Wise Emotion Regulation and the Powerof Resilience in Experienced HospitalityLeaders

ANNIE HAVER!, KRISTIN AKERJORDET!! & TRUDE FURUNES†

!Doctoral Student, Norwegian School of Hotel Management, Faculty of Social Sciences, University ofStavanger, Stavanger, Norway, and Visiting Fellow at the School of Psychology, Faculty of SocialSciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia, ! !Associate Professor, Department ofHealth Studies, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway, and VisitingSenior Fellow (Honorary), School of Nursing and Midwifery, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health,University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia, and †Associate Professor, Norwegian School ofHotel Management, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study is to examine how experienced general managersregulate their emotions in response to demanding leadership duties. This study has aqualitative research design and was informed by nine experienced hotel general managers,through semi-structured interviews. A three-step content analysis was performed usingNVivo. Five themes emerged from the analysis: (1) positive emotions and a mindset ofpositivity as an antecedent to emotion regulation, (2) modifying or changing mindsetsthrough reappraisal and deep acting, (3) putting the mask on: faking and hiding by usingsurface acting and suppression, (4) displaying naturally felt emotions, and (5) deep acting asa consequence of social awareness. The study suggests that wise emotion regulation impliesapplying a wide range of emotion regulation strategies, depending on the situation at hand.As the interviews reflect a Scandinavian perspective, further research is required to replicatethis exploratory study internationally, employing both quantitative and qualitative researchmethods in order to triangulate the findings. Comparative studies with non-Scandinaviancountries are therefore of importance. This study provides knowledge about how experiencedgeneral managers have developed resilience through extensive experience and wise emotionregulation. Results may be useful for improving hospitality management education andshould be used to prepare hospitality students for handling their future jobs. To ourknowledge, this is the first study of hospitality managers’ emotion regulation strategies.

KEY WORDS: emotion regulation, leadership, emotional intelligence, positive emotions,positivity, hospitality, resilience

Correspondence Address: Annie Haver, Norwegian School of Hotel Management, Faculty of SocialSciences, University of Stavanger, N-4036 Stavanger, Norway. E-mail: annie.haver@uis.no

Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 2014Vol. 14, No. 2, 152–169, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15022250.2014.899141

# 2014 Taylor & Francis

Introduction

This study explores how experienced general managers (GMs) regulate their emotionsin response to demanding leadership duties. The global hotel industry is known as adynamic industry and is challenged with rapid shifts in economic, technology, and pol-itical uncertainties (Chu, Baker, & Murrmann, 2012; Olsen, West, & Tse, 2008). TheGMs are exposed to a variety of emotionally stressful workplace events. It is thereforeof particular interest to study emotion regulation (ER) of experienced GMs who havechosen to stay in the industry, thus enhancing our understanding of underlying aspectsof their perseverance. Hotel GMs’ abilities to make good decisions in stressful situ-ations together with an effective ER seem to be key competences associated withgood leadership (Boss & Sims, 2008; Humphrey, 2012; Humphrey, Pollack, &Hawver, 2008). This ER competence is significant in encouraging and supportingtheir team members, emotionally enhancing competitive advantages, and creatingadaptable healthy organizations (Lawrence, Troth, Jordan, & Collins, 2011). GMsmay therefore benefit from using effective ER strategies (ERSs) in order to gaincontrol of their own emotions and to express the appropriate emotions to their teammembers (Hartel, Ashkanasy, & Zerbe, 2011; Humphrey et al., 2008). In this regard,leaders cannot perform ER efficiently if they do not possesses emotional intelligence(EI), defined as the ability to understand and manage own and others emotions andto learn and adjust behavior in order to fulfill organizational goals (George, 2000; Lawr-ence et al., 2011; Wong & Law, 2002).

There are a variety of possible mechanisms for ER in the workplace (Cote &Morgan,2002; Grandey, 2000) that are both substantial and meaningful (Gross & John, 2003).Previous research suggest that leaders are architects of emotional experiences at work(Ashkanasy, Zerbe, & Hartel, 2002; Pescosolido, 2002). According to Tugade and Fre-drickson (2004), the broadening effects of leaders’ positive emotions and a mindset ofpositivity have clear implications for the strategies they use to down-regulate theirnegative experiences considered as a potential antecedent to ER (Tugade & Fredrick-son, 2004). Positive emotions appear to create a mindset of positivity through openness,curiosity, kindness, appreciation, and authenticity. Positive emotions therefore seem toexpand our mindfulness and are an important element of building resilience and closerrelationships with others (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004).

Gross’ model of ER distinguishes between cognitive reappraisal (antecedent) andsuppression strategy (response-focused) and is mostly used in interpersonal processes.In contrast, Hochschild’s (1983) conceptual understanding of emotional labor (e.g. ER)appears to be more linked to expressed emotions and organizational requirements perse. The extent to which leaders utilize ERS such as reappraisal or suppression (Gross,1998a) or exercise surface acting (SA), deep acting (DA), and naturally felt emotions(Diefendorff & Gosserand, 2003; Hochschild, 1983) is consequently interesting toinvestigate because these individual differences seem to have implications for theiremotions, the quality of their relationships, and their well-being (Haver, Akerjordet,& Furunes, 2013; John & Gross, 2004). While there has been a lot of research con-ducted on service providers in performing emotional labor (e.g. ER) (Chu et al.,2012; Lee & Ok, 2012), little is known about how leaders regulate their emotions(Haver et al., 2013; Humphrey, 2012). The purpose of this study is therefore to

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 153

examine how experienced GMs regulate their emotions in response to demanding lea-dership duties. As far as we know, this is the first empirical study examining whichERSs GMs’ use within the hospitality industry. By filling this gap, this study providesa valuable contribution to the leadership domain.

