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Prof. (Dr.) Meenu Saraf

From the Editorial Desk

It is no secret that the landscape of scholarly publishing is quickly changing. Across disciplines,new demands and expectations from both authors and readers have encouraged shifting perspectivesamong editors and publishers. My primary goal as chief editor is to ensure that Vidya remainsflexible in attending to the rapidly shifting scientific communication landscape, while also maintainingand intensifying the high standards of academic excellence for which the journal is known. Bysteadily introducing initiatives to the editorial and review processes, I believe that Vidya will furtherdevelop as a flagship for communicating articles and research, all while successfully meeting theevolving needs of its audience. I am dedicated to providing authors with a productive, fair, andtimely review experience.

I sincerely hope that both students and faculty will eagerly access Vidya, as both submittersand readers. This will help us in scoring high in performance measures and moving up in journalranking lists. However, we have a fairly small number of citations, which is a big hindrance to ourgoal of receiving an impact factor for the journal. Lack of impact factor impedes the submission ofhigh-performance papers to the journal because individual researchers hesitate to publish in ajournal without an impact factor, due to research and grant pressures that demand quantitativeperformance assessment through these metrics. Though our journal has a long history and it continuesto improve with time, we cannot really ignore the importance ascribed to the ranking exercises. Itis time for us to look at the journal as truly international and continue to work hard to help thejournal in climbing up the ranking ladder. We should find better articles that discuss new ideas andresearch directions, original articles that can create deep interest in the readership of the journaland content that the researchers do not want to miss. Together we would work towards makingthe journal a truly influential publication. Comments, suggestions and special issue proposals arealways welcome.

Meenu Saraf

IMAGINATION IS THE HIGHEST FORM OF RESEARCH

- ALBERT EINSTEIN

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Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Evolving Role of Trade Unions in India

Rajasi A. Clerk*

Director, University School of Social Sciences, Gujarat University,Ahmedabad-380009E-mail: rclerk4@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date:21-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Trade unions have been recognized as institutions for organizing and protecting rights of laboursince the advent of industrialization. However since the beginning of liberalization, privatization andglobalization policies gained dominance in the world, their role is undergoing transformation theworld over. This paper examines the history of trade unionism in India, factors responsible forchange in the role of trade unions and evolving role of trade unions as institutions of industrialrelations.

Keywords:trade unions, Labour relations, blue-collar workers, Labour reforms

Introduction

The emergence of Trade Union movement in India started with the modern factory productionsystem. Prior to that, though mining and plantation industries were employing large nos. of workers,but there were no organizations of workers as it was difficult to organize these workers.

Between 1850-60, cotton textiles, jute mills and railways were established by the British, whichemerged as the face of industrialization in India. Cotton textiles in particular were one of the first

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industries to be unionized. These three were major pillars of the trade unions in India.

During the freedom movement, trade unions were patronised by political parties and the freedommovement helped trade unions to be recognised as legal labour organisations to promote theinterests of the working class in the organised sector of the economy.

Trade unions during the immediate post-independence period preferred state-led plannedindustrialisation model. The socialist ideology encouraged formation of tripartite structures ofconsultation like the Indian Labour Conference, wage boards, Central Industrial RelationsMachinery, joint management councils etc. The idea was that these institutions should be used toreduce the areas of conflict by encouraging dialogue. In case of failure by dialogue, the governmentused the instrument of compulsory adjudications, by appointing state as well as national levelcourts and tribunals.

The result was that trade unions felt that the state has given them a respectable place to voice theirconcerns and thus they were able to enjoy with the help of the state good amount of power toprotect and promote the interests of labour. This period was marked by a social cohesion betweenthe state and the trade unions to improve the conditions of the working class. The policies of thestate were in favour of the working class.

Liberalisation Model: Change in the Nature of the State and Labour Relations

The economic reform process in India formally started in 1991, adopted the Liberalisation,Privatisation and Globalisation, popularly referred to as the LPG, model of development. In otherwords, the country accepted the market-based strategy to accelerate development with leastamount of state intervention. This had an impact on the trade unions and state-Labour relations aswell. The state started strengthening the capitalist class as they were considered as the chiefinstrument to promotedevelopment.

