. Exceptionally active height-growth appears to be con-

stantly correlated -with a small growth in diameter. The individual

conditions of crown development must be taken into account in a more

exact analysis of this correlation.


Plant Habits and Habitats in the More Arid Portions of South Australia,

by W. A. Cannon.

The following are some of the more important conclusions andresults derived from a field study of the vegetation in central, northern,

and southwestern South Australia in 1918.

An important feature of the physical environment of the State is

the amount and character of the rainfall. Over the northern portion,

consisting approximately of 75 per cent of the land area, the total

precipitation is 10 inches or less. Much of this region is the great

artesian basin of central Australia and is partly below sea-level. Anarea estimated at 3 per cent or more, lying wholly within this basin,

receives 5 inches or less of rain annually. It is proposed to term regions

of South Australia which have a rainfall of 5 inches or less each year

desertic or eremaic, and regions with an annual precipitation between

5 and 10 inches as arid. Where the rainfall is between 10 and 15 inches

the regions will be referred to as semiarid or subarid.

The rainfall of South Austraha is periodic. About 76 per cent falls

in the cool season, the largest proportion of which occurs in the southern

half of the State. The monsoonal rains of summer are of importance

in the Far North, where, however, neither the cyclonic winter rains or

the summer monsoons are dependable. Since the rainfall is periodic,

the rainless periods are also regular in their occurrence and are of

undoubted importance in shaping the leading features of the perennial

vegetation. In arid South Australia the number of rainless days each

year is 300 or over, and that in the semiarid regions is about the same,

while in the eremaic districts it may exceed 340.

A marked feature of the rainfall is the number of storms in which

the precipitation totals 0.15 inch or less, and this is a characteristic

most marked in the driest regions. At Oodnadatta, for example, where

the rainfall averages 4.68 inches annually, about 31.2 per cent of the

entire precipitation occurs in such small amounts. In one year as muchas 56 per cent of the entire rainfall at Oodnadatta was received in

storms of this kind. Where rain occurs in no greater amount than

0.15 inch, or even more than this, it does not moisten the soil to a

depth useful for roots, and the configuration of the surface of the soil

of itself is, under such conditions, of no moment. The effective rain-

fall in the desert, therefore, is considerably under that presented in

official summaries.

South Australia has a mild temperate climate, with hot summers,

especially in the north, and cool winters. In the far north (William's

Creek) a maximum shade temperature of 119.1° F. has been recorded.

The daily variation in temperature may be 40° F. or more. The shade

temperatures of the far north reach or exceed 90° F. for about one-

third of the year. In approximately 64 per cent of the state, in a


territory corresponding roughly to but somewhat less than the eremaicand arid regions, the mean annual temperature is 65° to 75° F.

In the far north the yearly evaporation is 100 inches or more. Inthe arid southwestern portion (Eucla) it is 95.98 inches. At Adelaide,

annual rainfall 20.95 inches, the yearly evaporation is 54.9 inches.

The perennial vegetation of the drier portions of South Australia is

thus subject to high temperatures for a portion of the year, highevaporation rates, a large number of days each year which are rainless,

and a relatively or actually low rainfall. In addition to these may bementioned intense insolation concerning which there are no available

data. Particular adjustments to the environment of the flora as awhole and in certain details may be given in part as follows: In the

desert regions trees are confined to the water-courses, except such as

occur in the sandhills. In either case they are relatively small. Shrubsare not numerous away from the water-courses, although they occur

sparingly in relatively dry situations on the high plains. On areas

which in the eremaic and arid regions are extensive, and where thesurface drainage is poor or wanting, halophytic shrubs are numerousboth Rs to species and individuals. It is probable, however, that in the

desert regions perennials in any situation are not sufficiently numerousto prevent erosion by water or by wind.

In the arid and subarid regions the trees and shrubs stray awayfrom the water-courses, so that in places open forests, as to trees, or

open pigmy forests, as to shrubs, are formed. The number of species

as well as of individuals is also greater. There is also a striking increase

in the transpiring surface of perennials. While such vegetational

features are closely related to the amount of the yearly rainfall, this

is not invariably the case. For example, in the southwestern portion

of the state, Ooldea, there is an extensive region of sandhills where theannual precipitation is less than 10 inches, but where it is so well con-

served that the vegetation is more abundant than might be expectedfrom the amount of precipitation.

The characteristic trees of the desert region (Oodnadatta) are

mainly Eucalyptus spp. and Acacia spp. Species of Eremophila are the

most striking shrubs of this region.

In the arid region (Copley, Tarcoola, Ooldea, Port Augusta) the

number of trees and shrubs is very considerable and includes amongothers the following genera: Acacia, Callitris, Cassia, Casuarina, Do-doncea, Eucalyptus, Fusanus, Gravillea, Hakea, Heterodendron, Lepto-

spermum, Melaleuca, Myoporum, Petalostylis, and Zygophyllum.In the subarid regions (Quorn, Blanchtown, etc.) the number of

species of trees and shrubs is very considerable and need not be men-tioned further.

The halophytic vegetation is a characteristic feature of the arid anddesert regions. More than 50 species occur in the region east of Lake


Torrens. The abundance of halophytes makes possible the very con-

siderable pastoral industry of the far north.

A list of particular adjustments of the species to the environment

would include, among others, the following: The leaf-surface is usually

greatly reduced and aphyllous species are common. In the acacias

and in certain cassias the true leaves may be replaced by phyllodia.

The leaves may be heavily cuticularized and often they are coated

with resinous substances, especially when young. In many instances

leaves and young stems are covered with trichomes, although such

covering is not a striking character of the species as a whole. Water-

storage capacity is present in the roots of certain species, as Gravillea

stenohotrya and Eucalyptus sp. In subarid regions species of Eucalyp-

tus with shrub habit, the "mallee," have shortened stems which are

important water-storage organs. Succulence among non-halophytic

perennials is wanting or rare. The superficial roots of several species

are especially well developed and point to a response on the part

of the species to relatively light rains. In the sandhills and along

water-courses the superficial roots may attain great length. Wherewater-storage capacity is present in roots it is usually situated in, if

not confined to, such as are superficially placed. Many small trees

have canopy-formed shoots. This is a striking character of species of

"mallee," but occurs in species of other genera as well. Vegetative

habit of reproduction through stolon-like subterranean organs is fre-

quently met in shrubs and trees.

Reactions of Roots of Species with Dissimilar Habitats to Different Amounts of

Carbon Dioxid in the Soil, by W. A. Cannon.

It has previously been reported^ that the roots of seedling Prosopis

velutina and of cuttings of Opuntia versicolor exhibit an unlike reaction,

as shovrn by a modification of the rate of growth of the roots, to an

excess of carbon dioxid in the atmosphere of the soil. In the case of

Prosopis, whose roots may penetrate deeply, a relatively great tolerance

to carbon dioxid is shown. But as regards Opuntia, with superficially

placed roots, the tolerance is not so marked. The difference between

the two species in the root-carbon-dioxid relation, however, is not

supposed to be of definitive importance in the economy of either species.

The reactions of roots in relation to carbon dioxid of the atmosphere

of the soil of two additional Arizona species, which occur under natural

conditions somewhat similar to those of the two species above referred

to, and of a third species whose habit of growth and whose habitat are

widely different, are described below.

The plants in question are Covillea tridentata and Krameria canescens,

from southern Arizona, and Mesembryanthemum sp. from the neighbor-

hood of the Coastal Laboratory, Carmel, California. So far as the habit

1 Carnegie Inst. Wash. Year Book for 19 IG, p. 74.


of growth and the character of the roots are concerned, which have been

pubhshed in various studies, it need only be said here that Covillea is a

sclerophyllous shrub, without water-storage capacity, which occurs in

relatively shallow and fairly hght soils, with relatively shallowly placed

roots, but which also grows along water-courses where the soil is

deep and sandy. Under such conditions the roots may penetrate to a

depth of 2 meters, or possibly more. Krameria is a root parasite, with

Covillea, among other perennials, as one of its hosts. It bears leaves

which are deciduous and the root system is relatively shallow, appar-

ently under any conditions. It is also without water-storage capacity.

Mesenibryanthemum is a succulent with shallow roots, generally grow-

ing in sandy soil.

In the experiments on the root-carbon-dioxid relations the roots

of the three species were treated in a similar manner. They were

grown in glass tubes which were filled with fairly coarse sand and which

were kept in thermostats in which the temperature of the soil varied

scarcely if any more than 2° C. The shoots projected into the air and

were subject to daily fluctuation in temperature amounting to about5° C. Artificial atmospheres were employed which consisted of 25,

50, and 75 per cent carbon dioxid, the balance being atmxospheric air.

This was used to replace the normal soil-atmosphere, and at the end

of the experiments it in turn was replaced by atmospheric air. Theleading results of the experiments can be briefly given. In the case

of Krameria, carbon dioxid in any percentage exercised a depressing

effect on the rate of growth of the roots, and, in fact, growth of the

roots ceased after a time, which was longer or shorter in accordance

with the duration of the exposure to the gaseous mixture as well as

with the percentage of carbon dioxid used, but after the admission of

atmospheric air, the growth of the roots was resumed. In a soil-

atmosphere containing 75 per cent carbon dioxid it was observed in

Krameria that the effects were less harmful at soil temperatures which

were approximately optimal than it was at temperatures of the soil

which were about 10° C. above this, or in other words, that about

optimal for root-growth of its hosts. In Covillea, carbon dioxid of

whatever concentration used was disastrously harmful. The growth

of the roots was quickly retarded and soon ceased. In case of recovery

upon the admission of atmospheric air it was seen to occur many hours

subsequent to the employment of the artificial soil-atmosphere con-

taining the high percentages of carbon dioxid. As to Mesembryan-

themum, the effects following the use of soil-atmospheres containing

large amounts of carbon dioxid, in certain respects, were different from

the effects observed in the other species treated. In Mesembryanthe-

mum the rate of growth of the roots is decreased in atmospheres con-

taining 25 to 75 per cent carbon dioxid, and finally, after relatively

long exposures to the higher concentrations, it ceases. However, it

was seen to be renewed relatively soon upon the replacement by


atmospheric air of a soil-atmosphere rich in carbon dioxid. The fol-

lowing table summarizes two representative experiments with Mesem-hryanthemum and illustrates the points:

Table 1.

—

Groivth of roots of Mesembryanthetnum sp. in a soil atmosphere.


South Australia establishes this as a well-marked condition. Moreover,

the feature referred to is not necessarily correlated with an especially

small leaf-area. For example, a representative leaf of Heterodendron

olecefolium is 110 mm. in length by 14 mm. in width and has an

area, one side only, of 1,080 sq. mm. The phyllodia of Acacia ste-

nophylla, and which may be regarded as leaves, may be 375 mm. in

length and only 5 mm. wide, with a surface area, one side, measuring

1,700 sq. mm. A "composite" leaf constructed by averaging the

Leaf measurements of eremaic and arid perennials of South Australia.

Species

Acacia aneura^ (broad form)

aneura (narrow form)

brachystachyacalamifolia

cambadgeicoUetioides

iteaphylla

kempeanalinophylla

oswaldii

pycnantharandelliana

rigens

salicina

sentis

stenophylla

tarculiensis

tetragonophylla

Dodonsea attenuata

Eremophila alternifolia

brownii

freelingii

latrobei

longifolia

neglecta

paisleyi

Eucalyptus incarnata var. dumosaodorataoleosa

leucoxylon var. macrocarpa. . .

.

Fusanus acuminatusspicatus

Geigera parvifiora

Gravillea stenobotryaHakea leucoptera

multilineata

Heterodendron oleaefolium

Jasminum lineare

Leptospermum Isevigatum var. ninus

Melaleuca glomerataparoifolia

uncinataMyoporum platyearpumOlearia muelleri

Pholidia scoparia

1 Phyllodia.

Length.

trim.

5755100672012

88641404711070857531

375343085342655328046288775869072474713572210110

9626209

25679020

Width.

2.51.51

81

5

7

1.54

262

1.55

3.55

10

1

3

2

47

1.5

55

2

18

10

18

257

10

3.51.5

2

6

14

5

5

1

1

1

7

61

Area.

sq. mm.3501001406514012

350410210175

1,050130120

350100

1,700300302003011023032

23019050

1,280650

1,0001,400300290160190140

1,2001,0804509518

7

224502518


length and breadth of 30 species, not including Acacia, has a length of

64 mm. and a width of 5 mm. A similar leaf built on the measurementsof 16 species of Acacia is 84 mm. long and 3.5 mm. wide. Results

derived from constructing ratios based on the relation between area,

one side, and length further illustrate the point. In the case of circular

leaves this ratio is approximately 1 : 54.3, and in linear leaves it is

nearly 1:1. In the largest leaf-size class for ''microphylls" of Raun-kiaer the ratio is approximately 1 : 23.6. The ratio of leaf-area to

leaf-length for 29 species of desert and arid perennials from SouthAustralia is 1 : 4.7. So far as these dry regions are concerned, there

are relatively few species having the least ratio, and these do not

necessarily live in the driest habitats, although the ratio for such

species is necessarily low.

Ecology of the Strand Vegetation of the Pacific Coast of North America,

hy William S. Cooper.

The sand-dunes and beaches are the principal field of study, butcliffs, blufTs, and salt marshes are incidentally involved. The special

value of the study with regard to development of the fundamentallaws of the science of ecology lies in the fact that the initial soils of

beach and sand-dune are everyw^here extremely similar, if not almost

identical, and that any striking vegetational differences must be cor-

related wdth climatic factors. There is here, therefore, an excellent

opportunity to investigate the effects of climatic control upon distribu-

tion, ecological character (form, structure, function), and successional

development.

The general method used is a combination of extended exploration

and thorough study of carefully selected localities. The latter phase

must include (1) measurement of habitat factors; (2) investigation of

plant form and structure (root system, conductive system, leaf); (3)

determination of the courses of the successions leading to the climax

in each region, involving the establishment of permanent quadrats andtransects; (4) experimental greenhouse work to check the observa-

tional results wherever possible.

The month of May was spent in a careful study of the strand vegeta-

tion from the Coronado Hotel to the Tia Juana River, a stretch of 16

kilometers. Vegetational development proceeds along two lines. In

the first, beginning in fresh-blown sand, Ahronia maritima is the

principal pioneer. This plant, because of a persistent negatively

geotropic tendency in the branches, coupled with scanty developmentof mechanical tissue, builds dunes which increase rapidly in height so

long as the accumulating sand supports the shoots in their erect posi-

tion. WTien, because of increase in height of the dune or from anyother cause, the upward building slackens, the weight of the shoots


overcomes their tendency to grow erect and they trail over the surface,

producing numerous branches which repeat the process, soon forming

a mat which is the first step in the fixation of the dune. Franseria

bipinnatifida is also an important pioneer, but its branches are diageo-

tropic from the first, and it therefore stabilizes flat surfaces instead

of first building hillocks. The second stage includes a number of semi-

pioneers, the most important being Mesenibryanthemum cequilaterale,

Abronia umbellata, Convolvulus soldanella, Nemacaulis denudata, Cro-

ton californicum, all trailing or decumbent plants which render the

dune surface more stable. Oenothera viridescens and Chrysopsis sp.,

decumbent and matted, or erect and open, according to conditions,

characterize the third stage. The second line of succession begins with

the salt marsh. Spartina sp. is the pioneer, growing in dense pure

masses along the inner edge of the spit. Salicornia ambigua char-

acterizes the second stage, and is followed by Frankenia grandiflora

and the mat-forming grass Monanthochloe littoralis. The sifting-in of

sand brings another community, dominated by Isocoma vernonioides.

These two successional lines, having progressed to the points indicated,

exhibit a strong tendency to merge, in that a final set of plants appears

indifferently in both. None of these is a strictly coastal species, andseveral belong to the community which an incomplete study points to

as the climax of the region around San Diego and southward along

the Mexican coast. Among these are Ephedra californica, Yucca

mohavensis, Eriogonum fasciculatum, Atriplex canescens, Rhus inte-

grifolia, Echinocactus sp., Opuntia occidentalis, Adolphia californica,

Encelia californica.

June, July, and August were devoted to the Monterey region. Herethere are three localities where dunes have developed upon a con-

siderable scale. The town of Carmel is built mainly upon an estab-

lished dune complex of uncertain thickness which mantles a slope of

older materials. The succession here has attained to a much moreadvanced stage than at Coronado, since the sand has blo^vn inland far

enough to be free from the retarding influences associated with the

immediate shore, and since the history has been an actually longer one.

The stages represented are as follows: (1) Abronia latifoUa (corre-

sponding roughly to A. maritima of the south); (2) semi-pioneers,

including Poa douglasii, Eriogonum latifolium, Abronia umbellata, Me-senibryanthemum cequilaterale, Croton californicum, Oenothera cheiran-

thifolia, Convolvulus soldanella, Artemisia pycnocephala; (3) a nearly

closed community dominated by Ericameria ericoides, in which Erio-

gonum parvifolium, Lupinus chamissonis, and Eriophyllum stcechadi-

folium are also important; (4) chaparral, made up of Adenostomafasciculatum, Arctostaphylos pumila, A. vestita, Ceanothus rigidus, andC. dentatus; (5) forest of Pinus radiata and Quercus agrifolia. Thesand-dune succession has here plainly attained to the climax.


The second area borders the western side of Point Pinos, and is

essentially like that at Carmel, but of greater extent and interest.

Fresh sand trails from blowouts are here invading mature pine forest.

The third area extends along the shore of Monterey Bay from DelMonte to the Salinas River and beyond, and is of very special interest,

with a complex history. It has long been the site of dune-building, so

that accumulations of past centuries, mantling the older formations,

now lie several kilometers back from the shore and 200 meters above it,

raised to their present position by the great uplift that elsewhere is

evidenced by ancient sea cliffs and terraces. A more recent subsidence

of about 100 meters has resulted in the formation of a wave-cut bluff

along the central portion of the mass, exposing in section the accumula-

tions of past ages and the building of bars surmounted by new dunesacross the mouths of the Salinas, Del Rey, and other streams. Repeatedblow-outs along the bluff have resulted in the formation here of a dis-

tinct new line of dunes of great size, superposed upon the older. Thesein turn are stabilized for the most part, though occasional blow-outs

show that the processes of change are still in operation.

The pioneer communities are only fragmentarily present. Theancient dune complex, being outside the pine region, is covered bychaparral and oak forest; the younger series along the shore is con-

trolled by the Ericameria community. The rapidity with which this

establishes itself upon new areas, together with the uniformity of its

covering upon areas of unequal ages and the almost total absence of

chaparral upon the younger dune series, indicates that it constitutes a

subciimax of long duration, its supersession by the chaparral being

impossible until a considerable amount of humus has accumulated in

the soil. In the Monterey region, therefore, the long period of undis-

turbed development has permitted the attainment of the climax uponthe oldest areas—pine forest on the peninsula, chaparral or oak in the

back country.

Several permanent quadrats and transects were established in the

dune region of Monterey Bay for experimental study of the successions.

The plant communities of the region bounded roughly by the ocean,

the Salinas, and the Carmel Rivers were accurately mapped. Tenrain-gages, arranged to sum the seasonal totals, were placed at strategic

points, to aid in the solution of local climatic problems.

At both Coronado and Monterey the underground portions of the

principal species—30 in all—were excavated, and manj^ of themphotographed. The results of this work can not be brought together

at the present time. Material for anatomical study of 52 species

was also collected, and also the seeds for experimental greenhouse

stud3\

For habitat investigation a series of 16 stations was established,

representing the peninsular and bay regions, and all successional

stages. Measurements were made of soil-moisture and soil-tempera-


ture at depths of 10, 50, and 100 cm., and of evaporation covering a

period of 45 days in July and August, and soil samples were collected

for mechanical analysis and other determinations. Anatomical andother studies wdll be carried on during the winter months in the labora-

tory and greenhouse at the University of Minnesota.

The Origination of Xerophytism in Plants, hy D. T. MacDougal and

H. A. Spoehr.

The part played by aridity as an evolutionary factor in the deriva-

tion of land forms is v/ell recognized by students of phylogeny. It is

well known that only plants showing speciaUzed habits coupled withwell-defined anatomical features may continue to exist in places having

pronounced desert conditions. The idea that aridity stands in a causal

relation to the characters of desert vegetation bulks large in determin-

ing our thinking of these forms. It is to be seen, however, that the

matter has been dealt with hitherto as if the effect of aridity did not

make an impression upon the plant, its Hving matter, or accessory

structures directly. The combined effects of rapid evaporation andundeveloped drainage in desert regions have resulted in accumulation

of a greater proportion of salts in the soils than in well-watered andfreely drained soils, and the strand habitats of the sea-shore succulents

are also high in salts, and this has caused attention to be directed to the

possible effects of these substances in inducing the succulence of plants

both on strands and in the desert. The formation of the spiny plants

of the desert was also attributed to the possible osmotic action of these

substances.

It has long been recognized that the structure and chemical com-position of a plant may be modified by its water relations during

growth, but until recently available analyses did not include data uponwhich any explanation of the present problem might be based. This

was finally found in the carbohydrate metabolism and in the imbibi-

tional action of the mucilages and proteins in plant cells.

If we turn to the previously available analyses of plants and examinethem for the purpose of determining changes in the carbohydrate-

content as influenced by humidity and aridity, it will be seen that the

figures show a greater amount of cellulose and a lesser amount of starch

in the plants developed in the drier atmosphere.

The possible significance of the transformations in question was not

realized, however, until a long series of detailed analyses of the sugar-

content of the cacti was made at the Desert Laboratory. Determina-tions were made in all stages of development of the plant, in all the

seasons, and of material subjected to various experimental conditions.

Prominent among the various transformations is a change of poly-

saccharids into pentosans or mucilages, a conversion of carbohydratesof but little hydration capacity into others which have a large coefficient

of imbibition. This change, when accompanied or followed by the

100 CAENEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON.

increase of the cells, results in succulence. Not all plants in whichsuch transformations take place become succulents, but two species

have been observed in which individuals growing under arid conditions

become succulent and those elsewhere maintain their mesophytic

character. One, Castilleja latifolia, was found by H. M. Richards to be

characterized by a high acidity of the sap in the thin leaves and a

lower acidity in the succulent individuals. It is suggested that plants

which have a type of respiration resulting in a large proportion of

residual acids may be capable of succulency, but this is a matter whichhas not yet been substantiated by any facts beyond those cited.

The depletion of the water-supply may, under circumstances as

noted above, result in the conversion of polysaccharids into pentosans

which take up and hold in a mucilage large proportions of water. This

of course is but one of the possibihties. Under other conditions a low

water-content causes the formation of the anhydrides, of which wall-

substance or cellulose is an example, or, more properly speaking, such

action is increased or accelerated, and the plant structure thus becomeshard and indurated, and such use of its carbohydrates is of course

accompanied by a limited growth, particularly in branches and leaves

where the effects of aridity would be greatest.

The separate types of transformation of carbohydrates might take

place in the same plant, in different cells. Thus, some of the massive

cacti have shoots from which the power of branching has been entirely

lost and the stems are reduced to short, cylindrical, swollen, or globose

forms. The external layers of such plants exhibit the typical xero-

phytic anhydrous wall-formations, while the cortical elements have

been the scene of transformations of sugars resulting in succulency.

The exposure of a plant to arid conditions might be expected, there-

fore, to be followed by a retarded development due to the lack of water

necessary for the hydration of cell-colloids in growth, by the accelerated

formation of pentosans or mucilaginous material in the cells, leading

to hypertrophy of the parenchymatous elements, or by the increased

formation of wall material, especially in the external layers constituting

the essential feature of xerophytism.

The conclusions reached in this and in previous papers are to the

effect that succulence results from the conversion of polysaccharids

into pentosans or mucilages, and xerophytism from a conversion of the

polysaccharids into the anhydrides or wall material, both transforma-

tions being induced by a depleted or lessened water-supply in the cells.

Transpiration and Absorption by Roots of Fleshy Euphorbias, by Edith B. Shreve.

The transpirational and root-absorption behavior of 3 species of

fleshy euphorbias has been studied to ascertain whether or not they

have any physiological resemblance to the species of cacti which have

been previously investigated. The methods used have been described


in a late publication. The euphorbias are all natives of the SouthAfrican desert and do not grow naturally in the American deserts. Theratio A/T (water absorption by roots divided by water-loss by trans-

piration for the same period) was calculated from experimental dataand found to show in general the same behavior as for cacti, i. e., theratio is greater for the day than for the night under some conditions.

Accompanying this behavior there is an upward movement of branchesfor the day and a downward one at night. However, neither the differ-

ence between the day and night A/T ratios nor the movement of thebranches was as great as in the case of the cacti. Furthermore, therewere more exceptions to the general behavior than appeared in the first

experiments with the cacti. The exceptions for Euphorbia have notbeen dealt with.

Seasonal Changes in the Water Relations of Desert Plants, by Edith B. Shreve.

For a number of years experiments have been conducted on a success-

ful desert perennial, Encelia farinosa, and on two equally successful

desert annuals, Streptanthus arizonicus, a winter annual, and Amaran-thus palmeri, a summer annual, with a view to discovering any changesthat may occur in their water relations with the march of the seasons.

The work has now reached a stage where the following facts haveappeared

:

In the case of Encelia, the total transpiration per unit area for 24hours was only 1.4 times as great for May as for January and Septem-ber, while the total evaporation for 24 hours, as measured by the whiteatmometer, was twice as great for May as for January and 1.8 timesas great for September as for January. In May the soil-moisture wasonly 0.46 of its value in January and by September it had risen to 1.1

of the January amount. If the severity of environmental conditions

with reference to water be represented by the ratio of evaporation to

soil moisture (E/Sm), then the conditions were nearly 4.5 times as

great for May as for January and only 1.6 times as great for Septemberas for January. The maximum leaf water-content in January was 3.5

times greater than in May. The average daily variation in Januarywas from 5.3 to 3.6 grams of water per gram of dry weight, while in

May it was less than the experimental error. Thus it appears that as

the dry season advances, Encelia loses more water by evaporation thanit absorbs by its roots until a certain minimum water-content is reached,

after which the relation between outgo and intake remains aroundunity. In the meantime, some of the larger leaves die and the youngerones obtain a very heavy coating of hairs. But in addition to this, aviscous brown liquid is formed in the vessels which in May quickly

oozes from even a slight injury, while in January no such substance is

evident, even when the branches are severed.


The following theory has been formulated as a working hypothesis:

The increase or decrease of some substance or substances within the

tissues affects the water-attracting power of the colloidal jellies andthus brings about a greater resistance to water-loss on the one handand a greater absorption by the roots on the other hand. This sametheory was found to be valid in the case of Opuntia versicolor, and plans

are laid for testing Encelia for the same phenomena.Streptanthus evidently has no successful means of coping with the

arid foresummer and so must complete its life-cycle within a month or

two, or in even less time. While Encelia lives in the open sunshine the

entire year, Streptanthus spends its short life in the partial shade of

larger shrubs. It has the ability of quick recovery from wilting as soon

as night conditions appear, but a more wilted condition each succeeding

week or day is soon followed by complete failure of recovery, and it is

seen that the plant has all the time been living under the most adverse

conditions it can endure. Its leaf water-content has a daily variation

of 5.7 to 2.7 grams of water per gram of dry weight. Although its

water-content is thus as high as that of Encelia for the same season,

and its leaf structure shows a much more mesophytic form, neverthe-

less its actual water-loss per unit area is only one-fourth as great as

from Encelia. The greater exposure of Encelia to the sun's rays

accounts for part of this difference, but probably there are other

agencies responsible also.

As is the case with all desert annuals, the length of life of Amaran-thus palmeri varies greatly with the length of the rainy season, but its

ability to revive after a shower when it has remained in a continuously

wilted state for three weeks makes it one of the most successful of the

annuals. Wilting seems to be its only means of cutting down trans-

pirational loss, for it loses four times as much water per unit area as

Streptanthus, while living under conditions of aridity which are three

times as great. It seems quite evident that Amaranthus owes its

ability to withstand the high evaporation-rates of August and Septem-ber primarily to the efficiency of its water absorbing and conducting

systems and not to any agency which regulates transpirational loss,

such as appeared in the case of Encelia. The results of the experiments

show that Streptanthus could not endure the high evaporational rates

of August and September and that Amaranthus could thrive in the

spring were it not for the fact that its seeds will not germinate at the

lower temperatures which are characteristic of that season.

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY.*George L. Streeter, Director.

As has been our experience in previous years, the work of this depart-

ment during the past year approaches our primary problem—humanembryology—from several directions. It includes the microscopic

structure of the individual cell and the grosser anatomy of organ

systems in their different stages, as well as the body as a whole.

Furthermore, our studies not only concern the morphology of normal

human embryos, but it has also been found necessary to consider the

abnormal and the factors involved in their causation. To some extent

we have resorted to other animal forms in which experimental pro-

cedures are possible and have found the element of control introduced

by experiment to be of very great assistance. In the following report

these various studies will be grouped for greater convenience under

three general headings: those concerning the structure of the cell, or

cytology, those concerning the development and structure of individual

organ systems, and finally, the clinical and pathological studies bearing

on the abnormal development of the embryo. Before the description

of the character and results of these studies is entered upon, mention

may be made of two events in the further progress of the development

of our organization.

Since 1915 our researches have been conducted in a suite of rooms in

the Hunterian Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University. These

quarters, while well adapted to our purposes, are limited in space, andthe extent of their capacity, as regards the housing and preparation of

the rapidly growing collection, has already been reached. To meet our

future needs a piece of property at the corner of Wolfe and Monumentstreets, suitable for a building-site, has been deeded to the Carnegie

Institution of Washington by the trustees of the Johns Hopkins Uni-

versity, and the preliminary plans have been drawn for a four-story

laboratory building 100 by 50 feet.

An important addition to our staff has been made by securing the

services of Dr. Warren H. Lewis, professor of physiological anatomy at

the Johns Hopkins University. His appointment as research associate

was made on August 1. The work of Professor Lewis has been devoted

mainly to problems in morphological and experimental embryology,

in which fields his contributions are w^ell known. Recently, in con-

junction with Mrs. Lewis, he has improved the methods of cultivating

embryonic tissues in artificial media, thus making it possible to follow

the differentiation of growing tissues under the microscope. This

procedure in their hands is yielding conspicuous results in the advance-

Address Hunterian Laboratory, Johns Hopkins Medical School, Baltimore, Maryland.

103


ment of our knowledge of cell structure. In coming to us, Dr. Lewis

will be freed from teaching and will thus be enabled to devote his entire

time to the continuation of his research work.

CYTOLOGY.

Although the structure and function of mitochondria constitute a

relatively new field of research, a great many investigations have

already accumulated, and it is now found necessary to attempt to

harmonize some of the results. Two papers have been published from

this Department during the past year which review the present status

of the problem and tend to reconcile divergent theories. Mention was

made in my last report of one by Professor E. V. Cowdry, which

appeared too late to be reported at length at that time. In view of the

importance of this contribution, some account of it should be given here.

The consideration of mitochondria is inseparable from the fundamen-

tal problem of the structure of living protoplasm, and Dr. Cowdry pre-

sents this whole matter in a comprehensive way. In connection with

his introductory account of the development of our present knowledge

of mitochondria, he gives most useful summaries of the varieties of

tissue-cells and of the different animal and plant forms in which they

have been described, together with the names of the investigators in

each instance. The wide distribution of the mitochondria, as seen from

his tables, is amazing. They are found in all tissues, from man to the

lowest protozoon, and from angiosperms to the fungi, though their

existence is doubtful in the myxomycetes, schizomycetes, and most of

the algse. They are as characteristic of the cytoplasm as chromatin

is of the nucleus. They are found in all stages of life—in the egg and

in all tissues of the developing embryo and of the adult. In the part

devoted to technique, morphology, and distribution. Dr. Cowdrymakes use of much unpublished data of his own, as he does more or

less throughout the whole contribution. In connection with the varia-

tions in the amount of the mitochondria, he points out that their pres-

ence in large numbers is associated with intense protoplasmic activity.

They are especially numerous in the active stages of cell life and dimin-

ish with senility, in both plants and animals. There is a sharp increase

with regenerative activity and in compensatory hypertrophy. In the

second place, there is a distinct reciprocal relationship between the

amount of mitochondria and the amount of fat, which suggests someconnection between the mitochondria and oxidation. Their abundance

in the active stages of the life of the cell, when protoplasmic respiration

is rapid, points to the same conclusion. In the section dealing with the

chemical constitution of mitochondria a complete account is given of

the author's observations on the reaction of these structures to Janus

green and other vital stains. As regards their physiology, it is clear,

from Dr. Cowdry's own experience and that of others working with

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY. 105

him, that the mitochondria are not directly concerned with speciaHzedactivities, such as conduction or secretion, but rather with some funda-mental process common to all cells ; they probably participate in someof the processes involved in cell metabolism and possibly in proto-

plasmic respiration.

In its application to pathological conditions, the work on mito-chondria puts at our disposal a new criterion of cell activity and cell

injury, which heretofore have been gaged almost exclusively bynuclear changes. Mitochondria show deUcate sensitivity to patho-logical changes and respond by variations in shape and size to injurious

influences, even before the nucleus. Furthermore, the indicator in

this case is cytoplasmic, and we may confidently expect it to disclose

facts which would never have been revealed by a study of the nucleus

alone. Favorable results have already been obtained by its applica-

tion to the study of exophthalmic goiter.

Throughout Dr. Cowdry's paper there is clearly pointed out defi-

ciencies in our present information regarding the character and role

of mitochondria, and it abounds in suggestions and practical programsfor further investigations in this fundamental field.

Another paper reviewing the status of mitochondria, or chondrio-

somes as designated in his terminology, is that of Professor Jules Dues-berg. Investigators following the chondriosome problem will be espe-

cially interested in his discussion of the part played by these structures

in fertilization and in the process of differentiation, although in these

respects he does not reach positive conclusions. Benda's opinion that

chondriosomes are an idioplasmic substance is definitely supported

by Duesberg's description of the behavior of the male chondriosomesin Ascaris during fertilization. An important step was made when itwasgradually shown that chondriosomes are constant in all spermatozoa of

all species, although varying greatly in shape and location in the differ-

ent species. The great majority of biologists originally accepted the

view that the nucleus is the carrier of the idioplasm, for the obvious

reason that in most cases only the nucleus of the spermatozoon wasdetected in the egg. When it was shown, however, that in a large

number of both invertebrates and vertebrates the chondriosomes also

penetrate the egg, the monopoly of the nucleus as a carrier of the

idioplasm was brought up for reconsideration. Whereas the waywould seem clear for the hypothesis that the chondriosomes represent

the idioplasm contained in the protoplasm of the seminal cells, anobstacle is met with in the discovery that the chondriosomal part of

the spermatozoon passes unchanged into only one of the two first

blastomeres (bat). Dr. Duesberg meets this difficulty by suggesting

that these blastomeres of the mammahan egg are not equivalent;

i.e., one may form the trophoblast, the other the embryo. The con-

stancy of the chondriosomes in the spermatozoon, the lack of a satis-


factory hypothesis as to their significance, and the fact that theyactually penetrate the egg, warrant a thorough investigation before

they are eliminated as theoretical bearers of hereditary characteristics.

In connection with an investigation on the seminal cells of the

opossum. Dr. Duesberg has extended his studies to the complex inter-

stitial cells which are present in large numbers in the testicle of this

animal. He finds that these cells contain either one or two nuclei, anidiosome with, two or more centrioles, an apparatus of Golgi, some fat,

crystalloids of two types, and chondriosomes. They exhibit, however,two especially noteworthy features. Due, as the author thinks, to

the conditions of fixation, the chondriosomes are modified so as to

form a huge framework which bears a striking resemblance to sometypes of Golgi's apparatus, or, perhaps, a trophospongial net. Thisframework is not found in all parts of the cell-body, but leaves free the

periphery and a space in the immediate vicinity of the nucleus, whichmight safely be construed as the idiosome. The second feature is the

presence of an intracellular substance which appears to be an accumula-tion of a granular or amorphous secretion product and which, owingto its staining properties, can be followed on the preparations into the

intercellular spaces and finally into the vessels. This constitutes oneof the clearest instances in which the secretion product of an endocrin

gland can be actually followed from the glandular cell into the vascular

system.

An important study in the phenomena associated with cell degenera-

tion has been made by Professor W. H. Lewis. Using explants fromchick embryos, he has cultivated fibroblasts in vitro and has observed

the occurrence and behavior of certain granules and vacuoles whichapparently form Vv-ithin them as waste products, and which he regards

as a part of the process of cell degeneration. The living fibroblasts

were observed over periods of one to three days, in most cases with the

use of neutral red and Janus black No. 2. The neutral red dye is

rapidly taken up by the vacuoles and granules, whereas the Janusblack stains only the mitochondria. In this way he had a differential

test which enabled him to show that the granules and vacuoles bear norelation to the mitochondria, with the exception that, as the number of

granules increased, the mitochondria changed from threads and rods

to granules and vesicles, and, in cases of extreme vacuolization, becamelodged between the vacuoles. Degeneration granules are few in num-ber in normal cells, but abundant in cells showing extensive vacuoliza-

tion. They practically never occur in vigorous young fibroblasts, but

increase progressively with the age of the culture. Their size varies

from extremely minute, and probably ultra-microscopic, to half the

diameter of the nucleolus. After there has been a considerable accumu-lation of these granules, fluid vacuoles begin to develop around them.

These also vary in size, and their shape is constantly altering with


changes in position. The most common and stable form is spherical,

and such vacuoles may remain unchanged for a long time. Some sendout thread-Uke processes or channels which contain the same fluid as

the vacuole, and these anastomose with other channels and form a com-plicated plexus. While much the same size and shape as the mito-chondria, these channels change much more rapidly and, with staining

reactions such as were used, there is no difficulty in distinguishing

them. The granules move about actively with the cytoplasmic cur-

rents, usually in paths between the periphery and the centrosphere.

At first scattered, they gradually increase in number and tend to

accumulate at what appears in the early stages to be a given point.

In the fixed preparations and in older cultures it is clearly seen that

this point is about the centriole or centrosphere. Because of its bearing

upon cell metabolism, it is an interesting and important point that the

centriole and not the nucleus is most dii-ectly concerned in the accumu-lation and location of these degeneration granules and vacuoles. Asthey accumulate about the centriole, the centrosphere gradually

expands and may attain a diameter equal to or even greater than the

nucleus, and thus the granules and vacuoles are pushed farther andfarther away. The exact cause of this enlargement is not known, butthe accumulation of granules, together with the increase in the amountof cytoplasm, suggests that the activities of the centrosphere are in

some way increased during the degeneration of the cell. Experimentshave shown that undoubtedly some relation exists between the size

of the centrosphere and the accumulation of foodstuffs in the egg, and,

also, that it is larger in cells which are about to divide than in the

resting cells. The question as to whether the granules and vacuoles

have anything to do with its expansion now suggests itself. Such anaccumulation would naturally alter the relationship between the

centriole and the periphery and interfere with the metabolic balance,

since the metabolic activities centered in the centriole probably dependupon a constant interchange of materials between the latter and the

periphery.

Two papers have been published concerning the distribution andformation of fat droplets. It has been shown by Dr. W. A. Mcintoshthat normally there is fat present in the epithelial cells of the stomachand intestine of the cat which is not associated with the phenomenonof fat absorption. This normal fat appears to vary, however, accord-

ing to some definite cycle of functional activity of the cells themselves,

at certain periods of which their lipoid content can be demonstratedhistologically, while at others this is not possible. The cats used bythis investigator were deprived of food for 24 to 28 hours, by whichtime all evidence of fat absorption in the lacteals had disappeared.

Pieces were taken from various portions of the alimentary tract and,

by improved histological methods, droplets of fat were demonstrated


in the glandular cells of the stomach, duodenum, and the lower part of

the small intestine, the amount varying in the different animals from

a trace to large quantities. From these observations it is apparent

that the normal presence of fat in these tissues must be taken into

account in all future experiments on fat absorption.

As one of the roles played by the mitochondria, it has been claimed

by several observers that they form fat droplets. Mrs. Margaret R.

Lewds has devised a method by which she has been able to show that

fat droplets unquestionably may form in a living cell without being

associated at any time with the mitochondria. To this end she stained

egg-yolk with Sudan III and, diluting it with Locke-Lewis solution,

placed it on 24-hour cultures of 6 to 9 day chick embryos. Since fat

combined with Sudan III, when fed to animals, passes through the

intestinal wall and is deposited in the body-cells in the form of red fat

globules, we should expect in tissue cultures to find it deposited in the

mitochondria before appearing as red fat globules in the cytoplasm;

that is, if the mitochondria are fat producers. Such, however, was not

the result. Within a few hours after the application of the Sudan III-

yolk solution, exceedingly small, reddish-yellow fat droplets appeared

in the cytoplasm of the cells entirely distinct from the mitochondria.

Some of the orange-colored droplets fused, others appeared in the

course of the next few hours, and in time the fat droplets originally

present in the cell had taken up the stain until it was impossible to

distinguish them from the new ones by their color. At no time did the

mitochondria contain orange-colored droplets, nor did they becomerounded, looped, or ring-shaped, or show any other supposed tran-

sitional forms.

In my report of last year I described the studies on the growth of

cross-striated muscle-fibers in tissue cultures by M. R. Lewis and W. H.

Lewis, and also another paper by the same authors on the contraction

phenomenon of smooth-muscle cells in hanging-drop preparations of

the amnion of the chick. These muscle investigations have been con-

tinued by Mrs. Lewis, who has completed a careful cytological study

of the development of the heart-muscle in chick embryos of 28 hours

to 4 days of incubation. By combining observations on fresh tissue

with the study of fixed and stained material, she has discovered impor-

tant facts regarding the development of cross-striations and their

relation to myofibrils, concerning which there has heretofore been a

wide divergence of opinion. The fixed material was prepared as a total

mount by treating the blastoderm with a solution of corrosive sub-

limate 5 per cent, with the addition of a little osmic acid, and the

extension of the heart was secured by the weight of the cover-slip.

In such preparations Mrs. Lewis found that within the individual

muscle-cell there is a gradual accumulation of some substance which,

upon fixation, gives the appearance of fibrils. The type of fibrils into


which this substance develops depends upon the treatment to which

it has been subjected. Thus, she was able to demonstrate complete

cross-striations in all the stages studied, up to 4 days, and that fibrils

are completely cross-striated from their first appearance

—

i.e., at the

stage of 10 myotomes, at which time it has heretofore been supposed

that there existed only threads and granules from which the fibrils are

formed. It is difficult to distinguish the heart-muscle before 10 myo-tomes when the heart forms a single tube composed of an outer layer

of flattened cells and an inner layer of endothehal cells. In the very

young embryos the muscle-tissue appeared to be in the form of a

syncytium; only a few fibrils were formed at this time, but as the heart

matured the number increased. In all ages they varied in wddth, from

that of a mitochondrium to the full diameter of the cell. They were

usuallj^ straight or shghtly bent, but in some places curved with the

outline of the cell. The wdng-muscle of the house-fly and the heart-

muscle of the chick, examined side by side, showed marked similarities

in their cross-striations. These striations are designated by Mrs.

Lewis as the dark hand, the light hand, and the gray hand, and are formedrespectively of Krause's membrane, hyaline substance, and sarcous

substance. The most pronounced was the fight band, which is fighter

than the cytoplasm, for the reason that it does not become as dense

upon fixation as other portions of the cell. The dark band is probably

quite dense, while the gray band is practically the same as the cyto-

plasm. The gray band was not noticeable as a special structure, but

the regular space between the two light bands indicated its presence.

The characteristic appearance of the bands remained practicaUy the

same wherever found, and whether wide or narrow. In certain roundcells the fibrils could not be found, but the bands were present, repre-

sented at times by granules of uniform size surrounded by a light area.

For the study of li\dng muscle the same method was used, except that

a drop of Locke solution was used in the place of the fixing solution. It

was thus possible to study the living heart, which continued to con-

tract for an hour or more. In such preparations no structures resem-

bling the fibrils in the fixed preparations were present in any of the

stages studied, not even in 6-day embryos which were used for com-parison. There were, in fact, no long threads of any kind. The mito-

chondria were abundant, as shown by the treatment with Janus green,

and, although in the form of threads and rods, they did not extend far

beyond the region of the nucleus. Cross-striations are present in

embry^os of 10 myotomes, but without careful search are difficult to

observe up to 2 days of incubation. The most active cells contain

them as parallel bands of fight and dark material which are lost as

soon as the vision penetrates below the surface of the cell. The cross-

striations are, however, readily observable in the living heart whenstained with Janus green, although in no instance were they as marked


in the living tissue as in fixed preparations. This is due to the fact that

they were not drawn into thick bundles (fibrils), but remained spreadout over the surface of the cell. It would seem probable, therefore,

that cross-striations are laid down in the heart-muscle cell coincident-

ally with the differentiation of the latter. Whereas fibrils are notpresent in living tissues, upon fixation the cross-striations are drawninto fibrils and appear as sharply marked structures, varying in formaccording to the fixative used and the method of treatment. As the

substance increases during development, naturally the appearance of

cross-striations becomes clearer the older the age studied. Anyattempt to formulate a theory of contraction based upon myofibrils, as

has been done in the past, we now know must prove unsatisfactory, at

least as regards the heart-muscle, since the structure upon which suchtheories have been based is not a part of the living heart-muscle cell.

Experiments have been made by Dr. J. R. Cash to determine the

effect of ether-vapor on various types of cells in tissue cultures. Hefinds that connective-tissue cells, muscle-buds, and nerve-fibers fromexplants of embryonic chick tissue, when exposed to ether, developwithin 1 to 3 minutes interesting vesicles which bulge out at points onthe surface of the cell. These vesicles rapidly change their shape and,

following sublethal amounts of ether-vapor, flow back and the cell

assumes its normal appearance. After slow ether death the vesicles

remain active, but when rapid death ensues the entire cell assumes arounded form and few if any vesicles appear. Similar changes are

readily produced by subjecting old cultures (3 daj^s) to markedlyhypotonic salt solution. Immediately (within 30 seconds) numerousvesicles appear and, after characteristically changing sliape for a short

time, flow back into the cell. Such changes are less readily producedin young, healthy cells. Similar vesicles have occasionally been notedin degenerating cultures (4 to 5 days). From these observations it

would seem that such vesicles are evidence of degeneration by whichchanges at points in the cell-membrane occur, allov/ing rapid imbibi-

tion of water. In the functionally active cell this change is probablyovercome by the internal metabolism of the cell.

In connection with his studies upon hydatiform degeneration.

Professor A. W. Meyer made a complete examination of 61 concep-

tuses, both normal and pathological, for the occurrence of the so-called

Hofbauer plasma-cells. These cells were originally thought by Hof-bauer to be characteristic of placentae from the fourth week on, and the

vacuoles present in them were regarded as having an assimilative anddigestive function. Both before and subsequent to Hofbauer there

have been many speculations as to the origin and significance of these

cells, the recent trend being toward the theory that they are mesen-chyme cells in process of disintegration. Dr. Meyer finds that they are

especially numerous in cases of hydatiform degeneration, though it

4

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY. Ill

does not necessarily follow that their presence in this condition is

constant. Of the 61 specimens examined, the cells were very numerousin 17, all of which showed hydatiform degeneration of the villi; 34 of

the 37 specimens which contained only a few were not identified as

hj^datiform, and therefore their presence can not be taken as indicative

of this condition, as has been maintained by some writers. On the

other hand, in not a single specimen devoid of Hofbauer cells could

evidence of hydatiform degeneration be found. They occurred morefrequently in pathological specimens than in those classed as normal,

which is what one might expect, in view of the fact that degenerative

changes of the stroma are more common in the former than in the

latter.

The cells were likewise more abundant in cases of advanced hydati-

form degeneration. Although most of the pathological specimens

showed maceration as well as histological degeneration, it was in those

in which the latter condition was the more pronounced that the

greater number of Hofbauer cells were observed. Therefore, a plausi-

ble hypothesis v/ould be that whatever causes the transformation of

mesenchyme cells into Hofbauer cells is also the cause of hydatiform

degeneration. There appeared to be nothing characteristic in the

distribution of the cells in the material examined, except that they are

more numerous where the mesenchyme was degenerating. In someinstances they lay in gaps and spaces in the mesenchyme of the chorion,

which rendered them quite conspicuous. They also lay in areas of

the chorionic membrane which had undergone degeneration. In somevilli they were mxore numerous than the mesenchyme cells themselves,

while in others they were totally absent. All stages of degeneration

were noted, even to complete disappearance of the cell. Signet-ring

forms were conmion, and nuclei in all stages of exti-usion and degenera-

tion were found. The cell boundaries were often ragged, the nuclei

crenated and pycnotic, the cytoplasm granular, vacuolated, webbed,or fenestrated, until nothing remained but a shadow form without atrace of nucleus. The poorly preserved cells were larger than the better

preserved ones. The smaller cells were quite circular in outline,

stained evenly, and possessed a non-granular cytoplasm with a cen-

trally placed nucleus. Binucleated and multinucleated forms (fusion

products) were also noted. In these the nuclei were unequal and moreoval in outline than the nucleus of the typical Hofbauer cell. Notinfrequently transitional forms between the well-preserved mesen-chyme and the vacuolated Hofbauer cell were observed, but as a rule

the two were readily distinguishable.

In the early period of degeneration the cells have a decidedly granu-

lar cytoplasm; hence the confusion with plasma-cells and their earlier

designation as granular wandering cells. Although Hofbauer foundthat in the fresh state they reacted to vital stains as did plasma-cells,


no one has sho>^Ti that they do so in fixed material. This difference,

however, niay be due to the degree of differentiation. Since the end-

form of the Hofbauer cell is a mere shadow, it may at times be impossi-

ble to determine from what type of cell it originated. This may also

account for the \'iew that these cells are degenerating blood-cells. Meyercould find no evidence to support the theory that they are of endo-

thehal origin. Although often Ijdng near or even in extravasations in

the villi, they never were found engorged with erythrocytes or pig-

mented. The material examined showed their presence in villi whoseblood-vessels contained no erythroblasts, and also in non-vascular

villi. Degenerating erythroblasts, identical in appearance to Hof-

bauer cells, are occasionally seen in the vessels and even in the heart

itself, but there is no proof that in the villi Hofbauer cells arise from

erythroblasts.

Undoubted instances of phagocytic Hofbauer cells were never

observed, although pseudo-phagocytosis was encountered; i.e., binu-

cleated cells in which one nucleus had undergone complete chroma-

tolysis, leaving only a nuclear membrane. Nevertheless, if they arise

from mesenchyme, Hofbauer cells may be potentially phagocytic, andfailure to find them so may be due to a lowered vitality in consequence

of degenerative changes. In some cases Hofbauer cells fuse and formlarge, multinucleated, and sometimes vacuolated complexes. Although

closely simulating phagocytosis, these degenerate fusion products can

not be regarded as living giant cells. They seem to be indicative of

degeneration and death rather than of regeneration and life.

While Hofbauer cells do not wander in the sense of the leucocyte,

they nevertheless do change their location decidedly. Therefore,

Meyer considers that the term wandering cell, being a non-committal

one, is less objectionable than either lipoid interstitial cells or giant

cells. Since they are most frequently found in degenerate villi andnot uncommonly lie in detritus, he regards these typical, vacuolated

elements as degeneration products. Cells morphologically identical

to them can be found elsewhere than in the localities mentioned, but

we are not thereby justified in designating these as Hofbauer cells,

unless we wish to extend the use of that term to degenerating and dis-

integrating cells of all origins.

In order to determine the distribution of clasmatocytes in the chick

embryo of about 7 days' incubation, Mr. C. S. Beck made living

mounts, consisting of small bits of tissue from the various organs

placed in Locke solution to which had been added a little neutral red.

He found that the clasmatocytes are present in the greatest number in

the subcutaneous tissues, where they lie everywhere enmeshed in the

loose reticulum. There are none in the epidermis. Thej^ are abundantin the submucosa of the alimentary tract, and are also numerous in the

subserous tissue. There are some among the muscle-bundles of the


gut. He found very few in the liver, the mesenephros, or the meta-

nephros, although they are abundant in the walls of the Wolffian duct.

There are some present in striped muscle and in the amnion. Themethod was unsatisfactory for the examination of the spinal cord andthe brain, although clasmatocytes seemed to be present in the region

of the choroid plexus and were numerous in the pia arachnoid. In the

eye a few were observed in the sclera, but none in the retina or in the

choroid coat.

Using cultures and fixed preparations of the subcutaneous tissue,

Mr. H. W. Vance has studied the finer structure of these same cells.

He has published a preliminary account of his observations, in which

he devotes particular attention to the centrosphere.

INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS.

There have been completed four studies dealing with the central

nervous system and special sense-organs, and one each concerning the

lympho-vascular system and skeletal system.

In a study previously published by me on the development of the

cartilaginous capsule of the ear in human embryos, I pointed out that

the changes in size and form which the capsule undergoes during its

development are accomplished, not only by progressive differentiation,

but also in part by a retrogressive differentiation of its constituent

tissues. The fact that certain areas of cartilaginous tissue revert to anearlier embryonic type and are subsequently redifferentiated into a

tissue of widely different histological character, as in the case of the

otic capsule, is a factor of much significance. Such a process of retro-

gressive change, combined with redifferentiation of the same tissue

greatly increases the facilities for and the range of certain structural

adjustments that occur in many regions in the development of the

human embryo. Reference was made in the last report to the workdone in this laboratory by Professor Kunitomo, in which he showsanother instance of the same process in the case of the tail and caudal

end of the spinal cord in human embryos. Working on the samestructures, it occurred to me that it would be possible to determine in

the formation of the filum terminale to what extent we are dealing with

the dedifferentiation of the caudal end of the medullary tube, and to

what extent mth mechanical disproportion between the growth of the

medullary tube and that of the vertebral column.

In younger stages the spinal cord and the vertebral column lie along-

side of each other in a metameric manner, corresponding in position

segment for segment. Owing to their disproportion in growth, there

occurs a relative displacement of their segment-levels; for instance, the

thirtieth segment of the cord comes to lie opposite the twentieth seg-

ment of the vertebral column. The segment levels of the vertebral

column are, of course, evident; in the spinal cord they are just as


plainly marked by the attachment of the nerve-roots, for these becomesecurely attached to the cord before the displacement begins and thus

permanently mark the various segmental levels. In the case of each

segment of the spinal cord there are two fixed topographical points:

(1) the spinal ganglion, which is held in the intervertebral foramen andregisters the original position of the segment relative to the vertebral

column; and (2) the place at which the dorsal root is attached to the

cord and which moves as the cord moves. By locating these points

for the different stages, one can determine the exact elongation of the

nerve-roots, and this in turn is the index of the relative displacement

of the spinal cord as regards the vertebral column. Conversely, it will

be seen that the alteration not explained by mechanical displacement

must be attributed to the retrogressive changes referred to.

22l.mm (xi»)

Topographical relations of caudal end of spinal cord in the human fetus from the eighth to the

twenty-fifth week, showing formation of the filum terminale. By comparing these stages, onecan determine the rate and extent of caudal displacement of the vertebral column relative to theterminal ventricle and the attachment of the sacral nerve-roots, which constitute definite andfixed points on the spinal cord. In each case the dorsal root of the first sacral nerve is drawn in,

and the point of attachment of the dorsal roots of the other sacral ner\^es is shown by straight

lines. The twenty-fifth to the twenty-ninth vertebrae were regarded as sacral vertebra and are

shown in stipple. The fetuses are listed in the Carnegie Collection as follows: No. 75, 30 mm.;No. 1656, 67 mm.; No. 1673, 111 mm.; No. 1.395, 221 mm.

In this way I was able to determine that in the human embryo the

greater part of the coccygeal and post-coccygeal cord—that is, the

part caudal to the thirtieth segment—undergoes dedifferentiation, the

more cephalic part of it persisting as the ventriculus terminalis and the

more caudal part redifferentiating into a fibrous strand—the filum

terminale—with the coccygeal medullary vestige at the tip. The first

29 segments of the spinal cord are not affected by this process of


dedifferentiation, but continue in a progressive development. "WTien

the embryo reaches a length of 30 mm. there begins a disproportion

in the rate of growth as between the vertebral column and the spinal

cord, the former elongating more rapidly than the latter, as may be

seen in the accompanying figure. This results in a relative displace-

ment of the two, the ventriculus terminalis in the 221 mm. fetus (25

weeks) lying 9 segments higher than it did originally and, by the time

the adult form is attained, 2 more segments have been added to the

displacement. We may say, therefore, that the filum terminale repre-

sents that portion of the spinal cord caudal to the second coccygeal

segment (thirty-first segment), which has undergone dedifferentiation

and has finally become converted into a fibrous strand. This strand,

like the sacral nerve-roots, elongates by interstitial growth in adapta-

tion to the ascending displacement of the spinal cord. It is of interest

to note that the caudal tip of the dural sac maintains its relation to the

vertebrae rather than to the spinal cord and remains attached to the

filum terminale in the sacral region at a more or less fixed point.

WTiile in Baltimore, Professor 0. Van der Stricht completed a study

of the development of the tunnel space, pillar cells, and the Nuel spaces

in the organ of Corti, based upon histological preparations taken fromyoung cats, bats, and common and white rats. This work is, in a way,

an extension of that published by Professor Van der Stricht in volumeXII of the Contributions to Embryology, and consists of a careful

morphological study of these structures, concerning the developmentof which almost nothing was knowTi. He finds that the tunnel space

develops around the spiral nerve-bundle. Originally it is represented

by an intercellular cleft, the fluid contents of which are elaborated in

the vacuolated cytoplasm of the pillar cells and discharged into the

adjoining space. A part of this secreting protoplasm undergoes aprocess of liquefaction, thus enlarging the cleft and increasing its

fluid content. As the cleft enlarges the cytoplasm of the intermediate

portion of the pillars decreases through a process of secretion andcytolysis until it is reduced almost to its fibrillar apparatus for support.

The author describes in detail the subsequent development of the

pillar cells and of their heads. The spaces of Nuel, like the tunnel,

arise as intercellular clefts within which is accumulated a fluid dis-

charge derived from the cytolysis and liquefaction of the adjacent

apparatus. The fluid contents of the tunnel and of the first space of

Nuel communicate ^ith those of the second, third, and fourth spaces

of Nuel. The contained fluid of all these anastomosing spaces is

separated from the otic fluid of the cochlear duct by the thin mem-branous roofs of these interstices. Professor Van der Strict regards this

apparatus as designed for the propagation of vibratory waves from the

basilar membrane to the tectorial membrane contained in the cochlear

canal.


An important study has been made by Dr. C. R. Essick on the

structure and behavior of the arachnoidal tissue surrounding the cen-

tral nervous system. He has shown that when particles of foreign

matter are injected into the subarachnoid cavity of a living animal

a complete transformation occurs on the part of the cells lining the

space. They undergo hypertrophy, and, changing from fixed elements

to free-living cells in the form of macrophages, undertake the workof removing the debris. In other words, this is an instance where cells

with a specialized function revert to the more primitive role of uni-

cellular organisms and engage in phagocytosis and amoeboid wander-

ing. This reaction on the part of the arachnoid cells may be brought

about by the injection of inert particles, such as carbon or cinnabar,

as well as by active matter, such as fragmented red blood-corpuscles

or dead leucocytes. The most striking results were obtained by the

injection of blood that had been partially laked with distilled water.

Using cats for the experiments, a hollow needle was introduced through

the occipito-atlantoid ligament and another into the lumbar sub-

arachnoid space. In this way the cerebro-spinal fluid surrounding the

spinal cord was displaced by laked blood. Within 6 hours this induced

a sterile meningitis characterized by a marked increase in the leucocyte

content and evidence of active phagocytosis of the fragments of the

red blood-cells. At the end of 48 hours the increase of leucocytes in the

cerebro-spinal fluid had subsided and microscopic examination of the

meninges revealed little evidence of the injection of laked blood. Thebehavior of the cells lining the arachnoid space following the injection

of laked red blood-cells is best studied by dissecting out tha arachnoid

and studying it in aqueous solutions, with or without stain. In such

preparations the protoplasm of the arachnoid cells, which is normally

thin and hardly demonstrable, increases in amount, so that the cell

projects sharply from the trabecula. The nucleus becomes circular in

outline and assumes an eccentric position. Some cells show small inclu-

sions of fragmented erythrocytes, while others are gorged with them.

As the cells further enlarge, their attachment to the trabeculse

becomes more and more restricted, until they bud off as free amoeboid

macrophages, in which state they tend to become still further dis-

tended with erythrocytes and pigment. Histologically these cells,

even before their detachment is completed, are identical with the large

mononuclear elements which are found in the cerebro-spinal fluid in

large numbers 48 hours after the onset of the reaction. Under normal

conditions there occur a few of these large mononuclear cells in the

cerebro-spinal fl.uid, and it is probable that they result in a similar wayfrom the stimulus provided by the small quantity of tissue debris

which normally finds its way into the subarachnoid space. While this

reaction of the arachnoid cells is best followed on the trabeculse, the


cells covering the membranous portion of the outer surface of the pia

mater undergo the same reaction. All portions show the same degree

of response, and the only requisite seems to be actual physical contact

with the particulate matter. Where the collections of d6bris are thick,

almost every cell shows signs of swelling, while adjoining regions appearrelatively quiet. The detachment of the arachnoid cells apparently

does not result in a true denuding of the surface, as the protoplasmic

bodies of the adjacent cells, which have not detached themselves

immediately, close over the gap. The activity in this replacement of

cells that have budded off is evidenced by the numerous mitotic figures

among the cells covering the trabeculee. Similar experiments werecarried on with suspensions of cinnabar and carbon, but phagocytosis

was not so vigorous as with the erythrocytes, as the granules are

slightly toxic and can not be used for food. The process is consequently

slower and it may be months before all the particles are removed. Noris the number of macrophages so great as in the experiments with laked

blood, although one sees the same swelling of the protoplasm andphagocytosis of granules by the cells found on the trabeculse.

Regarding the fate of those cells which have separated themselves

from their normal environment, no additional information was obtained

beyond that reported by Quincke, who showed that similar cells con-

taining insoluble inert matter slowly wander out along the nerve-

trunks and larger vessels. The soluble matter in Dr. Essick's experi-

ments with laked blood was promptly digested and only the iron

pigment remained. He found no evidence that the free cells, after leav-

ing the trabecule, again assumed their former position.

Reference has been made in a previous report to the work of Pro-

fessor Lewis H. Weed on the development of the cerebro-spinal spaces,

and his studies showing that the arachnoid vilh are essential structures

in the return of the cerebro-spinal fluid into the blood-stream and that

the major portion of the cranial subarachnoid space is drained by meansof these structures. As a continuation of these investigations Dr.

Weed has conducted a series of experiments with a view to an ex-

planation of those poorly understood cases of internal hydrocephalus

in which the obstruction to the flow of the cerebro-spinal fluid occurs

within the subarachnoid space. He has found that it is possible to

produce a typical interna,! hydrocephalus by experimentally causing asterile meningitis. The best results were obtained by injecting into

the subarachnoid space, through the occipito-atlantoid ligament, asuspension of lampblack in Ringer's solution. Young kittens in whichthe bony plates of the skull are not yet united, when treated in this

way, rapidly (4 to 10 days) develop typical cUnical symptoms suchas are seen in the more chronic cases of this disease in children, the

intracerebral pressure being compensated for by a conspicuous en-

largement of the head. Similar results were obtained by injecting the


lampblack into the ventricles of the brain. Other insoluble granules,

such as cinnabar and lycopodium, were used as an injection medium,but none of them gave rise to internal hydrocephalus. There also

seems to be a difference in the reaction following the use of different

qualities of lampblack.

Post-mortem examination of the kittens surviving 10 days or moreshows practically identical lesions in all cases. There is extremedilatation of the lateral and third ventricles, with distortion of the walls

and marked thinning of the cerebral cortex, typical of the condition

found clinically in children. The distribution of the granules is

principally within the basilar and spinal subarachnoid space, with asmaller spread over the cerebral and cerebellar cortices. Apparently,

the obstruction resulting from these injections is due to the aggre-

gation of the granules into an impervious mass, the essential and ulti-

mate matting together being accomplished by the inflammatory

process which subsequently supervenes. Similar results were obtained

with adult cats, though here there was no compensatory enlargement

of the skull, and the results were therefore less typical.

By means of silver nitrate, forced through the omental vessels underhigh pressure immediately after death. Dr. H. R. Casparis has beenable to clearly demonstrate the presence of lymph-vessels in the rabbit,

cat, dog, and man. The silver solution passed through the walls of

the arteries, invading the structures in the perivascular areas. Thelymphatic endothelium was readily distinguishable from that of the

veins and arteries, but in none of the experiments were the lymphatic

vessels numerous. All attempts to inject them with color suspensions

proved futile. The author then made a series of experiments to test

absorption in anesthetized animals. The omentum was drawn out

through a midline incision and kept immersed in carmine solution for

varying lengths of time while absorption was taking place. All

lymph-glands through which drainage might occur were removed,

sectioned, and examined, but no channels of absorption were found.

Smears of lymph withdrawn from the cisterna chyli and the thoracic

duct were then made, and in each experiment a few granules (never

very many) were found. Similar results were met with by other

methods. The author was thus able to confirm the presence of

lymphatics in the omentum and their function as channels of absorp-

tion from the peritoneal cavity. He has further shown that drainage

from these lymphatics takes place into the cisterna chyli and onthrough the thoracic duct.

The canalis basilaris chordae is generally regarded as a persisting

trace of the cranial part of the chorda dorsalis which usually dis-

appears after the third month of intrauterine life. It has been re-

ported more frequently in children, which would indicate obliteration


during growth, but that obliteration is not the invariable rule is shownby Dr. A. H. Schultz, who reports its presence in a very old humanskull. The widest and most typical canal was found in the skull of awhite man 40 years of age and a narrower one in the skull of a white

woman 75 years of age. It was noted also in a Filipino 30 years old,

but in this case was partially obliterated. In one instance the con-

dition was associated with a persistent sutura occipitalis transversa,

forming an os Incse verum. The posterior end of the canaHs basilaris

was found in 5 fetal and infant skulls, and in one of these was combinedwith the likewise rare persistence of a canalis cranio-pharyngeus. Thesetwo abnormal canals have several features in common : both are rem-nants of embryonic structures which normally disappear during the

first half of intrauterine life; both are noted more frequently in children

than in adults, and when present are usually partially obliterated. It

is highly improbable that the canaHs basilaris can be regarded as anatavism; it is much more likely to be due to an early or rapid ossifica-

tion coincident with the tardy disappearance of the chorda dorsalis.

More data are necessary, however, before definite conclusions as to its

phylogenetic role can be reached.

Mention may be made here of the experiments of Dr. Schultz to

determine the effect of formalin solutions upon the size and weight of

fetuses during prolonged periods of preservation. He followed these

changes in a series of human fetuses and also, for purposes of compari-son, in a series of pig fetuses. The latter were used to detect anypossible influence which the condition of the specimen at the time it is

preserved might have upon later changes in formalin. Some of thepigs were preserved in an absolutely fresh state; others (from the samelitter) were exposed to the air for 15 hours, and still others were keptin water for 3 days before being preserved. The condition of thespecimens in the latter two series simulated respectively the state of afetus that dies some time before it is aborted and that of a fetus that

is not placed in formalin immediately after it is aborted. In neither

of these series was there any apparent effect upon the later changes in

size, a fact which tends to confirm the conclusion, already drawn froma study of human material, that a fetus in good condition will undergoas much change in formalin as will one in poor condition. The weight,

however, increases if the specimen is preserved fresh, as contrasted to

a decrease in one preserved in poor condition. After 9 months of

preservation the sitting height of the human fetus was found to havedecreased on an average of 2.5 per cent, while the length and breadthof the head increased 0.9 and 4.8 per cent respectively. The indi-

vidual variations were quite marked. The greatest and most rapidchanges occurred in the first few weeks of preservation. The absolute

size appears to have no influence upon the relative amount of change in

the measurements studied.


CLINICAL AND PATHOLOGICAL STUDIES.

For the purpose of securing more definite information regarding

some of the factors in the occurrence of spontaneous abortion, a study

has been made during the past year by Dr. J. W. Harris of a series of

cases connected with the 1918 epidemic of influenza. Owing to the

severity and wide occurrence of the epidemic, and to the fact that it

was especially prevalent among young adults of the child-bearing age,

it offered the best opportunity we have perhaps ever had to study the

extent to which the progress of pregnancy is interfered with by an acute,

severe, infectious disease. A questionnaire was prepared which

included data as to the race and age of the individual, the month of

pregnancy, whether the disease was complicated by pneumonia, the

outcome for the mother (recovery or death), and whether or not preg-

nancy was interrupted. Copies of this blank were sent to all of the

physicians of the State of Maryland and also to members of the

American Gynecological Society, the American Association of Gyne-cologists and Obstetricians, and the local obstetric societies in four

of the larger cities. This met with a most satisfactory response on the

part of the physicians, and 1,350 cases of influenza occurring in preg-

nant women were reported in full detail. Of these, 791 were from the

State of Maryland, and hence the great majority of the cases studied

ran their course under the same general conditions. In race the

patients were predominantly white, the proportion being 1,266 white,

82 negro, and 2 Japanese. In making this statistical study the assump-

tion was made that these particular cases were serious enough to

require medical attention, and, for the most part, did not include the

very mild infections. It is to be assumed further that the material

gathered is not representative of the number of cases falling within

the first two months of pregnancy, when gestation might easily escape

the knowledge of the physician.

With these two reservations the results of the study show, in the

first place, that in the cases of influenza which were not complicated bypneumonia the pregnancy was interrupted in 26 per cent, the fre-

quency being slightly less marked during the middle third of preg-

nancy. This ratio is not greatly in excess of the frequency one would

expect under ordinary conditions, so it is probable that many of these

abortions would have occurred in the absence of the disease; or, at

least, the disease may have served only as a terminal factor in bringing

about the abortion of an ovum already pathologic. On the other hand,

when the influenza is complicated by pneumonia, the frequency of

abortion is doubled, being 52 per cent in 585 cases, and is still greater

(62 per cent) in the cases ending fatally.

In view of the prevailing opinion that the presence of influenzal

pneumonia nearly always causes an interruption of pregnancy, it is of

interest to note the surprising fact that in 38 per cent of the fatal


cases the patients died without aborting. This would indicate that

when the ovum and the placentation are normal it requires an extremely

severe disturbance in the condition of the mother to bring about the

termination of pregnancy.

As regards the course and prognosis of influenza in pregnant women,it was found that about one-half of all the patients developed pneu-monia, and of these about 50 per cent died, giving a gross mortality of

27 per cent. In those developing pneumonia the mortality was some-what higher in the last 3 months of pregnancy, reaching its highest

point (61 per cent) in the last month. Where the disease is compli-

cated by abortion or premature labor the prognosis appears to be moregrave. In 383 cases of pneumonia in which pregnancy was not inter-

rupted, the mortality was 41 per cent, whereas in 395 cases in whichit was interrupted there was a mortality of 63 per cent.

Professor A. W. Meyer has made a special study of double-ovumtwins in which the two embryos present marked differences in size anddevelopment. He found four specimens of this character in the CarnegieCollection, and his examination shows that in each case one twin died

and was retained until the birth of the other, which resulted in a con-

siderable difference in their apparent ages. The discrepancies in size

ran as follows: No. 587 {a) empty chorion, (6) cyhndrical embryo 7mm.; No. 788 (a) stunted embryo 17 mm., (6) nodular embryo 3 mm.;No. 1840 (a) normal embryo 31 mjn., (6) normal embryo 15 mm.; No.2036 (a) normal embryo 87 mm., (6) macerated embryo 23 mm. Simi-

lar discrepancies in the size of the chorions may or may not occur.

It is clear that such cases might easily be classed with the alleged

instances of superfetation found in the literature, although undoubtedlyit would be a misinterpretation of the facts. Dr. Meyer points outthat it is such cases of twin pregnancy that are responsible for theprevalent belief in the occurrence of superfetation in v/omen, for theexistence of which he finds no real evidence.

In addition to the light which it throws upon superfetation, thepreceding paper is of importance in connection with the question of

retention of the chorion after the death of the embryo, and Dr. Meyerhas extended his studies to the consideration of this subject. Althoughthere is abundant evidence of the phenomenon of retrogression andpartial as well as total intrauterine absorption of the conceptus in

several of the mammals, the literature has thus far shown no conclu-

sive evidence regarding its occurrence in man. Marked maceration,putrefaction, and dissolution of the human fetus are well known, butcases of intrauterine autolysis and absorption of the entire conceptushave never heretofore been reported. Retention of the conceptus after

the death of the embryo is extremely common and is the usual thingin unprovoked abortions. Of 2,000 cases in the Carnegie Collection,

12.8 per cent showed advanced intrauterine disintegration, only villi


being left. Dr. Meyer describes 6 specimens in which there is clear

evidence of almost complete intrauterine absorption. In one of these

there remained only a few vestiges of syncytium and trophoblast

which had been aborted in an entire and intact decidua. The condition

of the decidua shows that a considerable regeneration of the endome-

trium had occurred. Also, in tubal and ovarian pregnancies there

occurs a similar lysis and absorption of many of the specimens.

The possibility of the disintegration and spontaneous disappearance

of the conceptus in ovarian pregnancy modifies the generally accepted

criteria as to what constitutes an authentic case of this supposedly rare

condition. If such absorption does occur, as is maintained in the

paper of Meyer and Wynne, then the entire absence of remnants of

the conceptus does not positively exclude a case from the category

of true ovarian pregnancy. These authors regard most of the cases of

so-called hematocele, hematoma, blood-cyst, and rupture of the ovaries

as possible cases of ovarian pregnancy in disguise. They include in

their study the report of a case in which the clinical and histological

data are particularly complete and which, from an anatomical stand-

point, is wholly unequivocal.

Continuing her investigations on spina bifida, Dr. Theodora Wheeler

has extended them to include the various rudimentary forms of the

anomaly, as characterized by incomplete closure of the dorsal verte-

bral laminse. From an examination of 1,000 X-ray plates of the lum-

bar region and several thousand cervical vertebrce in the National

Museum at Washington, together with cases reported in the literature,

Dr. Wheeler finds that the order of frequency of incomplete closure

in the various regions is as follows: (1) first sacral; (2) entire sacrum;

(3) last lumbar; (4) atlas.

In this connection reference may be made also to a paper published

by Mr. S. T. Wallis (^uU on a fetal spina bifida monster. This speci-

men, although having a menstrual age of only 79 days, presents abnor-

malities of brain, spinal cord, viscera, and skeleton generally supposed

to be characteristic of only much older monsters. The author thus adds

further evidence to the ^'iew tliat the cause of spina bifida dates back

to the early part of pregnancy.

DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION.*

C. B. Davenport, Director.

The work of the Station for Experimental Evolution has during

1919 emerged from its war status of comparative quiescence in its

strict work to one of renewed activity. Many of the staff who have

returned from army service are doing so with keener zest for the workthat they regretfully laid aside and a resolution to bring to fruition

many matters that had been long developing. On the other hand,

the expense and waste of war still have their effect, and will for years

to come, upon the cost of carrying on scientific work.

Among the principal advances of the year have been

:

(1) The completion of the evidence that the offspring of alcoholized

rats, to the second generation, are less capable of learning than the

controls. This suggests an alteration of the germ-plasm by alcohol.

(2) The evidence of a certain amount of testicular degeneration in

consequence of the use of alcohol.

(3) Further evidence, by the method of correlation, of the inefficiency

of "selection" after the gametic factorial composition has been simpli-

fied in the earliest generations.

(4) Evidence that "staleness" of sperm does not influence the sex-

ratio in pigeons.

(5) Statistical demonstration of the great increase in the proportion

of males born from "hybrid" as opposed to "pure" matings in man.

(6) Statistical evidence that more still-births occur in "pure" than

in "hybrid" matings; and that in "pure" matings there are relatively

more males in first-born children than in later births.

(7) The discovery that species of Portulaca, like some other plant

species, break up into numerous biotypes, including a dwarf form,

and that they show abundant bud mutations.

(8) The dwarf Portulaca is a Mendelian recessive ; so too is the weep-

ing character of a mulberry tree as opposed to the erect form.

(9) The demonstration of four factors for color in dogs, one occur-

ring in a triple allelomorph series.

(10) A demonstration of the chemical lack of differentiation in the

brains of ataxic pigeons.

(11) Demonstration of the law of osmotic concentration of phanero-

gamic epiphytes as compared with their hosts.

(12) The determination of correlations between age, weight, andpulse-rate and body surfaces, on the one hand, with each other, and,

on the other hand, with heat production and gaseous exchange, for

men, women, and children.

(13) Statistical demonstration of the non-validity or insufficiency

of the body-surface law of human basal metabolism.

* Situated at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York123


REPORTS ON INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS.

THE GERM-PLASM AND ITS MODIFICATION.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE CHROMOSOME GROUPS IN DIPTERA.

Dr. IMetz has resumed his studies on spermatogenesis in Drosophila

and other Diptera. Studies on D. virilis and on two species of Asilidse

were almost completed by September.

COMPARATIVE GENETICAL STUDIES OF DROSOPHILA.

During the past year, Dr. Weinstein, while caring for the mutantstocks, analyzed the relationship between certain of the mutant char-

acters in Drosophila virilis that had not previously been fully analyzed.

Since Dr. Metz has taken up the work, considerable progress has beenmade in obtaining new mutant characters in Drosophila virilis, D.obscura, and D. willistoni and in analyzing their mode of inheritance

in accordance with the plan outlined previously for ascertaining the

chromosomal and genetical relationships between different species of

Drosophila. He states that 23 new mutant characters were found in

the five months, March to July inclusive.

MODIFIABILITY OF THE GERM-PLASM BY ALCOHOL.

The effect of alcohol on the capacity for forming habits (as a test of

intelligence) and the recurrence of the effects in later generations of

the alcoholized ancestors have been the subjects of Dr. E. C Mac-Dowell's research for several years. This year there is no new experi-

mental work to report. Dr. MacDoweli reports as follows

:

"During four years data were continuously being collected; very little timefor their summarization, or even primary tabulation, was availalDle. It hasseemed important to complete the tabulation and the analysis of these exten-

sive masses of data and publish the results before again becoming too deeplyinvolved in the carrying on of new experiments. Besides their significance

for the primary question as to the modifiabihty of the germ-plasm, these datawill provide evidence upon such problems as growth, the relative signifi-

cance of different criteria for judging animal behavior, and the immediateeffects of alcohol upon mental and physical traits. In view of the large

amount of time and money that has been spent upon the collection of these

data, the greatest possible use should be made of them. The hazards of

deciding mental problems in terms of numbers are great enough in them-selves, without leaving any suspicion that the conclusions may depend uponthe special statistical treatment employed. To guard against this danger,it will be necessary to treat the data in various ways, using different combi-nations and methods of averaging. The intensive study of the individual

record-sheets showing the track followed in each trail of every rat will serveas an important check upon the statistical results. The conclusions reachedfrom the study of the relative value of the various criteria employed will

have a close bearing upon the general conclusion. Three different experi-

mental methods have been employed, and the degree of success in each one is

measurable in various ways. When Miss Vicari left this laboratory to enter

the University of Minnesota under Professor J. B. Johnston, she took with

DEPARTMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL EVOLUTION. 125

her a set of these rats in order to preserve the hnes and to obtain later gener-

ations. Various adverse conditions defeated this purpose. She reports uponthis attempt as follows:

" 'An attempt was made during the year of 1918-19 to continue the alco-

hohzation of Dr. MacDowell's strain of rats into the third generation for

further study to be taken up after the war. The first and second alcoholized

generations and their offspring having been studied, the aim was to breed for

the third alcoholized generation, from which it was hoped to obtain material

for further study of the effect of alcohol on the germ-plasm. With this point

in view, a few of his rats were transferred August 18, 1918, to the Institute of

Anatomy of the University of Minnesota, where I could see to the experimentalpart of the work during my stay at that institution. This was made possible

through the kindness of Dr. C. M. Jackson, who granted all the housingnecessary for the animals and the help of the service-boy.

" 'Three pairs of alcoholized rats of alcohoUzed parents with their respective

controls made the material for obtaining the third generation of this strain.

In addition to these a group of 5 test rats (non-alcoholic, but of alcohoUzedparents and alcoholized grandparents) was transferred for the study of fertil-

ity. This group had been trained in the circular maze and in the multiple

choice or trial-and-error problem. Still another group was added. Thisconsisted of a htter of 5 rats (Fi) which were the result of a cross of white withpink-tipped hair. This character I had noticed in Dr. MacDowell's stockduring the year 1918. In seeing the material while on a visit to this Station,

Dr. Castle suggested that this trait could be a possible allelomorph of albinism,

or that such coloration of albino hair might be a skin secretion and not a true

hair-pigment. The aim was to carry the cross into F2 to see if the trait of

pink-tipped hairs is inherited and in what manner."'At Minnesota the rats did not fare well. After a strenuous journey

they had to readjust themselves to new environmental conditions, such as

temperature, cage conveniences, and a change of diet. They had been ac-

customed to receive a daily ration of wheat bread soaked in fresh milk and all

the dog bread they wanted. This dog bread was a special make, which,

according to the chemist, Mr, Halloway, is a well-balanced food for animalsor men, and hence had the necessary vitamines. The change was from this

diet to bran bread soaked in fresh milk and dry corn. After a month of this

diet the rats had lost from 10 to 22 per cent in gross body-weight. Themortahty was high, and in order to save the stock their former diet wasrestored in November. From the three pairs of alcoholized rats offspring

were obtained and four matings made. These were alcoholized from the timeof weaning (28 days), but no offspring were had from them, though they lived

to maturity. During the winter an epidemic of a digestive disorder took afew of the rats away. Of the second and third group of rats, breeding wascontinued and the results of fertihty and color inheritance recorded.

" 'The hope of saving the alcoholized strain was not realized, principallj'" onaccount of the lack of reproduction, the mortality, and the environmentalconditions.'

"This summer all the time of Miss Vicari has been devoted to the rat data.

To obtain a preliminary survey of the results bearing most critically upon the

question of the inheritance of the changes caused by the administration of

alcohol, the work has been focused upon the rats whose grandparents only

had been given the alcohol treatment, and upon the controls, rats whosegrandparents were normal, the brothers and sisters of the alcoholized grand-parents of the rats under consideration. A year ago (Year Book, 1918, pp.109-114) Miss Vicari gave the preHminary summaries for a group of 5 such


rats with their normal controls. In this case there appeared clearly a differ-

ence between the two sets of rats. The test animals (from alcoholized grand-parents) were inferior to the controls by various criteria. We are able to

present, at this time, similar preliminary summaries of 36 more rats from like

experiments—18 test rats from alcohohzed grandparents and normal parents,

18 controls from normal grandparents and normal parents.

"Two tables, giving the results from the training on the maze and themultiple-choice apparatus respectively are given. It must be noted that these

figures are subject to correction upon subsequent checking. The numbersin the body of the tables are the averages of all the individuals in one family.

In each case the number of rats included in the average is shown. By anexperiment is meant a litter of test rats and the corresponding control litter.

The averages of 'all experiments' are the primary averages of the individuals'

averages in all experiments.

"Table 1, the results of the training on the multiple-choice apparatus, gives

the comparative averages of the test and control litters under five different

experimental situations as indicated in the first column. The averages for

Table 1.

—

Comparison of rats from alcoholized grandparents with normal controls,

of results of training on nmltiple-choice apparatus.Summary

Nature of

training.


'training proper' (learning to enter the first door to the right or left of a

variable series of opened doors) are based upon 100 trials per rat; 'test set-ups'

(a different variable series of opened doors requiring the same solution) are

based upon 20 trials per rat; the averages for 'memory' are based upon 40trials per rat. Each series of trials may be judged in two ways—upon the

number of times a rat chooses the correct door first and the number of wrongchoices he makes on the average before choosing the correct door. Accord-

ingly, the table is divided into two parts, the two sides being different methodsof describing the same reactions of the same rats. In the columns headed'Controls better' the difference between the test and the control averages is

shown with a plus sign when the controls have more correct first choices andfewer wrong choices.

"In table 2, the results of the training on the maze, the right and left halves

represent the two different experimental situations, and the first columngives three different methods of judging the same reactions. The meanings of

these headings is fairly obvious.

Table 2.—


same time, it is possible to obtain a fair opinion as to the general nature of thefinal conclusion from these figures. The basis of the interpretation of thesetables must be the comparison of the test and control htters within one experi-

ment. In averaging different experiments together, the differing numbers of

individuals from different lines introduces a source of error that may seriously

modify the figures obtained. Such averages are only given to help obtain arough general impression of the nature of the results, but only by followingone set of rats through the 10 criteria of comparison for the results of themultiple-choice problem and the 6 criteria for the maze results can a correctimpression of the meaning of these numbers be obtained. It is obvious thatall these criteria do not bear equal weight; 'training proper,' for instance,bears much more weight than either 'test set-ups' of 'memory,' on account of

the larger numbers of trials involved. In the maze all criteria are based onthe same numbers of trials, but it is a question whether speed or the numberof perfect trials should have more or less weight, etc.

Table 3.

—

Summary of the comparisons given in tables 1 and 2 oj the four main ex-periments.

[The capital letter signifies the superior litter. T =tests superior; C =controls superior.]

Litter.


the memorj^-maze and in the first half of the multiple-choice training indicate

more than chance? If so, does the possession of alcoholic ancestors in general

tend to favor the success of rats judged on these criteria? This last questionis answered by the comparisons in experiments 23 and 24, in which the tests

are better in the maze. In all but two of the 16 criteria, some cases havebeen found where the tests are better; the two in which they have not beenfound are in the left-hand problem with the test set-ups in the multiple-choice

apparatus when judged by correct choices and in the multiple-choice, memory,when judged by wrong choices.

"When the averages for individual rats in aU experiments are averaged for

each criterion, the sign of the difference is plus in every case, that is, favoringthe controls. Many of these differences are not large, and when the test of

the probable error is apphed, it appears that only in 6 cases may they beclaimed to be statistically significant, that is, probably due to other causesthan chance. In only 1 case are the different criteria for the same actual

performances significant; this is in the left-hand training proper on the multiple-

choice apparatus. There are 2 other cases of differences that are significant

on the multiple-choice apparatus, namely, left-hand test set-ups, when judgedby the number of correct fu'st choices (when judged by the number of wrongchoices the difference is so small that it falls witliin the range of chancevariations), and the memory trials when judged by the number of wrongchoices. The two significant differences found in the maze criteria occur in

the training proper when judged by the number of errors per day (these samereactions of the rats when judged by the time and the number of perfect

trials do not show significant differences) and in the memory trials, whenjudged by the number of perfect trials.

"At first glance the result seems clear and the conclusion to be drawn fairly

obvious—that the alcohohzed 'test' strains are mentally inferior; but, as hasbeen indicated, the correct interpretation can not be finally made directly

from these averages. Much detailed study wiU be required before anygenerahzation can be drawn."

CYTOLOGICAL STUDIES OF ALCOHOLIZED RATS.

The study of the cytological condition of the testes of the malealcoholized and the control rats produced in the course of these experi-

ments was made by Dr. Ezra Allen, of the Wistar Institute of Anatomyand Biology, and results of the study were published in the AnatomicalRecord for April 1919. Very briefly, his findings are:

" There is testicular degeneration in both alcohohzed and normal rats, butthis is much greater in the alcoholics."

In addition to the alcoholized rats, Allen used, for the sake of com-parison, rats that had been raised on a diet deficient in -water-soluble

vitamines, but found the same sort of degeneration as in the alcoholized

rats. Other investigators have found the same type of degeneration

as a result of subjection of the gland to the X-ray. It appears then

that similar states of degeneration may arise in the testes of rats

through subjection to the X-ray, through deficiency in vitamines andthrough alcoholization. Allen concludes that the immediate cause

affecting growth and cell-division of the germ-cells is identical in all

three cases.