Literature Review

Leadership, Emotions and Emotion Regulation

Leadership is indeed an emotionally contagious process between leaders and fol-lowers; everything a leader says or leaves unsaid or undone has an emotionaleffect on their followers (Connelly & Ruark, 2010; Dasborough & Ashkanasy,2002; Yukl, 2010). Leaders who are excited, enthusiastic, and energetic are morelikely to create a positive emotional environment, enhancing a positive outlook onstress and resilience (Seligman, 2004; Siebert, 2005). In contrast, leaders who feeldistressed can display negative emotions, thus influencing their followers negatively(Dasborough, 2006; Sy, Cote, & Saavedra, 2005). Leaders’ emotional competencies(e.g. ER) are therefore of great significance for how they handle long work hours,how they overcome frustration when encountering problems, and how they maintainconfidence in order to reduce stress (Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee, 2004; Humphreyet al., 2008). Moreover, leaders who effectively regulate their emotions, as well asproduce the required emotional expression (display rules) without appearing insincereor experiencing increased stress are more likely to create a healthy organization and toget through adversity (Brundin, Patzelt, & Shepherd, 2008; Haver et al., 2013;Tugade & Fredrickson, 2007).The effectiveness of leaders’ ERS seems to be influenced by the context, suggesting

that a particular regulation strategy can be adaptive in one work situation and maladap-tive in another (Cote, 2005; John & Gross, 2007). This highlights a need for hospitalityleaders who are able to handle the emotional landscape mindfully through wise ER(Cote, Miners, & Moon, 2006; Gross & John, 2002). According to Cote et al.(2006), leaders with a wise ER have the ability to use a wide array of ERS to suit aparticular circumstance consciously (Gross, 1998a). They are thus able to judge theappropriateness of these behaviors based on their consequences and make gooddecisions despite stressful situations (Gross & John, 2002). Positive emotions areuseful in achieving resilience by having faith to “ride out the storm”, handleanxiety, and tolerate frustrations. Through experiences of positive emotions, leadersbuild a quantum of effective and long-term coping resources, becoming more optimis-tic, creative, knowledgeable, resilient, socially integrated, and healthy (Grotberg,2003; Tugade, Fredrickson, & Feldman, 2004). Positive emotions appear to broadenthe leader’s momentary thought–action repertoire leading to a unique ability todown-regulate negative emotions and building resilience characterized by a mindsetof positivity (Cohn, Fredrickson, Brown, Mikels, & Conway, 2009; Grotberg, 2003;Tugade & Fredrickson, 2007). Along these lines, resilient leaders with a high levelof EI therefore seem to regulate their emotions more wisely than their counterparts,recognizing and understanding their own emotions and those of others (e.g. socialcognition) (Cote et al., 2006; Lee & Ok, 2012; Liu, Prati, Perrewe, & Ferris, 2008).

154 A. Haver et al.

Being emotionally sensitive and able to modulate how they experience their emotionsas leaders, as well as how they express themselves, is therefore of significance(Cheung & Tang, 2009; Lopes, Salovey, Beers, & Cote, 2005; Opengart, 2005).Emotionally intelligent leaders are thus more likely to utilize both reappraisal andexpression of DA and naturally felt emotions, as these are effective ERS (Haveret al., 2013, p. 289).

Emotion Regulation

We used Gross’ (1998a) definition of ER which describes it as “the processes by whichindividuals influence which emotions they have, when they have them, and how theyexperience and express these emotions” (Gross, 1998b, p. 275). The Gross’ processmodel on ER focuses on what individuals are doing when they try to regulate theiremotions, such as trying to attempt to manipulate, initiate, increase, maintain, or decreaseboth positive and negative emotions (Gross, 2002). Gross (1998b) differentiates betweentwo ERSs, reappraisal and suppression, where reappraisal is an antecedent-focused strat-egy that occurs early and intervenes before the emotion response tendencies have beenfully generated. Suppression is a response modulation strategy that occurs after theemotion is generated. Previous laboratory research on ER shows that reappraisal and sup-pression strategies have different interpersonal outcomes (John & Gross, 2004). Peopleusing reappraisal control their emotions by changing the way they think about a situation.By reinterpreting what they find stressful, they experience and express more positiveemotions and are considered to have greater self-esteem and life satisfaction (John &Gross, 2004, 2007). Although reappraisal has been positively associated with high inter-personal functioning, it is more difficult to execute because it requires a high degree ofconsciousness and personal efforts to change emotionally charged situations (Haveret al., 2013, p. 288). On the other hand, individuals using suppression mask their innerfeelings involving the inhibition (mitigating) of an unwanted emotion (Beal & Trouga-kos, 2013). Suppressors experience and express less positive emotions (John & Gross,2004). Thus, suppression is associated with less desirable consequences such as stress,inauthenticity, decreased interpersonal functioning, and reduced well-being (John &Gross, 2004; Lee & Ok, 2012). Both reappraisal and suppression strategies operatealong a continuum from conscious, effortful controlled regulation of emotions to uncon-scious, effortless, and automatic regulation (Bargh & Williams, 2007; Gross & Thomp-son, 2006). Gross’ process model of ER seems to be complimentary to Hochschild’s(1983) model of “Emotional Labor” involving the ERSs of DA and SA (Cote, VanKleef, & Sy, 2013; Grandey, 2000). Emotional labor is defined as the “management offeelings to create a publicly observable facial and bodily display in order to eitherevoke or suppress an emotion within the workplace” (Grandey, 2000). DA (i.e. reapprai-sal, Cote et al., 2013) occurs before an emotion is fully under way and refers to theprocess of modifying inner feelings to express appropriate emotions (Grandey, 2000).For example, leaders may engage in DA when they speak passionately about theirachievements or when thinking about uplifting moments to amplify both their personalexperience and public display of confidence (Cote et al., 2013). SA (i.e. suppression,Cote et al., 2013) involves actively faking desired emotions or hiding natural ones forthe particular episode, the felt emotions being distinguished from the displayed emotions

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 155

(Grandey, 2000). For example, GMs may use SA when pretending they are excited abouta change required from headquarters (HQ). Both SA and DA are considered to be com-pensatory strategies that people use when they cannot spontaneously display the appro-priate emotions, which requires emotional energy (Grandey, 2003; Totterdell & Holman,2003). Display of naturally felt emotions is also considered as an important ERS, whichhas received little attention within organizational research (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993;Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005). Naturally felt emotions refer to the process ofexpressing authentic, genuine emotions. Both DA and naturally felt emotions producemore authentic displays of emotions and are associated with an increased sense of per-sonal accomplishment and desirable work outcomes (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002;Gardner, Fischer, & Hunt, 2009; Liu et al., 2008).

