_ _ _ WTP- 146

Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategyfor Sustainable Agricultural Development

The Case of Mozambique L

Alemneh Dejene and Jos' Olivares I L*

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WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NUMBER 146

Integrating Environmental Issues into a Strategyfor Sustainable Agricultural Development

The Case of Mozambique

Alemneh Dejene and Jose Olivares

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright 0 1991The Intemnational Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing August 1991

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the developmentcommunity with the least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared inaccordance with the procedures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts noresponsibility for errors.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s)and should not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or tomembers of its Board of Executive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does notguarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoeverfor any consequence of their use. Any maps that accompany the text have been prepared solely for theconvenience of readers; the designations and presentation of material in them do not imply the expressionof any opinion whatsoever on the part of the World Bank, its affiliates, or its Board or member countriesconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city, or area or of the authorities thereof orconcerning the delimitation of its boundaries or its national affiliation.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it shouldbe sent to Director, Publications Department, at the address shown in the copyright notice above. TheWorld Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, whenthe reproduction is for noncommercial purposes, without asking a fee. Permission to photocopy portionsfor classroom use is not required, though notification of such use having been made will be appreciated.

The complete bacldist of publications from the World Bank is shown in the annual Index of Publications,which contains an alphabetical title list (with full ordering information) and indexes of subjects, authors,and countries and regions. The latest edition is available free of charge from the Publications Sales Unit,Department F, The World Bank, 1818 H Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A., or fromPublications, The World Bank, 66, avenue d'Iena, 75116 Paris, France.

ISSN: 0253-7494

When this paper was written, Alemneh Dejene was a consultant to the Agriculture Operations Divisionof the World Bank's Southern Africa Department. Jose Olivares is principal agricultural economist in thesame division.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Dejene, Alemneh.Integrating environmental issues into a strategy for sustainable

agricultural development: the case of Mozambique / Alemneh Dejeneand Jos6 Olivares.

p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper, ISSN 0253-7494; no.146)

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-8213-1850-01. Agriculture-Economic aspects-Mozambique. 2. Agriculture-

-Environmental aspects-Mozambique. 3. Environmental policy--Mozambique. I. Olivares, Jose, 1939- . II. Title.m. Series.HD2129.Z8D45 1991363.7'056'09679-dc2O 91-25127

CIP

ContentsAbbreviations ................................................. ivSummary and Conclusions . ......................................... v

I. Background ............................................... 1

II. Major Agricultural and Natural ResourceFeatures of Mozambique . ..................................... 4

A. Agricultural Production . ..................................... 4B. Land Tenure ............................................ 5C. Inland Waters ............................................ 6D. Coastal Waters ............................................ 7E. Mangrove Ecosystems . ....................................... 7F. Forest Resources .......................................... 8E. Wildlife ............................................ 9

III. The Effects of the Civil War on the Environment .11

A. The Displaced People and Emergency Assistance .11B. The Effects of the Displaced Population on Land Resources .12C. The Effects of the Civil War on Inland and

Coastal Water Resources .14D. The Effects of the Civil War on Forest and Wildlife Resources .14

IV. Major Environmental Policy Issues in Sustainable Agricultural Development .... 16

A. Land Tenure .16B. "Green Zone" Development Policy .18C. Construction of Large Dams for Hydropower .19

Human Displacement .20Water-borne Diseases .20Downstream Effects .20Wildlife .21Fisheries .21Salt Intrusion .21

D. Large-Scale Irrigation Schemes .. 21Salinization .22Siltation and Sedimentation .................................. 23Water-borne Diseases . ..................................... 23Cropping Pattern and Intensity ............................... 23

E. Manpower and Institutional Capacity for Water Management ............... 23F. Water Pricing Policy . ....................................... 24G. Depletion of Forest Resources .............. .................. 24H. Stumpage Rate Policy .................. ..................... 25I. Legislation, Manpower, and Institutional Issues

in Forest Protection and Development ........................... 26J. Afforestation for Fuelwood and Environmental Protection ............... 27

V. Notes ................................................ 28Maps

iii

Abbreviations

CENE National Executive Emergency CommissionDPCCN Department for the Combat and Prevention of Natural DisasterDINAGECA National Directorate for Geography and CadastreDNDR National Directorate for Rural DevelopmentDNFFB National Forest and Wildlife DirectorateDNA National Water DirectorateFAHU Field Agricultural Hydraulics UnitsINIA National Agriculture Research InstituteINPF National Institute of Physical PlanningPDP Priority District ProgramSEHA Secretary of State for Agricultural HydraulicsSEA State Secretariat of CottonSADCC Southern Africa Development Coordination ConferenceUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUNFAO United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization

Currencrl

Mozambique Meticais= MTU.S. $ 1 = 1380 Meticais

June 1991

iv

Summary and Conclusions

The Government of Mozambique, in conjunction with the World Bankand other donor agencies, is preparing a strategy for agricultural development inMozambique. For this strategy to promote sustainable development, it must take intoconsideration the environmental implications of the proposed courses of action. The strategyshould identify vital environmental risks associated with the development of natural resourcesand suggest alternative ways to reduce these risks and to ensure sustainability. The purposeof this paper is to identify the most important factors affecting the environment inMozambique as they relate to agricultural and rural development. The paper also discussesdevelopments in other economic and social spheres which have an impact on the developmentof the agricultural sector as well as the potential risks they may pose to the environment. Thispaper is based on two missions to Mozambique and secondary sources.

The civil war and the ensuing displacement of two million people iscurrently the key environmental problem in Mozambique. About 30% of the population inthe 40 priority districts included in the Government's agricultural development strategyconsists of displaced people. Moreover, the provinces with high agricultural potential such asNampula and Zambezia have the largest number of displaced people. The displacedpopulation is concentrated near the major towns of the coastal zones and safe rural areas,creating severe shortages of land, increasing the demand for woodfuel and fishery resources,and threatening the mangroves.

One of the most significant national environmental threats is thedisruption of the mangrove ecosystem and its associated impact on shrimp and prawnproduction. Mangrove vegetation is an essential habitat for the reproduction of shrimp andprawns, which are significant contributors to the country's economy. There are two principalthreats to the mangrove ecosystem. First, mangrove trees are being cut down for fuelwood,boat building and construction near the coastal towns where the displaced have concentratedand where there is a serious shortage of fuelwood.

The second threat to mangroves arises from changes in salinity levelsdue to the construction of large dams for hydropower and irrigation purposes. The ZambeziRiver system, the largest river in Mozambique, discharges through the Sofala Bay, which iswell-endowed with shrimp. With the construction of the Cahora Bassa Dam, there is a higherincidence of salt water intrusion to the areas where mangroves are found and fewer incomingnutrients entering the Zambezi River. The clearing of the mangroves for wood combinedwith higher salinity and lower nutrient levels in the mangrove areas has had an adverse impacton the shrimp population.

Mangroves are renewable natural resources with a threshold; if theyare managed properly, they can be used on a sustainable basis. Given the importance ofmangroves to Mozambique's economy, it would seem appropriate to make a concerted effortto create awareness of mangrove conservation and utilization and to develop a national planfor mangrove conservation and development. Such a plan should identify all nationalresources, assess people's needs, define areas for sustainable uses and preservation, and assessthe significance of mangroves in relation to water flow, genetic diversity, sedimentary

v

stability, marine species reproduction and migration, and nursery areas for both aquatic andterrestrial life.

Woodfuel is severely lacking around the major cities and safer ruralareas where the displaced population is concentrated. This is a major cause of the depletionof the forest resources. Woodfuel projects initiated around Maputo, Beira, and Nampulashould be strengthened. The woodfuel demand in rural areas could best be met by initiatingagroforestry projects that involve the local people. The low stumpage fees for woodfuel andhigh quality timber encourages deforestation. Hence, reasonable stumpage fees should be setfor the proper utilization and management of forest resources.

Intensive cultivation in the areas where the displaced people aresettled, due to a shortage of cultivable land, is resulting in land degradation. This probletncan be rectified only when the civil war comes to an end, as population density is low inmost of the rural areas. Similarly, the areas rich in wildlife resources have becomeinaccessible because of the civil war. There has been widespread destruction of the wildlifepopulation by the rebels, both for food and revenue generation. In particular, elephant tusks,rhino horns, and giraffe tails are being used as a source of revenue to finance rebel activities.Thus, bringing an end to the civil war is the most important step in reducing the majorenvironmental risks posed in the development of agricultural land, forest, fisheries, andwildlife resources in Mozambique. Peace, indeed, is a fundamental requisite for theattainment of sustainable agricultural development in Mozambique.

The emphasis on the construction of large dams for hydropower andirrigation needs to be reassessed. Most of the large-scale irrigation schemes are afflicted withsoil salinization, sedimentation, and water-borne diseases. There is also a serious shortage ofwater management skills to deal with these problems. Small-scale irrigation schemes might bea better alternative to simultaneously reduce environmental risks and contribute to thedevelopment of the irrigation potential of the country.

vi

I. Background

Situated on the east coast of Southern Africa, Mozambique has an area of799,388 square kilometers. It has a coastal line of 2500 kilometers adjoining the Indian Ocean,one of the longest coastal lines in East Africa. With a per capita income of US$ 100,Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world.' Yet, Mozambique is endowed withabundant land, water, forest and wildlife resources that hold a promising prospect fordevelopment.

Mozambique has four distinct topographic features: (i) the coastal area(ess than 200 meters above sea level) occupies 42% of the country's land. About 90% of theland south of the Save river (which includes the Inhambane, Maputo and Gaza provinces) liesbelow 200 meters elevation. Over half of this area is susceptible to flooding. (ii) The middleplateau (ranging between 200 and 500 meters above sea level) which is mostly in the northernpart of the country and extends westward in the Zambezi valley, covers about 29% of the area.(iii) The upland plateau (ranging from 500 meters to 1000 meters elevation), is mostly in thenorthern region and has frequent occurrence of inselbergs. It occupies 25% of the land area. (iv)The highland and mountain areas (over 1000 meters elevation), are mostly situated on the Malawiand Zimbabwe border (particularly in the provinces of Niassa, Tete, and Manica), and cover 4%of the land area.2 (See Map 1) Over half of the population lives in the coastal belt area. As aresult of the increasing number of people who are fleeing the countryside, population density nearthe coastal areas has increased substantially in the past years.

The weather is greatly influenced by the annual movement of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone and the trade winds of the Indian Ocean. Annual precipitation isshown in Map 2. Climatically, the country may be divided into two main regions. North of theSave river there is a rainy season from November - December to March - April. Average rainfallfor most of the area ranges from 1,000 mm to 1,400 mm, reaching over 2,000 mm in themountainous parts of Zambezia Province, but with low rainfall in the Western part of ZambeziaValley. South of the Save River, average rainfall over most of the area is 600 mm to 800 mm,falling to 400 mm in the west. Distribution of rainfall within the season is irregular, and therecan be long dry periods, particularly in the critical growing period. The provinces and the majorrivers in Mozambique are shown in Map 3.