NEUROLOGICAL STUDIES OF ALCOHOLIZED RATS.

In order to see if there was any structural difference in the brains of

alcohoHzed rats or their descendants that were slow in learning and the

brains of the controlled series, Miss Vicari has undertaken histological

studies of the brains of the two sets. The comparison of the histo-

logical studies of alcoholized and normal rats bears the same relation

to their capacity for learning as a comparison of the structure of the

testes in the two groups bears to the subject of growth and fertility.

Miss Vicari makes the following statement concerning her work

:

"Brains from about 20 of Dr. MacDowell's rats, including tests and con-trols, were collected before leaving this institution. They were fixed for thestudy of degeneration. In Dr. J. B. Johnston's laboratory at the Universityof Minnesota this material was dehydrated, cleared, and blocked. I wish to

express my appreciation of the suggestions of Dr. Johnson and of his adviceas to the treatment and possible method for the histological study of this

material; also of his courtesy in offering the use of his laboratory for thepreparation of this material."

The preliminary results of the studies of MacDowell upon alco-

holized rats thus confirm, in a general way, the conclusions of Stockard,

namely, that alcohol affects not only the soma but also the germ-cells

carried by the individual alcoholized, and that these germ-cells are

so altered that the individuals developing from them show striking

limitations in their capacity for full mental development, and this

incapacity shows itself even in two generations removed from the alco-

holized individuals. It looks very much as though alcohol was able

sometimes to affect germinal material, probably specifically the chro-

mosomes, so that it can no longer determine normal nervous develop-

ment. The conclusion is so important, as almost the only successful

means of modifying the germinal material at will, that the experiment

deserves repetition. Further investigation of other methods of modi-fication of the germ-plasm is also desirable.

ALTERATION OF THE QUALITY OF A POPULATION BY SOMATICSELECTION.

Experiments with Drosophila.—One of the noteworthy discussions

among geneticists in recent years has been that of the possibility of

the contamination of genes in consequence of hybridization. Thishad been tied up with the question of the possibilitj^ of modifying a race

in a desired direction purely by a process of selecting somatically.

There has, indeed, been no dispute that a mixed race, or one in which agiven trait depended upon a number of separate genes or germinaldeterminers, might be secured in a simpler condition through hybridiza-

tion and selection for breeding of individuals whose somatic condition

indicated a simple condition of their gametic makeup. The dispute

was rather whether genes were, through a process of contaminationor other, definitely variable so as to offer an unending stream of condi-


tions by which the experimenter might carry his strains definitely in

any desired direction. It was the opinion of the great majority of

experimentalists that the capacity of improvement by selection wasdefinitely limited, owing to the fact that the number of kinds of genes

available in the formation of a given organism is limited. On the other

hand, Castle, to refer only to the most striking investigator in this

field, accepts the view of unlimited capacity for modification through

individual selection. This controversy is now to a large extent settled,

chiefly through certain experiments of Castle himself, which have led

him to reject his doctrine of contamination of genes, and apparently

also of indefinite variability in them.

Castle's decision is, however, a matter of the last few months only,

•and meanwhile Dr. MacDowell has carried through an elaborate series

of breedings upon Drosophila to determine whether the number of cer-

tain bristles on the back might be increased or diminished by selection

of parents with an increased or diminished number of such bristles.

As set forth in the Year Book for 1917, Dr. MacDowell reached the

conclusion by the ordinary methods of genetical analysis that an indefi-

nitely large change in the number of these bristles could not,as a mat-ter of fact, be produced through the ordinary processes of selection.

Dr. MacDowell has now made a further statistical analysis of the

data by means of the methods of correlation. Many calculations were

required, and revised tables and charts and the text have been com-pleted under the title, ''Bristle Inheritance in Drosophila III. Corre-

lation." The same conclusions are reached as b}^ the ordinary methodof genetic analysis. In brief, the correlations indicate that there was a

tendency in the first five generations for the bristle grades of the off-

spring from high-grade parents to be higher than the bristle grades of

the offspring from low-grade parents ; that in no other period of the 54

generations did such a clear difference exist betvv^een the offspring of

high and low grade parents; and that, when the en\dronment was ren-

dered as uniform as possible, no sign of any such relationship wasfound. In the generations where a difference was found between the

offspring of high and low grade parents, it is obvious that the breeding

of high-grade parents exclusively would raise the means of the race.

The means actually obtained in the different generations of selection

experiments show a close connection with the amount of correlation

found. The means rise in the generations where the closest correla-

tion is found. Selection has been dealing with hereditary units that

were present in the original flies; it has not caused the origin of newunits; its action has been to reduce the amount of genetic differences

between individuals, whereas the primary requirement for evolution is

that it should act so as to increase the amount of such differences.

Natural selection acts as a stabihzer of evolving races; it has no part in

the evolving itself.


Experiments with Daphnia.—Dr. A. M. Banta has completed the

work of compiling a large number of statistics gained from his experi-

ments on the possibility of modifying the reactions of Entomostraca

to light by ordinary selection. One of the most extensive of his

breeding-hnes is known as line 757. In it, following selection, strains

that reacted very dissimilarly appeared. In this line there is little, if

any, relation between vigor and reactiveness to light, so that the effect

of selection secured in this hne was not due to changes in the relative

vigor of the plus or minus strains, that is, of the strains selected for

quicker and those selected for slower phototactic response. Dr.

Banta says that the divergence of the two strains can not readily be

explained as due to mutation, for there is no point in the curve where

mutation may be said to have occurred. The other lines, however,

generally show no effective selection, and, therefore, some special

explanation has to be sought for to account for the divergence of the

reaction-time in the plus and minus strains of line 757. It is nowproposed to start a test series to see if the effect of selection within

line 757 has persisted. So far as results are secured, they seem to

show that the effect does indeed persist, although 2| years have elapsed

since selection within these strains ceased.

The principal result of our attempts to accentuate differences by

breeding plus and minus strains in flies and Daphnia is to indicate that

improvement is effected this way only until such time as a hybrid or

complex condition of the genes of the trait in question is reduced to

the simplest degree.

THE SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTROL OF SEX.

SEX IN PIGEONS.

During the absence of Dr. Riddle from Cold Spring Harbor, his

assistant. Dr. Ellinor H. Behre, has completed a test of the hypoth-

esis that the relative staleness of sperm might be responsible for

abnormal sex-ratios. This experiment was suggested by the findings

of other investigators, especially among amphibia. It has been found

that the length of time during which pigeon sperm-cells retain their

capacity to fertilize may vary somewhat, but probably in any case

does not exceed 8 days. It is clear, however, from the evidence,

that stale sperm does not affect the sex-ratio. This is of some impor-

tance, since it shows that the very abnormal sex-ratios obtained in

Dr. Riddle's work with the pigeons is neither comphcated nor ex-

plained by this fact.

SEX INTERGRADES IN DAPHNIA.

As pointed out in earlier reports, Dr. Banta has had the good fortune

to find interesting and significant variations from the normal condition

of the sexes in the water-fleas, Cladocera, and especially Daphnia


and related genera. During the year in review, the work with those

individuals which show an intergrading or intermediate sex has beendeveloped in two directions: (1) a detailed analysis of various degrees

of intergrading as affecting a secondary sex character of Daphnialongispina; (2) the continuation of the selection experiment of the

sex-intergrade strains of Daphnia longispina.

Analysis of degrees of sex intergradedness.—As has been said in

previous reports, Dr. Banta finds that the sex-intergrades are not

gynandromorphs in that they are not sexual mosaics, but that in the

intergrades the male and female influences are blended to various de-

grees in the different parts of the body, as revealed by the several

secondary sex-characters. A careful study of a secondary sex-char-

acter, the first leg, has shown clearly that this interpretation is correct

and that there is an almost endless variety of conditions of sexual

significance in this complicated appendage, which may exist in anycondition between that of the fully developed male and that of the

fully developed female. This first leg in the normal female has the

following simpler salient features: (1) only a single flagellum-like

terminal filament to the No. 2 element, which element does not possess

a hook nor have a swollen hairy base; (2) further, this appendage in

the normal female has its third element terminated by three filaments.

In the male, on the other hand, (1) the second element has two terminal

filaments and has a large, swollen base coarsely hairy on one side, fromwhich is developed a relatively large stout hook almost as long as the

remainder of the element, and moreover (2) the third element is termi-

nated by four filaments. Between these two conditions, that typical

for the normal female and that typical for the normal male, there is

every conceivable intermediate condition of development. Theseintermediate conditions of development may be thought of as the

results of the various degrees of female and male influences operative in

different individual cases and in different parts of the same intergrade

individual; e.g., it is of interest to note that the two legs of the samepair in the same individual daphnid may differ slightly or largely in

the degree of femaleness and maleness revealed in their morphological

structure. One appendage may be normally female, while its mate is

slightly or largely male in character.

Further, the degree of femaleness and maleness of one or both of the

first legs may be quite unhke the degree of maleness and femaleness

of the other secondary sex-characters of the same individual. How-ever, it is true that if a certain secondary character is highly male(or female), the other secondary sex-characters are likely to be male(or female) to a somewhat similar degree. But, on the whole, the

correlation in degree of maleness (or femaleness) between the different

secondary sex-characters in an individual is not very large and in

many cases not even apparent.


The following tabular statement suggests something of a typical

series of sex conditions among the sex-intergrade stock. It is merely

a stereotyped outline, however, and it should be remembered that in

the vast majority of individuals no such regular and coincidental

gradation of secondary sex-characters occurs, i.e., in this tabular out-

line approximately the same intermediate condition of maleness and

femaleness is assumed for every character of each individual of the

series, while as a matter of fact the correlation in the degree of male-

ness and femaleness of the different secondary sex-characters of the

same individual is frequently very low or even negligible.

Table 4. 'Typical series of sex-intergrades. Characters of first leg of sex-intergrades and

of normal individuals of Daphnia longispina.


selection have been summarized. The summaries of the data indicate

that there is an effect of selection. The strains (1, 4, and 6) selected

to become more intergrade probably have not become more inter-

grade, but of the three strains (3, 5, and 8) selected to become morenearly normal-female-producing, two have become markedly less

intergrade than they formerly were (in fact, almost exclusively normal-

female-producing) and markedly less intergrade than the three strains

selected for increasing the intergrade characters. One of the strains

(8) selected to become less intergrade has not made progress in the

desired direction during the past 16 generations (the only period for

which the data have been summarized), though it had apparently done

so during the 21 earlier generations of selection. A return selection

is rendered extremely desirable and is to be undertaken as soon as

the lines now being utilized are disposed of.

SEX-RATIO IN MAN.

Some years ago. Professor Raymond Pearl tested a view that has

had some scientific currency, that hybrid matings tend to produce an

excess of male offspring. He utilized for the purpose a record of the

sex of offspring of matings in Argentina between native-born stock

and those between immigrants from different countries. Dr. Little

has tried to secure more extensive material and has been making use

of the records of lying-in hospitals in the city of New York. A de-

tailed study has been made, with the assistance of Miss Beatrice W.Johnson, of the records of the Sloane Maternity Hospital of New YorkCity. The purpose was to compare the sex-ratio in the progeny of

various types of racial matings. Matings in which both parents

were from European (Caucasian) races were chosen. For the purpose

of this study the term race is used in the sense of a biological center of

more or less inbreeding. Thus, generally speaking, a mating of twoIrish parents is a type of closer inbreeding than a mating in which one

parent is Irish and the other Italian. Then a comparison between

two such types of matings has been made. The races used were as

follows: English, Irish, Scotch, German, Austrian, Russian, Italian,

and Greek. These were tabulated in two main groups: (a) those

matings in which both parents came from the same race, and (6)

those in which the parents were from different races. While muchinformation still remains to be gathered from the data, that part which

concerns the ratio of the sexes among the offspring (including still-

births) has been tabulated, with the results shown in table 5.

Several facts stand out as of general interest. Three of them re-

semble each other so closely as to suggest that a single explanation

may properly include them all. These are: (1) the excess of male

progeny found in the normal "pm-e" racial matings; (2) the signifi-

cantly greater excess of males found in offspring of the ''hybrid"


matings; and finally, (3) the great excess in pure matings of males

among children of the first birth as compared with the later births,

contrasted with the steady excess of males in hybrid matings.

Table 5.

—

Sex ratio {male -^female) and proportion of stillbirths in pure and hybrid

human matings.


trolling the size of fetal head, width of pelvis, etc., is easier to admit.

At all events, the genetic factors involved must be hypostatic in

nature, and in this way the likelihood of the lethal RR combinationbeing formed is greater in matings within the race than it is in matingsoutside of the race, where possibly an entirely different complexwould exist. The work is being continued.

SEX IN MUCORS.

The work on sexuality of the mucors has been resumed by Dr.Blakeslee and zygospores hitherto unreported have been discovered,

as well as a number of new forms. The investigations, however, havenot been carried far enough to warrant an extended report. Atten-tion has been called in earlier volumes, especially in Year Book No. 12,

to the relative simplicity of vegetative structure in the mucors, their

ease of cultivation, and the fact that the two sexes apparently contrib-

ute equal masses of protoplasm to the developing offspring. Theseinvestigations are especially adapted to biochemical investigation in

the problems of sex, and these can properly be made only with the

aid of a biochemist.

THE INHERITANCE OF GERMINAL PECULIARITIES.

FLOWERING PLANTS.

The genetical work on flowering plants has been seriously interrupted

by the war. Our gardener, Mr. Billings T. Avery, jr., who had beenidentified with Dr. Blakeslee's work for many years, both in the Con-necticut Agricultural College and here, died in service in France, andthere has been no one else with the detailed knowledge of the strains

who has been able to carry them forward with the same success basedon knowledge. Since the war, a satisfactory personnel has been built

up, and the prospect is good for a large development of this branch of

the work.

The report of this department in Year Book No. 17, for 1918, told

on page 114 of Dr. Blakeslee's plans for developing the adzuki bean as awar measure, undertaken at the request of the National ResearchCouncil. He secured the cooperation of some other breeding-stations

for the development of this species. From our plots over 4 tons of

adzuki beans were raised as a by-product of the experiments, andthese were sold at a nominal rate to a nearby State hospital. Thereports from other experiment stations on the productivity of this

species were not especially favorable, due apparently to the relatively

new though destructive "mosaic" disease of shelled beans. We havetherefore cut down our work with the adzukis for the present and are

testing out the different hues to discover, if possible, inunune races

before attempting further breeding with them.Of the yellow daisies {Rudbeckia) we have plants growing from

crosses made by Mr. Avery before he entered the service. The in-


vestigation of the inheritance of green cones and of doubling is being

continued by Dr. Blakeslee. In view of the technical difficulties of

hybridization, the decrease of vigor, and the increase of intersterility

due to inbreeding, and on account of the loss of the special knowledge

and technical skill for this work which followed the death of Mr.

Avery, it seems desirable to discontinue for the most part further

work with these forms.

In the portulacas, Dr. Blakeslee is carrying out further experiments

with the dwarf mutation, which has been shown to be a Mendelian

recessive, and with the reverting normal branches which they occasion-

ally produce, which have been shown to be heterozygous dominants.

An attempt is being made to alter the proportion of reverting branches

by external stimuli. A number of vegetative mutations have also been

found in flower colors, recessives mutating to dominants. The portu-

lacas show a wide range of color in their flowers and give an oppor-

tunity to study color inheritance in this species, which is being availed

of. Thus the portulacas reveal again that extraordinary richness in

biotypes of plant species which Dr. George H. Shull years ago demon-

strated at this station in the case of the wild shepherd's purse, a species

which was commonly regarded by botanists as a unique representative

of the genus in America.

Research on the variability in the jimson weed (Datura) is being

resumed. The following mutants have been studied and named:Globe, Round-leaf Globe, Cocklebur, Poinsettia, Buckling, Sugarloaf,

Polycarpic, Microcarpic, Ilex, Glossy, Rolled, and New Species. In

addition, a number of new mutants as yet unnamed have been dis-

covered and are being investigated. In one of the mutants an aber-

rant color ratio has occurred.

Of the cross between a weeping and an erect mulberry, the F2

generation in the field is ready to be recorded. The weeping char-

acter appears to be a simple INIendelian recessive. Some of the Fi

plants which were last season recorded as male, this season produced

both male and female flowers. Not all the Fi plants were in flower,

but in another season it should be possible to obtain sex-ratios in the

Fi generation.

In poplars we obtained last spring flowers from Fi plants of a cross

between an erect and a weeping aspen and have a few F2 seedlings nowin the nursery.

This summer, flowers were produced in Fi plants of a cross between

the purple-leaved variety of the common barberry and the form ex-

tensively used for low hedges {Berheris thunbergii). The former is a

spreader of the wheat rust and is legislated against in many States,

but the latter is immune. It is possible that a tall immune race

eventually may be produced from the cross between these two species.


TETRACOTYLEDONOUS BEANS.

Dr. J. Arthur Harris has continued his investigation on variation,

correlation, and selective death-rate of garden beans, especially those

which have three or four cotyledons. A detailed study of the vascular

anatomy of such seedlings, which has been carried on in the last three

years with the collaboration of Dr. E. W. Sinnott and Dr. John Y.Pennypacker, will shortly be ready for publication.

HEREDITY OF COLOR IN DOGS.

A study has been made of data derived from the studbooks of the

American Kennel Club to get at the inheritance of color in three breeds

of dogs—Great Danes, Dachshunds, and Pomeranians; and a paperbased on the data on Great Danes, written by Miss E. Elizabeth Jones,

who has collaborated with Dr. C. C. Little in this work, is now in press.

The follo^Ying color-factors, apparently Mendelian in nature, havebeen demonstrated:

(1) H, a factor for "harlequin" (white) spotting, epistatic to its

allelomorph h, the factor for solid-colored coat.

(2) D, a factor for intensity of pigmentation allelomorphic to d,

producing dilute coat pigmentation.

(3) A triple allelomorph series of which the members are in order of

dominance: E, a factor for extension of black pigment to the v\^hole

coat; E' , a factor for partial restriction of black pigment, producing"brindle" or ' 'tigered" pattern, and e' , a factor producing the "fawn"coat-pattern, in which black is confined to the muzzle, face, and feet.

(4) S, a factor for self or white coat, allelomorphic to s, a factor

producing a white chest or foot spot.

CROSSING OVER AND NON-DISJUNCTION IN SEX-LINKED TRAITS IN CATS,DOVES, AND CANARIES.

Dr. Little has reviewed the available literature to determine howcompletely the facts of inheritance in cats, doves, and canaries agreewith the hypotheses of crossing over and non-disjunction advanced byvarious investigators to explain the occurrence of exceptional color

classes in these animals.

In cats it was found that the exceptional color varieties were of twodistinct sorts: (1) those which involved merely the appearance of anentirely normal and common color variety in a cross in which it was notexpected, and (2) tortoise-shell males, which are an extremely rare

variety, usually sterile, appearing irregularly, and, when they are

fertile, breeding as yellows.

The exceptions in doves and canaries fall in the first of the twocategories. To explain this first category, "crossing over" and"non-disjunction" meet serious difficulties, in that they predicate the

appearance of color classes not yet observed, or interchange of genes


between the X and Y chromosomes in the heterozygous sex and, in the

case of non-disjunction, sterihty, which is also, as yet, unobserved.

To explain these cases, therefore, it is suggested that in certain rare

individuals factorial changes from one allelomorph to another take

place as follows:

In cats, from sex-linked factor Y, for the restriction of black pig-

ment, to factor y, for the extension of black pigment to these regions.

In doves, from sex-linked factor w, for white plumage, to factor W,for colored plumage.

In canaries, from sex-linked factor p, for pink eye-color, to factor

P, for dark eye-color.

To explain the second category, it is suggested that non-disjunction

of the X chromosome, resulting in certain "males" which are Xinstead of XY in formula, is involved. Sterile tortoise-shell male

cats are supposed to be animals of the constitution X, showing a

peculiar mosaic distribution of black and yellow color. Similarly, the

still rare fertile tortoise-shell males are considered as the result of sec-

ondary non-disjunction. These hypotheses are tentative and have

been advanced by Dr. Little for consideration and experimental test.

HEREDITY IN SHEEP, MICE, AND POULTRY.

The experiments on heredity of twinning and multinippling in sheep

were continued at the station. There were 30 lambs bom from 17

mothers, being a proportion of 1.8 lambs per mother, as contrasted

with 1.6 for 1917 and 2.2 for 1916. The cooperative sheep experi-

ment with the New Hampshire Sheep Experiment Station is being

continued.

Progress is being made with the poultry strains. During the year

109 chicks were hatched, mostly of the New Buff and Silky strains.

Dr. C. C. Little, who has been in part assisted by Mr. L. C. Strong,

a graduate of Columbia University, has worked on an operative

technique for ovarian transplantation in 1-day and 2-day old mice,

in a series of over 300 operations. From this material it is hoped that

evidence relating to the effect of the foster-mother on heredity of sus-

ceptibility to tumors, spotting, size, etc., will be secured. Mr. Strong's

work was chiefly making operations upon older mice, with the view of

continuing his work at Columbia University.

Mr. Reginald G. Harris, cooperating with Dr. Little, has measured

skull and size inheritance of crosses in mice. Results of this will be

included in the paper on the characteristics of mice which is now being

prepared for publication. Dr. Little has also collected a series of over

600 mice in order to study the effect of age of transplantation to

susceptibility to tumor. These animals are now under observation.

Dr. Little proposes to continue this work as a control to the ovarian


transplantation work and to gain information as to the nature andeffects of tumor growth.

During the summer, Dr. George B. Jenkins, of the Department of

Embryology, Carnegie Institution of Washington, made preliminary

studies of rumplessness, polydactylism, and abnormal plumage of

Rumpless and Silky strains of poultry at this Station.

EXPERIMENTAL PRODUCTION OF VARIATIONS.

EFFECT OF CAVE CONDITIONS.

The experiment of comparing the effect of cave forms reared in the

light and epigeal forms reared in caves, with the corresponding vari-

ations of these in their original habitat, is being continued by Dr.

A. M. Banta. During the year he made successful collections in caves

in the middle West, and we have now more cave material than at anyprevious time. The amount of material of most of the more readily

breeding species is satisfactorily large.

PHYSIOLOGY OF REPRODUCTION.

BIOMETRIC STUDIES OF EGG PRODUCTION.

Dr. Harris has continued his statistical investigations into the phy-siology of egg production, with special reference to the prediction of

egg production from short periods of observation. These are madein cooperation with three of the agricultural experiment stations.

OTHER INVESTIGATIONS.

CONTROL OF PROTEIN PRODUCTION IN EGG-WHITE BY QUININE.

Riddle and Anderson had already shown that the amount of the

nitrogen-containing substance (protein) in egg-white was reduced underquinine. It remained to determine whether the reduction in weight

implied also an actual and absolute reduction in nitrogen, or whetherthe reduction occurred in non-nitrogenous associates of the protein.

This work was chiefly carried on during the past year by Dr. Ellinor

H. Behre. An actual reduction of the nitrogen element has been found.

This work has now been brought to a termination by Drs. Riddle andBehre. Their conclusions are as follows:

"Fresh-laid dove eggs contain about 12 per cent nitrogen per gram of solids.

"The data of Riddle and Anderson on the reduction of egg size and yolksize under quinine treatment are further corroborated by the records of 6 of

7 birds retested—egg size and yolk size are decreased during dosage andincreased after dosage is discontinued.

"The normal quantity of (a more dilute) albumen is restored quickly after

discontinuance of dosage.

"Less albumen is produced during dosage than before. Relatively more(of a more dilute) albumen is produced after dosage is discontinued thanduring dosage.


"The loss of weight or amount of albumen under quinine consists in (o)

a loss of total substance, and (6) a disproportionate loss of solids.

" The loss of solids is accompanied by a loss of nitrogen. When the amountof albumen is later increased, in the after-dosage periods, the nitrogen does

not increase in full proportion. The percentage of water remains high in

albumen produced in these after-dosage periods.

"It seems clear that dosage of ring-doves with quinine sulphate causes less

than the normal amount of nitrogen to be released by the albumen-secreting

gland of the oviduct during the secretion of egg albumen."

CHEMISTRY OF BRAINS OF ATAXIC PIGEONS.

Dr. Oscar Riddle, in collaboration with Miss Mathilde L. Koch,

of the Psychiatric Institute of the New York State Hospitals, has con-

cluded a second study of the chemical constitution of the brains (cere-

brums), analyzed separately from the cerebellums and medullas, of the

strain of ataxic pigeons which has been developed in our collection.

The conclusions drawn from the study are as follows:

" (1) The brains of birds which have lost a very large amount of the normalcontrol of the voluntary movements (ataxia) show deviations from the normalbrain in size and in chemical composition. These deviations are more pro-

nounced in the cerebellum." (2) The brains of the ataxics are smaller. The cerebrums are either not

reduced or are reduced in very small amount. The cerebellums and medullas(weighed together) are certainly reduced in size.

" (3) Eight analyses were made of anterior and posterior parts of the brain.

Four of these were from ataxic and four from normal birds. The chemical

changes found are more definite and pronounced in the cerebellums andmedullas than in the cerebrums. The results support our previous conclusion

that the differences 'suggest a chemical under-differentiation or immaturityof the ataxic brains.'

" (4) The pigeon cerebrum and cerebellum strongly contrast with the humancerebrum and cerebellum in the distribution of the several chemical con-

stituents." (5) Entire brains of very young and of very old birds were analyzed.

Data for the chemical changes in the brain which accompany age have beenobtained for a series of ages in the pigeon. Examination of this more exten-

sive 'age series' of pigeon brains has enabled us to evaluate much better thanin our previous work the relation borne by the various chemical fractions to

age.

"(6) The significance of the results obtained in the present and formerseries of analyses has been reviewed. The evidence warrants the conclusion

that chemical differentiation does not proceed as rapidly in the brain, andmore particularly in the cerebellum, of ataxic birds as in the brain of normalbirds.

"More than a year ago several of these ataxic birds were sent to the Neuro-logical Laboratory of the University of Chicago, where Dr. T. Hoshino has

made a very extensive neurological study of the ataxic brains. His study is

now complete and will be pubhshed simultaneously with our second paper

on the chemistry of the brains.

"


VEGETABLE SAPS; OSMOTIC CONCENTRATION.

These studies, conducted primarily by Dr. Harris, have been out-

Uned in considerable detail in preceding Year Books. The time

available for these studies during the current year has been chiefly

devoted to field work, but a discussion of the osmotic concentration of

phanerogamic epiphytes, based on studies in Jamaica and in sub-

tropical Florida, has been published. In this it has been shown that

the concentration of the tissue fluids of epiphytic Bromeliacese, Pipera-

cese, and Gesneracese is far lower than that of terrestrial vegetation.

Furthermore, in the Bromeliacese, Orchidacese, and Piperacese the

concentration of the species of the Jamaican rain-forest is lower than

that of those found in the hainmocks of subtropical Florida-

Two periods have been devoted to work in the field. The first

covered the months of January, February, and March, which were

spent in the mainland swamps and on the Gulf Keys of the west coast

of Florida. The second covered the months of July and August, whichwere devoted to work along the Atlantic seaboard from the mouth of

the Chesapeake to Biscayne Bay. These operations were carried out,

in cooperation with the Department of Botanical Research, on a

small yacht kindly placed at Dr. Harris's disposal by a friend. Mr.John V. Lawrence and Mr. M. C. E. Hauke, of the University of

Chicago, took part in the operations along the Atlantic coast. Over1,000 determinations of osmotic concentration were made by the

cryoscopic method in these two field operations, but the data are not

yet organized for discussion.

COOPERATIVE WORK ON HUMAN NUTRITION.

During the year Dr. Harris has published jointly with Dr. Francis

G. Benedict, Director of the Nutrition Laboratory of the Institution,

a "Biometric Study of Basal Metabolism in Man." This book is a

compendium of statistical information, not only for the student of

nutrition, but also for the anthropologist. With the assistance of his

biometric assistants, Mr. Harris has worked out numerous correlations

between age and stature, age and weight, weight and body-surface,

weight and pulse-rate, weight and heat production, and many other

elements involved in modern calorimetry. These correlations are

worked out for athletes, for men in general, for women, for infants, andcomparisons are made for diverse races. Some of the results of the

study are to demonstrate practically no relationship between basal or

normal pulse-rate and body-weight in adults, or between pulse-rate

and stature. The larger gaseous exchange is associated with a morerapid pulse-rate, and the same is true of more rapid heat production.

There is a close relation between gaseous exchange and body-weightand between total heat production and body-weight. It appears that

throughout the whole range of adult fife the heat production of in-


dividuals decreases with age. The statistical analysis shows that the

body-surface law, according to which the heat production of an organ-

ism is proportional to its superficial area, is not strictly valid, but the

basal metabolism in men is, on the average, higher than in women, and

the actual heat production in men is higher than in women, even whenthe difference in physical make-up is taken into account ; but no special

difference is obtained in infants of the two sexes.

BIOMETRIC MISCELLANY.

Dr. Harris has undertaken, with the aid of his computing force, to

make certain statistical studies on variation, correlation, and prob-

able error on plot tests in cooperation with the Office of Western

Irrigation Agriculture and the Office of Dry Land Farming of the

United States Department of Agriculture.

EUGENICS RECORD OFFICE.*

C. B. Davenport, Director.

STAFF.

During the year ending September 1, 1919, the work of the Eugenics

Record Office was seriously interrupted by the war. The extensive

investigations of Captain A. H. Estabrook into the great family of

Ishmaelites of Indiana and adjacent States have not been continued,

owing to the fact that Dr. Estabrook remained, up to the time of

report, in the United States Army in the psychological, and later in

the reconstruction, service. Dr. Wilhelmine E. Key left March 1 to

undertake the organization of a State girls' industrial school near

East Lyme, Connecticut. Despite these limitations, progress has been

made in several matters.

HEREDITY IN ARISTOGENIC FAMILIES.

First may be mentioned the work of Professor Howard J. Banker,

who has for some years been engaged in a study as far removed as

feasible from that of the defective stocks in which most of our studies

have been made. No excuse or apology is necessary for having, hith-

erto, devoted the energies of the Office so largely to the cacogenic side.

First of all, social needs seemed more pressing in this line than any

other. Secondly, this aspect of eugenics brought us into close relations

with superintendents of institutions and we thus secured the entree

into many homes and the cooperation of the State in the expense of

the investigation.

It is an unfortunate result, however, of laying too much emphasis

on this aspect of eugenics, that the term has come to have so largely

a cacogenic connotation. To this situation the investigations of Dr.

Banker wdll, it is believed, serve as a corrective. The characters that

are popularly called "normal" are as clearly hereditarj^ as any others;

indeed, the very fact that they are so common in the race that they

are taken for granted is the best evidence that they form the basal

heritage of the race. As Doctor Banker says

:

"The study of human heredity can never be complete, or even satisfactory,

until these 'normal' traits are compiled and classified and their distribution

through families and races are accurately described. But there are few

accumulations of data on this phase of the general subject. The physician

does not record the 'normal' reactions of his patient; they are assumed.

'Normal' individuals have not been segregated in institutions and had their

behavior and reactions keenly observed, accurately recorded, and scientifically

classified. Here, then, is an important and extensive field for observation

which must be explored in order to lay a real foundation for all studies in

heredity. The fact that the progress of civiHzation has developed no natural

Situated at Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, New York.145


facilities for the accumulation of such data renders it all the more importantthat the work should be inaugurated and prosecuted persistently, to this

specific end, through generations of time, by some suitably organized institu-

tion or institutions.

"There is one part of our social organization in which the normal individual

might be studied and accurate records accumulated with the fullness andvalue shown in many of our institutions for defectives. That is the pubUc-school system, from the kindergarten to the college. As yet, no attempt to

utilize these institutions, in any comprehensive way, for the accumulation of

complete and systematic records has been made."The present and past records of the schools, while often employed to draw

fine quantitative distinctions in the awarding of prizes and determining rankin scholarship, are, nevertheless, very imperfect, unstandardized, and as arule of much less value than they should be. College records should bebetter. Harvard University probably possesses the most complete and con-

tinuous records extending over the longest period of time of any institution in

the country. Advantage was taken of this fact to utiHze these records, as far

as possible, and supplement them by a study of the family histories of the

individuals represented. As was to be expected, these famihes are prevail-

ingly normal and efficient, with a tendency, apparently, to produce superior,

rather than inferior, individuals. A remarkable, though not wholly unex-pected, result that has developed is the fact that a large proportion of these

selected old Harvard famihes are so intermarried that, as the study is extended,

most of them tend to form part of a continuous family network."

During the past year and a half Dr. Banker has been almost wholly

engaged in compiling biographical data of the individuals of one

section of this network. This has now included incomplete studies

of over 3,000 individuals, of whom nearly 500 are college graduates.

It should be remembered that probably half of the total number of

individuals are females, for whom, except in the case of a few of the

latest generation, there are no college records. Approximately 1,000

letter-size pages of notes and citations from more than 400 works

have been made, while probably more than four or five times that

number of works have been consulted. As near as can be judged, the

network has been only about two-thirds covered. No attempt has

yet been made to analyze these data, to which additions are still being

made. ''A surprisingly large amount of biographical data, more or

less satisfactory, concerning the individuals of these families is to be

found in various publications. If they did not all get into the colleges,"

says Dr. Banker, "they did get into the books and papers. Many of

the most valuable items are buried in 'Reminiscences' and 'Auto-

biographies' of their friends, or enemies, and other works not ostensibly

concerning the person sought and, hence, not discoverable through

the usual library indexes."

Meantime, with the work of analyzing the inheritance of the traits

of successful men must go hand-in-hand the analysis of personality

and a consideration of the "springs of conduct. " A little attention to

this matter brings out strongly the fundamental result that it gives us

EUGENICS RECORD OFFICE. 147

pleasure to do those things for the doing of which well we have special

gifts. Attempts to do things for which we have no natural aptitude

are distasteful; but we like to do the things that we can do well; and

we can do well, after a little training, things for the doing of which

we have natural aptitudes. So we like to do the things for which wehave natural aptitudes.

These conclusions are supported by the work on ''Naval Officers,

their Heredity and Development," prepared by the Director, with the

assistance of Miss Mary F. Scudder, and published by the Institution.

This study shows that naval fighters are chiefly hyperkinetics (over-

active). In their youth they were nomadic, thalassophihc, adventur-

ous. Other naval officers were such because they were great strate-

gists (like St. Vincent), administrators (like Stockton), explorers (like

Sir John Franklin), and adventurers (Uke William B. Gushing),

Each type has its prevailing temperamental and intellectual equip-

ment. Each officer, as a boy, gave promise of his adult performance.

One of the most widespread traits among naval officers is love of the

sea (thalassophilia) . This is an inherited racial trait, a fundamental

instinct. In inheritance it acts hke a recessive that is also sex-limited,

so that it shows itself almost exclusively in males. Another trait of

fighting naval officers is, as just stated, hyperkinesis, a dominant trait.

Still a third is nomadism, a sex-Unked trait. Thus, the total inherit-

ance of great naval fighters and explorers is complex.

INBRED COMMUNITIES.

Another investigation that is under way is that of certain isolated

island communities, to learn the results of inbreeding in those com-

munities. Some years ago, Miss Mary M. Sturges spent 18 months,

at intervals, in one such locality and 6 months in another for compari-

son with the first.

" In the first island a fairly complete genealogy was obtained of the descend-

ants of twelve children from a marriage dating 1800, with ancestral andcollateral lines so determined that relationships are quite accurately known.

A rougher, although fair, genealogy was obtained in the second island, and anendeavor was made to furnish each with a good historic and descriptive setting.

"Since consanguineous marriages subsequent to 1825 have formed 48 per

cent (first-cousin marriage 11 per cent) of all, so many ancestors were commonthat direct and collateral branches could be unusually well known. Thus,

aside from a useful addition to our knowledge of the sociological elements of

isolation and inbreeding, the material affords by comparison of branches andlocation of traits in inheritance a background for such intensive work as mayseem desirable. By means of such comparison and one rough census of 6 of the

12 complete branches (2 parallel first-cousin marriages, 4 parallel marriages

of a set of brothers with a set of sisters), certain traits have been roughly

located and the two months this summer have been spent in tabulating them

;

the incidence of left-handedness; red hair; albinism, asthma, hayfever,

eczema, and angioneurotic edema; twinning; congenital anomaHes, single or


apparently linked in inheritance; nervous instability, best recognized asepilepsy in one strain, insanity in another, and feeble-mindedness in a third

—

such form a promising field if careful, intensive work be available for a sufl5-

cient time upon one well-known genealogy."

DEFECTS IN DRAFTED MEN.

Most of the time of the Dkector was spent in the Surgeon General's

Office, Washington, on work akin to that of the Eugenics RecordOffice, namely, the distribution of defects found in drafted men andthe physical measurements of such men. Four reports were projected

and, of these, one is published (June 1919); one is in the hands of the

printer; a third is over half done, and material for the fourth, the

proportions of soldiers of different races and sizes, is being collected.

The first of these reports, published in collaboration with Lieut.

Col. A. G. Love, is entitled "Physical Examination of the First

Million Draft Recruits: Methods and Results," and shows clearly

that the varying proportion of defects detected at camps in accepted

recruits from various States depends upon sundry causes, in part social^

in part biological. The vast number of weak feet found was one of the

features of the report. About one-fifth of all recruits showed weakfeet, and this defect was commoner in recruits from the cities than

from rural districts. This result indicates that the human foot is

poorly adapted to the demands made upon it by modern civilized life.

Even recognizing that much of the foot defect is due to wearing fash-

ionable foot-gear (so that it is commoner in the Northern than the

Southern States), yet the fact that it is common in rural districts, andespecially where the population is of tall stature and heavy, indicates

that the relatively recent adjustment to plantigrade locomotion of a foot

that in the ancestors served for arboreal locomotion is far from meet-

ing satisfactorily the requirements of our social organization. Again,

hernia, more or less developed, was found in 3.5 per cent of the recruits.

Here, again, there is evidence of a widespread, imperfect adaptation

of the muscles and fascia of the inguinal region to carry the load andresist the pressures that accompany man's operations in an erect

posture. Again, varicose veins and varicocele were found in great

numbers, especially among tall recruits, indicating that the walls

of veins of the legs and lower trunk are not always perfectly adjusted

to the new hydrostatic problems introduced by man's erect position.

Probably an important part of the "mental deficiency" is a heritage

from neolithic and paleolithic man.It is probable that part of these disharmonies between posture and

size, on the one hand, and ability of parts to meet demands made on

them is due to the hybridization between short and tall races that

has been going on in this country, by which developmental tendencies

adapted to small races have come to be associated with tendency to

development of great size of body.


On the social side, there were about 3.3 per cent of recruits with

venereal disease; but much more among the colored recruits than the

white. Absence of fingers, arms, and legs were most frequent in

regions of saw-mills, of cotton-mills in the South, and in cities largely

made up of workers in raih-oad shops and of other present or former

railroad employees.

The problem of goiter was brought out vividly when two great

goiter centers were revealed—one about the Great Lakes and the

other in the extreme Northwest.

The excess of pulmonary tuberculosis from the desert sanitoria

States of the West revealed the great extent of the migration thither

of the tuberculous.

The result of the draft was not such as to justify pessimism as to the

national physique. Defects were found in less than half of the

drafted men ; and it is fair to conclude that in less than 8 per cent of the

men was the disability of such a nature as to handicap the man in animportant way for civil duties.

Since the remainder of the statistical work on the physique of the

men of military age is not yet published, it will not be discussed here.

It is beheved that the experience gained by your Director in studying

this data will be of no little use in further developing the work of the

Eugenics Record Office.

FIELD WORK.

The work of Dr. Elizabeth C. Muncey during the year has been of a

varied sort. On the one hand, she has secured extensive genealogical

data on miUtary men. For this purpose she has utilized the Library

of Congress. She has also done some field work on twin-producing

famihes and on famihes showing other traits which occurred in the

territory traversed by her. Reports on all of her researches have been

deposited at the Office.

STERILIZATION LAWS.

Dr. H. H. Laughlin, superintendent of the Office, has prepared for

publication a work on the legal and legislative aspects of eugenical

sterilization in the United States.

STATISTICAL STUDY OF STATE INSTITUTIONS.

The Bureau of the Census reports that the statistical study of State

institutions for the socially inadequate, prepared during the years

1915 to 1917, the publication of which was delayed on account of the

war, is now in press. This work gives a short historical account and,

in detail, a statistical analysis of the accommodations, the movementof the population, and the administrative and maintenance expendi-

tures of each of the 634 State and National institutions for the several

types of the socially inadequate. It will appear under the title "AStatistical Directory of State Institutions for the Care of Defective,

Dependent, and Delinquent Classes."


ELIMINATION OF MONGREL BLOOD BY OUT-BREEDING.

Statistical studies on the relation between the number of chromo-

somes characteristic of the species and the rate of the elimination of

mongrel blood by the pure-sire system of breeding (on the assumption

of no "crossing-over") are being made by Dr. Laughlin. A prelimi-

nary report of this work was given before the Society for Experimental

Biology and Medicine on May 24, 1919.

ARCHIVES.

A large and important part of the current activities of the Office is

devoted to the securing, filing, and indexing of data to be available for

special studies.

Schedules.—For the purpose of the collection and recording of data,

schedules are prepared and are distributed to collaborators or held in

the office, as the case may require. Three of these schedules were

printed during the year:

(1) Schedule for the cooperative use of genealogists and biographers.

This is a 4-page, 5 by 8 inch folder. This was issued in November1918, and is designed for the use of genealogists and biographers (a)

in listing the families and individuals being studied, and (6) describing

the forms and methods used in securing, recording, and preserving

biographical and family-history data. Also (c) it urges the desirability

of recording in the usual family history and biographical studies moredata descriptive of inborn physical, mental, and temperamental traits.

(2) Index of fragmentary data or abstract form. This is a single

5 by 8 inch sheet, issued March 1919. The purpose of this sheet

is to facilitate the condensation and preparation for permanent filing

and proper indexing of the fragmentary data which come to the atten-

tion of the office from time to time; also for abstracting from letters

and other sources fragmentary data and references of eugenical im-

port which, if preserved only in the original form, would probably

ultimately be lost in the dead-files.

(3) Study of heredity of weight, a single 5 by 8 sheet, issued April

1919. This schedule is patterned after a similar form on stature,

which latter proved very valuable in securing pedigree records.

Clippings.—The new system of filing newspaper clippings has been

installed and is developing satisfactorily. For this work 5 by 8 inch

manila pockets or envelopes without flaps are provided as containers.

The clippings are pasted on manila sheets which fit into these envelopes,

which are then duly indexed and added to the proper file, according to

whether the clippings are biographies or descriptive of special traits.

4,000 envelopes have been opened, which at present contain 4,800

sheets of biographical material and 575 of special trait descriptions.

FILER'S HAND BOOK.

New instructions for classifying, filing, and indexing.—A new scheme

for classifying, filing, and indexing all records, books, and correspond-


ence of the Eugenics Record Office has been worked out and described

in detail in a mimeographed pamphlet of 23 pages. These instructions

provide for the three tj^Des of eugenical records—the archives, the

library, and the correspondence files. The new system is based upon

the experience of the past decade in classifying and indexing eugenical

material. The Dewey Decimal System is incorporated into the

library scheme. The plan for classifjdng the archives is a new one in

which the different types of records are distributed among 19 files,

each designated by a distinctive letter. The material within each

file is classified according to the trait-book (Bulletin No. 6 of the

Eugenics Record Office). The system of classifying correspondence

is one devised for the particular needs of the office and, Uke the DeweyDecimal System for classifying books and the subject decimal classi-

fication of the War Department correspondence file, is an indefinitely

expansible decimal scheme. It provides also for ample cross-references.

Additions to archives.—The care of the archives has remained in the

hands of Miss Louise A. Nelson. She furnishes this summary of

material added to the archives during the year, September 1, 1918, to

September 1, 1919:

Index cards 74, 149

Persons-index 240Manuscript material:

Field reports:

Pages of description ... 3 , 648Sheets of pedigrees .... 523Indix-iduals charted 17, 310

Records of family traits 174

Family distribution of personal traits.

.

3

Additional individual analysis cards. .

.

64Biographies 53Genealogies 76Genealogical pamphlets 3Town histories 30Lists of genealogies 2

This report brings the total number of index cards reported up to

684,064. Since each card has space for 40 entries (though in mostcases there are only 1 or 2 entries), it is certain that the entries must be

much over 1,000,000 and probably nearly 2,000,000. Of special fi.eld

workers' reports we have now 56,825 pages. Of the record of family

traits there are on file approximately 3,000.

TRAINING COURSE.

The 1919 training course for field-workers in eugenics was in session

from July 2 to August 12. There were 16 students in the course, thus

bringing the total number who have been trained by this office for

field-workers up to 192. The demand for competent field-investi-

gators is greater than the supply.

JOINT-BASIS FIELD-WORKERS.

An important element of the work of the office is the introduction

of eugenical field-studies as a part of the regular work of custodial

institutions for the several types of the socially inadequate. This

has been worked out on the joint-basis plan, whereby the Eugenics

Record Office trains the worker and pays her salary and the collabor-

ating institution provides the maintenance and traveling-expense

money. Two new joint-basis field-workers have been assigned for


the year beginning October 1, 1919, as follows: (1) Virginia Rohde,1919, to the State Hospital at Bangor, Maine; (2) Cornelia Augen-stein, 1919, to the Girls' Training School at Gainesville, Texas. Owingto war conditions, the contract for a joint-basis worker made a year

ago with the Central Islip State Hospital at Central Islip, New York,

was discontinued in April 1919. The contract is being completed byassigning (3) Miss Dorothy Aldridge, of this year's training com-se, to

6 months' work at Central Islip, beginning September 1, 1919.

Custodial institutions which have introduced modern eugenical

field-studies by the joint-basis plan now number 53.

VOLUNTEER COLLABORATORS.

Superintendents of institutions who have once introduced moderneugenical field-studies into their work continue to send for deposit at

the Eugenics Record Office copies of family-history studies madeindependently by their own workers. This year special mention should

be made of contributions from Dr. David F. Weeks, superintendent

of the State Village for Epileptics at Skillman, New Jersey; of Dr.

Fred C. Nelles, superintendent of the State School at Whittier, Cali-

fornia; of Dr. Floyd C. Haviland, superintendent of the State Hospital

at Middletown, Connecticut; of Dr. F. Kuhlman, of the Minnesota

School for Feeble-Minded at Faribault, Minnesota; of Dr. Oscar E.

Thompson, of the State Institution for Feeble-Minded of Eastern

Pennsylvania, at Spring City, Pennsylvania; of Dr. C. A. Potter, of

the Gowanda State Hospital at CoUins, New York; of Dr. Chester L.

Carlisle, director of the Bureau of Analysis, State Board of Charities,

at Albany, New York; and of Dr. Charles S. Little, superintendent

of the Letchworth Village for Epileptics at Thiells, New York. Be-

sides these institutions, a number of eugenicists have, on their ownaccount, been equally generous and attentive in their collaboration.

During the past year eugenical records have been contributed to the

archives of the Eugenics Record Office by Professor Will S. Monroe,

Montclair, New Jersey, and many others.

EUGENICS RESEARCH ASSOCIATION.

On February 18, 1919, the executive committee of the Eugenics

Research Association, acting in consequence of instructions given bythe association at its previous annual meeting, passed a series of resolu-

tions seeking the cooperation of the State and National governments

and organized societies and State institutions in eugenical research,

and the application of practical eugenical matters.

The seventh annual meeting of the association was held at Cold

Spring Harbor on June 20, 1919, under the presidency of Mr. Madison

Grant. A committee was appointed for the purpose of representing

the Eugenics Research Association in connection with the organiza-

tion of a forthcoming international eugenics congress. The president

for the year 1919-20 is Dr. Stuart Paton, of Princeton, New Jersey.

GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY.^Robert B. Sosman, Acting Director.

Since the date of the last annual report (October 1, 1918), the warhas been brought to an end by the armistice of November 1918, andmost of the Laboratory's staff has been released from war work to

return to the researches interrupted in 1917.

This release could not be immediately accomplished, however, for

two reasons. First, there remained in the possession of the Laboratorya considerable amount of new data, both technical and scientific,

bearing on the war problems in which the staff had been engaged,

which needed to be written up in form for publication. Second,

there were several lines of research which by an additional few months'work could be made to yield valuable results, whereas if abandonedwhere they stood they would represent a complete loss of the existing

experimental preparations and incomplete data.

A part of the work of the year may thus be considered as salvage

work following the disturbance of conditions due to the war. Theprincipal war work of the Laboratory was concerned with directing

the manufacture of optical glass for Army and Navy instruments.

The scientific and technical results of the optical-glass work are for

the most part being published as a series of papers on the manufactureand properties of optical glass, of which 21 numbers have been pub-lished or are in press.

^

A second war problem was concerned with the fixation of nitrogen

for the manufacture of explosives. Experimental work on the chemis-try of the so-called Bucher cyanide process and the Haber or synthetic

process was begun in the summer of 1918, and had therefore notproceeded far when the war ended. A few papers on the chemistryof these processes will put on record the facts of scientific interest

obtained in connection with the problems investigated.^

VOLCANO STUDIES.

Investigations of the phenomena of active volcanoes were begunby the Laboratory in 1911 at Kilauea, Hawaii, and reports of thework there have been included in several previous Annual Reports.^

In 1914 the v/ork was extended to several of the ItaUan volcanoes(Vesuvius, Etna, Stromboli, Vulcano), and observations thereon havebeen continued, though under considerable difficulties and limitations,

during the war.^

In 1915, observations were made on the volcano of Lassen Peak,in California, which began explosive eruptions in 1914, after a periodof quiescence extending back of historic records, and continued its

^ Situated in Washington, District of Columbia.2 See abstracts (1), (2), (3), (13), (14), (15), (17), (19), (20), (25), (26), (27), (29), (32), (38),

(39). (40), and (44), below.' See abstracts (10) and (34) below. Other papers will appear later.* Year Book 10, 91 (1911); 11,99,100(1912); 12,127-129(1913); 15,141-143(1916); 18, 134

(1917).» Year Book 16, 137-140 (1917).

153


activity into 1915. In 1916, although the explosive activity had died

down, our work was continued on the hot springs about the base of the

mountain.

The observations were followed by a year's work in the Laboratory,

the results of which have been prepared for publication, but will not

be in print in time to form a part of this year's report.

During the past year opportunity has been offered, through the

courtesy of the National Geographic Society of Washington, to send

three men to the ''Valley of Ten Thousand Smokes," an extensive

active fumarole region adjacent to the volcano Katmai, on the Alaska

Peninsula. The recent eruption of Katmai was of the explosive type,

and was on a scale hardly equaled in historic times. It was accom-

panied by the formation of the "Valley" referred to, in which an un-

usual type of fumarole activity has been going on for several years.

The Laboratory furnished thermometric and gas-collecting apparatus to

the National Geographic Society expeditions of 1917 and 1918, and the

temperatures found were so high and the vapor composition so un-

usual that it was thought well to send a party this summer equipped

to do a certain amount of analytical and petrographic work in the

field, and to further investigate the fumarole phenomena as to tem-

peratures and flow of gases. A considerable amount of laboratory

work will be needed to supplement the observations. It is hoped that

the field and laboratory work will throw much additional light on the

phenomena of fumarolic and explosive volcanic activity.

The observations at Kilauea early showed the close connection that

existed between the quantity of gas being given off from the lava lake

and the temperature and general activity. Efforts were made to

collect gases fresh from the lake and uncontaminated with air, a task

by no means easy. The unexpectedly large amounts of water met

with in the gases collected in 1912 interfered with the determination

of the quantitative composition of the gases as a whole, by condensing

in the pipes which led the gases out to the collecting-tube. Thecomposition of the "fixed" gases could be determined, but not their

relation to the water-vapor. In 1917 gas samples were obtained in

which the relation of water to the other constituents could be de-

termined. The analysis of these samples has been completed during

the past year.^

Perhaps the most striking thing about these analyses is the wide

variation in the composition of the gas samples, though collected at

about the same time and under fairly constant conditions as regards

the activity of the crater. It is evident that the gases are far from a

state of equilibrium when they issue into the atmosphere ; at the same

time the elements are quite extensively oxidized, although variable

amounts of unburned hydrogen, sulphur, and carbon monoxide do reach

the surface. Water is always present, and in surprisingly large amounts.

' See abstract (35), below.

GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY. 155

The elements present in large amounts are carbon, hydrogen, sul-

phur, nitrogen, and oxygen. The first three occur principally as

oxides. The percentage of chlorine is usually very small, and the

rare gases are often no more in amount than would be required on the

assumption that the nitrogen had come in as air (entrapped in sinking

crusts or carried down by fountaining, for instance)

.

Any extended deductions or speculations as a result of this workmay well be postponed until the more recent samples of gas, collected

by Dr. Jaggar under conditions selected with reference to particular

hues of study of the crater, have been analyzed. This work is nowunder way in the Laboratory.

The simultaneous study of these gases from the synthetic side,

which has been commented upon in a previous Annual Report,^

has been interrupted by war conditions. A comprehensive discussion

of the equilibria and reactions concerned must await further field andlaboratory work.

THE BINARY AND TERNARY SYSTEMS OF SILICA, ALUMINA. MAGNESIA. AND LIME.

This year sees the completion of the last of the four ternary systems

which can be made up from the four oxides, Si02, AI2O3, MgO, andCaO.The system Si02-Al203-CaO has been commented on in previous

Annual Reports.^ The systems SiOa-AlgOs-MgO and AlaOg-MgO-CaO have been given passing mention in previous reports, while the

system Si02-MgO-CaO is new this year.^ A summarized review of

some of the salient facts concerning these systems may bring out somepoints of interest.

The Compounds.

The binary and ternary compounds found in these four systems are

as follows:

Binary Compounds.


Ternahy Compounds.


parallel to the Si02-Al203 side of the triangle, a fact that certainly is

connected wdth the already familiar fact that Si02 and AI2O3 resemble

each other in their chemical relations more than either resembles CaO

—

another way of sajdng that Si02 and AI2O3 are "acidic" oxides, while

CaO is "basic." With this in mind we are not surprised to find that

the boundary curves in the system Al203-MgO-CaO trend parallel to

the MgO-CaO side; likewise that the boundary curves in the systemSi02-MgO-CaO also trend parallel to the MgO-CaO side. In the sys-

tem Si02-Al203-MgO, however, a definite trend of boundaries is notso marked ; they tend rather to radiate from the peculiar solid-solution

field that occupies the middle of the triangle.

The systems Si02-Al203-CaO and Al203-MgO-CaO are notably

free from the complications due to solid solution. A peculiar situation

arises in the system Si02-Al203-MgO from the fact that the only ternary

compound is unstable, and is represented only in a solid-solution field

whose boundaries do not include the compound. The system Si02-

jNIgO-CaO, finally, is considerably complicated by the existence of

solid solutions between the various binary and ternary compounds.

Inversions.

There is not space here to discuss the various polymorphic forms of

the oxides and compounds, beyond remarking that there must be afundamental connection between the inversions, both of the sluggish

and the prompt-reversible types, in the silicates on the one hand andthe similar inversions of the two types in silica itself on the other hand.This relation forms a problem in molecular chemistry and physics

that remains for the future to solve.

Temperature Range.

The temperatures of the liquidus surfaces of these four ternary

systems lie between the limits 1165° C. (the eutectic of tridymite,

wollastonite, and anorthite) and 2800° C. (the melting-point of mag-nesia). The great bulk of the quadruple and quintuple points, how-ever, lie within the hmits 1300° C. to 1600° C.

THE OXIDES OF IRON.

The investigations of the high-temperature relations of the oxides

of iron, discussed in a previous Annual Report,^ were interrupted bywar conditions, but work on the low-temperatiu^e hydrated oxides,

as well as on methods for the determination of ferric and ferrous iron,

has been carried forward during the year.^ The previously existing

confusion with regard to the mineral hydrated oxides of iron has beensatisfactorily resolved by the microscopic and thermal study of alarge amount of material, and it has become clear that only one hy-

1 Year Book 15, 137-139 (1916).2 See abstracts (16), (21), (22), (30), and (42), below.


drate, Fe203.H20, has definite and reproducible properties as a crystal-

line mineral. It occurs, however, in two crystalline modifications,

goethite and lepidocrocite.

It is characteristic of hydrated ferric oxide that it occurs quite

commonly in finely fibrous crystalline forms, as well as in an "amor-phous" form. In the "amorphous" form it is in a condition so fine-

grained that its crystalline character—or sometimes even the fact that

it possesses any crystalHne character—can not be determined. In

both the fibrous and amorphous forms the oxide holds variable amountsof adsorbed and capillary water. Limonite is the amorphous mono-hydrate having associated with it this adsorbed and capillary water;

while turgite seems to be a solid solution of the crystalline mono-hydrate, goethite, with the anhydrous, oxide hematite, the solid solu-

tion holding in addition adsorbed and capillary water. An amorphousor crj^Dto-crystalline hydrate having a given percentage of water maythus be either a limonite or a turgite, depending on the internal con-

stitution of its fibers or grains.

Considerable progress has been made on the ternary system FeaOg—SO3-H2O, which involves hematite as well as the hydrated oxides, but

the work will not be in press in time for inclusion in this report.

PUBLICATIONS.

Brief reviews of the papers pubhshed by members of the Laboratory

staff during the current year follow

:

(1) The identification of "stones" in glass. N. L. Bowen. J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 1,

594-605 (1918). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 4.)

The petrographic microscope is a convenient and efficient instrument for

the determination of the nature and origin of "stones" or crystalline particles

occurring in glass. Stones are divided into four classes: (1) pot stones, (2)

batch stones, (3) crown drops, (4) devitrification stones. These classes havedistinctive features of structure and texture that are revealed by the micro-

scope. Moreover, the ciystalline phases contained in stones can be identified

by a determination of their optical properties. The results of a study of

stones by these methods are given in this paper.

(2) A contribution to the methods of glass analysis, with special reference to boric acid andthe two oxides of arsenic. E. T. Allen and E. G. Zies. J. Am. Ceram. Soc,1, 739-786 (1918). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 5.)

Arsenic.—An accurate method for the separation and determination of

both trivalent and pentavalent arsenic in glasses is described. (1) Theseparation depends on the volatilization of the trivalent arsenic as AsFs whenthe glass is heated with hydrofluoric and sulphuric acids, while the penta-

valent arsenic remains in the residue. (2) The latter is determined by pre-

cipitation as sulphide which is then oxidized to arsenic acid, reduced byhydriodic acid, and titrated with a standard iodine solution. (3) The triva-

lent arsenic is determined by difference between the pentavalent and total

arsenic. The determination was controlled by direct determination with the

aid of a platinum still. (4) The total arsenic is determined by fusing the

glass with sodium carbonate and niter, removing the sihca and excess nitric


acid by evaporation with sulphuric acid and subsequent filtration; and finally

proceeding as outlined in (2).

These methods for arsenic in glasses are generally appHcable to substances

in which the arsenic can be transformed into sulphide without loss, and are

highly accurate.

A comparison of the iodometric method and the magnesium pyroarsenate

method for arsenic in glass is made. The former has the advantage in accu-

racy and also in speed, except where occasional determinations are called for.

Boric acid.—For the determination of boric acid we have found that Chapin's

method is very rehable and yields highly accurate results. It has been shownthat in order to obtain very accurate results a "blank" must be made and the

value apphed as a correction to the amount of boric acid found. The cor-

rection is small and for ordinary work can be neglected. The accuracy of the

method is \exy appreciably afi"ected by relatively large amounts of arsenious

acid, but not by arsenic acid. Boric acid can therefore be satisfactorily

determined in the presence of large amounts of arsenious acid by oxidizing

the solution with H2O2 after making it distinctly alkaHne with NaOH.Relatively large amounts of fluorides appreciably affect the accuracy of

the determination, but do not seriously impair its usefulness for ordinary work.

Other determinations.—Our experience with the following cases in glass

analysis is detailed: (1) the determination of the minute quantities of iron in

optical glass; (2) the separation and determination of zinc

; (3) the separation

and determination of lead and barium when they occur together; (4) the

separation of calcium or barium from relatively large quantities of aluminumoccurring with almost no iron; (5) the determination in boric-acid glasses of

those elements with which the boric acid interferes.

Attention is called to the universal presence of hygroscopic moisture in

powdered glass samples. Some data by Mr. E. S. Shepherd on gases in glass

are given.

(3) The condition of arsenic in glass and its r6le in glass-making. E. T. Allen and E. G.Zies. J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 1, 787-790 (1918). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 6).

Analyses show that in all the glasses tested, both plate and optical glasses,

the major part of the arsenic present exists in the pentavalent state, butnevertheless a portion exists in the trivalent state. It appears that arsenic

trioxide is oxidized at a low temperature and the product formed is stable

enough to remain until a high temperature is reached and the glass becomesfluid, when it slowly dissociates into oxygen and arsenic trioxide, both of whichaid in the fining.

(4) The ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02. J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Proc. Nat.

Acad. Sci., 5, 16-18 (1919).

A brief preUminary report upon the results of an extended study of this

ternary system. (See abstracts (23) and (24), below.)

(5) Silicate specific heats. Second series. Walter P. 'WTiite. Am. J. Sci., 47, 1-43 (1919).

Specific heats of various forms of siHca and sihcates have been determinedfor upper temperatures from 100° to 1400°. The method was by droppingfrom furnaces into calorimeters. A rather unusual number of checks andprecautions against error was employed, which are described in detail. Twonew methods are described for determining true or atomic heats from interval

heats.

On the whole, the general temperature variation of the specific heats is onedepending mainly on the value of v, the atomic vibration period, for oxygen in


combination. Several forms of silica, whose expansion is very small, andwhich therefore practically give values of specific heat at constant volume,

Cv, show that Cv for high temperatures exceeds the theoretical value 5.96.

Glasses show, in the main, a specific heat only shghtly above the correspond-

ing crystal forms, but with a tendency to increase at some rather high tem-perature. In several sets of polymorphic forms with sluggish inversions there

were differences of about 2 per cent between the two forms, but none of these

forms showed any variation in specific heat near the inversion temperature.

In quartz, below the a-jS inversion at 575°, the heat absorption is greater

than can be accounted for even by the abnormal expansion. If such absorp-

tion, unusual change of volume, and change of crystal properties are each or

all together the sign of a change of state, then quartz undergoes a gradual

change of state over an interval of 400° below what is commonly called its

a-0 inversion. Quartz, and probably other forms of silica, exhibit whatappear to be two kinds of inversion, due to different mechanisms.Some of these facts mihtate against certain hypotheses which make poly-

morphism the resultant of polymeric or isomeric changes in the soUd.

(6) Specific heat determination at higher temperatures. Walter P. White. Am. J. Sci.,

47, 44-59 (1919).

This paper deals with the experimental technic of specific heat determina-

tion at temperatures up to 1400° by the "method of mixtures," and con-

tinues some earher presentations. Detailed modifications in furnaces and in

methods of transferring to the calorimeter are described. The heat losses

attending the dropping of hot bodies into water proved to be surprisingly

large ; their prevention is probably advisable in accurate work, perhaps by the

use of aneroid calorimeters.

(7) The thermal dissociation of sulfur dioxide. J. B. Ferguson. J. Am. Chem. Soc,

41, 69-72 (1919).

The degree of dissociation and the equilibrium constants for the dissociation

of sulphur dioxide have been calculated from the equihbrium measurementsof the reduction of sulphur dioxide by carbon monoxide and the dissociation

of carbon dioxide, and the results of these calculations for a number of tem-

peratures and pressures are given in this paper. The values obtained con-

firm the experimental results, which indicated that the dissociation was too

slight to be directly studied by the present available methods.

(8) The determination of the compressibility of solids at high pressures. Leason H.Adams, Erskine D. Williamson, and John Johnston. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 41,

12-42 (1919).

The change in volume of a solid under the influence of pressure is rarely

greater than a few parts per milhon for each atmosphere change of pressure.

It is therefore not surprising that the measurement of the volume-change of

soHds as affected by pressure should offer pecuUar difficulties, quite apart

from those inherent in high-pressure experimentation, and that the published

records contain very few measurements on the compressibility of solids under

high pressures. This paper describes a method by means of which the volume-

change under pressure of a sohd may be determined with an accuracy of about

1 part in 10,000 of the original volume of the solid; that is, the volume-

change for a range of 10,000 kg. per sq. cm. is determined with an accuracy

of 10 -8 per kg. per sq. cm. Results are presented for the metals gold, cop-

per, silver, aluminum, zinc, tin, cadmium, lead, and bismuth; for the alloys

brass and tin-bismuth eutectic; and for sodium chloride, calcium carbonate,

and siUca, both crystalline and amorphous. The pressure range was 2,000 to

12,000 megabars (1 megabar = 0.987 atm.). In carrying out the determina-


tion a cylinder of the solid, surrounded by a liquid such as kerosene, was in-

closed in a tliick-walled steel bomb fitted with a movable leak-proof piston,

and pairs of simultaneous readings were taken of (1) the displacement of

the piston, i.e., the volume-change, and (2) the pressure. The piston

displacement was measured to within 0.01 mm. by means of a dial micro-

meter. In measuring the pressure, advantage was taken of the change of

resistance under pressure of a "therlo" wire, and in order to determinethe pressure to within 1 megabar the resistance change was measured with atype of Wheatstone bridge having no movable contacts. The P-AVgraphs, which show the relation between volume-change and pressure, werefound to be nearly straight Hues; however, the more compressible metalsexhibit a slight but unmistakable curvature, such that the graphs are con-

cave toward the pressure axis. From this curvature a rough estimate wasobtained of the change of compressibihty between and 10,000 megabars of

all the soKds examined (except gold, copper, silver, aluminum, and brass, for

wliich the compressibiitiy is independent of pressure within the error of

experiment).

(9) Some phj'sical constants of mustard "sas." L. H. Adams and E. D. Williamson.J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 30-35 (1919).

For military purposes it was desired to know the compressibihty of the

liquid 2, 2-dichloroethylsulphide, commonly known as mustard gas. Withthe apparatus already used for the determination of the compressibihty of

various rocks, metals, and other solids, it was a comparatively simple matterto make the requisite measurements. At the same time, certain other prop-erties of this interesting substance were determined from its behavior underhydrostatic pressure. The compressibilitv (pres.sure being expressed in mega-bars) was found to be 49.6X10-^ and 23.9 XlO'^ at pressures of 1 and 2,000megabars respectively, values which are about identical with those for water.

From the measured change of volume upon melting and the slope of the cm'veof melting temperatures under various pressures, the latent heat of fusion wascalculated and found to be 25 calories per gram.

(10) Note on the Bucher cyanide process for the fixation of nitrogen. Eugen Posnjak andH. E. Merwin. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 28-30 (1919).

In the course of an investigation of the Bucher cyanide process undertakenby the Laboratory at the request of the Nitrate Division of the OrdnanceDepartment of the Army, it was found by means of microscopical examinationsthat the nitrogen-bearing constituent of some of the crude technical productsmanufactured by this process consisted principally of some other substancethan ordinaiy sodium cyanide. Further experiments substantiated themicroscopical evidence. The investigation of the chemical nature of thesubstance in question is being continued.

(11) An apparatus for growing crystals under controlled conditions. J. C. Hostetter.J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 85-94 (1919).

Crystals, to be suitable for the study of the effects of pressure, must beperfectly developed and of comparatively large size. For the growth of suchcrystals apparatus is necessary in wliich all variables affecting rate of growthare controlled, and the device described here fulfills these conditions. Essen-tially, the apparatus consists of two thermostats connected in such a mannerthat solution may be continually pumped from one, containing feedingcrystals held at a certain temperature, into the second, which is maintainedat a lower temperature than the first and which contains the crystals to begrown. Crystals of potassium alum and sodium chlorate grown in this

apparatus have been used for pressure studies, the results of wliich v.ill bepubhshed later.


(12) An unusual sulfur crystal. F. Russell v. Bichowsky. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 126-131(1919).

A description of an artificial crystal of sulphur showing unusual develop-ment of the prism zone, two new faces f (211) and (3 (310) and the rare facesX (210) ; 7} (130) ; K (120), as well as the more common faces c, b, a, e, m, v, s, y,

p, 7 , r, q. A list of the known faces of sulphur is given, and certain new zonalrelations pointed out.

(13) The technique of optical glass melting. Clarence N. Fenner. J. Am. Ceram. See,2, 102-145 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 7.)

This article is based upon the experience acquired in the manufacture ofoptical glass during the period of about 18 months in which the Labora-tory was in cooperation with manufacturers of optical glass. The methodpursued in the article is to follow the course of melting operations from begin-ning to end and describe the essential features of procedure. Details of

practice which are common to all forms of glass-making and are famihar toglass-makers in general are either omitted or passed over with brief descrip-tions, and attention is concentrated on those matters in which the making of

optical glass differs from that of other kinds. Because of the fact that thepurposes for which optical glass is to be used are in many respects radicallydifferent from those of other glasses, and require that exact optical and otherphysical properties be maintained and that certain defects be eliminated, it is

essential that manufacturing operations be controlled throughout by methodsof precision. The article describes the general course which must be fol-

lowed to accompHsh these results and the effects caused by departures from thestandard of procedure, and takes up in more detail the principal defects whichare likely to occur, and considers their causes and the methods of avoidingthem. Some of the subjects discussed are: the effects of different availablebatch-materials upon melting operations and the range of choice in this

matter; the necessity of close temperature regulation and the results of inat-

tention to this; fining operations, especially with reference to the eUminationof bubbles, and the causes and prevention of bubbles in general ; variations of

optical properties from requirements, and to what they are due; differences of

procedure required for the different types of glass; stirring operations, andthe manner in which they should be conducted to obtain glasses relatively

free from strise.

(14) An improved method of optical glass manufacture. George W. Morey. J. Am.Ceram. Soc, 2, 146-150 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 8.)

Stirring is begun during the fill and is continued during the fining period.

Details are given of changes in procedure following this departure fromthe usual schedule. The results show that with proper furnace control thecustomary time of manufacture of a pot of glass can be reduced to 24 hours,

with improvement in color due to diminished pot corrosion,

(15) Devitrification of glass. N. L. Bowen. J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 2, 261-278 (1919).(Papers on Optical Glass, No. 9.)

Devitrification of glass is the result of the tendency of the glass to reach thestable crystalline condition and takes place whenever the glass is held for asufficiently long period of time within the range of temperature where its

crystaHizing power is great. The various forms of devitrification in glass arediscussed from this point of view and suggestions are made as to the principle

that must be borne in mind in deciding upon modifications of procedure orchanges in composition that have as their object the avoidance of devitri-


fication. Specific examples of the devitrification of optical glasses are given,

together with identification of the crystalline phases separating.

(16) The hydrated ferric oxides. Eugen Posnjak and H. E. Merwin. Am. J. Sci., 47,311-348 (1919).

The work described in this pubHcation proves rather conclusively that noseries of hydrates of ferric oxide exists among the natural minerals. The onlyexisting hydrate is ferric oxide monohydrate. This substance occurs in

nature in two polymorphic forms—goethite and lepidocrocite—and in an"amorphous" condition—Hmonite. The two crystalUzed forms are con-

trasted as follows

:

Goethite.—Orthorhombic, a:h:c — 0.91: 1:0.602; density (grams per c.c.)

4.28 ±0.01; a = 2.26, /3 = 2.394, y = 2.400; streak, dull orange-yellow;pleochroism faint. When crystalHzed in dense aggregates of thin blades andfibers inclosing much adsorbed and capillary water, it has commonly beencalled Hmonite; however, sufficient proof is now given to show that suchcrystallized material is really goethite.

Lepidocrocite.—Orthorhombic, a: 6: c = 0.43: 1: 0.64; density (grams perc.c.) 4.09 ± 0.04; a = 1.94, /3 = 2.20, y = 2.51; streak, dull orange; pleo-

chroism very strong.

The name hmonite is retained for material which appears to be essentially

isotropic ferric oxide monohydrate with adsorbed and capillary water. How-ever, this substance should not be considered a distinct form of ferric oxidemonohydrate, as the real nature of such "amorphous" substances is still

uncertain.

The fibrous mineral turgite is variable in composition, and considerable

evidence is given that it probably represents solid solutions of goethite withhematite, together with inclosed and adsorbed water.

The genetic conditions of the hydrated ferric oxides and the stabiHty re-

lation of the two monohydrates are unknown.No definitely crystallized synthetic hydrated ferric oxide has up to the

present been prepared. However, it seems certain that only two distinct

types of "amorphous" hydrated ferric oxide exist, one yellow and the otherreddish-brown. The yellow is apparently essentially ferric-oxide mono-hydrate, while the reddish-brown substance may hold its water in either adissolved or an adsorbed condition (or both). Thus the synthetic and thenatural hydrated ferric oxides exhibit, chemically, great similarity.

(17) Strains due to temperature gradients, with special reference to optical glass. E. D.Williamson. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 209-217 (1919). (Papers on OpticalGlass, No. 10.)

General equations are derived for the elastic stresses produced by tem-perature differences in spheres, cylinders, and slabs when the temperaturedistribution is symmetrical about the center, axis, or central plane, respectively.

More specific equations are given for the case of the temperature distribution

due to uniform surface-heating, which is the most important case in practice.

(18) A furnace temperature regulator. Walter P. White and Leason H. Adams. Phys.Rev., 14, 44-48 (1919).

By making the heating coil of an electric furnace one arm of a wheatstonebridge, and combining this with a galvanometer regulator, thus keepingconstant the resistance of the coil, we can, regardless of variations in the cur-rent-supply, and with no attention, maintain constant the temperature of

furnaces not too directly influenced by the temperature of the room, or wherethe surrounding air is kept constant. The power available in this regulator


is relatively very great; nothing has to be inserted within the furnace cavity,

and the lag is practically nothing; the regulator is often nearly at its bestunder conditions most unfavorable to other regulators. It has held a smallfurnace for hours constant to 0.1° at temperatures from 500° to 1400°.

(19) Temperature distribution in solids during heating or cooling. E. D. Williamsonand L. H. Adams. Phys. Rev., 14, 99-114 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass,No. 11.)

In deciding on the best methods of carrying out various operations in themanufacture of optical glass, we found it necessary to have some idea of thetemperature gradients in the pieces during heat treatment. While greatprecision in absolute magnitudes is generally of minor importance in suchcases, the only way to gain insight into the question of the variation of thetemperature differences with the shape and dimensions of the blocks and themethod of heating is actually to work out numerical cases.

Equations have been derived for the temperature distribution in soUds of

several typical shapes, the solids being heated or cooled according to one of

two methods, viz, the surface of the body (1) is continuously heated (or cooled)

at a uniform rate, or (2) experiences a sudden change to a higher or lowerconstant temperature. With these equations a number of calculations havebeen made and the results of the computations are presented in tabular formand, in certain cases, are also shown graphically. By the use of these tables

and graphs it is a comparatively simple matter to determine the temperatureswithin soHds of a large variety of shapes when, as is commonly the case, theyare heated or cooled according to one of the methods mentioned above.The equations given are in convenient form for calculation and for showing

a number of interesting qualitative relations between the temperature gradi-

ents in various solids, and they will probably prove useful in connection withthe determination of specific heat and thermal conductivity by dynamicmethods.

While the main interest at the time was in the application to glass manu-facture, the equations are perfectly general, as are also all the quaUtativedeductions made.

(20) The volatilization of iron from optical glass pots by chlorine at high temperatures.J. C. Hostetter, H. S. Roberts, and J. B. Ferguson. J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 2,

356-372 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 12.)

Of all the ordinary impurities found in optical glass, iron exerts the greatest

influence on transmission. The iron-content of the glass arises from pots usedas containers during melting as well as from the raw materials. The con-

tent of iron in the glass and, therefore, its transmission, would be considerably

improved if the iron could be removed from the pot-walls before use. Chlor-

ine appeared to be a suitable agent for this purpose, and experiments demon-strated the fact that approximately 80 per cent of the iron could be extracted

from the interior of the clay pots and volatilized by the action of chlorine at

temperatures easily secured in a pot-arch or glass-melting furnace. Large-scale experiments were carried out at the Bausch and Lomb Optical Companyand conditions developed for removing more iron from the bottom of the pot,

where the most corrosion takes place, than from the side-walls. Glass meltedin these pots showed, in all cases but one, less iron than that made in untreatedpots. In the exception noted above, however, more iron was found in the

glass made in the treated pot, and it was shown that, although the iron hadbeen volatilized from the pot, more than usual pot corrosion had taken place

during melting. The success of the method, then, depends on whether adense surface can be made in such pots when the iron has been removed, as,


for instance, by burning under different conditions from that obtaining duringthe course of these experiments. With some types of pots the method wouldundoubtedly be successful, even with the usual bm*ning schedules. Thepossible appHcation to the removal of iron from grog, clay, and other ceramicproducts is indicated.

(21) Electrometric titrations, with special reference to the determination of ferrous andferric iron. J. C. Hostetter and H. S. Roberts. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 41, 1337-1357 (1919).

The advantages of the electrometric method for titrating, oxidizing, andreducing reactions may be summarized as follows:

(1) This method permits the use of potassium dichromate with its numer-ous advantages.

(2) The reduction of the solution with electrometric control eliminates

the removal of excess reducing agent, which must be done with the usualmethods of reduction.

(3) Conditions, such as acidity, need not be controlled, except within verywide limits, and hj^drochloric, sulphuric, or hydrofluoric acid, or mixtures of

these, may all be used. In contrast to these wide limits, compare the narrowacid limits (1.5 to 2.5 per cent by volume of H2SO4) within which the reduction

with SO2 or H2S must be carried out and the precautions which must be takenin a permanganate titration in the presence of either chlorides or fluorides.

(4) The sensitivitj^ and accuracy of the method make possible (a) thedetermination of a few tenths of a miUigram of tin, chromium, ferrous or

ferric iron, and probably many other elements, in the presence of large quanti-

ties of some other element, and (b) the determination of blanks involved in

some of the ordinary determinations by reducing or oxidizing agents.

(5) The time within which a determination can be carried out is greatly

shortened. The content of ferrous and ferric iron in a silicate, for instance,

can be determined in from 15 to 30 minutes.

(6) The precision attainable is comparable to the best of the ordinaryvolumetric determinations.

(22) Electrical apparatus for use in electrometric titration. Howard S. Roberts. J.

Am. Chem. Soc, 41, 1358-1362 (1919).

A description of simplified and inexpensive apparatus for use in the titration

of salts by the electrometric method. The potentiometer consists of a sliding

rheostat with attached scale. Several forms of galvanometer may be used.

(23) The ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02. J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Am. J.

Sci., 48, 81-123 (1919).

The ternary system Hme-magnesia-sihca has proved to be the most com-pHcated of the four possible ternary systems which may be constructed fromthe four oxides, Ume, magnesia, alumina, and siHca. The crystaUine phaseswhich are definite compounds, and which appear as primary phases, are as

follows: Lime; magnesia; sihca (tridymite and cristobaHte) ; a CaO.Si02(pseudowoUastonite) ; 3Ca0.2Si02; a and /3 2CaO.Si02; MgO.SiOg (cUno-

enstatite) ; 2MgO.Si02 (forsterite) ; CaO.Mg0.2Si02 (diopside) ; 5Ca0.2MgO.eSiOz; and 2CaO.Mg0.2Si02. The melting-point of 2CaO.Mg0.2Si02 is

1458° ± 5° C. and the decomposition temperature of 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 is

1365° ± 5° C.

In addition to these, crystals representing several solid solutions also ap-pear as primary phases. The soUd solutions are:

(1) A complete series with chno-enstatite and diopside as end-members,generally known as pyroxenes.


(2) The pseudowollastonite solid solutions whose compositions form an

area bounded by the following lines: (1) the CaO.SiOa - CaO.Mg0.2Si02line; (2) a line running from the composition CaO 44.4, MgO 3.1, SiOa 52.5 on

the above-mentioned hne across to the composition CaO 46.7, MgO 3.5,

Si02 49.8, on the CaO.SiOa - 2CaO.Mg0.2Si02 line; (3) then either the last-

mentioned line back to CaO.Si02, or, more probably, an approximate continu-

ation of hne (2), to about the composition CaO 50, MgO 50, on the side-Une.

(3) The woUastonite solid solutions. These extend to about 17 per cent

diopside or 3.2 per cent MgO at the higher temperatures. The most con-

centrated of these solid solutions along the diopside line (the 17 per cent)

decomposes at 1340° =t 5°C., and this sohd solution is the only one represented

on the liquidus.

(4) The 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 solid solutions. Only a few of these solid

solutions which are decomposed at the higher temperatures near the de-

composition-temperature of the pure compound are stable in contact with a

suitable liquid.

(5) Certain members of the monticellite soHd solutions. Monticellite

takes up forsterite in solid solution to the extent of about 10 per cent, andthe decomposition-temperature of the solutions is thereby raised. Monti-

ceUite itself probably decomposes at too low a temperature to ever occur as a

primary phase.

The temperature-cencentration relations of the liquids which may be in

equilibrium with each of these phases have been thoroughly investigated,

where necessary, by means of the quencliing method, and the results obtained

have been correlated with the existing data on the remainder of the ternary

system. The compounds 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 and 2CaO.Mg0.2Si02 have not

been prepared previously. Attempts to prepare a compound of the formula

8Ca0.4Mg0.9Si02 (Schaller's akermanite) gave negative results. Themonticelhte solid solutions and the compound akermanite are discussed at

length, but the woUastonite and the 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 soUd solutions are

only briefly mentioned, as they are made the subject of a subsequent paper.

(See abstract (24), below.) Experiments were made on the tridymite-cris-

tobalite inversion temperature, which was found for this system to be below

1500° C, in approximate agreement with Fenner's original value of 1470°.

The great sluggishness of the inversion precluded a more exact determination

on our part.

(24) WoUastonite (CaO.Si02) and related solid solutions in the ternary system lime-

magnesia-silica. J. B. Ferguson and H. E. Merwin. Am. J. Sci., 48, 165-189

(1919).

The study of the ternary system CaO-MgO-Si02 (described under No. 23

above) brought to Hght many perplexing Hquidus relations for which there was

no adequate explanation. An investigation of the solidus relations was there-

fore started in order to clear up the doubtful points, and the results of this

investigation are given in this paper. The salient features of these results are

:

(1) A confirmation of the earlier work in regard to wollastonite-diopside

sohd solutions, woUastonite taking up a maximum of 17 per cent of diopside.

(2) The existence of solid solutions of pseudowollastonite and diopside

containing as a maximum about 16 per cent of diopside.

(3) The finding of the new compound, 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02.

(4) The existence of sohd solutions of akermanite (or perhaps of an un-

stable compound, 3CaO.Mg0.3Si02) in woUastonite and pseudowollastonite.

The woUastonite solutions extend to a composition containing between 60


and 70 per cent of akermanite, while the pseudowoUastonite solutions extendto a composition containing about 23 per cent of the same compound.

(5) The presence of an area of solid solution which includes the wollas-tonite-diopside, the wollastonite-akermanite, and the wollastonite-5CaO.2Mg0.6Si02 solid solutions. The decomposition temperatures on this areabetween the 17 per cent diopside sohd solution and the compound 5CaO.-2Mg0.6Si02 pass through a minimum. 5Ca0.2Mg0.6Si02 decomposes at1365° C. and the 17 per cent diopside soHd solution at about 1340° C., whilepure wollastonite inverts at 1200° C.

In addition to the results just mentioned, which suffice to clear up theliquidus relations in question, as thorough an investigation as the nature ofthe problem and the available methods of attack would permit was carriedout upon the solid solutions of siHca and 3Ca0.2Si02 in calcium metasihcateand upon the inversion and decomposition temperatures of all the varioussoHd solutions.

A general discussion of these results, with diagram and models, is given.The formation of unstable phases in sihcate melts is also discussed, and thefutihty of attempting to use formulas derived from the theory of dilute solu-tions in order to calculate the change of inversion temperature with sohdsolution is briefly mentioned.

(25) Use of optical pyrometers for control of optical-glass furnaces. Clarence N. FennerBuU. Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1001-1011 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass,No. 13.)

Among the features of careful control required in the manufacture of opticalglass, that of the regulation of furnace temperatures is of high importance.During most of the time that a pot of glass is in the furnace the temperatureshould be allowed to vary but httle in either direction from that which hasbeen found to be appropriate for the given stage of operation. It is thereforeof great importance to have available a rehable means for the rapid determina-tion of such temperatures. During the early experiences of the Laboratoryin optical-glass making, it was perceived that the thermo-couples generallyin use did not come up to the requirements of the case, and it was thoughtthat optical pyrometers should be a satisfactory substitute. Before adoptingthem for general use, tests were made to determine to what degree the re-quirements were satisfied. Two principal questions were investigated:first, the correctness of the cahbration table supphed with each instrument,and second, the degree to which radiation from furnace-walls agrees withthat of a ''black body," or a body whose intensity of luminosity correspondsto its temperature. The method of carrying out these tests is described insome detail, as similar tests are desirable wherever optical pyrometers areinstalled. As a result, it was found that the manufacturer's cahbration tableswere considerably in error in some cases (which impUes that they shouldalways be checked), and that the luminosity of furnace-walls agrees satisfac-torily with that of a "black body" under some conditions but departs verywidely under others. The reason for these results and the factors upon whichthey depend are discussed. The manner in which the pyrometer is usedunder working conditions is described. The conclusion is reached that whenthe readings of the pyrometer are properly checked by such tests as these theinstrument gives a very satisfactory and rehable means of controlling furnacetemperatures.

(26) The cooling of optical glass melts. Howard S. Roberts. J. Am. Ceram Soc 2543-563 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 14.)

'''

The conditions to be attained when a melt of optical glass is cooled in thepot are: (1) that neither ream nor bubbles shall be introduced during the


cooling, nor carried into the middle of the melt; (2) that the glass shall not

become inhomogeneous through the precipitation of a crystalhne phase;

(3) that the bulk of the cooled melt shall be found cracked into large, reason-

ably rectangular blocks, having smooth, flat surfaces; and (4) that these

blocks shall be sufficiently free from strain to cleave readily with a smoothfracture.

The appearance of ream in the middle of the melt, vacuum bubbles, or a

crystalline phase, can be discouraged by rapid coohng, preferably from the

bottom of the pot, while the glass is still soft; and by insulating its top surface

as soon as the melt is set out of the melting-furnace.

The cold melt shows cracks of two types—"spherical cracks," and "plane

cracks." The spherical cracks are due to decrease of temperature difference,

and first appear below the temperature at which the drop is a maximum;these cracks form one after another until the temperature gradient has dis-

appeared. The plane cracks seem to be the result of a difference in rate of

contraction between the glass and the pot; the temperature at which they

first appear in a given melt seems to be nearly independent of the coohng

rate. The presence of either type of crack in the melt reduces the tendency

for the other type of crack to form. As the fracture due to spherical cracks is

rough and the pieces formed are irregular, while that due to plane cracks is

entirely satisfactory, it is desirable to maintain the temperature gradient at

a low value by slow cooling, and to prevent its decreasing much below its

maximum until after the formation of plane cracks has begun. This can be

accomplished by increasing the coohng rate at the proper time.

The coohng rate can be reduced (1) by heating the surroundings of the melt,

i.e., placing it in a heated kiln; and (2) by surrounding it with an envelope of

some such insulating material as sand or kieselguhr. Variations of these twomethods are described and time-temperature data given.

(27) Thermocouple installation in annealing kilns for optical glass. E. D. Williamson andH.S.Roberts. Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Met. Eng., 1445-1453 (1919). (Papers onOptical Glass, No. 15.)