Methods

Research Methodology

This study has a qualitative research design and was informed by nine experiencedhotel GMs through semi-structured interviews. The interviews were audio-recordeddigitally and transcribed verbatim. A qualitative design was selected because it pro-vided opportunities to expand our conceptual understanding of ER related to leadershipin order to capture important nuances and paradoxical relationships (non-linear pro-cesses). The qualitative interview was considered a conversation with clear intentionand structure, the purpose being to illuminate the study of topics in an exhaustiveway (Kvale & Brinkman, 2009). The interview also attempted to understand theworld from the GMs’ perspectives and was about capturing the individual’s point ofview, along with describing and explaining the meaning of their emotional experiences(Bryman, 2004; Kvale & Brinkman, 2009). In a leadership context, qualitative inter-views complement quantitative research by showing a wider range of leader behaviorsand better describe what leaders think, feel, and experience, thus getting “closer to thetruth” (Bryman, 2004); hence, this approach was appropriate when the aim was tocapture GMs’ emotional experiences due to an underlying assumption that GMs withextensive experience have dealt with difficult leadership tasks in efficient ways.

Sampling and Sample

A purposive sampling procedure was applied. This procedure is adequate when select-ing informants who possess a required status or are endowed with special knowledge, toprovide the researcher with vital information they seek (Whitehead & Annells, 2007).New informants were added up to saturation (n + 1), meaning that when no newknowledge appeared, only one more interview was undertaken (Silverman, 1997).This resulted in nine expert informants. Criteria for selecting experts were that they:(1) had at least 10 years of managerial experience from the hospitality industry; (2)had at least three years of higher education; (3) were employed in a medium orlarge, well-established hotel which was part of an international hotel chain; (4) werereporting directly to HQ, and (5) had at least 80–100 employees (workforce). Theexpert informants (GMs) were aged between 44 and 63 years, with an average age

156 A. Haver et al.

of 47. Five were female and four were male. Their average work experience was 16years’ full time based as upper tier hospitality leaders representing three of thelargest hotel chains in Norway, whereof two are well known internationally. Eightout of nine represented a large international hotel chain. Most held the position ofGM and a few were Human Resource Managers and Head Quarter Directors with anextensive experience as GMs. No personal information about the participants beyondtheir job descriptions and experiences was collected.

Data Collection

The first author collected the data based on a semi-structured interview guide, whichwas anchored in a recent systematic literature review on the topic (Haver et al.,2013). The interviewer’s role was to ask questions designed to elicit detailed descrip-tions of the GMs’ reflections in regard to the study aim. The interviews were in Nor-wegian and lasted between 90 and 120 minutes and covered a wide variety of ERtopics. Expert informants (GMs) were encouraged to share their own experiences ofER. Typical questions were: “To what degree do you think you fake, hide, orcontrol your emotions and is there any acceptance for venting emotions?” “To whatdegree do you think you show naturally felt emotions (authenticity)?” Moreover, ques-tions about how GMs regulated their emotions when encountering job stressors werereflected upon. Even though the main focus was the GMs’ ERS, they showed an aware-ness of others’ ER (Head Quarters and their team managers) reflecting that ER seems tobe an inherently social process (Cote et al., 2013; Grandey, Diefendorff, & Rupp,2013), thus highlighting a relational aspect of ER. During the interviews, some ofthe GMs’ own emotions were roused by the emotions they were talking about.Several spoke positively and powerfully about emotional experiences and about theirown enthusiasm for their jobs. No one seemed to be unaffected by the interviews.

Analytical Process

Our content analysis consisted of three steps. First, the transcribed interviews were readthrough several times to obtain a sense of the whole (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004).Second, a preliminary analysis was conducted by using the qualitative analysis softwareprogram NVivo 10. After repeatedly reading the interviews, the interview texts wereorganized into 12 initial categories (nodes). In this phase of content analysis, theauthors spent time discussing and comparing the content to support the analytical val-idity at descriptive level (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004; Walsh, 2003). From theanalytical process, 10 categories remained. Third, the authors reflected on thecontent, then discussed and abstracted the categories in order to produce a newinterpretation (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Five themes emerged at a higher abstractionlevel. The themes that were labeled in consensus with all authors formed a group ofcontent that shares a commonality, which are in many ways the core feature of thequalitative content analysis (Graneheim & Lundman, 2004).

During the analytical process, the authors experienced thatNVivo led tomore freedomto play with ideas and categories. The categories let us use words, phrases, and ideasdirectly from the interview texts, which captured valuable information such as

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 157

happenings and the GMs’ use of ERS, emotional experiences, the atmosphere, and theparticipants’ engagement (Walsh, 2003). To ensure the scientific quality of the quotes,a bilingual expert was used in the translation process from Norwegian to English.

Ethical Considerations

The research protocol was approved and accepted by The Norwegian Social ScienceData Services in accordance with the Norwegian Data Registers Act (No. 30311).Before the interviews, the GMs received both oral and written information about thestudy, were made aware of the voluntary nature of participation and the possibilityto withdraw from the study at any time. Before analysis, all content in the data thatwould allow the respondents to be identified was removed to guarantee confidentiality.Thus, each interview was consequently marked with an “identification code”. Thisresearch is considered sensitive as it involves inquiry into personal aspects of hospital-ity leaders’ working lives beyond what they would normally disclose (Liamputtong,2007). The GMs’ reflections, however, supported the notion that research participantsmay find it helpful to express themselves and reveal their concerns in a way they mightnot otherwise be able to. Ethical principles were nevertheless adhered to on a continualbasis throughout the research process, permeating every aspect of the research design(Polit & Beck, 2006).

Findings

The five themes which emerged from the qualitative data analysis were as follows:(1) positive emotions and a mindset of positivity as an antecedent to ER, (2) modifyingor changing mindsets through reappraisal and DA, (3) putting the mask on: faking andhiding by using SA and suppressing, (4) displaying naturally felt emotions, and (5) DAas a consequence of social awareness.

Positive Emotions and a Mindset of Positivity as an Antecedent to EmotionRegulation

Positive emotions and resilience characterized by positivity (mindset of positivity) wereof high significance for the GMs and seem to be a basic condition for their ER. In theface of adversity, they used their positivity to cope with challenging leadership duties.