The capitalist as a class—Indian as well as foreign—argued for and aggressively lobbied forlabour reforms. A new meaning was given to the term labour reform‘ which implied mainly thepower to hire and fire‘ workers, freedom to determine wages according to the market demandand supply and freedom to organize work as per the need of the employer without interferencefrom either the state or unions.

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Although the state did not undertake labour reforms‘ by introducing a new legislation to legitimisethe demand of the capitalist class, it definitely worked to reduce state intervention. Consequently,the employers used different methods to reduce the size of the labour, by decentralising productionand even sub-contracting for various operations to small businesses. This led to reduction in thegrowth of jobs in the organised sector and increase in the share of the informal sector in industrialemployment. Regular workers were replaced by contract workers to reduce wage costs, so thatbusiness firms could compete in the market. This started the process of weakening the tradeunions. Lockouts were used by the employers to retrench workers . This process gatheredmomentum in all State irrespective of the political ideology of the ruling party. This further weakenedthe tradeunions.

Reduction of Employment in the Public Sector

Post LPG, the state itself started the process of shedding the load of surplus workers‘ by adoptingvarious methods like freeze on fresh recruitment, by offering workers voluntary retirement schemes(VRS).It is estimated that the public sector accounted for 60 per cent of reduction in employmentin the organised sector in the post liberalization era. The process of privatisation of state enterprises,by the instrument of disinvestment, further led to a decline in organized employment and as aresult,dilution of collective bargaining.

Contracting Base of the Trade Unions

With increasing demands for more skilled workers in the sunrise ctors, especially in the ITsector, a new class of managers and skilled workers are being recruited by business firms.

Business firms offer high wages and perks to these knowledge workers and further promise frequentpromotions on performance or merit basis. Consequently, a new class of highly paid workers isemerging—they do not like to be members of trade unions, but form their own associations toseek more benefits. These workers place individual interest at a higher level than group interest.

Interestingly, instead of getting affiliated to unions supported by political parties, the employees areorganising independent industry-wise unions; for example, the United Forum of Bank Employees,the National Co-ordination Committee of Electricity Employees and Engineers (NCCOEE) areexamples of these types of unions.

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The rise of independent unions has also weakened the role of politically affiliated unions. Politicallyaffiliated unions have shown a change in attitude with the change in the ruling party. For instance,the INTUC cooperated with the Congress Government during the Emergency, and reversed itsattitude towards the government when Janata Party came to power. Similarly, the CITU, an affiliateof the CPI-M, does not force the West Bengal Government to check the rampant phenomenon oflockouts, but is very vocal in other States as a defender of labour rights. The Left unions play adifferent role in States ruled by the Congress or BJP, but connive with the governments in Left-ruled States.

Moreover, attempts of merger among major politically affiliated unions have not succeeded inIndia. The CITU and AITUC, while they believe in ―workers of all lands unite as suggested byMarx, have failed to come together. The Left unions treat the BMS, the biggest trade union, as anuntouchable and would not cooperate with it in any struggle. There are occasions when unionshave come together but parted ways as soon as the struggle came to an end.

All these tendencies show absence of unity among trade unions which are politically affiliated. Thisis exploited by both the government and the employers.

Labour Flexibility

The business class in India has been pressurising the state to permit labour flexibility in business,which implies the right to retrench labour, to permit business firms to replace regular workers

with either temporary or contract labour etc. for rationalizing wage costs to compete with goodsfrom cheap labour manufacturing nations, particularly China, with a view to reduce costs so thatfirms can face competition while earning reasonably good profits. Though the state, due to strongresistance by the trade unions, did not amend section VB of the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 , inpractice, it permitted downsizing the labour force as also increasing the percentage of workersemployed as contract workers. Data provided by the Annual Survey of Industries indicates thatthe total number of workers employed by factories declined from 62.8 lakhs in 1999-00 to 60.8lakhs in 2003-04. However, the proportion of contract workers increased form 19.7 per cent in1999-2000 to 24.6 per cent in 2003-04. The Labour Department has been granting permissionfor closures more liberally in recent years, thus facilitating labour flexibility.

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The changing face of state in labour relations was also evident from certain reported cases ofrepression of the working class which have further weakened the trade unions.