During the war-time rush to prepare the glass necessary for the needs of

the Army and Navy, the problem of the temperature control of the annealing

kilns became most serious. This paper gives a short account of the systemevolved by the members of the Laboratory staff who were cooperating withthe Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company at its Charleroi plant. The points whichare most specifically treated are

:

(1) The advantages of the thermo-couple over other devices for this typeof work.

(2) Choice of material for thermocouples.

(3) Choice of measuring instrument.

(4) Arrangement of leads and other apparatus.

(5) The general problem of anneahng optical glass.

The conclusions reached will interest and assist those who have to meetsimilar problems in other fields.

(28) Potentiometers for thermoelement work. Walter P. White. Bull. Am. Inst. Min.Met. Eng., 1763-1772 (1919).

Thermo-couple pyrometers are read in three ways. First, by direct readers

where the current, and therefore the deflection, is proportional to the electro-

motive force of the couple; second, by potentiometers where the galvano-meter merely helps to balance the electromotive force of the couple against

that of a standard cell by means of known resistances and a constant battery-

current; third, by intermediate instruments such as the pyrovolter, employing


the potentiometer principle with a constant battery, but avoiding the stand-ard cell, and measuring current with a cahbrated galvanometer. Similar in

result but different in principle is the new Harrison-Foote instrument, wherethe circuit resistance can be very quickly adjusted to the correct value. All

these special instruments avoid the main difficulty of a direct reader, namely,the error from uncertain or variable resistance. It is necessary to use theregular potentiometer in order to avoid also the uncertainty (perhaps 1 permille) of the cahbration of the direct reader. With a slide-wire a simple andportable potentiometer is made, good to about 10 microvolts, or 0.25° withmost thermo-couples. The sKde-wire also permits readings to 1 microvolt,

though not altogether satisfactorily. Two special designs of potentiometer,

the Diesselhorst-Wolff and the White, enable readings to be made to 0.1

microvolt or better, and the White potentiometer is very Httle affected bycorrosive gases. Both these are deflection potentiometers, enabling part of

the readings to be taken direct from the galvanometer with a gain in speedand without sensible error. If the potentiometer is arranged as a doublepotentiometer, speed can be still further gained in reading different instru-

ments simultaneously. The precision of these potentiometers exceeds thatneeded in ordinary pyrometry, but is useful in fundamental standardization

work, in calorimetry, and in numerous other apphcations of the thermo-element.

(29) The rapid electrometric determination of iron in some optical glasses. J. B. Fergusonand J. C. Hostetter. J. Am. Ceram. Soc, 2, 608-621 (1919). (Papers onOptical Glass, No. 16.)

The results of the apphcation of the electrometric determination of iron

with stannous chloride and potassium dichromate are discussed in this paper.The electrometric method enables one to make rapid and accurate analysesfor both ferric and ferrous iron, provided interfering substances are absent.

Under favorable conditions, such an analysis can be made in 10 minutes andmay be carried out in glassware. Four different procedures are described for

total iron and one for ferrous iron. A number of analytical results, including

many ferrous-iron determinations, are given. The ferrous-iron content of theglasses proved to be dependent upon a number of factors and in some cases

reached values in excess of 35 per cent of the total iron present.

(30) Hematite and rutile formed by the action of chlorine at high temperatures. H. E.Merwin and J. C. Hostetter. American Mineralogist, 4, 126-127 (1919).

By the action of the vapors of a gas-fired furnace on the chlorides of iron

and titanium at 1000° C, well-faceted crystals of hematite with a maximumdiameter of 4 mm. were obtained. Excellent measurements were obtainedwhich are identical with those generally accepted for natural crystals. Mi-croscopic faceted rutile crystals also were obtained. Suggestions are offered

for the growing of crystals of these substances.

(31) Application of the thermionic ampUfier to conductivity measurements. R. E. Halland L. H. Adams. J. Am. Chem. Soc, 41, 1515-1525 (1919).

As a part of the general plan for the investigation of two-component systemsunder pressure, a study is being made of the changes in solubihty of a salt

which occur when its aqueous solution, in contact with crystals of the soUd,

is subjected to pressure. In order to measure the changes of concentrationwhich occur in the solution, while leaving it in situ in the pressure bomb, wenote the changes in the conductance of the solution. For the attainment of

sufficient accuracy in these measurements, the telephone which indicates thebalance position of the wheatstone bridge must be extremely sensitive, since


the allowable current through the network is limited by heating effects in theconductivity cell. The terminals of the bridge which ordinarily are con-nected to the telephone are joined to the "input" of a thermionic amphfierof the type used in wireless telephony and telegraphy. The telephone is

then connected into the output circuit of the amphfier. This arrangementhas resulted in effectively increasing by approximately 50 times the sen-

sitivity of a sensitive high-resistance telephone. Any ordinary telephonebecomes a more sensitive instrument with the amphfier than the best tele-

phones without it.

The electron tube employed in the amphfer may also be used as a source of

alternating current for conductance measurements. Its advantages are its

cheapness and the wide range of frequencies which may be obtained with it.

A first harmonic is present in the current, which is noticeable at low frequencies

but which is not troublesome at a frequency of 1,000 cycles or more.If for any reason it should be desired to use frequencies in conductance

measurements beyond the hmit of the human ear, a telephone could still beemployed to indicate the bridge balance by the use of the autodyne method.

(32) The hydrochloric-acid color method for determining iron. J. C. Hostetter. J. Am.Chem. Soc, 41, 1531-1543 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 17.)

Conditions have been found under which the yellow color developed bydissolving ferric iron in hydrochloric acid may be used for the determination of

iron. The temperature coefficient for this color varies from 2 to 3 per centper degree, depending on the concentration of iron and probably also on theacidity. The color developed by a given amount of iron varies with the acid

concentration, reaching the maximum intensity at from 26 to 28 per cent

HCl. The relative increase produced by acid is greater the higher the con-centration of iron; this is especially true above 20 per cent HCl, but below this

concentration the relative change is independent of the iron content. Inas-

much as solutions must frequently be boiled in order to insure the completesolution of iron present as "scale," the use of constant-boihng acid is recom-mended and its use has been found to be altogether satisfactory. The effects

of salts on the color indicate that sulphates cause bleaching and chlorides

cause intensification; detailed study of the effect of the very soluble calciumchloride shows that an intensification of 2.5 may be attained by the addition

of this salt; consequently, when testing for iron in a very soluble chloride thestandard iron solution must be made up to possess the same salt concentra-tion. Some apphcations of the method are given and some results are

presented.

(33) Ammonium picrate and potassium trithionate: optical dispersion and anomalouscrystal angles. Herbert E. Merwin. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 429-431 (1919).

The dispersion and other optical properties of the substances are given.

The b axis of rapidly-grown trithionate crystals is longer than normal.

(34) Equilibrium studies upon the Bucher process. J. B. Ferguson and P. D. V. Manning.J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 11, 946-950 (1919).

The Bucher process is one of the processes by means of which atmosphericnitrogen may be "fixed" and thereby made available for the manufacture of

explosives. An investigation of this process was undertaken at the sug-gestion of the War Department. Experiments were made using pure chemi-cals and mixtures of pure nitrogen and carbon monoxide in known proportions.

Curves have been obtained showing (1) the relation between the carbonmonoxide content of the furnace gases and the yield of cyanide, and (2) the


relation between the carbon-dioxide content of the furnace gases and theyield of cyanide, both at two temperatures. The curves indicate that undercertain conditions producer-gas may be used in the process and that thedissociation of sodium carbonate is probably one of the controlling chemicalreactions.

(35) The composition of the gases of Kilauea.

Obs., 7, 94-97 (1919).

E. S. Shepherd. Bull. Hawaiian Volcano

Since 1912, when Day and Shepherd collected the first gas samples evertaken from the Kilauea crater, work has continued on the composition of

these gases. Further collection was made in 1917 and a shipment of gasescollected by Dr. T. A. Jaggar, jr., director of the observatory at Kilauea,

has just been received. This work presents rather unusual difficulties in thematter of collection and also in the analysis.

This preliminary report is concerned primarily with the 1917 collection,

but includes a new analysis of one of the 1912 tubes and one tube from Jaggar's1918-19 collection, for comparison. From an examination of the tables of

analyses it appears that the gases from this volcano vary greatly in com-position. About the only constituent which appears in more or less constantquantity is water vapor, wliich averages about 50 per cent of the gases givenoff by the lava. This refers, of course, to the gases obtained from the inside

of flames, i.e., before the gas has come in direct contact with air. The re-

maining constituents are CO2, CO, H2, N2, Ar (trace), SO2, CI2, and S2,

with traces of F2. The chief ingredients are CO2, SO2, S2, and H2O. It

seems significant that the combustible gases are (at the surface) relatively

small in amount, and this doubtless explains the quiet nature of Kilaueaeruptions—there is Kttle left to furnish an explosion. It is also probable thatwith the additional evidence which the gases recently collected by Jaggarand the systematic collection which he purposes for the future will furnish,

we shall be able to estabhsh the relative importance of the several h3^potheses

thus far proposed to account for the energy supply of this crater. Theanalyses of the 1917 gases are as follows:

Gases collected from Kilauea, 1917.

[Volume per cents at 1200° C]

Tube.


have called attention to the advantages of standard caHbration tables for

translating the electromotive force of a thermocouple into temperature, andsuch standard tables have been given for copper-constantan and for platinum-platinrhodium couples. It has now been found advisable to extend the rangeof the copper-constantan table so that this couple may be available for meas-uring temperatures up to 400° and down to —200°. A table for chromel-

alumel (the Hoskins couple) has also been worked out and the previous

platinum-platinrhodium table for temperature between 0° and 1755° is

reprinted without change. The question of fixed-junction corrections is

discussed and the best methods for making such corrections are described

in detail.

(37) The relations between tridymite and cristobalite. Clarence N. Fenner. J. Soc.

Glass Technology, 3, Trans., 116-125 (1919).

Several articles have appeared recently in French and British journals, in

which some of the conclusions regarding the stability relations between the

various forms of siUca, pubHshed several years ago (C. N. Fenner, The Stabil-

ity Relations of the SiHca Minerals, Am. J. Sci., 36, 331-384, 1913), have beenquestioned. The principal basis for doubt seems to the present writer to benot that new evidence has been discovered, but that the observers have failed

to take fully into consideration the rather remarkable properties of sihca,

which tend to obscure stabihty relations and whose effect was discussed in

some detail in the article cited; moreover, that some of the evidence set forth

there has been overlooked or disregarded, and explanations have been ad-

vanced which are inconsistent with this evidence. For this reason it has

seemed well to take up the matter anew and present the evidence which bears

upon the specific points involved. The points at issue are especially those

which deal with the relations between tridymite and cristobahte. Certain

evidence previously given is repeated in somewhat different form, and to

support it further evidence is offered which either has not been given before

in detail or is entirely new. In addition to the writer's work, other directly

relevant information supphed by the work of Ferguson and Merwin (see abstract

23 above) on the system CaO-MgO-Si02 is cited in confirmation. All of the

results are in accord with the conclusions previously announced, and it is

beheved that the explanations suggested by the foreign observers are directly

at variance with the experimental evidence. The conclusion is reached, as

before, that the field of stability of tridymite is hmited by the temperatureof 1470° =t 10°, and that at higher temperatures up to the fusing-point cristo-

balite is the stable form.

(38) A method for determination of the volatile matter in oxides of lead. Olaf Andersen.J. Am, Ceram. Soc, 2, 782-783 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 18.)

The amount of volatile constituents in a sample of litharge or other oxide

of lead can be accurately determined by conversion of the PbO into PbSiOs.

The sample is mixed with a weighed quantity of silica, equal to about one-

third the weight of the PbO; heated in a platinum crucible in an electric

furnace at 800° to form lead siHcate glass; quickly raised to 1000° for a fewminutes; cooled and weighed.

(39) The volatilization of lead oxide from lead-silicate melts. Olaf Andersen. J. Am.Ceram. Soc, 784-789 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 19.)

Experiments were made on the amount of PbO volatiUzed from the surface

of lead siHcate glasses at temperatures from 900° to 1400° C. It was foundthat the volatilization from an unstirred glass in 15 minutes took place at

practically the same rate as from a stirred glass heated for a longer period.


The rate of volatilization falls off considerably during a long heating if theglass is not stirred, as a film considerably lower in PbO forms on the sm'face of

the melt, into which PbO must diffuse from below before it can escape. Therate of volatihzation of PbO at the temperatures usually employed in optical-

glass manufacture would seem from these experiments to be small enough so

that variations in refractive index due to volatihzation are not to be expectedif the procedure is reasonably constant from melt to melt, but large enough to

cause considerable variations in index if the melting schedule is changed.

(40) War-time development of the optical industry. Fred E. Wright. J. Optical Soc.Amer., 2, 1-7 (1919). (Papers on Optical Glass, No. 20.)

In this paper a brief statement is given of the several factors which wereinvolved in the high-speed production of fire-control instruments for the Armyand Nav>'. The development of the manufacture of optical glass and theconnection of the Geophysical Laboratory with this problem are described;

the rapid increase in the manufacturing capacity of the country for precision

optics to meet the urgent demands of the Army and Navj^ is outhned, andattention is directed to the results finally attained which insured an adequatesupply of these instruments to June 1919.

(41) Sights and fire-control apparatus. Fred E. Wright. Chapter VI, pp. 135-147, of

"America's Munitions, 1917-1918," Report of the Director of Munitions, WarDepartment, Washington, 1919.

This chapter, which was written by Major Fred E. Wright in collaboration

with Colonel H. K. Rutherford, presents a summarized record of the develop-ment of fire-control apparatus during the war, of the difficulties which wereovercome in the production of optical glass, and of the conversion of otherhues of industry to optical-instrument manufacture. A detailed statistical

statement is given of the status of orders for fh'e-control apparatus on Novem-ber 11, 1918 (the time of the signing of the armistice), and also on February20, 1919.

(42) The oxidation of lava by steam. J. B. Ferguson. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 539-546(1919).

Under certain conditions steam is capable of oxidizing iron and its loweroxides to magnetite, Fe304, or to ferric oxide, Fe203. This fact has oftenbeen quoted as an indication of the probable oxidizing action of steam uponthe lava during an eruption. In this paper this reasoning from analogy is

subjected to the hght of recent investigations and found wanting. In addi-tion, some experimental results are given which confirm the view that theferrous iron is not thus oxidized, and wliich indicate that the presence of muchferrous iron in the lava and much steam in the volcanic emanations of Kil-

auea are two facts which are in full accord. Several miscellaneous experi-

ments are also reported which show that in the experimental study of thechemistry of the lavas careful attention must be paid to the character of thegas phase in contact with the lava if results of value are to be obtained. Thebearing of these experiments upon the interpretation of the results ol3tained

by pumping gases from rocks at liigh temperatures need only be mentioned.

(43) George Ferdinand Becker, 1847-1919. Aathur L. Day, Am. J. Sci., 48, 242-245 (1919).

A review of the life and scientific work of Dr. George F. Becker, for thirty-

eight years chief of the Division of Physical and Chemical Research of theU. S. Geological Survej' and initiator of the researches out of which grewthe present organization of the Geophysical Laboratory.


(44) The relation between birefringence and stress in various types of optical glass. L. H.Adams and E. D. Williamson. J. Wash. Acad. Sci., 9, 609-623 (1919). (Paperson Optical Glass, No. 21.)

In the examination of optical glass, the internal strains caused by poorannealing are detected by means of the birefringence which accompaniesstress or strain. Since no adequate measurements of the quantitativerelation between stress aad birefringence were known, it was necessary to

determine this relation in order to know the precise magnitude of the stresses

commonly met with in unannealed glass. In this paper data are presentedfor nine different kinds of American-made optical glass.

(45) The nature of the forces between atoms in sohds. Ralph W. G. Wyckoff. J. Wash.Acad. Sci., 9, 565-592 (1919).

The structure of the atom, as we now know it, is discussed with reference

to the nature of the forces operating between atoms, and it is emphasizedthat the arrangement of only the outside electrons has a bearing on thephenomena usually included under the term "chemistry," The arrange-ment of the inner electrons can not be deduced from chemical data alone.

The outstanding fact is the tendency, still unexplained, to form "closedclusters" of eight or twice-eight electrons.

Several typical compounds are considered with reference to the nature of

the forces producing them. All compounds lie between the two extremes of

"polar" and "non-polar" compounds. A simplified method of representingthe type of combination in a given compound is suggested.

Solid substances are classified, according to the nature of the forces of

combination, into molecule-forming, polar, and valency compounds.The phenomena of adsorption, solubility, ionization in solution, formation

of complex ions, and molecular complexes are discussed from this point of

view.

<

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH.*

J. Franklin Jameson, Director.

The following report, the fourteenth annual report rendered by the

present Director, covers the period from November 1, 1918, to October

31, 1919.

Although the armistice was concluded early in the twelvemonth,

many of the disturbing effects of warfare continued throughout the

year. Taken as a whole, therefore, the year was far from normal,

though by the end of it most of the Department's work had come back

into the usual channels. The activities of the National Board for

Historical Service, the war-time organization into whose action the

war-work of the Department has been merged, have now come to an

end. Lea\dng those activities to be described at a later time in a

special report, the compiler of the present report confines it to those

lines of work which lie in the normal field of such a department, in

which it was engaged before the war, and from which, it is hoped, it

will never again be called upon to depart.

The staff of the Department has suffered an important loss through

the resignation of Miss EHzabeth Donnan, who has accepted an ap-

pointment as assistant professor of economics in Mount Holyoke

College, and who in the middle of September left our service to enter

the faculty of that institution. Her work in the Department, both

in respect to the editing of the American Historical Review and in

respect to the documentary historical publications of the Institution,

had been of a very high order, and her departure could not fail to be

regarded with deep regret. It is, however, beheved that, by utilizing

college vacations, it will be possible for her to finish the piece of work

on which she was chiefly engaged in recent years, her two volumes of

documentary materials on the slave-trade to America, illustrating espe-

cially the sources and methods of supply.

Miss Louisa F. Washington has taken the place of Mr. Campbell as

the Department's stenographer.

In September 1918, Professor Dana C. Munro, of Princeton Univer-

sity, became chairman of the National Board for Historical Service, and

Professor Joseph Schafer, of the University of Oregon, \dce-chairman,

with the understanding that the latter should be the active conductor

of its work, resident for the time in Washington. In October 1918,

Dr. Schafer came to Washington, under appointment as a Research

Associate of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, and remained

here until July. His presence was a source of great pleasure andprofit to the Department, and he carried on a variety of useful workfor the Board. The chief of these services was the untiring labor he

Address: No. 1140 Woodward Building, Washington, D. C.175


performed as chairnmn of a committee appointed by the Board andby the American Historical Association to draw up a comprehensive

report upon the effects of the war on historical instruction in the

schools of the United States, and to recommend such changes in the

system as might adapt it better to the altered conditions which the

war has brought upon the country in both external and internal re-

lations. Dr. Schafer had for several months the helpful assistance of

Miss Edith M. Stewart.

Another member of the Board, Dr. Victor S. Clark, formerly of the

Department of Economics and Sociology in the Carnegie Institution of

Washington, was constantly occupied from November to July with a

special and highly important division of the Board's work, and thus

was closely associated with the staff of this Department.

As in previous years, acknowledgment is cordially made of the

favors constantly shown to the Department, with the greatest liber-

ality, by the officials of the Library of Congress, and especially byDr. Herbert Putnam, the Librarian, by Mr. A. P. C. Grifhn, acting

librarian, by Mr. Charles Moore, acting chief of the Manuscripts

Division, and by Mr. P. Lee Phillips, chief of the ]\Iap Division.

Grateful recognition is also made of special courtesies extended by the

authorities of the libraries of Harvard University and of BowdoinCollege, especially during the summer months, to several members of

the staff, of the great kindness shown by the South Carolina Historical

Society and its librarian, Miss Mabel L. Webber, to Miss Donnan, andof that shown by the New York Public Library and the Public Archives

of Canada in facilitating the work of Mrs. Surrey.

WORK OF THE PAST YEAR.

REPORTS. AIDS, AND GUIDES.

As has been indicated by preceding reports, a large part of the workof the Department has consisted in the gradual preparation and issue

of a series of guides to the materials for American history preserved

in the archives of foreign countries. The series was approaching

completion when the war broke out. In times of warfare its continu-

ance was surrounded by so many difficulties that attempts to go onwith it were deemed inexpedient. Many of the same obstacles still

exist, but it was thought possible in April to undertake archival

investigations in the neutral territory of the Netherlands. Mr. A. J.

F. van Laer, archivist of the State of New York, and the person whomthe general judgment of scholars would pronounce the best qualified

for the purpose, was able to secure three or four months' leave of

absence from his post at Albany, through the kindness of the regents

of the LTniversity of the State of New York. He was accordingly

invited to undertake for the Department the preparation of a guide

DEPARTMENT OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH. 177

to the materials for United States history in Dutch archives, and in

April proceeded to the Netherlands for that purpose. Although the

Dutch archives are voluminous, and, b}'' reason of the federal character

of the old Republic, less centralized than those of most Europeancountries, and although three months was therefore a short time for

the preparation of even a preliminary survey such as our system con-

templates, yet certain considerations made the available time seemnot inadequate.

The Dutch archives are exceedingly well arranged. Their officials

are exceptionally helpful. Mr. van Laer, a Dutchman by birth, wasalready familiar with the archives, and with the portions of Americanhistory (New Netherland, etc.) to which they chiefly relate. More-over, much time would be saved by reason of the fact that, 75 years

before, John Romeyn Brodhead, as historical agent of the State of

New York, had made a careful search of Dutch archives, and in his

report printed in 1845 had presented itemized lists of the documentsrelating to New Netherland then found in those repositories.

During Mr. van Laer's three months in the Netherlands he received

every desirable courtesy from the officials of national, provincial, andmunicipal archives, of the archives of the House of Orange, and of

those of various religious bodies. He returned late in August, with arich store of notes additional to those of Brodhead, and is now pre-

paring his report.

Students of American colonial history are agreed that its study oughtto include a much fuller consideration of the history of the British

West Indies than has hitherto been customary. On the one hand,

the commercial relations between the island colonies and those of the

mainland form an important part of the economic history of the

latter. On the other hand, the history of the British Empire in

America and of its administration can not be rightly understood

except by taking into the student's view not the continental colonies

alone, but the whole series of dependencies, continental and insular

alike. At times the island colonies were a more important element in

the Empire than those of the continent. To study the ''Old Thirteen"alone is a false method. It is to import into the history of our colonial

period a distinction which did not then exist, and in so far to distort

and mutilate that history.

Accordingly, it had been resolved that the archival materials for the

history of the British West Indies deserved early treatment at the

hands of this Department, and the more so as it was not to be expectedthat these now small communities should each be able to put into

print the original materials for its early history (which some of ourrichest States have done to but a small extent), or that they should doit in so uniform a manner as to serve the needs of those who wished to

study, not a single island, but the Empire as a whole.


Inevitably, however, this task falls into two parts : to deal with thearchives in the islands, and to deal with the papers relating to the

islands in the imperial Public Record Office in London ; for the archives

in the islands have suffered such losses by reason of hurricanes, earth-

quakes, volcanic eruptions, peculiarities of climate, the ravages of

insects, and occasionally by warfare, that some of the most importantseries are found more complete in the Public Record Office than in theislands, the colonial governors having been required by their instruc-

tions to transmit copies of these series to the home government. Thetranscripts which went to London are in almost all cases still there,

while the originals which remained in the islands have often perished.

Thus the two collections are mutually complementary. Many of the

series in the islands are to be found nowhere else, copies of them nothaving been transmitted to London; there are, as in the case of the

continental colonies, many sorts of colonial documents in Londonthat are not to be found in the islands ; and some of the most importantseries are to be found both in the islands and in London, but as a rule

much more complete in the latter case.

Under such circumstances we have, as has been intimated above, twotasks to perform: the exploitation of the archives of the British WestIndies, and that of the various series relating to them in the Colonial

Office papers in the Public Record Office in London. A beginning of

the former task was made in September and October 1916, when Mr.Luis Marino Perez, librarian of the Cuban House of Representatives,

prepared for the Department a full and careful report upon the archives

of the island of Jamaica. But the war, submarine activities, and the

scattered state of the Lesser British Antilles made it inexpedient to

continue. In June of the present year, however, it became possible

for Professor Herbert C. Bell, of Bowdoin College, who had long agobeen engaged for the work and was now released from military service,

to attack the London portion of the problem. Proceeding to London,and permitted by the kindness of the president of Bowdoin College

to prolong his absence a little beyond the autumnal opening of the

college, he has been able to collect most of the essential materials for asummary inventory of the West Indian portion of the Colonial Office

papers to the year 1775. Of the chief series, those called "Original

Correspondence" and "Entry-books," he has himself prepared the

inventories. For some other series, having more of a routine char-

acter, clerical aid was invoked and was adequate. For the series of

"Sessional Papers," chiefly journals of councils and legislative assem-blies, Messrs. B. F. Stevens and Brown supplied the skillful aid of

Miss Edith Moodie, who some years ago prepared for the AmericanHistorical Association its excellent catalogue of journals in London of

the thirteen colonies which subsequently formed the United States.

This part of the work is not yet completed, but will no doubt be finished


in season for incorporation in the proposed "Guide." It is not in-

tended that the Department's West Indian volume shall be sent to

press until the other and complementary portion of the work has been

completed, the inspection of the island archives. With Dr. Bell's

report upon the latter, including those of Bermuda, will be incorporated

Mr. Perez's material on those of Jamaica, and a special report on the

archives of the Bahamas, already in the possession of the Department.

It is possible that the same volume may also be found to be the mostconvenient place in which to describe the small amount of Americanmaterial to be found in the archives of Scotland and Ireland. Miss

Sybil Norman, of Edinburgh, who in previous years has worked under

Mr. Leland's direction in the archives of Paris, has made considerable

progress in a systematic search of those of Edinburgh for papers

bearing on American history. Much material for the history of the

Darien Expedition has been foimd, but no great amount of other

American matter.

jMr. Leland's duties as secretary of the National Board for Historical

Service and as secretary of the American Historical Association have,

during this year also, prevented him from devoting much time to the

''Guide to Materials for American History in Paris Archives," onwhich he has been so long engaged. The ending of warfare has, how-ever, released from the French mihtary service Mr. Abel Doysie, whobefore the war had so admirably assisted him. Resuming work in April,

Mr. Doysie has dealt with the new manuscript accessions (since 1914)

of the Bibliotheque Nationale, wdth the manuscripts of the library

of the Senate, the Arsenal, and the two great libraries of the Marine.

He has made a beginning in the library of the Institute. His work has

been planned in accordance with, the project of publishing first that

one of the three volumes of the "Guide" which has to do with manu-scripts in Parisian libraries.

Mrs. Surrey has continued her work of editing for publication a

calendar of papers in Paris archives and libraries bearing on the his-

tory of the Mississippi Valley, based on notes taken in Paris underMr. Leland's direction. Working with great assiduity, she has nowcompleted a total of 17,500 cards. Through November, December,and January her field of work lay among the transcripts lately obtained

from French archives by the Library of Congress, which enabled her to

verify or amend the data taken from the originals in Paris. Later, in

May and June, several weeks' work among the Paris transcripts in the

Public Archives of Canada, at Ottawa, enabled her to carry out the

same process through still another section of the material laid before

her. The rest of her work upon it has been done in the New YorkPublic Library.

In the work upon the "Atla« of the Historical Geography of the

United States," Dr. Paullin, with the aid of the draftsman, Mr. J. B.


Bronson, has completed the series of maps showing, at different periods,

the negro and slave population of the United States. He has also

prepared the letterpress accompanying this series. He has completed

a series of nine maps showing foreign-born population since 1860, has

brought well toward completion a series of eight illustrating immigra-tion since 1820, and has done parts of the work necessary for the mapsillustrating colonial charters and patents, territorial claims of Europeanpowers, cessions of land by Indian tribes, and the history of the public

domain of the United States.

Mr. David M. Matteson, of Cambridge, has devoted a large part of

his time during the year to the compilation described on pages 142

and 143 of the last Annual Report of the Department. The work has

proved to be of much greater magnitude than was expected, but con-

viction of its utiHty remains undiminished. It consists of two parts.

It is necessary, first, to find, by thorough bibliographical search in

various libraries, all the catalogues they contain of the collections of

manuscripts in European libraries, including those lists embedded in

general catalogues, and all those small or fragmentary catalogues of

manuscripts that are to be found in, or heard of through, learned peri-

odicals or similar repertories. The second process is that of searching

these catalogues for those items that disclose and describe manuscripts

relating to American history, and drawing off those items for use in the

proposed manual. The first of these two processes is now nearly

complete, so far as the libraries of Boston, Cambridge, and Washing-ton are concerned (Mr. Matteson having spent June in Washington),

and not much is likely to be found by such searches in other Americanlibraries as are contemplated. The second process has been carried

out in the case of those catalogues found in the Library of Congress andnot found in the libraries of Boston and Cambridge.

TEXTUAL PUBLICATIONS OF DOCUMENTS.

Miss Davenport has been able to make ready for pubhcation four

more treaties, 1662-1667, for the second volume of her ''European

Treaties bearing on the History of the United States."

Dr. Burnett has advanced the final preparation of his "Letters of

Delegates to the Continental Congress" to the beginning of May 1781,

completing somewhat more than the third volume of the manuscript.

When the Director had finished his examination of the manuscript

of the first volume, it was concluded to effect, in the interest of economyin press corrections, and of consequent exactness in printing, a change

in the whole system of cross-references in footnotes. This has de-

layed presentation of the manuscript, but it is now ready, and vol-

umes II and III will be ready, and will be offered for publication, as soon

as the Director has found time to carry through his own examination

of these manuscripts. The first volume runs from the beginning of


Congress in September 1774 to July 4, 1776; the second volume to the

end of 1777; the third to June 30, 1779.

Until February, Mr. Stock was able to do little else than to perform

the duties which fell to him as assistant secretary of the National Boardfor Historical Service, and even since that date those duties have con-

sumed in each month a part of his time; but in the last nine monthsof the year reported upon he has been able to devote himself mainly to

his regular work of editing the ''Proceedings and Debates of ParHa-

ment respecting North America." The work of gathering together

the materials having been substantially completed long ago, his

present work is mainly that of annotating the texts. This has nowbeen carried into the period of the Long Parhament and to the end of

1640. Miss Galbraith has finished the decipherment and transcrip-

tion, from photographs procured from the British Museum, of the

American passages in Henry Cavendish's shorthand notes of debates

in the ''Unreported Parliament" of 1768-1774.

Miss Donnan returned in February from her temporary service

as a substitute teacher in Mount Holyoke College, and from that timeuntil her permanent transfer to that institution in September wasoccupied with her collection of documents and narratives illustrating

the history of the African slave-trade and of the importation of slaves

into English America. For some two months she was in South Caro-lina, occupied chiefly in the examination of the papers of HenryLaurens, a collection rich in materials for the history of slave importa-

tions into South Carolina, to which she was given the fullest access

by the South Carolina Historical Society, the present owners of the

collection. Other researches in Charleston, in Columbia, and in

Richmond were also carried out. It is believed that the search for

unprinted material in the United States has been nearly completed.

Much of that material has already been copied. There will be nohesitation in including also considerable amounts of material frombooks already printed, since many narratives and descriptions havingmuch importance to the subject are contained in old books of the eight-

eenth century, found in few American libraries or written in languages

with which few American historical students are famihar. Most of

the book has, however, been taken from manuscript sources, and this

proportion will be much increased by the searches yet to be made in

London archives and in the British Museum. That part of the material

which has been taken from American colonial newspapers, such as

the unique file of the South Carolina Gazette, is, on account of the rarity

of these papers, regarded in the same hght as manuscript. Thecollection, viewed in its present state of advancement, bids fair to beone of great interest and historical value.

Mrs. Catterall has been able to devote a part of her time to thecompilation described on page 144 of the last annual report, the ex-


traction of the material for the history of slavery which is to be foundin the judicial reports of the American States. Her work has con-

sisted partly in summarizing briefly the judicial decisions throughwhich we can trace the historical development of the law respecting

slavery, and partly in extracting from the reports those numerousnarrations and original documents which illustrate by a multitude of

actual instances the whole history of slavery as a social and economicinstitution. A year ago Mrs. Catterall had finished the Marylandreports. She has now finished those of South Carolina, and begunthose of Kentucky. From the beginning of October 1919, she is able

to devote to our service all of her working time.

MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS.

As heretofore, the editing of the American Historical Review has beencarried on in the office of the Department and by its staff. TheAmerican Historical Association and various other historical organi-

zations have been given such aid as could appropriately be rendered,

in respect to investigations in Washington and other services, andmany queries from individuals have been answered. The rendering

of such services in Washington to scholars at a distance is the morenecessary and the more useful, because of the continued neglect of

Congress to provide in Washington a suitable National archive build-

ing, without which it is impossible that the rich materials for history

contained in the Nation's capital should be much other than a trackless

wilderness, from which students remote from Washington can not hopeto derive much benefit except through the mediation of such an organ-

ization as the staff of this Department, necessarily more familiar with

the ground.

The Department has also gladly made itself useful to historical

inquirers in procuring transcripts from foreign archives, especially, this

last year, in the cases of Seville and Rome.In the matter of the transcripts made in Seville for the Carnegie

Institution by the late Dr. Adolph F. Bandeher, much progress has

been made by Dr. Hackett and his assistants, though the task is not

yet completed. A year ago all the work of copying for the printer hadbeen finished. The amount of text, after deduction of some matter

which had already been printed, was about 405,000 words. It hap-

pened that certain documents in the Peabody Museum at Cambridge,certain others in the Ayer Collection in the Newberry Library at

Chicago, and a group from the Bancroft Library in the possession of

the University of California would helpfully supply gaps in the various

series of documents transcribed by Dr. and Mrs. Bandelier. Theaddition of a moderate number of these was accordingly authorized.

The respective custodians of these collections kindly permitted the

desired papers to be transcribed. The total amount of text has thus

been raised to about 460,000 words, enough to make two volumes of the


Institution's publications, to which the translations would add twomore. All but about 50,000 words of this material had been trans-

lated into English by the end of September. The work of translating

will soon be completed. That of editing the documents and writing

the introductions for the several groups into which they have been di-

vided has been held back by two removals on Dr. Hackett's part, twoattacks of illness, and the imposition of new duties at the University

of Texas from which he could not escape. It will, however, not bevery long before the first half of this work will be finished, an amountsufficient to constitute two volumes of print.

PLANS FOR 1920.

The work of the National Board for Historical Service is ended,

and the Department will no longer feel obliged to devote strength andtime and money to work called for by the immediate exigencies of

warfare, but its remoter consequences will permanently continue to

affect our work. All historical work hereafter carried on will feel the

impress of the great war and the resulting social upheaval, just as thehistorical work of the three generations preceding has felt the impressof the French Revolution and the Napoleonic conflicts. Just whatreadjustments or new Hnes of work this should suggest in the case of anorganization occupied solely with the raw materials of history, withsearching for the original documents, making them accessible to scholars,

and printing some of them, is a question so grave and one requiring

so dehberate consideration that the next year may well be devotedto thought and planning on this subject, to collecting information andformulating proposals, without attempting now to make detailed or

definite suggestions as to what should be undertaken under the newconditions of the historical and the general world. In brief, it mustbe our desire that the Department shall do whatever will be mostuseful to the advancement of historical science in America, that it

shall so take cognizance of the work of other historical agencies as to

avoid doing what has been or is likely to be abundantly well taken care

of by others, and that it shall do its part in any projects of international

cooperation which will not have the nature of "entangfing alliances."

Always the endeavor will be made to keep in mind the great responsi-

bihties which are placed on American scholarship by the results of awar which has signally impaired the sources by which scholarly enter-

prises in Europe have been sustained, while it has left Americanresources, relatively speaking, almost untouched.

REPORTS. AIDS, AND GUIDES.

It is hoped that Mr. van Laer's report on the materials for Americanhistory in Dutch archives, based on his recent expedition, will bepresented during the earlier part of the year, and that of Mr. Bellon the West Indian papers in the Pubhc Record Office.


Mr. Leland will do what he can toward finishing that volume of his

Guide to Materials in Paris which concerns manuscripts in libraries.

Mrs. Surrey may reasonably expect to finish her calendar of papers in

Paris archives relating to the history of the Mississippi Valley. Mr.Matteson, part of whose time is always taken by other work than ours,

will do what he can toward finishing his inventory of American material

compiled from the printed catalogues of manuscripts in Europeanlibraries. Dr. Paullin will continue his work upon the "Atlas of the

Historical Geography of the United States."

TEXTS.

Miss Davenport will progress with her second volume of treaties;

Dr. Burnett with the later volumes of his ''Letters of Members of the

Continental Congress," of which the Director expects to present the

second and third volumes for print during the year. Mr. Stock will

be given, as nearly as possible, unobstructed opportunity to proceed

with the editing of his Parliamentary materials.

It is hoped that Miss Donnan may be enabled to spend the summer,during the vacation of Mount Holyoke College, in further work uponher collection of materials on the slave-trade.

MISCELLANEOUS OPERATIONS.

The Department will no doubt maintain, in 1920, activities similar

to those which, under this heading, have been described above in that

part of this report which relates to the year now closed.

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY.*

Alfred G. Mayor, Director.

In December 1918 the students of the United States Officers' NavalTraining Unit at Princeton University were discharged, thus relieving

the Director from his duties as instructor in navigation to the school

for ensigns in the Naval Reserve.

Also, on January 2, 1919, the Navy Department returned the yachtAnton Dohrn, which had served as a patrol vessel guarding Key Westharbor, being designated as S. P. No. 1866 in naval records. She hadbeen leased to the United States Navy since July 31, 1917, for $1 per

annum.Accompanied by Dr. Paul Bartsch, the Director went with the Anton

Dohrn to inspect the Tortugas Laboratory, which we had been unableto visit since August 1917. Our chief object was to ascertain the con-

dition of the property and to form an estimate upon the cost of repairs

and expenses of upkeep. We also wished to provide Dr. Bartsch withan opportunity to study the colonies of Bahama cerions which he hadestablished on the Florida Keys between the mouth of Key BiscayneBay and Tortugas in 1912, and which had given rise to a generation

derived from parents born in Florida.

Dr. Bartsch found that on New Found Harbor Key the Bahamacerions belonging to the Glans division of the genus had crossed withthe native Florida cerions, which belong to the Incanum division. Thefirst generation of hybrids show characters about intermediate be-

tween the two parent stocks, but the next generation born of these

hybrids exhibit an extraordinary variety in form and color-pattern,

giving rise to many individuals quite unlike any cerions hitherto known,and so distinct that they may prove, should they breed true, to be newspecies derived from a new equilibrium of chromosome elements due to

recombinations resulting from the cross. The matter may throwlight upon the manner of origin of the numerous localized races of

Achitenella in Oahu or of Partula in the valleys of Tahiti.

In order to test its biological significance, Dr. Bartsch again visited

Tortugas in May, and 105 wire cages were made by Mr. John Mills

and placed out upon the meadow in the center of the island in order to

enable him to isolate selected pairs of these snails in an attempt to studythe inheritance of characters in their offspring. These cages were, how-ever, destroyed by the hurricane of September 10, 1919, and it will

be necessary to start the experiment again as soon as possible.

.fe Also, at Tortugas we took up the corals which had been planted outupon the reefs in July 1917, and these showed that when, on account of

old age, a coral has ceased to grow or is growing slowly, isolating

*Situated at Tortugas, Florida.

185


small pieces of this coral does not revive the growth-rate, such separated

pieces growing at the characteristic rate of the major stock from which

they were removed.

"WTiile some species of Florida corals, such as Orbicella annularis,

may continue to grow for at least 300 years, most of the reef species,

such as Acropora, attain full size in 10 years or less, and then cease to

grow, but still survive for an undetermined period until overcome bythe attacks of seaweed, bryozoa, millepora, boring algse, other organ-

isms, or silt, the encroachments of which, due to physiological senes-

cence, the coral has become unable to resist. These factors are the

common causes of death of coral-heads on the reefs.

The impossibility of forming any definite plan for the year's workuntil the termination of hostilities, and especially the unprecedentedly

high cost of essential materials and of labor, and the continued absence

of many of our leading investigators in war work, have made it difficult

to carry out our normal program of research.

The long-delayed and very expensive repairs to the yacht, launches,

and laboratory buildings have also consumed so much of our annual

appropriation that we have been obliged to curtail much research

we had hoped to carry out during the year. Prices of apparatus and

of most essentials were quite double those prevailing in 1917 and de-

livery of all manufactured articles was delayed to such a degree that

in some cases our research w^ork suffered seriously.

The following investigators studied during the year under the aus-

pices of the department:

Dr. Paul Bartsch, January 1 to 23, May 1 to 17. Heredity of characters in Bahama-

Florida cerions.

Dr. Joseph A. Cushman, May 14 to June 3, at Tortugas. Foraminifera.

Professor R. A. Daly, May 14 to June 3, at Tortugas; July 21 to September 16 in

Samoa. Geology of Tutuila and other islands of Samoa.

Professor Ulric Dahlgren. Development of electric muscles in the electric eel, Gymnotus.

Dr. Richard M. Field, June 5 to 19, Tortugas. Limestones of Florida reefs.

Professor W. H. Longley, June 5 to July 1, Tortugas. Submarine study of ecology of reef

fishes.

Professor J. F. McClendon, June 5 to 19, Tortugas. Anesthesia in marine animals.

Alfred G. Mayor, Tortugas, and Tutuila, Samoa. Effect of diminution of oxygen on rate

of nerve conduction. Rate of nerve conduction in regenerating tissue lacking

muscles. Growth-rate of Samoan corals at various depths down to 8.5 fathoms.

Effects of currents in transporting sediment over reefs. Losses in reef material

due to boring alga?, solution, holothurians, etc. Detection of ocean currents

by observing their hydrogen-ion concentration.

Professor Asa A. Schaeffer, May 17 to June 19. Marine amcebas from Tortugas.

R. C. Wells, June 7 to 19. Carbon-dioxid content of Tortugas sea-water.

A fund was deposited with Dr. C. William Beebe to obtain information

respecting the breeding-season of Gymnotus, the electric eel of Guiana,

in order to enable Professor Ulric Dahlgren to make plans for the study

of its embryology and the development of its electric organs.

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY. 187

Professor E. Newton Harvey returned from Japan in January 1918,

whither he had gone upon a successful expedition to gather material

for further experiments upon the chemistry of light-production in

marine animals, and he gives herewith a second report upon this study.

Details of work accomplished by the investigators at Tortugas appearin their special reports; but a brief summary of the scope of these

researches may be of interest.

Dr. Paul Bartsch attempted to install his extensive breeding experi-

ments upon cerions not only at Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, but in aspecially constructed vivarium in his home in Washington, wherein the

temperature, degree of humidity, and other environmental factors are

made to imitate those of the Bahama-Florida region. He hopes thus

to acquire an insight into the life-history and breeding habits of these

snails and to supplement the breeding experiments to be reinstated in

Florida, the original attempt upon the Tortugas having failed, due to

the hurricane of September 10, 1919.

At the Tortugas laboratory, in May, Dr. Joseph A. Cushman studied

the foraminifera of the region. Studies were made of the rate of move-ment of the living animal in Iridia diaphana and other species, the

structure of the tests, and the cell contents.

Collections were made of the bottom foraminifera in various depths

inside the lagoon and in the water immediately outside the reefs.

These will furnish material for a report on the foraminifera of the

shallow water of the region. Very little is known at present of the

foraminiferal fauna of the shallow water of the West Indian andFlorida regions. A comparison will be made of these recent collections

with those of the Coastal Plain Tertiary, in order to determine some-thing of the ecological conditions under which these deposits were made.

Professor Reginald A. Daly discovered that beach-rock, or coquina,

occurs only on shores subjected to heavy breakers. A promising

hypothesis to account for its formation, as indicated in his special

report, is that when sand is torn up from the bottom by storm-wavesand cast ashore it is necessarily charged with much organic matter, the

decomposition of which generates alkalies which through chemical

action cause the interstitial deposition of calcium carbonate, thus bind-

ing the grains of sand together and forming a rock-mass.

From July 21 to September 16 Professor Daly studied the bed-rock

geology of Tutuila, Samoa, and made an extensive collection of the vol-

canic rocks of this island. Due also to the kindly interest of his Excel-

lency Commander Warren Jay Terhune, U. S.N., Governor of Samoa,he was enabled to visit the islands of Anuu, Tau, Ofoo, and Oolosega,

in the U. S. S. Fortune, and later he spent a few days upon Upolu. Hewill report in detail upon the lithology of these islands, but a pre-

liminary account of some of the more apparent conclusions are pre-

sented in his account published herewith. It may be noted that he


confirms the Director's observations that there are no limestones of

any sort upon the elevated shore-bench, which is found all aroundTutuila, except ofT the recent lava-flow between Tafuna and Sail Rock.This shows that at one period the island was not surrounded by coral

reefs and is in conformity with the conclusion that the present living

reefs of Tutuila are not superimposed upon any ancient reefs, but havesimply grown outward upon the wave-washed shore-slopes and spur

ends since post-glacial times, the remarkably rapid growth-rate of

Pacific corals necessitating this conclusion.

Alfred G. Mayor extended his observations upon growth-rate of

Samoan corals by planting weighed, measured, and photographedcorals at depths ranging from shallow water to 8.5 fathoms. Experi-

ments upon the growth-rate of Lithothamnion and upon the loss in

weight of dead and corroding coral-heads were also instituted. Using

a diving-hood, he made a somewhat detailed study of the submarine

seaward wall of the reef of Tutuila. In regions subjected to heavybreakers the Acropora and Pocillopora constitute 97 per cent of the

coral-heads at depths of 1 to 4 fathoms, and these genera have the

most rapid growth-rate of all Pacific corals. In silted regions the

submerged outer wall of the reef is composed chiefly of branched Pontes,

a genus which is extremely rare on the submarine slopes fronting the

open ocean. In quiet regions of pure water free from silt a great vari-

ety of corals constitute the fauna of the submerged walls of the reef.

Below 4 or 5 fathoms the coral-heads are generally smaller and not so

numerous as they are at lesser depths, and at 8.5 fathoms fronting the


open ocean the slope is covered with small, apparently stunted heads of

Acropora, most of which are about 6 inches and very few more than a

foot in diameter. Reef corals practically cease at 18.5 fathoms.

Studies were made of the currents over reef-flats, using an Ekmanmeter. It was found that a great variety of corals may thrive in pure

water at depths of 1 to 8 fathoms where there appears to be no measur-

able current ; but silt is soon fatal to them in such regions.

The limestone sands of Samoan reef-flats begin to be transported

when the current moves at the rate of 42 feet per minute; and a cur-

rent of 59 feet, observed during a gale, caused a decided disturbance

and movement of sand all over the bottom of the Aua reef-flat.

Our heavy expenses at Tortugas, and in repairs upon the AntonDohrn, made it necessary to curtail the program of boring through the

reef to enable Professor L. R. Gary to study its structure. On this

account. Professor Gary did not come to Tutuila this year, but expects

to resume his studies in the Pacific in 1920. One boring with the Davis-

Galyx drill was, however, made by Mr. Mills off Utelei 200 feet fromshore, and hard, wave-worn basaltic rock was found to be underlying

the reef at a depth of 68 feet. The upper part of the reef was com-posed chiefly of loose fragments of Pontes, Acropora, and Alcyonaria.

Limestone sand was encountered at a depth of 33 feet and continued

to the bottom of the boring. Professor Gary will study the material

taken from the boring.

The alcyonaria planted out by Gary in 1918 had made a vigorous

growth, and these observations, combined with those upon the growth-

rate of stony corals and alcyonaria in Samoa and Fiji, will furnish a

basis for an estimate of the age of the living reefs of the Pacific. Therapidity of coral growth is such that these reefs appear to have devel-

oped since the last glacial period, and the nearly uniform width of atoll

rims over the Pacific suggests that they are all of about the same age.

Professor Wilham H. Longley continued his observations upon reef

fishes at Tortugas, obtaining an excellent series of submarine photo-

graphs illustrating the relations between the color patterns of these

animals and the general color-scheme of their surroundings. Thesestudies have been pursued for 8 years in the Florida-West Indian region

and in the Hawaiian Islands, and it is hoped they may be supplementedin 1920 by further work in the Pacific, in order to give them a world-

wide significance.

Professor J. F. IMcGlendon found that the neuro-muscular system of

the scyphomedusa Cassiopea has the same rate of metabolism whenetherized as it has when in normal sea-water. He also found that anexcess of carbon dioxid in sea-water lowers metabolism in Cassiopea,

and this depression is not due to hydrogen-ions in the surrounding

water derived from hydrolysis of GO2, but to carbon dioxid per se.


In this connection Mayor determined the death temperature of

Tortugas corals in normal sea-water, and also in water heated to the

same temperature but made acid by adding HCl so as to be about

6 Ph, or in other experiments by adding CO2 so as to produce the samedegree of acidity. The corals died at the same temperature in this

acid sea-water as in normal sea-water, but the lowering of metabolism

due to CO2 tends to counteract the effect of heat to raise metabolism

and the animals produce less CO2 when CO2 is already present in

excess in the surrounding water, thus practically maintaining their

normal resistance to heat. Death from high temperature appears to

result from the accumulation of CO2 in the tissues and not to asphyxia-

tion or to hydrogen-ions in the surrounding water.

In another series of experiments Mayor found that the rate of nerve-

conduction in Cassiopea tissue deprived of muscles may be the same as

in tissue possessing muscles. In other words, the rate of the pulsation-

wave in Cassiopea is determined by the nerve-net, not by the presence

or absence of subumbrella muscles. Another research by Mayor at

Tortugas was upon the rate of nerve-conduction in Cassiopea placed in

sea-water deprived of its absorbed air. Rings of Cassiopea were

placed under an air-pump, and it was found that the rate of nerve-

conduction remained normal when the oxygen-supply was reduced to

20 per cent of the amount found normally in sea-water. Further

reduction causes a progressive decline in rate, but nerve-conduction

continues until the oxygen is reduced to 5 per cent, its normal amount.

In another set of experiments at Tortugas, Mayor found that holo-

thurians (Stichopus) of average size may dissolve at least 414 grams of

limestone sand per annum in their intestines ; but further observations

are required before a well-established figure for this loss of limestone

over reef-flats is ascertained.

Professor Asa A. Schaeffer found 5 new and 5 imperfectly knownspecies of salt-water amoeba at Tortugas. He also carried out physio-

logical experiments and determined the ability of these forms to with-

stand fresh or brackish water, as will appear in his report published

herewith.

Dr. R. C. Wells made a direct determination of the CO2 content of

Tortugas sea-water, confirming McClendon's observation that in

shallow water the CO2 content is greater at night than in the day, the

carbon being consumed by plants in photosynthesis. Details appear

in his report published herewith.

Studies of the hydrogen-ion concentration of the surface-water of the

Atlantic and Pacific were continued by Mayor, and these support his

previously expressed conclusion that the counter-currents moving to

the eastward over the surface of the equatorial Pacific consist of water

which has come to the surface from a depth of at least 200 fathoms.

The water of these easterly currents is relatively acid and gives out


CO2 to the atmosphere. In general, however, the CO2 tension of the

surface waters of the Tropical Ocean is slightly higher than that of

the atmosphere, while in the cold seas the CO2 tension of the surface-

water is below that of the air. Thus the colder waters are receiving

CO2 from the atmosphere, while it is escaping from the sea over the

wide belt of the tropics.

On September 10, 1919, a severe hurricane passed over Tortugas,

seriously damaging the wharf, the two main laboratory buildings,

and the machine shop, and throwing do^m the wndmill, as well as

destroying the cages which contained the cerions being experimented

upon by Dr. Bartsch. According to the U. S. Weather Bureau, the

barometer was 28.83 at Key West and 27.57 at Tortugas, these being

the lowest yet recorded from these regions. The damaged buildings

will be repaired as soon as is practicable.

It is a pleasure to express the appreciation of the Department for

the kindness of the British Embassy in Washington in pro\'iding the

Director with a letter to the Governor of Fiji, and we are also indebted

to Hon. Josephus Daniels, Secretary of the U. S. Navy, for a letter

to the newly appointed governor of American Samoa, who was, how-ever, our old friend Commander Warren Jay Terhune, who courteously

aided us in every way. We are also similarly indebted to the UnitedStates Department of State for a letter to American consuls in the Pacific.

Quarantine regulations incident to the epidemic of influenza and adeficiency of steamers made it impossible to visit Fiji this summer, butwe intend to go there in 1920 in order to ascertain the growth-rate of

alcyonaria and corals planted out on the barrier reef off, Suva in August1918, and to make a detailed study of various features of the reefs.

Volumes ix and xii of Papers from the Department of MarineBiology were published during the past year. These contain 620pages and 124 plates.

The following papers resulting from studies carried out under the

auspices of the Department of Marine Biology were published byagencies other than the Carnegie Institution during the year

:

Harvey, E. N. 1918. Reversibility of the photogenic reaction in Cypridina. Jour.

Gen. Physiol., vol. 1, pp. 13.3-14-5.

. 1919. Chemical natiu'e of Cypridina luciferin and Cypridina luciferase. Ibid.,

vol. 1, pp. 269-293.

Mayor, A. G. 1918. The grow'th-rate of Samoan coral-reefs. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.,

vol. 4, pp. 390-393.

. 1919. Detecting ocean currents by observing their hydrogen-ion concentration.

Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc, vol. 58, pp. 1.50-160, 1 fig.

192 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF V/ASHINGTON.

Origin of Beach-rock, hy Reginald A. Daly.

Local cementation of beach-sand by calcium carbonate is very common in

Florida as well as in the tropical seas generally. The product may be called

"beach-rock." It includes some of the Florida coquina limestone. Thewriter was invited to study the conditions under which this type of lithification

takes place. His field-work has been confined to the Tortugas, the keys andmainland of Florida, and to six of the Samoan Islands. He found that beach-

rock occurs only on shores subject to heavy surf and directly fronted by detri-

tal flats which are shallow enough to be eroded by hurricane waves. Theupper Hmit of beach-rock is the sea-level at high spring tide; the lower limit is

usually, if not always, less than about 3 feet below sea-level at the low springs.

The original sand may be purely calcareous, but in many cases sand-grains,

cobbles, or large bowlders of lava or other siUceous material are important

constituents. An extreme case, wherein the original sand is nearly pure

olivine, was discovered in Tutuila, Samoa.Until the laboratory studies are completed, a definite conclusion as to the

origin of beach-rock is deferred, but, among the various hypotheses suggested

by the facts, one looks specially promising. Ordinary beach-sand is com-paratively clean. Sand torn up from an offshore flat and piled on the shore

by a hurricane is necessarily charged with much organic matter, the subse-

quent decay of which would generate alkahes. It seems possible that the

alkahes would cause the interstitial deposition of cementing calcium carbonate

from the water circulating with each tide through the porous sand. To test

this hypothesis experimentally, offshore bottom material was buried at the

appropriate depth on the beach of Loggerhead Key, Tortugas. Typical beach-

rock was there formed, by the year 1912, in the sand piled up during the hurri-

cane of 1910. However, the hurricane of 1919 has torn up the buried material,

hindering an experimental test in the near future. It may be noted that the

hypothesis stated does not exclude the favorable consideration of other factors,

but their discussion is postponed until the preparation of the final report.

While in Florida, the field facts bearing on the chemical deposition of

calcium carbonate in the form of mud were also studied, with the conclusion

that special attention should be devoted to the activity of eel-grass and other

sea-weeds as an indirect cause for the precipitation of the carbonate from the

saturated sea-water solution.

The Geology of American Samoa, by Reginald A. Daly.

The islands known as American Samoa consist of Tutuila with its satellites,

Aunuu, Cockscomb (Pola), and a number of islets; Tau, Olosega, and Ofu,

together forming the Manua group; and Rose Island. Excepting the last

named, which is an atoll, all the islands of Samoa, including British Samoa(Upolu, Savaii, and their satelhtes), are volcanic.

The geological investigation consisted of a somewhat detailed mapping of

Tutuila and reconnaissance of all the other volcanic islands of American

Samoa. Six days were spent at Upolu; lack of time and of transportation

prevented a visit to Savaii. The work was greatly facilitated by the use of

excellent unpubhshed contour maps of Tutuila and the Manua group. Photo-

graphic copies of the manuscript maps, on the scale of 1 to 40,000, were kindly

supphed by Dr. G. W. Littlehales, of the Hydrographic Office at Washington.

The Samoan chain of volcanoes is strikingly hke the better-known Hawaiian

chain. The products and mechanism of eruption largely correspond in the

two groups. In principle Savaii is a close duplicate of its namesake, Hawaii;

Ofu and Olosega are remnants of a single island which has lost much of its sub-

stance by downfaulting, as at Molokai; Tutuila recalls the much dissected


Kauai; Upolu has some of the essential features of Maui, though lacking the

incomparable Haleakala.

Comparison of the degrees of dissection by streams shows that Tutuila is

the oldest of the Samoan Islands. The core of Upolu may be as old, but its

deeper valleys have been partly buried under newer jfloods of basaltic lava.

Tutuila itself was not built up by continuous eruption, for on the south shore

near Leone mature vallej's cut in deeply weathered (lateritized) basaltic

flows have been flooded with olivine-rich basalts of almost ideal freshness.

Resting on these recent, broad flows, southeast of Leone, are two tuff cones

with wide craters now forming bays separated by Steps Point. Aunuu Island

is a tuff cone bearing a crater lake and is nearly of the same age. Tau, to the

east of Tutuila, hke Savaii on the extreme west, is young, and there stream-

carding has only begim. Olosega and Ofu are more lateritized, but dissection

is not much more advanced. Thus there is no regular increase of age in the

islands from west to east, as inferred by some students of the charts.

For lack of fossil e\'idence, the geological dates of the eruptions can not begiven. Tutuila has lost so much substance by erosion that the bulk of its

lava-flows must be referred to a stage of the Tertiary period more than a

million years ago. The age of the younger flows on Tutuila can hardly bemore than a few thousand years, and it is probable that all the other Samoanislands are composed of, or veneered by, lavas of post-Tertiary dates.

Until microscopic examinations are made, no more than a general statementas to the classification of the rocks collected is possible. Tutuila is chiefly

composed of flows, agglomerates, and tuffs of basalt, which is generally,

though not always, free from conspicuous olivine. With these are associated

flows of apparently andesitic habit and others of trachydoleritic habit. Theseare cut by many trap dikes and by much larger bodies—necks and huge, dike-

like masses—of alkahne trachyte, probably true phonolite, and a type whichseems to be the "sj'enitic nephelite basanite" of Weber and Friedlaender.

The simimit of the dominating peak, Matafao (elevation, 2,141 feet) is com-posed of alkaline trachj^te or phonolite filling a small elliptical neck or ventthrough a thick mass of explosive products. Pioa (1,717 feet) is a much larger

body of similar rock, a monolithic volcanic neck or crater-filling. CockscombIsland is part of an intrusive phonolitic pod, about 7,000 feet long and 2,000feet in maximum width. Smafler trachytic or phonohtic intrusions, either

necks or thick dikes, were found on Papatele and at Afono Bay. The syenitic

rock forms a pipe on the di\'ide between Pago Pago and Fagasa Bays. TheTutuila eruptions took place in the following order: (1) basalt, andesite (?),

trachydolerite (?), in flows, breccias, tuffs, and dikes; (2) trachyte, phonohte, in

dikes and volcanic pipes; (3) ohvine-rich basalt (^Veber's "hmburgite"), flows

of the Leone district; (4) basaltic tuffs and agglomerates of the lateral craters.

Erosion has been clearly controlled by the relative strengths of these rocks.

The special resistance of the trachyte and phonohte to the weather explains

the bold projection of the peaks and ridges of Matafao, Pioa, Papatele, AfonoBay, and of Cockscomb Island and the heights to the southwestward. Manyspurs and capes are ribbed with massive dikes of trappean basalt and otherrock types. The valleys have been sunk in the weaker lava-flows and thestill weaker pyroclastics. In other words, a notable part of the Tutuiladrainage is adjusted to the softer structures throughout the eastern two-thirds of the island, where constructional forms have been almost completelyobhterated. On the other hand, in the axial region north and northwest of

Leone, the original lava-flow surface is still preserved as a plateau with anarea of more than a square mile. In that region the lavas ma}- be slightly

younger than those constituting the greater part of Tutuila, but the edges of

the plateau are dissected by valleys reaching 700 or more feet in depth. The


erosion of the very recent lavas between Nuu'uli and Leone has just begun.The history of Pago Pago Bay, the chief harbor of American Samoa and oneof the noblest in the Pacific, presents a special problem, the discussion of whichis postponed.The detritus resulting from the deep erosion of Tutuila was built into an

encircling offshore shelf, the edge of which is now in general 2 to 3 miles fromthe headland cliffs of the island. Near that edge an interrupted barrier coral-

reef was formed. Presumably fringing reefs were contemporaneously devel-

oped. Then Tutuila sank by a differential movement, so that the crest of

the barrier reef is now from 30 fathoms to a few fathoms below sea-level.

Accordingly, the shelf inside that reef is covered with water reaching a depthof 60 fathoms, or more than twice that ruHng in typical barrier-reef lagoons of

similar breadth. The subsidence also helps to explain the numerous embay-ments due to the drowning of valleys.

Prolonged special study has confirmed Mayor's conclusions that when thesea stood at its higher level, corals were not growing on the shores of Tutuila,

and that reef corals were absent during the time required to cut the modernchffs on all headlands and even in the shallower bays. The cliffs reach 300or more feet in height. After their cutting the sea-level sank about 20 feet

New chfflets were cut at the new level, but protection from the surf was soonfurnished, at most of the headlands, by the very recent growth of fringing

reefs, which at the same level are now growing outwards. They have at-

tained, however, widths usually less than 600 feet and are much narrowerthan most fringing reefs in the Pacific.

The evidence for the 20-foot shift of sea-level is founded on the fact, alreadynoted by Mayor, that on all sides of Tutuila the headlands are faced by wave-cut benches with summits approximately 8 feet above present high-waterlevel. Since similar benches, now being cut by the waves, are covered by10 to 15 feet of water about tide, it is necessary to place the high-water level,

just before the last shift, about 12 feet above the bench crest-level. Cor-roboration oi this view was found in the discovery of large sea-caves withfloors at appropriate heights (14 to 15 feet) above high tide.

Wave-cut benches at exactly similar levels were found on Aunuu Island

and on Tau Island, which is 60 miles from Tutuila. Recent downward shifts

of sea-level of the same order of magnitude have been reported from manyother Pacific islands, as well as from the east coast of North America and else-

where. A compilation of these facts suggests that the last downward shift

of sea-level in Samoa is eustatic, world-wide, due to an independent loweringof the ocean surface everywhere. The alternative hypothesis, that the shift

was local, because controlled by uplift of the islands, is highly improbable,for vertical movements of the earth's crust are not likely to be uniform at

many points, some of which are 60 to 75 miles apart—much less at points

hundreds of miles apart, as in the Gulf of St. Lawrence and along the eastern

coast of the United States.

It may be added that there is no conclusive evidence of uplift anywhere in

Tutuila. Friedlaender reported elevated limestone 20 meters above sea at

two localities in the eastern part of the island. Careful search showed notrace of limestone at these localities, though at one place coral-heads have beencarried up by the natives from the reefs to and beyond the height mentioned.New light was thrown on one cause for the subsidence of volcanic islands;

repeated observations showed that the scoriaceous and "aa" phases of theSamoan lava-flows have been crushed and compacted by the weight of youngerlava-flows and pyroclastics. As long as this process continues in depth, thesurface of the volcanic pile must tend to sink.


Due to local sinkings on a grand scale, an island at one time almost as large

as Tau was converted into the existing islands Ofu and Olosega. The south-

ern third of the original island foundered beneath the waters of the Pacific,

the downward movement taking place along a curved fault, the trace of which

is convex to the north. In a similar way the northern third foundered, along

a fault-line convex to the south. The two cui'ves are practically tangent at

the strait between Ofu and Olosega. The sharp spurs to east and west of the

strait present ragged cliffs remarkably similar to the Pali, the famous fault-

scarp of Oahu, near Honolulu. The writer suspects that a partial foundering

may have cooperated in the formation of Pago Pago Bay in Tutuila. ,

The bearing of the season's work on theories regarding magmatic differentia-

tion and the origin of coral-reefs will be discussed in the final report. On the

present occasion the writer will merely state two major conclusions: Samoa

illustrates once again the high probability that some alkaUne trachytes and

phonolites are derivatives of common basalt; and detailed study of the Samoan

reefs confirms skepticism as to the validity of the Darwin-Dana theory of

coral-reefs as a general explanation.

Determinations of the Carbon Dioxid in Sea-Water at Tortugas, Florida,

by Roger C. Wells.

Having previously found it difficult to decide whether the CO2 content of

certain samples of Gulf water should be ascribed to its physical or organic

history, 1 the writer welcomed the opportunity to make some further de-

terminations at the Marine Laboratory at Tortugas in June 1919. The tests

were made on water taken directly from the sea at various points about

Loggerhead Key, at a depth of about a foot below the surface, and included

determinations of the temperature, chloride content, excess base or alkalinity

by titration, and the Ph value, as well as the total CO2. The results are

shown in table 1. The chloride was titrated with a solution of silver nitrate,

using potassium chromate as indicator, and the density of the water as sampled

was calculated by the aid of Knudsen's tables. The titrations were checked

with gravimetric determinations and found to be correct. The Ph values were

estimated colorimetrically by comparison with a set of standard tubes pre-

pared for this purpose and very kindly loaned to the writer by Professor J. F.

McClendon.The excess base was obtained by titrating 100 c.c. portions with 0.02 normal

sulphuric acid, using methyl red as indicator and blowing out the carbon

dioxid by means of a stream of pure air for 15 to 20 minutes. Although the

method gives good results, it is difficult to interpret them, as the alkaH titrated

includes a small amount due to substances other than carbonates and bicar-

bonates. Further determinations yielding only the normaUty of the carbonates

and bicarbonates in the water are desirable, the latest determinations by the

writer indicating a value of about 0.00223 for this quantity.

The total carbon dioxid was determined by adding an excess of hydro-

chloric acid to 500 c.c. portions of the water and boihng about 15 minutes,

while a current of pure air was passed through the water, then over calcium

chloride, and finally through weighed soda-lime tubes. A counterpoise wasused in order to minimize errors likety to be caused by the high humidity.

No definite relations are apparent between the sUght variations in the

temperature and excess base, or between the variations of the total CO2 and

^ New determinations of carbon dioxid in water of the Gulf of Mexico. U. S. Geol. Survey Prof.

Paper 120-A, p. 7, 191S.


the temperature, excess base, or condition of the tide, in this series of de-terminations. The total CO2, however, shows an unmistakable diurnal

variation, which is doubtless caused by photosynthetic action, as McClendonhas pointed out.^ During the day CO2 is withdrawn from the water byplants, owing to the action of the chlorophyll, and the deficit is afterwardsmade up by animals, the respiration of plants, or by CO2 from other sources.

The average diurnal variation for 5 days was about 4.3 per cent of the total CO2.It is therefore evident that organic factors greatly affect the CO2 content of

the sea-water at Tortugas, if they do not wholly determine it.

Table 1.

—

Determinations on sea-water at Loggerhead Key, Tortugas.

\t, temperature, °C. ; CI, chlorine, grams per kilogram; D, density; Ph, hydrogen-ion concentration

expressed as —log [H+]; ^Zfc., excess base, in terms of a normal solution, or alkalinity titrated

with acid, using methyl red and blowing out CO2; CO2, total, gram per liter.]

Date, time, and condition of water, CI D Pu+ Alk. CO2

10

11

12

13

1415

16

17

1819

20

21

2223

2425

June 10,

11,

11,

12,

13,

13,

13,

13,

14,

14,

14,

15,

15,

16,

16,

16,

16,

16,

17,

17,

17,

17,

18,

18,

18,

3^30" p. m.; cloudy..

12 noon; fair

5*'30'" p. m. ; cloudy.

.

12 noon; after rain6''45 ""a. m. ; after rain

9 50 a. m.; cloudy. . .

.

12 50 p. m.; cloudy. .

.

4 10 p. m9 45 a. m. ; after rain

and wind.3'^45"' p. m. ; wind ...

5 15 p. m.; wind6 30 a. m. ; wind

11 a. m"••lO" a. m. ; fair

8 15 a. m. ; fair

11 a. m. ; fair

4*^15'" p. m.; fair

5 45 p. m. ; fair

6 30 a. m10 15 a. m.; slightly

cloudy4*'45™ p. m.; rainj'. . . .

7 p. m.; after rain . . . .

7'' 15™ a. m.; after

shower11 a. m. ; rain

1 p. m.; rain

26.627.628.227.427.127.127.527.6

27.027.427.826.526.826.827.027.028.127.827.1

27.326.827.6

26.826.826.6

20.0120.0020.0519.9019.2819.9020.0719.96

19.8919.8720.0019.9419.31

19.9920.0019.9920.0519.9819.99

20.0919.1619.77

20.0419.8119.73

1.023731.023391.023261.023321.022581.023421.023521.02334

1 . 023441.023281.023331.02.366

1.023711.023681.02.359

1.023571.02.330

1.023301 . 02354

1.023611 . 022391.02308

1.023701.023.39

1.02334

8.238.198.198.218.20

8.198.228.218.218.218.078.198.208.238.218.20

8.188.208.19

8.18

0.002370. 002368.002398.002394.002394.002410.002402

.002406

.002402

.002412

.002435

.002424

.022368

.002414

. 002440

.002374

.002410

.002414

.002.396

.002306

.002326

.002418

.002400

. 002374

0.0890.0925

.0902

.0924

.0913

.0900

.0897

.0881

.0863

.0873

.0910

.0869

.0904

.0896

.0888

.0873

.0873

.0928

.0910

.0857

.0893

.0918

.0928

.0879

The average value of total CO2 found was 0.0895 gram per liter at about27.2° C, whereas the writer previously found 0.0952 gram per liter for wateraveraging 19.1° C, including some deeper waters, collected in the Gulf south

of Pensacola. The Tortugas water appears to be slightly deficient in CO2,

from the standpoint of equilibrium with the atmosphere, if the other samples

are assumed to be near the equilibrium requirements, as they seem to bewhen tested by the equation of Fox for the solubility of CO2 in sea-water. Inother words, the Tortugas water appears to be very slightly modified Gulfwater.

1 Diurnal changes in the sea at Tortugas, Florida. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 3, p. 692, 1917.


Investigations Regarding the Calcium Carbonate Oozes at Tortugas, and the

Beach-Rock at Loggerhead Key, by Richard M. Field, Museum of Com-parative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

While enjoying the privileges of the laboratory of the Carnegie Institution

of Washington, situated at Loggerhead Key, Tortugas, Florida, I had excel-

lent opportunities for studying the conditions of bottom accumulation of

calcium carbonate ("drewite") in the shallow lagoons and channels betweenthe reef-flats. The weather was remarkably clear during the earher part of

my stay, so that the bottom could be studied over wide areas and samplescollected with comparative ease.

These submarine calcium-carbonate deposits, heretofore called "coral

muds," the precipitation of which Drew ascribes to the action of marinebacteria, are of particular geological interest. WTiether or not they owe their

origin to the action of bacteria, they bear a striking resemblance in chemicaland physical properties to certain exceedingly fine-grained and unfossiliferous

limestones of the Lower Paleozoic. I have particular reference to the purerlimestones of the Stones River group in the Appalachian province.

I have studied the hmestones of this group from New York to Tennesseeand find that they are particularly characterized by such intraformational

structures as desiccation-fractures, i.e., "sun-cracks," "mud-cracks," ripple-

marks, and glomerates. The origin of the latter I have attributed to breaking-

up of the desiccated, fractured zone and the molding and redeposition of

the still plastic phenoclasts by the action of tidal currents or waves. Thishypothesis has been substantiated by the action of the fine-grained, bacterially

precipitated calcium-carbonate mud from Tortugas, which was discovered to

be of a particularly plastic nature, rapidly developing desiccation-fractures

when exposed to the air, and capable of producing all of the inorganic intra-

formational structures which I had previously studied in the Stones Rivergroup.

Experiments have proved that this plastic carbonate ooze hardens veryrapidly when exposed to the air. Desiccation-fractures are not destroyedwhen the surface bearing them is flooded with salt water mixed with fresh

ooze. The ooze filters in between the cracks in the older, sun-baked surface,

and thus a series of superimposed, mud-cracked zones can be formed experi-

mentally which, in cross-section, are in every way similar to those in theStones River formations. Furthermore, the phenoclasts resulting from thedesiccation of the ooze may be readily shaped into pebble-Uke forms, whichupon redeposition and litliification would have the appearance of a true basal

conglomerate, in spite of the fact that they had been formed almost simul-

taneously, geologically speaking, with the deposition of the primary oozeitself. The significance of this fact, when appHed to the study of physicalevidences of disconformities within the carbonate rocks of the Palaeozoicformations, can not be overestimated.

The general geological aspects of the Stones River limestone point ratherstrongly to conditions of sedimentation similar to those of the coral-reef

latitudes of the south Atlantic, and especially off the southern coast of Floridaand the west coast of the Bahamas.The "beach-rock" or "coquina" which is apt to encircle the shell-sand

keys of the Tortugas group has already aroused some discussion as to its modeof origin. I have studied the "beach-rock" at Loggerhead Key, and althoughI have not yet fully proved my premises by experiment, it appears as if thephenomena can be accounted for as follows

:

The rock is obviously formed from the same material as the key, exceptthat in the case of the former the shell-sand is more or less loosely cemented


together. The rock is particularly free from carbonaceous matter or impuri-ties of any kind, and so closel}'^ resembles the clean beach-sand as to be in-

distinguishable from it, except for the matter of cementation. On the otherhand, the bulk of the key sands is discolored by large amounts of carbonaceousmaterial. The "beach-rock" seems to occur only between high and low water(maximum difference approximately 2.5 feet), and is so rapidly disintegrated

by the waves and marine organisms that it would soon cease to exist unless

covered and protected or 'periodically reproduced. Where the shape of thebeach is subject to change by wave and current action, no rock is formed.In 1912 Dr. Vaughan observed that "beach-rock" is now exposed near thelanding-stage at Loggerhead Key, where once was a depth of several feet of

water, showing conclusively that the rock has been formed since the hurricaneof October 17, 1910, swept the shell-sand into place.

By means of a pump and standpipe, the latter sunk some distance backfrom the beach, I was able to prove that the shell-sand of the key was par-

ticularly porous to a depth of at least 14 feet (several feet below low tide-

level) and that the sea-water passes through the island to the extent that it is

even affected by the slight rise and fall of the tide.^

During a two days' heavy rain the water was found to stand considerablyhigher in the standpipe. It is reasonable to suppose that in the case of anexceedingly heavy rain, such as must take place during a tropical storm, thekey would rem^ain saturated with rain-water having an acidity approachingPh 4.75 before its contact with the sand. The acidity of the pure rain-water,

however, would be increased by the humus acid in the key sands, as the waterpercolated through them.^

In case of very heavy rain, the key would act like a huge sponge, the ground-water level being raised nearly, if not quite, to the surface. After a two days'

rain the water from the driven pipe was tested and found to contain just twice

as much CaCOs in solution, or colloidal form, as the sea-water.

My theory is that after an exceptionally severe storm, during which fresh

sand is swept upon the beach in places and the beach itself scoured in others,

the bulk of the key sands above tide-water level are saturated with a strong

solution of calcium carbonate. This solution continues to trickle out throughthe heach sands, at ground-water level, for several days, and upon exposureto the air deposits calcimn carbonate in the spaces between the bits of shell,

thus forming the "beach rock." The precipitation of the CaCOs is probably

due to the relief of pressure, the escape of C02, and the consequent lowering

of the solubiHty of the CaCOs. The fact that the "beach rock" can not oweits origin to the action of putrifying matter in place, such as seaweeds, etc., is,

I beheve, proved by the total absence of any carbonaceous material in the

rock itself.

Researches on the Production of Light by Luminous Animals, by

E. Newton Harvey.

My previous researches on light production in Cypridina, a luminous crus-

tacean, reported in the 1917-18 Year Book, led to the conclusion that luciferin,

the oxidizable material of Cypridina, is in all probability related to the pep-

tones, while luciferase, the catalyst in whose presence luciferin oxidizes with

1 The supeiintendent of the Light-House Board, Mr. Putnam, assures me that he is unable

to find any record of the material encountered when the excavation was made for the founda-tion of the light-house at Loggerhead Key.*The dissolving power of the humus acid is probably more highly effective than that of

pure rain-water alone. At any rate, both have a more solvent action upon the beach-sands

than ordinary sea-water. The Ph of normal sea-water is 8.2. The Ph of the "pipe water"was found to be 7.85, the decrease in acidity being due to the dissolved CaCOs. Water with

a Ph higher than 7 will not dissolve limestone.


light production, is probably an albumin or very closely associated with analbumin. Evidence was also presented to show that the oxidation product of

luciferin, which I called oxyluciferin, has properties similar to luciferin itself

and represents only a shght oxidative change, not a fundamental splitting of

the luciferin molecule. The oxyluciferin can be readily reduced to luciferin

again by various reducing agencies, among them the nascent hydrogen pro-

duced by action of acids on metals. Acid favors the reduction of oxyluciferin,

and alkali favors the oxidation of luciferin.

Thanks to the kindness of Professor C. Ishikawa, of the Agricultural Col-

lege, Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan, I have received an additional sup-

ply of Cypridina material, with which the researches have been continued.

My present research deals with the action of acids in facilitating reduction of

oxyluciferin, the possible production of CO2, and of heat during oxidation of

luciferin, and the general nature of the luciferin<zz:>oxyluciferin reaction.

Carbon dioxid production was tested by determining if any change in

acidity, which might come from CO2 produced, occurs when solutions of luci-

ferin and luciferase are mixed. After several attempts to measure acidity byadding an indicator (thymol-sulphone-phthalein) to the solution, this methodwas given up because the luciferin and luciferase solutions are yellowish in

color, which interferes with the yellow-blue color change of the thymol-sulphone-phthalein. The electrometric determination with the hydrogenand N/10 KCl calomel electrode is the most sensitive. A McClendon elec-

trode and a Leeds and Northrup potentiometer were used. The acidity of

the luciferin solution, luciferase solution, and the two after mixing was foundto be the same, Ph = 9.04. Therefore, not enough CO2 is produced to affect

the H-ion concentration.

As both luciferin and luciferase solutions contain proteins, and as luciferase

is certainly and luciferin probably a protein, it will be seen that their buffer

value is relatively high. The luciferin and luciferase solutions, although pre-

pared with distilled water, no doubt contain also a small amount of buffer

salts. Our experiments show this much, however, that not enough CO2 is

produced during luminescence to saturate the proteins in solution, including

luciferin and luciferase themselves. The reaction responsible for luminescence,

the oxidation of luciferin, is therefore not to be compared to the reactions in

cells giving rise to the carbon dioxid of respiration.

The production of heat during luminescence was determined by bringing

solutions of luciferin and luciferase to the same temperature and then mixingthem. One can thus measure any increase or decrease of temperature whichoccurs during the luminescence which results from mixing, and gain some idea

of the heat of oxidation of luciferin. Although the experiment sounds verysimple, it is actually somewhat difficult to carry out. After many attemptsit was found necessary to bring the luciferin and luciferase solution to tem-perature equihbrium in two separate tubes within one thermos bottle, and to

mix the solution by breaking the tubes. Two thermo-couples of copperadvance wire were used to measure the temperature—one in the luciferase,

the other in the luciferin solution. These were connected through a copperdouble-throw switch with a galvanometer of a sensitivity such that 1 mm.deflection represented a temperature change of 0.003° C. As mixing the

solutions heats them sUghtly, control experiments with water in each tubewere carried out.

With both control (water) and luciferin experiments there was a shght rise

in temperature on mixing the liquids in the two tubes. The average rise of

5 control (water) experiments was 0.0054° C. and the average rise of 5 luciferin

experiments was 0.0048° C. The difference in the average rise of control andof luciferin experiments is so small (0.0006° C.) as to have Uttle significance.


We may therefore conclude that if any temperature change occurs during

the kmiinescence reaction it is certainly less than 0.001° C, and probably less

than 0.0005° C, too small to be measured by this method.

To prepare the luciferin solution, 2 grams of dried Cypridina were dissolved

in 20 c.c. hot water and 10 c.c. of this 10 per cent solution were used in the

thermos bottle in the above experiments. If we assume that 1 per cent of the

dried Cypridina is luciferin, 0.1 gram of luciferin on oxidation was not able to

raise the temperature of the 10 c.c. (in reahty 11 c.c, since 1 c.c. luciferase

solution was mixed with the 10 c.c. luciferin) of solution 0.001° C. This

means that 1 gram luciferin hberates at least less than 0.1 calorie during the

luminescence accompanying oxidation.

It is because of the small energy change during oxidation of luciferin that

the reaction may be so easily reversed and oxyluciferin reduced. Most of the

reducing methods described in my last report involve reduction in acid solu-

tion or in a solution which becomes acid. Indeed, acid alone will cause a

slight reduction, and this is a function of the H-ion concentration, since any

acid added to oxyluciferin will cause a slight reduction to luciferin. Thechange begins when the solution is about neutral, Ph = 7.1. Acid is not essen-

tial for reduction, however, as reduction can occur in alkaline solutions which

generate nascent hydrogen, as on addition of Al and NaOH, or merely on

mixing oxyluciferin with finely divided Al, Zn, or Mg, or in the presence of

(NH4)2S.. . .,,

Since all the reducing methods which may be used with oxyluciferin will

also reduce methylene blue to its leucobase, I believe we may provisionally

use tliis reaction as a type to explain what happens when luciferin is oxidized.

As methylene blue contains no oxygen, its reduction consists in the addition

of 2 atoms of hydrogen. When leuco-methylene blue oxidizes, which it does

spontaneously in air, water is formed by the union of these 2 atoms of hydro-

gen with oxygen, thus:

CieHaoNs SCI (leuco-methelene blue) +0^=>Ci6 His N3 SCI (methylene blue)

+H2OFor short,

MHa+O^Z^M+HaOWriting the luminescent reaction in a similar way, we have

:

luciferin+0:5Z±oxyluciferin+H2O.For short,

LH2-1-0^=±L-FH20.

If we assume that the LH2 (luciferin) compound is dissociated to even the

slightest extent into L and hydrogen, adding the hydrogen ion will shift the

equilibrium toward the formation of that substance which involves the taking

up of hydrogen. Consequently, we may obtain a partial formation of luci-

ferin by adding an acid to oxyluciferin. Reduction of the H-ion concentra-

tion tends to shift the equihbrium in the opposite direction. Consequently,

addition of alkali favors the oxidation of luciferin, and it is quite generally

true that biological oxidations are favored by an alkahne reaction. In addi-

tion, oxygen in alkaline medium has a higher oxidation potential than in

neutral or acid media. I believe that this is the explanation of the action of

acid in formation of luciferin from oxyluciferin.

Addition of acid is not the only means of favoring the formation of luciferin

from oxyluciferin. Any reaction which proceeds in one direction with evo-

lution of light should, theoretically, proceed in the opposite direction under

the influence of light. It is a fact that hght will cause the reduction of oxy-

luciferin. A tube of oxyluciferin exposed to sunlight for 6 hours or the mer-

cury arc for 2 hours will be partially converted into luciferin. It will lumi-


nesce when luciferase is added, while a control tube kept in darkness shows notrace of luciferin. The action is more marked with the ultra-violet, as a solu-

tion of oxyluciferin in a quartz tube showed more reduction than one in a glass

tube when exposed for the same length of time to the quartz-mercury arc.

The reduction is not dependent on the formation of acid under the influence

of Ught, since two tubes of oxyluciferin, one kept in darkness and the other

exposed to sunlight for 6 hours, had the same reaction, Ph = 9.3. Of course,

some reducing substance might be formed under the influence of Hght, butthis is not very probable.

We may therefore write the reaction for luminescence in Cypridina in the

following way:darknessalkali

luciferase

luciferin (LH2)+0^l2:oxyluciferin (L)-t-H20 (luminescence)

perhydridase (a reducing enzyme) or nascent Hacid

Hght

Report of Additional Observations and Experiments upon Problems of

Animal Coloration, by W. H. Longley.

The interval between June 5 and July 3, 1919, was spent at Tortugas in

continuation and extension of my previous investigation in the field of animalcoloration. For the privilege of continuing my work for a time after the formalclosing of the Laboratory I am particularly grateful.

Attention has been called in a previous report to several pairs of closely

related species in which a specific sort of difference in coloration is correlated

with a definite difference in behavior. Abudefduf sordidus and Chromiselaphrus are bottom-haunting Hawaiian fishes of dusky or yellow-ohve shades,

without trace of the blue or blue-gray which is so conspicuous an element in

the coloration of A. abdominalis and C. ovalis. The two species last namedhabitually swim high in the water, where their blue-gray pigments reducetheir visibihty from the point of view of an observer at a lower level.

In this connection it is interesting to note that the same difference in be-

havior occurs in the case of Abudefduf taurus and A. saxatilis, which are quite

similar in appearance to A. sordidus and A. abdominalis respectively, and, in a

sense, replace them in the Tortugas fish fauna. Teuthis hepatus and T.

cosruleus are Ukewise a pair of related species in which the predominantlyolivaceous and blue types of coloration appear in correlation with the specified

difference in habit.

These facts simply emphasize the general conclusion that the interpreta-

tion to be placed upon the color of animals should be sought through study in

detail of their relation to their environment.Regarding the significance of pattern, the most suggestive observation made

during the summer referred to the squid, Sepia sp.

The coloration of this small cephalopod, hke that of some others at least,

is almost incredibly fluid. It is now dark brown, now exceedingly pale; nowlongitudinally striped, now transversely banded. One does not encounterthe creatures frequently under water, but one at least of their changes in

appearance occurs so regularly that it requires only a few moments to de-

termine the system followed. When swimming, the squid is longitudinally

striped; when, except for the rippling motion of its lateral fins, it is at rest,

it is transversely banded. Tliis, however, is exactly the rule wliich certain

fishes follow, which, like the squid, have alternative striped and banded color

phases.


Fishes and cephalopods have independently developed eyes the mechanicalprinciple of whose construction is essentially the same. One is entitled to

suppose that in the two cases this is due to common adjustment to the sameundertying reahty, the nature of light and its mode of operation. The com-bination of lens, dark chamber, and sensitive surface is one of the mostefficient, if not quite the most efficient, system upon which an image-formingeye might be constructed, of which fact fishes and cephalopods, so to speak,bear independent witness.

Similar adjustment to underlying reality of some sort msiy be inferred withjustice wherever convergent evolution occurs with respect to characters whichthere is real reason to believe are of service to their possessors. Much evidencehas already been presented^ tending to show that the coloration of fishes atleast is obUterative in effect. It therefore seems fair to conclude tentatively

that the convergent evolution of fishes and some cephalopods in respect to

pattern-display indicates the existence of laws of optical illusion to which thecolor-patterns of animals tend to conform.The hypothesis that fishes, for example, have in course of time become

obliteratively colored through natural selection, involves the assumption that

they are preyed upon by other animals of more or less keen powers of dis-

crimination habitually exercised. Hence preliminary experiments were under-taken with the object of determining to what extent a fish of such apparentintelligence as the gray snapper might conceivably exert bionomic pressure

to modif}^ the color or form of fishes or Crustacea among which it lives andupon which it feeds voraciousl3^ The time available for tliis work was so

strictly limited, however, that while the results obtained are interesting, theyare of present value chiefly as they suggest promising modes of attack uponthe problem.When the weather permitted, the work of photographing the fishes in their

natural surroundings through use of diving apparatus and camera specially

fitted for submarine work was continued with most gratifying results. Twentyadditional pictures were secured showing fishes characteristically engaged,the detail in a number of which is scarcely to be surpassed in photographstaken on land.