In general, soil distribution is closely related to the physiographiccharacteristics. The soils in the higher areas are mostly clay and clay loams and have goodfertility. The soils in the low-lying costal plain in the south, except for the alluvial deposits alongthe rivers, are largely sandy and of low fertility with low water holding capacity, making themvulnerable to drought. The National Agricultural Research Institute (INIA) is currently preparinga National Soil Map at the district level.3

Mozambique is divided into five agro-ecological regions as shown in Map4. (i) Agro-ecological Region 1 - Specialized and Diversified includes areas with clear agriculturalspecialization which, at the same time, have favorable agricultural conditions for diversification.This region has high altitudes and is exposed to erosion. This region is suitable for the cultivationof tea, coffee, fruit, and forest products. (ii) Agro-ecological Region 2 - Intensive includes areaswith shortage of water in the dry season (June /July and October/November) and excess waterduring the rainy season (November/December and March/April). This region is suitable forvarious crops with the appropriate agricultural practices. This region includes the lower parts ofthe Zambezi, Pungue, and Buzi rivers, which have fertile alluvial soils and are suitable for

intensive irrigated farming. (iii) Agro-ecological Region 3 - Semi-intensive includes areas south ofthe Save River and is characterized by irregular rainfall and high temperature. The region issuited for integrated farming and animal husbandry. (iv) Agro-ecological Region 4. Semi -extensive has considerable risk of drought due to shortage of rainfall and requires irrigation orwater harvesting techniques for agriculture. (V) Agro-ecological Region 5 - Extensive is onlysuitable for irrigated agriculture along the major rivers and their tributaries.4

Mozambique has a population of 16 million and an annual growth rateestimated at 2.7%.5 A large portion of the population (40%) is below the age of 15. Thedemographic trend for Mozambique, characterized by high population growth rates anddependency rates, is similar to the situation faced by most African countries. Mozambique,however, has ample land resources. Forty-five percent of the total land area (36.1 millionhectares) is estimated to be cultivable with rather low climatic risks. Since there are 2.5 millionfarmers in the smallholder sector, this would mean that up to 14 hectares of land are available perfamily. The settlement pattern of the population, however, is not well-matched with areas wherethere is a large reserve of fertile land, largely due to the security problem.

The Mozambique Government faces armed opposition from theMozambique National Resistance (RENAMO). The armed conflict has resulted in a massiveexodus from rural to urban and coastal areas. Most displaced people have abandoned farming andhave moved closer to the major towns and relatively safer areas (Table 1). The population of thecapital city, Maputo, has been increasing by about 5% per annum, and now has over 1 millioninhabitants. The civil war has also brought an uneven population distribution in many of theprovinces. The Zambezia and Nampula Provinces are the most densely populated provinces, with40% of the Mozambique population. These provinces have rich agricultural land, but as a largesegment of the rural population is affected by the civil war, it is difficult to fully exploit it.

Table 1Distribution of Affected and Displaced People by Province as of 1990

Province Total Number of Number ofPopulation Affected People Displaced People

Zambezia 3,241,800 253,523 855,000Nampula 3,117,400 444,040 149,000Maputo 1,616,400 289,650 84,000Sofala 1,381,600 261,893 179,000Gaza 1,294,600 307,400 110,000Inhambane 1,293,700 441,144 103,000Cabo Delgado 1,219,800 177,224 60,000Tete 1,076,900 107,500 139,000Manica 831,200 87,160 127,000Niassa 666,600 37,209 133,000

Total 15,730,000 2,406,743 1,939,000

(Source: National Emergency Executive Commission, 1990)6

The economic polices pursued by the Government under the ten-yeardevelopment plan, 1980-1990, resulted in a stagnating economic performance, particularly in the

2

agricultural sector. Since 1981, there has been a sharp decline in agricultural production which islargely attributed to the disruption of peasant production by the civil war, drought, andGovernment policies. The ten-year plan emphasized large-scale agricultural projects run by thestate for which Mozambique did not have the required capital or trained manpower. Thesepolicies were abandoned in 1987 with the Government's Economic Rehabilitation Program. ThisProgram gives priority to improving agricultural productivity by restructuring unprofitable statefarms in order to make them commercially viable; by providing improved incentives to peasantfarmers through increased prices for crops, improved support services, and increased flow ofconsumer goods; by shifting the balance of trade in favor of the rural sector; and by supportingindustries which produce consumer goods for rural people. The program also attempts to reducepoverty by creating employment opportunities for the poor, rehabilitating social services, andbuilding local level institutional capacity.

The Government is attempting to reactivate the rural areas through thePriority District Program (PDP), which would rehabilitate rural infrastructure and productivestructure in 40 districts that are considered to have high potential for rapid agriculturaldevelopment and better infrastructure, and to be relatively safe. Map 5 shows the location of the40 priority districts. The World Bank is fully supportive of the PDP and is preparing projects tosupport agricultural development projects in many of these priority districts.

3

11. Major Agricultural and Natural Resource Features of Mozambique

A. Agricultural Production

About 85% of the people live in rural areas and agriculture is thedominant sector in Mozambique's economy. The agricultural sector contributes about 40 to 50%of the GDP, employs over 80% of the labor force, and generates around 80% of the country'sexport earnings.7 Agricultural production declined significantly throughout the 1980s due to acombination of factors such as inappropriate policies, the civil war, and drought. Between 1980and 1986, total gross output valued at official producer prices fell by about one third.! Marketedvolume of maize and rice, the two most important food crops, which had fluctuated between150,000 and 230,000 tons per year during 1970 to 1975, ranged between 40,000 to 75,000 tonsper year from 1985 to 1988.9

Mozambique, by and large, has good soils and climate for growingvarious food and cash crops. Of the country's 79.9 million hectares of land, 36.1 millionhectares are considered to be potentially cultivable. Yet, only 2 to 3 million hectares areestimated to be presently cultivated.'0 Thus, Mozambique is far from utilizing its potential forcrop production under rainfed agriculture. The potential for irrigation is estimated at 1.3 millionhectares, while about 90,000 hectares of land are currently under irrigation. About 70% of thecultivated land is used for growing food crops such as maize, sorghum, millet, soybean, cassava,and groundnut; the remaining 30% of the land is used for growing export crops such as sugar,cotton, cashews, and sisal.'"

There is very little application of inputs in the family sector, and the useof chemical fertilizer is almost non-existent. Fertilizer use is limited to commercial andentrepreneurial farmers. The family sector uses traditional hoe cultivation. There is a shortage ofagricultural hand tools, which is an impediment to increased production and improved landcultivation. The major food and export crops are those listed in Table 2.

Table 2

Amount of Land Suited for Rainfed Production of Cropsin Mozambique Under Lower Level of Inputs in Square Kilometer

Crop Very Suitable Moderately Marginally NotSuitable Suitable Suitable Suitable

Maize 19,422 20,760 115,816 59,904 557,640

Sorghum 19,419 17,561 114,949 85,474 536,139

Millet 16,035 39,788 75,306 117,669 524,744

Wheat 0 112 163 1,732 771,535

Soybean 10,347 31,281 52,181 101,966 577,767

Groundnut 18,541 22,440 121,623 85,139 525,889

Cotton 0 6,774 3,192 17,725 717,851

Cassava 0 4,830 15,222 27,378 726,112

(Source: FAO, 1982)12

4

Agricultural production is carried out by three major types of producers,namely family farms, commercial farms (state and private), and cooperative farms. There areabout 2.5 million family farms operating an average of 1 to 1.5 hectares, with an average of 5persons per family. Family farms use 90% of the cultivated area and provide a livelihood for80% of the population."3 Yields on family farms are low, as they use traditional farmingmethods with little improved agricultural inputs. With good weather conditions, however, familyfarms can produce enough food to meet household needs and contribute about 50% of themarketed output. Most of these farmers practice shifting cultivation, with fallow intervals ofroughly seven years.

The other producers (state, private, and cooperative farms) comprise lessthan 200,000 hectares of cultivated land. The area cultivated by the state farm sector decreasedfrom 119,000 hectares in 1983 to 70,000 hectares in 1987 while that of private farms hasincreased from 41,000 hectares in 1983 to 55,000 hectares in 1987. The area cultivated by thecooperative farm sector has declined from 13,000 hectares in 1984 to 5,000 hectares in 1986, andproduces less than 1% of the marketed output.'4

Subsidized by the Government and unable to meet its production targets,the state farm sector has incurred heavy debts from the Bank of Mozambique. As a result, theGovernment passed a divestiture law which shifts the management of land from the state toprivate or family enterprises."5 Under divestiture, the size of the state farm sector is to bereduced and incentives are to be given for good performance while ownership of land would stillbelong to the state.

Livestock consists of cattle and goats. Mozambique is well endowed with"miambo" woodlands suitable for livestock raising. The areas best suited for pasture and livestockdevelopment, however, are infested by tse-tse fly (See Map 6). Thus, 75% of the country's cattleare concentrated in the southern region (Gaza, Inhambane, and Maputo provinces) and in thenorthwest region in Tete Province. At present, there is little effort to deal with the tse-tse flyinfestation, a problem which needs serious attention.

B. Land Tenure

The family sector has customary land tenure rights while the commercial(private and state farm) and cooperative sector have leasehold tenure rights. The commercial andcooperative sector are recent phenomena and have taken some of the good land from the familysector. The 1979 Land Law states that all land is the property of the state, and that individualsand groups have the right to use it for up to 50 years with a lease, except for family farms whichare not required to have a lease or pay tax as long as the land is occupied within the regulations.The regulations state that a family can have a quarter of a hectare of irrigated land and half ahectare in rainfed agriculture. A family can have up to 10 hectares of land if it practices shiftingcultivation. Local authorities have the right to adjust the amount of land given to a family,depending on prevailing local conditions. The Land Law prohibits the transfer of land throughsale, rental or mortgaging, while it allows inheritance of land with title.

The Constitution passed in November 1990 did not change the Land Law.Yet changes are occurring towards privatization of land. Under the new agricultural policy, landbelonging to the state and cooperatives is being distributed to individual

5

producers and private companies. Smallholders occupying and working certain areas are beingprovided with title to land. At the same time, titles are allegedly being given to people and firmswhich are not working the land, and some are getting land from the smallholder sector."'

Most of the land in Mozambique is under customary law. Nearly all ofthe rural population owns their land through customary law. The National Cadastral Service(DINAGECA) does not provide titles to land acquired through customary law. The Land Lawshould recognize the right of vast numbers of smallholders to the land they cultivate otherwise itwill inevitably lead to encroachment by those with economic and political influence. It isappropriate for the land law to recognize customary ownership and for DINAGECA to demarcatethose areas and provide title to the smallholder sector. The importance of protecting the interestof family sector farmers operating under customary law by issuing them titles has been advocatedby some officials in the Ministry of Agriculture.17

In the cotton growing areas of Nampula and Cabo Delgado provinces, theGovernment has granted joint venture companies (JVCs) the right to grow and process cotton, andthe right to buy all cotton produced by the family sector. The JVCs also have the responsibilityto provide extension service, inputs, and technical assistance to the family sector farmers growingcotton. There is a legitimate concern, particularly among non-governmental organizations, thatthe powerful position the JVCs have vis-a-vis the family sector may result in further infringementof land owned by the family sector. Hence, the Government should make adequate provision inlease contracts to prevent such infringement.