A few instances are: the Government of Haryana unleashed ruthless violence by the State Policeagainst striking workers in Honda Motorcycles. The Government of West Bengal also used boththe police and CPM cadres to repress people in Singur so that the Tata Motors can establish theirsmall car factory. The government promised compensation to displaced farmers, but providedpretty little compensation to displaced tenants whose livelihood was destroyed. The UP Governmentused ESMA (Essential Services Maintenance Act) and the National Security Act (NSA) in the UPElectricity Board‘s strike in January 2000. The Tamil Nadu Government

enacted Tamil Nadu ESMA in September 2002 to suppress the State Government employees‘strike. It also armed itself with radical powers to deal with another strike by its employees andteachers in 2003.

Role of Judiciary

Whereas during the sixties and the seventies, the judiciary played a very pro labour role in protectingthe rights of labour, there is a sea- change in its role after the introduction of reforms.

The Supreme Court judgment in 2003 in Tamil Nadu State Government employees‘ casedeclaredthat the government employees have no fundamental, legal, moral or equitable right to go onstrike. The judiciary had also reversed its own judgment on contract labour absorption in the caseof SAIL. This was a big blow to the trade unions who were opposing flexibility of labour. All thesejudgments indicate that whereas the workers and trade unions could seek redress of workers‘abrogation of labour rights from the judiciary earlier, in recent years, there appears to be a compactbetween the state and judiciary to promote the LPG model of development.

Trade Unions and Emerging New Sectors

New sectors, such as Information Technology (IT), Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) andRetail Sector, with large potential for increasing employment opportunities, are emerging. Theyengage a large number of blue-collar workers as well as knowledge workers.

The knowledge sector employees get hefty pay packets which give them a certain kind of arrogance

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not to be a part of trade unions with other industrial workers. Individual bargaining is the key modeof determining rules of employment relationship. These employees of the IT and BPO sectors arecalled cyber coolies‘ since they have to work for long hours and always suffer from tension arisingout of the attitude of the employer to hire and fire‘ at any time. They also become victims ofemotional stress resulting in nervous and physical disorders. The government wants to declare theIT and BPO sectors as public utilities‘. The trade unions are making efforts so that workers in ITand BPO sectors are permitted to become members of unions. Other additions to the list areRetail Sector and Special Economic Zones (SEZs). The strategy of the government is to exemptthe Retail Sector from the purview of Shops and Establishment Act. In the name of promotion ofexports, earlier Free Trade Zones were exempted from the application of labour laws. Now SEZsare being also declared public utilities‘ so as to provide them the exemption from labour laws. Theunions are faced with two sets of challenges: first, they have to convince workers to shed theirclass arrogance and be part of the broad labour movement; second, the trade unions have to forcethe government not to go ahead declaring any sector as

public utility‘. Both challenges are quite formidable in the new business environment.

International Labour Organisation -ILO and trade unions

According to ILO estimates, 1.39 billion workers worldwide – almost half of the world's totalworkforce, and nearly 60 per cent of the workers in the developing countries - do not earn enoughto lift themselves and their families above the US $2 a day poverty line. Millions of workershave no direct representation, no social protection and engage in survival activities.Inequality between and within countries is increasing. Indeed, the vast majority of people are notsharing in the benefits of globalization and shaping it. (ILO-2005)

Trade unionism is a means for workers to liberate themselves from poverty and social exclusion.Workers use trade unions as their representative voice to demand their rights and improve theirliving and working conditions. The formation of trade unions was a reaction against the mechanismsof pauperisation, notably: low pay, long working hours, child labour and generally appalling workingconditions. Trade unions can become an effective tool for workers to escape

poverty, exploitation and the violation of their basic human dignity. It also means organising collective

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bargaining and other forms of negotiations and creative social dialogue and engagement.Furthermore, it means organizing effective trade union participation in the design and implementationof public policy based on the ILO Conventions. Finally, it means engaging in the struggle fordemocratic governance, decent employment and quality public services, with full access for theunemployed, underemployed, and working poor.

Labour standards, in particular, those dealing with freedom of association and collective bargainingare crucial in securing decent working conditions and social progress. In this respect, certaincategories of workers, most of whom are women, are particularly vulnerable to denial of, orrestriction to basic rights. These include workers in the export processing zones, those in theinformal economy, in the rural sector, migrant workers, and domestic workers Examples of tradeunion campaigns in South Africa and the Dominican Republic testified to the intensity of the strugglethat has to be waged and to the challenges confronting trade unions including anti-union repression,unfair dismissals, poor working conditions, lack of social protection, absence of health and safetymeasures, low wages etc. Organizing workers and defending their rights remains a dangerousbusiness.