The Effect of Anesthetics on Basal Metabolism, by J. F. McClendon.

Owing to the difficulties in keeping metabolism down to the basal level in

higher animals, comparative studies in metabolism upon forms in which this

can be done are desirable. In choosing an animal for such investigations, thejellyfish Cassiopea xamachana was decided on, since the automatic activity

of the nervous system may be abolished by cutting off the margin of the bell

and the respiration-rate is independent of oxygen tension, except for verylow tensions of oxygen.

In determining the rate of metaboUsm, 4 jelly-fish of large size (up to 15 cm.diameter) were deprived of manubrium and bell-margin and placed in sea-

water in an air-tight jar of about a liter capacity and rotated in a thermostatat 30° for 1 hour. The oxygen used was determined by the Winkler methodand the CO2 given out was calculated from the alkaline reserve and changesin the hydrogen-ion concentration (expressed as Ph). It was found that the

neuro-muscular system in the bell was anesthetized with 0.5 per cent ether in

sea-water, whereas the jelly-fish died at the end of 1 hour in 3 per cent ether

and in less than an hour in 4 per cent ether. The respiratory quotient wasfound to be about 0.95, and since the CO2 determinations were less accurate

1 Journ. of Exp. Zool., Aug. 1917, and previous reports in this Year Book.

DEPARTMENT OF MARINE BIOLOGY 203

than those for oxygen, only the latter are given in the following table. Thejelly-fish were tested 1 hour without anesthetic as a control.

Ether.


Investigations on the Specific Characters of Marine Amcebas at Tortugas,

by A. A. Schaejfer.

This investigation on marine amoebas was prompted by the fact that there

is an ahiiost total lack of information concerning these organisms, both fromthe systematic and from the experimental point of view. During May andJune 1919, 5 new species were isolated and described from the v/aters in the

neighborhood of Tortugas, Florida, and an equal number of species were foundwhose specific descriptions are still, for one reason or another, incomplete.

Further data on these amoebas will be published later.

The amoebas were obtained in the following ways: (1) By towings of the

surface-water in the vicinity of Loggerhead Key, especially in shallow water.

A small number of individuals of several species were always found in these

towings. (2) By washing floating and submerged seaweeds {Sargassum,

Halimeda) and eel-grass. The sediment from these washings always yielded aconsiderable number of amoebas of various species. Sargassum brought to

the shore by a southeast gale of several days' duration carried one large

species of amoeba which was not found under other circumstances. (3) Bycultures in glass dishes made up of sargassum and other seaweeds and eel-

grass, with or without a small quantity of finely ground timothy hay, andnormal sea-water. Through some of these cultures a very slow stream of

water was kept running. Some of the dishes were covered to prevent evapor-

ation, while others were left uncovered. Certain species grew very readily in

these cultures. (4) By filtering a slow stream of sea-water through cheese-

cloth holding a small wad of cotton. This method yielded the largest variety

of species, but the number of individuals of any species was small.

Excepting the fact that contractile vacuoles are lacking in marine amoebas,

these organisms do not differ in their general characteristics from fresh-water

amcebas. Some of the marine amoebas possess actoplasmic ridges such as are

found in the fresh-water Amoeba verrucosa and its congeners. Vacuoles in

large number are often seen in marine amoebas, and in rare instances a vacuole

may be observed to disappear slowly. But such cases of disappearance are

probably not to be interpreted as physiologically similar to the functioning of

a contractile vacuole. The general characters associated with streaming

—

pseudopod formation, rate of movement, formation of food-cups, and so forth

—

are similar in both fresh and salt-water amcebas.It is especially worth noting that during active locomotion the outer or

surface la^^er of the marine amoebas moves forward over the ectoplasm in the

same way as the surface layer of fresh-water amoebas is observed to do. It is

also of importance to know, especially from the point of view of systematics,

that optically active crystals occur in some species of amoebas Uving in the

sea, for, as I have shown in previous papers, the crystals form one of the mostconstant and dependable characters known to these organisms. Unfortun-

ately for systematics, less than half of the number of marine species thus far

described possess crystals. It is perhaps worth noting, also, that endoplasmic

inclusions of all sorts—vacuoles, nucleus, protoplasmic granules, etc.—are

much less conspicuous in salt-water amoebas than in those living in fresh water;

but this difference is due undoubtedly to the purely physical effect of the salt-

content of the water, for when marine amoebas are placed in fresh water, these

inclusions become more refractive to light and consequently more conspicuous.

One of the chief objects of this investigation is to learn something of the

distribution of marine amoebas in the waters of the earth and of the factors

which control such putative distribution. This being the first recorded at-

tempt in the investigation of this problem, such data as have been obtained onthis point become of importance, however, only when compared with similar


data obtained in other localities. But some observations have been madewhich indicate that the problem of distribution is a practical one to investigate.

It has already been noted, for example, that several species of amcebas found

on floating sargassum from the Gulf Stream were not found on the seaweeds

growing near the shore-hne. More important in this connection is the fact

that 4 of the 5 amcebas described feed principally on bacteria, and they con-

sequently occur most abundantly where vegetative or animal matter is under-

going disintegration. These species are therefore distributed, at least to

some degree, in accordance with the quantitative distribution of bacteria.

Another observation of importance in the study of distribution is the degree

of resistance which different species of amoebas show toward varying con-

centrations of the salt-content of sea-water. Two of the species described

are resistant to inunersion in fresh water for a considerable period of time

(10 minutes), while another species loses all power of movement in 50 per cent

sea-water and dies in 25 per cent sea-water. The former two species evidently

may live in brackish water, while the latter species can not. Again, one of the

species can Hve and move in concentrated (364 per cent) sea-water as well as in

fresh water, while other species shrivel up and disintegrate in such highly con-

centrated water. The former species may therefore conceivably live in someinland seas whose waters contain a high percentage of salt, while other species

seem to be more or less closely adjusted to the amount of salt found in the

water of the ocean. The species that can withstand fresh water as well as

364 per cent sea-water might therefore be expected to be found living in fresh

water occasionally in natural conditions. Such does not seem to be the case,

however, for this species has never been reported from fresh water. In fact,

no species of amoeba is known that Hves naturally both in fresh and salt

water. The distribution of amoebas over the world appears, therefore, to be

determined by a number of factors.

The difference various species of amoebas show in their resistance to sea-

water is alwa3^s of the greatest importance in defining the species and in readily

recognizing them, for the nmnber of definite and readily recognized constant

characters in amoebas is very small. The probability is strong that anyspecies of amoeba may be characterized by a definite degree of resistance of its

surface-layer expressed quantitatively in terms of concentration of sea-water.

This preHminary survey of the marine amoebas indicates that the sea is at

least quite as rich in these organisms as fresh water.

Birds observed on the Florida Keys and the Southern End of the Mainland of

Florida in 1919, by Paul Bartsch.

Dec. 28-31.—Along the coast of Florida only a few immature laughing gulls andman-o'-war birds were seen.

Jan. 1.—Entering the harbor of Key West in the afternoon, we saw a man-o'-war

bird chasing a royal tern.

Jan. 2.—In a trip to the United States Bureau of Fisheries station, 1 saw only a num-ber of little sparrow hawks, 8 yellow palm warblers, 2 mocking-birds, 6 man-o'-war birds,

many laughing gulls, mostly immature, a few royal terns, 2 belted kingfishers, 2 Florida

ground doves, 2 Ward's herons, 1 great white heron, 4 brown pelicans, and a number of

turkey vultures.

Jan. 3.—Sailing for the Tortugas, a "southwester" forced us to seek shelter behind

the Marquesas. Only a couple of man-o'-war birds and a few brown pelicans were seen.

Jan. 4.—In the same position, only a few brown pelicans and a couple of man-o'-warbirds were listed.

Jan 5.—While carefully examining the sand beaches, etc., in order not to miss anybirds that prefer particular habitat, we saw only a catbird and 4 ospreys, one pair having

a nest containing two eggs in advanced incubation, 1 great white heron, 3 Ward's herons, 15

brown pelicans, 5 belted kingfishers, 11 yellow palm warblers, 4 Florida ground doves,

206 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

1 laughing gull, 5 little sparrow hawks, 1 broad-wing hawk, 14 least sandpipers, and asmall flock of semi-palmated plovers.

Jan. 6.—Near the little harbor of Boca Grande Key, the following data were obtained:Several osprey's nests without eggs were examined, but only 4 adult birds were noted. Thelake in the interior harbored about 100 brown pelicans. Over 100 Ward's herons were in

the trees bordering the lake, many of them having nests, but up to that time there seemedto be no eggs present. We also saw a Louisiana heron and a great white heron; on the outersand beach 6 grasshopper sparrows and 2 Florida ground doves, while in the depressioninside of the sand dunes were 3 kiUdeer plovers, 30 semi-palmated plovers, 15 sanderlings,

and a ruddy turnstone. Additional birds seen during the day were: 1 marsh hawk, 1 Flor-

ida red-shouldered hawk, 1 little sparrow hawk, 1 laughing gull, 1 green heron, 3 beltedkingfishers, 1 royal tern, and 2 man-o'-war birds.

Jan. 7.—On the same beach Florida ground doves and grasshopper sparrows wereagain seen; also a Savanna sparrow. A trip around the island in a skiff brought us to quite

a colony of yellow-crowned night herons, also a large number of Ward's and a few greatwhite herons. On the inside is a beautiful lake, with an island in its center, and here asmall flock of brown pehcans could be seen floating about, w^hile quite a number of Ward'sherons and a few great white herons, also quite a number of black- and yellow-crownednight herons and 8 Louisiana herons were present. We found 4 empty osprey nests of

remarkably large size near the ground, evidently the accumulations of many years, andnearby in each instance a lesser structure up in tall dead trees. At the north end of theisland we saw brown pelicans floating and the heron complex alluded to above. One deadbrown pelican was found, recently stranded on the beach. Others seen this day werebelted kingfisher, mocking-bird, Florida ground dove, killdeer, semipalmated plover,laughing gull, herring gull, royal tern, grasshopper sparrow, and yellow palm warbler.

Jan. 8.—We started early in the morning for the Tortugas. After passing RebeccaLight, another "southwester" overtook us and it was interesting to note that flying royalterns were all heading in one direction, which proved to be toward the islands of the Tortu-gas group. On coming to anchor about 5 p. m., we found red-footed boobies occupyingmost of the stakes in the channel; also a few brown pelicans, royal terns, herring gulls, andlaughing gulls.

Jan. 9.—Early in the morning we left in the launch for Loggerhead Key. On our waywe saw red-footed boobies on the harbor stakes; also a few pelicans, laughing gulls, royalterns, and some herring gulls on wing. The entire day's count yielded only 4 little sparrowhawks, 1 yellow palm warbler, 2 brown pelicans, and 4 killdeer plovers. In opening one of

the laboratories we found that a chuck-will's-widow had become entrapped in the building,

and its well-prepared skeleton was surrounded by a halo of feathers, a new record for Logger-head Key.

Jan. 10.—No other birds observed.

Jan. 11 to 15.—5 species only were observed and these are: 4 Uttle sparrow hawks, 8brown pelicans, 4 killdeer plovers, 2 royal terns, and 1 palm warbler.

On Garden Key we observed a little sparrow hawk, and in the adjacent waters were red-

footed boobies, royal terns, brown pelicans, and a few man-o'-war birds.

On Long Key, we found a couple of herring gulls, royal terns, and brown pehcans, whileBush Key was empty.

In 1917 I had left with the lighthouse keeper an alcohol tank and material for preservingbirds that might strike on the lighthouse. The following 10 specimens were saved: belted

kingfi.sher, Oct. 8, 1917; oven bird, Oct. 10, 1917; common tern, Nov. 11, 1917; belted king-fisher. Mar. 13, 1918; prairie warbler. Mar. 18, 1918; yellow-billed cuckoo, Mar. 30, 1918;myrtle warbler, Mar. 31, 1918; catbird, Apr. 26, 1918; bobolink, Nov. 1, 1918; gray-cheeked thrush, Nov. 23, 1918.

Jan. 16.—A visit to Fort JefTerson revealed a little sparrow hawk and a single yellowpalm warbler. At one time during the afternoon a flock of 28 man-o'-war birds hung overthe southeast corner of the fort, riding on the air upthrust by the wall of the fort.

Jan. 17.—We left for Key West aboard the Anton Dohrn. We saw quite a number of

ospreys' nests on the west side of the Marquesas islands. Near Key West we passed smallgroups of laughing gulls and also of royal terns, the former resting in the water and thelatter usually standing on driftwood.

Jan. 18.—During a trip from La Breza to the second Martello tower we noted the follow-

ing birds: Florida ground dove, turkey buzzard, man-o'-war bird, brown pelican, laughinggull, royal tern, many yellow palm warblers, 3 scissor-tailed fly-catchers, 2 Arkansas fly-

catchers, belted kingfisher, and mourning dove; also the wing and foot of a least sandpiper.


Jan. 19.—At Newfound Harbor Key we found j'cllow palm warblers and a parula

warbler. Brown pelicans were fishing offshore and a belted kingfisher and a green heron

were along the edge, while a turkey vulture flew over. ^Ye next visited the little key north-

east of Newfound Harbor Key, where we had found the Louisiana herons breeding in 1918.

Brown pelicans and man-o'-war birds v\ere using this island as a roosting-place, and we also

saw a great white heron and a belted kingfisher. No less than 6 great white herons could

be seen standing in the shallow waters of the neighboring keys.

Jan. 20.—At Bahia Honda Key we saw the following: brown pelican, turkey buzzard,

little sparrow hawk, j^ellow palm warbler, Florida ground dove, Bahama red-winged black-

birds, rubA'-throated hummer, killdeer, and a belted kingfisher. On Duck Key we found 2

great white herons, a brown pelican, a j-ellow palm vrarbler, one Savanna sparrow, and 2

grasshopper sparrows.

Jan. 21.—^We saw a red-throated loon off Indian Key, and on the key itself commonterns, roA'al terns, a broad-winged hawk, 2 Httle sparrow hawks, catbird, a pair of mocking-

birds, Florida cardinal, Florida yellow-throat, 3 spotted sandpipers, and a laughing gull.

At Tea Table Key, nearby, the Florida cardinal and mocking-bird were present.

Jan 22.—At Porgee Key the following were noted: man-o'-war bird, brown pelican,

herring gull, laughing gull, royal tern, common tern, Louisiana heron, a small flock of

American egrets, a flock of more than 100 Florida double-crested cormorants, belted king-

fisher, mocking-bird, and Florida cardinal. In the afternoon at Piagged Keys and on the

first key north of Sands Key we saw a yellow-crowned night heron and a belted kingfisher.

On our trip through Bay Biscajme to Miami a large flock of Florida cormorants wasnoted; hkewise, brown pehcans, laughing gulls, herring gull, ring-billed gull, royal tern, andcommon tern.

I revisited Florida later in the season. With the use of the Darwin, a shallow-draft

launch, we cruised along the mainland of the lower peninsula, through Key Biscayne Bay,

Card Sound, Little Card Sound, and Barnes Sound, stopping at everj^ likely-looking sand-

spit. We then returned bj' way of the eastern edge of these bays, following the inside of the

outer keys back to Miami, stopping at inter\'als to explore the keys. An anchorage wasmade for the Anton Dohrn at Indian Key, and from here we again set out with the Daruinacross the extensive flats of Florida Bay for Cape Sable. V^e explored the region about

Flamingo City and east of Flamingo City and made a trip inland to Coot Bay.

May 2.—At IMiami we saw the following about the streets of the town: mocking-bird,

night hawk, Florida ground dove and red-bellied woodpecker; on Virginia Key, man-o'-warbird, royal tern, Florida cormorant, Florida cardinal, Key West vireo, spotted sandpiper,

ruddy turnstone, and one redstart were recorded.

May 3.—In leaving IMiami and passing out of the river, we saw a group of purple martins

flying about; also some royal terns and a couple of man-o'-war birds. At EUiott Beach wenoted a Florida cardinal and a Florida yellow-throat. At Key Biscayne Bay, on the outer

beach, we found a flock of pectoral sandpipers and a pair of semi-palmated plovers. About4 p. m. we reached the drainage ditch leading to Homestead. We visited several ham-mocks near the canal and obtained the following list: 1 black-crowned night heron, 6 spotted

sandpipers, 1 Florida ground dove, 7 Florida meadow larks, 3 kingbirds, 2 mocking-birds,

3 turkey buzzards, 9 Bahama red-winged blackbirds, and 1 Florida crow.

We next headed for the Arsenicker Keys and found on the one off Mangrove Key a breed-

ing colony of Louisiana herons with probably 100 nests; there also seemed to be some breed-

ing Florida cormorants on this island; also a brovrn pelican and a man-o'-war bird roost,

containing over 100 brown pelicans, chiefly young birds, and about 50 man-o'-warbirds. The shallows which stretch for a considerable distance from the shore off this keywere occupied by large numbers of fishing brown pelicans and a single Ward's heron. Attwilight a pair of great white herons settled down on the flats and quite a number of brownpelicans spent the night nearby.

May 4-—At dawn manj^ brov,-n pelicans were present on the flats about us and a pair

of ospreys were fishing in the shallows. At the northern end of the mainland, in CardSound, we saw a pair of red-bellied woodpeckers and from here a pair of turkcA' buzzards

and some man-o'-war birds could be seen on wing, while royal terns were resting on the

shallows offshore, which were also tenanted by a great white heron and a pair of Ward'sherons. About one-third of the way down the sound we saw a broad-winged hawk. AtCard Point were Baham.a red-winged blackbirds and boat-tailed grackles; a few Florida

cormorants were seen in the sound. The stakes marking the entrance to Barnes Soundsupported about two dozen Florida cormorants, and some royal terns were flying about.

On Main Key we saw a prairie warbler and two Florida cardinals. About halfway between

208 CARNEGIE INSTITUTION OF WASHINGTON

Flat Point and Bay Point we met the following: bald eagle, white-eyed towhee, Key Westvireo, Cape May warbler, southern parula warbler, black-poll warbler, and kingbird. Ona line of keys which make out into the bay from the point of Cross Key, we found about200 man-o'-war birds and probably 500 pairs of Louisiana herons; also a pair of anhingasbreeding, the nest containing two 3'oung just hatched and two eggs about ready to emittheir chicks. At Peacon place, on Key Largo, we saw redstarts, Florida ground doves,Florida cardinals, and Cape May warblers.

May 5.—Our first stop was at Scott's place, on Key Largo, about half a mile belowPumpkin Kej', where we found a Florida red-shouldered hawk nesting, gray kingbird. KeyWest vireo, redstarts, red-bellied woodpecker and Florida cardinals.

Our next stop on Key Largo was about halfway between Pumpkin Key and Angel FishCreek. Here we found Florida cardinals, yellow-belhed woodpeckers, and Key West vireos.

Palo Alto Key was next visited, and we noted a Florida crow, Key West vireo, Floridacardinal, and red-bellied woodpecker.May 6.—At dawn we stopped at Totten's Key, where we found a Florida screech owl

with a brood of young in a low cavity; also. Key West vireos, Florida cardinals, an oven-bird, gray kingbirds, and a Florida crow. At Porgee Key we saw a redstart. Key Westvireo, and Florida cardinal. On Old Roads Key we saw Florida cardinals and Key Westvireos. At Sands Key we found prairie warblers. Key West vireos, and Florida cardinals.

May 7.—We left Miami with the Anton Dohrn and came to anchor off Rodriguez. Dur-ing our trip through Hawk Channel we saw only a few man-o'-war birds.

May S.—We steamed for Indian Key about daybreak and came to anchor off that keyat 10 a. m. At 11 a. m. we set out for Cape Sable in the Darwin. Some turkey vultures

were observed and a couple of least terns. The flat between the viaduct and Sands Key, off

Cape Sable, showed only an occasional Florida cormorant, man-o'-war bird, or laughing gull.

On the extensive flats lying off this island two great white herons were visible, and about20 brown pelicans, quite a number of Florida cormorants, and some man-o'-war birds, thelatter on wing. On the key itself we found prairie warblers, Florida yellow-throats, black-

poll warblers, a pair of Florida great crested fly-catchers, and a grasshopper sparrow. I

was told that a pair of flamingoes had been shot on the flat this spring and that in the daysgone by it was not uncommon for flamingoes to come over onto the Florida flats from the

Bahamas in the morning and to return to the Bahamas at night, after a day's feeding in

the shallows. Opposite Flamingo are several keys which are used as roosting-places bywhite ibises and various species of herons.

May 9.—We were on shore shortly after daylight. Florida meadow larks and Bahamared-winged blackbirds are the chief birds, although we also flushed several grasshoppersparrows and I saw 6 swallow-tailed kites in the air at one time, a larger number than I havepreviously seen. About 10 a. m. we set out for Coot Bay, which contained a few scattered

waterfowl. The following is a list of birds seen between Flamingo and Coot Bay: Americanegret, snowy egret, Louisiana heron, Florida cormorant, Florida cardinal, gray kingbird,

red-belhed woodpecker, Florida crow, Florida ground dove. Key West vireo, evergladekite, Bahama red-winged blackbird, ruby-throated hummer, spotted sandpiper, boat-tailed grackles, grasshopper sparrows, Florida pileated woodpecker, Florida red-shoulderedhawk, bald eagle, osprey, great white heron, brown pelican, white ibis, Florida j-ellow-

throat, and swallow-tailed kite. We also saw two nests of the latter bird, both of which weexamined and found empty. They are rather different from the usual raptor's nest, beingmore compact and much more elevated and inverted conic in outline than any other hawknest that 1 have examined.May 10.—We left Flamingo City shortly after daylight on May 10. Our first stop was

at the East Cape Club House. The birds seen were Florida crow, turkey buzzard, brownpelican, Bahama red-winged blackbirds, Florida meadow lark, Ward's heron, and Americanegret. We next rounded East Cape, and here again put ashore. Fringing the shore betweenEast Cape and Middle Cape, we saw the red-bellied woodpecker. Key West vireos could

be heard everywhere, and this bird and the Florida cardinal appeared to be of about equalabundance. Florida crows were also quite common and occasionally a Florida ground dovewas flushed, and in one instance we found a nest containing two young. Along the shore

an occasional spotted sandpiper would keep pace with our advance for some distance. Off

Sands Kfty we found a remarkable flight of Florida yellow-throats. There were literally

thousands of these birds of both sexes. I have never before seen so many individuals of aspecies gathered together in such a compact space. Mixed in with these we found a fewblack-poll warblers, prairie warblers, and redstarts; also a few Key West vireos and a pair

of gray kingbirds, while offshore a couple of royal terns and laughing gulls, some man-o'-war


birds and brown pelicans, a great white heron, a Louisiana heron, and some Florida cor-

morants were resting on the water, and a flock of white-bellied swallows were skimmingover the land and the sea.

May 11.—We arrived at Newfound Harbor Key at noon. At 1 p. m. we visited the keywhich has the Louisiana heron rookery on it. It is occupied by the usual group of man-o'-

war birds, a small flock of brown pelicans, mostly young, manj' of them fishing, at whichart they were still quite inexperienced. The Louisiana herons were breeding here in great

numbers this year. There was also a huge Ward's heron nest in the large tree standing onthe high ground in the center of the island. This nest contained an almost fledged youngbird. A second visit to this key revealed a young bald eagle seated on a dead limb. Theseventh key southwest of Big Pine Key is a mere clump of black mangrove bushes with

a sandspit. This sandspit contained as many as 50 least terns. They were not breeding at

this time, although their actions would indicate that they intended to use this key for anesting-ground. In the tall bushes at the opposite end of the island we found a huge nest

of the great white heron containing an almost fledged young, which we subjected to con-

siderable photographing, and which eventuallv we carried to Key West and sent by parcel

post to the Zoological Garden at Washington, where it has grown into an exceedingly fine

specimen of this magnificent species. Flying over this little key we also found Bahama red-

winged blackbirds, Florida yellow-throats, prairie warblers, and man-o'-war birds.

May 12.—We made a list of the following birds: On the first key southwest of Big Pine

Key we saw a flock of about 2.5 least sandpipers, 6 black-belUed plovers, and about 25semi-palmated plovers. In addition to these, we Usted Louisiana herons, redstarts, boat-

tailed grackle, Florida yellow-throats, Florida cardinals, and Key West vireos. On the

second key southwest of Big Pine Key we saw redstarts, a Cape May warbler, a red-eyedvireo, a pair of Key West vireos, and a great white heron. The third key southwest of BigPine Key showed Florida yellow-throats, turkej' \'ulture, Ke}' West vireo, Florida cardinal,

gray kingbird, yellow-billed cuckoo, catbird, boat-tailed grackle, black-and-white creeping

warbler, red-bellied woodpecker, and a redstart. On the fifth key southwest of Big Pine

Key we saw a laughing gull, Florida j'ellow-throats, brown pehcans, and a gray kingbird.

The sixth key southwest of Big Pine Key was again visited and I photographed a youngWard's heron in the nest. The young bald eagle was again seen on the same high dead limbin the center of the island ; man-o'-war birds and brown pelicans were abundant as usual,

and I succeeded in shooting a clapper rail which was needed to positively determine the

species. This rail proves to be, according to Dr. Oberholser, a new subspecies which hehas named Mangrove rail. We also found Florida j'ellow-throats, a gray kingbird, andboat-tailed grackles. The seventh key southwest of Big Pine Key furnished the follow-

ing: great white heron, laughing guUs, Bahama red-winged blackbirds, least terns, graykingbirds, Florida yellow-throat, and a Mangrove rail. The eighth and last key southwestshowed only 2 Louisiana herons.

May 13.—In the afternoon we paid a visit to the United States Bureau of Fisheries Sta-

tion on Kej^ West, but observed only man-o'-war birds, green heron, and gray kingbird.

May H.—On Stock Island the following list was obtained: Ward's heron, Louisiana

heron, green heron, least tern, royal tern, brown pelican, man-o'-war bird, and Bahamared-winged blackbirds.

May 15.—On the way to the Tortugas very few birds were seen between Key West andour islands. Our list comprises man-o'-war birds, royal terns, and an occasional blue-

faced booby. Passing Bird Key showed that there were few birds on wing. On LoggerheadKey the following were seen: sharp-shinned hawk, little sparrow hawk, man-o'-war bird,

least tern, yellow warbler, gray kingbird.

May 16.—At Loggerhead Key 1 noted the following: 1 Bahama red-winged blackbird,

2 gray kingbirds, 1 3'ellow palm warbler, 1 female redstart, and 1 little sparrow hawk. AtBird Key, the same day, I found the usual dense population of sooty and noddy terns, butthe sooties were mostly nesting on the ground on bits of sticks pulled together from the

dead rubbish. I shot a blue-faced booby with a very curiously mottled plumage. On ourreturn to Loggerhead Key I saw a little blue heron, man-o'-war birds, and a small flock of

barn swallows.

May 17.—We visited Fort Jefferson on Garden Key and noted the following: Floridayellow-throat, olive-backed thrush, black-poll warbler, yellow palm warbler, prairie warbler,

Cape May warbler, ovenbird, catbird, redstart, yellow-billed cuckoo, black-billed cuckoo,red-eyed vireo; while flying about the fort could be seen man-o'-war birds, royal terns,

sooty and noddy terns, and a few least terns. On Bush Key the following were seen: man-


o'-war birds, Florida yellow-throat, laughing gull, royal terns, least tern, Cabot's tern,ruddy turnstone, and oyster-catcher. On Long Key the least tern, Cabot's tern, royal tern,laughing gull, man-o'-war birds, brown pehcans. Ward's heron, Florida yellow-throat,ruddy turnstone, and o.yster-catcher were observed.On another trip through Loggerhead Key I found two bunches of feathers, one belonging

to a summer tanager and the other a yellow-bil'ed cuckoo; at aunset we saw an osprey anda duck hawk, the latter evidently intending to roost for the night on one of the dead flower-ing stalks of a clump of agaves. This is the first time that I have seen this bird in thisregion. The following had struck on the hghthouse since my last visit to this island and hadbeen preserved in the alcohol tank: blue-winged teal, male, Feb. 26, 1919; prairie warbler,Mar. 19, 1919; Wilson's snipe. Mar. 26, 1919; Wilson's Snipe, two prairie warblers,and yellow palm warbler. Mar. 27, 1819; oven bird and Florida yellow-throat, black-throated blue warbler, and prairie warbler, May 2, 1919.May 18.—I saw the following birds on Long Key: Ward's heron, laughing gull, royal

tern, man-o'-war birds, and brown peUcan. I again saw the duck hawk which passedme at less than 35 feet distance several times today, also an osprey on Loggerhead Key.We have come to the conclusion that a little sparrow hawk is responsible for the erraticdistribution of cerions in the vicinity.

May 19.—Few birds were seen between the Tortugas and Key West. The list includedsome brown pelicans, man-o'-war birds, royal terns, an occasional blue-faced booby, andlaughing gull.

Scientific Equivalents for the Common Names of Birds Used in thePreceding List.

Red-throated loon = Gavia stellata.Herring gull = Larus argentatus.Ring-billed gull = Larua delawarensia.Laughing gull = Larus atricilla megalopterua.Royal tern = Thalasseus maximus.Cabot's tern = Thalasseus sandvicensis acuflavidus.Common tern = Sterna hirundo.Least tern = Sternula antillarum antillaruit).Sooty tern = Sterna fuscata.Noddy tern = Anoiis stolidus stolidus.Blue-faced booby = Sula cyanops.Red-footed booby = Sula sula.Anhinga = Anhinga anhinga.Florida cormorant = Phalacrocorax auritus flori-

danus.Brown pelican = Pelecanus occidentalis occidentalis.Man-o'-war bird = Fregata magnificens rothschildi.Blue-winged teal = Querqufdula discors.Flamingo = Phoenicopterus ruber.White ibis = Guara alba.Great white heron = Ardea occidentalis.Ward's heron = Ardea herodias wardi.American egret = Herodias egretta.Snoyv-y egret = Egretta candidissima candidissima.Louisiana heron = Hydranassa tricolor ruficollia.I>ittle blue heron = Florida cserulea cserulea.Green heron = Butorides virescens virescens.Black-crowned night heron = Nycticorax nycticorax

neevius.

Yellow-crowned night heron = Nyctanassa violacea.Mangrove rail = Rallus longirostris heliuB.Wilson's snipe = Gallinago gallinago delicata.Pectoral sandpiper = Pisobia maculata.Least sandpiper = Pisobia minatilla.Sanderling = Calidris alba.Spotted sandpiper = Actitis macularia.Black-bellied plover = Squatarola squatarola cyno-

surf e.

Killdeer plover = Oxyechus vociferus vociferus.Semipalmated plover = Charadrius semipalmatua

.

Ruddy turnstone = Arenaria interpres morinella.Oyeter-catclier = Hsematopus paUiatus palliatus.Mourning dove = Zenaidura inacroura carolinensia.Ground dove = Chsemepelia passerina passerina.Turkey vulture = Cathartes aura septentrionalia.Swallow-tailed kite = Elanoides forficatua forficatua.Everglade kite = Rostrhamus sociabilis.Marsh hawk = Circus cyaneus hudaonius.Sharp-shinned hawk = Accipiter velox.Florida red-shouldered hawk = Buteo lineatua alleni.Broad-winged hawk = Buteo platypterua platyp-

terus.Bald eagle = Haliaetua leucocephalus leucocephalua.Duck hawk = Rhynchodon peregrinus anatum.Little sparrow hawk = Cerchniea sparveria paula.Oaprey = Pandion haliaetua carolinenaia.

Florida acreech owl = Otus aaio asio.Yellow-billed cuckoo = Coccyzus americanus ameri-

canus.Black-billed cuckoo = Coccyzus erythropthalmus.Belted kingfisher = Streptoceryle alcyon alcyon.Yellow-bellied sapaucker = Sphyrapicus variua var-

iua.

Florida pileated woodpecker = Phloeotomua pileatuafloridanus.

Red-bellied woodpecker = Centurus carolinua.Chuck-will's widow = Antrostomus carolinenaia.Nighthawk = Chordeiles minor minor.Ruby-throated hummingbird = Archilochus colubris.Scissor-tailed flycatcher = Muscivora forficata.Kingbirvl = Tyrannus tyrannua.Gray kingbird = Tyrannus dominicensia dorainicen-

sia.

Arkansas fly-catcher = Tyrannua verticalis.Florida great crested fly-catcher = Myiarchua crinitua

residuua.Florida crow = Corvua brachyrhynchoa pasciiua.Bahama red-winged blackbird = Agelaiua phoeniceua

bryanti.Florida meadow lark = Sturnella magna argutula.Boat-tailed grackle = Megaauiscalus major major.Savannah sparrow = Pasaerculua sandwichensia sa-

vanna.Grasshopper sparrow = Ammodramua savannarum

auatralis.

White-eyed towhee = Pipilo er>-throphthalmus alleni.

Florida cardinal = Cardinalia cardinalis floridanus.Summer tanager = Piranga rubra rubra.Purple martin = Progne subis subis.White-bellied swallow = Iridoprocne bicolor.Red-eyed vireo = Vireosylva olivacea.Key West vireo = Vireo griseus maynardi.Black-and-white warbler = Mniotilta varia.Parula warbler = Compaothlypis americana ameri-

cana.Cape May warbler = Dendroica tigrina.Yellow warbler = Dendroica Eestiva sestiva.Black-throated blue warbler = Dendroica carulea-

cens cserulescens.Myrtle warbler = Dendroica coronata coronata.Black-poll warbler = Dendroica striata.Palm warbler = Dendroica palmarum palmarum.Yellow palm warbler = Dendroica palmarum hypo-

chrysea.Prairie warbler = Dendroica discolor.Oven bird = Seiurua aurocapillus aurocapillus.Florida yellow-throat = Geothlypia trichas ignota.Redstart = Setophaga ruticilla.

Mocking-bird = Mimua polyglottos polyglottos.Catbird = Duinetella carolinensia.Grey-cheeked thrush = Hylocichla minima aliciae.

Olive-backed thrush = Hylocichla usti: lata awainson i

DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY.*Benjamin Boss, Director.

The activities of the Department during the last year may be

grouped under four general heads: investigations of stellar motions,

reduction of observations, preparations for the General Catalogue,

and preparations for future work.

INVESTIGATIONS OF STELLAR MOTIONS.

PARALLAXES.

In order to determine as accurately as possible the real space

motions of the stars it has been found necessary to reconcile as well as

possible the various series of stellar parallax observations, utilizing

all available material. A preliminary system was already completed

when a large number of unpublished parallaxes were very generously

offered by Professors Schlesinger, Mitchell, Frost, and Miller, and it

became necessary to revise the system. While the last approximation

to definitive results has not been completed, several conclusions will

not be materially altered.

The trigonometrical parallaxes obtained by the photographic pro-

cess are in general of a high degree of excellence; and their relative

weights are very approximately represented by the probable errors

assigned by the authors to their observations. While systematic

corrections depending upon progression in right-ascension have been

derived, in addition to constant corrections, they are very small andmight easily vanish with the accumulation of data, though the effect

appears to be well marked in some instances.

The mean probable error of the parallaxes derived according to

Adams's method are of an order comparable to those determined bythe trigonometrical method, but the probable error varies with the

size of the parallax. As Adams's system is founded upon trigono-

metrical parallaxes, certain corrections to it are to be expected with the

accumulation of results. Thus, it appears that for very small paral-

laxes a considerable minus correction must be applied. This may be

partly accounted for if Adams used small positive parallaxes in fixing

this part of the curve, more or less neglecting the minus parallaxes.

After the application of all the corrections, Adams's results were

treated for effect depending upon spectral classification. It wasanticipated that a decided dispersion effect would be found, but curi-

ously enough an approximately linear correction developed, positive

for M-class dwarfs. It was also surprising to find that the probable

error of a parallax derived from a single plate was not improved by the

employment of several plates.

*Address: Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y.211


The system of parallaxes which is being formed is in no way intended

to be taken too seriously, as it is liable to undergo considerable changes

with the accumulation of data, but it is primarily intended to furnish

a means for deriving the real motions of the stars as approximately as

may be at the present time.

THE VERTEX OF STELLAR MOTIONS.

Mr. Raymond prepared for publication an uncompleted paper byProfessor Lewis Boss on the vertex of stellar motions. This paper,

though practically completed before Professor Boss's death, was never

published. It offers a simple approximate solution of this compli-

cated problem by a method partly graphical.

The position of the vertex of preferential motion was found to be170?7,-2?5 in galactic coordinates, or 6^ 15"^2, +7° 0' in equatorial

coordinates, in very good agreement with the results obtained byother investigators. The ratio of the three unequal axes of the

velocity figure proved to be 2.2 : 1.3 : 1, showing the distinct flattening

of the velocity figure in the direction perpendicular to the galactic

plane.

VARIATIONS OF SPECTRAL TYPE IN CEPHEID VARIABLES.

The work of Dr. Albrecht on variations of spectral type in Cepheidvariables has been continued and brought to completion for the stars

I Carinse and rj Aquilse. In the definitive results the former of the twostars was found to vary from F8 to G9; the latter from F6 to G6.

These results, which are based upon the general spectrum, are ap-

parently directly opposed to the recent results of Adams and Joy, whofound that the variations of type in Cepheids are confined to the

hydrogen spectrum and that the general spectrum does not share in

these changes. Accordingly, Dr. Albrecht's data were rediscussed

with special reference to their possible explanation by the two follow-

ing effects in the general spectrum, also referred to by Adams and Joy

:

(1) a general slight widening of the spectral lines at minimum, and (2)

an increase in the intensity of the so-called "enhanced" lines at

maximum. A detailed examination shows that nearly all the shifts

in wave-length in these Cepheids are satisfactorily explained by a

strengthening or a weakening of the same components of the lines

(blends) as in the stellar spectra from the "earlier" to the "later"

types, rather than by the widening of the lines at minimum or a

strengthening of the enhanced lines at maximum, or both.

Thus, for the present at least, it seems impossible to harmonize

Dr. Albrecht's results and those of Adams and Joy. It should be

noted that Dr. Albrecht's results would bring into accord for Cepheids

simultaneous changes of visual light, of photographic light, of radial

velocity, of type based on the general spectrum, of type based on the

hydrogen spectrum, and of color-index both observed photographically

I

DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY. 213

and computed from the changes of type. On the contrary, if the

general spectrum does not share in the changes of type shown by the

hydrogen spectrum, according to the results of Adams and Joy, then

the changes of color-index computed from the general spectrum are

practically zero, constituting an apparent outstanding discordance.

A tabulation for a number of Cepheids also showed : (a) a progres-

sive trend of types with increasing length of period (known before),

the efifect being, however, very much more pronounced for short than

for longer periods, and (6) the apparently complete lack of a relation

between the range through which the type varies and the period. Thetype range in the 22 Cepheids listed averages one type-interval (as Fto G), with only moderate deviations from the mean.

Inasmuch as the surface conditions on Cepheids, i.e., in the com-paratively shallow layer in which all of the light that reaches us

originates, are undergoing constant and apparently violent changes,

it seems probable that a considerable overlapping of the distinguishing

characteristics of types takes place. With good modern instrumental

equipment, applied especially to the brighter Cepheids, it should be

possible to determine approximately the extent to which Cepheid

spectra deviate from pure stellar types.

REDUCTION OF OBSERVATIONS.

The observations of the secondary observers made at San Luis

have been investigated for systematic errors, and their relation to the

results of the fundamental observers ascertained. For the night

observations of the five observers the latitude (omitting —30° 17')

and the refraction coefficients are respectively as follows: Roy 45 ''54,

0.9926; Sanford 45^48, 0.9950; Tucker 45^78, 0.9916; Varnum 45r51,

0.9942; and Zimmer45T49, 0.9936. It may be remarked, as has been

suggested elsewhere, that the discrepancy in the mean latitude may be

entirely due to personalities in determining the nadir ; or the zenith cor-

rection should be applied otherwise than symmetrically north and south.

The collation of results is well advanced and the computation of

precession for the catalogue has been started.

The first steps have been taken in the reductions of all the Albanyobservations. The observations made during the last year of observ-

ing have been brought to the same stage as the previous Albany series.

The corrections for south minus north and eye and ear minus chrono-

graph were computed and applied. The first reductions of doubletransits of circumpolar stars were made and preliminary places de-

rived for the 19 primary azimuth stars. Using these places, azimuthswere computed and plotted and curves drawn to represent them for

those series of the Albany observations where there were 12 and 24hour groups of clock stars. These are furnishing the material for the

first investigation of the systematic correction in right-ascension

depending upon right-ascension now in progress.


From the preliminary clock corrections already obtained, it wouldappear that the Riefler clocks have been less subject to a diurnal termat Albany than at San Luis.

PREPARATIONS FOR THE GENERAL CATALOGUE.

Further progress has been made on the general catalogue. Theobservations taken from catalogues received within recent years are

being entered upon the card catalogue. The systematic relations of

the following catalogues to the standard system have been wholly or

in part determined:

1. Moscow 1860 0° to +4°.

2. Berlin 1865 Largely zodiacal.

3. Warsaw 1880 -2° to -7°.

4. Pulkova 1885 Observations of Romberg.5. Cincinnati 1895 Largely proper-motion stars.

6. Abbadia 1900 +5° to —3°. Astrographic Standards.7. Abbadia 1900 +16° to +24°. Astrographic.

8. Abbadia 1900 -3° to -9°. Astrographic.

9. Abbadia 1900 Fundamental for three preceding.

10. Brussels 1900 +21° and 22°.

11. Cape 1900 N of -34°. Largely zodiacal.

12. Cordoba Gen. Cat... 1900 With miscellaneous stars, largely —15° to —35°.

13. Cordoba Zone 1900 -22° to -27°.

14. Christiania 1900 +65° to +70°.15. Dublin 1900 Various.

16. Edinburg 1900 Zodiacal.

17. Greenwich 1900 General, zodiacal, and astrographic standards.

18. Hamburg 1900 +80° to 81°.

19. Harvard Zone 1900 -10° to -14°.

20. Lick, Vol. X 1900 Zodiacal.

21. Munich 1900 Largely +45° to +60°.22. Nice 1900 Struve and other stars.

23. Odessa 1900 Fundamental.24. Perth 1900 -31° to -42°.

25. Pulkova 1900 Fundamental.

26. Radcliffe 1900 to +5°. Zodiacal and various.

27. Washington Zone. .. . 1900 -14° to -18°.

28. BerHn 1905 Various.29. Berlin C 1905 +70° to +75°.30. Perth 1905 Fundamental for Perth 1900.

31. La Plata 1925 -52° to -57°.

Several other catalogues may be useful at a later stage, but havebeen laid aside for the present because of lack of stars in common with

the general catalogue, or because they contain few or no fundamentalstars from which systematic corrections can be derived.

It is now possible to compute refined positions and proper-motions

where they are immediately needed. Such positions and proper-

motions have been furnished to Dr. Heber D. Curtis in connection

with his studies on the Einstein effects.

PREPARATIONS FOR FUTURE WORK.

Plans for the future operations of the Department are gradually

progressing. As a first step a survey is being taken of the stars mainlybetween 8.0 and 9.0 magnitudes to determine the selection of an

DEPARTMENT OF MERIDIAN ASTROMETRY. 215

observing list for the meridian circle which shall include one star per

square degree. It is desirable to select stars, as far as possible, with

kno^vTi spectral type and with a sufficient number of observations

taken in the past to insure the determination of a very approximate

proper-motion; but it is also desirable to select stars from the lists

of the Carte du Ciel. Those stars which are contained in the General

Catalogue are given the preference. They have been plotted to

facilitate making a choice. Likewise the stars contained in the newDraper Catalogue are plotted as far as published. In some regions

where there are gaps it will be necessary to step outside the adopted

limits of magnitude in order to secure the desired symmetrical dis-

tribution, but the percentage of such cases to the total number of stars

involved is very small.

Preparations have been completed for an expedition to aid in the

selection of an observing-site, as the climate at Albany is not favorable

for such a project as is contemplated. A o-inch photographic doublet

lens of 13 feet focal length was kindly loaned by the Mount Wilson

Observatory, and has been mounted on a telescope specially designed

to meet the requirements of transportation. It is intended to test the

relative conditions of seeing at various stations by comparison of star-

trails taken at different altitudes. The preliminary tests at Albanywere entirely satisfactory.

A survey of the U. S. Weather Bureau reports for the entire UnitedStates leads to the investigation of two regions—the south Atlantic

States and Arizona. While the western conditions are in general morefavorable than those in the East, there is a large diurnal range in tem-perature to be found in any desert region, as well as a large annual range.

The distribution of clear weather appears to be fairly uniform in the

Southeastern States, and it is amply sufficient for the requirements,

while the diurnal range in temperature is favorable to good seeing.

STAFF.

The Director was absent for a portion of the year in attendance uponthe meeting of the International Research Council at Brussels. Hehas continued his investigation of stellar parallaxes and has devoted

considerable time to the problems arising out of the proposed future

work of the Department. Dr. Sebastian Albrecht has continued

his investigation of standards of wave-length, and has also been occu-

pied with the spectral variation in Cepheids. Some time has also beendevoted to the new project. Mr. Sherwood B. Grant has been absent

in the naval service as marine engineer. Mr. Heroy Jenkins has beenlargely occupied in deriving the systematic corrections to catalogues

received during the last few years. Mr. Harry Raymond has beenoccupied with many departments of the work. Mr. Arthur J. Roy,as formerly, has supervised the reduction and discussion of the observa-


tions and has been in charge of the Department during the absence

of the Director. Mr. WilUam B. Varnum has supervised and dis-

cussed many of the results. Dr. Ralph E. Wilson has been engaged

on problems connected with the projected work.

A great deal of credit is due the computing staff, which has con-

scientiously performed the long and voluminous computations upon

the work in hand. It has consisted of Mrs. Lillian F. Blanchard, Miss

Grace I. Buffum, Mrs. Livia C. Clark, Miss Mabel I. Doran, Miss

Ahce M. Fuller (who is also secretary of the Department), Mrs. MaryB. James, Miss Isabella Lange, Miss Marie Lange, Miss Frances L.

MacNeill, and Miss Helen M. MacNeill.

The resignation of Mrs. Mary B. James took place in June 1919.

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY.*George E. Hale, Director.

The fortunate conclusion of the war, followed by the successful tests

of the 100-inch Hooker telescope described in this report, mark a dis-

tinct epoch in the progress of the Observatory. In returning from

war service to our customary field of research,^ and in undertaking

systematic observations with this exceptional instrument, we are

called upon to survey all aspects of the Observatory's work and to pre-

pare a program utilizing in the most effective possible manner the

entire instrumental equipment at our disposal. The temptation to

embark upon widely scattered investigations, each of great individual

promise, but bearing httle relationship to our general scheme of re-

search, must be resisted. But this measure of restraint must not

involve undue sacrifice of promising ideas or projects suggested by

members of the staff or of unique instrumental possibilities. Again,

we must steer between the dangers of the atrophy that may result

from fixed procedure and endless routine, and the losses inevitable in

an unstable and shifting poHcy. To appreciate the problem, and to

aid in its solution, we must consider the leading features of the work

already accompUshed, evaluate the factors which have determined its

present trend, and discern the larger possibihties of our staff and equip-

ment in the Ught of recent developments in astronomy and physics.

The purpose of the Observatory, as defined at the time of its incep-

tion, was to undertake a general investigation of stellar evolution,

laying special emphasis upon the study of the sun, considered as a

typical star; physical researches on stars and nebulse; and the inter-

pretation of solar and stellar phenomena by laboratory experiments.

It was recognized that the development of new instruments and

methods afforded the most promising means of progress, and well-

equipped machine and optical shops were provided with this end in

view. The determination of stellar positions, parallaxes, and motions,

and the study of other problems relating to the structure of the sidereal

universe, were not regarded as primary objects in the plan, which had

as its central purpose the elucidation of the life-history of a star. While

it was obvious that questions of grouping, distance, and velocity are

in many cases closely related to those of physical development, it was

hoped that the necessary data of this nature would be forthcoming

from other sources, leaving us free to concentrate upon the evolutional

problem.

The progress of research, the enlarged possibilities of our instru-

mental equipment, and the advantages we have enjoyed from close

* Situated on Mount Wilson, California. Address, Pasadena, California.

^ The war services of the Observatorj- have been made the subject of a special report to the

President of the Carnegie Institution.217


association with Professor Kapteyn, have led to a material modification

of our original view. The independent and striking discovery byCampbell and Kapteyn of an important relationship between stellar

speed and spectral type ; the demonstration by Hertzsprung and Rus-

sell of the existence of giant and dwarf stars ; the successful application

of the 60-inch reflector by van Maanen to the measurement of minute

parallaxes of stars and nebulae; the important developments of Shap-

ley's investigation of globular star-clusters; the possibilities of research

resulting from Seares's studies in stellar photometry; and the remark-

able means of attack developed by Adams through the method of

spectroscopic parallaxes, have naturally and inevitably led to a very

considerable extension of our original program. Indeed, the success of

these and other investigations, and the importance of profiting bythem, have resulted in a seeming reduction of emphasis on the morepurely physical aspects of our attack. This is apparent rather than

real, however, as the new advances will actually permit us to carry

this attack well beyond some of its original objectives. Especially

is this true at the present time, when the recent commissioning of the

Hooker telescope and the forthcoming extension of our laboratory

facilities are affording better means of utilizing such enlarged oppor-

tunities.

The investigations in solar physics, which formerly held the chief

place in our research program, have also developed along unexpected

lines. We did not foresee at the outset that solar magnetic phenomenawould one day become a subject of our inquiry, demanding special

instrumental facilities and throwing light on the complex question of

the nature of sun-spots and other solar problems of long standing. It is

obvious that these researches, together with those on the solar rota-

tion and the motions of the solar atmosphere, so admirably developed

by Adams and St. John, must be carried to their logical conclusion,

and utilized, in the fullest possible degree, for the interpretation of

stellar and nebular phenomena.

The discovery of solar magnetism, like many other Mount Wilson

results, was the direct outcome of a long series of instrumental de-

velopments. At their beginning in 1890, the most powerful solar

spectrograph applied to the study of sun-spots was an instrument of

42.5 inches focal length, attached to a 12-inch equatorial refractor

and giving a solar image 2 inches in diameter. For many visual

purposes such a combination is excellent, but it is poorly adapted for

photography. A much larger solar image and a spectrograph of muchgreater linear dispersion are essential. In fact, the spectrograph must

be made the prime element in the combination, and the telescope so

designed as to serve as a necessary auxiliary. Thus, through the suc-

cessive steps embodied in the horizontal Snow telescope, with its 18-foot

spectrograph, and the 60-foot vertical tower telescope, with its 30-foot

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY. 219

spectrograph, we were led to the construction of the 150-foot tower-

telescope, giving a 16.5-inch solar image, held at a fixed position within

a laboratory, beneath which a vertical spectrograph of 75 feet focal

length, of massive construction and extending deep into the earth,

enjoys the stabihty and constancy of temperature required for the

most exacting work. The great gain in linear dispersion thus afforded

was essential for the detection and measurement of the minute line-

displacements which reveal the general magnetic field of the sun.

For the moment, perhaps, the phenomena of solar magnetism, in-

tense and fluctuating in the electric vortices of sun-spots, weaker but

more constant for the sun as a whole, may throw no special light on

stellar problems. But in the long run every advance in our knowl-

edge of the sun is likely to find application in the study of other stars.

The principle of initiating many stellar researches from suggestions

afforded by solar investigations, and of preparing an observing pro-

gram which intimately unites both of these classes of work with

laboratory studies, is undoubtedly sound, and should continue to formthe basis of our procedure. It is well illustrated by the development

of the method of spectroscopic parallaxes, in which the absolute

magnitude, and hence the distance of a star, is accurately determined

from estimates of the relative intensities of certain lines in stellar

spectra. Our attention was first directed toward lines of this char-

acter in 1906, when we inferred that the weakening of some fines in the

spectra of sun-spots and the strengthening of others was the result of

reduced temperature of the spot vapors. This hypothesis was tested

by laboratory experiments and found to be verified. Subsequently,

Adams, who had thus become familiar with these lines and their

variability, naturally studied them extensively, with the assistance of

Kohlschiitter, in the spectra of other stars. In this way the dependence

of their relative intensities on the absolute magnitude was dis-

covered, thus yielding the powerful method of spectroscopic parallaxes.

This method, giving the absolute magnitude as well as the distance of

every star (excepting those of the earliest type) whose spectrum is

photographed, is no less important from the evolutional than fromthe structural point of view.

Another direct outgrowth of our work on sun-spot spectra is a study

of the spectra of red stars, where the chemistry of these coolest regions

of the sun is partially duplicated. The combination of titanium andoxygen and the significant changes of line intensity already observed

in both instances, and also in the electric furnace at reduced tempera-

tures, are indications of what may be expected to result from anattack on the spectra of the red stars with more powerful instru-

mental means.

Here we may recall the steps already taken to render such an attack

possible. Two requirements are to be met: We must have sufficiently


bright stellar images, together with the means of photographing their

spectra under high dispersion. Experiments made by Adams with

the 60-inch reflector, which was designed with this object in view, gave

excellent large-scale spectra of some of the brightest stars. Theground was thus prepared for further work, with higher dispersion,

which will be done with the 100-inch telescope as soon as the powerful

spectrograph required for this purpose can be completed and mountedin its constant-temperature chamber on the massive concrete pier

south of the polar axis.

Other elements in the design of the Hooker telescope have the samegeneral object in view—that of developing and applying in astronom-

ical practice the effective research methods suggested by recent ad-

vances in physics. Although most of our major instruments are nowcompleted and in use, this policy must remain as a dominant factor in

our plan of research. Fresh possibilities of progress are constantly

arising, and these must be utilized as rapidly as circumstances permit.

Examples have been mentioned in the solar and stellar fields, but those

of the laboratory itself must not be overlooked.

The policy of providing for the interpretation of celestial phenomenaby laboratory experiments was an important element in the initial

organization of the Mount Wilson Observatory. Although a wide

departure from the customary practice of most large observatories,

it was by no means without precedent, and it certainly has been justi-

fied by results. Indeed, the development of many of our chief solar

investigations would have been impossible without the aid of special

laboratory studies, going hand in hand with the astronomical observa-

tions. So indispensable are such researches, and so great is the promise

of their extension, that the time has come to advance them from a

minor or accessory feature of the Observatory establishment to full

equaUty with the major factors in its work.

The first step toward this end has just been taken by the purchase

from the General Electric Company of a 500-kilowatt motor-generator

set, soon to be installed in our Pasadena laboratory. The heavycurrent (D. C, 220 volts, 4,000 amperes) generated by this machine

will be used in the first instance to actuate an extremely powerful

electromagnet, designed by Anderson for the extension of our researches

on the Zeeman effect and for other related investigations. Within the

large and uniform field of this magnet, which will be built in the form of

a solenoid, a special electric furnace, designed for this purpose by King,

will be used for the study of the inverse Zeeman effect at various angles

with the Unes of force—a piece of work urgently needed to interpret

certain remarkable anomalies in the magnetic phenomena of sun-spots.

Furthermore, with this new and powerful equipment it will be possible

to study the combined effect of magnetic and electric fields on radia-

tion, to extend previous investigations on the spectrum of the "tube-


arc" and other special light-sources, and to complete work already

well advanced on the "pole-effect" and its probable origin in the

electric field. Thus the researches of King, St. John, Anderson, and

Babcock can be developed on a scale commensurate wdth their import-

ance. The extension of our laboratory facilities \\dth this object in

view is the next considerable task of our construction division.

Within the restricted limits of this report, it will not be feasible to

enter into all the details of our future scheme of research, which has

been prepared with the cooperation of the members of the Observatory

staff. But we may indicate the broad lines of some of the major

operations plainly indicated as both logical and necessary. In doing

so, we of course have especially in mind the new possibilities afforded

by the 100-inch Hooker telescope.

This powerful instrument, whose construction, after many unavoid-

able delays, was still further impeded by the war, is now systemati-

cally at work. In another section of this report some of the tests to

which it has recently been subjected are described. So far as they

have gone, they indicate that the full measure of gain over the 60-inch

telescope, called for by the nearly threefold increase in light-gathering

power of the larger mirror, has been attained in practice. How exact-

ing are the conditions—optical, mechanical, and atmospheric—which

must be met to permit such a gain can be appreciated only by those whohave made a close comparative study of the performance of large

telescopes. Perrine long since pointed out the serious enlargem^ent of

the stellar image inseparably connected with increased focal length.

This, of course, is due to atmospheric disturbances, which are such as

to render considerations based on the size of the true diffraction image

of little meaning. In place of the minute spurious disk called for bytheory, we must substitute the "tremor-disk" (to employ Newall's

useful expression), which is of a very different order of magnitude.

Thus, there was ample room for apprehension that with an aperture

of 100 inches, and with the great equivalent focal length of 134 feet

attained at the Cassegrain focus of the Hooker telescope, the images of

stars might be too large, even under good atmospheric conditions, to

permit them to be usefully observed. Experience has shown, however,

that even at this focus the full theoretical gain in hght-gathering power

over the 60-inch reflector is realized in spectrographic work, and that

the demand on the atmosphere is not greater than can be met on MountWilson during a great number of the nights of the year.

This means a gain of a full magnitude in stellar spectroscopic work,

and it happens that this gain comes at a very critical point. For

example, as explained on page 262, the increase in available light per-

mits a general investigation to be undertaken of the long-period vari-

able (Md) stars, which are beyond the reach of the 60-inch with practi-

cable exposure times. These red stars, in addition to their peculiarities


as variables, exhibit the chemical characteristics of reduced tempera-

tures, made familiar by our investigations of the vapors in sun-spots.

While stars of this class must be studied with moderate dispersion

because of their faintness, it is fortunate that we have a few examples

of red stars bright enough, with the 100-inch, to permit their spectra

to be critically investigated with high dispersion. For this purpose

the gain of a magnitude, especially if realized at the coude focus

(equivalent focal length 250 feet), is absolutely essential. Thus, oneobvious application of the Hooker telescope will be in an investiga-

tion of the red stars of various classes, both with reference to their

place in the galactic system and their physical development, inter-

preted in the light of a comparative study of sun-spot and laboratory

spectra. The proposed high dispersion work on the brightest red

stars, and on other stars of the first and second magnitudes, should aid

in this interpretation, and may possibly reveal minute line displace-

ments indicating progressive changes in pressure or other physical

condition characteristic of the transition from class to class.

We thus begin with a piece of research demanding the full capacity

of the Hooker telescope, and intimately related to other phases of our

stellar, solar, and laboratory work. Let us now consider another

investigation, which can also be attacked to peculiar advantage with

the Hooker telescope, especially in the light of recent important theo-

retical advances.

In his fundamental researches on the dynamics of rotating masses,

Darwin dealt with incompressible matter, which assumes the well-

known pear-shaped figure, and may ultimately separate into twobodies. Roche, on the other hand, discussed the evolution of a highly

compressible mass, which finally acquires a lens-shaped form and ejects

matter at its periphery. Both of these are extreme cases, hardly

realized in practice. Jeans has recently dealt with intermediate cases,

such as are actually encountered in stars and nebulae. He finds that

when the density is less than about one-quarter that of water a lens-

shaped figure will be produced with sharp edges, as depicted by Roche.

Matter thrown off at opposite points on the periphery, under the

influence of small tidal forces from neighboring masses, may take the

form of two symmetrical filaments, though it is not yet entirely clear

how these may attain the characteristic configuration of spiral nebulae.

Jeans goes on to discuss the evolution of the arms, which will break upinto nuclei (of the order of mass of the sun) if they are sufficiently

massive, but will diffuse away if their gravitational attraction is small.

The mass of our solar system is apparently not great enough, according

to Jeans, to account for its formation in this way.These investigations, which lead to conclusions very different from

those derived by Chamberlin and Moulton from the planetesimal

hypothesis, afford with the latter hypothesis valuable suggestions for a


critical study of spiral nebulae, and also of binary systems. It is plain

that the attack on the spirals should involve a study of the spectra andmotions of the matter comprising the arms, as well as a determination

of their parallax by any feasible means. The preliminary results of

van Maanen indicate motion outward along the arms, in harmonywith Jeans's views. But in order to secure a definitive answer to this

critical question, a photographic campaign, including spiral nebulae of

various types, must be carefully organized with this object clearly in

view. The large scale of the spiral nebulae at the principal focus of the

Hooker telescope, and the experience gained in the measurement of

nebular nuclei for parallax determinations, will be important factors in

this undertaking. The simultaneous spectrographic attack will be

aimed, not merely toward spirals in whose plane we lie, but also toward

those which stand at a sufficient angle to permit both components of

motion to be measured by the two methods. In this connection the

further development of the multiple-slit spectrograph, already applied

at IMount Wilson in a limited way, vdW be essential to rapid progress.

Thus far, in our consideration of the Observatory's research program,

we have dealt almost exclusively with physical problems bearing onthe evolution of stars and nebulae. In the case of the spirals, however,

as in that of the red stars, it is evident that the part these objects play

in the system of the universe must be answered if possible. Fortun-

ately, the photographs obtained for the physical researches will also

contribute toward this end, but they must be supplemented by others.

This is especially necessary in attempting to answer the great out-

standing question whether the spiral nebulae are in reality ''island

universes" independent of one another and of our own sidereal system

or, on the contrary, lesser systems tributary to the Galaxy, whichdominates a single universe. Here a great need is for radial veloci-

ties, obtained with the most efficient spectrographs procurable, andfor parallaxes derived, or at least attempted, by one or more of several

methods. The 60-inch is quite as efficient as the Hooker telescope for

measuring the radial velocities of the larger spirals, but for the smaller

objects the latter instrument will be required.

In dealing with problems of structure and motion in the galactic

system, the Hooker telescope offers some capital advantages. Hither-

to all studies of stellar radial velocities have necessarily been confined

to the brighter stars, in the vast majority of cases to those visible to

the naked eye. These, it is true, include some very distant giant

stars, but most of the stars whose radial velocities are known belong to

a very limited group, perhaps constituting a distinct cluster of whichthe sun is a member, but in any event of insignificant proportions

when contrasted with the Galaxy. Current spectrographic work with

the 60-inch telescope, which will be continued as at present, includes

stars of the eighth magnitude and some that are even fainter. But


while the 60-mch has enabled Adams to measure the distance of many-

remote stars by his new and powerful spectroscopic method, and to

double the known extent (so far as spectroscopic evidence is con-

cerned) of Kapteyn's star-streams, a much greater advance into space

is necessary if we are to learn what community of motion obtains

among the stars comprising the galactic system. Recent experiments

encourage the hope that without inadmissible sacrifice of precision of

measurement, the Hooker telescope will enable us to determine the

radial velocities of stars of the eleventh magnitude, which are doubtless

truly representative of the Galaxy.

In preparing an observational program to include such faint objects,

the process of selection employed must be very carefully considered,

in the hope of securing a maximum return within a reasonable period of

time. So far as possible, the stars in Kapteyn's Selected Areas should

evidently be given preference, because of the vast amount of workcompleted or projected for the purpose of determining their positions,

proper-motions, and visual and photographic magnitudes. Con-

siderations such as spectral type, the known directions of star-stream-

ing, and the position of the chosen regions with reference to the plane

of the Galaxy, must also be given adequate weight, though the final

list should not rest too exclusively upon any hypothesis, but should

contain enough widely distributed material to permit of independent

statistical discussion. It is of fundamental importance that the

method of spectroscopic parallaxes will permit dwarf stars to be distin-

guished from giant stars rendered faint by their much greater distance.

The stellar spectrograms obtained in this campaign will afford rich

material for the study of many questions other than stellar distribution

and star-streaming, such as the relationship between mass and speed,

the nature of giant and dwarf stars, and other capital problems. Theresults obtained within a few years will serve as the basis for a fresh

orientation, and indicate in what way the initial program of observa-

tions can be most advantageously revised.

Shapley's recent studies of globular clusters have indicated the signif-

icance of these objects in any general attack on evolutional or struc-

tural problems. The possibility of determining their parallax, by a

number of independent methods, is of prime importance, both in its

bearing on the structure of the universe and because it permits a host

of apparent magnitudes to be at once transformed into absolute

magnitudes. In the further development of this work, the Hookertelescope should be chiefly employed, partly because of the gain in

light resulting from its large aperture, and also because of the increased

scale of crowded clusters at the 134-foot focus, where the spectra of

stars, commingled in the 60-inch, can be separately photographed.

With a spectrograph of small dispersion it has already been foundpossible to photograph the spectra of fourteenth-magnitude stars in


the center of such clusters in less than an hour. Moreover, the style

of mountmg and design of dome adopted for the Hooker telescope

permit it to work much farther south than the 60-inch, and thus to

deal with the rich collection of globular clusters south of the equator.

Among the numerous cluster problems calling for early attack with

the Hooker telescope are the detection of the faintest possible stars

and the measurement of their magnitudes and colors ; the determination

of spectral types, and of the radial velocities of individual stars and of

clusters as a whole; a search for spectroscopic e\'idence of possible

axial rotation of globular clusters; and the development and applica-

tion of all available means of determining the distances of clusters,

particularly the method of spectroscopic parallaxes.

The possibility of dealing with many problems relating to the distri-

bution and evolution of the faintest stars depends upon the establish-

ment of photographic and photovisual magnitude scales. Below the

twelfth magnitude the only existing scale of standard visual or photo-

visual magnitudes is the Mount Wilson sequence, already carried bySeares to magnitude 17.5 with the 60-inch telescope. The extension

of this scale to still higher magnitudes, and its application to the study

of the faintest stars within its range, is an important task for the

Hooker telescope. There is good reason to believe that this instrument

will bring into \'iew hundreds of millions of stars beyond the reach of the

60-inch. The giants among these Mill form for us the outer boundaryof the galactic system, while the dwarfs will be of almost equal interest

from the evolutional standpoint. Such questions as the condensation

of the faintest stars toward the galactic plane, the color of the mostdistant stars, and the final settlement of the long inquiry regarding the

possible absorption of light in space, are among those to be dealt

with in the photometric field.

It is clear that such activities as those already enumerated will

heavily tax the capacity of the Hooker telescope. But certain special

studies of exceptional promise must also be undertaken if possible.

One of these, which will be greatly facilitated by the large aperture, is

the determination of the spectral-energy curves of stars of various

classes, for the purpose of measuring their surface temperatures. This

is obviously of great importance in a general study of stellar evolution.

Other special investigations dealing with variable and temporarystars, the peculiarities of variable nebulae, and the spectra of the com-ponents of close double stars wdll be discussed in future reports.

In all of this work, the desirability of cooperating -vsath other insti-

tutions and of limiting our observations, so far as may be practicable,

to those which can be undertaken to exceptional advantage by ourstaff and equipment, must be constantlj^ borne in mind. Several

important cooperative arrangements have already been made with

other observatories, and others are now in prospect.


STAFF.

The Director, after attending international scientific conferences

at the Royal Society in October and the Paris Academy of Sciences in

November, returned to the United States in December, and continued

his work as Chairman of the National Research Council. On April

30, 1919, he resigned the chairmanship of the Council and returned to

Pasadena, where he has since devoted all of his time to the work of the

Observatory. Dr. Walter S. Adams, Assistant Director, who con-

tinued in general charge of the Observatory during the Director's

absence, carried forward his investigations in stellar spectroscopy until

June 1919, when he went to Europe as a member of the Americandelegation to the Brussels meeting of the International ResearchCouncil. Professor F. H. Scares, superintendent of the ComputingDivision and editor of the Observatory publications, continued his

researches in stellar photometry and his investigations of the general

magnetic field of the sun until June 1919, when he went abroad with

the Assistant Director as a member of the American delegation to

Brussels. Dr. Arthur S. King, superintendent of the Physical Labora-

tory, devoted about half his time prior to the armistice to experiments

on projectiles and tests of optical glass. He has since continued his

spectroscopic investigations with the electric furnace, including studies

of the Zeeman effect in a small furnace placed between the poles of a

magnet. Dr. C. E. St. John continued his spectrographic investiga-

tions on the solar rotation, the determination of solar wave-lengths, andthe displacements of the lines in the spectrum of Venus until June,

when he went with Dr. Adams and Professor Scares to the Brussels

meeting of the International Research Council. Dr. J. A. Andersondevoted all of his time to experimental researches for the Navy up to

the time of the armistice; since then he has resumed his investigations

on the effect of an electric field on radiation, designed a powerful

electro-magnet for the laboratory, and continued his tests of the ruling-

machine with Mr. Jacomini. Professor Ritchey has given most of

his time to optical work for the Ordnance Department of the Army.Mr. Harold D. Babcock, after the conclusion of his experimental workfor the Navy with Dr. Anderson and Professor Ryan, has continued

his investigations on standard wave-lengths and undertaken a study of

the polarization of the night sky at the request of Lord Rayleigh. Mr.Ferdinand Ellerman has continued his solar observations and his workas Observatory photographer. Mr. Francis G. Pease, after returning

from his duties in Washington with the National Research Council, has

continued his work of instrument design and his photographic observa-

tions of nebulae and star-clusters. He has also given much time to the

adjustment and tests of the 100-inch Hooker telescope. Dr. HarlowShapley has continued his investigations of star-clusters and variable

stars and his researches on various sidereal problems. Dr. Adriaan


van Maanen has carried forward his determinations of stellar paral-

laxes and proper-motions, and has continued the measurement of

spectra to fix the position of the sun's magnetic axis. Professor Alfred

Joy has continued his stellar spectroscopic investigations. Dr. Paul

Merrill, who joined the staff of the Observatory in January, has

divided his time between laboratory investigations and stellar spec-

troscopy. Dr. Gustaf Stromberg has given special attention to

investigations on the relation of mean stellar parallaxes to meanproper-motion and on systematic corrections to the absolute magni-tudes of stars as determined spectroscopically. Dr. R. F. Sanford has

continued his investigations in stellar spectroscopy and on the spectra

of nebulae and star-clusters. Mr. Frederick Brackett joined the staff

on June 1 as assistant in the solar observations. Messrs. Hugo Benioff

,

Clarence Henshaw, and Sinclair Smith have served as assistants dur-

ing a part of the year.

Professor J. C. Kapteyn, Research Associate of the Carnegie Institu-

tion, has continued in Groningen his investigations in cooperation

with the Observatory. Professor A. A. Michelson, recently appointed

Research Associate of the Carnegie Institution, is preparing apparatusfor use on Mount Wilson in measuring the diameter of stars by inter-

ference methods.

The members of the Computing Division have assisted in the workof the various departments as follows: Miss Ware and Miss Miller

have been engaged in solar and laboratory investigations under the

direction of Mr. St. John, Miss Ware devoting her time mainly to therotation of the sun. Miss Burwell has divided her time between the

classification of stellar spectra and the spectroscopic determination of

stellar parallaxes, together with the measurement and reduction of

stellar spectrograms for radial velocity. Miss Brayton and MissShumway have been engaged wholly with determinations of radial

velocity. Miss Margherita Burns has given her entire time to the

measurement and reduction of spectra secured in the physical labora-

tory for the determination of standards of wave-length. Miss Davis,

and later Miss Ritchie, have been occupied with various investigations

relating to star-clusters. Miss Joyner and Miss Richmond havedevoted most of their time to stellar photometry. Miss Joyner hasalso assisted in the hbrary, and Miss Richmond has made numerousmiscellaneous measures and reductions of stellar positions. MissWolfe has been engaged in computations of parallax and proper-

motion and in reductions connected with the general magnetic field

of the sun. She has also made photographic reproductions of manyof the solar negatives. Miss Connor has continued as librarian, andhas assisted with the editorial work.

Miss Davis resigned in September 1918, and Miss Burns in July1919. Miss Mary Ritchie was appointed in April 1919.


Father Luis Rodes spent the greater part of the year as a volunteerassistant at the Observatory, returning to Spain in July. From Octo-ber 1 to May 1 he assisted in the photographic work with the 60-foot

tower telescope. Mr. Toshio Takamine, of the University of Tokyo,spent the period September 1918 to April 1919 as volunteer assistant

in the Physical Laboratory, where he conducted an investigation onthe effect of an electric field on metallic spectra. Dr. John C. Duncan,director of the Whitin Observatory, Wellesley College, came to MountWilson for stellar spectrographic work and the photography of nebulae

during the summer of 1919. Mrs. Harlow Shapley, volunteer assist-

ant, has continued to collaborate with Dr. Shapley in his stellar

investigations. Miss Edna Carter, associate professor of physics at

Vassar College, returned for the summer of 1919 as volunteer assistant

in the Physical Laboratory, where she has continued her studies of

metaUic spectra produced by the cathode discharge.

Mr. L. B. Aldrich had charge of the work of the Smithsonian Astro-

physical Observatory on Mount Wilson during the summer of 1919.

INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS.

SOLAR RESEARCH.

The 30-foot vertical spectrograph, designed for use in conjunctionwith the remodeled Snow telescope, has been completed and employedfor certain investigations mentioned in the present report. A newform of measuring machine, involving the principle of the heliometerand especially applicable to differential measurements of photographsof the Zeeman effect in sun-spots, has been constructed after designs

by Mr. Anderson.

SOLAR PHOTOGRAPHY.

During the year ending August 31, 1919, the following solar photo-graphs were taken with the 60-foot tower telescope by Messrs. Eller-

man, Nicholson, Rodes, Benioff, Henshaw, Brackett, and Baker:

Photoholioejams of 6.5 image, 340 on 32.5 days.Spectroheliograms with 5-foot spectroheliograph {Ha, entire 6.5-inch disk), 191 on 191 days.Spectroheliograms with 13-foot spectroheHograph (K and Ha, 2-inch disk and prominences;

Ha, portions of 6.5-inch disk, monochromatic Hght from continuous spectrum), 1,177.

Photographs of spectra taken with the 75-foot spectrograph of the

150-foot tower include 102 exposures for solar rotation (Mr. St. John),

53 exposures for motion in sun-spots (Mr. St. John), and 40 for theinvestigation of magnetic fields in sun-spots and at other points on thedisk (Mr. Ellerman, Mr. Nicholson, and Mr. Brackett). Some of

these photographs, made with the assistance of Mr. Merrill on plates

sensitized with dicyanin, kindly furnished us by the Bureau of Chemis-try of the Department of Agriculture, extend our records of sun-spotspectra into the infra-red as far as X7900.


Photographs of spectra taken with the new vertical spectrograph

of the Snow telescope include

:

Venus 54Sun 17Sky 31Sun with interferometer 25

SUN-SPOT ACTIVITY.

The calendar year 1918 showed a marked decline in sun-spot activity,

314 groups having been observed as against 450 during 1917. Therewere no spotless days during the year, although about the middle of

June there were several days on which only two groups were recorded.

In contrast with this quiescent period, the first two days of June, judgedby the number of individual groups, were the most active of the year.

Sixteen spot-groups were recorded on each of these days. The fol-

lowing table gives the average number of groups observed per dayduring each month:

Month.


without some indication of the characteristics of bipolar groups. Theseare usually exhibited in the form of flocculi following the spot or, in

more exceptional cases, preceding it. It seems quite clear that the

bipolar spot is to be regarded as the dominant type, of which the uni-

polar type may be considered a variant.

The system of recording described in the above paper has been useddaily throughout the year by Messrs. Ellerman, Nicholson, andBrackett. The 307 drawings thus obtained on as many days give

the approximate positions, polarities, and field-strengths of all spots

large enough to be studied magnetically.

The accompanying table, prepared by Mr. Nicholson, indicates the

polarities of sun-spots observed in the northern and southern hemi-spheres of the sun during the calendar year 1918:

Hemisphere.


THE NATURE OF SUN-SPOTS.

In an illustrated address delivered before the Royal Society onNovember 7, 1918, the Director gave a comprehensive sketch of his

researches on the nature of sun-spots. This address, which will bepublished in full in the Philosophical Transactions, comprised (1) anhistorical introduction, briefly summarizing the views on sun-spots of

Galileo, Derham, Alexander Wilson, Sir William Herschel, Sir JohnHerschel, Faye, Secchi, Young, Halm, and Emden, with special

reference to the vortex theory, first mentioned as a possibility byWilson and outlined, after the model of terrestrial cyclones, by Sir

John Herschel; (2) a description of the development of the instruments

and methods used in the present work, from the Kenwood spectro-

heliograph, employed also in 1891 as a spectrograph for the photographyof sun-spot spectra, to the Rumford spectroheliograph of the 40-inch

Yerkes refractor, the 5-foot spectroheliograph and 18-foot spectrograph

of the Snow telescope, the 13-foot spectroheliograph and 30-foot

spectrograph of the 60-foot tower telescope, and the 75-foot spec-

trograph of the 150-foot tower telescope; (3) the successive results

obtained in photography of the solar atmosphere with the spectro-

heliograph, including the prominences at the limb, the calcium flocculi

on the disk at various levels, and the bright and dark hydrogen flocculi,

indicating the effects of absorption at still higher levels and showingprominences as dark objects projected against the disk; (4) the dis-

covery, on photographs made with the Ha line, of vortex phenomenacentering in sun-spots, and the chief characteristics of these vortices;

(5) the formulation of the hypothesis that a sun-spot is an electric

vortex, the detection of the Zeeman effect due to the resulting magneticfield, and the observation of the field-strength, inclination of the lines

of force, and other magnetic phenomena; (6) the discovery of bipolar

spots, the development and application of a scheme of classifying

sun-spots in accordance with their magnetic polarities, and the recog-

nition of the leading characteristics of the law of solar storms; (7) the

observation of strengthened, weakened, and band lines in the spectra

of sun-spots, and the proof they afford of reduced temperature; (8) the

work of Evershed and St. John on the nature of the spot vortex; (9)

the results of vortex and other experiments bearing on the nature of

sun-spots and the associated flocculi; (10) the negative results of pre-

liminary attempts to detect electric fields in sun-spots; and (11) the

discovery of the general magnetic field of the sun and its bearing onthe nature of sun-spots.

PHOTOGRAPHS OF THE SUN WITH ULTRA-VIOLET LIGHT.

In photographing the spectra of sun-spots, it is necessary to give

longer and longer exposures to the umbra in passing from the red to

the violet. A similar increase of general absorption with decreasing


wave-length is shown by the bolometric work of Abbot and by the

observations of Schwarzschild and Vilhger, who photographed a small

image of the sun through a silver film transmitting light of X3200. It

occurred to the Director that this method, if applied on a sufficiently

large scale, might aid in accomplishing two objects: (1) the better

detection of the ''faint markings" or minute spots found by Maunderat Greenwich in very high solar latitudes and also of possible faint

spots in bipolar groups that appear unipolar in ordinary photographs;

and (2) the enhancement of the contrast in the photospheric structure to

a degree sufficient to permit better study of the granulation. In order

to test the method for these purposes, small plane speculum metalmirrors were figured in our optical shop and mounted on the coelostat

and in front of the second mirror of the Snow telescope. A concave

speculum metal mirror of 60 feet focal length was also prepared andmounted in front of the large concave mirror. The light from the

silvered surfaces of the large mirrors was completely cut off, and the

solar image, 6.5 inches in diameter, was thus formed by the light fromthe speculum metal mirrors, which have a fairly high coefficient of

reflection in the ultra-violet. A thin piece of plane glass, found to

transmit ultra-violet light of X3200, was silvered on one face andmounted in front of the photographic plate, at a distance of about 20inches.

Photographs of the photosphere and spots made with this apparatus

do not as yet show the increased contrast expected, but the methodseems of sufficient promise to warrant further development.

PECULIARITIES OF THE CENTRAL LINES OF ZEEMAN TRIPLETSIN SUN-SPOT SPECTRA.

The fact has been mentioned in previous reports that the central or

p-component of many sun-spot triplets does not behave as theory andlaboratory experience would lead one to expect. When the spectrumof a large spot not too far from the center of the disk is photographedwith the Nicol and compound quarter-wave plate, the outer or n-com-ponents of the Zeeman triplets are alternately cut off on successive

strips of the quarter-wave plate, while the p-component is transmitted

with intensity which varies across the spot. If, as theory and labora-

tory experience would indicate, the p-component were plane polarized,

it should show no relative displacements on adjoining strips. As amatter of fact, however, it does show such displacements, opposite in

sign to that of the n-components. That is, on a strip where the red

n-component is weakened and completely cut off, the p-component is

slightly displaced toward the red.

The degree of this displacement and its relationship to the separation

of the n-components (which indicates the strength of the field at this

level in the sun-spot) have been measured by the Director and Mr.


Bracket! in a number of the best spot triplets. The results indicate

that while there may be very appreciable differences of behavior in

different triplets, the shift of the p-component is in general smallest

near the center of the spot, and approaches a maximum near the outer

edge of the penumbra, where the field is very weak. Thus, both in

sign and magnitude of displacement, the p- and n-components behavein opposite ways. The investigation is being followed up, both on the

solar and laboratory sides.

In this connection we may recall the existence of other anomalies

in the Zeeman effect, as observed in the sun-spot spectrum. A notable

instance is that of the vanadium line X6 11 1.872, which Mr. Babcock's

photographs show to be a quadruplet in the spectrum of a spark be-

tween the poles of a magnet, with the p- and n-components exactly

superposed. In sun-spots this line appears to have a more complexstructure, but the separation of the components is not sufficiently com-plete to permit their character to be determined with certainty. Otherinteresting cases, soon to be described in detail, might also be mentionedas valuable guides to further laboratory research. When viewed in

contrast with the hne-for-line agreement, in the vast majority of

instances, of the Zeeman effect in sun-spots and in the laboratory,

these few exceptions assume special interest and will warrant careful

study by physicists.

INCLINATION OF THE SUN'S MAGNETIC AXIS.

The first series of observations for the location of the sun's magnetic

axis, made on 74 days between June 8 and September 25, 1914, havenow been completely reduced for the determination of mean values of

the magnetic elements. The results are based on the assumption

that the sun is a uniformly magnetized sphere. The measures, as in

previous years, have been made by Mr. van Maanen. The reductions

by Miss Wolfe, carried out under the direction of Mr. Scares, havegiven the following results

:

i = 6.0±0?4 P = 3L52±0.28days.f = 1914, June 25.38±0.42 days, G. M. T.

fc = 0.99 (a constant inversely proportional to the polar field-strength).

The probable error of the period of revolution of the magnetic axis

about the sun's axis of rotation is naturally large because of the short

interval covered by the observations. A comparison of these results

with a short series of observations in September 1916 indicates, how-ever, that the period itself is near the true value. The complete re-

duction of the 1916 series, which is now in progress, should reduce the

uncertainty in the period well below a tenth of a day and make it

possible to carry the longitude of the pole forward, without ambiguity

as to the number of revolutions, to the coming sun-spot minimum,when further observations can be undertaken without risk of inter-

ference from the magnetic fields of the spots.


When the measures are discussed by zones for the purpose of de-

tecting deviations from the uniform field presupposed in deriving the

above elements, it is found that the inclination of the magnetic axis is

sensibly constant between latitudes 45° N. and 45° S. and equal to

about 4°. The polar field-strength, however, seems to change rapidly

with the latitude, the result from the equatorial zone being nearly

twice that found for the zones 10° to 45°.

SOLAR ROTATION.

The differences between the rotation values for the earlier and later

portions of the 20-year period now covered by spectrographic observa-

tions remain an outstanding feature of the problem. An extended

series of observations taken under uniform conditions seems still the

most promising mode of attack. Such a series, for which the 150-

foot tower telescope is used, is now in its sixth year at Mount Wilson.

These observations by Dr. St. John show practically the same period

of rotation for each of the six years from 1914 to 1919.

An important modification in method made during the year con-

sists in observing the center of the disk simultaneously with the two

limbs. The positions of the solar lines in spectra of the sun's center

are remarkably constant, but the differences found by comparing the

east and west limbs with the center often differ by 10 or 15 per cent of

the differences at the equator. The observations also show that

high values at one limb are not correlated with high values at the

other, as would be the case if the variations at the limbs were due to

changes in the rotation period of the reversing layer or to conditions

in the terrestrial atmosphere. The observations of the present year

confirm the earlier evidences of local disturbances in the reversing

layer, and indicate further that they are frequent at all latitudes, and

that the motions of the vapors are tangential. Evidence is accumu-

lating which tends to show that the motions in the reversing layer

around spots and pores are similar in character. Simultaneous

observations at the center and limbs provide a valuable means of

checking results and of investigating the hemispheres separately, and

give also as a by-product the limb-efTect at different latitudes. Themeans from 172 observations on a group of 10 hues give, within the

precision of measurement, equal values for the displacements between

limb and center in both hemispheres and at all latitudes. The result

is of importance in the intensive study of the limb-effect to be under-

taken at Mount Wilson.

Further tests at Mount Wilson of the effect of integrated sky-light

in line displacements at the sun's limb show that the integrated Hght

just outside the solar image is not of sufficient intensity to affect the

photographic plate during the exposure time employed for solar-

rotation observations, that it requires marked cloudiness over and


around the sun, conditions never approximated in regular work, to

cause a measurable decrease in the line displacement at the limb, andthat this large proportion of superposed sky-light produces no differen-

tial effect between strong and weak lines.

WAVE-LENGTHS IN SPECTROGRAMS OF VENUS.

Evershed has suggested, as an explanation of his observations, that

the wave-lengths in light reflected by Venus vary with the relative

positions of Venus, the Sun, and the Earth.

Several spectrograms of Venus, with an average exposure of onehour each, have been secured at Mount Wilson by Mr. St. John andMr. Nicholson in the first order of the 18-foot grating spectrograph,

using the iron-arc for comparison. Wave-lengths of 43 lines in the

nighborhood of X4500 in the spectrum of Venus have been comparedwith those of the same lines in the spectrum of the sky and of the center

of the sun. Measures of 18 sky plates and 9 solar plates show no dif-

ference between wave-lengths in the spectra of these two sources.

Twenty-six of the Venus plates have been measured, for which the

angle Venus-Sun-Earth changed from 102° to 32°. The spectra takenwith Venus at an altitude of 30° give approximately the same wave-lengths as the sky spectra, but for lower altitudes the wave-lengths of

Venus are shorter, irrespective of the relative positions of Venus, the

Sun, and the Earth. As it was possible that at low altitudes atmos-pheric dispersion might produce a non-uniform illumination of the slit,

the spectrograph was rotated 180° between exposures. The following

table gives a brief summary of the present results. Since the dispersion

was 3 A per mm., these residuals are near the limit of measurement.

Altitude.


of 3 km. per second. The accompanying observations, made by Mr. St.

John at Mount Wilson with the grating spectrograph, show no change

in the wave-lengths of the atmospheric lines from sunrise to sunset.

Wave-lengths of atmospheric lines of oxygen.

6 a. m.


provided by using the same grating at the 30-foot focus of the spec-

trograph in conjunction with the same interference apparatus as

before. The flatter field of the long-focus lens, combined with the

increased auxiliary dispersion and greater slit-'W'idth required, should

prove of material assistance in such observations.

POLARIZATION OF THE NIGHT SKY.

At the request of Lord Rayleigh (then Professor Strutt) observations

were begun by Mr. Babcock during the past spring with a view to

finding out whether the background of the night sky, which is by nomeans absolutely black, consists of scattered sunlight. Theoretical

considerations as well as laboratory data have shown that if such is the

case, the feeble light which constitutes this background will be polar-

ized in a plane passing through the sun, even though the scattering be

produced by hj^drogen extremely attenuated. A large Savart polari-

scope was loaned to us by Lord Rayleigh for making the observations,

but a smaller instrument, more economical of light and at the sametime more sensitive than the Savart polariscope, was developed in our

laboratory- and used instead. The photographs were taken with every

precaution to eliminate false effects. They extended over a period of

4 or 5 months, and 8 plates were secured under conditions thought to

be satisfactory for the purpose. These photographs indicate that prac-

tically none of the light in the background of the night sky is polarized.