If you are positive, you see solutions. There’s more development in this than ifyou only think about negative consequences. We are always on the case, risingto challenges and thinking creatively. (L3)

I think that GMs are full of energy and enthusiasm. They have to be secure, inde-pendent, robust and tough. (L6)

A mindset of positivity was also seen as crucial for both career development and theorganizational culture.

158 A. Haver et al.

What really matters is that you have a positive attitude. Attitude is everything –and it is inherent in you as a person. It’s the people with the right attitude I want.Those are the ones I want to work with. (L7)

The ones who really want to climb up and move forward, they usually succeed.They often have the energy and the enthusiasm. The opportunities are there, andthis is a very dynamic organization where you should be happy and have fun atwork. (L8)

Moreover, the expert informants (GMs) frequently emphasized that the hospitalityindustry is a dynamic and challenging environment, where effective problem-solvingand moving ahead was important. They also claimed to adapt to new circumstancesquickly and respond to situational pressures in a flexible manner by reflecting a positivepsychological response to stress. In other words, they sat “loose in their saddles” andhad a high capacity to handle diversity and solve problems constructively. Having apositive and flexible mindset was therefore perceived to lead to more creativity,being part of something beyond themselves.

A lot of it is controlled stress, but you have to think positively. All jobs can bestressful, but you have to approach it as a positive thing because then it can beviewed from a different perspective. (L3)

I think those of us working in the hospitality industry are inquisitive. We areemotional and outgoing people. We never know what will happen next. It’svibrant and there’s action going on. You’re part of something instead of sittingalone in your office. (L1)

When dealing with uncertainty and change requirements that inevitably emerge intheir organizations, they were likely to use inner strengths such as their self-confidenceand experiences.

Most of the experienced GMs who’ve been around for a long time are prettytough and confident in themselves. We’re robust and know it will work outbecause we’ve done it so many times before. We have experience and maybearen’t as jumpy anymore. (L6)

The GMs also emphasized the importance of creating a positive and a meaningfulwork environment, which supports their team members to grow, thrive, and develop.

How can you give them meaning and joy? How can you inspire them? I’m reallyinto meaning and joy in the sense of making you understand that when you’reaway, it has an effect on your environment, so you’re bigger than yourself.Being bigger than yourself means you can influence things to a much greaterextent than you think. (L4)

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 159

They also reflected about meaning as an import part of their job performance.

You live and breathe your job. It is a positive lifestyle, not a normal 9–5 job . . .It’s like an important part of your life. (L8)

Notably, differences exist among teammanagers. Not all of them are necessarily sup-portive, empathetic, or good managers in terms of emotional awareness and relation-ship skills. All GMs agreed, however, that if the team managers (includingthemselves) had serious reasons for being in a bad mood, they would be expected tostay in their offices. In general, bad mood was not accepted among GMs.

I cannot allow myself to be in a bad mood when I come to work. I’m going forgold the whole time, and then you have to perform. You may struggle with things,but you have to be in a good mood. You can allow yourself to be strict and clear,but never in a bad mood and grouchy. (L7)

The GMs emphasized that bad moods reduce organizational creativity, problem-solving, and collaboration.

Bad mood influences creativity and the ability to make decisions. You have to bepositive to think innovatively. If the blinds are down and the lights off, not muchcreativity is going to happen. (L3)

Some also mentioned the contagious effect of negative emotions when a hotelmanager is in a bad mood.

If a leader is in a bad mood, it ruins things for everyone around them. Peopletiptoe about and become anxious, and the guests notice it straight away. (L1)

Modifying or Changing Mindsets Trough Reappraisal and Deep Acting

This theme reflects that the GMs seemed to use both reappraisal and DA. Theimportance of having a conscious mindset was emphasized, especially due to thefact that GMs appeared to be “emotionally involved in work” by taking responsibil-ity 24/7.

If you want to work with people, you have to be good at emotion regulation. Ihave a very open dialogue with my team, and it’s quite demanding. To me, it’sreally important to think things through. (L8)

There are always screw ups, but if you don’t take responsibility and evaluate thesituation constructively, you’ll never improve. (L7)

It is likely that most of the GMs invest time and energy in reflecting and learningabout their strengths and weakness because their ER reflects EI. This is particularly

160 A. Haver et al.

illuminated by their self-reflections and willingness to learn how to regulate their ownemotions constructively.

I’ve been given feedback that everyone knows when I’m in a bad mood. That hasbeen an important lesson for me, and I chose to start with a personal coach at anearly stage so I could learn. It was entirely about having to clean up my own back-yard before starting to build in others, in a way. (L4)

I’ve always had a temper, and I’m not always able to hide it. I really recognizethat I have to pull myself together . . . to sit here a while to collect myself.Then the mirror in my office is a good thing to have. (L9)

Moreover, they were likely to use a reappraisal (e.g. DA) strategy to control theiremotions by modifying/changing the way they thought about a challenging situation.Several mentioned the importance of using reappraisal to avoid stress.

When I disagree with decisions made by the chain, I can experience it as stressful.It depends on how you’ve regulated your feelings and how you’re coping. I don’tbecome stressed, but annoyed when I get the message that “this is how it is –think clearly . . . just deal with it”. Then I think that I just have to take a freshview of it and be professional in order to sell it on. (L8)

All GMs perceived requirements imposed by HQ to be demanding, which induceddifferent emotional reactions. Some experienced that such requirements hamperedthe execution of their leadership duties, while others seemed to regulate their emotionseffectively by using reappraisal and/or DA.

When the guys at the headquarter are telling you that you have to save, save andsave again, then you reply, yes, OK, I’ll save. You have to fight with yourself con-stantly, have an inner constructive dialogue, and that’s the challenge . . . (L6)

Putting the Mask on: Faking and Hiding by Using Surface Acting and Suppressing

In order to protect themselves emotionally, GMs often used SA and suppressing strat-egies. Some of them used metaphors like being “afraid to lose face” or expressed a needto “keep the mask on”. SA/suppressing was also applied in order to manage fear, chal-lenges, and to conceal their own uncertainties at different leadership levels, whichappeared to be a leakage of energy.