The annual survey of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU), says that atotal of 145 people worldwide were killed in 2004 due to their trade union activities, 16 more thanthe previous year. The report documents over 700 violent attacks on trade unionists, and nearly500 death threats. It says that ―trade unionists in many countries continue to face imprisonment,dismissal and discrimination, while legal obstacles to trade union organizing and collective bargainingare being used to deny millions of workers their rights .

Conclusion

Thomas (1999) in his paper raises a number of issues which reflect on the role of the labourmovement in general and argues more specifically that unions need to play an active role in thedevelopment processes and broad transformation, particularly in the underdeveloped and emergingeconomies.

Similarly, Hyman (1999) remarks that in many countries unions have come to be perceived asconservative itutions, which protect the interests of only the elite among the orkforce.

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The liberalisation, privatisation and globalisation model has generated an anti-labour economicenvironment in the post-reform period as against the pro-labour environment in the pre-reformperiod. The manifestation of new ideology can be observed in a number of ways: Firstly, thecollective bargaining power of the unions has been weakened.

As against it, employer militancy has increased in the form of lockouts, retrenchments and closureswhich lead to shrinkage of employment in the the organised sector. As things stand today, the shareof the organised sector has declined to seven per cent and that of the unorganised/informal sectorhas gone up to 93 per cent.Labour flexibility measures have either replaced regular jobs withcontract labour or or they are creating bad jobs‘,which are against the ILO concept of DecentWor . nion penetration in the unorganised ctor only at the

stage of infancy and needs to be fostered at an accelerated pace.In this grim scenario, very littleefforts have been made to organise the informal workers by the all-India trade unions.Since thebargaining power of the trade unions has weakened, it is relevant for trade unions to shed the oldstrategy of confrontation and conflict and shift to cooperation and collaboration. The independentunions, though non-political and strong, have not become very effective in labour penetration anddo not have a large following.

One of the critical strategies that unions may want to examine would be to strengthen linkages withother sectors of society. Recognising the many NGOs and action groups, trade unions may thinkof taking on the role of a mature NGO to act as a bridge between employers and employees.Trade unions in Philippines use the strategy of establishing cooperation with new players (Peoples‘Organisations) and NGOs to address workers‘ issues and concerns, and therefore remain asrelevant institutions of the present times (Bighay, 2004).

References

Thomas, Henk (1999), Trade Unionsand Developme

International Institute for Labour Studies, ILO, Geneva.

Hyman, Richard (1999), An Emerging Agenda for Trade Unions? , abo and SocietyProgramme, International Institute for Labour Studies, ILO, Geneva.

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Bighay, V.C. (2004), The Decline of Trade Unions and the Emerging Actors in Industrial Relations, in IIRA 5thAsian Regional Congress, Seoul.

Mamkoottam, K. (2003), Labour and Change, Response Books (Sage), New Delhi.

Ruddar utt, Emerging Tre in Trade Union Movement , Mainstream Weekly , L No20

Web Resources

https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_dialogue/---actrav/documents/meetingdocument/wcms_111312.pdf-a retrievedon-7-10-19

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Research Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Regulating Collateral Management in Public Sector Banks:Need of the Hour

Hitesh N. Dave1 & S. P. Rathor2

1. Research Scholar &Advocate,2. Professor & Head, Department of Environment & Legal Order,

University School of Law,Gujarat University,Ahmedabad.

E-mail:sprathorsp@yahoo.co.in

*Corresponding Author

Received Date:16-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Performance of Public Sector Banks in India plays very important role as a part of Fiscal Assessmentof the Development of the Country. Profitmade by the Public Sector Banks isthe income in theexchequer of Government. People put trust on the Banks to park their Money, so money lyingwith the Banks considered asPublic Money. It requires to be handle with due care and caution.However, due to variety of reasons the profitability of the Banks reduced from time to time andthereby the Government needs to infuse money which is a resultant loss to the Public Exchequer.Non-Performing Assets increases due to failure of Banks in effectively supervising of Loan givento borrowers.The bottleneck of such causes is poor Credit Appraisal System and lack of CollateralManagement. Authors analyse the cause for the Non-Performing Assets and poor Regulatoryregimes in this research Article. Attempt is also made to suggest certain corrective measures forthe Reduction of Non-Performing Assets by introducing Regulatory measures.