INVESTIGATION OF STARS AND NEBUL/E.

OBSERVING CONDITIONS.

The obser\nng conditions at night on Mount Wilson for the year

ending August 31, 1919, are indicated by the accompanying tables

prepared by Mr. Hoge, night assistant at the 60-inch reflector. Thedata show conditions slightly above the average for the past 7 years.

Observations were carried on during all of 204 nights and a part of

97 nights. On 64 nights no observations were made on account of

the weather. The 60-inch telescope was in use a total of 2,378 hours,

which is 66 per cent of the total hours of darkness. The total exposure

time for the year was 70 per cent of the available observing weather

and 46 per cent of the total hours of darkness. The month of Junegave 100 per cent of observing weather at night. This is the first

time our records show the nights of any calendar month to have beenentirely free from clouds. The telescope was in use during the wholeof each night from May 31 to July 15 inclusive, 46 consecutive nights,

the longest uninterrupted observing period we have recorded.

The past year was the driest since the beginning of our record 15

years ago. The total precipitation was 20.62 inches, which is 13.69

inches below the normal. The total snowfall was 55 inches. A verysevere and remarkable wind-storm occurred on November 24, 1918,


when a maximum velocity of 90 miles per hour was recorded at the

top of the 150-foot tower telescope. The gale lasted for 52 hours,

during which time the average velocity was 50 miles per hour. For

one period of 5 hours an average velocity of 75 miles was maintained.

All of the buildings of the Observatory withstood the gale without

damage, but several large pine trees near the 100-inch dome were up-

rooted. The average wind velocity for the year was 11 miles per hour.

The highest temperature for the year was 100° F., on August 21, the

highest on record; the lowest was 16° F. on December 31. The tables

give statistics for each month, the conditions of seeing (on a scale of

10), and the wind velocity.

Seeing.


N. G. C. 48, 49, 50. Group of 11 small nebulae, 9 elliptical, 2 irregularly round.

N. G. C. 3786 and 3788. Right-handed spirals just touching; 27 additional nebulae

on plate.

N. G. C. 4395-99, 4401. Remarkable spiral nebula, suggesting superposition of twosph'als, or a secondary center.

N. G. C. 4656-7. Right-handed spiral, one arm well defined, other diffuse.

N. G. C. 5278 and 5279. Two small left-handed spirals.

N. G. C. 5278-9. Right-handed spii-al with one arm.

N. G. C. 5868. Small round nebula.

N. G. C. 5869. Small elliptical nebula.

N. G. C. 6823. Cluster.

N. G. C. 6927, 6928, 5930, etc. Field of 7 small spirals.

N. G. C. 7626, etc. Field of many small stellar and spiral nebulae.

I. C. 917-938. Field of many small nebulae.

Slight changes have been observed in N. G. C. 1555, but none that

is certain in N. G. C. 2245.

Mr. Sanford has made 6 photographs of Nova Aquilse No. 3, with

exposure times ranging from 75 to 390 minutes. No evidence of nebu-

losity about the star had been found up to June 1919, when the last

photograph was made. During 1918 the exposures were necessarily-

limited in length, owing to the brightness of the star.

From a series of 18 photographs of the Andromeda Nebula, made on

Seed 30 plates with exposure times averaging about 30 minutes each,

Mr. Sanford has discovered 4 additional Novae, Nos. 10, 11, 12, and

13; a fifth Nova has been found by Mr. Duncan.Mr. Duncan has made 14 photographs of nebulae with the 60-inch

reflector, including exposures of 2 hours or more upon the objects

N. G. C. 6703, Messier 8, Messier 17, and Messier 31.

STELLAR PARALLAXES AND PROPER MOTIONS.

During the period September to June, Mr. van Maanen made 347

negatives with 510 exposures at the 80-foot focus of the 60-inch re-

flector; 267 of these, including 428 exposures, were made for parallax

measures, and 80, with 82 exposures, were made for the determination

of proper motions. During the absence of Mr. van Maanen in July

and August, Mr. Benioff made 62 negatives, 40 for parallax and 22

for proper motion, with a total of 92 exposures.

Mr. van Maanen has completed the measures and reductions for

20 parallax fields, thus giving a total of 100 fields finished to date.

The parallaxes of 3 additional planetary nebulae were also deter-

mined, viz, N. G. C. 6804, 6905, and 7008. The relative values

were found to be +0T020, +0':013, and +0''014, respectively. If

these results are combined with those for N. G. C. 2392, 6720, and

7662, given in the last report, we are led to the following conclusions

regarding these remarkable objects:

The mean absolute magnitude of the central stars is +9.1. This is

noteworthy because the spectra of these objects consist in many cases

chiefly of bright lines, whereas, in the case of stars, bright-line spectra


are chiefly associated with high luminosities. On the other hand,

assuming the relationship between luminosity and radial velocity

found for the stars of advanced spectral type to apply also to plan-

etary nebulae, the high radial velocities observed for these objects,

averaging about 29 km. per second, are in harmony with their low

intrinsic brightness. The mean diameter of the 6 planetary nebulae

for which parallaxes are now known is 4,000 astronomical units or

0.06 light year.

For the F-type star of magnitude 12.34 and annual proper motion

3'/01, found by Mr. van Maanen in 1917, a relative parallax of +0''244

has been derived, corresponding to an absolute magnitude of +14.3photovisual, or + 14.8 photographic. It appears, therefore, to be byfar the faintest F-type star known at present. If its surface bright-

ness be assumed to correspond with the average for F-type stars in

general, the observed parallax gives a diameter no greater than that of

the earth.

Two fields have been examined by Mr. van Maanen for proper

motion

:

(1) A region in the Pleiades, for which a plate taken in 1913 at the

80-foot focus of the 60-inch telescope was compared with two exposures

made in 1918. 85 stars were measured, the faintest being of photo-

graphic magnitude 15.7. In order to secure the best results, the quad-

ratic terms in x and y were not neglected in the reductions. Theproper motions resulting from two pairs of plates may be estimated to

have a probable error in each coordinate of 0V018 divided by the num-ber of years in the interval. Of the 85 stars measured, only 5 show

proper motions equal to that of the Pleiades ; the faintest of these is of

photographic magnitude 13.7. Adopting 0'/015 as the parallax of the

group, the absolute magnitude of this star is +9.6, as contrasted with

— 0.9 for the brightest star of the Pleiades.

(2) A region in the Orion Nebula. Mr. van Maanen's measures

of two pairs of plates taken with the 40-inch Yerkes refractor were

improved by using the quadratic terms in x and y, a magnitude cor-

rection, and a correction from relative to absolute motion. The results

show that the refractor plates, as well as those made with the reflector,

require the use of quadratic terms.

Assuming that the numerous variable stars in this region belong

to the Orion Nebula and move with it, the resulting proper motion

of the nebula is 0''006 in position angle 110°. The background stars

seem to show a decided preferential motion in the direction of Kap-teyn's first stream. Much more material for different parts of the

sky will of course be necessary before any conclusions can be drawnregarding the participation of stars as faint as the fourteenth and

fifteenth magnitudes in the stream-motion.


The absolute magnitudes and masses were determined for 37 visual

binaries, for which both the orbits and the parallaxes are kno^vn with at

least fair accuracy. The results show clearly a relationship between

mass and absolute magnitude.

STELLAR PHOTOMETRY.

The observational part of the investigations in stellar photometry

by Mr. Seares and Mr. Shapley includes 465 photographs, all madewith the 60-inch reflector and distributed as follows: Selected Areas,

113; clusters, 175; color photographs of stars, 125; miscellaneous, 52.

Photographic Magnitudes for the Selected Areas.

The observational program was finished by Mr. Seares early in the

year. Final magnitudes based on a normal scale and referred to the

international zero-point are now available for Areas 1 to 91. Therelative magnitudes for Areas 92 and 139 are complete. With the

exception of 6 plates, the intercomparison photographs for the latter

group of areas have been completely measured and reduced. Thecorrection of the relative magnitudes for zero-point can therefore be

undertaken almost immediately. The addition of the reduction con-

stants will complete the photometric part of the program for the photo-

graphic magnitudes. Coordinates sufficient for purposes of identifi-

cation of the stars are already in process of determination. Results

for Areas 1 to 22 are available at present.

Miss Joyner and Miss Richmond have given the greater part of their

time to the measures and reductions connected with this investigation.

Photovisual Magnitudes for the Selected Areas.

This investigation, as outlined in previous reports, has been con-

tinued by Mr. Seares and Mr. Shapley, and 159 of the 257 photographs

required have now been obtained. The measures of the plates are

nearly complete to date.

Relation of the Color of Stars to their Intrinsic Brightness.

The measurement of the color of stars by the method of exposure

ratios has been continued by Mr. Seares for the purpose of determining

the relation of color to intrinsic brightness in objects of the samespectral class. The faintness of the violet end of the spectrum of the

giant stars of the later types has been known for some years. Theobservations confirm this result for the G and K stars, and afford a

quantitative determination of the dependence of color upon absolute

magnitude. The M stars, however, seem to have nearly the samecolor, whatever their luminosity.

Preliminary results for B, A, and F stars have also been obtained.

The very luminous B's seem to be redder than those somewhat fainter.


although the result requires confirmation. The A's, however, at least

from A3 on, behave in an opposite manner, the stars of high luminosity

being very definitely bluer than fainter objects of the same spectral

class. For F stars the relation is a transition from the characteristics

of the A's to those of the G's. With increasing absolute magnitude the

color first changes toward red and then, as the lower luminosities are

approached, shifts back toward the blue.

Since most of the brighter stars are giants, the variation of color-

index with spectral type hitherto found refers to stars of high lumi-

nosity. For stars of zero absolute magnitude, the present observations

agree with previous results in showing a change in color-index, which,

as far as K5, is nearly proportional to the change in spectrum. Beyond

this point, through spectral classes Ma, Mb, and Mc, the color of the

giants remains sensibly constant. For the dwarfs, the variation of

color with spectrum is much less regular, and can not be inferred from

the numerical results hitherto available.

Investigation of Stae-Clusters.

In continuation of his systematic photometric study of stellar clus-

ters, Mr. Shapley has completed a special investigation of the typical

globular cluster Messier 68 (N. G. C. 4590). All the characteristic

conditions and laws previously found in the study of other globular

systems are without exception verified by the work on this cluster.

The results include the verification of (1) the color law for giant stars

in clusters; (2) the constancy of the median magnitude of cluster-type

variables; (3) the numerical relation of the median magnitude to the

mean magnitude of the brighter stars; (4) the anomalous form of the

general luminosity curve in stellar clusters; and (5) the applicability

of luminosity methods to the determination of distances.

A preliminary determination of the distances of 70 open clusters

has been made on the basis of (1) 30 spectrograms of some 200 faint

stars in various northern groups, obtained with a slitless spectrograph of

small dispersion at the 80-foot focus of the 60-inch reflector; (2) more

than 100 direct photographs at the primary focus of the 60-inch;

(3) magnitudes and colors of about 2,000 stars; and (4) the measure-

ment of the diameters and form of all known open clusters on Franklin-

Adams charts. Harvard photographs, or Mount Wilson plates. Thestudy of the distribution of these open systems in space throws some

light on the structure of the nearer parts of the galactic system, and

supports the hypothesis that hght from the most distant objects along

the galactic plane may be obstructed by dark nebulous matter.

In last year's report mention is made of the possibiHty of interpreting

star-streaming, as well as the decrease of stellar density with distance

from the sun, as phenomena connected with the translational and

rotational motions of a large local cluster situated in the star-fields of the


greater galactic system. Stars of spectral type B are especially suitable

for determining the extent and position of this local cluster. Assisted

by Miss Richmond, Mr. Shapley has studied diagrammatically the

distribution of B stars on the surface of the sky, showing that those

fainter than apparent magnitude 7 are practically all concentrated

narrowly to the galactic circle, while all but a few of those brighter

than apparent magnitude 6 show independence of the galactic circle

and a distinct concentration to the equator of the flattened local

cluster. In the part of the sky where the circles of the Galaxy proper

and the local cluster appear most widely separated, the projection onthe sky of stars of the local cluster gives rise to a faintly visible second-

ary Milky Way. These new results support both the hypothesis of

the existence of a local cluster or cloud and the related theory of star-

streaming.

In a series of nine short papers printed together as Mount Wilson

Contribution No. 161, Mr. and Mrs. Shapley have continued their

study of the structure of the galactic system. An interesting part

of this work relates to the distribution of spirals and to certain prop-

erties of their systematic recessional motion, suggesting that the

whole galactic system may be rapidly moving through space. Ap-parently the spirals are not distant stellar organizations or "island

universes," but truly nebular structures of great volume which in

general are actively repelled from stellar systems. A tentative cos-

mogonic hj^othesis has been formulated to account for the motions,

distribution, and observed structure of clusters and spiral nebulae.

For the purpose of further testing the premises and conclusions of the

proposed interpretation, various investigations have been taken up,

among which the following are the most significant: (1) a search for

additional globular clusters, which so far has yielded 17 extremely dis-

tant systems; (2) the verification of the method of diameters in the

estimation of distances of globular clusters; (3) the successful use of

the integrated magnitudes of clusters as criteria of distance; (4) a

discussion of the dimensions of the local cluster, as shown by the

spectral data in the Henry Draper Catalogue; (5) the frequency of

various absolute magnitudes in clusters, including an attempt to

ascertain the relative number of dwarf stars; (6) an inquiry into the

radiation of stellar energy, with a consideration of its bearing on the

speed of spectral evolution (as illustrated by phenomena of globular clus-

ters and Cepheid variables) and on the age of the sun and the earth.^

Variable Stars.

A theoretical investigation by Mr. Shapley and Mr. Nicholson of the

form of the spectral lines of a spherically pulsating star bears on the

hypothesis that pulsations of single stars underlie the numerous phe-

^ Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, October 1918, and June 1919;Nature, March 13, 1919, and June 12, 1919.


nomena of Cepheid variations. Among other results it is found that in

the broadening of spectral lines for a Cepheid variable, rotation mayeasily play a larger part than pulsations; also spectrographic resolution,

photographic technique, and the inherent width of a spectral Une all

contribute to the concealment both of the broadening and the asym-

metry which affect the lines of a pulsating star. It is concluded that

the observed appearance and behavior of the spectrum of a Cepheid

variable is not opposed to the hj^pothesis of pulsations.

During the year Mrs. Shapley has studied the orbits of various

eclipsing binaries. An analysis of the system of Y Leonis, based uponobservations by Luizet, indicates that this is one of the few eclipsing

stars whose light-curve does not permit a solution on the assumption

of darkening at the limb which is as good or better than that resulting

from the assumption of uniformly luminous disks. In parallax, abso-

lute magnitude, and spectrum of the binary, in the dimensions, meandensity, and surface brightness of its two components, and in the vari-

ous properties of the orbit, Y Leonis is completely normal. The dis-

cussion of TW Andromedae, on the basis of measures by Miss Davis of

plates made with the 60-inch reflector by Mr. Shapley, is nearly ready

for publication. Both photographic and photovisual magnitude-curves

have been derived, which determines the color-index for all phases of

the light variation. The computations show that at intervals of

4.12 days one star (with 50 times the volume of the sun) totally eclipses

its companion, which is nine times as bright but of only one-half the

radius.

One of the subclasses of the faint cluster-type variables in the

globular system Messier 5 is distinguished by extremely short periods

of light variation (4 to 8 hours) and nearly symmetrical magnitude

curves. A number of important points connected with the problemof stellar variation are involved in the detailed study of these variables

which now is under way. At the same time, the constancy of the Ught

for the supposedly invariable stars of this cluster is under investigation.

Special series of photographic and photovisual plates have been

measured and reduced by Mr. Shapley, Miss Davis, and Miss Ritchie.

It is expected that the research will be completed during the present

year.

On Mr. Shapley's recent photographs of clusters, Miss Ritchie has

found 98 new variable stars, as follows

:

N. G. C. 4590 = Messier 68 285024 53 226864 75 13

6981 72 307492 .

.

5

A series of plates has been secured for a detailed study of the vari-

ables in the faint and distant cluster N. G. C. 6981.


STELLAR SPECTROSCOPY.

The stellar spectroscopic work throughout the year has been carried

on by Mr. Adams, Mr. Joy, and Mr. Stroraberg. Mr. Merrill, Mr.Sanford, and Mr. Duncan shared in the observations during the sum-

mer of 1919. A considerable portion of the work had been planned

with a view to facihtating the determination of the absolute magni-

tudes of the highly luminous stars by the spectroscopic method. For

this purpose a large number of stars with apparent visual magnitudes

of 5.0 or brighter have been added to the observing list. Such stars

furnish material especially suitable for a comparison with results from

mean parallaxes obtained from parallactic motion. Spectrographic ob-

servations have also been continued on the stars listed in the AmericanEphemeris and the selected groups of stars to which reference was madein the last annual report.

The number of photographs of spectra obtained during the year

with the Cassegrain spectrograph and the 60-inch reflector is 1,337.

These are distributed in magnitude as follows

:

Brighter than 5.0 visually 4805.0 to 6.0 4086.0 to 7.0 2527.0 to 8.0 119

Fainter than 8.0 78

The 7-inch camera has been used for 90 of the spectrograms of the

fainter stars. The observations include 20 photographs of NovaAquilse No. 3 and 100 photographs of variable stars.

Radial Velocities.

The radial velocities of 133 stars have been determined from measure-ments of three or more spectrograms. Among the more interesting

results for individual stars the following may be mentioned

:

(1) The orbits of four spectroscopic binaries have been pubUshed.

These are Boss 593, Boss 2285, W Ursse Majoris, and Z Herculis.

In the case of the last two stars the presence of the spectra of both

components and the photometric data provide the means for a de-

termination of the absolute dimensions of the orbits.

(2) A list of 14 spectroscopic binaries was pubhshed early in the

year. Five of these stars show composite spectra.

(3) An investigation of the motions in space of 37 stars with radial

velocities exceeding 80 km. leads to the conclusion that stream-motion

is very marked for these stars.

(4) The apices of these stars He almost wholly in one hemisphere,

their galactic longitudes all falling between 131° and 322°.

(5) The components of velocity parallel to the plane of the Galaxyare more than double that normal to this plane. The velocity of the

centroid of these stars is remarkably high, amounting to 74 km., even


when stars with total velocities exceeding 300 km. are omitted fromthe computation. The motion of the centroid is almost exactly

parallel to the plane of the Galaxy.

(6) The direction of the major axis of the velocity-ellipsoid is in

good agreement with that found from investigations by Stromberg

and by Raymond on the motions of dwarf stars.

(7) If the stars are divided into groups having average magnitudes

greater and less than 3.0, it becomes clear that the fainter stars are

moving much more rapidly than the brighter stars, and that the apices

of their motions lie much more nearly in the plane of the Galaxy.

(8) The stars with the largest velocities in space are of type F,

and among these the earlier types have the larger values. Thus, the

stars of types FO to F5 have an average space-motion of 365 km. ; those

of type F in general, 307 km. ; those of type G, 156 km. Of the entire

list of 37 stars, 26 are of types F and G.

Spectroscopic Determinations of Luminosity and Parallax.

The extensive investigation referred to in the last annual report,

having as an object the computation of the systematic corrections to

be applied to the absolute magnitudes derived spectroscopically from

the original curves of reduction, has been nearly completed. Themethod employed has been to compute the mean absolute magnitudes

of groups of stars with but a small range in spectral type and line-

intensity, using for this purpose the parallaxes measured trigono-

metrically, the parallactic motions, and the peculiar motions. Thethree methods give results in good agreement with one another, al-

though, of course, the degree of accuracy is quite different for stars of

different distances and velocities. The mean absolute magnitudes

derived in this way are then compared with the absolute magnitudes

derived spectroscopically. Three general conclusions may be drawnfrom this comparison:

(1) The spectroscopic criteria of absolute magnitude are valid for

the stars of highest luminosity, a regular change in absolute magnitude

accompanying a change in the intensity of the selected lines.

(2) The previous reduction-scale employed for the determination of

absolute magnitudes obtained by the spectroscopic method gives

values which are nearly correct in the case of the fainter stars but

systematically too faint in the case of the brighter stars. The cor-

rection required is of the order of —0.5 to — 1.0 magnitude.

(3) The probable error of the absolute magnitude of a single star as

derived by the spectroscopic method varies with the spectral type from

about ±0.1 for the early F-type stars to ± 0.6 for the later K-type.

As a result largely of this investigation, it now becomes possible to

establish what may be considered a definitive scale for the spectro-

scopic determination of absolute magnitudes. This has not been


possible hitherto, on account of the inadequate character of the exist-

ing parallax material upon which to base the reductions. The absolute

magnitudes and parallaxes of about 1,800 stars have now been derived

upon the revised system and will soon be ready for publication.

As a by-product of the investigation of mean parallaxes and meanproper motions, reference may be made to the fact that the mean paral-

lax derived spectroscopically for groups of stars of definite apparent

magnitude does not become zero when the proper motion becomesvanishingly small, but tends toward a finite limit. A study of this

deviation from Kapteyn's formula shows that this peculiarity is a

necessary consequence of the grouping according to proper motion,

and of the fact that there is a definite upper limit to the luminosity of

a star.

Stars with Spectra Characteristic of the Cepheid Variables.

In the course of the classification of stellar spectra, 18 stars

have been found with spectra very similar to those of the Cepheid

variables. They are characterized by very strong hydrogen lines andenhanced lines which are several times as intense as in normal stars

of the type to which these stars belong. Many of the spectra are

essentially identical with that of typical Cepheids such as 5 Cephei and

^ Geminorum, and it seems clear that the relationship to the Cepheids

must be intimate, although no variation of light is known with certainty

in any case.

An examination of the list shows that these stars resemble the

Cepheids in the following respects as well: (1) very small proper

motion; (2) low galactic latitude; (3) small radial velocity; (4) very

high intrinsic luminosity. At least 6 of the stars show a small variation

in radial velocity.

It seems probable that a further study of the spectra of such stars

may aid in the solution of the problem of Cepheid variation.

The Spectrum of Nova Aquil^e No. 3.

Photographs of the spectrum of Nova Aquilse have been maderegularly throughout the year. In addition to the usual changes

characteristic of Novae, the spectrum has shown remarkable peculiar-

ities, especially in the form and structure of the emission bands.

Some of the more important results of detailed study of the photo-

graphs are briefly:

(1) A large number of absorption lines identified in the spectrum of

Nova Aquilse have also been identified in that of Nova GeminorumNo. 2. Their displacements are almost exactly one-half as great as in

Nova Aquilse.

(2) The displacements of the two components of the hydrogen andhelium lines in Nova Aquilse are in the ratio of 3 to 2. A comparison

with the three other principal Novse of recent years, Nova Aurigse of


1892, Nova Persei of 1901, and Nova Geminorum of 1912, is shown in

the accompanying table:Displacement at X ^500.


(3) Two eighth-magnitude stars, Lalande 23995 and Lalande 27274,

have been found to have radial velocities of +144 and +159 km.respectively.

(4) Preliminary reductions indicate a double amplitude of variation

of about 60 km. in the radial velocity of the variable star X Cygni.

(5) Photographs secured with a small spectrograph at the primary

focus of the 60-inch reflector indicate that the Harvard Variable 3435,

with a period of 3^ 52°^, is a spectroscopic binary with a relatively

small amplitude of variation in velocity. Similar photographs of the

spectrum of T Tauri show no variation from that obtained 3.5 years

previously, and that the radial velocity is apparently constant.

(6) A further investigation has been made of the more refrangible

region of the continuous spectrum of stars. About 900 spectrograms

have been used and the results confirm the conclusion that for a given

spectral t5T)e the violet portion of the spectrum is stronger in the

intrinsically faint stars than in the highly luminous stars. The dif-

ference is more pronounced in the more advanced spectral types.

The extensive material has made possible the elimination and correc-

tion of some of the factors which previously have led to uncertainty.

(7) An investigation of the radial velocities and spectral charac-

teristics of stars of type Md has been commenced with the 60-inch

and 100-inch reflectors. At present 14 stars have been observed, for

12 of which no observations wdth slit spectrographs had been madepreviously.

(8) Experiments have been made with the 10-inch refractor andan objective prism to test the possibilities of this instrument for ob-serving stellar spectra in the red and infra-red. A number of photo-graphs of M-type stars show the strong titanium-oxide bands in thered plainly, and the atmospheric line A has been recorded in the spectra

of some other stars. The steep color curve of the lens, however,permits only a very short section of spectrum to be photographed in

good focus at one time. Accordingly, a problem to which the instru-

ment is much better adapted is now being undertaken. This is theobservation of the Ha line in the spectra of stars of type B. It

seems probable that in view of the great variation in the character of

this line, which passes through all the stages from a prominent absorp-tion to a strong emission hne, a classification of B-type stars basedupon its appearance will be of considerable value. Two new stars

with Ha bright have already been found in this way.

Spectroscopy of Nebul-e and Star-Clusters.

Observations on the spectra of certain nebulae and star-clusters havebeen made by Mr. Sanford with the small sHt spectrograph at the pri-

mary focus of the 60-inch reflector. Among these is a photograph of thespectrum of the Crab Nebula made with an exposure time of 48 hours.


Although the negative is somewhat underexposed, it yields two interest-

ing results

:

(1) The nebula has a large negative velocity, of the order of —600km. on the west side and —1,000 km. on the east side, at distances in

each case of about 60'' from the nucleus.

(2) The doubhng of the nebular lines first observed by SHpher seems

to be fully confirmed. The separations for the lines X3728 and X5007

are 29 and 41 a, respectively, values which indicate a direct propor-

tionality between separation and wave-length.

Determinations of radial velocity have been made for the following

star-clusters

:

Messier

No.


third order, a 4-incli plate covers a little less than 400 a, corresponding

to an average dispersion of about 4 a per milUmeter.

Our knowledge of the Zeeman effect has been obtained chiefly

through a study of spark spectra, produced between the pole-tips of

large electro-magnets, where the uniform field is so limited that only

small sources, such as sparks or vacuum tubes, can be used. It is

becoming more and more necessary to study the spectra of other

sources in a strong magnetic field, especially that of the electric furnace.

This requires a fairly uniform magnetic field of high strength through-

out a space at least 2 inches in diameter by 4 inches in length. Mr.Anderson's calculations show that for a water-cooled solenoid ^^dth-

out any iron approximately 400 k. w. are required to give a field of

45,000 gausses in such a space, and that for fields of this size andintensity there is little or no advantage in the use of iron. A 500 k.w.

motor-generator set has accordingly been ordered, to furnish about

4,000 amperes direct current at 125 volts. An underground tank hav-

ing a capacity of about 5,000 cubic feet will be constructed to hold

the water necessary for cooling purposes. Solenoids of various sizes to

suit different purposes wdll be constructed as needed, as the amountof copper required for a single solenoid is very small, ranging from

10 to 50 pounds. When this apparatus is installed the laboratory

will have exceptional facilities for the study of the Zeeman effect, so

necessary in the interpretation of sun-spot spectra. It is also hoped

that the study of arc spectra with very heavy currents may lead to

interesting results.

In order to make the interferometer spectrograph available for

observations in the ultra-violet, three new speculum mirrors have

been ground and figured in the optical shop. One of these, 6 inches

in diameter and 21 feet radius of curvature, is used as a collimator

in the auxiliary spectrograph; a 2-inch mirror of 50 inches radius of

curvature is used for projecting the interference pattern upon the

spectrograph slit, while the third mirror, 6 inches diameter and 48

inches radius of curvature, is for projecting an image of the source

upon the etalon.

A new film-holder receiving a film about 16 inches long, has

been made in the shop for use -with the interferometer spectrograph.

It is adjusted to the focal curve of the grating so as to bring 2,000 ainto good focus in the first-order spectrum. This permits a muchgreater number of standards to be observed upon each photograph,

thus increasing the accuracy attainable in the relative values of the

wave-lengths.

ELECTRIC-FURNACE INVESTIGATIONS.

The following lines of work with the electric furnace were pursued

during the year by Mr. King, in part with the regular tube-furnace

and in part with the special form constructed for use with the Weiss

electro-magnet.


Infra-red Furnace Spectra.

Plates bathed with dicyanin were used in this investigation, the

object of which was the extension into the infra-red of the data on the

temperature behavior of spectral lines. Seventy-one spectrograms

were made, the elements studied being iron, titanium, nickel, cobalt,

barium, strontium, and calcium. The furnace spectra thus obtained

extended to about X9200. Within this limit, a large proportion of

the lines observed in the arc were regularly obtained with the furnace,

together with fainter arc-lines which the furnace produces with

relatively high intensity. Spectra were photographed at three tem-

peratures and for the most part with two different spectrographs.

The lines were classified according to the temperature at which they

appear and the rate of increase of intensity with temperature, in the

same way as in previous work. The low-temperature lines thus

segregated will be of interest when a more extended study of stellar

and sun-spot spectra for this region has been made. The high-tem-

perature lines, weak or absent in the furnace spectrum, are also im-

portant. Among these are the three strongest lines in this region

of the solar spectrum. They belong to calcium and are strongly

enhanced lines. The temperature classification is also proving useful

in the selection of series lines in the case of barium and strontium.

Absorption Spectra with the Electric Furnace.

A graphite plug placed in the central portion of the furnace-tube

gives an incandescent background for the radiating vapor and pro-

duces an absorption spectrum which may be examined at the sametemperatures as are employed for emission spectra when the plug is

not used. Many interesting features appear in the 54 spectrograms

thus far made, chiefly of iron and titanium. A pure absorption spec-

trum is observed, no emission lines or bands appearing, thus indicating

that the radiation of a black body, which the plugged tube closely

approximates, is stronger than that of a vapor when excited by the

same degree of temperature. Furthermore, striking differences appear

between the absorption spectrum and the emission spectrum which

can be photographed at the same temperature by removing the plug.

For a given temperature, the absorption lines are fewer in numberthan the emission lines, and the absorption lines which do appear are

those of the emission spectrum at a much lower temperature. Thusa temperature which produces a rich emission spectrum gives in ab-

sorption only the low-temperature lines. As the temperature is raised,

other groups appear, which belong to successively higher temperature

classes. The method gives a close measure of the absorptive powerof each spectrum line, and the grouping arranged on this basis is found

to be in complete agreement with the temperature classification already


made. Thus the low-temperature Unes are the more strongly absorb-

ing, which is in harmony with the phenomena of reversal. The present

experiments, however, show the relation with especial clearness, since

the emission spectrum proves that at a certain temperature the Une is

being radiated but that a higher temperature is required before it can

be absorbed. The change of absorptive power with wave-length is very

decided, the effect increasing rapidly toward shorter waves.

The Zeeman Effect for Electric-Furnace Spectra.

The use of a small tube-furnace in a magnetic field opens an extensive

line of investigation, of which a preliminary survey has been made.

A graphite tube 4 inches long, inclosed in a water-cooled jacket, was

placed axially between the poles of the large magnet, which, with this

gap, gave a field of about 6,500 gausses. The tube, of which 3 inches

were heated by a strong alternating current, readily gave the n-com-

ponents of the furnace lines, when observ^ed along the lines of force.

The spectra observed were of iron, from X3500 to X6700, and of vanad-

ium, from X5100 to X6700. Comparing the Zeeman components in

furnace and spark spectra, the lines common to both showed no differ-

ence, either in character or magnitude of the separations, so that in

future work the two sources can be used to supplement each other, to

obtain in the magnetic field the lines most favorably given by each.

A large class of the lines, hovv^ever, which, probably without exception,

are intensified in sun-spot spectra, are much stronger in the furnace

than in either arc or spark, so that the exposure time for such lines

in the magnetic field is a matter of minutes mth the furnace and of

many hours wdth the spark. Even in the limited work thus far done,

the furnace has given the magnetic separation of a considerable num-ber of fines not yet obtained \\dth the spark. High fields are not

possible with the present apparatus, but the use of the furnace inside

a solenoid will remove this limitation, and the characteristic sharpness

of furnace lines will be of much advantage in defining the Zeemancomponents when the furnace is inclosed in a vacuum chamber.

Another important advantage of the furnace in the magnetic field is

the ease with which the inverse Zeeman effect is produced by using a

plug in the tube to give an absorption spectrum, as described above.

A number of spectrograms have been made with this arrangement.

The n-components appear to be quite the same in absorption as in

emission. The study of absorption phenomena at varying angles to

the lines of force with optical apparatus similar to that used in solar

work may, however, give data on the inverse effect vrhich will be

directly applicable to sun-spot phenomena. In any case, the magnetic

action on absorption lines can now be studied with the same facility

as for emission lines.


Miscellaneous Experiments with the Furnace.

About 80 electric-furnace spectrograms have been made for purposes

not already mentioned. These included supplementary photographs

of the spectra of manganese, iron, and chromium; a series for the

cerium spectrum at various temperatures ; a series for iron, copper, andsilver at atmospheric pressure for comparison with vacuum spectra

in connection with questions as to the character of the furnace radi-

ation; and several photographs of barium and strontium for the

measurement of lines which are sharper in the vacuum furnace than

in other sources and important in the evaluation of series constants.

A detailed comparison of electric-furnace material with that for

sun-spot spectra has been made, but is as yet incomplete, some points

requiring more observational data. The relation indicated in the early

work, namely, that low-temperature lines are strengthened and high-

temperature lines weakened in sun-spots has been found to be very

general, the more pronounced cases of strengthened spot-lines being

those appearing with especial strength in the furnace as comparedwith the arc or spark. Various differences of detail were found for

different elements. In the spectra of titanium and vanadium, a large

number of lines which are fairly strong in the furnace agree closely

with sun-spot lines which are faint in the solar spectrum and uniden-

tified by Rowland. Their origin seems thus to be established, and the

furnace can be employed for any detailed study of such lines that

seems desirable.

SECONDARY STANDARDS OF WAVE-LENGTH.

The redetermination of secondary standards of wave-length in the

iron-arc spectrum by Mr. Babcock and Mr. St. John is now nearly

complete over the region XX 3370-6750, in so far as the interferometer

program is concerned. During recent months about 30 plates havebeen taken for this purpose, covering the region XX 5400-7300; 18 of

these, including the best photographs, have been measured and re-

ductions are nearly complete. Numerous iron lines, in addition to

the international secondary standards, were observed, and several of

the plates contain spectra of barium, strontium, or calcium from a

vacuum arc as well as the iron standards, thus making available

many excellent tertiary standards at the same time.

Because of numerous extensions into the infra-red of spectroscopic

work now in progress, and the present lack of secondary standards

beyond X G750, the program includes the establishment of reliable newstandards free from pole effect over the region which can profitably

be observed with the aid of dicyanin. It is likewise highly importantto determine many new standards in the ultra-violet region, as the

adopted list of secondary standards terminates at X 3371. As notedelsewhere, the interference apparatus is being arranged for opera-


tion in the ultra-violet, as far as the reflecting power of speculum

metal permits.

On lines free from pole effect the measured wave-lengths are in goodagreement with those of other recent observers, except in a few cases

where differences as large as 0.002 a are found. Special attention is

given to all such cases, and in addition the relative values of a large

number of lines are being separately determined under the direction

of Mr. St. John by means of the plane grating. It is thought that in

this way the inclusion of any errors, except those necessarily involved

in the methods of observation, may be avoided.

WAVE-LENGTHS IN MIXED ARCS. PRESSURE EFFECT.

Mr. Babcock has found it feasible to extend to interference obser-

vations the method of simultaneous exposures to two sources of hght,

which has proved so powerful an aid in previous work with the plane-

grating spectrograph. A number of very satisfactory photographs

have been secured, upon which occur secondary standards from the

iron arc, intermingled with lines from barium, strontium, calcium, or

cadmium, taken simultaneously from a vacuum arc through the sameinterferometer. Two or more of these elements may often be used

in the same vacuum arc, and as many of their lines are very intense as

well as sharp, they serve as excellent standards of wave-length. It has

accordingly been easy to apply this method to an examination of the

question sometimes raised as to the constancy of arc wave-lengths in

mixed arcs, i.e., arcs containing more than one element. I* or example,

simultaneous exposures were made to the interference spectra of the

iron standards and to the strong red barium lines obtained from a

pure barium salt upon carbon terminals in a vacuum chamber. Uponother photographs the combined spectra were recorded when the

pure barium was replaced by a mixture of barium and strontium,

barium and calcium, or barium and chromium, i.e., barium chromate.

In the case of every line so far examined, the wave-length is the samewhen the element is used alone as when two or more elements are

mixed in the same arc. This method is now to be applied to other

mixtures and to arcs having one or both terminals of metal, althoughuntil more definite and positive evidence is adduced in support of the

supposed variation, it hardly seems necessary to devote much moretime to it. It is, in fact, highly probable that pole effect in the arc

is at the bottom of the phenomenon.The method of simultaneous exposures with the interferometer also

lends itself to the study of the pressure effect upon the spectrum.Experience has indicated the desirability of making such observ'ations

over a pressure range from zero to one or two atmospheres, in ordernot to introduce too much variation in the intrinsic width and sharp-

ness of the spectral lines. This, with the careful eUmination of pole


effect, is being undertaken both with the interferometer and with the

grating. In fact, the value of the interferometer for studying small

variations of wave-length in general is appreciably increased by this

method of observation, inasmuch as the small uncertainties inherent

in the procedure involving alternate exposures are eliminated.

NATURE OF POLE EFFECT.

A beginning has been made upon the minute examination of the

structure of iron-arc lines which exhibit pole effect. For this purpose

visual observations are being made by Mr. Babcock with the 33-plate

Hilger echelon spectroscope upon two or three strong lines in the

yellow and green, which have been found to show pole effects of oppo-site sign. When observed close to the negative pole of a Pfund arc

carrying about 6 amperes, the lines X5615 and X5383, groups d ande, respectively, show evidence of structure. These observations are

being extended by photographs of very high dispersion, using gratings

of high resolving power, in the hope of deciding whether the structure

is due to incipient reversal or to true complexity of the spectral lines.

In this way additional information may be obtained as to the real

nature of pole effect.

Mr. Merrill, who joined the Observatory staff in January, has made a

study of the pole effect in several metallic arcs, especially that of nickel.

Special attention was paid to the pole shift of lines known to be greatly

affected in an electric field. These results were used by Mr. Takaminein his discussion of the Stark effect for nickel.

OBSERVATIONS OF ARC, TUBE-ARC, AND SPARK SPECTRA.

Observations of the relative intensities of lines in different portions

of the arc have been made by Mr. Merrill. Numerous photographswere taken with the arc projected in such a way that its axis coincided

with the slit. The strengthening at the positive pole was the leading

feature observed. Grouping the lines according to the degree of

strengthening at the positive pole gave a classification which, with

certain interesting exceptions, runs parallel to the temperature classi-

fication developed during previous work at the Observatory. Theappearance of enhanced lines at the positive pole of the arc corresponds

with the furnace evidence that they indicate high temperature con-

ditions. These observations of the arc spectrum have resulted in the

classification of 541 lines of iron and 227 of cobalt according to the

degree of strengthening at the positive pole. Some material for the

nickel arc was also obtained.

Observations of the infra-red spectrum of the tube-arc have beenmade by Mr. King and Mr. Merrill. The carbon-spark lines are

strong in this source and much sharper than the spark, thus permitting

high accuracy of measurement; several new carbon-spark lines have


been identified. Numerous air-lines appeared in the infra-red, includ-

ing the well-known oxygen triplet X 7771-4.

Mr. Merrill has also studied the air-hnes given by metallic sparks in

the red and infra-red; 57 air-lines between X 5927 and X 8719 have been

measured, of which 47 do not appear in previous Usts. Lines of nitro-

gen, oxygen, hydrogen, and argon are present, those of oxygen in-

cluding the important solar triplet at X 7771-4, which is much enhanced

in the spark and probably weakened in sun-spots as compared with the

solar disk. 34 of the 57 lines remain unidentified, and further obser-

vations for this purpose are planned.

PRODUCTION OF METALLIC SPECTRA IN HIGH VACUA.

This work has been carried on jointly by Miss Carter and Mr. King,

in continuation of the experiments conducted last year. The metal is

vaporized at the focus of a beam of cathode rays in a high vacuum and

the spectrum of the vapor in the path of the rays is photographed.

Observations of the spectra of manganese, titanium, iron, magnesium,

calcium, and cadmium have yielded extensive lists of lines for each,

the relative intensities being quite different from those of other sources.

Leading features are the intensification of certain line series and the

production of enhanced lines to different degrees with different ele-

ments. Little change appeared, whether the target of the cathode

rays was used as anode or insulated. This fact, and some resem-

blances to the spectrum near metallic cathodes, indicate that the con-

centration of the cathode stream at the distant target resulted in a

transfer to this point of conditions which can be obtained at the cath-

ode itself by proper arrangements. The experiments now in progress

appear to confirm this. Strong spectra at both anode and cathode

are obtained, which differ greatly in character and promise to throwmuch light on the causes of pole-effect phenomena, since the radia-

tion processes in vacuum-tubes are subject to more definite interpre-

tation than those taking place in the arc.

INVESTIGATIONS OF THE STARK EFFECT.

In September 1918, Mr. T. Takamine, of the Tokyo Imperial Uni-versity, began an investigation of the Stark effect, using the apparatusemployed by Mr. Anderson in 1916-17. The region from X3600 to

X 5700 was covered for most of the ordinary metals, with field-strengths

occasionally as high as 60,000 volts per centimeter. The results maybe briefly summarized as follows:

(1) Lines in the spectra of the following elements were found to beaffected by an electric field: Ag, Au, Co, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mo, Na, N,and O.

(2) Close relations were found between the pole effect and the Starkeffect in the spectra of iron and nickel.


(3) Several instances showing the close relation between the Stark

effect and the broadening of lines in arc and spark spectra were observed.

(4) In the spectra of copper and silver a number of detached com-

ponents and isolated lines close to the series lines were found, which

have the peculiar property of showing themselves only in a strong

electric field.

In March 1919, the grating spectrograph used for the Stark effect byMr. Anderson and by Mr. Takamine was taken down in order to have

the optical parts fitted into a new metal mounting constructed in the

machine-shop. While this was being done, Mr. Anderson studied the

Stark effect in the region X 2200-X 3600, using the large Fuess quartz

spectrograph, the prism of which was refigured in order to improve

the definition. About 60 spectrograms were obtained with this instru-

ment for the metals already studied in the visible region by Anderson

and Takamine. In most of this work rectified alternating current

from a small high-potential transformer was used instead of direct

current from the set of dynamos, as this was found easier to work with,

and equally effective.

The new metal mounting for the grating spectrograph was delivered

by the machine-shop about the middle of August, and as soon as data

for all of its adjustments are obtained a careful study of some of the

pecuHar Stark effects observed, especially for chromium, will be

undertaken.

CONSTRUCTION DIVISION.

DRAFTING AND DESIGN.

The drafting department has been occupied mainly with the 100-

inch telescope and with work undertaken for the Signal Corps andthe Ordnance Department of the Army in connection with the war.

New designs for the 100-inch telescope include compression rings

for the Newtonian and focal-plane cages required to give the cages

greater rigidity, revisions for the main observing platform and the

mirror elevator, an observing platform for use at the Cassegrain fo cus

numerous small parts and attachments, and a number of cases used

for housing equipment when not in use.

The work done for the Signal Corps was experimental in character,

and such as to require many special drawings. For the Ordnance

Department designs were made for 13 machines used in the optical

work which was carried out under the direction of the Observatory.

THE OPTICAL SHOP.

Prior to April 1, the work of the Optical Shop was entirely devoted to

the requirements of the Ordnance Department of the Army, as described

in a separate report on the war sei-vice of the Observatory. Since

that date, the following optical parts have been figured: 17 plane and


concave speculum metal mirrors, ranging in diameter from 4 to 10

inches, for grating plates and other purposes; two 6-inch test planes;

two right-angle prisms. Two quartz prisms and one glass prism have

also been refigured, and much miscellaneous optical work has been

done.THE INSTRUMENT SHOP.

Prior to the armistice, the instrument shop (Mr. Ayers, foreman;

Mr. Jacomini, chief instrument maker) was almost exclusively en-

gaged with Government work, as detailed in a separate report on the

war services of the Observatory. In fact, including overtime, 57

per cent of the shop-work during the year was for the Bureau of

Standards, the Signal Corps, the Ordnance Department of the Army,and the Navy Department.

Since the armisitice, excepting for the completion of the optical

work carried through until April at the request of the Ordnance De-

partment, the instrument shop has been engaged on the regular work of

the Observatory. That chargeable to the Hooker telescope includes

work on the Cassegrain spectrograph, double-slide plate-holder, tube-

balancing system, coude mechanism, cage-clamps, mirror temperature-

control, muTor-silvering equipment, Newtonian and Cassegrain cages

and mirror mountings, driving-clock, sidereal indicator, burnishing

apparatus, observing platform, dome ladders and stairs, and dark-room

equipment. The other chief items of construction relate to the

coelostat and spectrograph of the Snow telescope, a focal plane spec-

trograph, stellar comparator, laboratory grating spectrograph, Smith-

sonian Observatory equipment, and instrument and building repairs.

RULING MACHINE.

The work on the ruling machine during the early part of the present

year revealed the fact that the spacing wheel (a steel forging) hadwarped somewhat since it was first made. The tedious work of

correcting this occupied Mr. Jacomini some three months, but wasperfectly successful. Cross-ruling tests were then made which con-

clusively showed the machine free from periodic errors. There were,

however, accidental errors of rather large amount. After a lengthy

process of elimination their cause was found in the casting supporting

one pair of the ruling-carriage ways. This casting has now beenstrengthened and supported in such a way that it is hoped no further

difficulty will occur. These changes, however, necessitated a regrind-

ing of the ways in order to make them again straight and parallel.

This work is now nearly completed.

ONE-HUNDRED-INCH HOOKER TELESCOPE.

The 100-inch Hooker telescope, though greatly delayed by the war,is now in regular use. It will therefore be of interest to give some


details of the tests already applied, which leave no doubt that this

powerful addition to the equipment of the Observatory will permit

our observational program to be greatly extended.

In the preliminary tests of the. Hooker telescope, mentioned in the

last annual report, the star images at the 134-foot focus were imperfect,

and the driving-clock was found to have a small periodic error of very

short period, visible when the guiding-star was observed on the cross-

wires with powers higher than 1,000. This error was traced to a slight

springing of one of the shafts in the clock-train, and was practically

eliminated by introducing an additional bearing. The source of the

defective star images was somewhat obscure, but persistent work on the

part of Mr. Pease has disentangled the several elements involved. Thesewere three in number: (1) imperfect adjustment of the edge-support

of the 100-inch mirror; (2) occasional effects of coma and flare due to

atmospheric disturbances near the telescope, especially the escape of

warm air from the space behind the large mirror when the cooling coils

were not in operation; and (3) occasional atmospheric disturbances,

visible also with the 60-inch telescope, which produce an effect on the

star images closely resembling such astigmatism as might result fromdistortion of the large mirror.

The edge-support was adjusted by relining the edge arcs and bring-

ing their pressure to bear exactly in the correct plane. Flare waseliminated by circulating water of the right temperature through the

coils provided for this purpose behind the mirror and encircling its

edge. Water pumped from tanks within the telescope pier wastemporarily employed, and a complete automatic control system, to

maintain the mirror throughout the day and night at any desired

temperature, is now being installed. The astigmatic effect sometimesresulting from the atmosphere will be felt only in direct photographyof star-fields at the 134-foot focus, but the excellent images photo-

graphed on many occasions even with this great focal length showthat no apprehension need be felt as to the practical performance of the

telescope, which greatly surpasses the 60-inch reflector in every class

of work.

Up to the present time, most of the observations have been madewith the Cassegrain combination of mirrors giving an equivalent focal

length of 134 feet. The focal plane of this combination, which in-

volves three reflections of light, is at a point on one side of the tube

about 11 feet from its lower extremity. The attachments available

for use at this point include a large double-slide plate-holder; a stellar

spectrograph,^ for use with one, two, or three prisms, having a colli-

mator of 40 inches focal length and several cameras; and a small

spectrograph, usually employed without slit, provided with a colli-

mator of 18 inches focal length, a single 39° prism, and a camera of

^ Equipped by Mr. Babcock with a new form of thermostat.


3 inches focal length. The latter instrument can be mounted on the

double-slide plate-holder, which can thus be used for guiding during

exposures.

In order to determine precisely what advantages may be expected

from the use of the 100-inch telescope, it has been submitted to a

comparative test with the 60-inch telescope, the qualities of which

are known from long experience. When feasible, the observations

required for such tests are made simultaneously with the two telescopes,

which are not far apart on Mount Wilson, and are therefore subject to

the same atmospheric conditions. In the case of an instrument of the

great aperture and equivalent focal length of the Hooker telescope,

when used at the 134-foot focus, the chief outstanding question, after

the rigorous optical and mechanical requirements have been met, is

the quality of the atmosphere. In stellar spectroscopy the problemis whether the star images, at the 134-foot focus, will be so small as to

permit essentially all of the light to pass through the slit during the

exposure. If this can be accomplished, the Hooker telescope should

give about 2.8 times as much light as the 60-inch telescope, thus render-

ing possible the observation of stars about one magnitude fainter than

those within the reach of the latter instrument.

To answer this question, a comparative simultaneous test was madeon the evening of August 13, 1919. The spectrum of the star e

Andromedse was photographed on Seed 30 plates from the same boxwith the two telescopes, using spectrographs having nearly identical

optical constants, mounted at the Cassegrain focus. ^ For the 60-inch

the equivalent focal length at this point is 80 feet, while for the 100-

inch, as already remarked, it is 134 feet. Both spectrographs havecollimators of 2.5 inches aperture and 40 inches focal length, andcameras of 4 inches aperture and 18 inches focal length. In each case

a single 63° prism of 0.102 Jena glass is used, giving a dispersion of 36ato the millimeter with the camera employed. The slit-widths of the

two spectrographs were varied until the photographic resolution, de-

termined by comparing close pairs of lines in the spectra of the samestar, was found to be the same. The exposures on e Andromedse were

made by Mr. Stromberg with the 60-inch and by Mr. Merrill with

the 100-inch, under good conditions of seeing, and the plates were

afterwards developed together.

Thirty-three spectrograms were secured for comparison. From 20

of these Mr. Stromberg finds the following mean ratios of exposure-

times required to give the same intensities and photographic resolution

with the two instruments:

Region X4000 X4300 X4500Mean ratio 4.5 3.2 3.3

^ The spectrograph of the 60-inch telescope contains a single plane mirror, not duplicated in the

spectrograph of the 100-inch telescope.


As the light undergoes three reflections in each telescope, and as thesmall mirrors cut out nearly the same proportion of light in both cases,

the theoretical ratio of light-gathering power would be ( VV )^ = 2.78. Thepresence of the plane mirror in the optical train of the spectrograph of

the 60-inch telescope, and the fact that the three mirrors of the 100-

inch telescope have been more recently silvered than those of the 60-

inch, probably accounts in part for the comparatively high value of the

ratio at X 4000 (4.5), as the comparison spectra show no such change of

relative intensity with wave-length. But these differences can not

affect the brightness at X 4500 by more than 15 per cent, judging fromthe constancy of the exposure-times for stars of a given magnituderequired with the 60-inch throughout the dry summer season. An-other comparison will be made after the mirrors of the 60-inch havebeen resilvered.

A second comparative test, not based upon simultaneous exposures,

is afforded by Mr. Merrill's experience with stars of class Md. 201 of

these interesting objects, brighter than magnitude 9.0 at maximum, are

known north of —30°. With the 60-inch nearly all of these stars can

be observed for the bright lines with exposures not exceeding 2 hours.

For the great majority, however, exposures of 5 hours or more are

required with this telescope to yield a measurable absorption spectrum

with the spectrograph already mentioned. In fact, so few stars can

be effectively observed for both dark and bright lines that it would

be hardly advisable to enter upon an extensive study of these objects

with the 60-inch.

The greater light-gathering power of the 100-inch, however, renders

such a study perfectly feasible. With this telescope, using the spectro-

graph mentioned above at the 134-foot Cassegrain focus, Mr. Merrill

has obtained good photographs of the absorption spectrum of RYHerculis, visual magnitude 8.8, in 2 hours, and of brighter stars of the

same class with shorter exposures. Mr. Joy has experienced an equal

advantage over the 60-inch in photographing the spectra of stars of

other types.

Mr. Shapley, who is continuing his investigation of star-clusters with

the 100-inch telescope, finds a similar gain of about one magnitude.

With the small slitless spectrograph mounted on the double-slide

plate-holder at the 134-foot focus of the 100-inch, the exposure-times

for stars in the globular cluster Messier 1 1 are about as follows

:

Photographic magnitude, 12; Exposure, 5 minutes.

13;"

15

A further advantage results from the great scale of the clusters in

this focus of the 100-inch, which permits the spectra of closer stars to

be photographed separately.

Mr. Pease has obtained some excellent direct photographs of the

stars in the central part of the globular cluster Messier 13 at the

MOUNT WILSON OBSERVATORY. . 263

134-foot focus, but on account of the pressure of other work it has not

yet been feasible to make simultaneous exposures on the same cluster

with the 60-inch under good conditions of seeing. The large scale of

the Hooker photographs will permit the magnitudes of stars in the

central parts of clusters to be determined with less disturbance fromthe Eberhard effect than has been experienced with the 60-inch.

Simultaneous cluster photographs made with the two telescopes whenthe seeing was very poor (1 on a scale of 10) show decidedly better

results for the 60-inch, as would of course be expected from its muchshorter focal length.

Photographs of the moon have been made at the 134-foot focus of

the Hooker telescope by Mr. Pease, with very satisfactory results.

Many of these appear to be decidedly superior in definition to anypreviously taken with other instruments. The extraordinarily minutestructure seen visually on many occasions indicates that under the

best atmospheric conditions still better photographs can probably beobtained.

Some interesting photographs of Campbell's star -with hydrogenatmosphere (B D + 30°3639), showing a curious rift in the atmos-

phere on one side, have also been made by Mr. Pease at the 134-foot

focus, as well as several photographs of very small planetary nebulae

showing minute details of structure. Mr. Pease's photographs of

Campbell's star with a sUtless spectrograph seem to show that it is anannular nebula.

Some interesting experiments by Mr. Shapley and Mr. Benioff at

the 134-foot focus of the Hooker telescope indicate important possi-

bilities in photographing very faint stars. By placing a lens immedi-ately in front of the photographic plate in such a way as to make the

rays more rapidly convergent, thus bringing the equivalent focal length

down to about 30 feet, stars have been photographed which are about2.5 magnitudes fainter than those obtained during an equal exposure

without the lens. Such a device is certain to have important appli-

cations, and it remains to be seen what a similar arrangement \\dll

accomphsh at the principal focus of the Hooker telescope, where the

star images will naturally be much smaller.

Some promising preliminary work (not using the lens just mentioned)has been done with improvised arrangements in the principal focus of

the 100-inch mirror, but definitive tests at this point must await the

completion of the Newtonian cage and the observing-platform, whichwill soon be ready for use.

CONSTRUCTION WORK ON MOUNT WILSON.

Most of the construction work of the year has been done in Pasadena,where a two-story building about 46 by 90 feet in size, together with astorehouse and furnace-room, were erected and equipped in connection


with the optical work done for the Army Ordnance Department. Mr.Jones also assisted in the erection of the barracks on the campus of

Throop College of Technology for the use of the Students' ArmyTraining Corps. On Mount Wilson, in addition to the work on the

100-inch telescope, a dwelling-house was erected for the use of Mr.Sherburne, night assistant, and much brush was cleared to decrease

fire risks. The necessary building repairs, and the regular work of

clearing and maintaining the mountain road, were also carried out

under the direction of Mr. Jones, superintendent of building con-

struction.

Mr. Dowd, engineer in charge of the Mount Wilson power-plant,

has continued the electrical wiring in the dome of the 100-inch tele-

scope, mounted and connected an anemometer at the summit of the

dome of the 150-foot tower, installed a new circulating tank in the

150-foot tower telescope, wired the new spectrograph of the Snowtelescope, and done wiring and made various repairs in connection

with other instruments.

NUTRITION LABORATORY.*Francis G. Benedict, Director.

Since the character of the special service in which the Nutrition

Laboratory was engaged during the war required no fundamentalalteration in the organization of the Laboratory, the signing of the

armistice in November 1918 produced no change in the researches

then in progress or in the other phases of laboratory activity. TheNutrition Laboratory is thus in a nearly normal condition, with its

organization intact, although numerous changes among the youngermembers of the stafi' have taken place.

Special stress has been laid upon the technical details of the publi-

cation of two large reports, one giving the results of the study on the

undernutrition of man, and the other a biometric analysis of humanmetabolism. The most extensive research carried out by the Labora-

tory since the last annual report—that on the undernutrition of beef

animals—was a natural outcome of the study made in the winter of

1917-18 on the undernutrition of man. It was originally planned,

at least in part, to supply information as to possible methods of con-

servation in time of national need. In view of the abstract scientific

value of such a study, the research was continued after the signing of

the armistice, even though the practical need for such data was ap-

parently no longer imminent.

ADDITIONS TO EQUIPMENT.

Pursuit pendulum.—From the psychological data collected on avia-

tion candidates at the Nutrition Laboratory in the spring of 1917,

it was learned that certain tests of muscle coordination offered promisein the selection of aviators. The accuracy of ocular pursuit movementsin following a swinging pendulum correlated fairly well with the sub-

sequent progress of the men in learning to fly, but the photographic

technique for recording such ocular pursuit movements appeared to

certain individuals acting in an advisory capacity to the Governmentas too complex for adoption at the aviation fields. To meet this

objection, Dr. W. R. Miles designed a simplified apparatus with whichthe eye-hand pursuit coordination can be accurately tested. In this

apparatus a pendulum carrying a reservoir is arranged to swing over asink or table, a small stream of water flowing from the reservoir as the

pendulum swings. The individual under test attempts to collect the

water in a cup of limited diameter. A separate cup is used for eachdouble swing of the pendulum and the volume of liquid in each cup is

measured. The test will be of general usefulness.

*Situated in Boston, Massachusetts.

265


Pursuit-meter apparatus.—Considerable time has been spent during

the year in perfecting and rebuilding the pursuit-meter apparatus

which was referred to in the last annual report under the title of

''recorder for adequacy of motor adjustments."

Respiration chamber for large animals.—For use in the research on

the undernutrition of beef animals, a large respiration chamber wasconstructed by the Laboratory mechanician, Mr. W. E. Collins, at the

New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station in Durham. This

animal respiration chamber is, in principle and general form, like the

group respiration chamber referred to in an earlier report, but is smaller

and is modified to meet the requirements of a research with such large

animals as full-grown steers or horses. The inside chamber is 9 feet

7.5 inches long, 5 feet 5 inches wide, and 7 feet high, with the entrance

at the back. The animal stands on a platform slightly inclined. This

platform is movable, with the front end supported by chains and springs

in such a manner that connection with a pneumograph and kymographgives a graphic record of the movements of the animal. Accessory

apparatus, similar to that used with the group respiration chamber,

provides for the measurement of the carbon dioxid given off by the

animals by the determination of the carbon dioxid in an aliquot sam-

ple of the ventilating air current.

COOPERATING AND VISITING INVESTIGATORS.

Dr. Elliott P. Joslin, who served as lieutenant-colonel in the Medical

Corps in France during the war, has returned to this country and is

now preparing for publication the results of his studies on metabolism

in diabetes mellitus.

Dr. Fritz B. Talbot continued his cooperation in the studies of

normal children up to the time of their completion on July 1, 1919, and

is assisting in the preparation of the results for publication.

Dr. J. Arthur Harris attended to the major part of the details of

proof-reading and oversight of the report on the biometric analysis of

the results of metabolism studies in the Nutrition Laboratory, and has

prepared several brief summaries of this analytical study.

Mrs. Cornelia Golay Benedict has continued her investigations into

the calorific values of extra foods and has prepared a second report

of her findings in this field of practical interest.

A large share of the success of the research with steers carried out at

the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station is due to the

cooperation of Director J. C. Kendall and Professor E. G. Ritzman,

whose scientific interest and attention to the details of the research

have been unfailing.

An especially helpful feature of the research at the New Hampshire

Agricultural Experiment Station has been the privilege of conference

with Professor H. P. Armsby, of State College, Pennsylvania, who

NUTRITION LABORATORY. 267

visited the station in May 1919, inspected the animals and equipment,

and advised as to methods of reaUmentation. His extensive experience

in similar researches with animals made his counsel of special value.

STAFF NOTES.

After several years' most efficient service as chemist of the Labora-

tory, Miss Elizabeth B. Babcock resigned on May 1, 1919.

Following a number of years' service in the calorimetric work of the

Laboratory, Mr. Louis E. Emmes found it necessary to resign for a

permanent residence in the West, owing to illness in his family.

INVESTIGATIONS IN PROGRESS.

Distribution of alcohol in hens after exposure to alcohol-vapor.—

A

research on the distribution and concentration of ethyl alcohol in the

tissue of hens after exposure to its vapor has been conducted by Dr.

T. M. Carpenter, with the cooperation of Miss E. B. Babcock. Thegeneral procedure has been to place a hen in a chamber saturated with

alcohol-vapor for a given period, to kill the hen immediately at the

conclusion of the period, and to determine the alcohol in the various

tissues by the Nicloux method. Graphic registration of the activity

was secured and an attempt was made to determine the oxygen con-

sumption during the period. As results obtained in the early part of

the investigation indicated that the amount of alcohol remaining in the

body bore some relation to activity, a number of the hens were madeto increase their activity by means of periodic stimuli from an induc-

tion coil. 29 hens have been subjected to exposures to alcohol-vapor

varying from 2 to 29 hours in duration. In addition, two sets of 3

fowls were subjected to alcohol-vapor periodically from 4 to 6 hours a

day over several months to obtain information regarding the con-

centration in hens habituated to alcohol-vapor. Three dead hens were

also exposed under the same conditions as outlined for the purpose of

studying the role of diffusion in reference to distribution and con-

centration. A preliminary report of some of the data obtained wasgiven at the 1919 meeting of the American Federation of Biological

Societies. At the present writing it is planned to extend the research

to other animals and to include in the study the determination of the

alcohol utilized and the amount and character of the metabolism dur-

ing exposure.

Acquisition of skill in pendulum-pursuit test.—While the pendulum-pursuit test was originally designed to meet the needs of a simple test

of this nature for use with aviation candidates, it may be made a

general test of the hand-and-eye coordination. Before using this

method in other researches, it was desirable to obtain normal data

which would give Dr. Miles information on the range of individual

differences and the amount of improvement that might be expected


wdth successive trials. A group of 20 adults, mostly women, were

given a practice series of 20 trials a day for 35 days. The data, mostof which were collected by Mr. E. S. Mills, will be prepared for publi-

cation at an early date.

Preliminary experiments with pursuit-meter apparatus.—Dr. Miles's

pursuit-meter apparatus has unique advantages in measuring ability

for accurate continuous work. Immediately at the end of a test

period, one may read directly from the meters the integrated score for

the duration and magnitude of errors made by the subject. The score

for a test period of 5 minutes has been found in preliminary experi-

ments to range from 4,000 to 400 meter units, according to the age,

intelligence, and practice of the individual used in the experiment.

The task is found to be so simple that a child 5 years old can do it with

some degree of proficiency, while there is sufficient latitude for the

efforts of the keenest adult. A large number of trials have been madeon a few subjects to determine the best lighting conditions, to obtain

practice curves, and to improve the experimental routine.

Metabolism during muscular work.—Although no experimental workwas done last year on metabolism during muscular work, the results

of the earlier extensive study on metabolism during walking, carried

out by Dr. H. M. Smith, is in an advanced state of preparation for

publication. Plans have been made for direct calorimetric measure-

ment of the metabolism during severe muscular activity by means of a

specially constructed calorimeter. In anticipation of increased need

of space for these studies, two of the older respiration calorimeters

have been demolished to provide space for more modern apparatus.

Metabolism of normal children.—Studies on the basal metabolism of

normal children from 2 years of age to puberty have been continued in

cooperation with Dr. Fritz B. Talbot, at the New England Home for

Little Wanderers, and with the assistance of Miss Inza A. Boles andMrs. Dorothy A. Peabody. The studies were concluded on July 1,

1919, as sufficient material had been accumulated to give a reasonably

complete picture of the metabolism of children from birth to puberty.

A report of the later studies, with a general survey of the whole field

covered by the series of investigations, is being prepared for publi-

cation. A summary of the findings in the research on this subject was

presented by the Director as the Shattuck lecture at the meeting of the

Massachusetts Medical Society in June 1919.

Studies of metabolism with varying environmental temperatures.—Thestudies on the efTect of varying environmental temperatures upon the

metabolism have been extended this year, the subject being the sameartist's model used in last year's experimenting. The stimulating

effect of various foods was a feature of the series of observations under

these conditions. The clinical respiration chamber was used for the

measurements of the respiratory metabolism. Near the conclusion of


the research, this chamber was placed inside the group respiration

chamber, thus insuring complete control of the temperature environ-

ment. The investigation was carried out in cooperation with Miss

Alice Johnson and Miss Marion L. Baker.

Survey of skin temperature, with photographic records.—The apparatus

used for measuring the skin temperature in the research just cited was

so nearly instantaneous in its action that it was possible, by means of a

sensitive string galvanometer, to secure temperature curves from a

large number of points on the body. In cooperation with Dr. Miles,

photographic records were obtained of the deflections of the galvanom-

eter and a complete survey of the temperature of the skin in different

parts of the body was thus made. These topographical studies were

carried out with environmental temperatures varying from 14° to 30° C.

Miss AHce Johnson and Miss Marion L. Baker also assisted in these

observations.

Study of metabolism of large animals.—In continuation of the research

on undernutrition which was made with men at the International

Y. M. C. A. College, Springfield, Massachusetts, in the winter of 1917-

18, a study of the metabolism during undernutrition and in the sub-

sequent period of realimentation has been begun with full-grown steers

at the New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station, Durham,with the cooperation of Professor E. G. Ritzman. A large respiration

chamber has been built and experiments made throughout the winter,

spring, and fall, with the technical assistance of Miss Alice Johnson

and Miss Mary Hendry. The special purpose of the research was to

study the influence of submaintenance rations in the wintering and

subsequent fattening for market of farm animals. 12 steers of uni-

form type and weight were divided into four groups of 3 animals each.

The observations were begun in November 1918. A roughage main-

tenance ration was first given the animals for a preliminary period to

estabUsh the normal needs. The maintenance ration w^as then re-

duced one-fourth, one-third, and one-half, respectively, with three of

the groups, the fourth group being fed on a maintenance ration to

serve as a control upon the other three groups. Careful records were

kept of the body-weights, pulse-rates, and rectal temperatures, andalmost daily observations were made of the gaseous metabolism in the

respiration chamber, including records of the activity during the

experimental period. In May 1919 realimentation was begun, with

liberal feeding. When the animals are in market condition they will beslaughtered and observations made of the condition, quality, and weight

of the carcass, with especial attention to the effect of the prolonged

period of submaintenance feeding upon the rapidity and character of

the fattening. It is expected that the research will be continued

during the coming year with steers, and possibly other farm animals.

The calorific value of extra foods.—The determination of the calorific

value of such foods as are frequently taken outside of the regular meals,


or so-called "extra foods," has been continued by Mrs. Cornelia GolayBenedict. Among the food materials studied the past year are vari-

ous cream cheeses, candies (mostly of the penny variety), sardines,

olives, nuts, doughnuts, and a number of crackers. A second report

of the results of this study has been prepared for publication. In this

investigation Mrs. Benedict has been assisted by Miss Mary D. Finn

and Mrs. S. C. Stickney.

Metabolism of cold-blooded animals.—As Mr. Edward L. Fox wascalled into National service in the summer of 1918, the researches at the

New York Zoological Park on the metabolism of cold-blooded animals,

and especially of snakes, were discontinued for a time, but were resumedin July 1919.

Editorial and computing work.—The two monographs published this

year, i.e., the report of the study on metabolism during undernutrition,

a book of 700 pages, and the biometric study of basal metabolism of

man, with its novel and hence especially guarded technicalities, re-

quired the major portion of the time of several members of the staff

during the year for proof-reading and attention to the numerous techni-

cal details. A number of journal articles have also been prepared,

giving summaries of results which will appear later in more detail in

other publications. Several monographs and journal articles are nowin preparation for publication. The mass of experimental material

which has accumulated in the various researches required a temporary

enlargement of the computing staff. Plans are being made for print-

ing in permanent form the various tables, formulae, etc., employed in

computing metabolism experiments, for the general use of investigators.

PUBLICATIONS.

The following publications have been issued during the present year:

(1) The sex expression of men living on a lowered nutritional level. W. R. Miles. Journ.Mental and Nervous Disease, 49, 208 (1919).

This paper gives a detailed presentation of sex data collected in connectionwith the low-diet investigation reported in the monograph entitled HumanVitality and Efficiency under Prolonged Restricted Diet (Carnegie Inst.

Wash. Pub. No. 280, 1919). The introspective accounts which form thebasis of this paper were obtained under the most favorable circumstances.

Of the 24 individuals studied, 22 report a decrease in sex interest and expression

associated with the period of undernutrition. Any recommendation for

general reduction in diet must therefore regard the probable effect on the sex

instinct. The results suggest a method of treatment for achieving restraint

in pathological cases.

(2) The concentration of alcohol in the tissues of hens after inhalation. T. M. Carpenterand E. B. Babcock. Proc. Am. Physiol. Soc, Am. Journ. Physiol., 49, 128(1919).

An abstract presented at the 1919 meeting of the American Federation of

Biological Societies of some of the data obtained in the investigation of theconcentration of alcohol in the tissues of hens after inhalation.


(3) Gaseous exchange with unpracticed subjects and two respiration apparatus employingthree breathing apphances. M. F. Hendry, T. M. Carpenter, and L. E.Emmes. Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 181, 28.5, 334, and 368 (1919).

The respiratory exchange of 17 medical students, unpracticed with regard

to respiratory studies employing breathing appliances, was measured in

duphcate determinations with the portable respiration apparatus (Benedict)

and a respiratory-valve apparatus, using mouthpiece, pneumatic nosepieces,

or a half-face mask. Six different sequences of combinations of breathing

appliance and respiration apparatus were utilized. All subjects were awake,inactive, and in the post-absorptive state. The averages of all results with

the two types of respiration apparatus and the averages of the results obtained

with the three breathing apphances are given in the table herewith.

Average of results obtained in the measurment of respiratory exchange with 17 unpracticedsubjects.

[Values per minute.]

Apparatus

£•23^

Expired air.

CO2 O2 deficit

With 2 types of apparatus:

Portable

Respiratory valve

With 3 breathing appliances:

Nosepieces

MouthpieceMask

c.c.

202190

c.c.

238233

0.85.82

14.5

14.2

liters.

6.475.26

c.c.

556464

p. ct.

3.223.67

p. ct.

3.774.48

196

201

191

235238235

0.84.85

.81

13.814.514.7

5.405.836.36

494503534

3.723.523.10

4.414.173.80

The specific practical appHcations and recommendations in regard to chni-

cal use of apparatus for the measurement of the respiratory exchange are as

follows: All of the combinations of respiration apparatus and breathingappliances give reliable results in the measurement of oxygen consumption.The most efficient combination for this purpose is the portable respiration

apparatus and mouthpiece; when only basal metabohsm is desired, themeasurement of oxygen consumption alone is sufficient. When it is desired

to investigate the action of food and drugs upon both the character and thequantitative relationships of metabolism, the respiratory-valve apparatusand mask, with a practiced subject, is the only combination that will givereliable scientific results.

The oxj^gen consumption and respiratory quotient during the period be-tween 8''30'" a.m. and 12'>30°' p.m., with the subject in the post-absorptivestate, awake, and at rest, do not show material change in level on the basis of

the average of results obtained with the 17 men.

(4) A biometric study of basal metabolism in man. J. Arthur Harris and Francis G.Benedict. Carnegie Inst. Wash. Pub. No. 279 (1919).

This volume presents a first attempt at a more refined analysis of the dataof basal metabolism by means of the higher statistical or biometric formulge.

Measurements of 136 men, 103 women, and 94 new-born infants, all of which


have been made at the Nutrition Laboratory or by those working in cooper-

ation with it, serve as a basis of the conclusions drawn. The original data,

many of which have not heretofore been pubHshed, are given in full.

These data, the most extensive series as yet available, have been summarizedin terms of statistical constants (means, standard deviations, coefficients of

variation, coefficients of correlation, and regression equations) which mustserve as standard constants in metabolism work until those based upon moreextensive series of data are available.

The relationships between certain of the physical and physiological measure-

ments of the human individual, and between the various physiological measure-

ments, have been expressed in terms of correlation coefficients and represented

by regression equations. The effect upon these correlations of correction for

other variables has also been discussed. The results from the data already

available amply illustrate the material advances in our knowledge of physio-

logical processes which may be expected when the interrelationship of the

physical and physiological variables shall be generally expressed on a quanti-

tative scale.

The change in metaboUsm with age during the period of adult hfe is in-

vestigated in detail and equations for the correction of metabolism for age

have been given. The decrease in basal metabolism with age during the period

of adult life is approximately linear.

The differentiation of the sexes in metaboHc activity is considered, with the

result that men have been shown by all of the series of tests appHed to have a

higher basal metabolism than women.The validity of the so-called body-surface law has been tested by criteria

hitherto unemployed. This "law" has been discussed as an empirical meansof predicting the metabolism of an unknown subject and as an expression of a

true physiological interrelationship. It has been shown that, as a basis for

predicting the metabohsm of an unknown subject, body-surface as estimated

by any of the formulae as yet available is inferior to equations given in this

volume. Grave doubt has also been thrown upon the physiological signifi-

cance of the so-called law.

In connection with the investigation of the "body-surface law," various

methods of predicting the metabolism of an unknown subject have been con-

sidered and it has been shown that the most satisfactory results are obtained

by the use of multiple regression equations involving stature, weight, and age.

Standard tables have been prepared for men and women from which the mostprobable metabohsm of a subject whose normal basal metabolism is unknownmay be easily determined.

Illustrations are given of the wide usefulness of such tables in investigating

the problems of the typical or atypical nature of series of metabohsm measure-

ments, the problem of the differentiation of the sexes with respect to meta-

bohc activity, of the metabohsm of athletes as compared with non-athletic

individuals, and of individuals suffering from disease.

(5) A biometric study of human basal metabolism. J. Arthur Harris and Francis G.Benedict. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 4, 370 (1918).

An abbreviated presentation of the material in Publication No. 279, Car-

negie Institution of Washington (1919).

(6) Biometric standards for energy requirements in human nutrition. J. Arthur Harris

and Francis G. Benedict. Sci. Monthly, 8, 385 (1919).

An outline of some of the problems which require consideration in estabhsh-

ing normal standards for work in human nutrition is given in this paper, which

was preliminary to the detailed report of the biometric study of basal metab-


olism of man in Publication No. 279 of the Carnegie Institution of Wash-ington (1919). (See abstracts 4 and 5.) The data for a large number of men,women, and new-born infants are briefly discussed analytically, and their

relationships graphically illustrated. The frequencies of total heat production

and heat production per square meter of body-surface, and the coefficients of

variation on the basis of total heat production per 24 hours, are given, the

latter being greater than that for stature, less than for body-weight, andapproximately the same as for pulse-rate. To show the relationships be-

tween physical characteristics and basal metabolism, a comparison is madeby the use of correlation coefficients. Those between body-weight andmetabolism are higher than the coefficients between stature and metabolism

while those between the metabolism and body-weight and body-surface,

respective^, are approximately of the same magnitude. By the use of partial

correlation formulae this increase is shown to be not merely an interrelation-

ship, as both stature and bodj^-weight have an independent significance in

indicating the daily heat production. The relationship between metabohsmand age is also discussed. As a result of this analysis of metabolism data

multiple prediction equations are suggested for predicting the daily caloric

output of individuals of both sexes from body-weight, height, and age.

Graphic illustrations are given of the ways in wliich these equations may be

practically apphed.

(7) The energy loss of young Vv'omen during the muscular activity of light household work.Francis G. Benedict and Alice Johnson. Proc. Am. Phil. Sec, 58, 89 (1919).

To supply exact information regarding the energy requirements for light

household work, the Nutrition Laboratory has begun a study of the heat out-

put of women in various domestic activities. A preHminary report of the

observations was given at the meeting of the American Philosophical Society

in April 1919. The subjects thus far studied have been young women fromthe domestic science department of Simmons College, approximately 200women taking part in the experiments. The apparatus used for determiningthe carbon-dioxid production was the group respiration chamber, previously

referred to in the annual reports, with which 25 or more individuals can bestudied simultaneously.

In all, 12 experiments were made, covering 48 periods 20 or 25 minutes in

length. To provide a standard for computing the increase in energy required

for the particular household occupation studied, the energy loss of the groupsof young women while sitting quietly reading 2 hours after a light breakfastwas determined at the beginning of every experiment in from 1 to 3 periods.

As a result of 23 rest periods on 12 experimental daj^s, it was found that theaverage heat output per kilogram per hour was 1.12 calories. This averagefigure of 1.12 calories has a specific interest in that it indicates the probableheat production of women sitting quietly under ordinary Uving conditionswith a moderate amount of food in the stomach.

In the thi'ee experiments when the women read aloud, the increments foundwere 3, 1, and 5 per cent, respectively, with an average of 3 per cent. Withthe subjects singing, the increments were 17, 34, and 16 per cent, respectively,

with an average of 22 per cent. In the two experiments with the womendoing plain sewing (hemming), increments of 16 and 10 per cent were found,with an average of 13 per cent. One experiment was made with a group of

women standing quietly, which gave an increment of 9 per cent. With agroup of women sweeping, increments were obtained in two experiments of

139 and 161 per cent, with an average of 150 per cent. Three experiments in

which the subjects dusted chairs showed increments of 126, 121, and 156 per


cent, with an average of 134 per cent. In the two experiments in which theyoung women stood up and immediately sat down again, it was found thatan energy expenditure of approximately one-third calorie was required perindividual and per movement for this activity. In the one experiment in

which the women walked about the chamber for 25 minutes at the slow rateof 1.08 miles an hour, the extra energy due to the walking was 1.24 calories

per kilogram per hour. As the average weight of the subjects was 54 kilo-

grams, the activity of walking therefore required an average extra expenditureof energy for each individual of 62 calories per mile.

(8) The temperature of the human skin. F. G. Benedict, W. R. Miles, and Alice Johnson.Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., 5, 218 (1919).

In April 1919 a prehminary report of the study begun at the NutritionLaboratory on the temperature of the human skin was presented at themeeting of the National Academy of Sciences at Washington. The apparatusemployed to give true records of the skin temperature consists of two copper-constantan junctions, one of which is located in a constant-temperature bath,with a temperature not far from 31° to 32° C, and the other is applied to theskin. The latter is protected from the environmental temperature by abacking of cotton and a rigid installation in hard rubber. When the junc-tion is placed upon the body, it assumes the temperature of the skin in 6seconds. Readings of a galvanometer in series, referred to a cahbratedstandard, give the direct values for the skin temperature. The subject usedin the study (an artist's model) was able to withstand relatively low tem-peratures, without discomfort or shivering. It was thus possible to maketopographical studies of skin temperature with environmental temperaturesof 14° to 30° C.By moving the thermal junction at a moderately rapid rate over the skin

surface, and the use of a sensitive string galvanometer, temperature curveswere thus obtained from an infinite number of different points on the body,the deflections of the galvanometer being recorded photographically. Fromperiodic observations of the skin temperature, information was obtained asto the rapidity of the change in this factor after exposure of the body and alsoas to the absolute level to which the skin temperature falls after prolongedexposure to different degrees of cold. Observations were made under ordinaryclothing, also with the subject nude. Under the clothing the values ranged ona typical day from 28.1° to 34.7° C, with a difference of 6.6° C. After ex-posure of two or more hours to an environmental temperature of approxi-mately 14° C, they ranged from 19.1° to 29.7° C, with a difference of 10.6° C.At a temperature of 30° C, the skin temperature at various points on the bodyshowed an extreme variation of 4.2° C.

(9) Energy requirements of children from birth to puberty. Francis G. Benedict. BostonMed. and Surg. Journ., 181, 107 (1919).

In this paper, which was presented as the Shattuck lecture to the Massa-chusetts Medical Society in June 1919, a history is given of the research onthe energy requirements of normal children which has been conducted thepast 8 years by the Nutrition Laboratory. Some of the infants studied,notably those of wet-nurses, were followed up for several years and observa-tions made from time to time, giving results for the same individual during aperiod of rapid growth. The apparatus used is described and illustrated,

typical kymograph curves are given showing pulse-rate and degree of muscularactivity or repose, and the results obtained in the 8 years of investigation


are summarized and compared. Emphasis is laid upon the fact that " normal"and "average," when used in considering data obtained with children, are not

synonymous terms, owing to the large proportion of underweight children.

The suggestion is made that, for a basis of comparison, the weight as comparedwith height is more logical than the weight as compared with age.

Charts are given comparing the minimum or basal heat production of new-born infants on the basis of age ; also a chart showing the heat production of a

normal infant at various times during a period of 4 years. The observations

with the normal children studied are summarized for boys and girls separately

in a nimaber of graphic comparisons, in which the basal heat production per

24 hours is considered on the bases of age, body-weight, and body-surface.

A comparison is made of the data for boys and girls to determine the influence

of sex, and of both boys and girls with results for men and women to show the

difference between the metabolism in the period of growth and in adult hfe.

The influence of approaching puberty is also considered.

"From these charts it is clear that at a very early age, i.e., with low weights,

the metabohsm is specifically low. It then rises rapidly until the child's

weight has increased to approximately 10 kilograms, when it is at its maximumper unit of weight and per unit of area. There is next a steady decrease until

approximately 30 to 40 kilograms, when the early adult period begins,"" It must be borne in mind that in the making of such curves there is danger of

misinterpretation as to the fixity of the lines, and it should be rememberedthat they represent trends only." "Up to 8 kilograms no differences in the

sexes are to be noted, but thereafter the boys have a somewhat higher heatproduction on the whole, thus indicating a specifically somewhat higher

metabolism with the growing boy than with the growing girl."

The details of the earlier studies with infants are given in PubKcations Nos.201 and 233 of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. The complete results

of the later investigations, including those with the older boys and girls, are

being prepared for publication.

(10) Human vitality and efficiency under prolonged restricted diet. Francis G. Benedict,Walter R. Miles, Paul Roth, and H. Monmouth Smith. Carnegie Inst.

Wash. Pub. No. 280 (1919).

A detailed abstract of the results obtained in the study of human vitality

and efficiency with a prolonged restriction of diet was given in the previous

annual report in reviewing a preliminary report of the findings of this research.

(See "The effects of a prolonged reduced diet on twenty-five college men" in

the annual report of the Director for 1918.) It thus appears unnecessary to

give a further abstract of the results here.

(11) The energy content of extra foods. (Second paper.) Cornelia Golay Benedict andF. G. Benedict. Boston Med. and Surg. Journ., 181, 415 (1919).

A report of the latest results of the study on the energy content of "extrafoods" is given in the second paper of this series, in which a considerable

number of food materials used on picnics, automobile tours, and for incidental

meals are treated of. The energy content is given of ohves and ohve products,

sardines, nuts, potato chips, doughnuts, confectionery (especially the "pennycandies"), cream cheeses, popcorn, crackers, and pretzels. In view of theincreasing use of refined sugar in American homes, the caloric value of ordinaryservings of granulated sugar and the weights and sizes of various lump sugars

are also discussed. The method followed in determining the energy valuesreported in the fii'st paper, i.e., the direct determination of the caloric value bymeans of the bomb calorimeter, was used for these food materials.


The ordinary bottled olives of average size had a caloric value per olive of

8 to 10 calories, extra large olives 14 to 15 calories, and small olives, including

stuffed olives, 4 or 5 calories. "Olive butter," sold for use in sandwiches,

suppUed approximately 10 calories in a level teaspoonful. The popularsardine (American brands) showed an energy value of 221 to 533 calories per

can, with 15 to 26 grams of protein. The two samples of imported sardines

had an energy value per can somewhat higher than the American brands, i.e.,

not far from 500 calories. Owing to their high fat-content, the nuts analyzed

gave an energy value per gram of from 7.0 calories (peanuts) to 7.9 calories

(filberts). Thus, 10 half walnuts contain nearly 150 calories and 10 peanuts60 calories. Potato chips contained an average of 5.9 calories per gram, 544to 714 calories a box, and somewhat over 130 calories in one average "helping."

Doughnuts (6 samples) showed an energy value of 4.4 to 5.1 calories per gram,individual doughnuts yielding 151 to 256 calories, or 200 calories on the

average. A single oyster cracker was found to give, on the average, 3.5

calories, while a pretzel suppUed about 19 calories. Of the variety of candies

examined, caramels had an approximate value of 50 calories per caramel;

chocolate-coated candies ranged from 12.9 calories for a small chocolate al-

mond to 83 calories for a large nougatine, while chocolate peppermints gave33 to 54 calories each. Several miscellaneous candies containing no chocolate

supplied less energy than the chocolate candies, a gum-drop yielding about 35calories, a mint candy 5.3 calories, a marshmallow 13.4 calories, and a cough-drop 11.4 calories. The penny candies gave from 50 to 60 calories for a cent

and in two instances over 100 calories. Popcorn cakes supplied 4 calories

per gram and cream cheeses from 2.06 to 3.65 calories per gram. A studymade of the measurement of a spoonful of sugar showed a wide variation in

the amounts obtained by 17 individuals. A teaspoonful of sugar contained

29 to 35 calories, while the caloric content of a spoonful measured with a"sugar spoon" was 41 calories. Lump sugar, full size, gave 24 to 29 calo-

ries, and 18 calories half size. The relationship between the consumption of

these extra foods and the 24-hour requirement is briefly discussed.

I

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.*Louis A. Bauer, Director.

GENERAL SUMMARY.INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.

The closing of the great conflict among nations interested in the

advancement of scientific work, especially work of international char-

acter and scope, has made it possible for the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism to return, though slowly, to its normal activities. Membersof the scientific personnel, both those directly and those indirectly

engaged in wanning the war for humanity and science, have gradually

resumed their pre-war duties in the Department. However, great

difficulties are being encountered, which may be expected to continue

for some time to come, in the resumption of the Department's full

program of pre-war days, because of the excessively high costs of

maintenance and operations. Thus the cost of maintaining the Car-

negie in full sea-service will be somewhat more than twice that before

the war. The same is true of other portions of the Department's work.

Unless, therefore, the annual funds heretofore available to the

Department are increased considerably, a reduction of the usual pro-

gram will be imperative. If the latter step must be taken it will be

all the more unfortunate for the cause of international research in

geophysics, since we may not look forward confidently to receiving

cooperation from the nations, impoverished by the war, to the sameextent as in pre-war days. The setback to science for many years to

come is one of the most unfortunate results of the great war.

The facts just stated indicate sufficiently why it has been necessary

to proceed slowly with the resumption of observational and investi-

gational work. The main endeavor has been to unite, as far as possible,

the threads severed by the war, and to bring to a conclusion such

researches as had already been under way rather than undertake or

begin anything radically new.

OCEAN MAGNETIC WORK.