I thinkwe fake it becausewewant to appearmore respectable thanweare. Somewantto appearmore authoritarian, but they aren’t. They are very insecure on the inside butthey put on a mask which they might often feel uncomfortable with. Some might begood actors but in the long run their employees will see through them. (L8)

In tough times, I think the easiest thing to do is to create a facade, a facade ofsecurity and control. Then you use all your time to contain yourself, and then

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 161

you aren’t able to see how others are doing, because you’re using all of yourenergy on yourself. Most hotel managers put on an act for their superiors.Even my boss, and my boss’s boss play this game. (L4)

We like to make ourselves look good in this business, and we’re inclined to put ona formal appearance and waffle on in empty jargon. So there’s a lot of suppressedfear and you create a mask of control for yourself . . . and you have to find a sol-ution without losing face. (L4)

Common to all expert informants (GMs) was their practical concern about how to“protect” their team managers, while at the same time supporting them in meetingdemands imposed by HQ (e.g. from onerous cost-cutting imposed by HQ).

From time to time you have to bite the bullet and go with it. Then, obviously, eventhough I’ve been frustrated and annoyed without showing it, I have to convey ahigh degree of enthusiasm when presenting this further to my team. (L8)

Having a lot of tough requirements from headquarters and having to defend theminternally brings on stress. As General Managers, we’re the ones who have to befronting this, and it puts us in impossible situations. I’m not saying they have towork more or they’ll lose their jobs . . . rather I’m focusing more on my ‘escapebutton’ that is telling me they have to sell more. (L6)

Further, the GMs reflected on the use of SA due to the power aspects of their leader-ship role (e.g. suppressing of emotions), highlighting interdependence.

In regard to respecting their general manager, I find that the management teamcontrol themselves more than they should. I think they put on a pretensetowards you because you’re the boss. They want to present themselves asnicer, greater and smarter. (L3)

The GMs’ ER was described similarly.

As General Managers, we fear HQ the most. You communicate differently withthose at a higher level than yourselves. Then you adjust what you display. (L5)

Displaying Naturally Felt Emotions

All GMs experienced that emotionally loaded team managers frequently came to seethem. Venting of emotions was therefore seemed to be an important part of ERS thatwas highly accepted within the organization.

There’s a lot of noise and amusement, a lot of talking back, and a high ceilingfortunately. It’s important that they gain closure and pour out their hearts. Theyget to let it all out and I like them to do that so we can move on from there. (L2)

162 A. Haver et al.

Further, some GMs emphasized the importance of honesty when they disagreed withrequirements from HQ and opted for a more confrontational and argumentative leader-ship style.

If I disagree with something, I call HQ directly and get a good answer instead ofthinking that I’m not comfortable with this. You just have to deal with it straightaway. If I have good arguments for not doing something, I will be heard. (L7)

Notably, high acceptance was also found among the GMs in regard to displayingnaturally arising emotions (including negative emotions such as frustration, anger,etc.), emphasizing the importance of being authentic. Talking behind someone’sback, however, was not accepted.

I’m very taken upwith being honest and sayingwhat Imean. I care about feedback,and I’m not afraid of giving feedback occasionally. Authenticity is important. As aleader tomy employees, I want to be authentic inmy role asGeneralManager. (L7)

Deep Acting as a Consequence of Social Awareness

The GMs appeared to be aware of role expectations and therefore adjusted their behav-ior effectively to the organization’s role requirements and display rules. They alsoseemed to be attentive (sensitive) to how their actions were received in social settingsreflecting EI.

I think that GMs aremore emotional andmore skilled atmanaging their feelings thanleaders in other organizations. I think that those attracted to the hotel industry are aspecial type of person who likes to talk, is better at reading people and thinks it’s funto receive feedback. I think that those who succeed are socially intelligent . . . (L5)

If you’re capable of having that balance of caring at the same time as acting pro-fessionally upwards, then you get your team on board and you create enthusiasmin the organization. (L8)

The GMs, also appeared to be flexible and able to adapt to new situations, were goodcommunicators and able to control their images successfully.

It’s stressful to approach diversity, knowing you have to make changes. Then youhave to be extremely good at tuning yourself into the environment. (L7)

The chain have expressed that they’re looking for certain types of leader person-alities. They want GMs who are capable of taking the lead, who are prepared totake risks, and who can influence socially. (L6)

At the other end of the continuum, some pointed out the importance of being “tunedin” and the fact that team managers who could not see how to behave in teams or werenot able to “read” the environment did not fit into the organization.

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 163

I have a number who are unsuitable as leaders. The ones who listen to my adviceare advancing up the chain. The others don’t aspire to because they don’t knowhow to behave. (L7)

You always have to assume your role. You are expected to reflect a culture whichis often based on the nationality of where HQ is based. Is it Scandinavian orAmerican? That makes a big difference. (L4)

Discussion and Conclusion

This qualitative study indicates that the experienced GMs’ mindset of positivity andflexible use of ERS was of significance for how they successfully responded todemanding leadership duties. Based on our findings, one can assume that the GMsuse their positivity as a protective and restorative function (e.g. building long-termresources), guarding them from negative emotions and dampening the after effects ofstress (Tugade & Fredrickson, 2007). Experienced GMs might therefore have agreater tendency to draw on positive emotions by labeling stressful events as opportu-nities rather than threats through reappraisal or DA and are thus able to adapt to unex-pected and changing circumstances (Bono & Vey, 2007). The GMs’ positivityinfluenced how they viewed, understood, and supported their management team byshowing genuine concern for others. In line with previous research, the GMs had asense of being part of something meaningful beyond themselves (Cohn et al., 2009;Tugade & Fredrickson, 2007). A mindset of positivity is a key component of resilience,and leaders who regularly have positive emotions are in some respects lifted up on an“upward spiral” of continued growth and thriving, pursuing novel and creative thoughtsand actions despite setbacks (Ong, Bergeman, Bisconti, & Wallace, 2006; Tugade &Fredrickson, 2004).The GMs applied SA and suppression in order to protect themselves and their team