C. Inland Waters

Mozambique has 13,000 km2 of inland waters, which include CahoraBassa Reservoir, part of Lake Malawi, and several minor (mainly coastal) lakes. It has ten majorrivers that cross the country eastward, entering into the Indian Ocean, namely, the Zambezi,Rovuma, Messalo, Lurio, Licungo, Pungoe, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, and Incomati. Most ofMozambique's surface water resources come from the Zambezi River, which is a majorinternational river passing through Angola, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Malawi.Development schemes involving the Zambezi River would have a significant impact on theavailability of surface water resources in Mozambique and on the amount of fresh water flowingto the coastal areas and the Indian Ocean.

Most of the major rivers, particularly those emanating from the highlandareas in Mozambique and neighboring countries, cause considerable flooding during the rainyseason and diminish in size in the dry season. There is little downward slope as these riverscome closer to the coastal zone and enter the Indian Ocean. Thus, salt water intrusion in the dryseason and the ensuing risk of salinization, particularly during high tides, is substantial. Saltwater intrusion and salinity is observed in the coastal areas of Pemba District (Cabo DelgadoProvince), Angoche District (Nampula Province), Pebane District (Zambezia Province), Buzi andDondo Districts (Sofala Province), Morrumbene District (Inhambane Province), Xai-Xai District(Gaza Province), and Manhica and Marracuene Districts (Maputo Province).

6

D. Coastal Waters

With 2,500 km bordering the Indian Ocean, Mozambique has one of thelongest coastal lines in Africa. It has a continental shelf area of 120,000 square km."8 Overhalf of the population live in the coastal belt area, with many relying on inland and offshorefishery resources for food and income. The sustainable catch is estimated at 500,000 tons of fishand 14,000 tons of prawns annually."0

Fisheries play an important role in Mozambique's economy. Coastal anddeep sea fishing have become the backbone of the economy, with shrimp alone contributing to42% of foreign exchange earnings.20 There are 60,000 artisan fishermen who use canoes andsailboats. These small-scale fishermen supply 65% of the total fishery production and most of theanimal protein for the country.21 Mozambique does not have adequate national vessels toexploit its coastal and deep sea fisheries for export; it relies heavily on joint ventures with theSoviet Union, Japan, and South Africa. Estuaries are among the most productive ecosystems forfisheries, shellfish, and shrimp exploitation. Estuaries, however, are increasingly threatened bysalinity intrusion as a result of dam construction, mangrove destruction, and urban and industrialpollution.'

Tlhe most important ecosystem on the coast is the mangrove, estimated at454,000 hectares and occupying about 15% of the coastline.? Other important coastalecosystems are coral reefs, covering about 30% of the coast, and coastal dunes, which helpprotect against storms and tidal surges.2? Coral reefs have a great deal of biological diversityand generate substantial tourism interest. It is important to have vegetative cover of some sortsince otherwise dunes would be carried inland by wind, thus threatening agricultural land.

E. Mangrove Ecosystems

The mangrove ecosystem helps to reduce storm surges and coastal andbeach erosion. Large mangrove areas are found on the estuaries of the Zambezi, Save, Limpopo,Messalo, Pungue, and Maputo Rivers. In these areas, the mangroves help reduce floods anderosion on the river banks. Mangroves play a vital role in the reproduction of shrimp andprawns, which are the country's largest source of foreign export earnings. Mangroves areconcentrated in the provinces of Cabo Delgado (88,300 ha), Nampula (129,000 ha), Zambezia(105,000 ha), Sofala (107,000 ha), and Inhambane (25,000 ha).5 The main mangrove species inMozambique are Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorhiza, Avicennia marina,and Lumnitzera racemosa. Most of these are able to grow and survive in adverse habitats, partlydue to their morphological features, including aerating roots. Even when they are battered anddamaged by heavy storms or floods, they are fairly resilient and regenerate naturally.

Mangroves are currently under serious threat from several sources, including thewar-induced displacement of people and the construction of dams. The capacity of mangroves toregenerate when they are clearfelled in a destructive way for fuelwood and construction purposesis limited. For example, a helicopter tour of the Sofala Bay area during the field work showedthat large areas of mangroves have been cut from the roots or very close to the roots, thusseriously affecting their regeneratve capacity. The areas where large quantities of mangroves arebeing cleared by large influxes of displaced population are in Pebane and Chinde Districts(Zambezia Province); Buzi and Dondo Districts (Sofala Province); Pemba district (Cabo DelgadoProvince); Morrumbene and Massinga Districts (Inhambane Province); and Angoche District(Nampula Province). The construction of large dams for hydroelectric and irrigation purposes

7

also poses a threat to the mangrove ecosystem by reducing the flow of fresh water into theestuaries or by changing the river's regime. Other threats to the mangroves come from theconstruction of shrimp ponds and salt evaporation pans.

F. Forest Resources

Over 70% of Mozambique's land, amounting to 57,000,000 hectares, haswoody vegetative cover. Of the total land covered by vegetation, 8.7% is forest with high andmedium productivity, 26% is forest with medium and low productivity, and the remaining iscomposed of savanna and scrub woodland, primarily used for fuelwood and building poles, withlittle commercial and timber value.26

The forests of good productive potential contain many valued species ofhigh quality timber which are a source of foreign exchange. About two-thirds of the high forest(over 15 meters in canopy height) are found in the Sofala Province and are important forcommercial use. Other provinces with dense low forest (9 to 15 meters in canopy height) withgood commercial value are Zambezia, Manica, Nampula and Cabo Delgado. The sustainableyield from these good forest lands is estimated at 1 million m3 annually, which is five times asmuch as the highest output ever obtained.' These forests of good productive potential cangenerate considerable revenue in foreign exchange.

Forest products make a significant contribution to the domestic economyas well to the country's export earning capacity. Since 1980, timber production, particularly forexport, has decreased due to the security problem. Timber exports declined from US$ 8 millionin 1980 to US$ 1.7 million in 1984. Yet, timber production constituted an average of 20% of thevalue of production of all agro-industries (including cotton, cashews, sisal, and animal feed) in theperiod 1980 to 1985.8 Hence, the forest sub-sector has an important role in the development ofthe national economy.

State enterprises have a dominant role in the logging and wood processingsectors. There are 17 state-owned enterprises with an installed logging capacity of 272,500 m3

per annum, and 19 private enterprises with a logging capacity of 99,500 m3 per annum.3 Mostlogging operations are concentrated in the central and northern regions of the country. Loggingoutput, particularly of those that are state-owned, is well below their installed capacity. Thestate-owned forest industries operate at only 619% of their installed logging capacity. Thisunderutilization is due to the security problem, lack of managerial and technical expertise, andlack of maintenance and spare parts.

The administration of the country's forest and wildlife resources comesunder the National Forest and Wildlife Directorate (DNFFB), within the Ministry of Agriculture.Its main objectives are to protect and develop the forest and wildlife resources, to prepare andenforce the forest and wildlife regulations, to promote afforestation schemes for household andindustrial purposes, to set up information networks on forest and wildlife resources for bettermanagement, to establish forest areas under protection (forest reserves), and to promote nationalawareness on the preservation of forest and wildlife resources.

To attain these objectives, the Directorate is organized at the headquarterslevel in Maputo in three departments, namely the Forest Department, the Wildlife Department,and the Forest Industry and Economics Department. At the provincial level, there are 11Provincial Forest and Wildlife Services (SPFFB), under the Provincial Directorate of Agriculture

8

(DPA), representing each province and Maputo city. In addition, the state-owned forest industriesare staffed and managed by the National Directorate. The forest industries which contribute tothe bulk of exported timber are directly under the management of the Directorate.

A major constraint to attaining the objectives of the National Forest andWildlife Directorate is the lack of institutional capacity and trained manpower. At independence,the only trained staff in the Directorate were a few Portuguese foresters and sawmill operatorswho then left, paralyzing the activities of the Directorate and the logging capacity of the nation.The Directorate has a serious shortage of trained personnel at the national and provincial levels.At present, there are only 35 university-trained foresters and 150 medium level techniciansworking with the Directorate and the state-owned industries. Nearly all of these were trainedafter independence. It is estimated that the Directorate has only one-third of the trained staffrequired to run its operation at all levels.

G. Wildlife

Mozambique has large and diverse wildlife resources. The protected areasfor national parks and natural reserves cover 13% of the country's area, of which 15,850 squarekilometers is in national parks, 19,700 square kilometers is on wildlife reserves and 56,700square kilometers is on hunting reserves (See Map 7).3 No inventory on wildlife populationhas been undertaken. In response to the dramatic decrease in the wildlife population, particularlyelephants, rhinos, and cheetahs, national park and game reserves were established in 1960 tocontrol poaching. Hunting is not permitted in the national parks while controlled hunting isallowed in reserves. Most of the national parks are not operating since the RENAMO forces havedestroyed the infrastructure, and traveling in the national park and game reserve areas is not safe.The most important national parks are described below."

The Gorongosa National Park, located in the Sofala Province, was awell-known tourist attraction before the civil war. It has a total area of 4000 square kilometersand a rich biological diversity, including many animal and plant species. One of the main reasonsfor the establishment of the park was the conservation of the abundant flora and fauna and theprotection of the wildlife population, including some of the endangered animal species such as theblack rhino, elephant, waterbuck, reedbuck, and leopard. There are also many land and waterbirds. In 1981, RENAMO insurgents occupied the park and destroyed the infrastructure andhotel services. Hence, it is currently not in operation.

The Zinave National Park, located in both Gaza and InhambaneProvinces, has an area of 5000 square kilometers. There are a considerable number of roanantelope, nyala, and ostrich. Also present are some of the endangered species in Mozambiquesuch as cheetah, giraffe, rhino, caracal, and black-backed jackal.

Banhine National Park, in Gaza Province, northeast of the LimpopoRiver, has an area of 7000 square kilometers and is the largest national park in the country. Mostof the park is in the arid zone and the main feature of the park is open grassland. The wildlifeincludes elephants, cheetah, roan antelope, sable, side-striped jackal, giraffe, and ostrich.Tsessebe, once abundant, are now under threat of extinction.

Bazaruto National Park, on the islands of Bangue, Santo Antonio, andSanta Isabel, in Inhambane Province, is one of the few marine parks in Africa and is meant toprotect the dugong and sea turtles which are both endangered species. It has an area of 80 square

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kilometers. There are extensive coral formations and it is the only national park functioning atpresent.

The five game reserves are the Niassa Reserve (15,000 km2 - protection ofsable and nature); Gile Reserve (2100 km2 - protection of kudu, wildebeest and natural scenery);Romene Reserve (200 km2 - protection of dugong and sea birds); Maputo Reserve (900 km2 -

protection for rhinos and elephants); and Marromeu Reserve (1500 km2 - protection of waterbuffalos).