The rapid deterioration of a modem-built wooden vessel while lying

idle at port, as the Carnegie was obliged to do after her arrival at

Washington in June 1918, decided the Executive Committee of the

Institution to authorize in February 1919 the complete overhauling

and putting in good repair of the vessel for another cruise of world-wideextent. An additional appropriation for this purpose was accordingly

made by the Executive Committee, which funds, supplemented byaccumulated Department balances from previous years, sufficed to putthe Carnegie in first-class condition for full sea-service. A detailed

statement as to alterations and repairs will be found in CommanderAult's report (pp. 284-285).

Address, Thirty-sixth Street and Broad Branch Road, Washington, D. C.

277


The Carnegie left her home port, Washington, October 9, 1919, for

a cruise (No. VI) of 64,000 nautical miles, requiring somewhat over 2

years for completion. For the first 6 months she will be cruising mainly

in the South Atlantic Ocean, where the completion of her work in 1917

was made unsafe during the war. Thence, after extending the work in

the Indian Ocean, carried out on the Carnegie in 1911, she will makesuch cruises in the Pacific Ocean as are designed not only to cover large

areas not magnetically surveyed, but also to determine by intersection

of previous tracks of the Carnegie and of her predecessor, the Galilee,

the changes ever going on in the Earth's magnetism. These changes,

of course, will also be determined in the other oceans traversed by

again arranging the vessel's tracks so as to secure, as often as possible,

frequent intersections with previous tracks of the Carnegie.

The heavy demand for vessels in the resumption of traffic and com-

mercial intercourse will probably make it impossible in the near future

for other countries to engage, or to participate, in ocean observational

and investigational work. It would seem, then, that added responsi-

bility is put upon us, and that we may have to regard it as our duty,

in spite of the heavy additional cost, to maintain the Carnegie in full

operation, certainly until a time when other nations have recuperated

sufficiently to share adequately in the promotion of work and researches

of international benefit and concern. The statement of the hydrog-

rapher of the British Admiralty, received in July 1917, to the effect

that in the preparation of the navigator's magnetic charts for 1917

chief dependence for new information had to be put upon the magnetic

work of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, will, doubtless, have

to be the case for some time to come in future editions of these charts.

LAND MAGNETIC WORK AND ECLIPSE OBSERVATIONS.

For reasons already stated, it was possible to resume the field obser-

vational work only to a limited extent. The field work successfully

accomplished during the period November 1918 to October 1919 is

briefly as follows, the details being given on pages 286-291.

1. Africa.—Observer Frederick Brown, after discharge from the

British Army, reentered the employ of the Department on March1 and, after preparations under the Director's guidance at London,sailed from Liverpool on April 8 for Douala, Cameroun, where he

arrived May 2. After securing repeat observations at various

stations, he participated in the international eclipse magneticobservations of May 29, his station being Campo, Cameroun,about 100 miles north of the belt of totality. He next set out on

June 11 for an overland trip through the interior of Cameroun,from Kribi to Fort Lamy, near Lake Tchad. Thence he will return

to Douala via a route through the western part of the FrenchKongo.

In connection with the eclipse observations at Cape Palmas,

Liberia, 3 magnetic stations were occupied in the vicinity by the

Director and Magnetician H. F. Johnston.

DEPARTMENT OF TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM. 279

2. Africa and Asia.—Observer H. E. Sawyer, returning from his extensivework in Central Africa, as described in previous reports, securedmagnetic observations during November and December 1918 atvarious stations, some of which were repeat stations, where theDepartment had previously made observations.

Early in January 1919 magnetic observations were received fromCapt. R. Amundsen, made at 3 stations along the Siberian coastwith the magnetic instruments loaned the Amundsen Polar Expedi-tion by the Department (see Annual Report for 1918, p. 240).These stations were at Vaigach (latitude 69?7 N., longitude 60?

2

E.), occupied August 12-13, 1918; Khabarowa (latitude 69?7 N.,longitude 60?4 E.), occupied August 15, 1918; and Port Dickson(latitude 73?5 N., longitude 81° E.), occupied September 2-3,

1918. The second station was probably close to the 1893 station

of the Norwegian North Polar Expedition.Professor Boris Weinberg, of the University of Tomsk, Siberia,

was loaned a land dip-circle to complete the magnetic outfit withwhich he hopes to secure in 1919 some cooperative observationsin Siberia.

3. Australia.—(See observatory work at Watheroo, p. 291.) Coopera-tion was received in the continuation of the magnetic survey of

South Austraha from Gcrvernment Astronomer G. F. Dodwell,Adelaide Observatory, and Professor Kerr Grant, University of

Adelaide. These investigators are using a magnetometer, as well

as directions and forms, supphed by the Department. Theirwork, as shown by the cahiers of observations received at Wash-ington, is carefully done and forms a valuable contribution.

4. North America.—Magnetician H. W. Fisk and Observers H. R.Grummann and R. R. Mills carried out a series of magnetic obser-vations at 13 stations along the lower shores of Chesapeake Bay.The prime purpose of this work was in connection with the reductionof the past and future "swing observations" of the Carnegie in

the Chesapeake, off the Patuxent River. For observational andinstrumental work at Washington, see pages 293-294.

5. South America.—Observer A. Sterling, after discharge fromthe American Army, was assigned to field work in Chile andArgentina. He arrived at Valparaiso on March 19, 1919, andafter repeat observations at Santiago and Puerto Montt, reachedPunta Arenas, Chile, on April 6, making observations here as wellas en route. Thence he proceeded to occupy stations chiefly

along the eastern coast of Argentina. At a number of his stations,

magnetic observations had been made previously under theauspices of the Meteorological Service of Argentina. He occupieda former station of the Department at Colon, Uruguay, and alsoobtained comparisons with the magnetic standards at the Vas-souras Observatory, Brazil.

For an account of the work of Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds's partyin Peru, see Observatory Work, page 291, and EcHpse Work, page290.

Observer D. M. Wise's party, besides carrying out the full

program of ecHpse work at Sobral, Brazil, described on page 290,made magnetic observations at 11 stations in eastern Brazil andat Barbados; at 4 of these stations the Department had madeobservations previously.


ECLIPSE OBSERVATIONS.

In connection with the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, the belt

of totality of which passed through Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Southern

Liberia, French Kongo, Kongo State, and British East Africa, the

Department made geophysical observations at various stations andalso secured cooperation at stations the world over, inside and outside

the region of visibility of the eclipse. The observations at many of

these cooperating stations have already been received.

The Department's observations were as follows:

Inside the totality-belt.—Magnetic, electric, meteorological, and shadow-band observations at Sobral, Brazil, by Observers D. M. Wise and A. Thom-son, the sky being clear during totality, which lasted here a little over 5

minutes; and at Cape Palmas, Liberia, by the Director and Magnetician H. F.

Johnston. Totality lasted at Cape Palmas the unusual length of 6| minutesand the sky was almost entirely clear throughout the eclipse, from beginning

to end. For results, see abstract, page 311.

Outside the totality-belt.—Huayao, Peru, by Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds andAssistant Observer F. G. Rosemberg; Puerto Deseado, Argentina, by Observer

A. Sterling; Campo, Cameroun, by Observer F. Brown; Watheroo Observa-

tory, West Australia, by Magnetician W. F. Wallis and Observer W. C.

Parkinson; and at Washington, D. C, by Computer C. R. Duvall. OnlyWatheroo and Washington were outside the region of visibility of the eclipse.

OBSERVATORY WORK.

Western Australia.—The buildings for the magnetic work were com-

pleted in time to begin the photographic registration of the magnetic

variations on January 1, 1919. The inauguration of the work in

terrestrial electricity has had to be deferred until 1920, the present

heavy costs and difficulties of construction making it imperative to

postpone the erection of the required auxiliary buildings. After three

years' faithful and arduous work, it will be possible, toward the end

of the fiscal year, to relieve Mr. W. F. Wallis, who has been in charge

of the constructional and observational work at Watheroo since 1916.

Magnetician E. Kidson, after his discharge from the British Army in

June, reentered the employ of the Department and will assume charge

of the Watheroo Observatory in October 1919. Observer W. C. Park-

inson, as in the past, has been the chief assistant at this station.

Peru.—In view of the extensive experience now gained by Dr.

H. M. W. Edmonds in observatory work and field work in terrestrial

magnetism, he was detached from service as surgeon and magnetician

aboard the Carnegie, and intrusted with the responsible task of the

construction and equipment of a magnetic observatory in Peru at

Huayao, near Huancayo, situated about 125 miles east of Lima, at an

elevation above sea-level of about 11,000 feet. Dr. Edmonds arrived

at Lima in March and is making as rapid progress as the conditions

permit. He is assisted by Assistant Observer F. G. Rosemberg, a


native of Lima, who secured his collegiate training at SjTacuse Uni-

versity, New York. Furthermore, A. Smith, carpenter, was sent to

Peru in June to assist Dr. Edmonds.Washington.—The atmospheric-electric work at Washington was

conducted throughout the year under the charge of Dr. S. J. Mauchly,

in the small house erected on the deck of the laboratory.

Comparisons of magnetic instruments have been made from time to

time at the Standardizing Magnetic Observatory at Washington, as

well as at various foreign observatories. For details regarding the

Observatory work, see pages 291-293.

RESEARCH WORK IN WASHINGTON.

TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM.

The return to normal activities has made possible further progress

with the manuscript for Volume IV of the Researches of the Depart-

ment. This volume will contain the results of the land magnetic obser-

vations, 1914 to 1919, those of the ocean observations 1917 and 1918,

besides monographs on special subjects. It is hoped now that the

manuscript will be completed by the end of 1919.

The extensive observations made in connection with the total solar

eclipse of June 8, 1918, by the Department and by many cooperating

observatories, were reduced and discussed and published in final formin the issues of Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity for

September and December 1918, and March and June 1919. The results

will be found summarized on pages 306-308. It is beheved that the

gratifying cooperation received and the prompt transmission of data,

both with regard to this eclipse and the recent one of May 29, 1919, is

to be attributed in some measure, at least, to the prompt reduction andpublication of data.

In connection with various problems, the Director has had occasion

to establish, in a form convenient for ready calculation, formulae for the

potential and field components of certain uniformly magnetized bodies,

such as solid ellipsoids of revolution and elliptic homoeoids. (See

abstract, p. 308.)

Various theoretical investigations connected with miUtary matters

were brought to a conclusion and may be reported upon at some future

time.

Improvements in reduction-methods of field observations have beenmade by Mr. Fisk, as shown in the abstract, page 313.

The design of a sine galvanometer for measuring the field intensity of

the Earth's magnetism with great precision and rapidity has received

further improvement at the hands of Dr. Barnett, and the construction

in the Department's shop has been begun. For improvements in other

instrumental matters, see pages 299-301.


Those taking chief part in the investigational work of terrestrial

magnetism at Washington were: L. A. Bauer, S. J. Barnett, W. J.

Peters, J. A. Fleming, J. P. Ault, H. W. Fisk, C. R. Duvall, C. C. Ennis,

and H. B. Hedriek.

For further accounts of above work, see abstracts, pages 302-3 16.

MAGNETISM IN GENERAL,

By December 1919, it is hoped that the non-magnetic building, knownas the experiment building and erected under Mr. Fleming's charge

on the Department's site at Washington, will be ready for use in special

experimental work pertaining to fundamental problems in magnetism.For details of construction, see pages 301 and 302.

The following chief problems, besides those elsewhere mentioned,

have engaged Dr. Barnett's attention during the year:

(a) The investigation of certain aspects of crystal magnetization.

(b) Continuation of the experiments on magnet-photography, referred

to in the annual reports of 1917 and 1918.

(c) Continuation of the experiments on magnetization produced byrotation and rotation produced by magnetization. (The com-pletion of the Experiment Building will furnish exceptional

facilities for these important experiments.)

(d) Method of determining the acceleration of gravity at sea with the

requisite accuracy.

Dr. Barnett also gave a course of 26 lectures on theories of magnetism

at the Laboratory between September 1918 to June 1919, which course

was attended by members of the Department, U. S. Bureau of Stand-

ards, and U. S. Patent Office. For further accounts of work done byhim, see page 294 and abstracts pages 304-306.

TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY.

In view of the growing importance of investigations in atmospheric

electricity, earth-currents, and polar lights, a Section of Terrestrial

Electricity, under the immediate charge of Dr. S. J. Mauchly and as a

part of the work of the Division of Experimental Work, was formed at

the beginning of the year. The following chief investigations engaged

the attention of the section:

(a) Improved continuous registrations of the electric potential-gradient

and electric conductivity of the atmosphere in the deck-house onthe roof of the Laboratory at Washington,

(fe) Reduction and discussion of the atmospheric-electric observations

at Lakin, Kansas, in connection with the total solar eclipse of

June 8, 1918. (See abstract, p. 307.)

(c) Methods, instructions, reduction, and discussion of the atmospheric-

electric observations made by Mr. Wise's party at Sobral,

Brazil, in connection with the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919.

(d) Improvements in methods and instruments for the atmospheric-

electric work on the Carnegie.

(e) Further critical studies of earth-current observations.


Chief assistance was rendered Dr. Barnett and Dr. Mauchly, by-

Messrs. D. M. Wise and A. Thomson, and occasional assistance byMessrs. H. R. Grummann, C. A. Kotterman, T. C. Kiesel, and M. B.

Smith. For details of work, see page 296.

STANDARDIZING AND INSTRUMENT WORK.

The work under this head has continued in Mr. Fleming's charge.

On pages 293 and 299 he makes a detailed report, from which the fol-

lowing synopsis has been prepared

:

(a) Considerable work in the overhauling, improving, repairing, andconstructing of instruments and appliances for the observa-

tional and experimental investigations of the Department wasaccomplished with the available shop-force.

(6) Compass-variometers in improved form were designed and con-

structed, as well as an inertia-gimbal system for the elimination

of dynamic and magnetic deviations in instruments for use onshipboard.

(c) The string galvanometer (see p. 313), designed and constructed

by the Department, was arranged for use with the marine earth-

inductor on the Carnegie.

(d) Improvements in the Carnegie's equipment for ocean atmospheric-electric work.

(e) Partial construction of sine-galvanometer for measuring horizontal

intensity of Earth's magnetic field. (See pp. 294 and 300.)

(/) Designing of the electric installation on the Carnegie and design andconstruction of the switch-boards for the Carnegie and the

Experiment Building.

The Department has continued to make all non-magnetic castings for

the various instruments in its own small brass foundry. The success

achieved here has attracted the attention of others, who have applied

for and received instructions in the methods employed.

The personnel of the shop consisted of Messrs. C. Huff, G. H. Jung,

W. F. Steiner, instrument makers; A. Smith, carpenter and pattern-

maker; J. G. Lorz, apprentice.

MISCELLANEOUS ACTIVITIES.

Besides the activities of members of the Department, described in

the previous pages, an account will be found under "Abstracts" of

papers contributed to learned societies and special conferences. In

connection with the meeting of the American Physical Society, the

Department took part in the display of instruments. From time to

time the research committee of the Department has met in the Direc-

tor's study for discussion and presentation of scientific subjects of

special concern and interest.

The Director, after the return to England of his eclipse expedition to

Cape Palmas, Liberia (see pp. 311-313), represented the United States

Weather Bureau at the preliminary conference of official weather-


bureau directors called at London, July 3 to 9, by Sir Napier Shaw,president of the pre-war International Meteorological Committee.From July 18 to 28 he attended at Brussels, as delegate, by appoint-

ment of the president of the National Academy of Sciences, the meet-ings of the International Research Council, International Geodetic

and Geophysical Union, and of other unions established by the council.

A brief account of the actions taken at Brussels on matters of interest

to the Department is given on pages 309-311. It will suffice to state

here that a Section on Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity of the

International Geodetic and Geophysical Union was established andtentatively organized as follows: A. Tanakadate (Japan), president;

Charles Chree (England), vice-president; Louis A. Bauer, secretary

and director of the central bureau.

DETAILS OF OBSERVATIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

OCEAN-SURVEY WORK.

At the conclusion of Cruise V on June 30, 1918, the ocean-survey

work was discontinued for the remaining period of the war. Dr.

H. M. W. Edmonds continued in command of the Carnegie in Wash-ington through December 1918, and had general supervision of the

overhauling and dismantling of equipment and instruments. OnDecember 31 he was relieved of conmiand to take charge of and to

prepare for the important work of acquiring a site and constructing the

proposed observatory in Peru.

Mr. J. P. Ault resumed command of the Carnegie on January 1, 1919,

and took up the general overhauling, repairing, and outfitting of the

vessel for the resumption of the ocean-survey work. A cruise of 2 or 3

years was planned to start in August 1919, as it was expected that the

repairs and alterations would then be completed. The unsurveyedregions in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans are to be covered andthe return is to be made through the Pacific Ocean and Panama Canalto Washington. The route is planned to obtain a large number of

secular-variation observations, and will include calls at the following

ports: Dakar, West Africa; Buenos Aires, Argentina; St. HelenaIsland; Cape Town, South Africa; Aden, Arabia; Perth, Australia; Lyt-telton, New Zealand; Papeete, Tahiti, Society Islands; Fanning Island;

Honolulu, Territory of Hawaii ; Marquesas Islands ; Balboa and Cristo-

bal, Canal Zone; San Juan, Porto Rico; and return to Washington.Early in 1919 it was decided to convert the Carnegie's engine to

operate on gasoline instead of on producer gas. This change seemeddesirable because gasoline can now be secured in all frequented ports

of the world and because of the increase in efficiency and reliability of

operation resulting from the use of gasoline instead of producer gas.

In accordance with this plan, early in March 1919, the engine was


shipped to Jersey City, where the remodehng was carried out by the

James Craig Engine and Machine Works, the builders of the engine.

On April 18, 1919, the Carnegie left Washington under tow, arriving

at Baltimore the following day. The vessel was overhauled and exten-

sive repairs and alterations were undertaken under the direction of the

Spedden Shipbuilding Company of Baltimore. The vessel was hauled

out on Booz Brothers marine railway on May 13, 1919, and wasresheathed with yellow metal and copper. This work was completed

on May 22, but upon attempting to haul the vessel down into the

water again, the cradle of the marine railway left the track and could

not be moved. Special launching v/ays were constructed, which

required not only careful planning but also very much time, as prac-

tically all the work had to be done by divers. Every precaution wastaken to insure the safety of the vessel during these operations. After

numerous delays, the vessel was finally afloat again on August 21.

The Carnegie then returned to the Spedden Shipbuilding Company,where the remodeled engine was installed. For the storage of the

gasoline, two copper tanks, each 6 feet in diameter and 10 feet long,

were installed in the former producer room. Each tank carries 2,100

gallons of gasohne. Every care was taken in the construction of the

tanks and in the installation of the entire power plant to insure safety

in the storage and use of this fuel.

The installation of electric storage-battery for lighting and low poweruses was an important addition. All fittings and fixtures were made of

non-magnetic material wherever possible, and twisted cable was used

for the circuits. The 1-kilowatt, 40-volt generator, which is to charge

the storage battery, was mounted in the after end of the engine-room,

as far as possible from the positions of the observing instruments. This

generator is to be operated by the 6-horsepower kerosene engine at

times when magnetic work is not in progress.

The delays in the completion of the gasoline tanks and in getting the

Carnegie off the marine railway compelled a postponement of the

sailing date from Washington until October 9.

The personnel of the Carnegie party is as follows: J. P. Ault, in com-mand; H. F. Johnston, magnetician, second in command; Russell

Pemberton, surgeon; A. Thomson and H. R. Grummann, observers;

R. R. Mills, junior observer; A. Erickson, first watch officer; C. E.

Leyer, engineer; L. Miehle, second watch officer; C. Strom, boatswain;

2 cooks; 1 mechanic; 8 seamen; 2 cabin-boys; the entire personnel thus

consists of 23 men.After completing the swing and standardizing magnetic and electric

observations in the Chesapeake Bay, off Solomons Island, where the

Director and Messrs. Fleming and Mauchly made a final inspection,

she sailed from Hampton Roads October 19, bound for Dakar, Senegal,

and arriving there after a stormy passage, on November 24.


LAND-SURVEY WORK AND SPECIAL EXPEDITIONS.

The war and the resulting world conditions have restricted land field

work to a great extent during the year. It has been possible, however,

to secure valuable data at new stations as well as secular-variation

stations, particularly in Africa and South America.

An important problem concerning the land field work is that of

securing absolute time for the determination of longitudes. Inquiry

and study regarding wireless methods for the reception of time signals

was undertaken. Mr. Brown particularly made inquiries regarding

small portable types of receiving apparatus with a telephone relay

instead of an amplifier system. It is hoped that a portable receiving

outfit may be developed which will be compact and light enough to

form part of the regular equipment of our field parties.

AFRICA.

In Africa, Messrs. Bauer and Johnston made magnetic observations

at three stations in Liberia, one of these, namely, Russworm Island,

being a close reoccupation of the station occupied by Observer Sawyerin 1914. These observations were made on the trip to carry out the

special program of magnetic and atmospheric-electric observations

during the solar eclipse of May 29 at Cape Palmas. (See p. 311.)

Observer F. Brown, who reentered the service of the Departmenton March 1 after his discharge from the British Army, made mag-netic observations during April, while en route to the field, at Sec-

condee and at Accra on the Gold Coast. He arrived at Douala, Cam-eroun, on May 2, and made that point his headquarters for the workin Cameroun. After securing repeat observations at the C. I. W. 1915

station and at a secondary station at Douala, he worked along the

Northern and Midland railways, occupying new stations at Nkong-Samba, Lum, Kompina, and Edea. During May 24 to June 2 he madespecial eclipse observations at Campo, Cameroun, on the coast midwaybetween Douala and Libreville. He also occupied on June 3 a station

at Rio Campo in Spanish Guinea. He left Kribi, Cameroun, June 11,

for Fort Lamy near Lake Tchad, traveling via Ebolowa, Yaounde, Yoko,

Tibati, Ngaumdere, Garua, and Dikoa; he arrived at Yoko on July 11

and expected to arrive at Dikoa early in August and to proceed thence

to Nola and Wesso via Lai, Gore, Carnot, and the Kongo Paver. FromWesso he plans to return to Douala overland, via Molundu and Abong-Mbang, to railhead of the Midland Railway at Esseka, arriving at

Douala probably early in December 1919.

ASIA.

At the end of the last report-year, Observer H. E. Sawyer was en

route to the office after an extended survey trip in Africa from LakeTchad overland to Khartoum and thence to repeat C. I. W. stations


Jeddah and Aden, Arabia, and Jibuti, French Somaliland. While

returning he occupied during October to December 1918 a second

station at Addis-Abeba, Abyssinia, in the vicinity of the first station

occupied in this city in 1914 by W. F. WaUis, repeat C. I. W. stations

at Colombo, Ceylon (1911), Singapore, Straits Settlements (1913, and

a new station), and Sugita, Japan (1906). He arrived in San Francisco

December 26, 1918, thus completing a field trip of over 3 j^ears, during

which time he observed at 170 stations, chiefly in Africa, of which a

large number were reoccupations.

In January 1919 three cahiers of observations were received for

stations in Siberia occupied by Captain R. Amundsen and his assistant,

with magnetic equipment loaned by the Department (see report for

1918, p. 240). These stations were at Vaigach (latitude, 69 ?7 N.,

longitude, 60?2 E.), occupied August 12-13, 1918;Khabarowa (latitude,

69?7 N., longitude, 60?4 E.), occupied August 15, 1918; and Port

Dickson (latitude, 73 ?5 N., longitude, 81 °E.), occupied September 2-3,

1918. The station at Khabarowa is probably close to the 1893 station

of the Norwegian North Polar Expedition.

Professor Boris Weinberg of the University of Tomsk, Siberia, was

loaned a land dip-circle and tripod to complete the magnetic outfit

with which he hopes to secure in 1919 some observations in Siberia.

AUSTRALIA.

The only field stations occupied b}^ the Department in Australia

during the year were those at the absolute magnetic observatory near

Watheroo, Western Australia.

Since the last report there have been received from GovernmentAstronomer G. F. Dodwell, of the Observatory, Adelaide, cahiers of

magnetic observations made in cooperation with the Department bythe Geodetic and Magnetic Survey of South Australia by himself andProfessor Kerr Grant at 11 stations in South Australia in September1915, May 1916, February and March 1917, and January 1918. Theseform a valuable contribution to the magnetic survey of South Aus-tralia,

NORTH AMERICA.

Magnetician H. W. Fisk, with the assistance of Observers H. R.Grummann and R. R. Mills, carried out a series of magnetic observa-

tions at 13 stations along the shores of Chesapeake Bay below andopposite the mouth of the Patuxent River. This work was mainly to

determine if any appreciable local disturbance exists about the region

in the bay where the Carnegie was swung in June 1918 at the close of

Cruise V and in October 1919 at the beginning of Cruise VI; the oppor-

tunity was also taken to instruct the new members of the party in field

observations and practice. The results indicate a slight irregularity

in the magnetic distribution over the region investigated, but the dis-


turbance effects on normal distribution over the area covered by the

swings are probably less than the order of error of observations for

results on shipboard.

Mr. Duvall made declination observations on May 28, 29, and 30,

1919, at the Standardizing Magnetic Observatory in Washington, in

accordance with the special eclipse program.

SOUTH AMERICA.

In connection with the program of special magnetic observations

during the eclipse of May 29, 1919, Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds and Assis-

tant Observer F. G. Rosemberg obtained between April 11 and June

14 complete magnetic observations at the C. I. W. primary and

secondary stations of 1917 at Huancayo, at the C. I. W. 1917 station at

Huayao, and at the special eclipse station at Huayao for controlling

the special variometer work.

Observer A. Sterling was assigned early in the year to carry out a

series of observations at stations in Chile and in Patagonia, Argentina,

to include reoccupations of stations occupied during 1913 by the

Meteorological Service of Argentina and during 1917 by the Department

in Argentina and Chile. After the necessary preparations, including

conferences with officers of the Pan-American Union at Washington

and with Professor Bailey Willis at New York, Mr. Sterling sailed on

February 25 from New York for Valparaiso, where he arrived March19. After making reoccupations of the C. I. W. 1913 stations at San-

tiago and Puerto Montt, Chile, he sailed on March 30 from the latter

point for Punta Arenas, Chile, where he arrived April 6. He pro-

ceeded from Punta Arenas, about April 19, after occupying stations

there and at Last Hope Inlet, northward to Gallegos and Puerto

Deseado; the special eclipse program was carried out on May 29, 1919,

at the latter place. He arrived at Buenos Aires early in July and thence

again took up work to the south as far as Puerto Madryn. Unusual

floods occasioned some delay in this portion of the work. Returning

to the office via Buenos Aires, Mr. Sterling made observatory inter-

comparisons at the Vassouras Observatory of the National Observatory

of Brazil under the direction of Dr. H. Morize. This expedition, com-pleted in October 1919, furnishes valuable data at secular-variation

stations and at a sufficient number of new stations to complete, in con-

nection with the previous work of the Meteorological Service of Argen-

tina and of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, the general mag-netic survey of the southern portion of South America.

Observer D. M. Wise, with the assistance of Observer Andrew Thom-son and incidentally to the program of special magnetic and atmos-

pheric-electric observations at Sobral, intrusted to his party in con-

nection with the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919 (see p. 290),

secured magnetic observations at the following stations: Quixadd,


Iguatu, Fortaleza, Camocim, Sobral, Nova-Russas, Amarragao, Papa-

gello, Natal, Pernambuco, and Para, all in Brazil, and at Barbados.

Valuable secular-variation data result from the reoccupations at For-

taleza, Pernambuco, Para, and Barbados. Messrs. Wise and Thomsonsailed from New York City for Brazil on March 26, and returned to

the office August 6.

SPECIAL EXPEDITIONS,

Special observations in accordance with the Department's programfor the total solar eclipse of May 29, 1919, were made at the following

stations: Cape Palmas, Liberia; Campo, Cameroun; Sobral, Brazil;

Huayao, Peru; Puerto Deseado, Territory of Santa Cruz; the observa-

tory near Watheroo, Western Australia; and Washington. Detailed

instructions were prepared for making absolute observations of diurnal

variation with magnetometers and earth inductors in declination,

horizontal intensity, and inclination for some stations where vario-

meters were not available.

Africa.—The work at Cape Palmas, Liberia, was carried out byDirector L. A. Bauer and Magnetician H. F. Johnston. After the

necessary preparations and purchases of stores and supplemental

equipment, the party left England on April 12, arriving at Cape PalmasMay 5. The magnetic observations included diurnal variation with

absolute instruments in declination, horizontal intensity, and inclina-

tion, in full accord with program, on the day of the eclipse and preced-

ing and following it, together with necessary control observations.

Complete meteorological observations were made during May 20 to

June 5, using an equipment loaned by the British Meteorological

Office, through the courtesy of Director Shaw. Special equipment hadalso been taken from England for the purpose of making atmospheric-

electric observations of potential gradient. The unfortunate deteriora-

tion and consequent failure of the stock of dry cells, however, pre-

vented the use of the apparatus (no dry cells could be procured at CapePalmas). Observations of shadow-bands were also undertaken. Themeteorological conditions on May 29 were favorable. The party left

Cape Palmas for Liverpool on June 8, arriving there June 25. Con-siderable interest was shown, as well as assistance rendered, by Hon.G. T. Brewer, superintendent of Maryland County of Liberia, and bythe officials and citizens of Cape Palmas. For further account, see

abstract, page 311.

Successful observations in accordance with the special program,

including diurnal variations in declination for the period specified onMay 28, 29, and 30, and absolute observations for the three elements

on May 26 and 31, were obtained by Mr. Brown at Campo, Cameroun.The work was done in a non-magnetic observing-hut 12 feet square,

built of bush timber and palm matting, all fastened with bush rope.

Complete 24-hour diurnal-variation series of declination were made


on May 24 to 25 and on June 1 to 2. The weather conditions weresuch that the Sun was generally visible up to about one-half hourbefore middle of the eclipse, when the Sun entered a fragment of slow-

moving fracto-cumulus cloud.

Australia.—Messrs. Wallis and Parkinson, in addition to the daily

variometer records, also secured a series of absolute declination diurnal-

variation observations with magnetometer at the observatory near

Watheroo.

North America.—The work at Washington was limited to absolute

diurnal-variation declination observations, in accordance with the

program, on three days, May 28, 29, and 30.

South America.—Complete magnetic and atmospheric-electric obser-

vations were obtained by Messrs. Wise and Thomson at Sobral, Brazil.

Photographic registration of diurnal variation for declination, hori-

zontal intensity, and vertical intensity were secured on the day of the

eclipse and also on 6 preceding and 9 succeeding days, together with

the necessary control absolute observations and base-line and scale-

value determinations. The photographic trace for declination on May29 was imperfect because of the development of fungi on the vario-

meter magnet, causing contact with and dragging on the damping-box; fortunately absolute determinations of declination were madewith a magnetometer by Mr. Wise at minute intervals over the speci-

fied period during the eclipse. The special atmospheric-electric

observations were carried out with the conductivity and potential-

gradient apparatus supplied. It should be noted that the batteries of

silver-chloride dry-cells used for the atmospheric-electric work werefound particularly well-suited and suffered practically no deteriora-

tion because of the tropical conditions encountered. The weatherconditions were favorable for viewing the corona during totality,

though clouds had obscured the Sun during most of the first phase of

the eclipse. The party is particularly indebted to the Brazilian Gov-ernment for the generous assistance given at Sobral through Dr. H.Morize, Director of the National Observatory at Rio de Janeiro.

Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds, with the assistance of Assistant ObserverRosemberg, obtained at Huayao, near the proposed site of the PeruObservatory, on May 28, 29, and 30, absolute observations of diurnal

variation in declination and inclination with magnetometer and earth

inductor, in accordance with the eclipse program, and photographicregistrations, from May 25 to June 12, with variometers in declination,

horizontal intensity, and vertical intensity. The necessary base-line andscale-value determinations for controlling the magnetograph records

were made.Mr. A. Sterling made diurnal-variation observations in declination

with magnetometer in accordance with the special program at his

magnetic station, Puerto Deseado, Territory of Santa Cruz, Argentina.


In answer to the circular request sent out by the Department, a

large number of magnetic observatories cooperated in carrying out the

special program of observâtions proposed. Thus far data, including

for most of the stations values of the three elements, have been received

from the foUoâng: Agincourt and Meanook (Canada), Antipolo

(Philippines), Apia (Samoa), Buitenzorg (Java), Bulawayo (Rhodesia),

Coimbra (Portugal), De Bilt (Holland), Dehra Dun (India), Lukia-

pang (China), Pilar (Argentina), Ponta Delgada (Azores), Rude Skov(Denmark), Tortosa (Spain), Valencia (Ireland).

OBSERVATORY WORK.

The construction of the observatory buildings near Watheroo, in

Western Australia, under charge of Magnetician W. F. Wallis, with

the assistance of Observer W. C. Parkinson, was so far completed as to

permit installation of the variometers and beginning of photographic

registration for declination, horizontal intensity, and vertical intensity,

on January 1, 1919. The records have been continuous since that time,

save for a short period on account of the failure of the clock operating

the registering apparatus. Absolute control observations and scale-

value observations, together with meteorological observations, have

been made regularly. The water and sewage systems, the construc-

tion of four 2,000-gallon rain-water cisterns, and miscellaneous con-

struction work were all completed by the end of June. The atmos-

pheric-electric instruments ^dth photographic registration will be ready

for installation during 1920, and it is expected that some progress in

the development of the earth-current work may also be possible. Mr.Wallis, whose excellent and faithful work during a ser\'ice of about

three and a half years deserves high commendation, was relieved as

magnetician-in-charge in October by Magnetician E. Kidson, formerly

captain in the Royal Engineers, and is en route to the office at the

close of the year.

Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds, magnetician, who had been reheved of the

conmiand of the Carnegie at the end of December 1918, to take up the

important construction work of the Department's observ'atory at

Huayao near Huancayo, Peru, sailed from New York City for Peru onFebruary 25. Before his departure various preparations were made for

the work, including purchases of observâtory equipment, non-magnetichardware, tools, and various construction supplies, and the prepara-

tion of detailed instructions and bills of materials. Beginning of the

work upon his arrival at Lima was delayed pending the action of a

special commission of the Peruvian Government in determining whichof two possible routes should be used for a proposed railway, one of

which passes \\dthin about a mile of the proposed site tentatively

selected in 1917 (see annual report for 1917). Dr. Edmonds in the

meantime took up preparations to carry out detailed variometer and


absolute magnetic observations at Huayao during the total solar

eclipse of May 29; he also made observations to determine the differ-

ence in longitude between Oroyo, where a good value of longitude hadbeen determined, and Huayao, the site of the observatory. Following

action by the special commission, deciding against the route passing

near the observatory. Dr. Edmonds entered into arrangements in July

and August to secure the necessary site and to begin construction of

the buildings according to the same plans as used for the observatory

at Watheroo, Western Australia. To eliminate possible artificial local

disturbance caused by changing magnetic condition of sun-baked

adobe walls, it was decided to construct the buildings throughout of

lumber with non-magnetic fastenings and hardware. Mr. F. G.

Rosemberg, a native of Lima, Peru, and a graduate of Syracuse Uni-

versity at Syracuse, New York, and who had taken part in the original

search and survey of a site for the observatory, was appointed assistant

observer on March 1 and assigned to Dr. Edmonds. Mr. Albert

Smith, of the Department's staff, who has had a large experience in the

construction of non-magnetic buildings, sailed from New York on June21, and reported to Dr. Edmonds on July 3. It is hoped that despite

the various delays encountered, sufficient progress will have been madebefore the end of 1919 to insure continuous construction work through-

out the rainy season, which begins in December.During November and December 1918 the atmospheiic-electric

observatory at Washington continued in charge of the section underthe direction of Dr. Mauchly. Experimental work on the improve-ments, rearrangements of switchboards and connections, and systemat-

ization of operation, looking toward observatory use, were continued.

The work was transferred to the Division of Experimental Work onJanuary 1, 1919, under Dr. Mauchly's charge as chief of the section of

terrestrial electricity in that division. Prior to the transfer, battery

installations to eliminate the experimental nature of some of the

apparatus were redesigned and replanned, and conductivity appara-tus No. 5 was remodeled and reinstalled by December 20.

General instructions for the installation and operation of vario-

meters and registering apparatus and for the mounting of quartz fibers

and forms for standardization of magnetic work at the observatories

were prepared. It was decided, in view of experiments (see annualreport for 1918, p. 239), to provide transparent glass plates with suit-

able scales engraved on the under sides for the scaling of observatorytraces. This method of scaling gives the mean area of the trace for thehour concerned and is superior to the old method of making the scaling

of a central ordinate at each hour.

Additional observatory intercomparisons were obtained duringApril 1919 by Observer F. Brown under the direction of Dr. Bauer atKew and Greenwich, and during September 1919 by Observer Sterling


at Vassouras, Brazil. The publication of the results of these inter-

comparisons must be deferred until the final determinations of cor-

rections, on international magnetic standards at Washington after the

return of the instruments used in the comparisons.

Upon the request of the director of the Batavia Meteorological andMagnetic Observatory, three hygrographs and two hygrograph clocks

were purchased at the expense of that observatory and forwarded to it.

CONSTANTS AND STANDARDIZATIONS AT WASHINGTON.

Observations, computations, and compilations to determine the con-

stants for the instruments in use and their corrections on international

magnetic standards,^ as determined by comparisons both at the office

and in the field, were kept current. The intercomparisons and stand-

ardizations included those for all the instruments to be used on the

proposed Cruise VI of the Carnegie begun at Washington, October 9,

1919. Simultaneous comparisons of instruments for the determina-

tion of constants and corrections were made for 8 magnetometers in

declination and horizontal intensity, and for 7 dip-circles and for 5

earth-inductors in inclination; corrections in declination were also

determined for the compasses of 7 dip-circles, for marine collimat-

ing compass No. 1 and for deflector No. 5. Intensity constants were

determined and caUbrations made for sea dip-circle No. 189 and T. M.compass variometers Nos. 2 and 4.

The investigations relating to the sources of error in terrestrial-

magnetic instruments and to the causes for apparent changes of instru-

mental constants were resumed. The compilations of data for dis-

tribution coefficients and temperature coefficients for the different

instruments were completed for all of the observations made at Wash-ington, and progress on the corresponding computations and reduc-

tions for field observations is now well under way. The results obtained

under various conditions and in different fields indicate that the dis-

tribution coefficients of a given instrument are practically constant,

certainly for long periods, and that deviations from the mean values for

individual determinations are in general of an accidental nature. Theweighings of magnets with stirrups and determinations of inertia and of

induction coefficients for various magnetometers were continued. For

a few magnetometers where the corrections on standard determined

before and after field work differed materially, the investigations

showed that the changes had been caused by alterations in the momentof inertia of the long magnet and its suspension.

Construction of a sine galvanometer for the absolute determination

of magnetic horizontal intensity, and hence superior control of future

calibrations, was begun. The general design, as developed by Dr.

Barnett, is based on the use of two coils arranged as in the Helmholtz-

1 See Res. Dep. Terr. Mag., vol. ii, pp. 270-278.


Gaugain galvanometer (see below); the construction of coils, termi-

nals, and core will be according to the design perfected by the National

Physical Laboratory.

Two coils, wound on well-seasoned wood rings, were mounted at one

of the stations in the standardizing magnetic observatory, with suit-

able direct-current circuits and sliding resistances, for the purpose of

producing different horizontal-intensity fields for the calibration and

testing of variometers. These coils are about 1.8 meters in diameter

and are spaced a distance apart equal to their radius on a non-magnetic

frame arranged to permit vertical adjustment of the center of system

to any height between 8 cm. and 25 cm. above the top of the pier.

This adjustment makes possible the testing of any instrument the

essential magnetic unit of which is within 8 cm. to 25 cm. of the sup-

porting base.

WORK OF DIVISION OF EXPERIMENTAL WORK.

MAGNETISM.

Improvement in the design of a sine galvanometer.—This instrument,

whose construction has been begun, has been designed to give, with

much less expenditure of time than that necessary with magnetometers,

a precision greater than that obtainable with them or with other sine

galvanometers or other electrical devices hitherto constructed for the

purpose. The essential parts of the instrument are the coils, the mag-netometer, and the circle, together with their adjuncts.

The coils, arranged as in the Helmholtz-Gaugain galvanometer, are

to be wound on the best white statuary marble. Each coil will consist

of an exact integral number of turns of thin bare copper wire woundunder tension in a single layer in a lathe-cut spiral groove. Each coil

will be wound in halves for insulation testing. The design is such that

it should be possible to determine the constant of the coils to 1 part in

37,000 at least. The error due to a radial displacement of the magnet

by even 5 mm. would be only 1 part in 20,000, and that due to an axial

displacement of 1 mm. would be about 1 part in 40,000.

The magnetometer will be a simple one, with small, fiat steel mag-net-mirror, marble house, and quartz suspension. Two circles are

provided, both of large diameter and one of them finely divided. Theerror from circle reading can probably be made not greater than 1 part

in 40,000 or 50,000. The electrical measurements can be made with

adequate precision, probably to 1 part in 30,000.

The instrument is to be used both in the usual way and also in the

way recently proposed by Schuster (Terr. Mag., 19, 1914, p. 19).

Investigation of certain aspects of crystal magnetization.—Three pieces

of apparatus have been designed and for the most part completed for

this work, but the difficulty of getting suitable material has prevented

useful results from being obtained. The most important part of the

I


work can not be done until suitable paramagnetic crystals are pre-

pared, but with an apparatus soon to be completed, some related workcan be done in the very near future.

Investigation of the effects hitherto studied under the caption of magnet-

photography.—A somewhat extended investigation has been madeunder definite and controllable conditions, and evidence has been

obtained against any effect of the magnetic field. An abstract of this

work is given on pages 304-306.

Investigation of the rotation produced by magnetization and magnet-

ization produced by rotation.—Experiments with iron and nickel have

shown the rotation effect looked for, but with disturbances too great

to make useful measurements possible. Lack of mechanical assistance

and difficulty in getting material have made progress extremely slow.

It is hoped ultimately, wdth apparatus now in course of construction, to

get satisfactory results wdth iron, nickel, and cobalt.

Further preparations have been made for the experiments on mag-netization by rotation, to be performed in the Experiment Building.

In connection with this work, a special fluxmeter is in process of con-

struction. It is possible that this instrument can also be made useful

in measuring the changes in horizontal and vertical intensities. It is

hoped to install this apparatus before long in the experiment building.

Report on electromagnetic induction.—This report was prepared for

and presented at the Cornell University Physics Conference andReunion held in connection with the semi-centennial celebration, andwill be presented at the coming joint meeting of the American Physi-

cal Society and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers. (See

abstract, p. 306.)

Course of 26 lectures on theories of magnetism.—This was given weekly,

with certain interruptions, at the Laboratory, between September 30,

1918, and June 9, 1919.

Those chiefly engaged on the above researches were: S. J. Barnett

(chief of division), D. M. Wise, and C. A, Kotterman.

Apparatus for determining the acceleration of gravity at sea, by S. J.

Barnett and H. R. Grummann.—With the hope of producing, if possible,

an apparatus for the precise determination of gravity at sea, all the

methods hitherto proposed were examined, with the result that the

constant-volume, constant-temperature, gas-thermometer method wasfixed upon as being the most promising. Various modifications of this

method have been used by Mascart, Hecker, Briggs, and Duffield.

The apparatus of Duffield, which has the advantages of approximate

independence of minute temperature variations and of a possible

considerable magnification of sensitiveness, was adopted with certain

modifications, partly suggested by Duffield, and partly suggested bySchuster on the basis of an elaborate theoretical study. A tube of this

design has been constructed from glass of a kind largely free from after-


action. It is proposed to fill this tube with an inert gas, above the

mercury, and to study its behavior under various conditions of motion

in the laboratory, and at the levels of the laboratory and the bottom

and top of the Washington Monument, before making any attempt to

use it at sea.TERRESTRIAL ELECTRICITY.

The Director's letter announcing the formation of the Section of

Terrestrial Electricity to begin with the current year stated that the

term terrestrial electricity, as there used, was intended to include (a)

atmospheric electricity, {h) earth currents, and (c) polar lights. In the

time which has elapsed since the formation of this special section, it

has not been possible to devote any time whatever to the last namedof the above subjects, and only a very hmited amount could be given

to subject (b). The reduction and pubhcation of the atmospheric-

electric observations made at Lakin, Kansas, last year, the necessary

provisions for the atmospheric-electric work of the Department's

eclipse station in Brazil, various matters concerned with plans and

equipment for the atmospheric-electric work aboard the Carnegie on

her forthcoming cruise, and the operation of the atmospheric-electric

observatory on the deck of the laboratory, have occupied practically

the entire time of the very limited personnel thus far available, viz,

S. J. Mauchly, chief of section; A. Thomson, C. A. Kotterman, and

T. C. Kiesel, occasional assistants.

Lakin Eclipse Observations of June 8, 1918.—The first task assigned

to the section was the reduction and preparation for pubhcation of the

results of atmospheric-electric observations made at Lakin, Kansas,

in connection with the total solar eclipse of June 8, 1918. Because of

the work necessary to enable the Department to supply atmospheric-

electric data to the United States Signal Corps during the autunrn of

1918, and also on account of the subsequent overhauling and improve-

ment of the equipment in the deck observatory, it was impossible

to begin this work until January.

Perhaps it should be stated that most of the atmospheric-electric

equipment available for use at Lakin was either of the laboratory type

or at least better suited for laboratory than field work. This caused

both the observational and reduction work to be much more extended

and laborious than would otherwise have been necessary, in order

that the final results should justify the expense and time of the expedi-

tion itself.

The results of the Lakin atmospheric-electric observations appeared

in the March and June 1919 issues of Terrestrial Magnetism and

Atmospheric Electricity. In addition, a report on the conductivity andpotential-gradient observations was given by Dr. Mauchly before the

Philosophical Society of Washington on February 15. (See abstract,

pp. 307-308.


Brazil Eclipse Expedition, 1919.—The program of the atmospheric-

electric observations made at Sobral during the total solar eclipse of

May 29, 1919, was prepared, together with the instructions, and the

required instrumental equipment was assembled and tested. A special

form of insulator to meet the tropical conditions of humidity and insect

life was designed for supporting the ionium collectors used in connec-

tion with the potential-gradient observations. This insulator was con-

structed in the Department's instrument shop and proved, in operation,

to be very satisfactory.

Carnegie Atmospheric-Electric Work for Cruise VI,—A careful study

was made of the various official reports and correspondence relating

to the atmospheric-electric work of Cruises IV and V to secure aproper basis for such modifications and repairs as could be made in the

available time. An attempt has been made to eliminate all avoidable

difficulties to the end that the observer should have more time andenergy to cope successfully with those difficulties which are inherent

and unavoidable. A great advance in this direction results from the

newly-installed storage battery, which furnishes the power for driving

the fans of the conductivity apparatus and the radioactive-content

apparatus. This will do away with the periodic renewal of the pri-

mary battery which has heretofore been necessary.

It has long been felt that one of the most troublesome problems asso-

ciated with atmospheric-electric work on shipboard is that of suitable

potential batteries for the various instruments. This is especially true

where the observations between ports sometimes extend over several

months, as is the case on the Carnegie. For reasons which have been

pointed out by Swann {Researches Department Terrestrial Magnetism,

vol. Ill, p. 378), the Kriiger batteries have not been found very satis-

factory. Throughout most of Cruises IV and V batteries composed of

ordinary flashhght cells were used. These proved to be much superior

to batteries of the Kriiger type, but for the work under consideration

are open to two serious objections: (a) although the internal resistance

is initially low, it increases rather rapidly with age, thus introducing

the very difficulties which render the Kriiger type unsatisfactory; {h)

these batteries are constructed for use in flash-lights, and are therefore

not designed for longevity. Experience both aboard the Carnegie and

in the atmospheric-electric observatory at Washington has shown that,

owing to the corrosion of the zinc element of the battery from within,

very frequent renewals are required in order to have a satisfactory

service. As noted in the Director's annual report for 1918, page 239,

experiments have been in progress with batteries composed of chloride-

of-silver dry cells. These batteries have now given satisfactory service

for more than a year in the atmospheric-electric observatory at Wash-ington, and were used with entire satisfaction in connection with the

atmospheric-electric observ^ations at Lakin last year and at Sobral


this year. Hence, it was decided, on the forthcoming cruise, to equip

the atmospheric-electric apparatus aboard the Carnegie with chloride-

of-silver batteries. As suppHed to the Carnegie, each battery unit con-

sists of 50 cells connected in series. As a precaution against accidental

short circuit, each unit also contains a 10,000-ohm resistance coil,

while the entire unit is embedded in paraffin as a protection against

moisture. Considering our satisfactory experience with this type of

cells and the extra precautions observed in mounting them for ship use,

it is hoped that their use aboard the Carnegie will constitute a consid-

erable improvement.

Each of the instruments in the atmospheric-electric equipment of

the Carnegie was subjected to a thorough overhauling, which in mostcases amounted to reconstruction, in the instrument shop. The sugges-

tions of the various observers have been carefully considered and,

together with the results of general scientific and instrumental progress,

have been incorporated where possible in the modifications and repairs

which have been made. Various tests and standardizations of the

Carnegie's atmospheric-electric instruments have been made. The mostimportant of these have been the calibration, by the Bureau of Stand-

ards, of the air-flow meter associated with ion-counter No. 1, and the

comparisons in our own laboratory between the air-flow meter of

radioactive-content apparatus No. 4 and the Department's standard

meter for air-flows of the magnitude involved. The instructions for

atmospheric-electric observations aboard the Carnegie were revised

and in part rewritten to embody the results of the experience of the

last several years and to conform to the various instrumental changes.

Earth-current Work.—No experimental work in this subject has been

possible during the current year. The activities therein have been

limited to critical reports on several papers submitted for publication

in Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity, preparation of

letters relating to this subject and the preparation of a ''Note on a

Possible Explanation of the 'Electric Tide' Observed at Jersey." This

note was published in the same journal for June 1919, and an ab-

stract thereof is given on page 316.

Observatory Work at Washington.—The instrumental equipment andarrangement of the atmospheric-electric observatory on the deck wasoverhauled and considerably modified in the Department's shop during

the latter part of 1918, just prior to the establishment of the Section of

Terrestrial Electricity. Since then the operating directions for the

observatory have been revised on the basis of experience and instru-

mental modifications. Considerable attention has also been given to

the development of forms suitable for recording observatory data.

Both the conductivity and the potential-gradient have been con-

tinuously recorded throughout the year, except for an occasional dayor part of day when repairs or renovations were needed or under way»


The improvement shown by this record results jointly from the various

instrumental modifications referred to above and from the substitution

of the chloride-of-silver batteries for those previously employed.

INSTRUMENT AND BUILDING WORK.

INSTRUMENT WORK.

The work in the instrument shop during the year may be roughly

classified as follows: equipment, 41 per cent; improvements and repairs

of instruments, 41 per cent; experimental and survey, 9 per cent;

miscellaneous and stock, 9 per cent.

Much of the instrumental work was concerned wdth the study anddesign of the T. M. compass-variometer in an improved form for ship

work and of an inertia-gimbal system planned to eliminate dynamicdeviations and magnetic deviations in instruments on shipboard.

Much time was devoted also to consideration and development of

the use of this instrument as an intensity variometer suitable for the

rapid survey of locally-disturbed regions and in the application of the

principle involved to the use of intensity variometers for observatory

work.

The improvements and repairs of instruments had to do largely with

the overhauling, remaking, and modifying of the magnetic, atmos-

pheric-electric, meteorologic, and miscellaneous equipment needed for

the Carnegie work. Opportunity was presented for the first time to

make careful magnetic tests of sea dip-circles of the type constructed

by Dover. It was found that the vertical circle of No. 189 was madeof German silver and was polarized. This doubtless explains to someextent the erratic behavior of this dip circle, as indicated by the irregu-

lar and large corrections obtained for different needles by comparisons

wath standardized earth-inductors at stations in different magneticlatitudes. AMien remaking the dip-circle, a new graduated vertical

circle of fine silver, carefully tested and found to be non-magnetic, wassupplied.

The observations with the marine earth-inductor have heretofore

been made, using a balanced moving-coil marine galvanometer. Theunanimous opinion of our observers, borne out by study of the results,

has been that the accuracy of resulting values for inclination was limited

by the inaccuracies of the galvanometer readings. The difficulty arises

apparently from unavoidable change of balance with change in time

and temperature and jarring caused by the ship's motion which can not

be effectively controlled ; much time is lost in the tedious operation of

rebalancing. Accordingly, the string galvanometer (see p. 313),

designed and built by the Department, was arranged for use with the

marine earth-inductor on the Carnegie. Since the fiber of the gal-

vanometer is quite fine and its inertia thus practically negligible, it is

hoped that the resulting inclinations obtained with the earth inductor


at sea will be of a higher accuracy than was possible with the moving-coil galvanometer.

The experience obtained during the last cruise of the Carnegie withthe atmospheric-electric instruments indicated as desirable certain

improvements and modifications in the instruments, and the sub-

stitution of a more reUable source of potential than the dry cells here-

tofore used. After a careful study by Dr. Mauchly of the various

reports made on atmospheric-electric work from time to time by the

Carnegie observers, suggested modifications in design were undertakenin the instrument shop. The following instruments were overhauled

and practically rebuilt, numerous improvements and modifications

being effected in each case: potential-gradient apparatus No. 2, ionic-

content apparatus No. 1, penetrating-radiation apparatus No. 1,

radioactive-content apparatus No, 4, and conductivity apparatus No. 3.

The experience with silver-chloride cells in the atmospheric-electric

observatory at Washington and in the field at Sobral during the

special eclipse observations in May and June 1919, was so satisfactory

that it was decided to supply such cells for the Carnegie work. Batteries

in units of 50 cells with resistance of about 10,000 ohms in circuit, all

embedded in paraffin and suitably mounted, were made up. Assistance

was rendered in the installation of the atmospheric-electric instruments,

the magnetic instruments, and the various gimbal stands and other

appurtenances before the initiation of the Carnegie's cruise.

Miscellaneous new work included the following : Partial construction

of sine galvanometer No. 1 for the absolute determination of horizontal

intensity; 18 magnetogram scaling-glasses; extensions to switch-

boards in the main laboratory for 14 two-wire and 3 three-wire special

direct-current and alternating-current circuits to the experiment

building; construction of the special switch-boards for the experimentbuilding ; construction of special Helmholtz-Gaugain coils with mount-ing for varying horizontal-intensity fields when calibrating magnetic-

intensity instruments; the design and construction of special switch-

board for storage-battery electrical equipment on board the Carnegie;

and special instruments and apparatus in connection with military

work.

The repair work, in addition to that on instruments referred to above,

included either remaking or extensive repairs on the following: mag-netometers Nos. 1, 10, 14, 24, 25, 28; dip circles Nos. 189, 202, 242;

marine earth-inductor No. 3; deflectors Nos. 4 and 5; reversible gimbal-

stand; 12 sextants and one prismatic circle; mercurial barometers Nos.

3948, 4177; 3 thermographs and 1 barograph; motion-picture camera;and other numerous small instruments and appurtenances for the

Carnegie. The machine-tool equipment was kept in order and repaired,

and was increased by the installation of a wet and dry grinder, a large

drill-press, and a tuyere and blower.


As heretofore, all of the non-magnetic castings were made in our ownfoundry under the direction of Mr. C. Huff. During the year over

3,500 pounds of strictly non-magnetic castings, including bell-metal,

copper, gun-bronze, red and yellow brass, and speculum, were made.

Mr. Huff also designed the electric installation on the Carnegie, and de-

signed, as well as constructed, the switch-boards for the Carnegie and

for the experiment building.

The personnel of the instrument shop consisted of Messrs. C. Huff,

G. H. Jung, W. F. Steiner, instrument-makers; A. Smith, carpenter and

pattern-maker; and J. G. Lorz, apprentice in instrument-making.

The quantity and quality of the work turned out is sufficient evidence

of the activity of the working force during the year.

BUILDING WORK AT WASHINGTON.

The preliminary plans of the proposed Experiment Building for the

special investigations in magnetism of the Division of Experimental

Work were given some consideration in January and February 1919.

The requirements were (a) unusual rigidity and strength, (6) non-

magnetic construction, and (c) insulation against sudden temperature

changes. It was decided to adopt a concrete double-wall construction,

using brass reenforcement, with a continuous, insulating, dead-air

space 2.5 inches thick between the two 6-inch walls; further heat insula-

tion was provided for by double windows and double doors, and by a

double ceiling of plaster-board, inclosing a 10-inch dead-air space

between purlins and a 1-inch dead-air space between the two layers

of plaster-board on the under side of the roof purlins. A site wasselected, recommended, and approved in March. Thirteen drawings,

covering the details of the building, special electric installations with

special switch-boards, switch-board extension in the main laboratory,

and various pipe-lines, were completed in April, and bills of materials

were drawn up.

Because of the unusual requirements and specifications particularly

for non-magnetic construction, it was not possible to secure reasonable

contracts for the work, which had therefore to be undertaken by the

Magnetic Survey Division. It was impossible even to secure bids for

the mill-work, all of which had to be done in our own shop. The rough

grading and installation of rain-water drains and connections to the

culvert were completed and the finished concrete foundations and floor

were in place by April 26. The concrete walls were started March 12

and completed June 14. The steam heating is provided from the mainlaboratory, the heating plant having been suitably enlarged. Special

tests showed that it would be necessary, because of non-magnetic

requirements, to use brass pipe in the Experiment Building and to a

point not less than 40 feet from the nearest part of it. The radiators

are made of brass pipe. The necessary steam, return, gas, hot and cold


water, drain, and air pipe-lines, and lead-incased electric cables fromthe main laboratory are hung underground in a concrete tunnel suffi-

ciently large to allow alterations and additions in accordance with the

future development of the experimental work. Provision is made for

14 complete direct-current circuits between the two buildings, and for

3 alternating-current circuits. The outside dimensions of the Experi-

ment Building are 28 by 53 feet; the inside dimensions are 25 by 50feet with a clear height below the exposed roof-trusses of 12 feet. Theinside of the building is plastered in hard sand finish, while the outside

is finished in stucco with exposed aggregate of coarse crushed granite

and mica. The sill courses about the building and under windowsand the columns at the entrance, all cast in place, are of artificial stone

with fine granite-and-mica surfacing.

The Experiment Building was completed and ready for use by the

Division of Experimental Work early in October. Much time wasrequired for the construction because of the scarcity of materials andof labor under prevailing conditions.

The Division has also had general charge of the maintenance andcare of the main laboratory. Standardizing Magnetic Observatory,

foundry, and auxiliary buildings. The necessary extension to the

switch-board in the main laboratory to provide for the new circuits to

the Experiment Building was mounted in the motor-generator room.A waiting-room, 8 by 12 feet, was constructed during November and

December 1918 at the west corner of Thirty-sixth Street and Con-necticut Avenue, to provide shelter for the members of the staff in badweather.

Tile drains for road drainage were installed and the necessary filling

and rough grading for a new roadway between the main laboratory

and foundry and stable were completed. The macadamized roadwaysin the grounds were repaired, having been badly damaged during the

heavy hauling incidental to the construction of the Experiment Building.

ABSTRACTS OF PUBLICATIONS AND INVESTIGATIONS.

On determination of position of airplanes by astronomical methods. J. P. Ault. (Pre-sented before the American Physical Society at Washington, April 25, 1919.)

The problem confronting the navigator, either at sea or in the air, is tomeasure as accurately as possible the altitude of some celestial body such asthe Sun, Moon, or stars. From this measured altitude a line of position, a so-

called Sumner line, is determined, the observer being located somewhere onthis line. If two celestial bodies are available, then the intersection of the twolines thus determined completely fixes the geographic position of the observer.If one object only is available, as for example the Sun, then in order to com-pletely determine a position it is necessary to observe in addition the azimuthor bearing of the body. The altitude, usually measured with some form of

sextant, is the angular distance of the body above the horizon. For oceannavigation, the sea-horizon is generally available, but for airplane work someartificial horizon must be provided.


The experimental work carried on by the Department of Terrestrial Mag-netism at Langley Field, Virginia, in the development of methods and instru-

ments for determination of geographic position of airplanes by astronomical

observations, consisted in making sextant observations in the air, to try out

the feasibility of different artificial horizons, and in the study and use of different

methods of rapid calculation of the position hne. The first apparatus used wasa preUminary instrument consisting of a mirror mounted on small gimbal

rings with a counter-weight suspended in oil to damp the vibrations. Theresults obtained with this instrument, using different types of sextants, gave

an average error for a single observation of ±25'; the error of a group of 10

observations was ± 12'. During the second flight 59 observations were made,giving an average error of ±12', rejecting only 3 which were obviously in

error; all the others were less than 36' in error.

A more accurate instrmnent was next constructed by the Department andused in the experimental work at Langley Field. The mirror was made of

speculum metal and the gimbals were mounted on steel-ball bearings. Theresults obtained with this instrument gave an error for a single observation

of ±15' to ±29' and an error for a group of six observations of ±7' to ±12'.

Through efforts of the Department a sextant with an artificial level-bubble

attachment was secured from Professor R. W. Willson, of Harvard University.

With this instrument Dr. H. N. Russell obtained results which gave an error

for a single observation of ±12' to ±21' and an error for a group of five

observations of ±6'. The experience with this sextant showed material

improvement over the mirror-and-gimbal horizon, both in ease and conven-

ience of handling as well as in rapidity and accuracy.

After the altitude is measured, the next step is to make the calculations andto draw the position-hnes on the chart, or by some method to determine the

position of the observations. Several methods were investigated. First, the

tables devised by Radler de Aquino, of Brazil, were used, the computationwith these tables requiring about 3 minutes and the plotting of the position-

line about 2 minutes. These tables are published by the United States Hydro-graphic Office, PubUcation No. 200. Second, differentmethods of precalcula-

tion were studied. The best of these precalculation methods seems to be that

outlined by G. W. Littlehales, where some central position on a chart is takenas the assumed position of the observer and tables are precalculated on this

basis. If Lambert's conformal conic projection map is used, the arcs of great

circles appear as straight lines and the altitude-intercept may be very large

without appreciable error, so that one assumed position may be made to cover

a wide extent of territory. Third, an instnmient called the "hne of position

computer," designed and loaned to the Department by Professor C. L. Poor,

of Columbia University, was used. This instrument is probably the best that

has been devised up to date for calculating the position-line in the air. It is

made on the principle of a circular slide-rule; both the altitude and the azimuthcan be calculated in less that 1.5 minutes of time and to an accuracy of 2

minutes of arc.

Most of the experimental work in computing and plotting positions in theair was done by using Aquino's methods. With his tables, if both the altitude

and the azimuth are observed, a previous knowledge of the dead-reckonedposition is not necessary, except to determine the magnetic declination of theplace of observation. With the natural horizon an observation was made,computed, and the position-lines plotted in 4.1 minutes of time; the meanerror of 4 positions thus determined was ±1'. This gives some idea of theaccuracy which can be obtained in making sextant observations where theuncertainty of the horizon is eliminated.


Some experimental work was done also on cloud-and-haze horizons at var-ious altitudes, but the difficulty with such observations is to determine thealtitude of the horizontal plane. A dip-measurer was used very successfully

to determine this altitude, the results giving an error of ±3' to ±5' for asingle determination.

During a flight from Langley Field to Washington and return, observationswere made with the preliminary artificial horizon, using a small pocket-sextant. On the trip to Washington, which occupied 2 hours, 7 position-lines

were determined, each based on 10 observations, and all work of computationand plotting of this line was done in the air without previous preparation,using Aquino's tables. The average time for each position-line, includingobservations, computations, and plotting, was 9.5 minutes. The average error

of each fine was =*= 13' of altitude. On the return trip, which occupied 1 hourand 45 minutes, 9 position-lines were determined and plotted with an averageerror of ± 17' of altitude. This increased error was due to the irregularity of

motion due to "bumps," the airplane falling 50 feet in a single "bump" quitefrequently during observations. The results in a set of 10 observations rangedover 3° at times.

If such results as those just described can be obtained with preliminaryapparatus and on small airplanes, it is quite certain thait the errors can bematerially decreased with more refined instruments and larger airplanes.

As previously mentioned, if only one celestial object is available, such as theSun, then to determine completely the position the azimuth, as well as thealtitude, must be measured. The experimental work along this line was inter-

rupted, but the preliminary results were very encouraging. During the flight

when azimuths were first measured, 80 observations were taken and the error

of groups of 10 was =*=0?6, the mean error of all being ±0?3. The meandifference between deviations as determined on the ground and those deter-

mined in the air was only 0?1. These observations were made with an azimuth-card the least graduation of which was 5°, the single degrees being estimated.Some further observations were made by J. A. Fleming of the Department;during his first flight he made 110 observations with the above-describedinstrument. The average time for 10 observations was 1| minutes and theprobable error of a single determination was ±0?4.As to instruments, a light sextant is desirable, but no difficulty was experi-

enced in using the ordinary sextant. A special protractor was designed tofacilitate the rapid plotting of the line of position. A chart-holder and navi-gator's case was designed and constructed by the Department.

Several flights were made at night to determine the practicability of obser-vations on the stars. The results showed that observations could be made atnight with the same ease and accuracy as during the day. The advantage ofnight observations is the possibiUty of always having two objects on which toobserve.

As to results as far as the experimental work was carried out, if two celestial

bodies are available for observation, a position should be determined within 20minutes of time and to an accuracy certainly of =»= 15 miles. Where only asingle celestial body is available and where both altitude and azimuth aredetermined, the resulting position may be in error from 30 to 60 miles. Thesefigures should be very materially reduced with refined instruments and large,

stable airplanes.

Report on the 1918-1919 experiments in magnet-photography. S. J. Barnett.

The experiments of R. Colson^ and W. J. RusselP have shown that objectsof zinc, brass, wood, rosin, and many other substances when placed on or near

' Comptes Rendus (Jan. 1897).Troc. Roy. Soc, vol. 61, p. 424 (1897); vol. 63, p. 102 (1898); vol. 64, p. 409 (1899); Phil.

Trans. Roy. Soc, B, vol. 197 (1904).


the film of a photographic plate produce unages; and the experiments of

Russell and others, especially S. Saeland/ have furnished strong evidence that

the effect on the plate in at least most cases is due to the presence in or on the

objects of hydrogen peroxide. It was supposed by E. F. Mace^ that such

images were produced only in a magnetic field ; but observations published byBauer and Swann' have confirmed the earlier investigators, who used no mag-netic field, and have shown that if the magnetic field has any effect it is only

to produce modification in the intensity of the images. If these images were

due to the emission of free electrons, the magnetic field might in some cases

have an appreciable effect upon them. The field would scarcely be expected

to alter the rate of emission of hydrogen peroxide from the objects or the sensi-

tiveness of the photographic plate, though it might affect the distribution of

the gas, pulhng it into or pushing it out from the stronger parts of the field

and thus affecting the photographic images.

Wlien the object on the film is active, a positive image is foraied beneathit, the remainder of the plate being less affected or unaffected unless other

active materials are present. If the object is not active, and the walls of the

inclosure or other objects contained therein are sufficiently active, the film

is only partially darkened beneath the object, unless it is too thin, but the film

is darkened over the rest of its extent. The two effects are often superposed.

In two experiments made with glass objects in glass bell-jars, by the methodused in the Department's former experiments, no certain effect of the field

could be detected. The method was then radically altered in order to applymore intense and controllable magnetic fields and diminish the difference

between the treatment of the plate in the magnetic field and the plate simul-

taneously exposed out of the field. Two quite similar vacuum cells were madefrom brass and copper, corresponding parts from the same stock, to hold the

two plates, and they were connected by a long brass tube. One cell was usually

placed in the field of a powerful electro-magnet, the other at a distance fromthe magnet. Instead of using two photographic plates, one plate was alwayscut in two, and half placed in each cell. The two halves were always devel-

oped together. The cells with their contents could be interchanged. Thetemperature near each cell was measured, and the two temperatures wereusually kept nearly the same. The maximum magnetic intensity was muchgreater than in the earlier experiments, exceeding 6,000 gausses.

In most of the experiments the field was nearly uniform over the film, andthe intensity was normal to the plate. Experiments were made in this waywith similar objects of copper, brass, glass, zinc, and lead laid upon each plate.

In some experiments the brass top of the cell was directly above the film, withnothing intervening except the test objects and more or less air. In other

experiments the brass top was lined beneath with a sheet of copper. In still

others ttiis sheet was covered with a thin layer of rosin. In some experimentsthe metal objects were freshly sandpapered on the sides touching the films,

so as to give positive images. In others the active state of the objects haddisappeared, or nearly disappeared, so that the objects cast shadows, with or

without positive effects inside them. Experiments were made at different

pressures and with exposures ranging from a few hours to many days, andmany good photographs were obtained. The results do not indicate anycertain effect of the magnetic field.

1 Ann. d. Phys., vol. 26, p. 899 (1908). ^ Sci. Amer., p. 411 (Nov. 4, 1916).' Phys. Rev., vol. 9, p. 563 (1917).


Other experiments were made with single plates in fieMs intense over acentral zone and rapidly diminishing in strength toward the ends. In somethe intensity at the center was normal to the plate, in others, parallel. Inno case was any variation found in the intensity of the photographic effect.

In other experiments only a segment of the copper top, instead of the wholetop, was coated with rosin, and only a portion of the plate, partially under-neath one end of the rosin, was placed in an intense magnetic field. No effect

of the field was manifest.

As would be expected from the nature of these effects, according to thetheory of Russell, direct experiments made to see whether a beam of theradiation involved could be produced and be deflected by a magnetic field

were complete failures.

A report on electromagnetic induction. S. J. Barnett.

This report discusses briefly the chief fundamental results obtained fromthe days of Faraday to the present time in studying the electromotive forces

ordinarily referred to the domain of electromagnetic induction.

Self-induction is first taken up and the phenomena of self-induction are

treated as essentially identical with the phenomena of inertia in dynamics,according to the idea of Maxwell and the idea originally accepted by Fara-day. The only recent fundamental progress has been in studying the inertia of

free electrons and other ions, and experiments are referred to on this subject.

The motional electromotive force, developed when matter moves in a mag-netic field, is next considered, and is derived from Ampere's law on the electron

theory. Especial attention is devoted to the motional intensity, and theresulting electric displacement, in insulators, of which nothing has been knownuntil recent years.

The induced electromotive force in fixed conductors and insulators arising

from the motion or alteration of other systems is next considered, and is

expressed both in terms of magnetic flux and in terms of the general vector-potential, which refers the phenomena back to the motion of electrons withoutthe magnetic field as intermediary. The relations between the induced andmotional electromotive forces are discussed, as well as the relation of theelectric displacement produced in certain cases to the hypothesis of the fixed

ether.

The report closes with a treatment of unipolar induction in both so-called

open and closed circuits, including brief descriptions of some of the principal

experiments, a discussion of the theories involved, and their application to theunipolar generator.

Results of magnetic and electric observations made during the solar eclipse of June 8,

1918—Concluded. L. A. Bauer, H. W. Fi.sk, and S. J. Mauchly. Terr. Mag.,vol. 24, 1-28, 87-98 (March and June 1919). Washington.

Part 1, being the conclusion of the investigations concerned with the mag-netic observations made during the solar eclipse of June 8, 1918, by theDepartment of Terrestrial Magnetism and cooperating magnetic observatories

and universities, summarizes the chief conclusions derived from the magneticobservations as follows:

(a) Appreciable magnetic effects were observed during the solar eclipse

of June 8, 1918, at stations distributed over the entire zone of visibility andimmediately outside. (How much further some of the effects may haveextended must be left for future study.) The chief characteristic of the effects

took place generally in accordance with the local eclipse circumstances andin general accord with effects observed during previous eclipses. The evi-

dences of a direct relation between the magnetic effects and the solar eclipse


are so numerous as to warrant drawing the definite conclusion that an appre-

ciable variation in the Earth's magnetic field occurs during a solar echpse.

This particular variation is termed here the " solar-echpse magnetic varia-

tion."

(6) The range of the solar-eclipse magnetic variation, according to the par-

ticular magnetic element, is about 0.1 to 0.2 that caused by the solar-diurnal

variation on undisturbed days. The effects are of a more or less compUcatedcharacter, according to location of observation-station in the zone of visibility.

The effects caused during the local eclipse-interval are superposed upon those

caused by the continued disturbance of the Earth's magnetic field in the

region over which the shadow-cone has already passed. It is thus possible

to discern effects having a period approaching that of the local ecHpse-interval

and others having a period approximately that of the entire or terrestrial

echpse-interval.

(c) The general character of the system causing the solar-eclipse magnetic

variation is the reverse of that causing the day-light portion of the solar-

diurnal magnetic variation. The range of the ecHpse variation is comparable

with that of the lunar-diurnal variation, and, like the latter, the variation

usually consists of a double oscillation during its period of development.

(d) The range of the apparent effect on the intensity of magnetization of

the Earth during the solar-eclipse magnetic variation, is about equal to that

found associated with a 10 per cent change in the solar radiation, as shown bychanges in the solar-constant values.

(e) The results at the high mountain-station. Corona, Colorado, indicate

that the magnetic effects during a solar eclipse may be modified and evenintensified by altitude of station, topography, and meteorological conditions.

In view of the bearing of these results upon the theoiy of the solar-eclipse

magnetic variation and possibly upon the theory" of other variations of the

Earth's magnetic field as well, it will be highlj^ desirable in the planning of

future ecUpse work to include as many mountain-summit stations as con-

veniently possible.

Part 2 gives a synopsis of the meteorological and miscellaneous observations

obtained at the various stations.

Part 3 deals mainly with the atmospheric-electric observations made at

Lakin, Kansas, the observing-station of the Department of Terrestrial Mag-netism. The apparatus and methods employed are described and various

curves and tables are given to set forth the results obtained. The chief con-

clusions derived from the atm.ospheric-electric observations during the total

solar ecHpse of June 8, 1918, at Lakin, located in the belt of totahty, at anelevation of 900 meters, on an irrigated, grassy plain, far from either sea or

mountains, are summarized as follows

:

(a) A decrease of about 20 per cent in the value of the potential-gradient

at the time of totality and continuing for a period of about 20 minutes there-

after.

(6) The short-period fluctuations which usually characterize the potential-

gradient and which were very marked both before and after the eclipse werealmost totally absent during the period of minimum potential-gradient,

namely, during totality and the 20 minutes immediately following.

(c) The unipolar conductivities, X+ and X_, each showed an increase, of

the order of 20 per cent, during a period beginning several minutes before

totahty and continuing until about 30 minutes after totahty. Inasmuch as

7^ + and X _ were similarly affected, the remark concerning them apphes also to

the total conductivity.

(d) The air-earth current-density, as computed from total-conductivity

and potential-gradient data, showed a rapid increase for about 10 minutes


before totality followed by an equally rapid and pronounced decrease for

about 10 minutes after totality. Neither of these movements, however, is in

marked contrast to the course followed by this element throughout the after-

noon.

(e) The ionic content of positive sign n+ appears to have passed througha maximum simultaneously with X+, but lack of observations during themiddle part of the eclipse prevents a positive statement on this point.

(/) The ionization in a closed vessel, due to the penetrating radiation,

apparently was unaffected by the passage of the ecUpse.

(g) Observations throughout 24 consecutive hours showed a large diurnal

variation for all the elements under observation except the ionization in aclosed vessel. They also showed for all elements a strong similarity betweennight conditions and those prevailing on June 8 during and shortly after

totality.

The field of a uniformly magnetized elliptic homaoid and applications. Louis A. Bauer.Jour. Wash. Acad. Sci., vol. 9, 267-269. (Paper presented before the Philo-

sophical Society of Washington, February 15, 1919.)

There have been repeated occasions in the course of the author's investiga-

tions when he had need for the simplest possible expressions defining the

magnetic field of certain magnetized bodies, such as ellipsoids of revolution,

homceoids, focaloids, and cylinders. A variety of investigations will be foundin treatises and papers by eminent authors, but the derived expressions either

stop at the gravitation potential and intensity components, or but special

cases of magnetization are treated. Furthermore, the published expressions

for general cases are often needlessly complex, or they contain errors of onekind or another which in some instances have been repeated by later authors.

Hence, the attempt was made to derive the desired expressions in the simplest

manner possible for practical application.

According to Poisson, who first solved the problem of induced magnetismin an ellipsoid placed in a uniform magnetic field, if V be the gravitation

dVpotential at the point (x, y, z) of a body of uniform density p, then —-— is

axthe magnetic potential of the same body uniformly magnetized in the directionX with the intensity A= p. Similarly with regard to any other direction ofuniform magnetization. If the uniform magnetization results from magneticinduction, the magnetizing force at all points in the interior of the body wiUbe uniform and parallel; so that if the external magnetizing force is uniformand parallel, the magnetic force resulting from the magnetization will also beuniform and parallel for all points in the interior of the body.

The ellipsoid is the only body for which -r— is a Hnear function of the coor-ox

dinates x, y, z in the interior, and V, accordingly, a quadratic function of thecoordinates. Poisson's method can, therefore, be apphed to the case of theellipsoid.

Hence ii A, B, and C be the intensities of magnetization parallel to the threeaxes of the ellipsoid, and X', Y', and Z' the gravitation components of ahomogeneous ellipsoid of uniform density p = 1, the magnetic potential of theellipsoid at any external point as resulting from the induced magnetizationwill be:

V=-AX'-BY'-CZ'As defined by Thomson and Tait,' "an elliptic homoeoid is an infinitely

thin shell bounded by two concentric similar elHpsoidal surfaces." The total

* Thomson and Tait's Natural Philosophy, pt. ii, p. 43, footnote 2.


intensity exerted by such a shell on points within the hollow interior is zero,

and on external points anywhere infinitely near the homoeoid it is perpendicu-

lar to the surface, directed inward and equal to 47r pt, where p is the constant

density of the homogeneous mass and t is the thickness of the shell at the point

for which the force of attraction is sought.^ Since, furthermore, any twoconfocal homoeoids of equal masses produce the same intensity on all points

external to both, we have in general that the total intensity exerted by a homo-geneous elliptic homoeoid on an external point (x, y, z) is equal to I^-k pt, p being

the constant density and t the thickness of the elliptic homoeoid at the point {x,

y, z), confocal to the given homoeoid and passing through x, y, z; the intensity is

along the normal and directed inward, or toward the given shell.

On the basis of equation (1) and MacLaurin's theorem the author has

deduced: (1) expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized rotation

elUpsoid in a more convenient form for the general case than previous ones;

(2) expressions for the field of an inductively magnetized prolate elHptic

homoeoid, established possibly for the first time.

It was also shown that expressions in finite form may be estabhshed for

the field of an inductively magnetized eUiptic homceoid in general—that it

is not necessary to assume a rotation elliptic homceoid. This matter is of

special interest in view of the fact that expressions for the field of an induc-

tively-magnetized solid ellipsoid, in general, have not yet been established

in finite form. In conclusion, various applications of the derived formulae weregiven.

Meeting of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union at Brussels, July 18-28, 1919.*

Louis A. Bauer.

Under the auspices of the International Research Council there wereestablished at Brussels, during the meeting of the Council in the Palais des

Academies, July 18 to 28, 1919, various international unions of astronomy,mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, geodesy and geophysics, scientific

radio-telegraphy, etc.

The International Geodetic and Geophysical Union, as finally estabhshed

for a period of 12 years beginning on January 1, 1920, consists of the sections

and officers shown in the table on the following page.

Since there were represented at Brussels this time only the Alhed Nationsand the United States, it was concluded to defer complete organization of the

sections until the entrance into the Union of other counties to be invited by the

International Research Council. In the case of Section (6) (Seismology), since

the agreement among nations belonging to the International Seismological

Association, formed before the war, does not expire until April 1, 1920, it

was necessary to postpone any organization, whatsoever, of the section,

s* The Executive Committees of the Sections were for the present hmited to the

president, vice-president, and secretary, excepting in the case of (e) (Physical

Oceanography), where Sir Charles Close (British Ordnance Survey) and Mr.G. W. Littlehales (U. S. Hydrographic Office) were made additional membersof the executive committee of that section.

The'officers of the Union are: President, M. Charles Lallemand (director,

Levehng Service, France);general secretary, Colonel H. G. Lyons (Army

Meteorological Service, Great Britain). These two ofiicers, with the addition

of the presidents of the sections, who are the vice-presidents of the Union,

constitute the Executive Committee of the Union.

^ Thomson and Tail's Natural Philosophy, pt. ii, paragraph, 519-525.* Abstract of articles "Geophysics at the Brussels Meetings, July 18-28, 1919," Science,

October 31, 1919, pp. 399-403, and of Teriestrial Magnetism and Electricity at the Brussels

Meetings, July 18-28, 1919, Terr. Mag., vol. 24, pp. 105-112.


According to the method of organization and the interpretation put uponthe office of secretary, it is expected that the affairs of the unions and sec-

tions, between the triennial meetings of the General Assembly, will be largely

conducted by the respective secretaries, as is the case also with regard to the

general secretaryship of the International Research Council, to which Pro-fessor Arthur Schuster was reelected.

Section. President. Vice-President.Secretary and Director

Central Bureau.

a. Geodesy . . .

.

b. Seismology

.

c. Meteorology

d. Terrestrial Magnet-ism and Electric-

ity.

e. Physical Oceanog-raphy.

/. Volcanology^.

William Bowie(U. S. Coast andGeodetic Survey.)

Organization deferred

Sir Napier Shaw(British Meteoro-

logical Office.)

A. Tanakadate(University of To-

kyo.)

A. Riccd(Observatory Etna,

Sicily.)

Vincenzo Reina(Italian GeodeticCommission.)

A. Angot(French Meteoro-

logical Bureau.)

Charles Chree(Kew Observa-

torj'.)

H. Lamb(University of

Manchester.)

H. S. Washington(CarnegieGeophy-sical Laboratory.)

Lt. Col. G. Perrier.

(Army GeographicService, Paris.)

C. F. Marvin.(U.S. Weather Bu-

reau.)

Louis A. Bauer.(Carnegie Depart-ment of Terres-

trial Magnetism.)

G. P. Magrini.

(Hydrographic Of-

fice, Venice.)

A. Malladra.

(Vesuvius Obser-vatory.)

* Professor Ricco died since the meeting of the Union, and the position of president of the

section has not yet been filled.—L. A. B., Nov. 8, 1919.

At a preliminary meeting of the section on Meteorology, under the chair-

manship of Colonel Lyons, in the absence of Sir Napier Shaw, a brief discus-

sion was held with regard to the work of the section. The general opinion

was that as the meteorological committee of weather bureaus must necessarily

concern itself primarily with official and administrative matters, there wouldbe abundant opportunity for useful work of the section along broad investi-

gational lines. Two general resolutions to the following effect were passed

:

(a) The hope is expressed that there be appointed a joint committee of the

International Astronomical Union and of the Section of Meteorology of the

International Geodetic and Geophysical Union for investigational work onsolar radiation.

(6) That international work in atmospheric electricity, as far as possible,

be placed under the direction of a committee nominated partly by the Section

of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity, and partly by the Section of Meteor-ology.

The work of section (d) (Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity) could bemore completely organized than that of the other sections, as it happened that

there were present at Brussels six members of the pre-war International

Magnetic Commission of the International Meteorological Committee, viz,

Angot (France), Bauer (U. S. A.), Chree (England), Palazzo (Italy), Schuster(England), and Tanakadate (Japan). After the election of the officers on


July 24 and discussion of the status of work of the pre-war International Mag-netic Commission, the following eight resolutions were passed

:

I. That a committee be appointed to consider the best method of securing an adequate

comparison of the magnetic instruments in use in different countries, and to consider as to

the best method of measuring the magnetic elements in absolute units.

II. That the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity concurs in the resolution

of the Meteorological Section that international work in atmospheric electricity should be

as far as possible placed under the direction of a committee nominated partly by the Section

of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity and partly by the Section of Meteorology.

III. That the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity would welcome coopera-

tion with the International Union of Scientific Radio-Telegraphy in the investigation of the

electric phenomena of the higher atmosphere.

IV. That a committee be appointed on the systematic exchange oi" magnetic curves.

V. That special committees be appointed from time to time for the investigation andreport on specific problems in terrestrial magnetism and electricity.

VI. That the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Electricity would welcome coopera-

tion with the International Astronomical Union in investigating the relationships betweensolar and terrestrial magnetic and electric phenomena.

VII. That the ex-officio members of the executive committee be empowered to elect

additional members to serve until the next ordinary meeting of the Union.

VIII. That the executive committee consult with the executive committees of other

sections of the Union and report to the general secretary of the Union the amount of funds

annuallv required by the section during the period of the present convention.

The executive committee of the Section of Terrestrial Magnetism and Elec-

tricity, on July 25, in order to carry into effect these resolutions, appointed10 committees, the complete composition of which was deferred until the

entrance into the Union of other countries. Thus the committee plan of dis-

tribution of international researches in terrestrial magnetism and electricity

(atmospheric electricity, earth currents, polar lights, radiotelegraphy-strays,

etc.), as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, was also followed

in section (d) as, in fact, generally in the other sections, as far as they could beorganized.

The objects of the International Geodetic and Geophysical Union are stated

in the official version as follows

:

1. To promote the study of problems concerned with the figure and physics of the earth.

2. To initiate and coordinate researches which depend upon international cooperationand to provide for their scientific discussion and publication.

3. To facilitate special researches, such as the comparison of instruments used in different

countries.

Some observations of the total solar eclipse on May 29, 1919, at Cape Palmas, Liberia.

L. A. Bauer. (Papers presented before the American Astronomical Society

at Ann Arbor, September 4, 1919, and before the Philosophical Society ofWashington, October 11, 1919).

The author, assisted by Mr. H. F. Johnston, carried out a general programof observational work, mainly geophysical, in connection with the solar eclipse

of May 29, 1919, which was total at the station finally selected, namely, CapePalmas, Liberia. Although totality was to last at this station about 6^ min-utes, the astronomers avoided this station in view of its being in the rainy belt.

However, for the purposes of the expedition of the Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism, it did not matter whether clear conditions would be had or not,

since the geophysical effect which was primarily to be investigated, namely,the possible effect upon the Earth's magnetic field, would pass through anyclouds. However, as it has turned out, for the third time, although certain

astronomers at other places were unfortunate, clear conditions were encounteredby our party.


When the author left Washington, it had been arranged that he would occupy,

conjointly with Dr. Abbot of the Smithsonian Institution, La Paz, Bolivia, in

order that he might simulate there conditions which he encountered at his station

(Corona, Colorado), the elevation of which is 12,000 feet, during the eclipse

of June 8, 1918. As Dr. Abbot intended to look after the photographic work,

the author did not provide himself with special photographic apphances for

purely astronomical work. However, upon arrival in England, it was found

impracticable to reach a South American station in time for the echpse;

accordingly it was decided to proceed to Cape Palmas, Liberia, instead.

Cape Palmas was one of 5 principal stations at which magnetic and allied

observations were carried out by the Department of Terrestrial Magnetismin connection with the solar echpse of May 29, 1919. Two of these stations,

Sobral, Brazil, in charge of Mr. D. M. Wise, assisted by Mr. A. Thomson, and

Cape Palmas, were inside the belt of totality. A third station, at Huayao,

Peru, north of the totahty belt, was in charge of Dr. H. M. W. Edmonds; the

fourth station south of the belt of totahty, at Puerto Deseado, Argentina, wasin charge of Mr. A. Sterhng; and the fifth, about 100 miles north of the belt

of totality, at Campo, Cameroun, was in charge of Mr. Frederick Brown.Observations were also made at a secondary station, Washington, by Mr.C. R. Duvall.

In addition to these stations, special magnetic observations were made at

the Department's magnetic observatory at Watheroo, Western AustraUa,

and at observatories all over the globe, both inside and outside of the region

of visibihty of the eclipse. Reports have already been received from many of

these foreign observatories, indicating that the magnetic conditions were

ideal for the detection of a possible magnetic effect of the order to be expected

from our previous eclipse magnetic observations..