managers when encountering potential job stressors. Some of them used metaphorssuch as “afraid to lose face” or expressed a need to “keep the mask on”. This indicatesthat experienced GMs understand that there are times when SA or suppression is themost appropriate ERS to preserve their integrity, control their own emotions, and toavoid harmful ones (Haver et al., 2013; Liu, Prati, Perrewe, & Brymer, 2010; Tamir,2009). The GMs seem to possess a wide array of ERSs associated with potentialgain. Contextually, they are therefore more likely to choose strategies that are lessdraining of personal resources and will endeavor to regulate their emotions in such away that is well matched to the demand of a particular episode (Gross & John, 2002;Joseph & Newman, 2010; Liu et al., 2010).To build a culture of openness and authenticity, the GMs emphasized the importance

of displaying naturally felt emotions. Venting of emotions in order to cope with chal-lenges was highly accepted “back stage”. This can support leaders to either use DA ordisplay naturally felt emotions and avoid the harmful psychological effects that accom-pany SA (Gosserand & Diefendorff, 2005; Lee & Ok, 2012). Furthermore, the experi-enced GMs seemed to be quite sensitive to interactional situations and accustomed tousing social cues to regulate their behavior (Bono, Foldes, Vinson, & Muros, 2007;Lopes et al., 2005). Leaders with high EI can recognize, emphasize, and manage

164 A. Haver et al.

their own and others’ emotions so they have a repertoire to regulate emotions that canserve as significant emotional resources (Lee & Ok, 2012; Liu et al., 2008). The GM’spositivity and flexible use of ERS may therefore boost their own and their managementteam’s spirits based on their core values and convictions. Mindfully employing a widearray of ERS and producing the required emotional expression without appearing insin-cere or experiencing increased stress seemed to be the optimum strategies for theexperienced GMs to succeed (Cote & Hideg, 2011). These results lend credence tothe idea that resilient leaders cannot perform ER efficiently if they do not possessesEI, which enables them to learn so that they can adjust behavior to fulfill organizationalgoals (Cheung & Tang, 2009; Lee & Ok, 2012; Ong et al., 2006). In this regard, experi-enced GMs “do not talk about change, but live it” through wise ER and the powerful artof resilience.

Practical Implications

From a practical perspective, this study contributes to an increased understanding ofexperienced hotel GMs’ use of ER. There are at least four important implicationsarising from the results. First, even though ER can be difficult and challenging forleaders (Humphrey, 2012), the key distinguishing factors to succeed as leaderswithin the hospitality industry seem to rely on the leaders’ mindset of positivity andflexible use of ERS, thus, reflecting an important part of the “Broaden and BuildTheory”, leading to greater resilience, creativity, and innovative problem-solving(Tugade & Fredrickson, 2004). Second, the importance of leaders’ responsibility tobecome mindful of their ERS is highlighted due to emotion contagion, reflecting thepower aspect of the leadership role. Creating an environment of positive affectivity,support, optimism, compassion, and authenticity is therefore important contributingfactors to both leaders’ and followers’ health and job performance (Haver et al.,2013). Third, leaders’ ability to “juggle” between different ERS seems to be of signifi-cance in balancing between the organizational goals and their concern for the followers’needs (Boss & Sims, 2008). For example, faking in good faith appears to be of impor-tance, both in protecting themselves (e.g. face saving) and supporting their followers incoping with uncertainty. Fourth, the results stress the fact that emotionally intelligentleadership seems to be significant in making room for physical and mental space forventing of emotions (Haver et al., 2013). The hospitality industry would thereforebenefit from investing in coaching their leaders (e.g. use of experienced leaders),which has clear implications for training of ERS both in practical and educational set-tings. Cultivating positive emotions and a positive view on stress may therefore be par-ticularly useful for building resilience by strengthening the basic skills behind genuineemotional expression and reappraisal/DA, which in turn enhances health and job per-formance (Cheung & Tang, 2009; Ong et al., 2006).

Methodological Considerations and Future Research Agenda

The interviewer’s bibliographic factors (e.g. work/life experiences and cultural andeducational background) influenced the ways in which the researcher attended tothe interview and constructed meaning within that dialog (Kvale & Brinkman,

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 165

2009). An important success factor in getting the expert informants to talk freely wasthe creation of a good, relaxed, and trusting atmosphere (DiCicco-Bloom & Crabtree,2006). This was facilitated by the first author’s extensive leader experience within thehotel industry and considered as strength. To enhance dependability and trustworthi-ness, the same interviewer conducted all interviews through an open dialog andfollow-up questions. To ensure the quality (conformability) of the interpretation, allauthors jointly discussed the findings (peer checking) with a focus on patterns ofmeaningfulness and consensus (Akerjordet, 2009). Internal coherence was ensuredby comparison of the interpretation with previous theories aimed at reflecting therealism of the findings and identification of new aspects. To strengthen the design,quotations from the original text are presented so that the readers can evaluate theauthors’ interpretations, enhancing transparency and credibility. Nine expert infor-mants were considered sufficient due to the richness of data (Whitehead & Annells,2007). Since the interviews reflect a Scandinavian culture, the present results arenot considered ultimate truth. Further, empirical research is required to replicate thisexploratory study internationally, employing both quantitative and qualitative researchmethods in order to triangulate the findings. Comparative studies with non-Scandina-vian countries are therefore of importance. Since positive emotions and a mindset ofpositivity seem to be important indicators in regard to how experienced GMs regulatetheir emotions, it would be of interest to further explore whether leaders in the hospi-tality industry have a higher degree of a positive mindset and EI compared with leadersfrom other industries. Further, more research is required in regard to both DA anddisplay of naturally felt emotions related to leadership. Given the fact that leadersare architects of emotional experiences at work, more research is also required toexplore how leaders’ use of ER influences the team members’/followers’ emotions.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the expert informants (GMs) for their valuablereflections used in this article. We would also like to thank Anita Shenoi for her out-standing contribution in reviewing the language of this paper. The Faculty of SocialSciences at the University of Stavanger provided support in the form of a grant forthe development of this article.

References

Akerjordet, K. (2009). An inquiry concerning emotional intelligence and its empirical significance, no. 61(PhD in management). University of Stavanger, Stavanger.

Ashforth, B. E., & Humphrey, H. R. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identity.Academy of Management Review, 18(1), 88–115. doi:10.2307/258824

Ashkanasy, N. M., Zerbe, J. W., & Hartel, J. E. C. (2002).Managing emotions in the workplace. New York,NY: Sharpe.