There are seven fauna protection areas where some animals are protectedwhile others can be exploited. These are area do Gile where all wildlife is protected; Troco dorio Pungle where hippo are protected; area do Zinave and area do Banhine (5 km corridor) whareall wildlife is protected; Torco do rio Limpopo and area do Marracuene, which serve for theprotection of hippos; area do Maputo which extends from the Umbelizi River to Maputo Riverand from the coastal zone to the Libombo mountains; and Ilhas da Inhaca where some animalspecies and corals are protected.

Within the PDP, the districts where wildlife has come under threat are inMueda (Cabo Delgado Province), Monapo and Ribaue (Nampula Province), Barue (ManicaProvince), and Gorongoza (Sofala Province).

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III. The Effects of the Civil War on the Environment

The civil war in Mozambique has had a devastating impact on humanwelfare, the economy, and the environment. About 600,000 people have died directly orindirectly as a result of the war, over a million have fled the country, and nearly one-third of thepopulation has been seriously affected. Close to half of the population is in need of foodassistance.32 The greatest environmental threats in Mozambique result from the pressure thedisplaced population exerts on the natural resources in safe areas, and from poaching of wildlifein rebel-held territories. This chapter examines the impact of the civil war on land, water andfisheries, and forest and wildlife resources.

A. The Displaced People and Emergency Assistance

The civil war has resulted in a massive movement of people from thecountryside to the coastal zones and around major towns. According to the Government's1990/91 Emergency Appeal, the civil war has had a significant negative impact on nearly 4.3million people, of which 1.9 million people are displaced requiring emergency assistance and 2.4million are affected (Table 1). The displaced population are those who have abandoned theirfarms, have no possessions and are unable to meet their basic needs. The displaced population isoften resettled around the major cities, provincial and district capitals, and around the rail lineconnecting Zimbabwe and Mozambique (the Beira Corridor), which is well-protected by thearmies of both Zimbabwe and Mozambique. The affected population are those who live on theirfarms but whose capacity to be self-sufficient in food has been severely limited by the civil war.The affected population also includes those who have been counted as displaced for a period ofover 18 months. The breakdown of the population affected and displaced by province ispresented in Table 1.

It is beyond the capacity of the country to provide food and basicnecessities to the millions of people whose lives were disrupted by the war. Consequently, theGovernment has made an international appeal for emergency assistance each year since 1987, andhas received a substantial amount of assistance. The Ministry of Cooperation is responsible forthe administration of relief. The National Executive Emergency Commission (CENE) under theMinistry of Cooperation facilitates the emergency assistance for those displaced and affected bythe civil war. The major task of CENE is to coordinate the emergency assistance with thevarious ministries, donor agencies and non-govermmental agencies. CENE also provides logisticalsupport and administers relief operations through the Department for the Combat and Preventionof Natural Disaster (DPCCN). The DPCCN has offices at the provincial and district levels andruns accommodation centers for the displaced population.

The Government, with the assistance of donor agencies and non-governmental organizations, has set up programs to help the displaced population. Theseprograms include the allocation of land in relatively safe areas; the distribution of seeds, tools,and construction materials; and the provision of food, clothes, and essential social services. Toundertake these activities, the Government has requested an emergency appeal to the UN for thepast two years.

The 1990/91 Emergency Requirement was US$ 135,799,026. Theamount requested for food aid (US$ 56,900,000) and for logistics (US$ 34,000,000) constitutedthe largest items in the appeal.33 The appeal also included a program to help over 200,000

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refugees who are returning from neighboring countries (Malawi, Zimbabwe, and South Africa).The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has helped resettle a significantnumber of these refugees.

The number of displaced people in each province (as indicated in Table 1as of 1990) changes frequently. This is partly due to the unpredictable nature of rebel attacks,and partly due to how quickly the displaced people can be resettled. For example, in 1989, thenumber of displaced persons decreased in Maputo, Nampula, Inhambane, and Niassa Provinces,as more displaced families were brought back into agricultural production, whereas in theZambezia, Manica, Sofala, Tete, and Gaza Provinces it increased, due to the Government's majorcounteroffensive against rebel forces.

Accessibility is also a major constraint to providing emergency assistance.Most areas can be reached only under military escort and a considerable part of the Zambezia,Sofala, and Inhambane Provinces are not accessible. It is estimated that about 25% of thedisplaced population can easily be supplied by the emergency program, 60% can be reached bymilitary-protected convoys, and 15% can only be supplied by air.4 Due to these security andlogistical problems, the 1990/91 appeal will include targeted beneficiaries of 1.4 million peoplewhich amounts to 72% of the displaced persons.

The 40 priority districts upon which the Government's agriculturaldevelopment strategy concentrates are equally affected by the displaced population. Over 30% ofthe population in the 40 priority districts are believed to be displaced people. For instance, theprovinces endowed with the highest agricultural potential, Zambezia and Nampula, have thelargest number of displaced persons (Table 1). OXFAM (United Kingdom), which has anemergency assistance program in the Zambezia Province, estimates that the number of displacedpersons in the four priority districts (Chinde, Mocuba, Nicoadala, and Pebane) is increasing.According to an OXFAM report, from January 1989 to January 1990, the number of displacedpersons increased from 32,039 to 76,701 in the Chinde District; from 45,605 to 69,584 in theMocuba District; from 59,258 to 76,890 in the Nicoadala District; and from 97,260 to 199,796 inthe Pebane District.35 The concentration of displaced people in the priority districts is havingan adverse impact on land quality and agricultural production.

B. The Effects of the Civil War on Land Resources

The DPCCN and the Ministry of Agriculture district offices distribute landto the displaced people who are living in the accommodation centers which are usually located incommunal villages or on the outskirts of the major towns. There is little information on theamount of land that has been distributed to the displaced population. Reports from non-governmental agencies such as OXFAM and Action Aid indicate that land near the urban (andsafer) areas where the displaced have concentrated is scarce. The United Nations Inter-Agencymission to the Sofala Province indicated that most displaced farmers were receiving 30 x 40 meterlots, which is only one-eighth of the land needed to support a family of four. Similarly, there is acritical shortage of land to be distributed to the displaced population in the Nampula, Maputo, andZambezia Provinces .

In nearly all the areas where the displaced population has concentrated,land available to be distributed for cultivation is becoming scarcer. In such a situation, farmerswho have no or minimal access to modern inputs and extension services cannot practice thetraditional method of shifting cultivation, where farmers use a seven-year rotational farming

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system before returning to the same plot of land, to maintain soil fertility. This acute shortage ofland in those areas where the displaced population has concentrated has led to intensive cultivationand a decrease in soil quality and fertility.

The loss of soil fertility due to intensive cultivation on small plots is aserious problem facing many of the priority districts with good agricultural potential. Thepreliminary report from the priority districts in the Zambezia, Sofala, and Maputo Provinces, inparticular, indicate an acute shortage of land.

A preliminary report in the Pebane District, one of the priority districts inthe Zambezia Province with the highest number of displaced people (about 200,000) shows thatthe size of plots distributed to a displaced family of five is less than one-fourth of a hectare. Nearthe accommodation centers around the town of Pebane there is no land left for distribution. Thecoastal strip of the Pebane District, where many displaced people are concentrated, has relativelypoor sandy soil. Intensive cultivation of such sandy soil has accelerated the loss of soil fertility,thus adversely affecting the ability of the displaced population to be self-sufficient in food. Amore desirable area to resettle the displaced population would have been the Impaca Valley, in thePebane District, which has high agricultural potential. The Impaca Valley produces aconsiderable amount of maize, rice, cassava, and beans. The security problem around the ImpacaValley area and the interior of Pebane District, however, has worsened in the past year leading toa massive movement of rural people to the Pebane town area.

The adverse impact of a high people-land ratio on soil quality is alsoreported in the Manica District, one of the priority districts in the Manica Province. Inparticular, the hilly areas of the Penhalonga region along the Beira corridor bordering Zimbabweshow signs of severe degradation. The streams and rivers flowing downstream have beenconsiderably reduced in size, and at times have dried up due to the cutting of forests and intensivecultivation on the hills. The Penhalonga area is well protected by soldiers as atelecommunications system is installed on the top of the hill (Mount Xilunva) and the railroad thatlinks Zimbabwe with Mozambique passes through this region. Many displaced families havesettled on the hills as it is one of the most secure areas in the province. Ministry of Agriculturestaff report that most of the displaced people who have settled on these hills came from flat areasand are not familiar with cultivating high slope land. The new settlers are farming the slopeswithout terraces, greatly increasing soil erosion in a region that receives high rainfall.

Land shortage is also severe in the priority districts of Moamba, Manhica,and Marracuene of the Maputo Province. The United Nations Inter-Agency reports that over35% of the population in these districts are displaced people. There is an absolute shortage ofland to be distributed around the district towns and most of the displaced people have beenallocated very small plots. The red sandy soils in most of these priority districts, particularly inMarracuene, are very susceptible to degradation and erosion. Many of the displaced people inthese districts still rely on food aid, and yields are unlikely to improve as intensive cultivation ofsuch small plots gradually reduces soil fertility.

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C. The Effects of the Civil War on Inland and Coastal Water Resources

There has been a dramatic increase in the number of people who havemoved from the hinterland to the coastal zones as a result of the civil war. The coastal areas aregenerally secure, and have good infrastructure, and those people who live around the major costaltowns have easy access to emergency assistance.

Most of those displaced people are peasant farmers who knew little aboutfishing before coming to the coastal areas. And yet, they are increasingly depending on fisheryresources for food and income. Fishing activities using small boats have increased substantiallyboth in inland and coastal waters. There is no available data or study to indicate the impact ofthese activities on the fisherie sector. Preliminary observations from some of the non-governmental organizations and Ministry of Agricultural staff suggest that the adverse impact of ahigh fishing effort may be of more concern in the inland waters (rivers and lakes) than in thecoastal waters of the Indian Ocean. Similarly, a study currently being undertaken by Action Aidabout the fisheries profile in the Zambezia Province suggests that overfishing is not a problem inthe coastal areas of Pebane District, whereas it may be a problem in the inland waters (smalllakes) of Maganja da Costa District.'

The displaced population concentrated in the coastal towns is presenting amajor threat to the mangrove ecosystems, which are a crucial habitat for the reproduction ofshrimp and prawns, the largest contributors to Mozambique foreign exchange, and subsistencefood for local population. Due to the severe shortage of building wood in the coastal areas of thePebane district, mangrove trees are reportedly being cut for boat building by many of thedisplaced people, despite the fact that mangrove trees are not good for making boats as they crackand form holes easily, letting water inside. The traditional artisan fishermen are aware of thisfact and do not use mangrove trees for boat making. The Forest Department has also reportedthat due to the severe shortage of fuelwood, mangrove trees are being used for fuelwood in thecoastal area of the Beira and Dondo Districts, which are among the four priority districts inSofala Province.