The observational program at Cape Palmas included the following : magnetic

and electric observations; meteorological observations, shadow-band observa-

tions; times of contacts, and photographs of the solar corona such as could

be obtained with the apphances on hand. This comprehensive program wascarried out successfully, excepting the atmospheric-electric work, which,

owing to the deterioration of the dry-cell batteries secured in England, hadto be abandoned. Fortunately, however, another party of the Departmentof Terrestrial Magnetism, stationed at Sobral, Brazil, where the British party

under Dr. Crommelin was located, carried out a full program of magnetic

and electric work.

The slides shown gave a general view of the station and facilities available

at Cape Palmas, as also two views taken during totahty with a small camera,

which showed clearly the remarkable solar prominence of May 29, as well as

the pronounced coronal extensions. Through the courtesy of Dr. Eddington,

of Cambridge University, it was likewise possible to show a shde made from

a photograph secured by him at his station on the Isle of Principe.

The eclipse of May 29 as seen at Cape Palmas was not nearly as dark, in

spite of its long duration, as the one of June 8 of last year, as observed bythe author at his mountain station. Corona, Colorado, where the latter echpse

lasted but 1^ minutes. There was a marked difference in light, both as seen

visually and as shown by the photographs, between the inner corona and the

outer extensions.

Although three observers took part in the shadow-band observations, at

different points, following even greater precautions than were taken at Coronaduring the eclipse of last year, no shadow bands were observed at Cape Palmasby the various observers, whereas they were clearly observed at Corona.

A definite indication was again had with regard to the small magnetic perturba-

tion or oscillation which, in accordance with previous experience, takes place


during the period of a solar eclipse. This magnetic effect, and the one whichmay be shown with regard to the change in the electrification of the atmos-

phere dm'ing the eclipse, are of special interest in connection with the wireless-

telegraphy experiments conducted during the eclipse at numerous stations

along the coasts of Africa, Europe, and America, under the direction of Dr.

W. Eccles, of London. Respecting the latter observations, some interesting

results have been received by him, indicating that the distance of transmission

of signals sent from Ascension Island, in the South Atlantic Ocean, wasincreased during the time when the eclipse-shadow was between the trans-

mitting station and the receiving station.

There was a steady shght decrease in temperature from 12^ G. M. T., 0.7

minute after the first contact, to 12.7^ G. M. T., and then a more rapid decrease

until 1^^ G. M. T., when the minimum temperature of 79.4° F. was reached.

This time (li^) was approximately 0.4^ later than the middle time of totaUty.

The increase in temperature after 14'' was rapid, the maximum 82.7° F. being

reached at 14.9^ G. M. T. The hygrogram for May 29 showed the following

effect: the humidity, which was 71 per cent at 12^ G. M. T., steadily increased

to 78 per cent at 14'' G. M. T. There was a more rapid decrease from 14**

G. M. T. to IS'' G. M. T., when the humidity was 66 per cent. The maximumhumidity, therefore, occurred at 14'', or approximately 0.4 hour later than the

middle time of totahty. The barogram showed nothing marked during the

time of the echpse.

Note on a string galvanometer for use on board ship. J. A. Fleming. Terr. Mag., vol. 24,

29-32 (March 1919). Washington.

This note describes a string galvanometer constructed in the instrumentshop of the Department. It is of the type originally developed by Professor

Einthoven, of the permanent-magnet air-damped pattern. The magneticfield is produced by a laminated magnet consisting of 5 permanent horseshoe

magnets. The string element is a fine quartz fiber coated with silver or plati-

num by the method described by Professor H. B. Williams;^ the fiber is sol-

dered to 2 cyHndrical copper lugs mounted in standards capable of adjustmentby which the fiber may be centered in the air-gap between the soft-iron pole-

pieces. The tension of the fiber is regulated by means of a screw operatingthrough the end-supports on threads of slightly different pitches. The arrange-

ments are such that the fiber of any length between 93 mm. and 120 mm. maybe used. Suitable cover plates and caps are provided to exclude dust and air-

currents.

The deflection of the fiber produced at right angles to the magnetic field

by the passage of a current through the galvanometer may be observeddirectly on the scale in the eyepiece of a microscope suitably mounted, or byprojecting the image of the fiber on a glass scale by means of a beam of Hghtpassing through the microscope and an optical condenser and suitably mountedprisms on the opposite side of the instrument. The mounting for the gal-

vanometer is such that it may be set up with the fiber either in a horizontalor in a vertical position.

When used on shipboard it was found that vibrations, for example thosefrom the engine, could be practically eliminated by suspendmg the galvano-meter by strong rubber bands.

Auxiliary tables to facihtate revisions of field magnetic observations. H. W. Fisk.

It has hitherto been customary to complete the reduction of time recordsto deduce the clironometer rate required for the revision of the oscillation

observations. This has often delayed revisions unduly, since the chronometer

^ On the silvering of quartz fibers by cathode spray, Physic. Rev., ser. 2, voL 4, pp. 517-521, 1914.


rates may not be obtainable before the completion of an expedition, and it is

then often a troublesome process requiring a large amount of time and careful

analysis. A table has therefore been prepared giving in a compact form the

corrections for rate finally deduced that may be applied to the values of

horizontal intensity (H) or magnetic moment (w) first computed on the basis

of a zero-rate for the chronometer. These corrections depend only upon r, the

chronometer rate, and H, as observed, in accordance with the formulaAH =-i/r(l. 1574X10-^) (1)

derived as follows: If T represents the time of a single oscillation and AT the

change in T because of chronometer-rate, we have the differential formulaAH/AT=-2H/T; and since AT=rr/86,400, (1) immediately results. Thetable as prepared gives the necessary corrections for values of H from 0.02 to

0.40 C. G. S. and for values o" m from 100 to 1,000 for chronometer rates

between P and 60^Computations of local mean time or azimuth from astronomical observations

frequently require slight revision on account of small errors in the latitude

which was used. A means of correcting the results directly, without recom-puting with the revised latitude, is provided by the use of differential formulae

given in Comstock's Astronomy for Engineers, page 207, as follows:

AA. . At , . ,_,

-T— = — sec </> cot t; —— = —sec </> cot A (2)A(p A(p

A table was prepared giving the value of each of these differential coefficients

for various latitudes and for hour-angles (or azimuths) differing by 5° from10° to 00°, but owing to the fact that the coefficients do not change linearly

either with respect to latitude or hour-angle, the double interpolation involved

in the use of the table was troublesome and uncertain. A more convenientmethod was obtained by using a graphical process.

A scale of latitudes was laid off as ordinates and a scale of hour-angles (or

azimuths) as abscissae, and the loci of points, whose functions combined accord-

ing to the formulae above gave the same value for the differential coefficient,

were plotted. By suitably selecting the values of these coefficients, a family

of curves was drawn so distributed as to make the work of interpolation com-paratively simple, while giving results to the necessary degree of accuracy.

It will be noted that the two formulae above are identical, except for thesubstitution of A for t; it follows, therefore, that one series of curves will serve

both for the correction to azimuth and to time or longitude.

Attention must be given to the sign of the correction. In the formula usedfor the computation of azimuth or time, it is convenient to consider the

azimuth of a body east of the meridian as negative, reckoned from the souththrough the east, and positive when west of the meridian reckoned in thereverse direction. It follows, since the sign of the correction is determinedby the cotangent factor, </> never exceeding 90°, that when the body is to theeast, the sign will be plus when A (or t) is less than 90°, and when the body is

west the sign will be minus for values of A (or t) less than 90°; in both cases

the sign changes for values of A (or t) greater than 90°.

A new method in navigation. A method for finding any one of the three angles when giventhe three sides of a spherical triangle or for finding the opposite side whengiven two sides and the included angle of a spherical triangle. Henry B.Hedrick.

We have from spherical trigonometry

cos c= cos a cos 6+sin a sin h cos C (1)

In navigation, the complements of the sides, a, b, c, are usually given, as,

declination d= 90°-a, latitude L = 90°-6, and altitude /i = 90°-c. Theangle C included by the sides a and 6 is the hour-angle t, while the angle A


included by the sides h and c is the azimuth Z. We shall consider two cases:

(1) GiwenL, d,t, to ^ndh. (2) Given L, d, /i, to find L The case, given L, d, Ato find Z, may be derived from case 2 by the interchange of d and h throughout.Formula (1) becomes, then, in navigation

sin h = sm L sin d+cos L cos d cos t (2)

Substituting in (2)

2 sin L sin d= cos (L— d)—co& (L-^d) = a — j3

2 cos L cos d = cos (L— d)+cos {L-\-d) = a+^2sin/i = 27

where a = cos (L— d), /3 = cos (L+d), 7 = sin h, we get

27=(a-/3)+ (a+^) cosf; or cos < = ^~'',"t^^ (3)

Formulae (3) are convenient for use with the ordinary tables of naturalsines and cosines when a computing machine is available for making the onemultiplication in case 1 or the one division in case 2.

For use in navigation, where the sides of the spherical triangle usually arelarge, auxihary tables have been devised containing certain factors of sines

and cosines, thus greatly facilitating the multiplication or division. Multi-plying (3) by a factor ft so chosen that

/»(a+/3) = l+5where S is small, either positive or negative, say numerically less than 0.1

we have

2/i7=/ia-/,/3+(l+5) cos t; or, cos ^ = /^^-/^+^/<^(4)

Four factors are sufficient for observation of the Sun in latitude 60° or less.

At present two tables are prepared for observation of the Sun in latitude less

than 45' ; namely, /i = 0.56804 and fi = 0.68404.

Each /j table is in two parts. Part 1 contains /< cos 6, which gives /<a for

6 = L— d, and/i/S for d= L-\-d, and part 2 contains 2 f^ sin h. In order to getS directly by the addition of /<a and fS, 0.5 has been subtracted from eachvalue in part 1. Setting /^a —/</3 = 72 and 2/, sin h =H our formulae become

H = R+{l+S) cos t; or, cos t^^j^ = {H-R)il-\-S') (5)

where 1+*S' is the reciprocal of 1+»S. A small table gives AS, the numericaldifference between ;S and *S' for argument S; S and *S' having, of course, oppo-site signs.

In most cases S need not exceed 3 digits, so that the multiplication can bemost easily performed by the author's Interpolation Tables, Publication 245of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In the absence of any multiplica-

tion table, the product may be obtained by use of an auxihary table. Table 6,

based on the method of quarter-squares.

Table 7 gives cos t for both arc and time. Al' the trigonometric tables are

to a minute of arc and to four decimal places, with the final figures so markedthat the even figure in the fifth place may be obtained when required.

The following transformation of the formulae suggests another sUghtly

different form for the tables, using the versed-sine instead of the cosine.

Substituting in (4) /<j;i = l+>S-/,a

we have 2fh = 2/,a- (1 +5) (1 - cos i) ; or, vers / = ^-^'f"","^^ (6)

or hav f=/,[cos (L-d)-sin h](l-{-S')

In this form versed-sine t (or hav t) is always positive and only one of the

two parts of the fctahles is required.


Note on a possible explanation of the "electric tide" observed at Jersey. S. J. Mauchly.Terr. Mag., vol. 24, No. 2 (June 1919). Washington.

Since 1916 M. Dechevrens^ has obtained at Jersey, England, continuousrecords of the electromotive force indicated by a galvanometer one terminal

of which is joined to the pipes of the city gas-system and the other to the pipes

of the private water-system of the St. Louis Observatory, whose site is on ahill of considerable elevation above the city.

The diurnal-variation curves unmistakably indicate a connection betweenthe observed electromotive force and the tides of the local harbor. Dechev-rens has tentatively suggested that the electromotive force may be inducedby the tidal waters cutting across the Earth's magnetic field.

Recent observations at Kew by E, G. Bilham,^ showing a close connection

between the water-level in an experimental well and the tides in the nearbyThames suggest the following as a possible explanation of the effects observedat Jersey

:

If the normal tides in the Jersey harbor are assumed to cause periodic

variations in the height of the local water-table similar to those observed at

Kew, then, from the theory of concentration cells, a periodic variation wouldbe a necessary characteristic of the electromotive force between the two pipe

systems, provided one system in more accessible to the periodic infiltration

of tidal water than the other. Likewise, the successive exposure of differently

composed or unequally corroded parts of the lower system might give rise to

periodic variations in the electromotive force.

Judgment as to whether the variations of electromotive force resulting fromthese causes should be considered as accounting for nearly all or for very little

of the observed effect must be based upon topographic and geologic details

and certain supplementary experiments. If water-table data similar to those

obtained at Kew were available for the lower part of the area covered by thegas-pipe system, they would go far toward indicating whether the observedeffects should be attributed chiefly to electromagnetic induction or to elec-

trolytic action.

iSee Terr. Mag., vol. 23, pp. 37-39, 1918; Terr. Mag., vol.' 23, pp. 145-147, 1918; ComptesRendus, vol. 167, pp. 552-555, 1918; Terr. Mag., vol. 24. pp. 33-38, 1919.

2 See Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 94, pp. 165-181, 1918; Proc. Roy. Soc, vol. 94, pp. 476-478, 1918;Q. J. R. Meteor Soc, vol. 44, pp. 171-189, 1918.

TtRRESTRIAL MAGNETISM

Map showing the Magnetic-Survey Work of the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism during the Period 1905-I9ri (October).

(Black lines show the cruises of the Galilee, and red ones, those of the Carnegie. Red dots show the land stations.)

ARCHEOLOGY.

Morley, Sylvanus G., Sante Fe, New Mexico. Associate in American Archeol-

ogy. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 13-17.)

During the month of March 1919, Mr. Morley visited Costa Rica

and Nicaragua. The archeological collections in the National Museumsat San Jose and Managua respectively, as well as the larger private

collections, were examined, but beyond the ceramic remains no traces

of direct Maya influence were found.

The decorative motives in pottery occasionally have elements whichresemble the Maya ceramic designs, but as a whole the material cul-

tures of the two countries, judging from the collections examined,

show few such resemblances, and we may probably assume that, if felt

at all, the INIaya influence was but slight.

The Lenca, on the eastern Maya frontier (see Year Book No. 16,

pp. 288, 289), and the Pipil, a Nahuatlan people along the southeastern

frontier, formed a fairly effective linguistic barrier against a general

southeastward extension of the Maya ci\dlization, and although the

material cultures of the Lenca and Pipil themselves show a strong

Maya influence, particularly in their ceramic art, the original Mayastrains had become greatly attenuated by the time such borrowings

had been passed on to the tribes of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.

The principal work of the 1919 field season was the excavation in

Maj'- of Temples 3 and 4 of the Temple Plaza at Quirigua, Guatemala.

The excavation of this important group of buildings, no less than the

civic and religious center of the site, was commenced 30 years ago byMr. A. P. Maudslay, at which time Temple 6, on the north side of the

plaza, was partially cleared^ (see fig. 1).

In 1912 Mr. Morley excavated Temples 1 and 2 on the opposite

(south) side of the plaza for the School of American Archaeology,^ andin 1914 Mr. Earl Morris cleared the small temple. No. 5, on the west

side, and finished Temple 6 on behalf of the same institution.

Through an arrangement with Dr. E. L. Hewett, Director of the

School of American Research, Mr. Morley completed the excavation

of this group during the present season. A plan of the Temple Plaza,

which is 160 feet long by 142 feet wide, and the associated structures

is shown in figure 1, and a perspective drawing of Temples 1, 2, 3,

and 4 (restored) , looking southwest , is given in figure 2.

The excavation of Temples 3 and 4 brought to light no new hiero-

glyphic texts like those in the doorways and on the cornice of Temple 1,

^ Biologia Central Americana, Section on Archffiologj-, by A. P. Maudslay, vol. ii (text), pp. 5, 6.

^ "The third season's work in Guatemala," by E. L. Hewett, Bull. Archseol. Inst. Amer., vol.

II, pp. 117-134. "Quirigua, an American town 1,400 years old," by S. G. Morley, Scien. Amer.,vol. cvii. Aug. 3, pp. 96, 97, 10.5. "Excavations at Quirigua, Guatemala," by S. G. Morley,Nat. Geog. Mag., vol. xxiv, No. 3, pp. 339-361.

317


but certain interesting architectural features were uncovered, perhapsnot the least of which was the discovery that the old builders hadbegun to distrust their own handiwork, even in ancient times. Bothtemples, it was clear from the excavations, had begun to fail struc-turally before the city was abandoned, particularly at the corners,which had been prevented from sagging only by the erection of heavybuttresses built against the outer walls.

Fig. 1.—Plan of the Temple Plaza and associated structures, Quirigua. Guatemala.

Temple 3 is the better preserved, due to the fact that the level of theterrace upon which it was originally built was subsequently raised atthe back and sides to the level of the medial cornice, thus half buryingthe temple, all save the front, in a solid mass of stone and red clay, theonly bonding material used in the Quirigua masonry (see figure 2).This resulted in its being better preserved than Temple 4, as alreadynoted, and permits the establishment of one important architecturalfact, namely, that the upper zone above the medial cornice, in thisbuilding at least, was vertical and not sloping as in the Palenque templesand the second story of the Monjas at Chichen Itza. Temple 2 nearbyhas this same feature, and in the restoration in figure 2 all the templesexcept No. 1 are shown with a vertical wall above the medial cornice.

I

ARCHEOLOGY. 319

The facade had been ornamented with an elaborate decoration in

stucco which was entirely destroyed when the roof collapsed, manysmall fragments of which were recovered during the excavation of the

terrace in front of the temple.

The plaster on the floors and interior walls was of lime, fairly hard,

and had been painted a dark wine-red. Some traces of green were also

found in the doorway.

Fig. 2.—Temples 1, 2, 3, and 4, Quirigua, Guatemala, looking southwest (restored).

The most interesting feature of Temple 3 was the small dark interior

chamber which was entered by a low passage 3 feet 6 inches high, fromthe north chamber. It is only 3 feet 10 inches high, 2 feet 8 inches

wide, and 4 feet 9 inches long. Strange to say, it was intact whenfound, every roof stone being in place, and it was half full of red earth

lightly packed, as was also the passageway giving access to it. This

earth had doubtless washed in since the city was abandoned, andwas due to the leaking through of water from above, carrying with it

particles of the red-clay bonding material , which gradually filled the

chamber. Not a single specimen was recovered from this chamber,

the use of which remains problematical.

A similar chamber was found in the excavation of Temple 2 in 1912,

and at its farther end were twelve or fourteen rounded river pebbles

weighing a pound or more each and showing signs of having beensmoked by fire. It has been suggested that these may have been heated

and dropped into bowls containing water , thus making vapor, and that

the chamber itself was used in connection with some sweating cere-

mony.The most important architectural feature of Temple 4 was the

interior stairway leading from the northern chamber to the roof.

This was composed of two flights of steps and a landing. The first

flight is 2 feet 2 inches wide, and has four steps averaging 9 inches in

height. Beyond the landing the stairway makes a 90° turn to the left,

and then continues 2 feet 8 inches wide for five steps more to the top,

the steps averaging 1 foot in height. The roof was gone, but it prob-


ably had been like that over the interior stairway of Temple 20 atCopan, i. e., composed of successively higher sections of the typical

corbelled arch roof. The original height of Temple 4 is preserved towithin 6 inches at the top of this stairway, from which it may be esti-

mated to have been about 12 feet high.

The specimens found, as is usually the case in temple excavations in

the Maya field, were rather meager: a clay-pipe, two shell rings, twojade beads, parts of a very fine alabaster bowl covered with a brilliant

red paint almost like an enamel, parts of a human skull found in thedoorway of Temple 3, animal and bird bones, many obsidian flakes, anumber of broken pottery vessels, and two fragments of a vase showinga band of hieroglyphs carved around the neck just below the rim.

The ground-plans of the several temples in figure 1 show a general

similarity in the arrangement of chambers between Temples 1 and 3on the one hand and Temples 4 and 5 on the other; Temples 2 and 6being different, not only from either of these two pairs, but also fromeach other. On the other hand, none of them contained large numbersof chambers, like some buildings elsewhere in the Maya area—for

example, the Palace at Palenque or the Monjas at Uxmal; and it is

probable that all were used either as temples proper, i. e., places wherereligious rites and ceremonies were carried on, or for administrative

purposes, such as councils, courts, and the like; and finally, probablynone of them were dwellings of rulers or priests, such as the Palenqueand Uxmal structures mentioned may have been.

The date of erection of the Temple Plaza is not certain, althoughTemple 2 is clearly the oldest of the six structures surrounding it. Theapparent correlation of Zoomorphs and P, 9.18.0.0.0 and 9.18.5.0.0,

respectively, with the northern extensions of the terrace of Temple 5,

might indicate that one or the other marks the completion of this partof the group. The dedication of Temple 1, the only one of the six

buildings having sculptured decoration, and therefore probably the

latest, in 9.19.0.0.0, marks the end of sculptural as well as architectural

activity at Quirigua, this site (along with the other Old Empire cities

then occupied) probably having been abandoned not long thereafter.

Two trips were made to the ruins of Copan, Honduras, one in Decem-ber 1918, and the other in June 1919, to secure certain final data for amonograph on the inscriptions of that city (Publication No. 219, nowin press) . During the course of the last visit, the mound of Stela 7,

where the most archaic monuments at Copan have been found, wasexcavated, disclosing (among other things) a cruciform vault or cham-ber underneath the foundation-stone of Stela 7, but no new monuments.

Valuable information as to the original provenance of Stelse 15 and7 and Altars V, M', T, and U was received from the three oldest

inhabitants of the modern village, an aged trio between 70 and 80 yearsof age. The memory of these informants reaches back clearly to 1860;

ARCHEOLOGY—BIBLIOGRAPHY. 321

the oldest was an old lady of nearly 80, whose recollections extend to

1850. All three remember distinctly when the dense tropical forest,

described by Stephens in 1839, still filled the entire valley, and when the

modern village, now numbering a thousand souls, was composed of

only three houses in small clearings in the forest. The information

given by these people has proved of great help in checking up the

original provenance of the six monuments mentioned.

Before leaving, Mr. Morley installed a small local museum in the

cabildo, composed of the fragmentary monuments he has been collect-

ing from the different houses and patios of the village during the past

five years. The material left in the new museum comprises the fol-

lowing :

No. 1. Stela 7, two large pieces. No. 7. Stela 25, two small pieces.

No. 2. Stela 15, two large pieces and one No. 8. Fragment E', one small piece.

small piece. No. 9. Fragment Y', one small piece.

No. 3. Stela 22, one medium piece. No. 10. Fragment Z', one small piece.

No. 4. Stela 21, one small piece. No. 11. Altar S, complete in one piece.

No. 5. Stela 20, three pieces—one large, Nos. 12-24. Fragments V, thirteen small

the other two medium. pieces of archaic steliB.

No. 6. Stela 24, one large piece.

The discovery of the meaning of the "winged-Cauac " sign as a

variant for the tun-sign, announced in Year Book 17 (see p. 272) is

already fulfilling the anticipations there expressed as to its importance

in the study of Maya chronology. By means of this sign, it has recently

been possible to date a beautifully sculptured peccary skull taken fromTomb 1 at Copan by the First Peabody Museum Expedition in 1892,

the inscription and date of which, although unusually well preserved,

had long baffled decipherment. By the identification of this newvariant for the tun-sign, it is now possible to date the text in question

as 9.7.8.0.0 1 Ahau 3 Ceh. This latter is the first contemporaneous

date in the Corpus Inscriptionum Mayarum which has yet beenfound, that may be referred to the katun-ending in 9.8.0.0.0, and fills

a previous lacuna in the chronological record at Copan. It is con-

fidently anticipated that this glyph will prove of increasing value,

particularly in the decipherment of New Empire texts.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Garrison, Fielding H., Army Medical Museum, Washington, District of

Colmnbia. Preparation and publication of the Index Medicus. (For pre-

vious reports, see Year Books Nos. 2-17.)

The Index Medicus for 1918 (second series, volume 16) contained

776 pages, with an index covering 153 pages, as compared with 682 and134 pages, respectively, for 1917. During the latter half of the year,

many of the large German weeklies became available, and the refer-

ences to this literature checked the decrease in size of the monthly


numbers apparent throughout the period of the war. The increased

percentage of war material necessitated the introduction of manyadditional subdivisions (e. g., "Aviation," "Cardio-Vascular Diseases,"

"Evacuation and Transportation of Wounded," "Mahngering," "Mili-

tary Surgery," "Phthisis in Soldiers," "Reconstruction, Reeducation,

Rehabilitation," and "Trench Diseases"), under "Military and Naval

Medicine." A war supplement of 260 pages, embracing classified lists

of the available literature dealing with the medical aspects of the war,

was issued in the early fall of 1918.

BIOLOGY.

Mann, Albert, Washington, District of Columbia. Continuation of investi-

gations and preparations for publication of results of work on Diatomaceoe.

The present investigations, begun July 1, 1919, were undertaken,

because of the increasing importance of these minute aquatic plants and

their intimate relationship to several lines of scientific investigation.

As the most important of the marine algse, their biological value has

come to be generally recognized, and a consideration of their diversified

economic uses indicates that their careful study will be a useful con-

tribution to knowledge. The plan includes several distinct lines

:

An illustrated paper is in course of preparation on the marine diatoms

of the Philippine and Hawaiian Islands. Although these two posses-

sions of the United States are of similar subtropical location, and both

are unusually rich in their diatom flora, they are quite dissimilar in

native genera and species. Neither has been previously studied with

any thoroughness; a monograph on the diatoms of these localities is

therefore desirable. It will include a large number of new species and

several new genera.

A similar paper is contemplated on the marine diatoms of the

Panama Canal Zone, material for which was secured by the Smithsonian

Institution before the waters adjacent to the Atlantic and the Pacific

terminals were affected by transfer of species through the opening of the

canal. Such a paper promises to be of much value in determining whatchanges are brought about by commercial intercourse through the canal.

A report will be prepared on some diatom dredgings made in the

Antarctic by the Shackleton South-polar Expedition. The material

for this report is scanty; for this expedition was one of geographical

exploration rather than for the collection of scientific specimens. Butany report upon the marine life of this remote region has high value.

A considerable collection of diatomaceous material has been madealong the Atlantic seaboard, chiefly in the vicinity of Woods Hole,

Massachusetts, and has been partly investigated. This line of work is

to be continued. Although its immediate purpose is to supply infor-

mation for a better understanding of problems connected with the

BIOLOGY. 323

food-supply of our edible fishes, of which the diatoms are known to

form an important part, there is need also for this work in connection

with certain oceanographic researches, especially for the purpose of

assisting in the determination of the trend and extent of certain ocean

currents by means of the particular species of diatoms these currents

transport. It is evident that this contributory service can not be

rendered until the different diatom floras of the coasts swept by these

currents have been carefully studied and recorded. At present our

knowledge of the diatoms of our eastern seaboard is very meager, andit ought to at once receive such attention as will bring it to somedegree of completeness comparable with that of the shores of Europe.

It is hoped that similar studies may include the coasts of the Gulf of

Mexico and of the Pacific States, for the diatoms of these regions are

even less known to science.

The geological relationships existing between the numerous fossil

diatom deposits distributed over the United States deserve the study

of a competent diatomist, to supplement the investigations of the

technical geologist. A large amount of material is now available for

this purpose. It is proposed to take this work up as soon as other

lines of research already begun have been completed.

Several of the large and widely distributed genera of diatoms are

represented in only a fragmentary way throughout the literature

bearing on this subject. This literature is itself rare and difficult of

access; and publication of studies of these cosmopolitan genera will be

of advantage to this part of marine biological science. It is intended

that illustrated monographs will be prepared from time to time along

these lines.

It is well to state, in connection with this preliminary report of plans,

that the study of these minute and delicate organisms requires a differ-

ent technique from that of any other line of investigation. Compara-tively few scientific students have given to it the time and effort neces-

sary to master it. It happens also that, of the small number who havedevoted themselves to this field, an unusually large proportion has

recently died. It is consequently opportune that these investigations

are now being taken up, and under such auspices as will insure the

proper training of new workers who will be fitted to carry forwardfuture investigations in so speciaUzed and uncommon a field of scien-

tific research.

Castle, W. E., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Continua-tion of experimental studies of heredity in small mammals. (For previousreports see Year Books Nos. 3-17.)

The principal subjects under investigation during the past year havebeen: (1) the phenomenon of linkage in heredity, whereby characters

go together or stay apart in genetic transmission; (2) the method of


inheritance of differences in size and its explanation; (3) the action of

selection in changing inherited characters.

Five brief papers have been published and one comprehensive paper,

PubHcation No, 288.

My former assistant, Mr. L. C. Dunn, has returned from overseas

service and has resumed his interrupted investigations.

Morgan, T. H., Columbia University, New York. Study of the constitution

of the germ-plasm in relation to heredity. (For previous reports see YearBooks Nos. 15-17.)

The following report covers the work of T. H. Morgan, C. B. Bridges,

and A, H. Sturtevant for the year 1919 on the constitution of the

hereditary materials of the pomace fly, Drosophila melanogaster.

The working up of the data concerning the localization of the genes

of the third chromosome has occupied much of our attention. Newcharacters have continued to appear, the gene for one of which has

increased the length of the third-chromosome map by about one quar-

ter of its former known length. The recurrence of previously knownmutations is being carefully watched and checked, because of their

bearing on many fundamental problems, such, for instance, as the

relative mutability of different loci, the determination of a minimumfigure for the number of loci in the germ-plasm of Drosophila, and their

bearing on evolutionary problems (such as the increased chance of a

beneficial mutation becoming established, parallel evolution, etc.).

Attempts to cross D. melanogaster with other species have beenpersistently made, but unsuccessfully so far, with one exception. Thecauses for this failure, when mating is known to occur, are being fur-

ther investigated, and new species, when brought into the laboratory,

are tried out in all possible combinations. It is hoped to continue this

work in other parts of the world where untried species abound. As aprehminary to this sort of work, Sturtevant's taxonomic study of all

North American species of this group is nearing completion and will

soon be submitted for publication.

It has been found possible to obtain hybrids between D. melano-

gaster and an undescribed species. A yellow mutant in the new species

(found by Dr. Metz) furnished an opportunity for a direct test of the

supposed identity of mutant characters in the two species. It has beencrossed with yellow melanogaster and has given yellow hybrids. Bothyellows being recessive, it follows that they are in the same locus. Thisis the first time that parallel mutations in different species have beenproven to be identical, though other methods have made this more or

less probable in several cases. Even more important in this connectionis the peculiar sex ratio in these hybrids and their sterility. Both of

these problems are under investigation by Mr. A. M. Brown and others.

Further study of non-disjunction is being carried out on material

more favorable than any other hitherto available even in Drosophila—

BIOLOGY—CHEMISTRY. 325

better because of the relatively high frequency of the unusual types of

exceptions (primary and "equational").

A new type of chromosome-disturbance, known as ''transposition,"

is being investigated. A piece of a second chromosome has apparently

been broken off and then become attached to a third chromosome.Other special problems have also been studied on the Drosophila

material. Dr. 0. L. Mohr, of the University of Christiania, has exam-ined certain questions, the most important being a modification of aregion of the sex chromosome that is responsible for the character

known as Notch. Miss M. B. Stark has continued her work (at the

University of Indiana) on hereditary tumor. Mr. S. R. Safir has prac-

tically completed the cytological study of the XO male. Dr. J. F.

Nonidez has begun an examination of the normal process of fertilization

in D. melanogaster and in species crosses. The combined results of all

the work done on Drosophila is the basis of a book now ready for pub-hcation, entitled "The Physical Basis of Heredity."

CHEMISTRY.

Noyes, Arthur A., Throop College of Technology, Pasadena, California

Researches upon (1) the properties of solutions in relation to the ionic

theory; (2) the determination of the atomic structure of crystalline sub-

stances by X-rays. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-17.)

Several investigations have been conducted, with the aid of elec-

tromotive force measurements, on solutions of largely ionized elec-

trolytes. The free energy at various concentrations of potassiumhydroxid has been determined by Mr. Ming Chow. Mr. Chow has

also completed a study of cells of the form H2, HCl(ci)+KCl(c2),Hg2Cl2+Hg, in which the total concentration (C1+C2) was kept con-

stant. His results lead to the conclusion that, so long as this condition

prevails, the respective ions behave as perfectly normal solutes.

Mr. J. A. Beattie has nearly completed an investigation of the free

energy of lithium chloride at various concentrations. The measure-ments were made on cells with and without hquid junctions, andaccurate values for the transference-numbers of the salt have beenobtained by combination of the results.

Work has also been continued on the determination of oxidation

and reduction potentials. Mr. C. E. Ruby has studied the equilibrium

conditions of the reaction 3K2Mn04+2H20 = 2KMn04+Mn02 4-

4K0H. Relations between the three higher oxidation stages of man-ganese have been derived from the results.

The researches on the determination of crystal structure by X-rayanalysis has been continued by Dr. D. A. Maclnnes and Mr. F. C.

Hoyt. Besides the modifications of the Bragg apparatus previously

referred to, consisting in the addition of a reference crystal and an


extra electroscope, further refinements of the apparatus have now beenworked out which have made possible more accurate measurements of

the intensities of the X-ray reflections. A method has also been devel-

oped for growing larger, more perfect crystals. A redetermination of

the relative intensities of the several orders of reflection has been madefor the simplest arrangement of atoms, and work is in progress on the

effect on the intensities of the variation of molecular weight in a series

of simple crystals (such as those of potassium chloride, bromide, andiodide).

Richards, Theodore W., Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Continuation of exact investigation of atomic weights and other physico-

chemical properties of elements and of simple compounds. (For previousreports see Year Books 2-17.)

On account of the war, investigation in purely scientific matters wasalmost at a standstill during the early part of the winter. The aca-

demic year opened with only one assistant at work in the laboratory

in addition to the army officers of the Sanitary Corps who were com-pleting the investigations on the physico-chemical properties of the

constituents of cereals, mentioned in the last report. This investiga-

tion was completed in November. After the first of January several

former students returned from the army, and two new assistants weresecured, but so far there has not been sufficient time to permit muchfinished work. The following investigations have been conducted:

(1) The Atomic Weight of Radioactive Lead from Japan.

Through the kindness of Professor Ikeda, a small specimen of a lead

incrustation from a radioactive spring at Hokuto, Japan, was obtained,

and Dr. J. Sameshima studied its atomic weight. The sample con-

tained numerous impurities, and the purification of the small amountwas difficult. The purest preparation yielded an atomic weight of

about 207.13 instead of 207.2, the atomic weight of ordinary lead,

showing that this radioactive spring in Japan contains only a small

proportion of the isotope of lead which now bears the name of RadiumG. The method was essentially the same as that used in previous

investigations.

(2) The Purification of Gallium by Distillation as the Chloride.

With the help of Mr. W. M. Craig, this method of purifying gaUiumsalts was carried further, especial attention being given to the impur-

ities which may be present in the initial and final fractions. Further

description may well be postponed until the next report, when it is

hoped the details will have been more fully studied. Incidentally it

was found that one of the best methods of freeing gallium from zinc

is by heating the liquid metal in a quartz tube in a high vacuum to ahigh temperature (over 1000°), when the zinc distils, carrying with it

only a very small amount of gallium.

CHEMISTRY. 327

(3) Purification of Gallium by Electrolysis.

Further work with this method, concerning which a hasty preHmi-

nary announcement was made in the last report, confirmed the con-

clusion that gallium may be conveniently purified by careful elec-

trolysis. Nevertheless, unexpected complications arose. The earUer

experience, when pure gallium was obtained by the electrolytic process,

seems to be possible only when a very small amount of zinc is present

(as was the case with the specimen then used). Evidently distilling

at a high temperature, mentioned in the preceding section, is moreconvenient than electrolysis for the elimination of zinc. Indium is

eliminated electrolytically without great difficulty. The melting-point

of this purest specimen was found to be 29.8° instead of 30.8°, as given

by mistake in the last report. Spectroscopic study of these precipi-

tates has been made, but further investigation is still needed for final

statement. In particular, the electrode potential of gallium, which wehave begun to study, needs careful determination.

(4) The Surface Tension of Liquid Gallium.

The peculiar nature of this element makes all its physical properties

of especial interest. Accordingly, with the help of Mr. Sylvester Boyer,

the surface tension was studied according to the flat-drop method. Thedeterminations were carried out in an atmosphere of carbon dioxid

contained within a glass box immersed in a thermostat at 30°, the

liquid flat drops of gallium about 2 cm. in diameter resting on a flat

dry-wood surface. Great care was taken to have the optical-glass

walls of thermostat and box parallel and vertical. Similar drops of

mercury studied in precisely the same way gave a satisfactory standard

of comparison. The only doubt as to finality in these results lies in the

possibility that in spite of much care to prevent oxidation, the gallium

might nevertheless be covered by a film of oxide. The results gave for

mercury a surface tension of 44.0 and for gallium 37.2 mg/mm. In the

course of this work the densities of the solid and liquid gallium w^ere

again measured, confirming essentially the values reported in the last

report, only slight deviations being indicated.

(5) The Compressibility of Indium.

In order to fill one of the gaps in the interesting periodic curve

relating the compressibilities of the elements to their atomic weights,

the compressibility of indium was carefully determined with the help

of Dr. J. Sameshima. The method was in principle similar to that

used in the earlier researches in this laboratory, but an improvementwas introduced which increased considerably the accuracy of deter-

mination when working with very small quantities, as in the present

case. The density of indium was found to be 7.31, its compressibility

2.7(10"^), not far from two-thirds that of mercury. This is nearly the

value which had been predicted from the general tendency of the curve.


(6) The Melting-Point of Benzene, and the Effect of Common Impurities.

This investigation was a continuation of previous work (see Year

Books No. 13, p. 352, and No. 16, p. 300). A yet more careful study of

the melting-point of pure benzene was made with the help of Dr. W. C.

Schumb. The value 5.494° was found as the mean of many observa-

tions on several samples of benzene, using two thermometers stand-

ardized in Paris at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures.

It was found that when saturated with water, benzene freezes at a

point 0.095° lower than when free from water. Hence, in order to

obtain an exact value for the freezing point of the pure material, less

than 1 per cent of the saturation amount of water must be present.

The effect of dissolved air, also, was studied.

(7) Study of Concentrated Thallium Amalgams.

With the help of Mr. C. P. Smyth, the study of concentrated thai-

hum amalgams (begun with Dr. Wilson and Dr. Daniels) was con-

tinued. Further evidence concerning the behavior and constitution of

amalgams containing less than 20 per cent of mercury was obtained,

pointing to a reasonable explanation for the difference between the

electrode potential of pure electrolytic thallium and amalgamated

thallium. This investigation was not quite finished and will be con-

tinued in the autumn.

Several previous researches were brought to the point of publica-

tion and their titles will be found listed in the bibhography.

Sherman, H. C, Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Chemical Investi-

gation of amylases and related enzymes. (For previous reports see Year

Books Nos. 11-17.)

The work of the year has consisted chiefly in the continuation of the

investigations referred to in our last report and the beginning of a

somewhat extended study of the effects of amino acids upon the

enzymic hydrolysis of starch by different amylases, both in natural and

in purified form.

A paper embodying the results of experiments completed last

autumn on the influence of hydrogen-ion concentration upon the

enzymic activity of three typical amylases was read before the Society

for Experimental Biology and Medicine and published in the Journal

of the American Chemical Society for February 1919.

The work on the action of amylases and digestive secretions upon

starches of different origin, preliminary results of which were outhned

in our last report, has been completed and published (Journal of the

American Chemical Society, July 1919). Wheat, maize, and rice

starches, similarly purified, showed equal digestibility or rate of

enzymic hydrolysis. This was true whether the enzyme employed was

saliva, commercial pancreatin, purified pancreatic amylase, malt

extract, purified malt amylase, commercial taka-diastase, or the

purified amylase of Aspergillus oryzce. With all of these, potato starch

CHEMISTRY. 329

showed a rate of hj^drolysis equal to or slightly greater than that

observed with the cereal starches, except that results were abnormally

low in experiments in which purified pancreatic amylase acted uponhighly purified alkali-washed potato starch. In this case, however, the

addition of a small amount of boiled, carefully neutraUzed water

extract of potato to the digestion mixture resulted in hydrolysis at a

fully normal rate. When potato extract was similarly added to dis-

persions of the starches which had shown normal digestibility, the

rate of hydrolysis was increased slightly, not only in the case of purified

pancreatic amylase, but also of commercial pancreatin and of saliva.

With the amylases of malt and of Aspergillus oryzce no such effect wasobserv'ed.

The probability that the activation of these enzymes by the potato

extract was due to the amino acids and acid amids present and the

importance, to our research as a whole, of accurate knowledge of each

of the factors concerned in the activation of the amylases, led us to take

up, at this time, a careful investigation of the effects of typical amino

acids upon amylase action. As yet our experiments in this direction

have dealt \sdth aspartic acid and asparagin. Like the water extract

of potato, neutralized aspartic acid (neutral solution of sodium aspar-

tate) corrected the abnormally low results observed when purified

pancreatic amylase acted upon potato starch which had been purified

by washing wdth very dilute alkaU and subsequent thorough washing

with specially purified water. It also increased the rate of hydrolysis

of all of the starches studied (wheat, maize, rice, and potato) when the

enzyme employed was either purified pancreatic or malt amylase, com-

mercial pancreatin, or saliva; but did not increase the activity of a

simple extract of malt or of either the commercial or the laboratory

preparation from Aspergillus oryzce. Similar results were obtained in

experiments in which the enzymes acted upon "soluble" starch pre-

pared by the Lintner method and the amount of reducing sugar formed

was determined gravimetrically. This latter method of experimenta-

tion was also employed in the study of the influence of asparagin.

The results obtained with asparagin were essentially similar to those

described for aspartic acid. Only in the case of taka-diastase was there

an apparent slight activation by asparagin and not by aspartic acid,

but the difference was very small, possibly within the limits of experi-

mental error.

Many experiments have been carried out with the different enzymes

in w^hich both aspartic acid (neutral solution of sodium aspartate) and

asparagin were added to the same digestion mixture and in all cases

the results have been such as are obtained by the use of an optimumconcentration of either of these substances alone. Thus the activating

effects of aspartic acid and asparagin are interchangeable rather than

additive.


Several instances of apparent activation of enzymic hydrolysis of

starch by amino acids have been recorded by previous workers, but byother investigators have been attributed to the influence of the addedsubstance upon the reaction of the digestion mixtures. In our experi-

ments it was demonstrated by the electrometric method that the

activating effect of neutralized aspartic acid, or asparagin, was not dueto change of hydrogen-ion concentration. Neither is it referable to the

sodium ion nor to the mere concentration of electrolyte, since optimumconcentrations of chlorides and phosphates were already present. Theactivating effect of the neutralized amino acid upon the enzyme appears

to be specific in the sense that sodium aspartate (for example) increases

the enzymic activity when the optimum amounts of chloride and phos-

phate are already present, while the aspartate can not completely

replace the chloride in the activation of pancreatic amylase. Theexperiments are being extended to the study of the effects of other

amino acids upon the different amylases.

The efficient work of those who have collaborated in these investi-

gations, whether as research assistants or volunteers, is gratefully

acknowledged.

ECOLOGY.

Clements, F. E., Tucson, Arizona. Associate in Ecology. (For previous

reports see Year Books Nos. 16 and 17.)

The experimental work of the year has practically all been done at

the Alpine Laboratory from June to September. The chemical deter-

mination of the degree of photosynthetic activity and of the presence

and amount of rubber in a wide range of plants has been carried on at

the Desert Laboratory at Tucson during the winter. Vegetation

studies have been made throughout the year. During the winter these

have dealt chiefly with the desert scrub and desert plains within a

radius of 75 miles of Tucson. Through the summer they have been

concerned with the mixed prairie and chaparral of the plains and foot-

hills about Colorado Springs. The ecological relations of roots have

been further investigated in Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and South

Dakota, and experimental quadrats for the study of vegetation and

crop ecology have been installed in Nebraska and Colorado.

Two field expeditions have again covered the major portion of the

West. The first visited eastern Arizona, New Mexico, and eastern

Colorado during May and June; the second traversed Colorado,

Wyoming, Utah, Idaho, Oregon, California, and Arizona in September

and October. A large number of problems were touched more or less

thoroughly, chief among them being cooperative grazing research,

climax formations, permanent quadrats, basic changes in grassland,

variation of genera such as Artemisia and Chrysothamnus, and native

rubber plants.

ECOLOGY. 331

Synthetic methods and principles have again been employed in the

correlation of factor measurements, physiologic responses, and com-munity behavior. Especial emphasis has been placed upon securing

objective results in the case of both the individual plant and the plant

community. As a consequence, new methods have been devised for

using plants as measures or indicators, and for obtaining the decision

of the plant where the historical and physical factors in vegetation are

more or less confused, as is usually the case. This has led to an inten-

sive study of animal effects and correlations in the plant community,

and to the important conclusion that no vegetation is natural in the

sense of being wholly undisturbed. In grassland at least, the line

between natural and artificial conditions completely disappears as a

result of the study of grazing by cattle and by buffalo.

Factor Stations.

In addition to the stations maintained last year on the plains and in

the montane zone at Pike's Peak, a third station has been installed in

the subalpine zone. This series comprises three climaxes, mixed

prairie at 6,000 feet, montane Douglas fir at 9,000 feet, and subalpine

Engelmann spruce at 1 1 ,000 feet. A second series is devoted to the serai

communities at 8,500 feet, ranging from gravel-slide to chaparral and

pine forest. Factor stations have also been maintained in the sandhills

at Central City, Nebraska, and in the true prairie at Lincoln, Nebraska,

with substations in low and high prairie. These were all similarly

equipped with instruments for factor readings, but only the stations

at Pike's Peak possessed phytometers as well. Attention was centered

upon the water relations, water-content, humidity, and evaporation, as

temperature appeared to exert only indirect effects, except in growth.

At Pike's Peak the factor results were utilized chiefly in connection

with the use of phytometers and the quadrat-transect series. In the

grassland formation of Nebraska and Colorado, they were employed

primarily in root studies and in the transplant quadrats. Since they

are basic to practically all the studies, instrumental methods will be

continued and expanded from year to year in correlation with phyto-

meter processes and quadrat installation.

The Phytometer Method, hy F. E. Clements, J. E. Weaver, andG. W. Goldsmith.

The use of standard plants to measure habitats in terms of plant

response and growth has been extended to include a climax and a serai

group of stations. The former consists of mixed prairie, montane for-

est, and subalpine forest at altitudes of 6,000, 8,500, and 11,000 feet

respectively. The successional series lies in the montane forest, and

consists of seven stations, namely, gravel-slide, half-gravel-slide,

brook-bank, grassland, thicket, pine forest, and Douglas fir forest. Thebase station of the chmax series is also located in the half-gravel-slide,


and thus serves to correlate the two series. The standard plants used

were wheat, oats, sunflower, and bean. These all gave good results

with the exception of oats, which was unsatisfactory in most of the

stations, probably owing to the variety selected. The sunflower andbean were especially valuable, due chiefly to the fact that they are

widely different in their transpiration and photosynthetic activity. In

all the stations weekly weighings were made of the plants and they

were consequently maintained in practically the same w^ater-content

throughout the period. Some attention was paid to the effect of the

size of the container, and it was found that, while larger containers

promoted better development, smaller ones were more convenient andlent themselves to a wider range of conditions, particularly in the

mountains. It was found necessary to conduct a special series of

experiments to test the seals used in the phytometers. The usual waxseals were found to be quite unsatisfactory for field use because of the

extreme conditions to be met. Wax sufficiently soft to prevent crack-

ing will not remain solid under the extreme noon-day temperatures,

especially in gravel-slides. In the hope of findilig a wax seal which

would be satisfactory under a wide range of conditions, various com-

binations of paraffin, beeswax, and petrolatum were tried, in addition

to grafting-wax and collodion. The most effective method found was

to coat burlap covers, stretched smoothly over the containers, with a

wax composed of 5 per cent of beeswax, 5 per cent of petrolatmn, and

90 per cent 54° paraffin. When in a semi-liquid condition, the capillary

attraction of the burlap fibers serves to prevent the seal from running,

while the loose weave of the cloth allows monocotyls to come through

as readily as the wax alone.

Photosynthetic Efficiency, hy F. E. Clements and Frances Long.

In the endeavor to measure the carbohydrate production of plants

in the field and to correlate it with light intensity and water use,

further studies have been made in habitats with measured light con-

ditions. These have dealt chiefly with the two major lines of last

year, namely, the photosynthetic activity of different species in the

same light value and of the same species under different light inten-

sities. The latter appears to exhibit basic correlations with the definite

adaptations shown in shade ecads. The efficiency of the leaf at differ-

ent levels and at different positions in the crowns of trees and shrubs

has also received considerable attention. Standard plants in the

climax and serai phytometer series have been studied with reference

to differences in photosynthetic efficiency at various elevations. It is

thought possible that plants may respond to differences in total light

intensity that can not be recognized by photometric methods. It is

also expected that a more or less definite correlation between photo-

synthate, transpiration, and dry weight may be discovered in the case

ECOLOGY. 333

of phytometers. The question of the rate of translocation and its rela-

tion to the total carbohydrate present at a particular time has been

approached from several angles. Chief among these are the determina-

tion of the amount and rate of diffusion into shaded areas of the leaf,

and of the relative amount at different times of the day in paired

leaves, one of which has had the bundles of the petiole severed to pre-

vent translocation to the stem. Studies have also been made of the

comparative efficiency of the leaves of closely related varieties of crop

plants, and the results confirm the view that this method will prove of

great value in the selection of individuals as well as of varieties for

development.Behavior of Stomata, by G. V. Loftfield.

The investigation of the behavior and efficiency of stomata in a large

number of cultivated and native plants has been continued during the

summer and autumn, chiefly at the Experiment Station of the Ameri-

can Smelting and Refining Company at Salt Lake City, through the

courtesy of the director, Dr. P. J. O'Gara. The major attention has

again been centered on the relation of stomatal opening and closing to

the efficient factors, and especially to wilting and recovery. Special

methods have been devised to show the effect of light and humidity

and to check out the errors involved in the use of cut stems. Repeatedstudies have been made to measure the regulatory action of stomata

in transpiration, and particularly in the case of plants wilting naturally

and artificiallj^ Special consideration has been given to the amountof decreased transpiration in periodic daily wilting, as well as in plants

which fail to recover. Opportunity has also been found to study the

absorption of carbon dioxid as determined by the amount of photo-

synthate made and to ascertain the effect of stomatal movement uponthe absorption of sulphurous acid. The results of further studies con-

form with those already obtained in indicating that most if not all

herbaceous species possess stomata with a decisive regulatory action

at the time of wilting, even though they show little activity under less

severe conditions.

The Ecology of Root Systems, by J. E. Weaver.

The preliminary results of the ecological study of the root systems

of grassland species have appeared during the year under the title

"The Ecological Relations of Roots." During the present field season

the investigation of the root systems of dominants and subdominants

of prairies, mixed prairies, and short-grass plains has been greatly

extended. The trench or pit method heretofore described has been

employed. The examination of roots with reference to their relation

to the nature of the soil, the amount and penetration of the water-

content, and their competition with each other has been made at 16 sta-

tions in the States of Kansas, Colorado, South Dakota, and Nebraska.


Practically all of the dominants of the three major grassland com-munities have been excavated. Many of these have been checked

repeatedly in widely separated areas and under different conditions

of soil, precipitation, etc. For example, Bulhilis dactyloides and Andro-

pogon scoparius have been examined in 8 different stations extending

from true prairie to short-grass plains. In addition, the root systems

of about 50 subdominant species, thus far unrecorded, have been

studied. These include grasses, other herbs, and shrubs. As hereto-

fore, all root systems were drawn to scale or photographed in position

whenever this was possible. A systematic study of the root develop-

ment of certain crop plants, particularly the cereals, was made in the

different vegetational regions. Roots of wheat, rye, oats, and barley

were examined at 14 stations in the four States, and the correlation of

their root development with that of the native vegetation has beenestablished. Upon cultivated areas adjoining the base stations in low

and high prairie at Lincoln, Nebraska, the root development of certain

grasses, legumes, and composites has been studied. Besides the native

species, these included oats, cane, brome-grass, meadow fescue, sweet

clover, red clover, sunflower, and others. Here, as at the base stations

in the grassland, continuous records of the chief factors influencing

growth were kept throughout the season. Correlations between the

root development of crop plants and natural vegetation on low or high

prairie have been determined.

The character and extent of the root systems were found to be cor-

related with water-content in nearly all cases. In general, soil type

affects root development chiefly through its influence on water-content,

in the region studied at least. However, soil texture has a profound

effect upon root penetration, and competition was also found to be a

primary factor in the control of root development.

Experimental Taxonomy, hy F. E. Clements and H. M. Hall.

The transplanting of related species, variable species, and ecads to

determine the effect of changed and measured habitats in causing

adaptation and variation and in producing new forms has been carried

on actively. Approximately 650 transplants of all sorts were made in

Colorado and California during the summer and autumn. In each case

herbarium specimens and detailed notes were taken of each transplant,

and histological material preserved of each species. The transplants

are of three types as follows

:

1. Reciprocal transplants.—These were made between pairs of closely

related species or varieties, or between ecads. Forty pairs of recipro-

cal transplants have been made. Five specimens of each form weretransplanted, so that a total of 400 reciprocals is now established.

Twelve of the pairs consist of related species to be exchanged betweenColorado and California. In these cases the Colorado plants have been

ECOLOGY. 335

set out in California and the reciprocal transplants will be made next

season. The reciprocal transplants made in 1918 are all living, and

some of them have already undergone a change in certain characters.

2. Variation transplants.—In this case a single form was taken from

its natural habitat and transplanted into a series of different environ-

ments. About 50 such transfers have been made.

3. Alpine transplants.—These are variation or ecad transplants in

which the plants are moved from the alpine meadows above 12,000

feet to gardens in the montane or plains climaxes, several thousand

feet lower. Approximately 200 plants, representing nearly 100 species,

were selected from the alpine communities on Pike's Peak and brought

down to the montane zone at Minnehaha, where they were established

in two small gardens set aside for this purpose.

Variation and Mutation in Epilohium, by Edith Clements.

The experimental study of the flowers and inflorescence of Epilohium

spicatum has been unavoidably interrupted, but seeds have been

gathered at several localities and grown at Tucson during the winter

for the statistical and experimental study of variation and mutation

in the rosettes.

Experimental Pollination, hy F. E. Clements and Frances Long.

The experimental work with the habits of insect pollinators of a

large number of native flowers has been continued throughout the sum-mer. The species studied intensively were Aconitum columhianum,

Capnoides aureum, Delphinium scopulorum, Epilohium spicatum,

Frasera speciosa, Geranium richardsonii, Mertensia pratensis, Mon-arda fistulosa, Pentstemon glaher, P. gracilis, Rosa acicularis, and Ruhusdeliciosus. The experimental devices employed naturally varied with

the type of flower, but they may be illustrated by the cases of Penste-

mon and Rosa. In the former the inflorescence was inverted or supple-

mented by one with pink flowers. The corollas were painted various

colors or replaced by paper ones ; the tube was slit into separate petals,

the outer half cut off, the lower lip removed or the opening variously

closed; the anthers and staminode were excised and staminodes andstamens were placed in abnormal positions. In the case of Rosa,

flowers were reciprocally exchanged with Ruhus deliciosus, and the

competition for particular pollinators studied. In both, flowers werepainted or inverted, paper corollas added, stamens removed, andhoney or perfume added.

Detailed records of all visitors to various species were made for defi-

nite periods, thus showing the number of flowers visited by each kindof insect, the frequency o/ the visits, the time spent at each flower,

and consequently the relative efficiency of the different visitors. Full

notes have also been made of the minute behavior of each visitor at the


flower under normal and under changed conditions. The competition

of Rosa and Ruhus for polhnators was studied in much detail, the results

indicating that Ruhus is about twice as efficient in its attraction. In

a number of flowers, the life histories were again worked out in detail

and recorded graphically.

Field and Garden Study of Genera and Species, hy F. E. Clements and H. M. Hall.

The general study of taxonomic criteria has been continued in both

field and garden. The field study has been chiefly confined to the

genera Chrysothamnus, Artemisia, Atriplex, and Haplopappus, though

Pentstemon, Castilleia, SoUdago, Bouteloua, Aristida, and Quercus have

received some consideration. A particular endeavor has been madeto discover the species of the first four in their type localities, and to

determine the various forms as well as the range of variation. Statis-

tical studies have been made of a number of species and it is expected

that all will ultimately be included. Special field studies were made at

Pike's Peak and in the vicinity of Colorado Springs and Caiion City,

and much of the time of the field expedition from Colorado to Oregon

and California was devoted to this work. The garden studies of the

Madiece were extended by plantings at Tucson, while control experi-

ments were begun on such paired species as Petalostemon candidus

and purpureus, Psoralea tenuifiora and argophylla, to determine both

their plasticity as to new forms and their reversibility as to each other.

Much attention has been given to the details of a taxonomic system

which both recognizes and reveals evolutionary relationship, and to a

system of nomenclature which will be both usable and attractive.

Climax Formations, hy F. E. Clements.

The constant study of the climax formations of the West has madepossible the first complete though necessarily summary treatment of

them in "Plant Indicators." As in the past, continued attention has

been paid in the field to the climax formations and associations, andtheir successional development. Major consideration has again been

given to the formations of widest extent, namely, grassland, sagebrush,

desert scrub, and chaparral. The last two were studied more or less

intensively at Tucson from October to May, and the grassland andsagebrush chiefly in Colorado and westward to Oregon in the summerand autumn. A detailed investigation was made of the grouping andalternation of the dominants of the Larrea-Franseria desert scrub

within a radius of 75 miles of Tucson during the winter, and of the

dominants of the Larrea-Prosopis association in southern New Mexicofrom May to July. The ecotone between the desert-scrub and grass-

land was traced in central New Mexico, as well as the transition from

the desert plains to the short-grass plains and mixed prairie. This

latter association has come to be recognized as the most important of

ECOLOGY. 337

the grassland formations, ecologically at least, and the equivalence of

its dominants, their competitive relations , and their behavior under

disturbance, particularly grazing, have thrown a flood of light uponthe relations of the several grassland associations. The response of the

mixed prairie to grazing is so unexpected and so striking as to explain

many popular and scientific errors concerning the prairie and plains

during the past century. Moreover, it furnishes the best of illustra-

tions of the essential interdependence of plants and animals in the biotic

community, and promises to provide an invaluable key to the great

changes of grassland in prehistoric and geologic times.

Climatic Cycles, by F. E. Clements and A. E. Douglass.

The investigation of climatic cycles has progressed sufficiently to

permit the publication of a complete summary under the title, "Ch-matic Cycles and Tree Growth." The further studies of the year havedealt with three additional problems in Sequoia cycles as follows:

(1) The doubtful ring 1580a has been studied and promises to indi-

cate a separate year.

(2) Short-period cj'cles, less than the sun-spot cycle of 11 years.

(3) Gross rings.

Records of the last 500 years were obtained from 12 different trees,

carefully selected 'with reference to topographic location, water-supply,

and nearness of other trees. A collection of 15 ''rubbings" was madefrom old weathered pine and fir stumps, nearly all of which showremarkably fine rhythm. One cutting was obtained from a sugar pine

that has an extraordinary rhythm and seems to show a relationship

to the sun-spot cycle.

In order to test the cyclic growth of trees in other regions, sections

of pine, fir, or spruce have been obtained from various localities, such as

Pike's Peak, the Black Hills, eastern Oregon, etc. A signal advancein the understanding and interpretation of cycles has come from the

recognition of the unique importance of the excess-deficit balance in

space as well as in time. While such a balance is of the very essence

of climatic cycles, its significance has just begun to be appreciated.

It is seen better in the double cycle of 22 years than in the sun-spot

cycle of 11 years, but it shows most strikingly in the 2 to 3 year cycle

because of the short periods involved. It explains why cycles are often

less obvious in humid regions, reconciles the discrepancy betweenneighboring localities, and harmonizes the marked variations in the

rainfall of mountain and plain during the same year. Moreover, there

is considerable evidence that the principle of the excess-deficit balance

can be applied to the rainfall of the successive months of the year.

The study of native vegetation as well as of crop production leaves nodoubt that they reflect the cychc nature of climate, and that this basic

effect extends to the animal communities and human society.


Permanent Quadrats, by F. E. Clements, E. S. Clements, and G. V. Loftfield.

The use of permanent quadrats for the study of changes in cHmaticand successional communities, and of the competition of dominants,especially under grazing conditions, has been much extended duringthe year. Their ability to afford exact measurements of populationchanges, and to reveal the degree of equivalence of dominants in termsof physical factors and of competition, gives them essentially an experi-

mental value. In fact, they are the means of measuring and recordingthe vegetation experiments which are constantly being made in natureby shifting climatic cycles or by various disturbing agencies. Whileevery permanent quadrat yields several sets of results, they are usually

established for particular purposes. The general installation through-out the West is for the study of changes of climax vegetation in responseto climatic cycles, and the serai movement in primary and secondarysuccession. A large number of quadrats have been established in

grassland to disclose the behavior of climax and serai communitiesunder different intensities of grazing, and to measure changes in carry-

ing capacity. Unusually complete series of quadrats have beenlocated in the desert plains and short-grass plains to permit tracing

the effect of rodents upon grassland in detail. In the former commu-nity, winter and summer series were necessary, owing to the two vegeta-

tive periods. In addition to the quadrat-transect at the Alpine Lab-oratory, a number have been installed to trace the effects of competi-tion in fir and aspen communities. Quadrats have likewise beenemployed for a similar purpose in the transplant areas in Nebraskaand Colorado, where dominant grasses are brought into competitionwith the grasses in possession. The climax quadrats have been visited

and recharted and additional ones established at Logan (Utah), Bend,Eugene (Oregon), Berkley, Benton, and La JoUa (Cahfornia), andSeligman, Wilhams, Grand Canyon, and Tucson (Arizona) . The uniquevalue of the permanent quadrat increases with each year's change andthe record of it, and it is proposed to sunmiarize the results at intervals

of 5 to 10 years.

Quadrat-Transect for the Study of the Biome, by F. E. Clements, G. V. Loftjield,

and G. W. Goldsmith.

A permanent quadrat-transect for the complete study and correla-

tion of the habitat with the plant and animal community, or biome,has been established in the montane zone at the Alpine Laboratory.The transect is 860 meters long and 2 meters wide, and includes 6distinct habitats from the gravel-slide to the subclimax pine forest andthe climax Douglas fir forest. A series of three quadrats has beeninstalled in each community. One of these is located in the transectand maintained as a permanent chart quadrat. The other two aredenuded after charting, and in one of them the soil is replaced with

ECOLOGY. 339

gravel to a depth of 8 inches to simulate the original soil conditions of

the sere. Simultaneous readings throughout the stations have been

made at different levels from time to time of air and soil temperatures,

humidity, and light. The readings have been taken at hour intervals

for periods of 16 to 18 consecutive hours. The water-content has been

determined throughout the summer for each station at different levels.

The evaporation has been measured by means of porous-cup atmom-eters, and sunflower and wheat phytometers have been employed to

measure the transpiration, photosynthesis, and growth for each habitat.

The basic purpose of the quadrat-transect is to determine the annual

changes of the plant and animal population and to correlate these with

primary succession. In addition, it is invaluable for the study of com-

petition and the physiological responses to water and light which are

involved in it. The animal population of the several stations has been

estimated by various methods. The invertebrates have been counted

by using quadrats 4 decimeters square, by sweeping the vegetation for

definite periods, and by means of insect traps run simultaneously in the

various habitats.

Transplant Quadrats and Areas, hy F. E. Clements and J. E. Weaver.

A definite beginning has been made in the application of the methods

and principles of experimental vegetation by the establishment of

transplant quadrats and areas at Lincoln and Central City, Nebraska,

and at Colorado Springs. These have been fenced and equipped with

instruments for determining air and soil temperatures, humidity, and

evaporation, while determinations of the water-content are made to a

depth of 4 feet. The primary objectives of the transplant studies are

the comparative equivalence of the dominants of different associa-

tions, the conditions under which extral dominants are adopted into

the association and the outcome of competition between them. Theresults will permit the objective determination of the relative impor-

tance of migration, physical conditions, competition, and grazing

animals and rodents in affecting the invasion of dominants and the

permanence of communities. At present, dominants are transplanted

as seedlings grown in the greenhouse or as blocks of mature plants.

They are planted in areas 0.5 meter square from which the sod has

been removed to the depth of 0.5 inch or in tilled areas, and are

watered until established. At Lincoln the transplant stations were low

prairie, high prairie, and gravel knoll, and both sod and tilled areas

were installed in the first two. The species employed were Andro-

pogon furcatus, Elymus canadensis, Panicum virgatum, Bouteloua

racemosa, Agropyrum spicatum, Poa pratensis, Spartina cynosuroides,

Siipa spartea, S. viridula, Andropogon scoparius, Koeleria cristata,

Aristida purpurea, Bouteloua gracilis, and Bulbilis dactyloides. More-over, Andropogon hallii, Calamovilfa longifolia, Muhlenhergia pungens,


and Redfieldia fiexuosa were transferred from the sandhills at Central

City to high prairie at Lincoln, and practically all of the prairie domi-

nants of the preceding list were reciprocally transplanted to the sand-

hills. The majority of these were also transplanted into the mixedprairie at Colorado Springs.

The care taken to secure ecesis has resulted in the growth of the

transferred dominants in the majority of cases, but it must be recog-

nized that this is not conclusive as to the origin and constitution of the

climax community. The successful transplants demonstrate that the

species can grow and reproduce in a new habitat, and at the same time

they usually indicate certain differences between the original and the

new habitat by the degree of growth and reproduction. Conclusive

evidence as to the climax and community position of each dominantmust rest upon a complete series of tests from the most decisive, such

as merely scattering the seed over the ground, to the planting of seeds,

seedlings, and mature plants, protecting seed and plants from rodents

and other animals, and watering at critical periods in the life of the

seedling or plant. The entire series will also require a definite knowl-

edge of the climatic cycle in order that various tests may be tried during

the more favorable years. It seems evident that the use of transplant

and seed areas must soon come to be regarded as indispensable for

adequate vegetation studies, and especially for the certain recognition

of climax associations. In fact, objective and final results as to com-munities and principles are possible only by such methods. Theindicator value of these studies is obvious, and, when crop plants andphytometers are grown in the transplant inclosures, the results are of

the first importance for the recognition of climatic areas and for crop

production.

Indicator Plants, by F. E. Clements.

The extensive results of several years of indicator study have beenbrought together in "Plant Indicators," but the intensive results avail-

able are still relatively few and scattered. An increase of our exact

knowledge depends largely upon instrumental and successional studies,

but especially upon phytometer and transplant tests, in which stand-

ard plants and dominants are employed as measures and hence as themost accurate of indicators. While the installation of transplant andcrop-ecology areas promises much in the way of intensive indicator

results in agriculture, it must be recognized that these are to be derived

largely as a by-product from the experimental studies of State andNational experiment stations and substations. In the case of grazing

and forestry, an indicator system of the proper degree of accuracy canonly be arrived at from special investigations of the dominants andsubdominants of the climaxes concerned. Because it fits in best withother projects under investigation and also promises practical results

ECOLOGY. 341

of great value, an intensive study qf grazing indicators has beenbegun by means of special fenced inclosures in the various grassland

associations. These inclosure fences are adjusted annually in such away as to show the cumulative effects of grazing and the influence of

each year of the climatic cycle. The enormous importance of cUmaticcycles for agriculture, grazing, and forestry makes cycle indicators

matters of the greatest concern, and an especial endeavor is being madeto work out an effective system.

Grazing Research, hy F. E. Clements, Edith Clements, and G. V. Loftfield.

A comprehensive investigation of grazing has been carried onthroughout the year, part of it independently and part in coopera-

tion with State and National agencies. Informal cooperative arrange-

ments of various kinds have been made with many of the State experi-

ment stations, and the majority of these have again been visited for

conferences. The cooperation with the Forest Service, Biological

Survey, and the University of Arizona in the inclosure study of rodent

damage and carrying capacity has been especially profitable. Timelywinter rains on the Santa Rita Range Reserve produced a remarkable

development of winter annuals, predominantly poppy, Eschscholtzia

mexicana, but with much Lupinus sparsiflorus, Malacothrix fendleri,

and others. The various inclosures and exclosures graphically revealed

the effects of fencing out cattle, and cattle and rodents. The abund-ance, branching, height, number of flowers, etc., for the important

forage annuals were much greater in the cattle inclosures than in the

pastures, and somewhat greater in the cattle-rodent exclosures than in

the cattle exclosures alone. In fact, such annuals as Lupinus andMalacothrix were practically eliminated in the pastures. Summerrains likewise brought about the first luxuriant development of grasses

for three years, and similarly striking results were obtained in the

various fenced areas.

The grass quadrats were charted for the first time since their installa-

tion, as the perennial grasses had made practically no growth the pre-

ceding summer. Others were located, and the growth was cut at the

grazing level to determine the total amount of forage produced' in the

endeavor to correlate forage production and the carrying capacity

with the wet and dry phases of the climatic cycle. The food habits of

the kangaroo rat have been studied intensively, and it has been foundthat they do most serious damage to the range during the dry phaseof the cycle. During wet years the damage done is considerable, as is

shown by the large quantities of Bouteloua spikes stored in the burrows,

but the failure of the grasses to develop spikes in 1918 resulted in the

storage of enormous numbers of grass crowns and the complete denuda-tion of considerable areas.


The grazing and rodent quadrats in northern Arizona were visited

and charted in both spring and fall, while a considerable number of

other permanent quadrats in grassland have yielded much information

as to carrying capacity and the effect of the 11-year climatic cycle. Thecourse of the latter has been followed in various regions, and every

doubt of its paramount importance in the production of forage andstock has been removed. The effect of the 2 to 3 year cycle is nowunder investigation, and its importance is already indicated by the

behavior of grassland during the past 3 years. The intensive study of

grazing indicators is well under way, and it is hoped to work out apractical system for each grassland and scrub association during the

field work of the next few years.

Land Classification and Settlement, hy F. E. Clements and Edith Clements.

The comprehensive study of indicators during the past 6 years has

brought out clearly their basic importance in the adequate classifica-

tion of land, and subsequent settlement, as shown in "Plant Indi-

cators." Indicator communities not only serve to distinguish agricul-

tural and grazing land from potential or actual forest land, but, whatis much more important, they are also invaluable in making it possible

to recognize 4 types of land for production, namely, for humid farming,

dry-farming, dry-farming and grazing, and grazing alone. Thoroughfamiliarity with the West makes it certain that its proper productive-

ness and prosperity are impossible until such a land classification has

been made. In this connection, a particular effort is being made to

distinguish and enumerate prosperous, unprosperous, and abandonedfarms and ranches in the various climax regions, to ascertain the

causes of failure, and to correlate these with climate and vegetation

in such a way as to promote proper classification and to direct success-

ful settlement. The West needs an intelligent land policy above all

things, and it is hoped that a detailed knowledge of the economic andsocial loss involved under present conditions will lead to the desired

action by State and Nation. Indicators are also valuable in designat-

ing the types of crops as well as the most promising varieties of them for

the different regions, and consequently in helping county agents to

direct crop production in strict conformity with the character of

regional and local climate. Of equally great importance is the recogni-

tion of the fact that wet and dry phases of the climatic cycles are prac-

tically certain to recur at definite intervals. As a consequence, it is

hoped that experiment stations, county agents, and farmers them-selves will gradually develop a system of agricultural production in

semi-arid and arid regions, which will permit of expansion during the

wet phase and contraction during the dry one, together with a cyclic

change of crops to fit varieties to the proper phase of the cycle.

ECOLOGY—GEOLOGY. 343

Rubber Plants, by H. M. Hall and Frances Long.

The survey of the native rubber plants of western North America

has been brought to a close during the year. A portion of the workwas undertaken in cooperation with the University of California, and a

report on that phase of the investigation has been published. In this

report the presence of rubber in 16 species and varieties of Chryso-

thamnus and Haplopappus is announced. In addition to the coopera-

tive studies, special attention has been given to native latex-bearing

plants and to certain genera of composites. More than 250 species havebeen investigated and the major number of these has been found to

contain rubber in some quantity. In the great majority the amountis too small to be of importance, but in the case of 5 latex-bearing

species it is sufficient to indicate their probable commercial value.

In certain species, samples of the plants and latex have been taken

at regular periods in order to determine the seasonal variation in rub-

ber content. Studies have also been made of the variation in rubber-

content with geographical distribution and ecological conditions, while

the amount present in different parts of the plant has been determined

in some cases. Experiments have also been made with reference to

methods of pollination, formation of seed, and vegetative reproduction

from harvested plants. Seeds of Euphorbia and Asclepias have beenplanted in field plots at Tucson, Arizona, and Lincoln, Nebraska, andmethods of har\^esting have been worked out with reference to the

conservation of rubber-content. The plots also serve to indicate the

probable tonnage of the different species per acre, though they weresomewhat too small to make the results conclusive.

GEOLOGY.

Chamberlin, T. C, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. Study of funda-mental problems of geology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos.2-17.)

The principal work of the year has been the preparation of a paperwhose purpose is to unify, revise, and extend the main results of the

studies that have thus far been undertaken under this grant. In the

course of this a special effort is made to bring out into clear definition

the dynamic principles and the concepts of force-distribution that

have come to be working guides in these studies.

The first part of the paper consists of a review of the work previously

done, one purpose of which is to bring into their natural correlations

the results so far attained, while another purpose is to show the gradualshift of dependence from static and material considerations to dynamicconsiderations, together with the growth of rehance upon the latter as

the studies progressed. Early in the series of studies it was found indis-

pensable to take into serious account the earth's gravitative sphere of


control and to use it as a basis for the study of the earth's atmosphere,

both in respect to its genesis and its maintenance through the geologic

ages. In later studies it was found equally indispensable to use this

phase of the earth's dynamic envelope as a means of inquiry into the

genesis, growth, and maintenance of the earth-body itself. Thegrowth of this basal dynamic concept, and of methods founded on it,

does not appear in its real importance in the reports put in print from

time to time, and so in this review it is made the thread of the story.

In a very similar way, the dynamic encounter of cosmic bodies came to

be regarded as a leading factor in the disruption and dispersion of

celestial matter precedent to the genetic development of the earth and

related bodies, but, as in the previous case, the fundamental and far-

reaching functions of dynamic encounter appear only imperfectly in

the reports of progress and in the partial publications thus far issued.

Not a httle misconception of the range and frequency of dynamic

encounter appears in even the limited literature that has been called

forth on the subject. For this reason the review sets forth with some

emphasis such growth of the concept of dynamic encounter as took

place in the earUer studies, preparatory to a more comprehensive

discussion in the succeeding parts.

The second section of the paper treats in general terms of those

phases of the dynamic organization of the earth and of the related

cosmic units that are brought under consideration, either directly or

indirectly, in the studies under this grant. They are more specifically

defined and their range of application extended with a view to more

convenient use in the concrete cases later considered and in research

generally. The subjects treated embrace: (1) the definite recognition

of the distinction between the material organization and the dynamic

organization of cosmic units; (2) the djmamic envelopes or fields of

force of such cosmic units as require consideration in earth-studies;

(3) the electric and magnetic spheres of control that are held to sup-

plement—in certain cases effectively—the gravitative spheres which

alone were considered in the earlier studies; (4) the submerged exten-

sion of the dynamic envelopes beyond the spheres of control; (5) the

central or nuclear dynamic organizations from which the dynamic

envelopes spring; (6) certain pecuHarities in the distribution of force

within the envelopes themselves; (7) the interactions of these envelopes

in varying forms and degrees constituting the typical forms of dynamic

encounter and rendering them readily visualizable.

The third part consists of a revised treatment of the more essential

and especially the more dynamical phases of earth genesis, of earth-

growth, of atmospheric maintenance, of basal segmentation, and of

other important aspects of the earth's evolution. To find a tenable

basis for the interpretation of such fundamental factors of the earth's

evolution has all along been the prime object of the whole series of

GEOLOGY 345

studies under this grant. It has only been found possible to reach sucha basis by means of excursive inquiries into the djuamic organizations

and interactions of related cosmic units, but this outer field is left in

the main for the next section.

The fourth part of the paper consists of such applications of the

properties and of the interactions of the dynamic envelopes of cosmic

units, other than the earth, as are either necessarily or helpfully con-

sidered in a comprehensive earth-study. In particular, the interactions

of the dynamic envelopes of stars, star clusters, and star systems are

considered in their relations to nebulous and similar states of partial

disorganization out of which the evolutions of normally organized

bodies are supposed to grow, and an attempt is made to show that

these dynamic envelopes are agencies in the development and in the

distribution and localization of nebulae.

A feature of this section is the discussion of what appears to be apreviously unrecognized class of djTiamic organizations in whichgravitative control is held to be effectively, if not essentially, supple-

mented by electric and magnetic aid made available by the extremestate of di\dsion of the matter composing them, and its interactivity.

Comets and nebulae are discussed as possible types of such peculiar

organizations.

The whole ground of the paper has been covered by manuscript,

but this lacks completeness and maturity in many parts, while someof the subjects have thus far grown so unexpectedly under study that

it is not now possible to say when the paper will be completed.

Vaughan, T. Wayland, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, District of

Columbia. Study of the stratigraphic geology and of the fossil corals andassociated organisms in several of the smaller West Indian Islands. (Forprevious reports see Year Books Nos. 13-16.)

No progress report on this project was made for the SeventeenthYear Book of the Institution, because my collaborators and I devotedalmost our entire time to work connected with the prosecution of the

war during the time the United States was a participant in the worldstruggle. As soon as possible after the armistice was signed the inves-

tigations on West Indian stratigraphy and paleontology were resumed.During last March the manuscript of a volume bearing the general

title "Contributions to the geology and paleontology of the WestIndies" was transmitted to the President of the Institution and wasaccepted for publication as Publication No. 291 of the Institution. It

was issued from the press during October of the current calendar year.

This volume contains six articles, as follows: "Introduction," by T. W.Vaughan; "Tertiary calcareous algae from the islands of Saint Bartho-lomew, Antigua, and Anguilla," by M. A. Howe; "Fossil Foraminiferafrom the West Indies," by J. A. Cushman; "Fossil Bryozoa from theWest Indies," by F. Canu and R. S. Bassler; "Tertiary MoUusca from


the Leeward Islands and Cuba," by C. W. Cooke; "West Indian Ter-

tiary Decapod Crustaceans," by Mary J. Rathbun. During July 1919,

there was submitted to the President of the Institution the manu-script of a monograph, " Mollusca of the Bowden marl of Jamaica," byW. P. Woodring.

Two paleontologic monographs have not yet been finished. One of

them, on West Indian fossil echinoids by R. T. Jackson, is far advancedtoward completion. The other, on West Indian fossil corals, by myself,

will require several months' work for its completion. In the paper

cited below^ I have given a summary of all available information onWest Indian fossil corals up to July 1917.

The object of these investigations is to help in building a proper

foundation for the correlation of the geologic formations in the WestIndies and for dating the different events in the geologic history of that

region. The following are the ages of the successive Tertiary geologic

formations: upper Eocene, middle Oligocene, upper Oligocene (con-

sidered by some paleontologists as basal Miocene), lower Miocene,

middle and probably upper Miocene, and Pliocene. The status of the

reports on the different groups of organisms according to the different

geologic horizons is given in the following table

:

Status of West Indian paleontologic reports.

Group of organisms and author of report.

HISTORY. 347

HISTORY.

Fox, Dixon R., Columbia University, New York, N. Y. Completion of the

work of the late Professor H. L. Osgood toward an institutional history of the

American Colonies during the period of the French wars. (For previous

reports see Year Books Nos. 11-17.)

The nature of the work assigned to me as Research Associate of the

Institution is such that only a report of general progress can be made.My task is to prepare Professor Osgood's manuscript for the press. I

have worked at this intermittently during the ^dnter and since, andhave filled in the notes of about one and one-half volumes. There are

many alternative readings to be decided, parts indicated to be changed,

copies to check, and all references to be verified. Upon this last Pro-

fessor Osgood was very insistent, and though the work is not a little

laborious for the four volumes, I expect that it, as well as the other

necessary tasks, can be done during the coming academic year.

Professor Frank W. Pitman, of Yale University, has about finished

a supplementary chapter for the work, entitled "The British system

in the West Indies." This will round out Professor Osgood's plan as

nearly as we can.

Sarton, George, Washington, District of Columbia. Associate in the History

of Science.

Dr. Sarton' s connection with the Institution began on July 1, 1918.

He submits the following in explanation of his work and as a general

introduction to his subsequent reports

:

The purpose of the history of science is to establish the genesis andthe development of scientific ideas, taking into account all the intel-

lectual exchanges and all influences brought into play by the progress

of civilization. When increasing specialization is the very condition of

success, it becomes essential that at least a few men study the general-

ities of each branch of science, so as to be able to define clearly the rela-

tion of each part to all others. Technicians do not want to know anybut the latest results; yet to understand the true meaning of science

and to take a broad view of the whole, one must needs look backwardand take into account the whole experience of the past. It is only the

historian of science who can do this.

To harmonize contentions between scientists on the one hand andmen of letters and art on the other, it is necessary to show the inner

life of science and its relations to all other human activities, to explain

not simply its usefulness, but also its greatness and its beauty. Thehistory of science thus becomes a much-needed link between science

and the humanities. It helps us to reconcile the love of beauty with

the love of truth, idealism with knowledge. W"e need both equally.


An immense amount of pioneer work is still necessary to give to thehistory of science the same completeness and accuracy which havebeen reached in other investigations.^

My work during the first year will be briefly considered under thefollowing headings: (1) Leonardo studies; (2) history of physics; (3) his-

tory of science; (4) history of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.1. Leonardo studies.—The greatest part of my time has been devoted

to the study of the manuscripts of Leonardo da Vinci. This great

artist was also the greatest scientist and engineer of his time, and his

interests were universal to such an extent that my study of his paperswill lead me to the writing of what might be called an encyclopediaof science and technology at the height of the Italian Renaissance.^

I am still in the analytical stage of my investigation and have thus far

examined and classified the contents of about half the manuscripts.

There are dispersed in various European libraries probably about 5,800pages, of which perhaps about one-fifth is practically unread. Thisproves sufficiently the great need of a thorough study of Leonardo'swritings. A part of these manuscripts (most of them owned by the

King of England) contain anatomical drawings and notes which I amnot qualified to study, but I have fortunately secured the collaboration

of Dr. J. Playfair McMurrich, professor of anatomy at the University

of Toronto, who is now investigating them.2. History of physics.—There does not yet exist a satisfactory account

of the development of physics, and especially of modern physics. Thisis the more unfortunate in that physics is perhaps the most central of

all sciences. I am accumulating materials for a history of physics in

the nineteenth century, my purpose being to treat the subject in a verycatholic way, making frequent short excursions into mathematics,chemistry, astronomy, even biology, and also in the engineering andtechnical arts.

3. History of science.—I have given a good deal of time to the

establishment of a critical bibliography of the books and papers pub-Hshed on the history of science during the war and to the preparationof No. 6 of Isis.^ I have also continued my activity in behalf of theNew Humanism—that is, the reconciliation of science and the human-ities—and in this regard I have given two lectures to Professor L. J.

Henderson's students at Harvard, one at the Art Association of Mon-treal, and one at the Fogg Museum of Cambridge, Massachusetts.

1 For further development of these ideas see George Sarton: The history of science, The Monist,XXVI, 321-365, Chicago, 1916; Le Nouvel Humanisme, Scientia, xxiii, 161-175, Bologna, 1918;The teaching of the history of science. Scientific Monthly, vii, 193-211, New York, 1918.

^ George Sarton: The message of Leonardo; his relation to the birth of modern science, Scrih-ner's Maga?ine, lxv, 531-540, New York, May 1919; Une Encyclopedie L6onardesque, RaccoltaVinciana, x, 235-242 Milano, 1919.

^George Sarton: The publication of Isis, Science, n. s., vol. 49, 170-171, 1919; Letter to the

editor of the New York Evening Post, February 22, 1919; The history of science, Science, n. s.

vol. 49, 497, 1919.

HISTORY—LITERATURE. 349

4. History of the Institution.—The twenty-fifth anniversary of the

Carnegie Institution of Washington will be celebrated in 1926. Atthat time it will be desirable to look back upon the work that has been

accomplished. To give to this retrospective survey real historical

value, it is indispensable to consider the Institution, not as an isolated

unit, but as a part of the scientific organization of the world, and with

this in view I propose to become intimately acquainted with the various

departments of the Institution.

At the time of writing (July 1919) I am preparing to sail for Europe,

where I shall spend about half a year. The motives of this journey are

:

(1) to recover some notes and manuscripts left in Belgium and to ship

them to Washington, together with what remains of my library; (2) to

resume the publication of Isis in Brussels and to take the necessary

measures to enable me henceforth to edit it from Washington; (3) to

carry on sundry researches concerning Leonardo in England (Windsor

Castle), in Paris (Louvre), and in Italy (Florence and Milan); (4) to

confer with various European scholars whose collaboration I shall

need, and to organize our common work in the best manner.

LITERATURE.

Bergen, Henry, Brooklyn, New York. Research Associate in Early English

Literature. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 11-17.)

During the year 1918-19 I have been occupied in passing the

proofs of the text of Lydgate's 'Tall of Princes" through the press andin preparing a further portion of the "Troy Book" glossary for the

printer. I trust that we shall be able to issue the entire text of the

"Fall of Princes" before the end of next winter, or earher, so that I

can then give all my time to the completion of the "Troy Book"glossary and to the preparation of the introductory part of the edition

of the "Fall of Princes" for the press.

Tatlock, John S. P., Stanford University, California. Preparation of a con-

cordance to Chaucer. (For previous reports see Year Book Nos. 16-17.)

The making of the slips for the Chaucer Concordance is nearing com-pletion. Forty people in various parts of the country have been at

work on them since early in April, and the finished work is now comingin. During the next year editorial work on them will be proceeding.


MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS.

Moulton, F. R., University of Chicago, Chicago, Ilhnois. Investigations in

mathematics, cosmogony, and celestial mechanics. (For previous reports

see Year Books Nos. 5, 6, 8-17.)

The greater part of the year was spent in the Government service

as major in ordnance, U. S. Army, in charge of the ballistics branch

of the Ordnance Department. The duties were (1) the planning anddirection of range firing of all the artillery of the U. S. Army, (2) the

preparation of range tables for all artillery of the U. S. Army, (3)

mathematical investigations in ballistics, (4) the formulation anddirection of experiments on artillery problems.

The subject of ballistics was found in a very unsatisfactory state

both mathematically and practically. So far as it pertains to the

translation of projectiles and the influences of abnormal conditions, it

was placed on an entirely new basis. The results of these investiga-

tions were issued in confidential blueprint pamphlet form by the

Ordnance Department. The titles of the papers written by the

author of this report are

:

1. On Methods of Computing Trajectories (a collection of nine different investigations).

2. Effects of the Earth's Rotation on the Flight of Projectiles.

3. On the Determination of the Law of Retardation of a Projectile by the Atmospherefrom Firings through Velocity Screens.

4. The Second and Higher Order Terms in Differential Variations.

5. Fundamental Theorems on the Solution of Differential Equations and the Logical

Basis for the Numerical Solution of Differential Equations.

6. Effects of Variations in the Velocity of Sound on Trajectories.

7. Formulas for Interpolation.

8. General Theory of the Computation of Differential Variations.

9. Curves of Constant Fx' and Fy'.

10. On the Determination of the Law of Retardation of a Projectile by the Atmospherefrom Firings through Velocity Screens (second paper).