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Keywords : Collateral Management, Non-Performing Assets, Public Sector Banks, StringentRegulations

Introduction

The Indian Banking Sector has been facing serious problem of rising level of Non-PerformingAssets (NPA) for several years. Public Sector Banks manages Public Money and the people havethe trust on the Banks. Banks are therefore, the Trustee of Public Money and it could not bedivested in the form of loss due to NPAs.County’s Development can be pursued through theEconomic Growth which is influenced by the prevailing Financial System, as such, financial systemof the country considered to be vital in measuring the performance of the country.

The economic progress of a nation and development of banking is invariably interrelated. TheBanking sector is an indispensable financial service sector supporting development plans throughchannelizing funds for productive purpose, intermediating flow of funds from surplus to deficit unitsand supporting financial and economic policies of government.

The banking sector has been facing the serious problems of the rising level of NPAs. But theproblem of NPAs is more in public sector banks when compared to private sector banks andforeign banks. The NPAs in PSB are growing due to external as well as internal factors.

Objectives of the Research Article

The objective of this research is to study and compare NPAs of the Public Sector Banks and risinglevel of the NPAs despite regulatory guidelines and laws prevailing for recovery of the NPAs andto suggest measures for efficient management of NPAs through Effective Collateral Management.

Methodology of Study

This Article is based on Analytical Researchon the study, so Secondary Data available from RBIreports, magazines, news papers, bulletins, websites and the Articles published in various researchjournals and papers have been used.

Review of Literature

The Guidelines issued by the Reserve Bank of India on the NPAs have been studied. Comparativeevaluation of NPAs from the RBI published data is the main source and the statutory enactments

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like the Debt Recovery Tribunal and the proceedings under the Securitisation and Reconstructionof FinancialAssets and Enforcement of Security Interest, 2002 has been studied in depth.

Dr. Suresh Naidu Boddu, in his Research Article on prevention of NPAs, analysed Risk ManagementFramework and suggested the preventive measures for reducing NPAs and concluded that theIndian Public Sector Banks have to apply Preventive Measures to combat the NPAs.

ShaleenSrivastava and PratapsinhChauhan, in their Research Paper Institutional Factors influencingNPA, assessed requirement of Artificial Intelligence, (AI) for the NPA Reduction and given thethrust on the Risk Management and Credit Monitoring.

MeenuBhandari, in Research Paper a study on NPA concluded by suggesting several measures totackle the NPAs and the focal point was on Credit Risk Management, Tightening Credit MonitoringPolicy and Improvement of Corporate Governance.

Department of Financial Services, Ministry of Finance, Government of India in Reforms Agendafor Responsive and Responsible PSBs, to enhance the Service Excellence, recommended sixthings made by PSBs. Central Focal point on the responsible Banking, Financial Stability, ImprovedGovernance and Creation of Stress Assets Management Verticaland the Performance of Governanceof the Banks, besides check aggressive and imprudent lending.

Katia D’Hulsterin his brief on the subject Regulatory and Supervisory Development for Non-Performing Loans, considered the financial difficulties on several counts and one of the importantfactors considered was the accepting lower levels of Collateralisation. It was concluded on thepolicy actions for harmonisation of provisioning and collateralisation.

K.S. Venkateswara Kumar, K. Sripath and S. HanumanthaRao, in their Study on Role of StatutoryBodies in handling NPAs traced out the immediate need for the effective measures to be taken bythe Government as well as proper follow up and continuous watch on the movement of theborrowers and stocks and assets.

Dr. SivakumarMuthyala, in his study suggested the diversification of credit was one of theissueinincreasing the NPA.

SaugataChaudari, RasBihari Singh, KausikMondalCognizant 20-20 insights, in their Article on the

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Collateral Management arrived at opportunity lying in Revenue Generation through CollateralManagement and it was concluded to adopt strategic approach and advance technology platformfor handling the collaterals.