D. The Effects of the Civil War on Forest and Wildlife Resources

Deforestation is a localized problem in Mozambique. The areas aroundthe provincial towns, particularly those close to the coastal zones, are facing serious problems ofdeforestation. The influx of displaced population has accelerated this problem because of forestland clearing for cultivation and for collection of fuelwood and construction materials. Maputo,which has over one million residents and a large number of displaced people, now obtains itsfuelwood supply from a distance of 60 to 70 kilometers away.

During the field visits to the Boane and Marracuene Districts (which areamong the priority districts in Maputo Province), it was noted that a considerable number of thedisplaced are facing wood shortages for construction and fuelwood. In several of the settlementsites outside the district town of Boane, for instance, a number of displaced families walkconsiderable distances (four to six hours) to find wood, and are increasingly using corn husks asfuel instead.

In the Beira Corridor, the rate of deforestation has accelerated in the pastfew years as large numbers of displaced people have moved close to the railroad which is well-protected by security forces. There has been forest clearing for cultivation, fuelwood, and

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construction. Ministry of Agriculture staff have reported that there is little forested arearemaining along both sides of the railroad. The displaced families are now walking a greatdistance to fetch fuelwood, sometimes venturing into areas whichn need military escort.

The guerilla war has become the most serious impediment to theconservation and development of wildlife resources. The regions of Mozambique where some ofthe remaining endangered species and big game animals exist are among the most affected by theongoing civil war. The animals threatened with extinction, such as the roan antelope, elephant,and rhino, are found in the districts of Gorongosa (Sofala Province), Chiringoma and Chemba(Sofala Province), and Barue and Tambara (Manica Province), where guerrilla forces are activelyoperating. The areas noted for big game in the Gaza, Inhambane, and Niassa provinces are alsoaffected by frequent fighting. The functioning of the Wildlife Department has been severelylimited due to the civil war. Its anti-poaching stations are closed in many rural areas and it hasno mechanism to enforce any regulations regarding illegal hunting. Hunting for elephant tusks andrhino horns in rebel-held regions is believed to be widespread and is beyond the capacity of theWildlife Department to control.

Most of the national parks and wildlife reserves, which had previouslyprotected wildlife and generated revenues, have collapsed due to frequent attacks by RENAMOforces. Big and small game hunting safaris in the Zambezia Valley and game viewing safaris inthe Gorongosa National Parks are no longer possible. Located in Gorongosa District, one of thepriority Districts in the Sofala Province, the Gorongosa National Park has the most diverse andrich wildlife resources. In recent years, however, RENAMO's main military operation has beenbased in the Gorongosa District, making the park area inaccessible.

Therefore, many believe that the wildlife population, particularly that ofthe elephants, rhinos, zebras and antelopes, is being rapidly destroyed. Ivory trading in areascontrolled by RENAMO is reported to be widespread and RENAMO may be using some of therevenue from ivory to finance its guerilla activities. Giraffes are being killed for their tails,which are used in making bracelets. The rebels also rely heavily on wildlife as a source of foodas agricultural production in the countryside is disrupted.

The development of national parks, game reserves and wildlife farminghas become extremely difficult. The tourist camps and lodges in the Banhine, Zinave andGorongosa National Parks and in several of the tourist hunting reserves have been destroyed byRENAMO. In Zambezia Valley, the infrastructure and the Wildlife Production Units' materialsand equipment have similarly been destroyed. There are no wildlife staff working at field level,making it difficult to supervise or support wildlife activities in the countryside. Hence, neitherthe conservation of wildlife resources nor their development can be attained under the presentsituation.

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IV. Major Environmental Policy Issues in Sustainable Agricultural Development

Sustainable development in Mozambique is not possible, without creatingconditions for peace. Consequently, the study cannot suggest new investment programs forconsideration. It has, however, identified key environmental issues in the development of land,water, forest, and wildlife resources which could be integrated in any future strategy forsustainable agricultural development.

A. Land Tenure

Article 8 of the 1975 Constitution states that all land is the property of theState, and the State determines the conditions for its development and use. The Land Lawamended in July 1979 abolished private ownership of land and stated that land cannot be sold,rented, or mortgaged. The law, at the same time, entitles individuals or legal entities to be titleholders for up to 50 years. Family farms and peasant households that are involved in subsistenceproduction are not required to have a lease or pay taxes. The Ministry of Construction and Waterhas the responsibility to enforce land legislation.

The Land Law attempts to limit the amount of land to be used for cropproduction as farm families are entitled to have 0.25 hectare per family in irrigated land and 0.5hectare in rainfed land. The reason for limiting the size of rainfed agriculture to 0.5 hectare perfamily is difficult to understand since land is relatively abundant compared to the size of thepopulation, provided that the security situation improves in the countryside. With about 80million hectares of land and 16 million people, the average per capita land size in Mozainbique isabout 5 hectares.

There is no study indicating the optimal farm size for a peasant family tooperate effectively in Mozambique. It seems most unlikely, however, that 0.5 hectare of landcould be enough for the sustainable agricultural development of the peasant sector. Peasanthouseholds cultivating small plots - less than one hectare - would be involved in intensivecultivation, without fallow area, which would accelerate the rate of land degradation. It is evenplausible to assume that cultivating such a small plot would not provide adequate financialprofitability from the application of inputs such as fertilizer and improved seed. Thus, the presentLand Law has an adverse effect on the sustainable development of the rural economy and does notprovide adequate incentives for the implementation of good conservation practices. In practice,the Law is ineffective as the Government does not have the capacity to enforce it.

The Law, in contrast, has a significant effect when divestiture of state-owned land is involved. Divestiture essentially involves breaking up large state-owned estates andagricultural enterprises into smaller family or privately-owned farms. Divestiture began in 1985as state farms became highly unproductive and difficult to manage, incurring large debt.Environmental issues such as how to reduce the risk of salinity and loss of soil fertility due tomonocropping are not given consideration in divestiture involving large-scale irrigation farms.

Shifting cultivation with a rotational period of about seven years iswidespread in Mozambique. Subsistence farmers involved in shifting cultivation are allowed touse additional land up to 10 hectares, and to have access to common grazing land in the villagefor livestock. When there is pressure on land, local authorities can limit the size of the areasubject to shifting cultivation. Previously, shifting cultivation did not pose a threat to land qualityor forest resources, given the low population density in the rural areas. With an estimated 2.7%

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annual population growth rate, however, there will be a substantial reduction in the fallow period,resulting in an incomplete regeneration of the forest woodlands and soil fertility. With the currentlow level of agricultural technology, soil quality will gradually deteriorate. Hence, shiftingcultivation is not a viable system for the sustained development of the rural sector.

Land ownership provides the security and the incentive needed to increaseagricultural production and undertake conservation activities. In Mozambique, shiftingcultivation, the state ownership of land, and the law governing land leases have all had an adverseimpact on security in land tenure. Peasants who practice shifting cultivation do not register theland they traditionally use. When shifting cultivators return after several years to the land theyhad left for regeneration, they are increasingly finding their plots taken by private or commercialfarmers who have been given title to land by a Govermnent agency that had little or noknowledge the land was being used by shifting cultivators. This has resulted in frequent landconflicts between subsistence and commercial farmers. Given the Government's encouragementto expand commercial farming in rural areas, land conflicts are likely to increase, which willfurther reduce land security and incentives to improve the land.

Very little of the land occupied in Mozambique is registered and titled.The registration of land rights is required for the private sector, but is not required for the familysector. The National Directorate for Geography and Cadastre (DINAGECA), under the Ministryof Agriculture, is responsible for identification, survey, registration and issuing of titles to land.Some officials in the Ministry of Agriculture have advocated that DINAGECA issue titles to theland the family sector cultivates as otherwise those with power and influence could claim it. 7

Land grabbing is reportedly occurring in the outskirts of many urban areas and is likely tointensify with the privatization of agriculture and the eventual restoration of peace in the ruralareas. Hence, the registry and titling of land owned by the family sector should be given seriouspriority.

Since independence, DINAGECA operations at the provincial level havebeen neglected. The information on land registration and mapping has not been updated in thelast decade, and is not likely to reflect reality regarding the land situation in the provinces. Thestate land that has been distributed under the privatization and divestiture procedures has not beenrecorded through DINAGECA. Lands given by provincial governors or by the Ministry ofAgriculture to the Green Zone development program and commercial farmers have not beenconsistently reported to DINAGECA for registration and issuance of title as required. On someoccasions, this has led DINAGECA to give to other commercial farmers and private families titlesto land that has already been allocated to others by the provincial governor or that was being usedby shifting cultivators, there by creating land conflicts and insecurity of tenure.

All land in Mozambique is leasehold vested in the state. The 1987 LandLaw extended the maximum duration of a lease from 15 to 50 years and granted automaticrenewal of leases. Given the poor record keeping and bureaucratic inefficiencies, getting andrenewing leases can be time-consuming and costly. The purpose of long-term leases is toencourage investment in the land and to provide incentives for increased agricultural production.In spite of these positive amendments, the Land Law is still limited in providing security oftenure. First, all leases are required to have a development plan, which describes the type ofinvestment to be undertaken and the conditions predicated in maintaining land quality byleaseholder. The Government, however, does not have the capacity to monitor such plans. Infact, studies have shown that such development plans are used by some officials to evict

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landholders from desired lands or as a way to generate bribes from those who have not compliedwith the development conditions.3'

The development plan could be an important means to minimizeenvironmental risks and enhance conservation activities. In particular, projects promoted bycommercial farmers which depend on large-scale irrigation schemes need close monitoring to4.38). However, for most private and family farms, preparation of the development plan, whichis the centerpiece of the leasehold system, is beyond their technical or financial capacity.Besides, such plans may not be flexible enough to respond to changing market and weatherconditions in using land.

The Land Law prohibits the mortgaging and selling of land, thus reducingland transactions and diminishing the opportunities to profit from investment in land development.The selling and renting of land could bring a more efficient use of land by increasing the flow ofmoney to the rural sector. It would seem that a freehold system, where private ownership of landand inheritance is guaranteed by law, would provide the greatest security in land rights, and thuswould be an incentive for individuals to invest in the land. Hence, the Land Law should addressthe issues of land ownership, long-term leaseholds with transactions, land inheritance, and landsurvey, as they are crucial factors for the sustainable development of land resources inMozambique.

B. "Green Zone" Development Policy

FRELIMO's Third Congress in 1977 emphasized the need to make themajor cities and their vicinities self-sufficient in food. In 1980, Green Zone Offices wereestablished in each provincial capital to increase food supplies and create employmentopportunities for the urban people. This operation started in Maputo, which has the largest andmost developed Green Zone area. The Green Zone concept has not been fully implemented in theother provincial capitals. The Ministry of Agriculture and the city municipality shareresponsibility in the administration of the Green Zone Office.

The Maputo Green Zone areas have a total size of 15,251 hectares.There are 58,234 farm families cultivating 12,301 hectares (81% of the Green Zone area), 390private farmers cultivating 2,200 hectares, and 203 cooperatives (with 11,000 members)cultivating 750 hectares.39 The average area cultivated by farm families is 0.2 hectares - a sizethat will trigger even more land degradation in a short time. Even with the provision of inputsand good farming practices, it is difficult to imagine how 0.2 hectares of land per family couldprovide a meaningful contribution to family income and employment and also be a basis forsustainable development.