Bargh, J. A., & Williams, L. E. (2007). The nonconscious regulation of emotion. In J. J. Gross (Ed.),Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 429–445). New York, NY: Guildford Press.

Beal, D. J., & Trougakos, P. J. (2013). Episodic intrapersonal emotion regulation. In A. A. Grandey, J.M. Diefendorff, & D. E. Rupp (Eds.), Emotional labor in the 21st century (pp. 31–56). New York,NY: Routledge.

166 A. Haver et al.

Bono, J. E., Foldes, H. J., Vinson, G., & Muros, J. P. (2007). Workplace emotions: The role of supervisionand leadership. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1357–1367. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.92.5.1357

Bono, J. E., & Vey, M. A. (2007). Personality and emotional performance: Extraversion, neuroticism, andself-monitoring. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12(2), 177–192. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.12.2.177

Boss, A. D., & Sims, H. P.Jr. (2008). Everyone fails! Using emotion regulation and self-leadership forrecovery. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 23(2), 135–150. doi:10.1108/02683940810850781

Brotheridge, C. M., & Grandey, A. A. (2002). Emotional labor and burnout: Comparing two perspectives of“people work”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60(1), 17–39. doi:10.1006/jvbe.2001.1815

Brundin, E., Patzelt, H., & Shepherd, D. A. (2008). Managers’ emotional displays and employees’ willing-ness to act entrepreneurially. Journal of Business Venturing, 23(2), 221–243. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2006.10.009

Bryman, A. (2004). Qualitative research on leadership: A critical but appreciative review. The LeadershipQuarterly, 15(6), 729–769. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2004.09.007

Cheung, Y.-l. F., & Tang, S.-k. C. (2009). The influence of emotional intelligence and affectivity onemotional labor strategies at work. Journal of Individual Differences, 30(2), 75–86. doi:10.1027/1614-0001.30.2.75

Chu, K. H., Baker, M. A., & Murrmann, S. K. (2012). When we are onstage, we smile: The effects ofemotional labor on employee work outcomes. International Journal of Hospitality Management,31(3), 906–915. doi:10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.10.009

Cohn, M. A., Fredrickson, B. L., Brown, S. L., Mikels, J. A., & Conway, A. M. (2009). Happinessunpacked: Positive emotions increase life satisfaction by building resilience. Emotion, 9(3), 361–368. doi:10.1037/a0015952

Connelly, S., & Ruark, G. (2010). Leadership style and activating potential moderators of the relationshipsamong leader emotional displays and outcomes. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(5), 745–764. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.07.005

Cote, S. (2005). A social interaction model of the effects of emotion regulation on work strain. Academy ofManagement Review, 30(3), 509–530. doi:10.2307/20159142

Cote, S., & Hideg, I. (2011). The ability to influence others via emotion displays: A new dimension ofemotional intelligence. European Association for Work and Organizational Psychology, 1(1),53–71. doi:10.1177/2041386610379257

Cote, S., Miners, C. T. H., & Moon, S. (2006). Emotional intelligence and wise emotion regulation in theworkplace. In J. W. Zerbe, M. N. Ashkanasy, & C. E. J. Hartel (Eds.), Individual and organizationalperspectives on emotion management and display (Vol. 2, pp. 1–24). Bingley: Emerald Group.

Cote, S., & Morgan, L. M. (2002). A longitudinal analysis of the association between emotion regulation,job satisfaction, and intentions to quit. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23(8), 947–962. doi:10.1002/job.174

Cote, S., Van Kleef, G. A., & Sy, T. (2013). The social effects of emotion regulation in organizations. In A.A. Grandey, J. M. Diefendorff, & D. E. Rupp (Eds.), Emotional labor in the 21st century (pp. 79–100).New York, NY: Routledge.

Dasborough, T. M. (2006). Cognitive asymmetry in employee emotional reactions to leadership behaviors.Leadership Quarterly, 17(2), 163–178. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2005.12.004

Dasborough, T. M., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2002). Emotions and attribution of intentionality in leader-member relationships. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(5), 615–634. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00147-9

Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2011). Handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.DiCicco-Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. (2006). The qualitative research interview. Medical Education, 40(4),

314–321. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.xDiefendorff, J. M., Croyle, M. H., & Gosserand, R. H. (2005). The dimensionality and antecedents of

emotional labor strategies. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 66(2), 339–357. doi:10.1016/j.jvb.2004.02.001

Diefendorff, J. M., & Gosserand, R. H. (2003). Understanding the emotional labor process: A control theoryperspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24(8), 945–959. doi:10.1002/job.230

Gardner, W. L., Fischer, D., & Hunt, J. G. (2009). Emotional labor and leadership: A threat to authenticity?The Leadership Quarterly, 20(3), 466–482. doi:10.1016/j.leaqua.2009.03.011

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 167

George, M. J. (2000). Emotions and leadership: The role of emotional intelligence.Human Relations, 53(8),1027–1055. doi:10.1177/0018726700538001

Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., &McKee, A. (2004). Primal leadership – learning to lead with emotional intel-ligence. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.

Gosserand, R. H., & Diefendorff, J. M. (2005). Emotional display rules and emotional labor: The moderat-ing role of commitment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(6), 1256–1264. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.6.1256

Grandey, A. A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor.Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5(1), 95–110. doi:10.1037//1076-8998.5.1.95

Grandey, A. A. (2003). When “the show must go on”: Surface acting and deep acting as determinants ofemotional exhaustion and peer-rated service delivery. Academy of Management Journal, 46(1),86–96. doi:10.2307/30040678

Grandey, A. A., Diefendorff, J. M., & Rupp, D. E. (2013). Emotional labor in the 21st century. New York,NY: Routledge.

Graneheim, U. H., & Lundman, B. (2004). Qualitative content analysis in nursing research; Concepts, pro-cedures and measures to achieve trustworthiness. Nurse Education Today, 24(2), 105–112. doi:10.1016/j.nedt.2003.10.001

Gross, J. J. (1998a). Antecedent – and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences forexperience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 224–237. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.1.224

Gross, J. J. (1998b). The emerging field of emotion regulation: An integrative review. Review of GeneralPsychology, 2(3), 271–299. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271

Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology,39, 281–291. doi:10.1017.S0048577201393198

Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2002). Wise emotion regulation. In F. L. Barett & P. Salovey (Eds.), The wisdomin feeling (Vol. 9, pp. 297–318). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Gross, J. J., & John, P. O. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implicationsfor affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348

Gross, J. J., & Thompson, R. A. (2006). Emotion regulation: Conceptual foundations. In J. J. Gross (Ed.),Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 3–26). New York, NY: Guildford Press.