Concept of NPA & Classification

The concept of Non-Performing Assets was introduced on the recommendations made by theNarsimhan Committee on "Financial System Reforms" and on the said recommendations the ReserveBank of India evolved prudential norms on Income Recognition, Asset Classification and provisioningand issued the instructions from time to time. Non-Performing Assets is an asset including a leasedasset, becomes non performing when it ceases to generate income for the Bank. It further statesthat a Non Performing Assets is a Loan or an Advance where –

- Interest and/or instalment of principal remained overdue for a period of more than 90days in respect of a Term Loan;

- The Account remains out of order in respect of an overdue/ cash credit;

- The Bill remains overdue for a period of more than 90 days in the case of Bills Purchasedand Discounted;

- The Instalment of principal or interest thereon remains overdue for two crop seasons forshort duration of crops;

- The instalment of principal or interest thereon remains overdue for one crop season forlong duration crops;

- The amount of liquidity facility remains outstanding for more than 90 days in respect ofa securitisation transaction undertaken in terms of guidelines on securitisation dated 01/02/2006;

- In respect of derivatives transactions, the overdue receivable representing positive market-to-market value of a derivative contract, if these remain unpaid for a period of 90 daysfrom the specified due date for payment.

Assets Classification

Broadly, in terms of Banking parlance assets can be bifurcated in two parts :

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i) Performing Assets;

ii) Non Performing Assets

Classification of categories of NPAs

Banks are required to classify Non Performing Assets further into the following three categoriesbased on the period for which the asset has remained Non Performing and realisability of thedues :

i) Sub Standard Assets :

ii) Doubtful Assets ;

iii) Loss Assets

Types of NPAs

NPAs are broadly divided into:

a) Gross NPAs, and

b) Net NPAs

a) Gross NPAs:Gross NPAs are the sum total of all loan assets that are classifiedas NPAs asper RBI guidelines as on Balance Sheet date. Gross NPA reflects the quality of the loansmade by banks. It consists of all the non standard assets like as sub-standard, doubtful andloss assets.

b) Net NPAs: Net NPAs are those type of NPAs in which the bank has deductedthe provisionregarding NPAs. Net NPA shows the actual burden of banks. In India, bank balance sheetscontain a huge amount of NPAs and the process of recovery and write off of loans is verytime consuming, the provisions the banks have to make against the NPAs according to theRBI guidelines. That is why the difference between gross and net NPA is quite high.

Discussion

Reserve Bank of India issues the guidelines on ‘Prudential Framework for Resolution of StressedAssets’. Last guideline issued by the Reserve Bank of India on the NPA is June 7, 2019. That RBI

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in the said guideline Revised the Framework for Resolution of Stressed Assets and it was stated inthe guideline that the implementation of Resolution Plan shall be implemented in phased manner.

Despite the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) being the Apex Bank and regulator of Banks and FinancialInstitutions, still the performance of the Banks and particularly the Public Sector Banks shown thetendency of rising level of NPAs year-by-year, due to its hands off policy till the loan recoveryreach a serious and irrevocable stage.

It is observed that Valuation Reports are obtained from Banks’ empanelled Valuers and Bank donot follow the practice of obtaining Valuation Report from practicing Member from the Institute ofChartered Accountant of India, the same was revealed by the Press Information Bureau, Governmentof India, Ministry of Finance. As per the inputs received from PSBs as on 31/03/2019, FIRs havebeen filed against 3154 Wilful Defaulters. To strengthen PSBs the Government has implemented acomprehensive 4R’s strategy, consisting of recognition of NPAs transparently, resolution andrecovery value from stressed accounts, recapitalising PSBs and reforms in PSBs and FinancialEco System to ensure a responsible and clean system.

Below mentioned data would reveal the past performance of the Banks and increasing level of theNPAs :

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The above Table goes to show that the Gross NPA of the Public Sector Bank rise from 1.2% to8.9% for the year between 2008 and 2017-2018 and the net NPA also increasedfrom 0.9% to8% as percentage of Gross Advances.