Throughout southern Mozambique, an important factor in determiningcrop production potential is the water holding capacity of the soil at the root zone. Most soils inthe Maputo Green Zone area have low water holding capacity. The rainfall pattern is oftenerratic and most rain occurs in high intensity storms. As a result, most of the available rainwateris lost as runoff. Most of the Maputo Green Zone areas are in dry areas with limited irrigationpotential. Hence, Green Zone development relying on rainfed agriculture involves considerablerisks and limitations to increased food production for the urban areas.

The Government officially favors the promotion of cooperatives, whichare seen as a vehicle to modernize the agricultural sector. In 1982, the Green Zone Office

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established the General Union of Cooperatives to link individual cooperatives, coordinate theiractivities, and provide them with bargaining power without interfering with the administration ofeach cooperative. The Union's task is to provide tools, seeds, and veterinary services, andtransport and market agricultural products such as vegetables and meat to urban areas. TheUnion also has ties with Government agencies and the party structure, as it relies on their supportto generate foreign exchange and to get technical assistance from donor agencies.

Cooperatives cultivate only 5% of the Green Zone areas around Maputo.Yet, a great deal of significance is attached to the role of cooperatives in the Green Zone areas inaccelerating agricultural production near the cities. This optimism is partly based on theexperience of the very few cooperatives in the Maputo Green Zone (such as Julius Nyerere, CheGuevara, Joaquim Chissano, and 7 De April) which are considered successful. The success ofcooperatives is measured in terms of revenue generation, good management, output per member,and profitability, which enables them to increase the income of the members. The cooperativeswho meet these economic criteria are classified as Class A whereas those cooperatives that do notmeet these criteria are classified as Class C cooperatives.

A study done by the General Union of Cooperatives in 1985 points outthat of the 182 cooperatives in the Green Zone areas of Maputo, only 15 are classified as Class Acooperatives whereas 125 are Class C cooperatives and the rest are in between.' This suggeststhat, on the whole, the cooperative subsector has not been very successful in contributing to thedevelopment of the Maputo Green Zone areas. In addition, most Class A cooperatives aresituated on wet land with access to irrigation, and their members derive most of their incomefrom non-farm employment. In contrast, most of the Class C cooperatives are on dry land, withpoor sandy soil, and depend on rainfed agriculture. Thus, the success of a very few cooperativesin the Maputo Green Zone areas should not be misconstrued as indicating that cooperativesprovide better organization to improve agricultural production or employment opportunities.

C. Construction of Large Dams for Hydropower

Surface water is the main source of water in Mozambique. Only abouthalf of the volume of surface water available in Mozambique is derived from local rainfall. Theremaining half enters the country through the Zambezi River and the other major rivers thatoriginate from neighboring countries and flow eastward crossing Mozambique to the IndianOcean." This means that the development of these rivers within and outside the country willhave a significant impact on water availability and the hydrologic regime of the country.

The Government has attached great importance to the development ofthese major rivers through the construction of dams for generating hydroelectric power and forirrigation. There are about 10 dams that are used for generating power. The Cahora Bassa Dam,on the Zambezi River, is the largest dam and is the source of nearly all the hydropower generatedin the country. It has an installed capacity of 2,075 MW whereas all the other power sourcestogether have 257 MW. The primary user of the Cahora Bassa power is South Africa, asMozambique is able to consume only a small portion (71 MW) of the installed capacity.'2 Thetransmission line has been a frequent target of the rebel forces and the hydropower station has notbeen in operation most of the time.

The Cahora Bassa Dam uses the Zambezi River system, which extends forabout 3,000 km from its source in the Central African Plateau to the Indian Ocean, and drains anarea of about 1,300,000 km2 within Angola, Namibia, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi,

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and Mozambique, making it the third largest river system in Africa. Built in the middle course ofthe Zambezi River, wholly within Mozambique, the Cahora Bassa Dam has a surface area of2,300 km2 which makes it the fifth largest reservoir in Africa.'3 It has a water storage capacityof 43 billion cubic meters and a mean depth of 19 meters.

The impact of the Cahora Bassa on terrestrial and aquatic resources wasneglected by the Portuguese, who initiated the project, as well as by the Mozambique Governmentafterwards. A Portuguese company still administers the dam. The National Water Directorate(DNA) under the Ministry of Construction and Water has the responsibility of monitoring theconstruction of dams and has focused on the technical problems of hydropower. There have beenfew studies examining the environmental and social aspects of the Cahora Bassa Dam. Even so,several plans are underway to expand hydropower generation in the lower Zambezi basin ofMozambique, which has high potential for agricultural development and the conservation ofbiodiversity. Since the Zambezi River system is the largest water resource in Mozambique,passing through the agriculturally endowed Zambezi River basin and the fishery-rich Sofala Bay,an environmental assessment of the effects of the Cahora Bassa Dam and other hydropowerdevelopment on the river should have a high priority.

During the mission, little information was obtained on the Cahora BassaDam. Secondary sources have stated, however, that the dam has an adverse environmentalimpact on humans, wildlife, and the development of agricultural and fishery resources ofMozambique. Some of the major environmental threats posed by the Cahora Bassa Dam arehighlighted below.

Human Displacement: The area where the Cahora Bassa Dam wasconstructed is sparsely populated and the number of people displaced at construction is estimatedat 25,000. But, during construction, the Portuguese resettled over 200,000 people who lived inthe lower Zambezi basin to "protected" villages further away from the dam area so that theywould not join FRELIMO forces and threaten the dam. The Cahora Bassa Dam was widely seenas a symbol of Portuguese colonialism and an obvious target for attack by the resistancemovement. The villagers were resettled under coercion in hastily cleared forest areas not suitedfor cultivation."

Water-borne Diseases: The incidence and prevalence of water-bornediseases are reported to have increased substantially due to the reservoir and other flooded areascreated after the construction of the dam. The principal vector-borne diseases affecting thepopulation of the lower Zambezi basin are schistosomiasis, malaria, and trypanosomiasis. Beforethe construction of the dam, the Zambezi River and its tributaries flowed at a speed which did notprovide a suitable habitat for the vectors of such diseases. Suitable breeding conditions for thevectors were created, however, around the shoreline of Lake Cahora Bassa, particularly when thewater recedes, leaving small pools and swamps. The mosquito population has increased aroundthe reservoir since the impoundment of the lake.'5 At present there is very little large-scaleirrigation in the Cahora Bassa Valley, which may have limited the spread of malaria andschistosomiasis.

Downstream Effects: Considering the vastness of the Cahora Bassa damand its impact on the flow of the Zambezi River system, there is still little detailed study on thedownstream effects of this dam and others that are planned for construction in this area. One ofthe few studies done revealed that the river level had become erratic and unseasonal since theCahora Bassa Dam started operating in 1974. Since the construction of the dam, there has been

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an increase in the level of river discharge during the dry season and a substantial decrease duringthe wet season. During the wet season, the Zambezi River used to flood the surrounding land,making it easy for traditional and recessing cultivation, replenishing swamps and lakes, andproviding favorable conditions for fish breeding. The reduction in the wet season flow has had adamaging effect on fisheries, wildlife, and agricultural activities along the riverbanks in the lowerZambezi area.

Wildlife: The Zambezi River basin at one time had the highest populationof wild buffalo in Africa. There are indications of a dramatic decrease in the area's buffalopopulation since the construction of the dam, attributable to the lowering of the groundwater tablein the basin and a shortage of grass and biomass cover.

Fisheries: Two separate issues have emerged in this regard. The firstone deals with fish population in the reservoir lake. There are few migratory fish in the ZambeziRiver and the dam has had little direct impact on the migratory fish population. Lake CahoraBassa was originally seen as a major source of fishery development as it receives nutrients fromthe Zambezi River. However, the great fluctuation in the depth of the reservoir has limited thereproduction of fish. Further, the reservoir has low storage volume and high drawdown, makingit difficult for a stable fishery community to develop along the shoreline.' Hence, fishing in theLake Cahora Bassa area has not become a major source of income or of protein, as had beeninitially expected at the time of the dam's construction.

The second issue deals with the downstream effects of the Cahora BassaDam on the aquatic environment of the Zambezi delta. The coastal waters where the ZambeziRiver enters the Indian Ocean (the Sofala Bay) are well-endowed with shrimp. Many of thecountry's major fishing activities for export take place in this area. Due to the construction of thedam, the nutrients that the Zambezi River used to bring to the coastal waters have been reducedsubstantially. As a result, the quantity of shrimp caught has decreased. Preliminary studies showthat the amount of shrimp harvested increases when more water is released from the reservoir.'

Salt Intrusion: Salt water intrusion from the ocean into the river andcoastal land is a serious problem. The intensity of intrusion is much higher when water inflowinto the ocean diminishes due to the construction of large dams, as is the case of the Cahora BassaDam. In this case, salt water intrusion is having an adverse impact on large areas of mangrovesin the Zambezi delta and Sofala Bay area, where there is a substantial reduction of water flowingto the ocean. The mangrove ecosystem, which is central to shrimp reproduction, requires atransitional ecosystem between land and water, where salt and fresh water mix. As the volume offresh water coming to the ocean reduces, more salt water from the ocean moves upstream into theriver and the mangrove vegetation areas. Too much salt water adversely affects the mangrovevegetation and shrimp population. Thus, salt water intrusion poses a threat to the sustainable useof the shrimp resources in Mozambique.

D. Large-scale Irrigation Schemes

A recent study indicated that 90,500 ha of land have been developed forirrigation, of which only 53,400 ha are fully operational. The study also identified 1,250,000 haof potential land for expanding irrigation, most of it located in the Zambezia Province.' Theirrigated area by basin and province is presented in Table 3.

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Table 3Irrigated Area Per River Basin and Province

River Basin Province Fully Operating (ha) Developed (ha)

Limpopo Gaza 30,170 39,520Inharrime Gaza 300 300Incomati Maputo 7,950 17,200Umbeluzi Maputo 1,000 1,500Infulene Maputo 500 500Maputo Maputo 150 550Inhanhanbe Inhambane 580 580Save Inhambane 150 400Pungoe Sofala 5,120 6,120Buzi Sofala & Manica 2,795 6,100Zambezi Zambezia 1,635 12,360Northern Basin Cabo Delgado & Niassa 3,055 5,360

Total 53,405 90,490

(Source: National Directorate of Water, SOGREAH, 1987)49

About 70 % of the land under irrigation is used for sugar productioninvolving large schemes, 20% for rice, and 10% for citrus fruits, vegetables and food crops.All sugar cane schemes are found in the Incomati, Buzi, Pungoe, and Zambezi basins andhave areas ranging from 4,000 ha to 10,000 ha. Most of the rice is produced in the Chokweirrigation scheme, which has a size of 25,000 ha and is located in the Limpopo River basin.Small-scale irrigation schemes of less than 1,000 ha are usually located in the Green Zoneswhich produce fruits, vegetables, and food crops. A considerable number of small-scaleirrigation schemes in the Northern basin (Rovuma, Mutamaba, Messalo, Montepuez, Lurio,and Licungo) are not operating because of security problems.