A summary of all the work was embodied in a history of the Ballistics

Branch and was issued in a final report of 91 pages.

In the last few months work has been resumed on periodic orbits,

and the manuscript for the final chapter on this work is receiving

its final touches.

METEOROLOGY. 351

METEOROLOGY.

Bjerknes, V., Bergen, Norway. Preparation of a work on the application of the

methods of hydrodynamics and thermodynamics in practical meteorology

and hydrography. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 5-17.)

The extended Norwegian Weather Service, alluded to in the previous

report, has furnished rich material for the investigation of the struc-

ture of cyclones and the conditions for the formation of rain. Pre-

liminary reports on the results obtained have been given in Professor

Bjerknes's address "Weather forecasting" and in J. Bjerknes's paper

"On the structure of moving cyclones," both of which have also been

reprinted in the Monthly Weather Review (February 1919). Thegeneral results may perhaps best be summed up thus

:

The atmosphere is crossed and recrossed by surfaces of discontinuity,

separating from each other masses of air having more or less different

velocity and different physical properties, showing themselves bydifferences of temperature and humidity, and, as pointed out by Mr.Bergeron, also by marked differences of transparency. Almost every

change of weather is due to the passage of a surface of this kind. Therain falls from the warm air when it is forced to mount the slanting

surface separating it from the underlying heavier and colder air. In

the cyclones this takes place on a gigantic scale along the "steering

surface" and the "squall-surface," as developed in the mentionedpaper by J. Bjerknes. But the same play may be recognized also in

the phenomena of smaller scale down even to the local showers.

These results give a physically simple and intelligible view of the

phenomena of the weather chart and seem promising from a practical

point of view. For promoting weather-forecasting it will be of high

importance to arrange the observations so that the formation of the

discontinuities can be detected at an early state, and their propagation

followed as accurately as possible on the weather charts.


NUTRITION.

Osborne, T. B., and L. B. Mendel, New Haven, Connecticut. Continuation

and extension of work on vegetable proteins. (For previous reports see YearBooks Nos. 3-17.)

During the past year our investigations have followed chiefly the

direction indicated in the report for 1918. The extensive study of the

nutritive value of the wheat kernel there referred to was continued and

a detailed account of the results has been published. In connection

with this work we were surprised to find that, contrary to the pre-

vailing belief, the water-soluble vitamine of the wheat kernel is not

concentrated in the embryo. Although the so-called commercial

wheat embryo is much richer in water-soluble vitamine than either the

endosperm or the entire kernel, nevertheless, when the pure embryos

proper w^ere dissected out from the kernels and fed as the sole source

of this vitamine with an otherwise adequate ration, even relatively

large quantities of them failed to promote any growth on the part of

the rats receiving them. Moreover, the kernels from which the

embryos had been removed showed no appreciable diminution in their

vitamine activity as compared with the undissected kernels. It thus

appears that the water-soluble vitamine is located in the endosperm.

That it is not uniformly distributed throughout this part of the kernel

is shown by the fact that if about one-quarter of the embryo-free grain

is cut off at the embryo end of the seed, that portion near the embryois more efficient as a source of water-soluble vitamine than is the

remainder of the seed, although the latter is by no means devoid of

potency. The high vitamine activity of the commercial embryo meal

may be caused by a considerable proportion of the softer parts of the

endosperm adjacent to the embryo, which in the milling process is

removed together with that part of the seed. Our experiments appear

to make it certain that if the vitamine is a single substance needed for

adequate nutrition, it must be a constituent of the endosperm. Thefact that those rats receiving the pure embryo as the sole source of

water-soluble vitamine were well maintained for many weeks without

growing, whereas those rats receiving the embryo-free grain grewnormally, raises the question as to whether the water-soluble vitamine

is a single substance or a mixture of two or more.

A previous report has referred to the desirability of securing somerehable information regarding the comparative nutritive values of the

total proteins of different cereal grains which play a prominent part in

both human and animal feeding. It was hoped to accomplish the com-parison of the cereal proteins aside from other compHcating factors byremoving the greater part of the starch from the rest of the seeds. Theexperiments w4th protein products concentrated in this way have not

proved so satisfactory as was anticipated. Hence we have developed

I

NUTRITION. 353

a method whereby it became possible to feed the entire seed, and thus

compare the untreated protein of the various grains. We are nowengaged in such a comparative study of barley, oats, rye, and wheat

as sources of protein, feeding each at different protein levels and com-

paring the efficiency of the growth made on each. These studies also

furnish information respecting the economy of protein in nutrition.

In making such comparative tests in the past, it has been difficult to

interpret the results accurately, because individual animals eat different

quantities of food and consequently grow at different rates. In some

experiments we obviated this difficulty by limiting the amount of food

given the rats to such a quantity that all the animals grew at approxi-

mately the same rate, and ate practically the same amount of food

during the same period. The only variables were the kind and percent-

age of protein employed. This method was exceedingly laborious, andthe outcome was not entirely satisfactory.

As a result of some of our work on the value of the proteins found in

the different parts of the wheat kernel, we developed a method for

assigning a numerical value to each protein, based on the ratio between

the amount of protein eaten and the gain in body-weight during a given

length of time, starting at approximately the same initial weight.

Although this method does not eliminate the individual differences of

the animals in their ability to utilize their food economically for main-

tenance or growth, nevertheless, where pronounced differences in the

nutritive value of the various proteins exist, the effect of these may be

compared by means of the numerical values thus assigned to the pro-

teins. For example, when wheat flour furnished all the protein of the

diet, the rats gained on an average only 0.5 gram of body-weight per

gram of protein eaten, whereas when the food contained the samepercentage of protein consisting of a mixture of two parts of wheat-flour protein and one part of egg protein, the rats gained on an average

2.0 grams of body-weight per gram of protein eaten. Thus it was shownthat the excellent growth of the rats on the flour+ egg diets, as com-pared with the little more than maintenance of those animals on the

wheat-flour diets, was not due solely to the larger amount of food eaten

in the former case, but rather to the superior quality of the protein.

Although this method of comparison and evaluation of proteins hasits limitations, it is proving useful in our study of the relative value of

the cereal proteins. It is early to draw final conclusions, but the

results already obtained seem to point to the probability that thewheat proteins are somewhat inferior to those of barley, oats, or rye.

While a rat can grow to full maturity on a diet of the entire wheatkernel supplemented with a suitable salt mixture and butter fat, to doso requires more protein than if the ration contained barley, oats, or

rye as its sole source of protein.


Recurring inquiries for information regarding the comparativenutritive values of protein foods and requests for some graphic demon-stration furnished the occasion for a series of illustrative feeding experi-

ments demonstrating the unique supplementary value of the proteins

of meat, milk, or eggs in enhancing the efficiency of some of the cereal

proteins for growth. A group of rats of the same age was fed on the

selected diets and after ten weeks the animals were photographed.

The series of illustrations thus obtained has aroused much interest

in the work. Those animals which had received rations the protein

of which was furnished by gliadin (from wheat) or zein (from corn)+a little tryptophane, failed to grow; those which had received the total

proteins of corn grew a little only, whereas those whose diets had con-

tained two parts of protein from wheat-flour or corn-gluten feed, sup-

plemented with one part of protein from milk, eggs, or meat, grew nor-

mally and WTre very large, vigorous rats. At the end of four monthsthese animals were sent to the American Museum of Natural History

in New York, where they were stuffed and mounted. One set has beenreturned to us, and the other placed on exhibition there as the nucleus

of an educational exhibit to which we expect to make additions fromtime to time, and which will illustrate in graphic form some of the

fundamental principles of nutrition.

The character of the nitrogen in leaves and other kinds of green

foods is a question not only of scientific interest, but also of economicimportance. Although during the early part of the last century the

presence of protein in green leaves attracted the attention of chemists,

attempts to study these were soon abandoned after it was found that

proteins could be so much more easily obtained from seeds. Duringmore recent years botanists have made observations on the proteins

in green leaves by micro-chemical methods, but no serious attempt, so

far as we can discover, has been made by any chemist to isolate andstudy the proteins obtainable from such sources. Since green foods

and hays form so large a part of the nutriment of farm animals, we havethought it essential to further progress in our scientific knowledge of

feeding animals to learn as much as possible respecting the protein

constituents of some particular leaf. We hoped thereby to develop amethod which might be applied to other kinds of leaves and thereby

ultimately increase our knowledge of the nutritive value of this class

of foods.

Since spinach leaves contain nitrogen equivalent to over 30 per cent

of protein, estimated in the conventional way by multiplying by 6.25,

we have used these for our study. Only a small part of the nitrogen of

the fresh leaf is soluble in water, and much of this becomes insoluble

when the leaf is dried. The protein in these dried leaves show^s excep-

tional insolubility in the solvents usually employed for extracting

NUTRITION. 355

proteins from other sources. Only by boiling with 60 per cent alcohol

containing 0.2 per cent of sodium hydroxide have we been able to

extract any considerable part of it. We expect to publish the results

thus far obtained in the near future, and shall continue work on this

subject in the hope that before long we shall learn something of the

chemistry, as well as of the nutritive properties, of this peculiar type

of protein which ^vill be of value.

Attention has also been given to the hj^drolytic action of dilute

alkalies at 100° on proteins. This work, which is an extension of our

earlier study of the different forms of nitrogen in protein bodies, promises

results of interest and will be continued as opportunity presents.

Many of the so-called practical feeding experiments made in the past

were done apparently with little appreciation of the complexity of the

factors involved ; hence the results obtained proved disappointing whenattempts were made to apply them in practice. For example, the

farmer has been instructed to feed a given proportion of protein (the

so-called nutritive ratio) if he is to expect maximum yields in

feeding for growth, milk production, eggs, fattening, or simply main-

tenance. In determining the proper proportion of protein for these

different types of feeding, no attention had been paid to the quality of

the protein, the proportion ha\TLng been estabhshed simply by feeding

a few animals on rations customarily in use at the time the experiments

were made. Experience on the farm soon showed that this methodhad serious limitations, and inasmuch as so many kinds of protein con-

centrates have come into general use, few farmers are to be found whodo not also give consideration to the kind of protein these furnish. In

other words, the farmer has learned by practical feeding that the

kind of protein does make a difference in the amount of product heobtains and that the nutritive ratio alone is not a sufficient guide.

His experience is in full accord with what we have learned about the

relative nutritive value of the different proteins in our investigations

conducted under pre\'ious grants, and emphasizes anew the importanceof extending this knowledge so that agricultural practice of feeding canbe put on a truly scientific basis. Now that methods of feeding havebeen developed which permit changing one factor at a time, this samemethod is being used by others to study the nutritive requirements of

domestic animals in such a way that results of real value are beingobtained.

Our feeding methods, permitting as they do the study of individual

constituents of the ration, have also been found useful in studying the

effect of poisons and various drugs, and, indeed, have opened up a large

field for investigations of various kinds. These methods are alreadybeing employed by the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of

Agriculture.


In order to test any given substance for the presence or absence of

either the fat-soluble or the water-soluble vitamine, or to make quan-titative comparisons of different substances with regard to their value

as sources of either of these vitamines, one must be certain the basal

ration is as free as possible from whichever one of these food essentials

is being tested. Inasmuch as neither of these vitamines has been iso-

lated nor chemical tests for its presence devised, the only method of

assuring oneself of the suitability of any given diet as a basal ration is to

feed a number of rations containing various ingredients and comparethe behavior of the animals on the different diets. The starch, salts,

and fats used in the foods have been proved to contain little if any of

the water-soluble vitamine, hence the protein is the only constituent

which might be contaminated. To test this point, and to determine the

most satisfactory method of preparing protein for use in basal rations

for studies on the distribution of the water-soluble vitamine, a series

of rats was fed on diets essentially alike, except that the protein wasderived from widely differing sources and prepared by widely differing

methods. When the protein was casein (either very crude or very

carefully purified), washed meat residue, lactalbumin, gliadin, ovo-

vitellin, or very carefully purified edestin, the animals began to decline

within two or three weeks and with very few exceptions were either

dead or moribund in 40 to 60 days. On the other hand, when the pro-

tein was either cottonseed globulin or less carefully purified edestin,

the animals were maintained without appreciable loss of weight for 100

days, and when the amount of protein in the food was doubled the

animals gained slightly in weight, demonstrating that the water-soluble

vitamine had not been entirely removed from the preparations of these

two proteins. The uniform results obtained with the other isolated

proteins indicates that they are nearly, if not wholly, free from the

water-soluble vitamine and also that any one of them is suitable to use

in a basal ration for experiments concerning the water-soluble vitamine.

A similar series of experiments has been started to test a number of

different isolated proteins for the presence of adherent fat-soluble

vitamine. These experiments have not progressed sufficiently to justify

final conclusions, but the fact that almost without exception the rats

on such diets have grown at least some, would indicate that either these

diets contain traces of fat-soluble vitamine or else animals can growfor a short time without being furnished more than very slight traces

of this vitamine in the diet. It is probable that the lard used did notcontribute an appreciable amount of this food substance to the ration^

because "lard oil," prepared by extracting lard with absolute alcohol

at about 70°, according to the method used in making our very effective

"butter oil," did not prevent the decline of rats fed on a diet containing

no known source of fat-soluble vitamine.

NUTRITION. 357

When all of the ingredients of the food were thoroughly extracted

with absolute alcohol, rats were unable to make more than very slight

growth. Whether this is due solely to the removal of all traces of fat-

soluble vitamine, or whether the alcohol removes some other hitherto

unsuspected essential of a perfect dietary, is a problem which we are

investigating at present.

The study of the distribution of the fat-soluble and water-soluble

vitamines in different vegetable products, alluded to in the report for

1918, has been extended beyond the preliminary stage. The vegetable

products thus far studied include alfalfa, clover, timothy, spinach, andcabbage leaves, the bulb of the onion, the roots of carrots and turnips,

the leaves, stems, and root of the beet, the tuber of the potato, and the

fruit of the tomato. All of these have been demonstrated to contain

more or less of the water-soluble vitamine, and all but the onion, turnip,

and beet roots have been found to furnish at least some of the fat-

soluble vitamine.

In order that the various foods may be so used as to insure an ade-

quate supply of the vitamines, it is important to know not only howwidely these essential food factors are distributed, but also how the

different natural foods compare with each other as sources of these

accessories. Consequently a carefully controlled series of quantitative

experiments designed to show the relative abundance of these vita-

mines in some of these various vegetable products is now in progress;

but these investigations have not yet been continued long enough to

permit drawing final conclusions.

In the case of the potato, the water-soluble vitamine is apparently

distributed throughout the entire tuber, although it is more concen-

trated near the surface than in the center; for potatoes which werepared before cooking and then dried were found to be considerably

less rich in this food factor than were the whole potatoes, which werecooked and dried without removing the skin.

It has been stated that the fat-soluble vitamine can not be extracted

from plant tissues with ether. We have found, however, that the ether

extract of spinach leaves or of immature alfalfa or clover plants or of

yoting grass is comparatively rich in this vitamine. As little as 30

mg. of ' 'spinach oil" per day, fed to a rat which had declined in weight

owing to a lack of the fat-soluble vitamine in the ration, was sufficient

to restore the animal to a good nutritive condition, as well as to cure

the eye disease which frequently occurs as the result of the lack of this

food constituent.

One feature, which hitherto has received no adequate consideration,

is the possible dependence of the vitamine content upon the maturity

of the plant product. To test this point samples of mature alfalfa,

clover, and timothy hay were obtained from the same fields from whichthe immature specimens were obtained earlier in the season. In every


case it was found that weight for weight the mature hay was much less

efficient as a source of water-soluble vitamine than was the immatureplant. If it should be proved that the vitamine content of milk is

influenced by the vitamine content of the ration of the dairy cow, it is

quite possible that proportion of vitamine in milk could be increased byfeeding hay made from young, immature plants instead of that madefrom the more mature ones. Inasmuch as milk has been found to besomewhat less rich in the water-soluble vitamine than was supposedat one time, it would be a great advantage if some means could befound for increasing its content in this food accessory, especially for the

sake of children and invalids, who quite possibly not infrequently suffer

from an insufficient supply of this unidentified essential.

Our experiments, as well as those of other investigators, have shownthat animals require a supply of the water-soluble vitamine throughout

their entire lifetime. Whether or not the need for the fat-soluble

vitamine is also manifested during the complete life cycle or only during

certain periods is still an unsolved question. To investigate this, a

number of fully mature animals were fed rations supposedly free fromthis food accessory and on which young rats inevitably would cease to

grow and would decline in weight after about three months. Some of

these adult animals have received such diets exclusively for nearly a

year without manifesting any of the obvious symptoms characteristic

of animals fed on a diet deficient in this vitamine. Whether or not

these animals have suffered disturbances in their metabolic processes

has not been determined. In this connection we recall the incidence of

urinary calculi among rats fed on diets deficient in fat-soluble vita-

mine already i-eferred to in an earlier report. Another series of animals

which had received limited quantities of the fat-soluble vitamine during

the early part of their growing period was deprived of this food acces-

sory just before they had reached full maturity. These were well

maintained, and some even grew considerably during the next six

months; but eventually they declined suddenly in weight, and were

then brought back to a condition of normal nutrition by the adminis-

tration of butter fat, or some other source of the fat-soluble vitamine,

without any other change in the food. Apparently adults do not need

so abundant a supply of fat-soluble vitamine as do growing animals,

but our experiments have not yet justified final conclusions in respect

to this important problem. If the results of our still incomplete experi-

ments can be applied to human nutrition, it would seem that adults

need less fat-soluble vitamine than do growing children in order to

avert nutritive disaster, but, in view of our present limited knowledge

of this subject, the fat-soluble vitamine should not be eliminated

entirely from the dietary of adults.

Inasmuch as we have used yeast extensively as a source of water-

soluble vitamine in our nutrition experiments, and particularly in

NUTRITION. 359

test diets in which the presence or absence of the fat-soluble vitamine

was under investigation, it became essential to ascertain conclusively

whether the yeast was also perchance contributing some of the fat-

soluble component. Having demonstrated that dried brewery yeast

is an adequate source for the protein and water-soluble vitamine

needed during growth, we fed young rats upon a diet consisting of

dried yeast, starch, a salt mixture, and lard. They made a little

growth and began to decline in weight after 51 to 72 days; but growthwas promptly renewed when butter fat was added to the ration. Inas-

much as the diet contained 42.5 per cent of yeast, it seems to be con-

clusively shown that the few centigrams of yeast commonly added as asource of water-soluble vitamine to our mixtures of isolated food sub-

stances can not be the carrier of significant amounts of the fat-soluble

vitamine. This is in accord with the recently published conclusions

of Drummond.In preparing food materials as free as possible from all traces of fat-

soluble vitamine by extraction with boiling absolute alcohol, the yeast

was subjected to a similar treatment. Special tests which have been

conducted with this extracted product in combination with a vitamine-

free diet have shown that the water-soluble vitamine is not lost by the

mode of treatment indicated.

The question has been raised as to the possible destructive influence

of the high temperatures employed in the canning industry. To test

this point, samples of washed meat residue and yeast were heated at

about 20 pounds pressure for an hour. The rats fed on rations con-

taining the pressure-cooked meat residue grew just as well as those

which received the ordinary preparation of meat residue, showing that

the long cooking apparently had no unfavorable influence on the value

of the protein. The pressure-cooked yeast, although it was by nomeans inactive, proved to be somewhat inferior to the uncooked yeast

as a source of water-soluble vitamine, showing that heating for anhour at high temperatures tends to destroy the water-soluble vitamine.

In practice, however, few, if any, of the canned products are subjected

to such a high temperature for so long a time as were these, so that it is

probable that under ordinary circumstances the water-soluhle vitamine

in canned goods is not seriously damaged. This statement does not

apply to the anti-scorbutic potency of foods.

That the water-soluble vitamine is not destroyed by long storage

is shown by the fact that yeast, protein-free milk, and various vege-

table products which have been kept for a year or longer have shownno appreciable diminution in their vitamine potency.

One well-grounded objection to the experiments made in the past

to determine the nutritive value of the individual proteins in the pure

state has been founded on the fact that in furnishing the vitamine

necessary to the animal's existence not inappreciable quantities of


nitrogen of unknown character are also introduced into the diet.

There is therefore a question whether or not this nitrogen does not in

fact supplement deficiencies in the protein. If, however, a preparation

of vitamine could be obtained which was so potent that very small

quantities were enough to meet the animal's requirement the amountof nitrogen and other substances thus introduced might be so small as to

render objections of the above sort of little force.

We have accordingly devoted much time to attempts to prepare

such a product from yeast and are now in possession of a relatively

large amount of material which, according to the trials thus far madewith it, appears nearly if not quite as efficient in supplying the water-

soluble vitamine as was the yeast itself from which it was obtained.

Thus daily doses of 16 milligrams of this product have proved aboutas effective in restoring rats which have declined on a diet free fromwater-soluble vitamine as have doses of 200 milligrams of the original

dried yeast. Such a quantity of dried yeast appears to be in general

about the minimum which can be depended on promptly to bring

declining rats back to normal.

Although it is improbable that all of the water-soluble vitamine of

the yeast is concentrated in the material now on hand, this product is

far more potent than any we have heretofore had at our command.This fraction contains only 7.5 per cent of nitrogen, hence only 1.2

milligrams of nitrogen are added to the daily diets of 5 to 10 grams of

our foods rich in fat. Such a quantity can scarcely be expected to

affect the nutritive value of the protein in such foods. Thus, if the food

intake of a very young rat is 5 grams per day and this contains 10 per

cent of protein, its nitrogen content is 80 milligrams. The 1.2 milli-

grams of nitrogen added with the vitamine is, therefore, less than 1.5

per cent of the total nitrogen of the food. With increasing food intake

the added nitrogen forms a correspondingly smaller proportion. It is

probable that we shall soon learn to concentrate the vitamine still

further and thereby correspondingly reduce the uncertainties w^hich

have heretofore pertained to some of our experiments.

We also hope to chemically define the water-soluble vitamine still

more narrowly by excluding various groups of substances whoseabsence from the effective fraction can be demonstrated. Some groups

have already been excluded, and it is confidently expected that others

may soon be added to this list. In this way it ought to be possible to

simplify the problem of ultimately establishing the chemical identity

of this mysterious food factor. Some light may also be gained on the

question of whether what is now termed the water-soluble vitamine is

a single substance or a mixture of two or more, as our experiments with

wheat embryo suggest. As we have only recently been able to prepare

a sufficient supply of this yeast fraction, its chemical examination has

just been begun.

PALEONTOLOGY. 361

PALEONTOLOGY.

Case, E. C, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan. Study of the

vertebrate fauna and paleogeography of North America in the Permianperiod, with especial reference to world relations. (For previous reports see

Year Books Nos. 2, 4, 8-17.)

Since submitting the last report, Dr. Case has devoted his time to

the preparation of the manuscript of Publication No. 283, on the

"Environment of vertebrate life in the late Paleozoic of North Amer-ica." Since the completion of this work he has begun the compilation

of material which, it is hoped, will show the environment in which the

vertebrate animals of other parts of the world developed during the

same period of time as is covered by this publication. In the summerof 1919 Dr. Case spent several weeks studying the Permo-Triassic

boundary-Une in the southwestern part of the United States.

Hay, Oliver P., U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C. Associate inPaleontology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 11-17.)

The greater part of the past year has been devoted to a study of the

Pleistocene vertebrates and to the Pleistocene geology of Quebec,Ontario, the New England States, West Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky,and Tennessee. The regions lying on each side of the St. LawrenceRiver and lakes Ontario and Erie are covered by the deposits laid

down by the last ice sheet, the Wisconsin. In the loose deposits over-

lying the Wisconsin drift are buried remains of animals which survived

the last period of cold or which entered the country after this geologic

stage had ended. In comparison with that of the early Pleistocene

an impoverished fauna is indicated. For New York, the publications

of Dr. H. L. Fairchild were of great service to the present writer. As the

Wisconsin ice sheet retired, the water of the Great Lakes stood at suc-

cessively lower levels. In deposits made at nearly the present level of

these lakes in the region now reported on, as well as that along lakes

Huron and Michigan, have been found teeth and bones of mastodons,two species of elephants, and extinct peccaries, proofs that these

animals existed there until only a few thousand years ago.

In the limestones of the Alleghany region, from central Pennsyl-

vania to northern Alabama, are found numerous caves and fissures.

These have furnished and are still furnishing abundant remains of

vertebrated animals, mostly mammals. These belong principally to

extinct species, and appear to have existed during the middle or early

Pleistocene. Every effort ought to be made to preserve all suchremains, often met with accidentally.

Some weeks have been devoted to the study and description of the

species of several small but valuable collections. Some of these, as

two from caves in Tennessee, one made at Alton, Illinois, and anothermade at Afton, Oklahoma, have lain undescribed for many years.

They are furnishing much new and interesting information. Another


important collection was made a few years ago by Dr. W. K. Moore-head, of Phillips Academy, from a fissure near Cavetown, Maryland;still another was made for the writer about 3 years ago from a cave

near San Antonio, Texas.

As a sort of by-product of his work on the Pleistocene, and compiled

mostly outside of office hours, the writer is preparing a continuation of

his Bibliography and Catalogue of Fossil Vertebrata of North America.

This is intended to bring the records up to date.

Wieland, G. R., Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. Associate in

Paleontology. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 2-4, 6-9,

11-17.)

Cycadeoid and related studies earlier outhned have been continued,

except the investigation of Mesozoic gymnosperm stem structure. Herematerial has still further increased and a broader field is outlined.

In volume ii (Publication No. 34) on the petrified cycads, a sub-

sidiary attention was given to the cycadeous vegetation of the Jurassic

and later time. Following this same plan, in volume iii, in course of

preparation, a considerably more searching restudy of the Triassic

cycadophytes is being attempted. So far as the petrified series is con-

cerned, certain studies of finely conserved trunks, in interest recalling

the Cycadeoidea dartoni, are being added. In particular, through the

courtesy of the custodians of the State University of Iowa collection,

the remarkable original type of Macbride, Cycadeoidea dacotensis, is

now being sectioned at the U. S. National Museum.Some field work has also been done, and the Western localities have

been revisited for the purpose of locating the best point for quarrying

for petrified cycads. Two such quarries are now fairly located. Also,

in connection with the general subject of petrified forests, incidental

attention has been given to the remarkable Carboniferous forests of

this kind near Athens, Ohio, first reported by Lesquereux in 1859.

The subject of the mode of dicotyl leaf modification from the moregymnospermous and fern-like ancestral types of mid to lower

Mesozoic time was noted last year, and some headway has been made.It is now clearer that there is an easy transition from the more primitive

blades (the Stangeria type) to bipinnate (specialized) types of cycadfronds. Furthermore, that pinnate blades like those of the oleander

and magnolia find near antecedents in pinnate cycadeoid leaves has

been pointed out. This holds from both the morphologic and strati-

graphic viewpoint. But the general features of Lower Cretaceous

foliage show such a close transition from pinnate to palmate dicotyls

that both may be regarded as equally primitive, although the latter

appear the more abruptly. Hence the change from Jurassic to Creta-

ceous leaf-types could take place far more rapidly as a parallel move-ment than as more local movements, or evolution of the kind hitherto

expressed by the so-called "paleontologic tree."

PALEONTOLOGY—PHYSICS. 363

Another result expressible in general terms, but directly important,

bears on the use of fossil plants as cUmatic indices. Any Mesozoic

cycadeoids, or any other gjinnosperms leading into or toward the

early dicotyls, must have had much the same capacity for zonal dis-

tribution as present-day dicotyls and gymnosperms. There is there-

fore need for caution in viewing Cycadophyte floras as proof of uniform

tropic conditions. The view has long been current that from the late

Triassic throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous, "there were no dis-

tinct polar, temperate, or equatorial zones," and that [essentially] the

same plants are found from within a few degrees of the poles all the

way to the equator. Here, too, old evidence must be reviewed, andlong-held opinions must evidently be revised.

PHYSICS.

Bams, Carl, Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island. Continuation of

investigations in interjerometry. (For previous reports see Year BooksNos. 4, 5, 7-17.)

The peculiar behavior previously observed in treating the elastic

deformations of small bodies on the interferometer induced the author

to construct the contact lever, using achromatic fringes described in

the beginning of the report. The instrument at once functioned

admirably when employed either as a surface tester or as a spherometer.

This contact lever was then modified for the interpretation of the

elastic discrepancies specified, and the conditions shown under whichboth the new and the old methods lead to trustworthy results.

In a different application of the contact lever the small elongations

with subsequent contractions experienced by iron in magnetic fields

are treated. They are peculiarly interesting, because these phenomenaare at their maximum variation after the metal has become practically

saturated. Furthermore, an instrument which lends itself with equal

faciUty to the measurement of thermal expansion and of moduli is

in a measure self-contained for the solution of many thermodynamicproblems.

Electrodynamometry of very weak {telephonic) currents.—No availa-

ble effect is obtainable, unless the vibrator of the measuring

instrument is sharply in resonance with the alternating current; then

the response is astonishingly large and definite. When the measure-

ment is made by the vibration telescope, the vibrator of the telephonic

system carrying the objective, the sensitiveness obtainable is not

beyond a few microamperes per ocular scale-part of reasonable value

(0.01 cm.). Within these limits, however, it may be made serviceable,

for instance, in determining the number of turns in each of a variety

of secondary coils, successively slid over the same long solenoidal


primary. The sensitiveness may be increased upwards 100 fold, how-ever, so that 10-^ ampere per fringe is still measurable, by placing asimilar instrument on the displacement interferometer adjusted for

achromatic fringes. The reading in such a case must be made witha vibration telescope, synchronized with the alternating current in the

primary and with the objective vibrating normally to the displacement

of fringes. The measurement is thus somewhat awkward and consists

in determining the range of the fringe ellipses parallel to the direction

of vibration of fringes. On the other hand, both the amplitude and the

phase of the induced current, whether modified by resistance, induc-

tance, or capacity, is given by the form of vibration ellipses obtained.

A slight but essential modification of a form of interferometer usedby Michelson and Morley makes the apparatus virtually self-adjusting,

yet satisfying many requirements in displacement interferometry.

This is a great convenience when many separate adaptations of appara-tus to the interferometer have to be successively made. It is evenpossible to put a part of one of the mirrors on a micrometer-screw for

direct measurement. The endeavor to use this device for finding the

refraction of solid media did not, however, lead to results of practical

value. On the other hand, a possible design of this kind for measuringthe Fresnel coefficient is being tested with a promising outcome.An interesting class of interferences is obtained by the superposition

of fringes due to dispersion on identical fringes due to the inclination

of rays. It is possible in this way to obtain sharp spectrum fringes in

the very luminous spectrum of an indefinitely wide slit and to deter-

mine the angular orientation of the spectro-telescope on its axis; for

the fringes, if small, suddenly jump out of an unbroken spectrum bandwhen a definite angle is reached. A number of results incidental to the

preceding work are shown. Evidences of continuous micrometric con-

vection currents within liquids, obtained from the shadows of motesin a highly dispersed spectrum; the satelhtes of the achromatic fringes

already referred to in a preceding report; peculiarly brilliant phe-

nomena obtainable in connection with Herschel's fringes; and other

subjects, are here treated.

The gravitational experiments begun in the last report have beencontinued. The former, in which the deviations of the horizontal

pendulum are read off by the displacement of achromatic fringes, is

very definite in its evidence of the effect of temperature distributions

within the pier. The author is inclining to the conviction that measure-ments of the gravitational attraction of two bodies made daily, for a

period of years, might not be unproductive of results. To do this

effectively, however, a full analysis of the thermal and other radiation

discrepancies must first be available, and work with this end in view is

being actively pursued.

PHYSICS. 365

Howe, Henry M., Bedford Hills, New York. Research Associate in Metal-lurgy. (For previous reports see Year Books Nos. 6-17.)

I began at my owti laboratory a systematic search for the kind of

steel most suitable for helmets and body armor, at the request of the

Ordnance Department, of which I became a civihan expert. For this

I devised apparatus for accurate ballistic testing, with normal impact,

of the spherical surfaces of which the front and rear of helmets consist.

Later this wôrk was taken over and finished by Mr. W. J. Wrighton.

The Ordnance Department has authorized the publication of our results.

I have studied the nature and causes of the peculiar w^hite coarse-

grained spots called "snowflakes" which occur in the otherwise fine-

grained fractures of the test pieces of certain alloy steels. I find that

they represent internal fissures made at a time when the structure of

the metal itself was coarse-grained like these spots. The fact that, evenwhen they represent as much as one-fourth of the sectional area of the

test-piece, they cause no appreciable lowering of the elastic limit, I

explain as meaning that the stretch w^hich occurs on passing the lowered

elastic limit of the cross-section w^here thus reduced by the fissure,

being confined strictly to this cross-section, is too minute to be detected

by any extensometer. Instead, the elastic limit actually observed is

that of the unfissured remainder of the test-piece when enough stretch

has occurred at innumerable points along its length to add up to ameasurable quantity. This general line of thought is due to Professor

H. F. Moore.With Mr. R. C. Groesbeck I have studied the four following sub-

jects, chiefly at the U. S. Bureau of Standards:

(1) The influence of the conditions of casting on the position of the

internal contraction ca\'ity or pipe in solidifying masses. The experi-

ments were made with ingots of paraffin.

(2) The influence of the severity of reduction in the individual

passes in rolling metals on the residual internal stresses. We rolled

steel strips in pairs, one strip superposed on the other, and measuredthe degree by which these strips became bent, for given total reductions,

when this reduction wâs brought about by a few severe reductions, bymany light ones, and by an intermediate number of reductions of

moderate severity. The deflection increases with the severity of the

reduction per pass. This is referred to the greater skin friction betweenthe rolls and the piece rolled, which lessens the backward flow of the

surface metal, thus causing a correspondingly greater proportion of

the flow^ to occur in the deeper-seated layers.

(3) The influence of phosphorus on the microstructure and hardness

of carbon steel after various thermal treatments. For this wê used the

important series of steels varying greatly in their phosphorus content,

but otherwise alike, prepared by Mr. J. S. linger for another purpose.

(4) The influence of thermal treatment on the microstructure of

pure carbon steels of various carbon contents.


Nichols, E. L., Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. Systematic studies ofthe properties of matter through a wide range of temperatures. (For previous

reports see Year Books Nos. 4-17.)

Researches under this grant have been greatly retarded during

1918-19 by conditions resulting from the war. A monograph, describ-

ing investigations on the fluorescence, phosphorescence, and absorption

of the uranyl salts, has been completed, however. It deals with the

work of several observers over a period of eight years and is a fairly

exhaustive survey of one of the most important fields in the domain of

luminescence.

In the course of these researches, the spectra of numerous uranyl

compounds were mapped and discussed. Many of these salts, includ-

ing the various chlorides, nitrates, acetates, sulphates, and phosphates,

were especially prepared for this purpose by Dr. Wilber.

A comparative study of the results obtained has led to the following

:

General Conclusions Concerning the Luminescence of the Uranyl Salts.

The entire spectrum of any given uranyl compound is an homo-

geneous complex.

The criteria of homogeneity are: (a) Independence of the mode of

excitation.—The uranyl spectra meet this test completely. Any wave-length of light, capable of producing fluorescence, brings out all the

bands and, so far as we have been able to determine, with the samerelative intensities. Numerous attempts at selective excitation (i. e.,

to produce a single group or series or even to enhance portions of the

spectrum, by the use of monochromatic illumination), have given

negative results. Kathode-luminescence and X-ray excitation, more-

over, give the same spectrum as photo-excitation. This is true of single

bands in the spectra of other fluorescent substances, e. g., the green

band of Sidot blende; but rarely if ever, of the entire spectrum, save in

the case of the uranyl salts, {b) Identity of the fluorescence spectrum

and the phosphorescence spectrum, or, what is nearly the same, of the

phosphorescence spectrum during the earlier and later stages of decay.

Conformity with this criterion was established for several uranyl salts

by Misses Wick and McDowell in their studies of kathodo-phosphores-

cence. It is not a test easily applicable to all such compounds, because

the phosphorescence under photo-excitation is of the vanishing type.

Comparatively few uranyl salts, on the other hand, are sufficiently

stable in vacuo, especially under exposure to kathode rays, to permit

of a detailed examination by that method.Heterogeneity in a fluorescence spectrum of the usual broad-banded

type, such as is universal with the phosphorescent sulphides for exam-ple, is not readily detected by spectroscopic observation on account of

the overlapping of the bands, but it often manifests itself in the moststriking manner by changes of color during the decay of phosphores-

PHYSICS. 367

cence. This is due to differences in the rate of decay of the components

of a mixed luminescence, and affords another and simple criterion, i. e.,

absence of color change during the phosphorescence period. This can

be tested, even for substances of exceedingly brief phosphorescence,

such as the uranyl salts, by the use of the disk phosphoroscope.

The absence of color change of the fluorescent light, when lumines-

cence is produced at low temperatures. Such changes are marked in the

case of heterogeneous luminescence and afford a conclusive indication.

By such criteria we are led to the conviction that the uranyl spec-

trum is a unit, appearing in its entirety, however produced, and dis-

appearing as a whole when excitation ceases. This is a unique charac-

teristic, so far as our present knowledge goes. It is certainly not true

of the fluorescent dyestuffs, of the phosphorescent sulphides, of the

rare earths, or of the luminescence of vapors.

Another fact, even more impressive and significant, w^hich was fully

recognized only after the completion of our detailed studies of the

spectra of numerous salts under varying conditions, when we were in

position to view them as a whole, and to make comparisons based uponadequate data, is this:

There is but one spectrum, the uranyl spectrum, common to all uranyl

salts. Of a complexity which has not as yet been completely resolved

and analyzed, its essential structure is always the same. This state-

ment is based upon the following characteristics typical of all the

spectra thus far examined.

(1) All uranyl spectra have the same number of equidistant fluores-

cence bands.

(2) This set of bands occupies in all cases the same region of the

spectrum, lying, roughly, between 0.6500)u and 0.4800^.

(3) The distribution of intensities is always the same, rising from

the merest visibihty in the red to a definite crest and diminishing morerapidly towards the violet.

(4) Fluorescence and absorption always overlap in the so-called

reversing region.

(5) The frequency interval for absorption series is always smaller

than for fluorescence series, and the ratio is nearly the same for all

compounds.

(6) Fluorescence and absorption bands are always complex, although

not generally visibly so at +20°. Resolution of the bands into groups

always occurs on cooling in the case of crystalline compounds. Liquid

or non-crystalline preparations are not resolved by cooling.

Accompanying these universal attributes are numerous minor andperfectly definite variations, which tend to obscure but never actually

conflict with the general uniformity of type. These enable one to

identify, with certainty, the spectra of the various compounds, espe-

cially when excitation occurs at low temperatures.


These variations consist chiefly in the number, spacing, precise loca-

tion, relative brightness, and sharpness of the narrow bands in the

groups into which the bands are resolved on cooling; in slight differ-

ences in frequency intervals of the fluorescence series and absorption

series; in slight shifts in location of the groups as a whole, and of shifts

and minor rearrangements which appear to be dependent in some wayupon molecular weight, water of crystallization, and particularly uponcrystal form.

Minor Investigations Completed, in Progress, or in Prospect.

The work on the luminescence of the rare earths, of which a brief

preliminary account has already appeared,^ is being continued. Spectra

of the kathodo-luminescence and absorption of various preparations

of the oxides of neodymium, praseodymium, cerium, and erbium are

in process of observation and mapping.

Drs. Wick and Wilber have in hand a study of the phosphorescence

of these compounds, and Dr. Howes is preparing for the investigation

of their luminescence at high temperatures.

Miss Wick is also planning to investigate the photo-luminescence,

kathodo-luminescence, and the remarkable tribo-luminescence of the

double silicate known as hexagonite.

The results of the study of the selective emission from erbium oxide,

made by the late Dr. Mallory, have been published in the Physical

Review.^

Papers have also appeared on the fluorescence and absorption of

the uranyl acetates^ and sulphates.^

^ Physical Review (2),* Mallory (with a note by E. L. Nichols): Physical Review (2), vol. 14, p. 54 (1919).

» Nichols, Howes, and Wick: Physical Review (2), vol. 14, p. 201 (1919).* Nichols and Howes: Physical Review (2), vol. 14, p. 293 (1919).

INDEX.

Abbot, Charles G 312Absorption Spectra with Electric Furnace. . . 252

Acceleration of Gravity at Sea, Apparatus for

Determining 295

Adams, Leason H., Publications by 33, 36, 42Publication on Application of Thermionic

Amplifier to Conductivity Meas-urements 169

Publication on Determination of Com-pressibility of Solids at HighPressures 160

Publication on Furnace TemperatureRegiilator 163

Publication on Relation between Bire-

fringence and Stress in VariousTypes of Optical Glass 174

Publication on Some Physical Constantsof Mustard "Gas" 161

Publication on Tables and Curves for

Use in Measuring Temperatureswith Thermocouples 171

Publication on Temperature Distribution

in Solids during Heating or Cooling. 164

Adams, Walter S 212, 213, 218, 226, 245Publication by 33

Adelaide Observatory 279Africa, Magnetic Work in 278, 279, 286Agassiz, Alexander iv

Airplanes, on Determination of Position of .

.

302

Albrecht, Sebastian 211, 212, 216

Alcohol, Distribution of, in Hens after

Exposure to Alcohol Vapor 267Alcoholized Rats, Cytological Studies of ... . 129

Alcoholized Rats, Neurological Studies of . . . 130

Aldrich, L. B 228Alger, Philip 351

Allen, E. T., Publication by 33

Publication on Condition of Arsenic in

Glass and its R61e in Glass-Making 159

Publication on Methods of Glass Anal-

ysis 158

Allen, Ezra 129

Alumina, Binary and Ternary Systems of .

.

155

American Physical Society 283

Amundsen Polar Expedition 279

Amylases and Related Enzymes, ChemicalInvestigation of 328

Andersen, Olaf , Publication by 33

Publication on Method for Determi-nation of Volatile Matter in Oxidesof Lead 172

Publication on Volatilization of LeadOxide from Lead-Silicate Melts. . .

.

172

Anderson, John A 220, 226, 228, 250, 258Publication by 33

Anderson, Karl E., Death of 18

Anesthetics, Effect on Basal Metabolism 202

Angot, A 310Animal Coloration, Experiments upon 201

Anton Dohrn, Yacht 185, 189

Arc, Tube-Arc, and Spark Spectra 256

Archeology, Report of Investigations in.. . .317-321

PAGE.Archives 150Argentina, Magnetic Work in 279Argentina, Meteorological Service in 288Arizona Ash, Growth of 74Armsby, H. P 266Articles of Incorporation x-xiiAsia, Magnetic Work in 279, 286Associates of the Carnegie Institution vAtmospheric Absorption Lines, Wave-

Lengths in 235Atmospheric-Electric Work for Cruise VI,

of the Carnegie 297Atomic Structure of Crystalline Substances,

Determination of 325Atomic Weight of Radioactive Lead from

Japan 326Atomic Weights and other Physico-Chemical

Properties of Elements and of Sim-ple Compounds 326

Auditors, Report of 47-54Ault, John P 277, 282, 284, 285

on Determination of Position of Air-

planes by Astronomical Methods . . 302Australia, Land-Survey Work, etc 287Australia, Magnetic Work in 279Avery, Billings T., jr 137

Death of 18Publication by 33

Ayers, Alden F 259Babcock, Elizabeth B 267

on Concentration of Alcohol in Tissues

of Hens after Inhalation 270Publications by 33, 35, 41

Babcock, H. D . 221, 226, 233, 236, 237, 254, 255, 256Baker, Marion L 228, 269Balance Sheet at October 31, 1919 48Baldwin, M. E., Publication by 40Bandelier, Adolph F 182Banker, Howard J 145

Banta, A. M 132

Publication by 33

Barbados, Magnetic Work at 279

Barnett, S. J 281, 282, 283, 293, 295on Apparatus for Determining Accelera-

tion of Gravity at Sea 295on Electromagnetic Induction 306on Experiments in Magnet-Photography 304Publication by 33

Bartsch, Paul 185, 187, 191

Publication on Hereditary Characters in

Bahama-Florida Cerions 186

Report on Birds Observed on Florida

Keys 205

Barus, Carl VPublications by 30, 33, 34Researches in Physics 363

Bassler, R. S 345Publication by 31

Bauer, Louis A. . .v, 282, 284, 286, 289, 292, 305, 310

on Field of a Uniformly MagnetizedElliptic Homoeoid and Applications 308

369

370 INDEX.

PAGE.

Bauer, Louis A., on Meeting of International

Geodetic and Geophysical Union . .

.

309on Results of Magnetic and Electric

Observations made during Solar

Eclipse of June 8, 1918 306on Some Observations of Total Solar

Eclipse at Cape Palmas, Liberia. .

.

311

Publications by 34

Report as Director of Department of

Terrestrial Magnetism 277-316

Beach and Sycamore Trees, Growth of 77

Beach-Rock, Origin of 192

Beans, Tetracotyledonous 139

Beattie, J. A 325Beck, Claude S 112

Publication by 34

Beebe, C. William 186

Behre, EUinor H 132

Bell, Herbert C 178, 183

Benedict, Cornelia Golay 266, 270

on Energy Content of Extra Foods 275

Publication by 34

Benedict, Francis G v, 143

on Biometric Standarde for Energy Re-quirements in Human Nutrition. .271, 272

on Biometric Study of Human BasalMetabolism 272

on Energy Content of Extra Foods .... 275on Energy Loss of Young Women dur-

ing Muscular Activity of LightHousehold Work 273

on Energy Requirements of Children

from Birth to Puberty 274

on Human Vitality and Efficiency underProlonged Restricted Diet 275

on Temperature of the Human Skin . . . 274Publications by 30, 34, 36Report as Director of Nutrition Labo-

ratory 265-276

Benioff, Hugo 227, 228, 239Publication by 34

Benzene, Melting Point of, and Effect of

Common Impurities 328Bergen, Henry v

Report on Early English Literature. . .

.

349Bichowsky, F. Russell, v. Publication by ... . 34

Publication on an Unusual Sulfur Crystal 162Bilham, E. G 316Billings, John S iv

Biology, Report of Investigations in 322-325Biometric Miscellany 144Biometric Standards for Energy Require-

ments in Human Nutrition 272Biometric Study of Basal Metabolismin

Man 271Bjerknes, J., Publication by 34Bjerknes, V v

Report on Investigations in Meteor-ology 351-352

Blakeslee, A. F 137Publication by 34

Blanchard, Lillian F 216Boles, Inza A 268Bolivia, Eclipse Observations in 280Boss, Benjamin v

Report as Director, Department of

Meridian Astrometry 211

PAOB.Boss, Lewis 212

Publication by 34Botanical Research, Report of Department . . 57-102Bowen, N. L., Publication by 35

Publication on Devitrification of Glass . . 162Publication on Identification of "Stones"

in Glass 158Bowie, William 310Boyer, S., Publication by 39Brackett, Frederick 227, 228, 230, 233Brayton, Ada M 227Brazil, Eclipse Expedition 297

Magnetic Work in 279, 280Brazilian Government 290Breitenbecher, J. K., Publication by 30Brewer, G. T 289Bridges, C. B., on Constitution of Hereditary

Materials of Drosophila melano-gaster 324

Publications by 30, 35, 39, 41Briggs, L. J 351British Admiralty 278British East Africa, Eclipse Observations in 280British Embassy 191

Britton, N. L., Publication by 30Brodhead, John Romeyn 177Bronson, J. B 180Brookings, Roberts S in, iv

Brown, A. M 324Brown, Frederick 278, 280, 286, 289, 292, 312Brussels, Meeting at 284, 309Buffum, Grace 1 216Burnett. Edmund C 180, 184

Publication by 35Burns, Margherita 227

Burwell, Cora G 227

By-Laws of the Institution xiii-xvi

Cadwalader, John L iv

Calcium Carbonate Oozes at Tortugas 197

Caldwell, M. L., Publication by 41

Calorific Value of Extra Foods 269

Cameroun 280

Campo 280

Canaries, Crossing Over and Non-Dis-junction in Sex-Linked Traits in.

.

139

Cannon, W. A., Influence of Soil Aeration

upon Growth of Shoots 71

on Soil Aeration Experiments withHelium 85

Publication by 35

Canu, F 345Publication by 31

Cape Palmas, Liberia 283Eclipse at 311

Magnetic Work at 278, 280

Carbohydrate Supply and Respiration 80

Carbon Dioxid in Sea-Water at Tortugas,

Determination of 195

Carnegie, Andrew, Death of 7

Carnegie, Atmospheric-Electric Work for

Cruise VI 297

Carnegie Institution, History of 348

Carpenter, T. M 267

on Concentration of Alcohol in Tissues

of Hens after Inhalation 270

INDEX. 371

PAGE.

Carpenter, T. M. on Gaseous Exchange withUnpracticed Subjects and TwoRespiration Apparatus EmployingThree Breathing Appliances 271

Publications by 35, 37

Carte du Ciel 215

Carter, Edna 228, 257

Publication by 35Carty, John J iii, iv, 3

Cary, L. R 189

Case, E. C von Researches in Paleontology 361-363Publications by 31, 35

Cash, James R 110

Publication by 35Cash Receipts and Disbursements for 1919 49Casparis, H. R 118

Publication by 35Castle, W. E v

on Heredity in Small Mammals 323Publications by 31, 35

Catalogue, General, Preparations for 214Cats, Crossing Over and Non-Disjunction in

Sex-Linked Traits in 139Catterall, Mrs. R. H. C 181

Cave Conditions, Effect of 141

Cepheid Variables, Stars with Spectra Char-acteristic of 247

Cepheid Variations, Variations of Spectral

Type in 212Chamberlin, T. C v

Report on Study of Fundamental Prob-lems of Geology 343-345

Chemistry, Report on Investigations in 325Chesapeake Bay, Magnetic Observation in .

.

279Chihuahua Pine, Growth of 75Chile, Eclipse Observations in 280Chile, Magnetic Work in 279Chow, Ming 325Chree, Charles 284, 310Chromosome Groups in Diptera, Compara-

tive Study of 124Churchill, William vClark, Hubert L., Publication by 31Clark, Livia C 216Clark, Victor S 176Clements, Edith S., on Grazing Research .... 341

on Land Classification and Settlement .

.

342on Permanent Quadrats 338on Variation and Mutation in Epilobium 335Publication by 35

Clements, Frederic E von Climatic Cycles 337on Climax Formations 336on Experimental Pollination 335on Experimental Taxonomy 334on Field and Garden Study of Genera

and Species 336on Grazing Research 341on Indicator Plants 340on Land Classification and Settlement . . 342on Permanent Quadrats 338on Photosynthetic Efficiency 332on Phytometer Method 331on Quadrat-Transect for Study of Biome 338on Transplant Quadrats and Areas 339

PAGE.Clements, Frederic E. Publication by 35

Report on Investigations in Ecology . . . 330-343Climatic Cycles 337Climax Formations 336Clinical and Pathological Studies 120Close, Charles 309Coble, Arthur E., Publications by 36Colson, R 304Connor, Elizabeth 227Construction Work on Mount Wilson 264Cooke, C. W 346

Publications by 31Cooper, William S., Ecology of Strand Vege-

tation of Pacific Coast of NorthAmerica 96

Corono, Colorado, Magnetic Observations at 307Cotyledons, Nutritive Value of Food

Reserve in 81Cowdry, E. V 104Craig, W. M 326

Publication by 39Crampton, Henry E vCrommelin, A. C. D 312Crystal Magnetization, Investigation of

certain Aspects of 294Cull, S. T, Wallis 122

Publication by 35Curtis, Heber, D 214Cushman, Joseph A 187, 345

Publication by 31Publication on Foraminifera 186

Cytology 104Dahlgren, Ulric 186

Publication on Development of Electric

Muscles in Electric Eel, Gymnotus 186Daly, Reginald A 187

on Origin of Beach-rock 192Publication on Geology of Tutuila and

other Islands of Samoa 186Daniels, Josephus 191Davenport, Charles B v

Report as Director, Eugenics RecordOffice 145


Experimental Evolution 123Publications by 30, 35

Davenport, Frances G 180, 184Davis, Helen 227, 244Day, Arthur L v

Publication by 35Publication concerning George Ferdi-

nand Becker, 1847-1919 173Dechevrens, M 316Dendrograph 72Desert Plants, Seasonal Changes in Water

Relations of 101Desert Plants, Size and Form of Leaves in 94

Desert Valley, Vegetation of 87Diatomacese, Investigations on 332Dickson, Leonard E., Publication by 22, 30Documents, Textual Publication of 180Dodge, Cleveland H in, iv, 45Dodge, William E ivDodwell, G. F 279, 287Dogs, Heredity of Color in 139Donnan, Elizabeth 175, 181, 184

372 INDEX.

PAGE.Doran, Mabel 1 216Dosdell, Louise, Publication by 35Douala, Cameroun, Magnetic Work at 278Douglas, A. E., on Climatic Cycles 337Doves, Crossing Over and Non-Disjunction

in Sex-Linked Traits in 139Dowd, Merritt C 264Doysie,'Abel 179Drafted Men, Defects in 148Drafting and Design 258Draper Catalogue 215Drew, Oilman A., Publication by 31

Drosophila, Comparative Genetical Studies of 124Drosophila melanogaster, Constitution of

Hereditary Materials of 324-325Duesberg, Jules 105

Publication by 36Duggar, B. A., on Nutritive Value of Food

Reserve in Cotyledons 81on Refinements in Indicator Method of

Hydrogen-Ion Determination 84on Some Factors in Salt Requirements of

Plants 82Duncan, John C 228, 239, 245Dunn, L. C 324Duvall, C. R 280, 282, 288, 312Earth-Current Work 298Eccles, W 313Eclipse Expedition, Brazil 297Eclipse Observations 278, 280, 296Ecology 87Ecology of Root Systems 333Ecology of Strand Vegetation of Pacific

Coast of North America 96Ecology, Report of Investigations in 330-343Egg Production, Biometric Studies of 141

Edmonds, H. M.W 279280, 284, 288, 290, 291, 292, 312

Einstein Effects 214Electric-Furnace Investigations 251Electric and Magnetic Observations made

during Solar Eclipse of June 8, 1918 306Electromagnetic Induction, Report on 295, 306Ellerman, Ferdinand 226, 228, 229, 230

Publications by 36, 40Embryology, Report of Department of 103Emmes, Louis E 267

Publication by 37Publication on Energy Content of Extra

Foods 275Publication on Energy Loss of Young

Women during Muscular Activityof Light Household Work 273

Publication on Energy Requirementsof Children from Birth to Puberty 274

Publication on Gaseous Exchange withUnpracticed Subjects and TwoRespiration Apparatus EmployingThree Breathing Appliances 271

Ennis, C. C 282Equipment of Nutrition Laboratory, Addi-

tions to 265Erickson, A 285Essick, C. R 116Estabrook, A. H 145Eugenics Record Office, Report of 145Eugenics Research Association 152

PAGE.Evershed, John 231Executive Committee, Report of 43-46Experimental Evolution, Report of Depart-

ment of 123Experimental Pollination 335Experimental Taxonomy 334Factor Stations 331Fairchild, H. L 362Fenner, Charles P in, iv

Fenner, Clarence N., Publication yb 36Publication on Relations between Tri-

dymite Cristobalite 172Publication on Technique of Optical-

Glass Melting 162Publication on Use of Optical Pyro-

meters for Control of Optical-Glass

Furnaces 167Ferguson, J. B., Publications by 36, 37

Publication on Equilibrium Studies uponBucher Process 170

Publication on Oxidation of Lava bySteam 173

Publication on Rapid ElectrometricDetermination of Iron in someOptical Glasses 169

Publication on Ternary System CaO-MgO-SiOs 159, 165

Publication on Thermal Dissociation of

Sulfur Dioxide 160Publication on Volatilization of Iron from

Optical Glass Pots by Chlorine at

High Temperatures 164Publication on Wallastonite (CaO . SiOa)

and Related Solid Solutions in Ter-nary System Lime-Magnesia-Silica. 166

Ferry, Edna L., Publication by 39Field and Garden Study of Genera and

Species 336Field, Richard M., on Investigations Regard-

ing Calcium Carbonate Oozes at

Tortugas and Beach-Rock at Log-gerhead Key 197

Publication on Limestones of Florida

Reefs 186Field-Workers of Eugenics Record Office,

Joint-basis 161Financial Records 26Finn, Mary D 270Fish, H. D VFisk, H. W 279, 281, 282, 287

on Auxiliary Tables to Facilitate Revi-sions of Field Magnetic Observa-tions 313

on Results of Magnetic and Electric


Eclipse of June 8, 1918 306Publication by 34

Fleming, J. A 282, 283, 285, 304on a Note of a String Galvanometer for

Use on Board Ship 313Publication by 36

Flexner, Simon iv

Fort Lamy, Magnetic Work at 278Fox, Dixon R v

Report on an Institutional History of

American Colonies during Periodof French Wars 347

INDEX. 373

PAGE.

Fox, Edward L 270Frazer, J. C. W vFree, E. E., Soil Aeration Experiments with

Helium 85Frew, William N iv

Fuller, Alice M 216Gage, Lyman J iv

Galbraith, Esther E 181

Galilee, The 278Gallium, Liquid, Surface Tension of 327Gallium, Purification of, by Distillation as

the Chloride 326Gallium, Purification of, by Electrolysis. . . . 327Garrison, Fielding H., Report on Index

Medicus 321Gaseous Exchange with Unpracticed Subjects

and Two Respiration ApparatusEmploying Three Breathing Appli-

ances 271General Catalogue, Preparations for 214Geodetic and Geophysical Union, Interna-

tional 309Geology of American Samoa 192Geology, Report on Investigations in 343-346Geology, Study of Fundamental Problems of 343Geophysical Laboratory, Report of 153-174Germinal Peculiarities, Inheritance of 137Germ-Plasm and its Modification 124Germ-Plasm, Modifiability of , by Alcohol. . ,

.

124Gilman, Daniel C iv

Goldsmith, G. W., on Phytometer Method.

.

331on Quadrat-Transect for Study of the

Biome 338Goodspeed, T. H., Publication by 36Grant, Kerr 279, 287Grant, Sherwood B 215Grazing Research 341GriflSn, A. P. C 176Groesbeck, R. C 365Growth and Hydration 57Grummann, H. R 279, 283, 285, 287

on Apparatus for Determining Accelera-tion of Gravity at Sea 295

Gudger, E. W., Publication by 31Hackett, Charles, jr 182Hale, George E v

Publication by 36Report as Director, Mount Wilson Ob-

servatory 217-264Hall, H. M., on Experimental Taxonomy. .

.

334on Field and Garden Study of Genera

and Species 336on Rubber Plants 343Publication by 36

Hall, R. E., Publication by 36Publication on Application of Thermi-

onic Amplifier to ConductivityMeasurements 169

Harris, J. Arthur 139, 143, 266on Biometric Standards for Energy

Requirements in Himaan Nutrition. 272on Biometric Study of Human Basal

Metabolism ".271,272

Publications by 30, 36Harris, J. W 120

Publication by 36Harris, Reginald G 140

PAOB.Harvey, E. Newton 187

on Production of Light by LuminousAnimals 198

Publication on Chemical Nature of Cyp-ridina Luciferin and CypridinaLuciferase 191

Publication on Reversibility of Photo-genic Reaction in Cypridina 191

Hay, John lyHay, Oliver P y

Publication by 37Researches in Paleontology 361

Ha3^ord, John F yHedrick, Henry B 282

on a New Method in Navigation 314Heliimi, Soil Aeration Experiments with. ... 85Henderson, L. J 348Hendry, Mary 269

on Gaseous Exchange with UnpracticedSubjects and Two Respiration Ap-paratus Employing Three BreathingAppliances 271

Publication by 37Henshaw, Clarence 227, 228Heredity in Aristogenic Families 145Heredity in Small Mammals, Report on ... . 323Herrick, Myron T m, iv, 3Hewett, E. L 317Hewitt, Abram S lyHigginson, Henry L m, lyHistorical Research, Report of Department . 175-184History, Report on Investigations in 347-349Hitchcock, Ethan A rvHoge, W. P 237Hooker, John D 20Hooker Telescope 259Hostetter, J. C, Publications by 36, 37, 38

Publication on Apparatus for GrowingCrystals under Controlled Condi-tions 161

Publication on Electrometric Titrations,

with Special Reference to Determi-nation of Ferrous and Ferric Iron . . 165

Publication on Hematite and RutileFormed by Action of Chlorine atHigh Temperatures 169

Publication on Hydrochloric-acid ColorMethod for Determining Iron 170

Publication on Rapid Electrometric De-termination of Iron in some OpticalGlasses 169

Publication on Volatilization of Iron fromOptical Glass Pots by Chlorine atHigh Temperatures 164

Hovey, E. O 346Howe, Henry M y

Researches in Physics 365-368Howe, Marshall A 345

Publication by 31Howe, William Wirt rvHowes, Horace L., Publication by 39Hoyt, F. G 325Huayao 280Huff, C 283, 301HuU, G. F 351Humason, Milton, Publication by 37Hutchinson, Charles L iii, iv, 3

374 INDEX.

PAGE.

Hydration and Growth 57

Hydration of Biocolloids simulating certain

Features of Protoplasm 60

Hydrogen-ion Determination, Refinements

in Indicator Method of 84

Inbred Communities 147

Index Medicus, Preparation and Publication 321

Indicator Plants 340

Indium, Compressibility of 327

Infra-red Furnace Spectra 252

Instrument Shop, Mount Wilson 259

Instrument Work and Standardizing, De-partment of Terrestrial Magnetism 283

Interferometer, Solar Wave-Lengths with . . . 235

International Geodetic and Geophysical

Union 284

International Meteorological Committee .... 284

International Research Council 284

Investigators of Nutrition Laboratory,

Cooperating and Visiting 266

Investments, Schedule of 60

Ionic Theory, Properties of Solutions in

Relation to 325

Ishikawa, C 199

Jackson, R. T 346

Jacomini, Clement 226, 259

James, Mary B 216

Jameson, J. Franklin v


Historical Research 175- 184

Jean, F. C, Publication by 42

Jenkins, George B 141

Jenkins, Heroy 215

Johnson, Alice 269

on the Energy Loss of Young Womenduring Muscular Activity of LightHousehold Work 273

on the Temperature of the Human Skin 274Publication by 34

Johnson, Beatrice W. . 135

Johnston, H. F 278, 280, 285, 286, 289, 311

Johnston, John, Publication on Determi-nation of Compressibility of Solids

at High Pressures 160

Jones, E. Elizabeth 139

Jones, George D 264

Joslin, Elliott 266

Joy, Alfred 212, 213, 227, 229, 245Publications by 36, 37

Joyner, Mary J 227, 241

Jung, G. H 283, 301

Kapteyn, J. C v, 218, 227Kendall, J. C 266Kew, Observations at 316

Key, Wilhelmine E 145Publication by 37

Khabarowa, Magnetic Station at 279Kidson, E 280, 291Kiesel, T. C 283, 296

King, Arthur S 220, 226, 250, 256, 257Publications by 35, 37

Koch, Mathilde L 142Kongo, French, Eclipse Observations in ... . 280Kotterman, C. A 283, 295, 296Kribi, Magnetic Work at 278Kunitomo, Kanae 113Lake Tchad, Magnetic Work at 278

PAGE.Lakin Eclipse Observations 296Lallemand, Charles 309Lamb, H 310Land Classification and Settlement 342Land Magnetic Work and Eclipse Observa-

tions 278Land-Survey Work in Australia 287Land-Survey Work in North America 287Land-Survey Work in South America 288Lange, Isabella 216Lange, Marie 216Langley Field 303, 304Langley, Samuel P iv

Laughlin, Harry H 149, 150Publication by 30, 37

Lectures in Theories of Magnetism 295Leland, Waldo G 179, 183

Publication by 37Leonardo Studies 348Lewis, Margaret R 103, 108

Publications by 37, 38Lewis, Warren H 103, 106, 108

Publication by 38Leyer, C. E 285Liberia, Cape Palmas, Magnetic Work at . 278, 280Light by Luminous Animals, Researches on

Production of 198Lime, Binary and Ternary Systems of 155Lindsay, William iv

Literature, Report on work in 349Little, C. C v, 139

Publication by 38Littlehales, G. W 303, 309Lodge, Henry Cabot iii, iv, 3Loftfield, G. v., on Behavior of Stomata 333

on Grazing Research 341on Permanent Quadrats 338on Quadrat-Transect for Study of the

Biome 338Long, Frances, on Experimental Pollination 335

on Interrelation of Photosynthesis andRespiration 78

on Photosynthetic EflBciency 332on Rubber Plants 343Publication by 38

Longley, William H 189on Additional Observations and Experi-

ments upon Problems of AnimalColoration 201

Publication on Submarine Study of

Ecology of Reef Fishes 186Lorz, J. G 283, 301Love, A. G 148

Publication by 35Low, Seth rvLowe, Elias A vLuminosity and Parallax, Spectroscopic

Determinations of 246Lyons, H. G 309MacDougal, Daniel T v

on Character of Protoplasm Funda-mental to Growth 67

on Daily Course of Growth in TwoTypes of Fruits 69

on Dendrograph 72on Effects of Organic Acids and their

Amino-Compounds on Hydrationand Growth 62

INDEX. 375

PAGE.

MacDougal, Daniel T., on Growth of the

Arizona Ash 74

on Growth of Beach and Sycamore Trees 77

on Growth of the Chihuahua Pine 75

on Growth of the Monterey Pine 75

on Growth of an Oak Trunk 77

on Hydration of Biocolloids simulating

certain Features of Protoplasm .... 60

on Measurements of Growth in Terms of

Volume 67

on Origination of Zerophytism in Plants 99

on Solution and Fixation accompanyingSwelling and Drying of Biocolloids

and Plant Tissues 64Publication by 38


Botanical Research 57-102

MacDowell, E. C 124

Publication by 38

Mace, E. F 305

Maclrmes, D. A 325

MacNeill, Frances L 216

MacNeill, Helen M 216

MacVeagh, Wayne iv

Magnesia, Binary and Ternary Systems of.

.

155

Magnet-Photography 295, 304

Magnetic and Electric Observations madeduring Solar Eclipse of June 8, 1918 306

Magnetic Work of the Ocean 277

Magnetism in General 282

Magnetization Produced by Rotation 295

Magrini, G. P 310

Malladra, A 310

Mallory, WilUam G 368Publication by 38

Mann, Albert vReport on Investigations on Diatomaceae 322

Manning, P. D. V., Publication by 36Publication on Equilibrium Studies

upon Bucher Process 170

Marine Biology, Department of 185-210Publications of Department of 191

Mar-v-in, C. F 310Mathematical Physics, Investigations in 349-351

Matteson, David M 180, 184

Mauchly, S. J 281, 282, 283, 285, 292, 296, 300

on a Note on a Possible Explanation of

the "Electric Tide" Observed at

Jersey 316on Results of Magnetic and Electric


Eclipse of June 8, 1918 306Publications by 34, 38

Mayor, Alfred G v, 189, 190, 194

on Detection of Ocean Currents byObserving their Hydrogen-ion Con-centration 186

on Effect of Diminution of Oxygen onRate of Nerve Conduction 186

on Effects of Currents in Transporting-

Sediment over Reefs 186

on Growth-rate of Samoan Corals at

Various Depths down to 8.5

Fathoms 186

on Losses in Reef Material due to Bor-ing Algae, Solution, Holothurians,

etc 186

Mayor, Alfred G., on Rate of Nerve Con-duction in Regenerating TissueLacking Muscles 186

Publication by 38Publication on Detecting Ocean Cur-

rents by Ob erving their Hydrogen-ion Concentration 191

Publication on Growth-rate of SamoanCoral-Reefs 191


Marine Biology 185-210McClendon, J. F 189, 190, 195, 196, 199

on Effect of Anesthetics on Basal Meta-bolism 202

Publication on Anesthesia in MarineAnimals 186

McDowell, Louise S 367Mcintosh, William A 107

Publication by 38McMurrich, J. Playfair 348Mendel, Lafayette B v

on Continuation and Extension of Workon Vegetable Proteins 352-361

Publications by 38, 39Meridian Astrometry, Report of Department

of 211-216Merrill, Paul W . . . . 227, 228, 245, 256, 257, 260, 262

Publications by 37, 38Merwin, Herbert E., Publications by 36, 38, 39

Publication on Ammonium Picrate andPotassixma Trithionate : Optical

Dispersion and Anomalous Crystal

Angles 170Publication on Bucher Cyanide Process

for Fixation of Nitrogen 161

Publication on Hematite and Rutile

Formed by Action of Chlorine at

High Temperatures 169Publication on the Hydrated Ferric

Oxides 163Publications on Ternary System CaO-

MgO-Si02 159, 165Publication on Wallastonite (CaO.

SiOj) and related Solid Solutions in

Ternary System Lime-Magnesia-Silica 166

Metabolism and Nutrition 78Metabolism during Muscular Work 268Metabolism in Large Animals, Study of ... . 269Metabolism of Cold-Blooded Animals 270Metabolism of Normal Children 268Metabolism, Studies of, with Varying Envi-

ronmental Temperatures 268Metallic Spectra in High Vacua, Production

of 257Meteorology, Report of Investigations in . . 351-352Meteorological Service of Argentina 279, 288Metz, C. W 124

Publication by 38Meyer, Arthur W 110, 121

Publication by 38Mice, Heredity in 140Michelson, A. A v, 227Miehle, L 285Miles, Walter R 265, 267, 268, 269


376 INDEX.

Milea, Walter R. on Sex Expression of MenLu'ing on a Lowered Nutritional

Level 270

on Temperature of the Human Skin . . . 274

Publications by 30, 34, 38

Miller. Addie L 227

Miller, Charles H., Publication by 39

Mills, D. O IV

Mills, E.S 268

Mills, John 185

Mills. R. R 279, 286. 287

Minutes of Eighteenth Meeting of Board of

Trustees 1-3

Mitchell, S. Weir iv

Mogenson, Anne, Publication by 42

Mohr, O. L 325

Publications by 31, 35, 39

Mongrel Blood, Elimination of, by Out-

Breeding 150

Montague, Andrew i"i iv, 3

Monterey Pine, Growth of 75

Monterey Pine, Stem Analysis and Elonga-

tion of Shoots in 88

Moodie, Edith 178

Moore, Charles 176

Moore, H. F 365

Moorehead, W. K 362

Morey, George W., Publication by 39

Publication in Improved Method of

Optical Glass Manufacture 162

Morgan, T. H von Constitution of Germ-Plasm in re-

lation to Heredity 324

Publications by 30, 31, 39, 41

Morize, H 288. 290

Morley, Frank vMorley, Sylvanus G v

Report of Investigations in Archeology 317-321

Morrow, William W ni, iv, 3

Morse, H. N vMoss, S. A 351

Moulton, F. R vList of Papers by 350

on Investigations in Mathematics, Cos-

mogony, and Celestial Mechanics 349-351

Publication by 39

Mount Wilson Observatory, Report of ... . 217-264

Miiller, W. Max, Death of 16

Muncey, Elizabeth C 149

Munro, Dana C 175

National Academy of Sciences 284

Navigator Islands, Map of 188

Nichols, E. L vPublication by 39

Researches in Physics 366

Nicholson, Seth B 228, 229, 230, 235, 243

Publications by 36, 39

Nebulffi and Clusters, Photographs of 238

Nebulae and Star-Clusters, Spectroscopy of . . 249

Nonidez, J. F 325

Norman, Sybil 179

Norris, Edgar H., Publication by 39

North America, Land-Sur^'ey and Special

Expeditions in 287

North America, Magnetic Work in 279

Norwegian North Polar Expedition 279, 287

Nova Aquilse No. 3, Spectrum of 247

PAOE.Noyes, Arthur A v

Report on Researches in Chemistry . . . 325-326Nutrition and Metabolism 78Nutrition, Human, Cooperative Work on. . . 143Nutrition Laboratory, Report of 265-276Nutrition, Report on Work in 352-361Oak Trunk, Growth of 77Observatory Work at Washington 298Observing Conditions at Mount Wilson 237Officers of Institution for Year 1919 niO'Gara, P. J 333Olivier, C. P 351One-Hundred-Inch Hooker Telescope 259Optical Shop, Mount Wilson Observatory. . . . 258Organic Acids and their Amino-Compounda.

Effects on Hydration and Growth. . 62Organization, Plan, and Scope ix

Osborne, Thomas B vPublication by 39Report on Continuation and Extension

of Work on Vegetable Proteins. . .352-361Osgood, H. L 347Paleontology, Reports on 361Palitzsch, S., Publication by 39Parallaxes 211Parkinson, W. C 280, 290, 291Parmelee, James in, iv, 3Parsons, Wm. Barclay in, iv, 3, 45Paton, Stewart in, iv, 3. 45Paullin, Charles 179. 184

Publication by 39Peabody, Dorothy A 268Pearl, Raymond 135

Pease, Francis G 226, 238, 260, 263Publication by 39

Pemberton, Russell 285Pennybacker, John Y 139Pepper, George W in, rv

P6rez, Luis Marino 178Permanent Quadrats 338Perrier, G 310Peru, Observatory Work in 280Peters, W. J 282Phillips, P. Lee 176Phillips, v.. Publication by 41Philosophical Society of Washington 296Photographic Magnitudes for Selected Areas 241Photosynthesis and Respiration, Interrelation

of 78Photosynthetic Efficiency 332Photovisual Magnitudes for Selected Areas 241

Physical Laboratory, Mount Wilson Observa-tory 250

Physics, History of 348Physics, Investigations in 363-368Phytometer Method 331Pigeons, Chemistry of Brains of Ataxic 142

Pitman, Frank W 347

Plant Habits and Habitats in More AridPortions of South Australia 90

Plants, Flowering 137Polarization of Night Sky 237Pole Effect, Nature of 256

Poole, R. J., Publication by 42

Poor, C. L 303

Port Dickson, Magnetic Station at 279

INDEX. 377

PAOE.

Poanjak, Eugen, Publication by 39Publication on Bucher Cyanide Process

for Fixation of Nitrogen 161

Publication on Hydrated Ferric Oxides. 163Poultry, Heredity in 140President of Institution, Report of 6-42Pritchett, Henry S m, rv, 3, 45Protein-Production, Control of, in Egg

White by Quinine 141Protoplasm, Character of, Fundamental to

Growth 57Publications, Growth and Extent of 32Publications of Department of Terrestrial

Magnetism 302Publications of Geophysical Laboratory. . .168-174Publications of Nutrition Laboratory 270Publications, Sales and Value of 31Puerto Deseado 280Puerto Montt, Magnetic Work in 279Punta Arenas, Magnetic Work in 279Pursuit-Meter Apparatus 266, 268Pursuit Penduliun, Acqmsition of Skill in

Test with 265, 267Putnam, Herbert 176Quadrat-Transect for Study of the Biome. . 338Radial Velocities 245Rathbun, Mary J 346

Publication by 31Raymond, Harry 211, 215

Publication by 34Real Estate and Equipment, Schedxile of ... . 63Receipts and Disbursements of Institution

from Organization to Date 46Reichert, E. T., Publication by 30Reina, Vincenzo 310Reports, Aids, and Guides, Historical Re-

search 176, 183Reproduction, Physiology of 141Research Council, International 309Researches of Year 25Respiration Chamber for Large Animals .... 266Retirement and Insurance, Plans for 24Ricc6, A 310Richards, H. M., Publication by 38Richards, Theodore W v

Publication by 39Report on Researches in Chemistry . . 326-328

Richmond, Myrtle L 227, 241, 243Publication by 40

Riddle, Oscar 142Publication by 30

Riefler Clocks 214Ritchey, George W 226, 227Ritchie, Mary 227, 244Ritzman, E. G 226, 269Roberts, Howard S., Publication by 37, 39, 42

Publication on Cooling of Optical GlassMelts 167

Publication on Electrical Apparatus for

Use in Electrometric Titration. . . . 166

Publication on Electrometric Titrations,

with Special Reference to Determi-nation of Ferrous and Ferric Iron ... 165

Publication on Thermocouple Installa-

tion in Annealing Kilns for OpticalGlass 168

Roberts, Howard S., Publication on Vola-tilization of Iron from OpticalGlass Pots by Chlorine at HighTemperatures 164

Rodfis, Luis 228Publication by 40

Roosevelt, Theodore, Death of 15Root, Elihu Ill, IV, 3, 46Roots of Species with Dissimilar Habitats,

Reactions to different amounts of

Carbon Dioxid in Soil 92Rose, J. N., Publication by 30Rosemberg. F. G 280, 288, 292Rotation Produced by Magnetization, In-

vestigation of 276Roth, Paul, on Human Vitality and Effi-

ciency under Prolonged Restricted

Diet 275Publication by 30

Roy, Arthur J 213, 215Rubber Plants 343Ruby, C. E 325Ruling Machine 259Russell, H. N 303Russell, W. J 304, 305, 306Ryerson, Martin A iv

Saeland, S 306Safir, S. R 326Salt Requirements of Plants, some Factors in 82Sameshima, J 326, 327

Publication by 39, 40Samoa, Geology of 192

Map of 188Sanford, Roscoe F 213, 227, 239, 245, 249, 263

Publications by 40, 41San Luis 213, 214Santiago, Magnetic Work in 279Saps, Vegetable, Osmotic Concentration of . . 143Sarton, George v

Publication by 40Report on History of Science 347

Sawyer, H. E 279, 286Schaeffer, Asa A 190

on Specific Characters of MarineAinoebas at Tortugas 204

Publication on Marine Amoebas fromTortugas 186

Schafer, Joseph 176

Schultz, A. H 119Publication by 40

Schumb, W. C 328Publication by 39

Schuster, Arthur 296, 310Science, History of 348Scudder, Mary F 147

Publication by 30Scares, Frederick H 218, 226, 233

Publications by 40Senior, H. D., Publication by 40Sex Expression of Men Living on a Lowered

Nutritional Level 270Sex in Mucors 137Sex in Pigeons 132Sex Intergrades in Daphnia 132

Sex-Ratio in Man 135

Sex, Significance and Control of 132

378 INDEX.

PAGE.Shapley, Harlow, 218, 224, 226, 241, 242, 243, 262, 263

Publications by 40Shapley, Martha B 228, 243

Publication by 40Shaw, William Napier 284, 289, 310Sheep, Heredity in 140Shepherd, E. S., Publication by 40

Publication on Composition of Gasesof Kilauea 171

Sherman. H. C vPublications by 40, 41

Report on Investigations in Chemistry 328-330Shreve, Edith B., Publication by 41

on Seasonal Changes in Water Relations

of Desert Plants 101

on Transpiration and Absorption byRoots of Fleshy Euphorbias 100

Shreve, Forrest, on Soil Temperature Sur-

vey of United States and Canada. . 88on Stem Analysis and Elongation of

Shoots in Monterey Pine 88on Vegetation of a Desert Valley 87Publication by 41

Shumway, Bertha M 227Siberian Coast, Magnetic Observations

along 279Silica, Binary and Ternary Systems of 155Sine Galvanometer, Improvement in Design 294Sinnott, E. W 139Skin Temperature, Survey of 269Smith, Albert 281, 283, 292, 301Smith, Edgar F vSmith, H. Monmouth 268


Publication by 30Smith, M. B 283Smith, Sinclair 227Smith, Theobald in, iv, 3Smyth, C. P 328Sobral, Brazil, Eclipse Observations in . 279, 280, 312Soil Aeration Experiments with Helium 85Soil Aeration, Influence upon Growth of

Shoots 71

Soil Temperature Survey of United States

and Canada 88Solar Photography 228Solar Research 228Solar Rotation 234Solar Wave-Lengths with Interferometer... 236Solution and Fixation accompanying Swell-

ing and Drying of BiocoUoids andPlant Tissues 64

Somatic Selection, Alteration of Quality of aPopulation by 130

Sosman, Robert B., Report as Acting Direc-tor of Geophysical Laboratory. . . . 153-174

South America, Land-Survey and Special

Expeditions in 288South America, Magnetic Work in 279Southern Liberia, Eclipse Observations in . . 280Spectrograms of Venus, Wave-Lengths in . .

.

235Spectroscopic Determinations of Luminosity

and Parallax 246Spectroscopy of Nebulae and Star Clusters .

.

249Speidel, Carl Caskey, Publication by 31

PAOB.Spoehr, H. A., Publications by 31,38,41

on Carbohydrate Supply and Respira-tion 80

on Effect of Organic Acids and their

Amino-Compounds on Hydrationand Growth 62

on Interrelation of Photosynthesis andRespiration 78

on Origination of Xerophytism in Plants 99on Solution and Fixation accompanying

Swelling and Drying of BiocoUoidsand Plant Tissues 64

Spooner, John C iv

Death of 16Standardizing and Instrument Work, De-

partment of Terrestrial Magnetism. 283Standardizing Magnetic Observatory at

Washington 281Standards, Bureau of 298Star-Clusters, Investigation of 242Stark, A. B 325Stark Effect, Investigations of 257Stars and Nebulse, Investigation of 237Stars, Relation of Color to their Intrinsic

Brightness 241State, Department of 191

State Institutions, Statistical Study of 149Steiner, W. F 283, 301Stellar Motions, Investigations of 211Stellar Motions, Vertex of 212Stellar Photometry 241Stellar Spectroscopy 245Sterilization Laws 149Sterling, A 279, 280, 288, 290, 292, 312Stevens, B. F 178Stewart, Edith M 176Stickney, Mrs. S. C 270St. John, Charles E 218

226, 227, 231, 234, 235, 236, 254Stock, Leo F 181, 184

Publication by 41Stomata, Behavior of 333

Publication by 41Streeter, George L v


Embryology 103-122Publication by 41

Strom, C 285Stromberg, Gustaf 227, 245, 260

Publication by 33Strong, L. C 140Sturges, Mary M 147Sturtevant, A. H., Publications by 30, 39, 41

Report on Constitution of HereditaryMaterials of Drosophila melano-gaster 324-325

Sun, Photographs of, with Ultra-Violet

Light 231Sun's Magnetic Axis, Inclination of 233Sun-Spot Activity 229Sun-Spot Polarities 229Sun-Spots, Inclination of Lines of Force in . . 230Sun-Spots, Nature of 231Surrey, N. M. Miller 176, 179, 184Swann, W. F. G 305Taft. William H vr

Takamine, Toshio 228, 256, 257, 258Publication by 41

INDEX. 379

PAGE.

Talbot, Fritz B 266

Tanakadate, A 284, 310

Tatlock, John S. P vReport on Preparing a Concordance to

Chaucer 349

Temperature of the Human Skin 274Terhune, Warren Jay 187, 191

Terrestrial Electricity 282, 296Terrestrial Magnetism.

—

Abstracts of Publications and Investi-

gations 302Constants and Standardizations at

Washington 293Land-Survey Work 286Observatory Work 291Ocean-Survey Work 284Report of Department of 277-316Special Expeditions 289-290Standardizing and Instrument Work. . . 283

Thallium Amalgams, Concentrated, Study of 328Thomas, A. W., Publication by 40Thomson, A 280, 283, 285, 290, 296, 312Tower, W. L., Publication by 30Transpiration and Absorption by Roots of

Fleshy Euphorbias 100Transplant Quadrats and Areas 339Trustees of Institution, Present and Former. ivTucker, R. H 213Unger, J. S 366Vaigach, Magnetic Station at 279Valparaiso, Magnetic Work in 279Vance, Harry W., Publication by 41Vance, W. H 113Van Deman, Esther B vVan der Stricht, O 115

Publication by 41van Laer, A. J. F 183van Maanen, Adriaan 218, 227, 233, 239

Publications by 40, 41Variable Stars 243Variation and Mutation in Epilobium 335Variations, Experimental Production of 141Varnum, William B 213, 216Vassouras Observatory, Brazil 279Vaughan, T. Wayland 198

on Study of Stratigraphic Geology andFossil Corals and Associated Organ-isms in Several of Smaller WestIndian Islands 345-346

Publications by 31, 41, 42Veblen, Oswald 350, 351Vertex of Stellar Motions 212Volcano Studies 153Walcott, Charles D in, iv, 3, 45Walcott, Henry P in, ivWalker, F., Publication by 41Wallis, W. F 280, 286, 290, 291

Publication by 42Ward, William Hayes, Publication by 30Ware, Louise W 227

Publication by 41Washington, Henry S 310Washington, Louisa F 175Washington, Observatory Work at 298Watherhoo Observatory 279, 280, 312Watson, E. M., Publication by 42Wave-Length, Secondary Standards of 254

PAGE.Wave-Lengths of Atmospheric Absorption

Lines 235Wave-Lengths in Mixed Arcs, Pressure

Effect 255Weather Bureau, U. S 191, 215, 283Weaver, John E., on Ecology of Root Systems 333

on Phytometer Method 331on Transplant Quadrats and Areas 339Publications by 31, 42

Webber, Mable L 176Weed, Lewis H 117Wdnberg, Boris 279, 287Weinstein, A 124Welch, William H in, rv, 3Wells, Roger C 190

on Determinations of Carbon Dioxid inSea-Water at Tortugas 195

Publication on Carbon-Dioxid Contentof Tortugas Sea-Water 186

West Indian Paleontologic Reports 346Western Australia Observatory, Work in . . . 280Wheeler, Theodora 122White, Andrew D rv

Death of 14White, Edward D ivWhite, Henry in, iv, 45White, Walter P., Publication by 42

Publication on Furnace TemperatiueRegulator 163

Publication on Potentiometers for

Thermoelement Work 168

'

Publication on Silicate Specific Heats. . . 159Publication on Specific Heat Determi-

nation at Higher Temperatures. . . 160Whitman, Charles Otis, Publication by 30Wick, Frances G 367, 368

Publication by 39Wickersham, George W in, rv, 3Wieland, George R v

Publication by 42Researches in Paleontology 362

Wilber, D. T 366, 368Williams, H. B 313Williamson, Erskine D., Publications by . . . . 33, 42

Publication on Determination of Com-pressibility of Solids at HighPressures 160

Publication on Relation between Bire-

fringence and Stress in VariousTypes of Optical Glass 174

Publication on Some Physical Constantsof Mustard "Gas" 161

Publication on Strains due to Tempera-ture Gradients, with Special Refer-

ence to Optical Glass 163Publication on Temperature Distribu-

tion in Solids during Heating or

Cooling 164Publication on Thermocouple Installa-

tion in Annealing Kilns for OpticalGlass 168

Willis, Bailey 288Willson, R. W 303Wilson, Ralph E 216Winters, J. C, Publication by 41Wise, D. M 279, 280, 283, 288, 289, 290, 295Wolfe, Coral 227, 233

380 INDEX.

PAOE.Woodring, W. P 346Woodward, Robert 8 iii, rv, 45

Report as President of the Institution .

.

6-42Wriedt, Chr., Publication by 31Wright, Carroll D iv

Wright, Fred Eugene, Publication by 42Publication on Sights and Fire-Control

Apparatus 173Publication on War-Time Development

of Optical Industry 173Wrighton, W. J 365Wyckoff, Ralph W. G., Publication by 42

Publication on Nature of Forces betweenAtoms in Solids 174

PAGEWynne, H. M. N., Publication by 38Xerophytism in Plants, Origination of 99Young, Arthur, & Co., Auditors 47Zeeman Effect for Electric-Furnace Spectra

.

263Zeeman Triplets in Sun-Spot Spectra, Pe-

culiarities of Central Lines of 232Zies, E. G., Publication by 33

Publication on Condition of Arsenic in

Glass and its Role in Glass-Making 159Publication on Methods of Glass

Analysis 168Zimmer, Meade 213

Carnegie Institution

OF

Washington

YEAR BOOK No. 18

1919

lilH lAau

Year book - Carnegie Institution of Washington

Documents

Transcript of Year book - Carnegie Institution of Washington