Impact ofNPAs :

- Impact on Profitability of Bank;

- Impact on Liquidity of Money in Bank;

- Involvement of Management and time consumption for the efforts of recovery;

- Loss of Credit of Bank

Consequences of NPA :

- Costs of fund increases, resultant effect, the Bank charge higher interest rates, so not tocompete with the other Banks;

- Failure to receipt return from the market and profitability of the Bank reduced so as toBank may not able to generate profit;

- Shortage of liquidity, payment to depositors may not be paid on time, harm on bank’scapital base;

- change in banker’s sentiments which may hinder credit expansion to productive purpose;

- Impact on share holders due to non marketability of shares or due to poor performancethe share holders would not get the proper return on investment;

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Collateral Management :

Various factors play role for the NPAs, these can be characterised as the internal and external. Sofar as the internal factors are concerned, one of the major factor can be described as defectivelending process. Banks need to adhere to i) Principles of safety, ii) Principle of liquidity and iii)Principles of profitability. By safety it means that the borrower is in a position to repay the loanboth principal and interest. The repayment of loan depends upon the borrower’s - a) Capacity topay, b) Willingness to pay. Further, Capacity to pay depends upon, the security offered as collateralsecurity. It is in the terms of Tangible assets and Non Tangible Assets. Poor Credit AppraisalSystem, is a majorfactor for the risein NPAs. Due to poor credit appraisal the bank gives advancesto those who are not intend to pay or offer less security so as not to recover the entire loan amountand resultant effect is slippage of accounts in the form of NPAs.

The review of performance of Collateral Substitutes concluded with the List of Items that need tobe further investigated. The working paper submitted on the Social Finance Programme concludedthe most important findings where :

- Collateral Deficiencies are an important constraint for very small to medium size enterprisein different ways;

- Lack of Collateral can be a constraint also for the Lender;

- Collateral Free Lending would lead to high level of Interest Rates;

- Adverse Selection problem is the most serious problem;

- Collateralisation is closely linked to the Loan size, the larger the loan, the more likely isa Collateral Requirement;

- Cumbersome Judicial Process to liquidate the certain type of collateral may have theside effects;

- There is a wide range of views on the Collateral Substitutes like the Joint Liability,Probation and informal co-maker arrangements;

- Collateral is governed by different legal fields and there is no governing law and regulations;

- Collateral Law influences the choice of Collateral Instruments by contracting parties;

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Further work is required with Collateral related transaction cost, the stability of joint liability groupsand the actual extent of Collateral Free Credit Scoring. In the said case Collateral issues requiresto be open for dialogues :

- Can efforts to reduce the transaction cost due to judicial process be efficiently combinedwith the identification and wider use of collateral substitutes?

- Do modification of Collateral in the Legal and Regulatory environment also affect microfinance outside the formal financial sector?

- Is there a link between the degree of targeting and the use of effectiveness of CollateralSubstitutes?

- What is the threat for accepting the market related instruments as a collateral?

It is observed that Valuation Reports are obtained from Banks’ empanelled Valuers and Bank donot follow the practice of obtaining Valuation Report from practicing Member from the Institute ofChartered Accountant of India, the same was revealed by the Press Information Bureau, Governmentof India, Ministry of Finance. As per the inputs received from PSBs as on 31/03/2019, FIRs havebeen filed against 3154 Wilful Defaulters to strengthen PSBs the Government has implemented acomprehensive 4R’s strategy, consisting of recognition of NPAs transparently, resolution andrecovery value from stressed accounts, recapitalising PSBs and reforms in PSBs and FinancialEco System to ensure a responsible and clean system.

Fraud Cases – Bank Group-wise

Bank Group/

Institution

2017-18 2018-19

Number of

Frauds

Amount

Involved (Rs.

million)

Number of

Frauds

Amount

Involved (Rs.

million)

Public Sector

Banks

2,885

(48.8)

382,608.7

(92.9)

3,766

(55.4)

645,094.3

(90.2)

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Banks need to form strong Credit Appraisal and Assessment mechanism for recovery of loan, incase of account turn to default or NPAs.

Credit assessment and Risk management mechanism are ever lasting solution to the problem ofNPAs. Managing credit risk is a much more forward-looking approach and is mainly concernedwith managing the quality of credit portfolio before default takes place. The documentation ofcredit policy and credit audit immediately after the sanction is necessary to upgrade the quality ofcredit appraisal in banks. In a situation of liquidity overhang the enthusiasm of the banking systemis to increase lending with compromise on asset quality, raising concern about adverse selectionand potential danger of addition to the NPAs stock. It is necessary that the banking system isequipped with prudential norms to minimize if not completely avoid the problem of credit risk anddevelop an effective internal credit risk models for the purpose of credit risk management.