Prior to 1987, most large-scale irrigation schemes were in state hands.In 1987, the Fourth FRELIMO Congress de-emphasized the role of state farms andencouraged their breakup. At present, 65% of the irrigated land is under the state sector,15% under the private sector, 15% under the family sector, and 5% under the cooperativesector.

Most of the environmental risks arise from large-scale irrigationschemes involving over 1,000 ha. The major environmental risks are:

Salinization: As indicated in Table 3, most of the irrigated land(66%) is in the Maputo and Gaza Provinces. The dominant soils are alluvial soils prone tosalinization. In addition, the mouths of the lower Limpopo and Incomati River basins sufferfrom serious salt water intrusion. Salinity is a major factor limiting the use of land developedfor irrigation in these basins. The problem of salinity is aggravated by lack of adequate watermanagement skills and poor drainage systems. When drainage canals are not well maintained,as is often the case, it leads to waterlogging and loss of soil fertility due to salinization arebound to occur.

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Siltation and Sedimentation: Most irrigation systems pump waterfrom the rivers to a reservoir. This process requires good management and availability ofspare parts and fuel to pump the water, the lack of which has limited the expansion ofirrigated areas. Sprinkler irrigation is the most popular technique used in sugar caneplantation, whereas controlled gravitational flooding is used in rice schemes. Direct waterintake from the river for gravitational irrigation is rare. The absence of good drainage andwater management leads to deposits of silts and sediments in the canal system. This reducesthe capacity of the canal system, the size of the area available for cultivation, and the lifecycle of the project.

Water-borne Diseases: The accumulation of slow-moving water onthe land surface causes a serious health hazard in many large-scale irrigation schemes. In theabsence of well-functioning drainage systems, as is the case in Mozambique, irrigation waterstagnates and weeds grow, creating an ideal habitat for expansion of the vectors of water-borne diseases. Needless to say, there is an increased incidence of water-borne diseases suchas malaria and schistosomiasis in nearly all the large-scale irrigation project areas.

Cropping Pattern and Intensity: Most irrigation schemes do notpractice double cropping, and the ratio of cultivated area to total area under irrigation isreported to be very low. The absence of crop rotation in large-scale sugar cane and riceirrigation schemes may reduce soil fertility in the long run.

E. Manpower and Institutional Capacity For Water Management

Lack of Water Management Skills: The efficiency of most irrigationprojects is very low and there is great wastage of water. At the farm level, irrigationefficiency is estimated to be between 25% and 50%.5° This does not include the water lossoccurring in the transportation system. With good management skills, yields in irrigatedagriculture can be improved substantially. In irrigated agriculture, the average yield for riceare 2.5 ton/ha; for maize 1.0 ton/ha; and for sugar cane 60 ton/ha which is low.5 '

This low irrigation efficiency in Mozambique is due to the severeshortage of trained manpower in water management for irrigated agriculture. Drainagenetworks and water distribution systems are poorly operated and not maintained due toshortage of skilled people at the field level. The concept of rotational turns, which requireswater management skills, is not used in many of the irrigation schemes.

Water resources used for agricultural development are theresponsibility of the Secretary of State for Agricultural Hydraulics (SEHA), under theMinistry of Agriculture. SEHA has a staff of 165 persons of whom 34 are professionals.More than half of the professional staff are expatriates, with very few trained nationals. Themajority of the staff (over 105) are at headquarters in Maputo and there is a serious shortageof staff at the field level. As a result, there is limited capacity to distribute water in a rationalway, and to maintain the irrigation infrastructure at the project level.

There is no strong institutional linkage between the field operationsand SEHA headquarters. To strengthen its linkage with the project activities at field level,SEHA has recently attempted to initiate Field Agricultural Hydraulics Units (FAHU) in allprovinces. These Units are supposed to work closely with the provincial and districtagricultural staff and provide technical support to irrigation schemes. Although the creation

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of FAHUs is appropriate, their exact role, their relationship to SEHA and DPA, their staffingrequirements, and their source of revenues are still not resolved. It would seem that in areaswhere major irrigation potential and infrastructure exist, FAHU units should be given theresponsibility to manage and supervise irrigation schemes.

At present, SEAH sees irrigation development mostly as a technicalproblem, and staffing priority is given to strengthening the physical aspect of it. Theinstitutional, managerial, socioeconomic, and environmental aspects are not reflected in themakeup of the present staff.

F. Water Pricing Policy

There is no systematic water pricing policy for irrigation. Onlydomestic and industrial users are charged for water consumption. In the absence of watercharges, the upstream users of an irrigation scheme can overuse water, causing a shortage ofwater for downstream users. This has been observed in the Chokwe irrigation scheme (in theLimpopo River basin) where an upstream user of water at Massinger was not letting adequatewater pass through, causing a serious shortage of water for downstream users in the Xai-Xaiarea.52 This contributes to the low efficiency of irrigation projects.

In the few cases where water charges are levied on large-scaleirrigation projects, they are based on the size of the area under operation, withoutconsideration for the availability of the infrastructure and the farming potential of the area. Asystematic and equitable pricing policy could enhance the efficient use of water resources andthe productivity of the irrigation sector.

G. Depletion of Forest Resources

Over 70% of Mozambique has a good forest cover. Deforestation isnot a national problem. It is, however, a localized problem seriously affecting some areas ofthe country. The areas where major deforestation has occurred are around the major urbancenters and where the displaced populations have concentrated, where there is excessiveshifting cultivation, and where there is extensive logging of highly valued timber. Under thepresent security problem in the countryside, deforestation as the result of agriculturalexpansion is not a major concern.

Woodfuel supplies about 83% of the total energy consumed in thecountry and 99% of the domestic energy use (1984).53 Around the major urban areas withhigh population density, such as Maputo, Beira, Nampula, and Quelimane, where there is aserious scarcity of fuelwood, clearing forests for fuelwood and charcoal production is a majorreason for deforestation. Fuelwood supply for Maputo comes from a distance of over 100kilometers. Beira (the capital town of Sofala province) receives its woodfuel from an averagedistance of 30 kilometers. Residents of Nampula (the capital town of Nampula Province) andQuelimane (the capital town of Zambezia) are reported to spend considerable time furtherfrom the city for fuelwood gathering.' In provincial terms, the situation in Maputo isdeemed critical; Tete and Zambezia are in a deficit situation, while only Niassa and Manicaare deemed to have a satisfactory situation.55

The towns where woodfuel demand is a primary reason fordeforestation are near the coast, where the natural savannah (with shrubby vegetation and

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small trees) is easily degradable and has very low forest potential. The coastal areas have lowrainfall and a long dry season, which makes regeneration of trees slow. The sandy soilsaround these major towns, particularly around Maputo, are not fertile and limit the output ofafforestation activities. Only specific species of Eucalyptus trees (example: E. camaldulensis)seem to do well in these coastal zones. As a result, the price of fuelwood is too high relativeto other commodities and wages, and is estimated to have increased tenfold from 1981 to1984.5 Between 60% and 90% of the family income in Maputo is estimated to be used forfuelwood.5 ' A study by the World Bank estimated average fuel cost for a Maputo family atUS$ 220/year, a figure twice as much as Mozambique's per capita income.58 The high costof woodfuel affects all families, but affects the urban poor disproportionately. Thegovernment is attempting to promote electricity and kersone and improved charcoal stove toameliorate the woodfuel crisis.

Forests in Mozambique have abundant grass vegetation and fires are anormal occurrence. The burning of forest for shifting cultivation is an ancestral practice offorest management common in Mozambique. In recent years, burning has become frequent(almost annual) and is done late in the dry season. Unlike early dry season burning, whichcan be a protective operation against late fires, late burning in the dry season is damaging tothe timber and the soil, and prevents regeneration. As a result, some of the dense forest areasare gradually changing to woodland savannah, and then to steppe vegetation. Soil erosion isbecoming a serious problem in some of the Northern regions, where rainfall is high, asvegetative cover is reduced due to forest burning.

H. Stumpage Rate Policy

One of the major factors contributing to deforestation is theGovernment's policy regarding access to forest resources and the cost of such access to users.In Mozambique, the stumpage fee, the compensation for the use of tree resources, is fixed atan extremely low level and does not reflect the economic cost of replacing the forestresources. Most woodfuel consumed in the major towns is obtained from nearby rural areaswithout any stumpage fees being charged at all. Hence, the absence of appropriate stumpagefees has given "free access" to the natural woodlands, resulting in the depletion of forestresources.

The nominal stumpage fee for woodfuel (used for firewood andcharcoal production) is 12.5 meticais/ester (about 4.8 meticais/m3 or US$0.005/m3 . This feeis insignificant. A bag of charcoal (30 to 50 kg) is sold for 10,000 and 12,000 meticais inMaputo (November 1990). The retail price for charcoal and firewood differ depending onproximity to the major town. During a field visit, it was observed that the price of a bag ofcharcoal in Boane, 30 to 35 km away from Maputo, was 4,000 meticais, and in Matola, 15 to20 km from Maputo, was 7,000 meticais.) The underpricing of woodfuel and "free access" towoodlands are resulting in an increasing exploitation of forests in the rural areas. A very lowstumpage fee and no mechanism to enforce it encourage the overconsumption of fuelwood,inefficient ways of converting fuelwood to charcoal, and loss to state and local revenues.

Mozambique has high value natural forest species for export. Someof the precious and first class species are Chlorophora excelsa, Dalbergia melanoxylon,Diospyros mespiliformis, Androstachys iohnsonii, Spirostachys africana, Guibortia conjugata,Afzilia quanzenssis, Baikiaea plurijuga, and Petrocarpus angolensis. Logging enterprisesexploit natural forests with high quality timber by obtaining a felling license from theProvincial Agricultural Directorate. Such licenses require the payment of fixed fees per cubic

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meter of trees felled based on the quality of tree species. For precious and first class species,the fee is 500 mt/m3 , second class species 350 mt/m3 , third class species 250 mt/m3, andfourth class species 150 mt/r3 . The precious and first class species are mainly for the exportmarket, while the others are for local markets. Forest Department officials admit these feesare insignificant. The logging enterprises sell most of the timber at a considerable profitmargin.

About 85% of the logging operations take place in the Sofala, Manica,Zambezia, Nampula and Cabo Delgado Provinces. There is a serious security problem inthese provinces due to rebel attacks. Forest Department officials state that the low stumpagerate for removing natural forests in these provinces is meant to encourage the continuation ofthe logging enterprises as they are operating under difficult circumstances. It isrecommended, however, that the Government revise the stumpage fees for woodfuel and forlogging. The fees should take into account their accessibility to domestic and foreignmarkets, timber quality, and end use. Thus, setting a fair stumpage fee is central in ensuringthe proper utilization and management of trees. Such a fee would also generate revenues forthe DNFFB to undertake forest management activities, afforestation, and development offorest-based enterprises.