Grotberg, E. H. (2003). Resilience for today. Gaining strength from adversity. Westport, CT: Praeger.Hartel, J. E. C., Ashkanasy, N. M., & Zerbe, J. W. (2011). Research on emotion in organizations. What have

we learned? Ten years on (Vol. 7). Bingley: Emerald Group Publishing Limited.Haver, A., Akerjordet, K., & Furunes, T. (2013). Emotion regulation and its implications for leadership: An

integrative review and future research agenda. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 20(3),287–303. doi:10.1177/1548051813485438

Hochschild, R. A. (1983). The managed heart – the commercialization of feeling. Berkeley, CA: Universityof California Press.

Humphrey, H. R. (2012). How do leaders use emotional labor? Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33(5),740–744. doi:10.1002/job.1791

Humphrey, H. R., Pollack, M. J., & Hawver, T. (2008). Leading with emotional labor. Journal ofManagerial Psychology, 23(2), 151–168. doi:10.1108/02683940810850790

John, P. O., & Gross, J. J. (2004). Healthy and unhealthy emotion regulation: Personality processes, indi-vidual differences, and life span development. Journal of Personality, 72(6), 1301–1333. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x

John, P. O., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Individual differences in emotion regulation. In J. J. Gross (Ed.),Handbook of emotion regulation (pp. 351–372). New York, NY: Guildford Press.

Joseph, D. L., & Newman, D. A. (2010). Emotional intelligence: An integrative meta analysis and cascadingmodel. Journal of Applied Psychology, 95(1), 54–78. doi:10.1037/a0017286

Kvale, S., & Brinkman, S. (2009). Interviews. Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing.Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Lawrence, A. S., Troth, C. A., Jordan, J. P., & Collins, L. A. (2011). A review of emotion regulation anddevelopment of a framework for emotion regulation in the workplace. In P. L. Perrewe & D. C.

168 A. Haver et al.

Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being (Vol. 9, pp. 197–263). Bingley:Emerald Group.

Lee, J. H., & Ok, C. (2012). Reducing burnout and enhancing job satisfaction: Critical role of hotel employ-ees’ emotional intelligence and emotional labor. International Journal of Hospitality Management,31(4), 1101–1112. doi:10.106/j.ijjhm.2012.01.007

Liamputtong, P. (2007). Researching the vulnerable: A guide to sensitive research methods. London: Sage.Liu, Y., Prati, L. M., Perrewe, P. L., & Brymer, R. A. (2010). Individual differences in emotion regulation,

emotional experiences at work, and work-related outcomes: A two-study investigation. Journal ofApplied Social Psychology, 40(6), 1515–1538. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2010.00627.x

Liu, Y., Prati, L. M., Perrewe, P. L., & Ferris, G. R. (2008). The relationship between emotional resourcesand emotional labor: An exploratory study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(10), 2410–2439. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2008.00398.x

Lopes, P. N., Salovey, P., Beers, M., & Cote, S. (2005). Emotion regulation abilities and the quality of socialinteraction. Emotion, 5(1), 113–118. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.5.1.113

Olsen, D. M., West, J. J., & Tse, E. (2008). Strategic management in the hospitality industry (Vol. 3).New York, NY: Pearson Prentice Hall.

Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positiveemotions, and successful adaptation to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 91(4), 730–749. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.4.730

Opengart, R. (2005). Emotional intelligence and emotion work: Examining constructs from an interdisci-plinary framework. Human Resource Development Review, 4(1), 49–62. doi:10.1177/1534484304273817

Pescosolido, T. A. (2002). Emergent leaders as managers of group emotion. The Leadership Quarterly,13(5), 583–599. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00145-5

Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). Essentials of nursing research. Methods, appraisal, and utilization(Vol. 6). Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.

Seligman, M. E. P. (2004). Authentic happiness. Using the new positive psychology to realize your potentialfor lasting fulfillment. New York, NY: Free Press.

Siebert, A. I. (2005). The resiliency advantage: Master change, thrive under pressure, and bounce backfrom setbacks. Williston, VT: Berrett-Koehler.

Silverman, D. (1997). Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice. London: Sage Publications.Sy, T., Cote, S., & Saavedra, R. (2005). The contagious leader: Impact of the leader’s mood on the mood of

group members, group affective tone, and group processes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 90(2),295–305. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.90.2.295

Tamir, M. (2009). What do people want to feel and why? Pleasure and utility in emotion regulation. CurrentDirections in Psychological Science, 18(2), 101–105. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01617.x

Totterdell, P., & Holman, D. (2003). Emotion regulation in customer service roles: Testing a model ofemotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8(1), 55–73. doi:10.1037/1076-8998.8.1.55

Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). Resilient individuals use positive emotions to bounce backfrom negative emotional experiences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(2),320–333. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.86.2.320

Tugade, M. M., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2007). Regulation of positive emotions: Emotion regulation strategiesthat promote resilience. Journal of Happiness Studies, 8(3), 311–333. doi:10.1007/s10902-006-9015-4

Tugade, M. M., Fredrickson, B. L., & Feldman, B. L. (2004). Psychological resilience and positiveemotional granularity: Examining the benefits of positive emotions on coping and health. Journalof Personality, 72(6), 1161–1190. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00294.x

Walsh, M. (2003). Teaching qualitative analysis using QSR NVivo. The Qualitative Report, 8(2), 251–256.Whitehead, D., &Annells, M. (2007). Sampling data and data collection in qualitative research. In Z. Schneider,

D.Whitehead, D. Elliott, G. Lobiondo-Wood, & J. Haber (Eds.), Nursing & midwifery research. Methodsand appraisal for evidence-based practice (Vol. 3, pp. 122–137). Sydney: Mosby Elsevier.

Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performanceand attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274. doi:10.1016/S1048-9843(02)00099-1

Yukl, G. (2010). Leadership in organizations (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.

Wise Emotion Regulation and Leadership 169