1. Legislation, Manpower and Institutional Issuesin Forest Protection and Development

The lack of adequate forestry legislation and of institutional andpersonnel capacity to enforce it contribute to poor use of forest resources and to deforestation.The legislation regarding the utilization and management of forests was written in colonialtimes and has not been revised to reflect the increasing threat to the forest resources. Theforest law does not take into account the role of local administration and individual initiativefor the protection of trees. The law does not allow for individual ownership of trees, andrural dwellers are not required to have a license to cut trees.

Those involved in charcoal production or in selling forest products arerequired to obtain a license from the Forest Department. But commercial loggers are the onlyones who meet the regulations. The Forest Department does not know the number of peopleinvolved in charcoal production and admit that the majority of them are producing charcoalwithout a license. The Forest Department neither has the adequate manpower nor theinstitutional capacity to enforce the regulations in the rural areas. Its most common means ofsupervision is to set up roadblocks to inspect trucks carrying charcoal and fuelwood to themajor towns (particularly Maputo) to ascertain if they have licenses to cut trees. This methodof supervision is inadequate and leads to illegal payments, while it does not deter illegalcutting of trees for fuelwood and charcoal production, a major factor in the depletion of thenatural forests around the major urban areas and the neighboring provinces.

The Forest Department faces a serious shortage of trained manpowerat all levels. In 1985, there were 12 forest engineers, 74 technicians, and 31 rangers. At thattime, the minimum number of staff required was estimated at 34 forest engineers, 192technicians, and 608 rangers.59 The situation has not improved since very few staff havebeen trained in the past four years. The Forest Department has only one third of the staff itneeds. This shortage has become a serious impediment to attaining the Forest Departmentobjectives in the development and protection of the forest resources. It is also a constraint inenforcing forest laws and monitoring the use of forest resources. At the present manpower

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level, the Forest Department is unlikely to administer the systematic collection of stumpagefees. Thus, the revision of stumpage fees alone is unlikely to avert deforestation and generateforest-based revenues unless accompanied by strengthening the staff and institutional capacityin the Forest Department.

J. Afforestation for Fuelwood and Environmental Protection

In recognizing that fuelwood and charcoal production are primarycauses for the depletion of forest resources around the major towns, an afforestation programof fast-growing species to produce fuelwood for Maputo (Project FO-2), Beira (Project FO-4),and Nampula (Project FO-5) began in 1977. These projects were financed by theMozambique/ Nordic Agricultural Program (MONAP). Based on the estimated energy needs,24,000 hectares (which were supposed to meet 60% of charcoal needs for Maputo) weretargeted for the FO-2 project, 25,000 hectares for the FO4 project, and 20,000 hectares forthe FO-5 project. The actual planted area in each project, however, is 3,401 hectares, 3,762hectares, and 1,296 hectares respectively.'

The survival rate of the seedlings planted is reported to be rangingfrom 40% to 60%. Some of the reasons for the low survival rate are use of an inappropriatespecies; poor nursery, planting, and weeding practices; lack of supervision and trained staff;and shortage of tools and equipment. In the FO-2 project, the selection of Eucalyptus salingaand E. grandis (which have done well in Manica, where rainfall is considerably higher) werethe main reasons for the low survival rate of 35% until 1983. Since the introduction ofEucalyptus camaldulensis in 1984, which does not require as much rain, the survival rate hasimproved to over 50%. Strengthening these fuelwood projects around the major towns seemsessential to arrest one of the major causes of deforestation in Mozambique.

Afforestation to prevent coastal erosion and to protect the environmentis also urgently needed. Given the 2,500 km length of the coastal waterline, coastal erosionand dune stabilization are difficult problems. Yet, the planting of appropriate species alongthe coast is important for the protection of the mangrove ecosystems and should be givenserious consideration. The seawalls built to protect the shore from erosion (often foundaround the major towns such as Maputo) are too expensive to build and maintain. Most ofthe seawalls around Maputo have deteriorated and extensive erosion and damage to therecreational centers around the city is reported. The spread of sand dunes from the coastalarea to the mainland is becoming a threat to agricultural land in several areas. Sand dunemigration is a serious problem in the coastal zone in the Mandlakazi and Xai-Xai Districts ofGaza Province, Chinde District in Zambezia Province, and Marracuene District of MaputoProvince. Thus, planting of the appropriate species to stabilize sand dunes is an importantenvironmental issue that needs attention.

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V. NjQs

1. World Development Report 1990, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., p. 178.

2. The World Bank, Mozambigue Agricultural Sector Survey, May 1988, p.7 .

3. ibid. p. 8.

4. GTA/National Institute for Physical Planning (INPF)," Mozambique- Situaglo Actual de MeioAmbient", Maputo, 1990, p.4 7.

5. The World Bank, Mozambigue: Restoring Rural Production and Trade, Washington, D.C.,October 1990, p. 153.

6. Emergency Appeal for Mozambigue: Background Information, National Emergency ExecutiveCommission, 1990.

7. The World Bank, Mozambigue Food Security Study, October 1989, p. 5.

8. World Development Report 1989, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., p. 166.

9. The World Bank, October 1989, Qp.cit., p. 7.

10. The World Bank, May 1988, Qp.cit., p.9.

11. The World Bank and International Fund for Agricultural Development, People's Republic ofMozambigue: Second Agricultural Rehabilitation Project, 1987.

12. A.H. Kassam, H.T. Van Velthuizen, G.M. Higgins, A. Christoforides, R.L. Vortman, andB. Spiers, Assessment of Land Resources for Rainfed Crop Production in Mozambigue, Foodand Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Rome, 1982.

13. The World Bank, May 1988, Op.cit., pp. 16-17.

14. ibid., p.17.

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15. John W. Bruce, Options for State Farm Divestiture and the Creation of Secure Tenure, LandTenure Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin, 1989.

16. Fernando Manuel, "Distribuicao de terras: 0 feito Nao 0 dito", Tempo, No. 1040,September 16, 1990, pp. 10-16.

17. J. Carrilho, M. Martins, J. Trindade, L.E. Birgegard, and M. Fones-Sundell, EstrategiaAlternativa de Desenvolvimento Agrario, Ministry of Agriculture, Maputo, 1990.

18. United Nations Environmental Program, Report on Program Mission to Mozambigue,Nairobi, 1988.

19. The Economist Intelligence Unit, Mozambique: Country Profile, 1989-90, p. 18.

20. "Norwegian Aid and the Environment in Mozambique - An identification of Issues" ETC,Newcastle UK and Chr. Michelsens Institute, Bergen, Norway, 1990, p. 25.

21. The World Bank and International Fund for Agricultural Development, People's Republic ofMozambique: Second Agricultural Rehabilitation P roect, 1987.

22. Urban and Industrial Pollution of Coastal of Waters and Estuaries are Discussed in Detail inWorld Bank, Mozambique: Local Government Sector Study (AF6IN, Draft 1991, Chapter V).

23. NORAD, Op. ci., p.23.

24. ibid. pp. 30-33.

25. George Maleux, National Survey of Forest Resources, 1979.

26. ibid.

27. A. Fraser and E. Karkari, Forest Sub-Sector Study. Mozambigue, UNFAO, May 1987, p.12.

28. , p.10.

29. ibid, p.17.

29

30. GTA/National Institute for Physical Planning (INPF),"Mozambique- Situacao Actual de MeioAmbient", Maputo, 1990, p.105.

31. K.L. Tinley, A.J. Rosinha, Jose L.P. Lobao Tello and T.P. Dutton, "Wildlife and Wildplacesin Mozambique", ORYX, Vol. 13, No. 4, 1976. see also IUCN Directory of AfrotopricalProtected Areas.

32. The World Bank, October 1989, _Qpcit., p. 2.

33. Emergency Appeal for Mozambique:Background Information, Draft, National EmergencyCommission, 1990.

34. ibid.

35. OXFAM, Emergencv Situation Report - Zambezia Province, March 17, 1990.

36. Personal Communication from Action Aid staff undertaking the study on Fishery Profile inZambezia Province.

37. J. Carrilho, Maputo, 1990, Op.cit.

38. John W. Bruce, Options for State Farm Divestiture and the Creation of Secure Tenure, AReport To USAID/Mozambique, Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1989.

39. The World Bank, October 1989, Op.cit., p. 103.

40. The General Union of Cooperatives and UNICEF, A Socio-Economic Survey of theCooperative Movement of Women Food Producers in Maputo, Maputo, April 1986.

41. The World Bank/UNDP, Sub Saharan Africa Hydrological Assessment (SADCC Countries):Mozambique, January 1990, p. 2-1.

42. Assessment of the Present and Future Activities Related to the Zambezi Action Plan, UnitedNations Environmental Program, 1986.

43. Jiri Vostradovsky, Mozambigue: Fishery Investigations on Cahora Bassa Reservoir, FAO,Rome, 1984.

30

44. Peter Bolton, "Mozambique's Cabora Bassa Project: An Environmental Assessment", inEdward Goldsmith and Nicholas Hildyard, The Social and Environmental Effects of Large Dams,Waldebridge Ecological Center, Camelford, Cornwell, 1986, p. 160.

45. i. pp.161-162.

46. N.F. Stanely and M.P. Alpers, Man Made Lakes and Human Health, Academic Press,London, 1975, p. 268.

47. Discussion with the staff of the Enviromnental Unit, Institute of Physical Planning, Ministryof Mineral Resource, Maputo, April 1990.

48. Special Project Preparation Facility for Agricultural Studies: Mozambigue Irrigation Sub-sector Studies, Main Report (SOGREAH), National Directorate of Water, Maputo, 1987.

49. ibid.

50. Leendert F. Noort, Irrigation and Drainage in Mozambique, Food and AgriculturalOrganization, 1985.

51. D. Mihajlovich and F.Gomes, Areas de Rega: Inventario e Possibilidades Futuras, DoInstituto Nacional De Investigacao Agronomica (INIA), Comunicacao, No. 53, 1986, pp. 28-31.

52. National Directorate of Water, (SOGREAH), Maputo, 1987, Op.cit.

53. SADCC, Energy Development. Fuelwood Study Draft Report on Mozambique, 1986.

54. The World Bank, Mozambique Urban Household Energy Project, Staff Appraisal Report,May 1989.

55. The Beijer Institute, Upsala, Sweden, 1984, quoted in GTA,Situagao Actual de MeioAmbient", Maputo, 1990, Figure 4.

56. The World Bank, Mozambigue: Issues and Options in the Energy Sector, 1987, pp.5, 23 and24.

57. The Beijer Institute and Ministry of Industry and Energy, 1989, Quoted in GTA, 1990,Opci, p. 19.

31

58. The World Bank, Mozambigue: Household Elasticity Utilization Study, 1990, p. 12.

59. A. Fraser and E. Karakari, May 1987, Qp.iI., p. 33.

60. Luis Astorga, Sergio Chitara, Ake Karlberg, and Amulf Odegaard, Evaluation of the ForestryProject (1977-89), Ministry of Agriculture, 1989.

32

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