Conclusion

Reserve Bank of India has issued the guidelines for the formation Public Credit Registry forasymmetric data on Registration of Credit. So, Managing and Supervising Collateral is also atough task after the loan is granted. It is required to introduce strict law on the Credit Managementand Recovery from Collateral by taking effective steps, so as to minimise the risk of loan accountslipping into the category of NPAs. which are listed below:

- Unique Identifier Number to each Borrowers regardless credit size;

- Single Point Reporting of Collateral and strict segregation of pre and post sanction rolesand responsibilities for appraisal, monitoring and recovery;

- Development of Artificial Intelligence and Centralisation of Collateral Management bydeveloping three tier reporting system to (i) Valuer, (ii) Collateral Management Department,(iii) Legal Department;

- Standardisation, Consolidation and Assimilation of Data and Validation of Stock;

- Stricter Accountability and Rigorous provision for Civil and Penal Liability in case ofloss of security grade-wise and the higher punishment for the fraud;

- Technical Compatibility and Uniform Format for data reporting of stocks, variance anddefault;

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- Self Assessment Formula for the Bank for the increase and decrease in rank and staffappraisal system in accordance with the credit portfolio;

- Recruitment of Professional Staffs for Valuation of the Collateral and Managing theCollateral Securities, separate Department for Collateral Supervision;

- Daily Supervision on the price updation with Security Markets and the Global Marketfor any drastic change in the price variance be reported;

- Taking timely decision either to Sell the Collateral, taking possession of Collateral,preparing the list of prospective purchasers of the Collateral dealing with the same lineand maintaining such data for immediate realisation from the sale of collaterals withoutany legal hurdles;

- Provision for Fixing the liability in terms of the Accountability, Responsibility of the Staff;

- Recruitment of In House Experts in the Project Evaluation and understanding the projectoutput, likely competition, expertise and versatility of the Promoters and the extent oftheir reliability should be assessed independently;

- Mitigation of Risk at the earliest point of time and to take the prudent decision for themitigation of the future loss;

- Robust Development of Project Monitoring and Artificial Intelligent System with thehelp of the professional bodies like IT Professionals, Chartered Accountants, CompanySecretaries, Cost Accountants, Legal Experts, Marketing Personnel as per the size ofthe Loan;

- Post Scrutiny and Monitoring physical existence of Stock should be develop in a waythat the fluctuations and any sort of variance like Sale and Purchase of the Stocks shallbe automatically reportedto Three Tier System for timely legal action;

- To achieve the ambitious Loan Target and for merely distribution of Loan or on askingby the Government/Bureaucrats the loan should not be disbursed;

- Stop the grant of Loan on Credit Guarantee Back Scheme of the Government without

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any security;

- Waiver of Loan should not be given to particular sector frequently;

- Timely Identification and Measurement of NPA is the most consequential responsibilityof Banks and Prudential Supervision for the effective Financial Stability. Reserve Bankof India may be empowered to take action against Lenders’ Bank;

- Industry profile should be studied as per the extant prevailing market situation the loanmay be disbursed, risk factor may be taken into account;

- It is recommended to introduce Stricter Provisions of Recovery Laws and Amendmentof the Provisions of the Recovery of Debts and Bankruptcy Act, 1993 by suitableamendment and empowering the Debt Recovery Tribunals to deal with the cases ofLenders Liability and empower to fix the Banker’s Liability;

- On the side of the Regulatory Framework the Reserve Bank of India should take initiativeby incorporating the necessary provisions in the Banking Regulation Act by mandatingthe Public Banks to develop and evolve the Uniform Policy on Lending, Centralisationof Credit Appraisal System, Daily Reporting of Credit Monitoring to Banks link with theReserve bank of India and with the expert assistance of the technocrats the evaluationshould be done by constant monitoring on the collaterals.

References

B.Balkenhol and H. Schutte, Collateral, Collateral Law and Collateral Substitute, Second Edition,Social Finance Programme Working Paper No. 26, Employment Sector, International Law LabourOffice, Geneva

Circular issued by Reserve Bank of India, DBOD-MC on IRAC Norms – 2015, www.rbi.org.inWebsite accessed on 05/10/2019

DBR.No.BP.BC.45/21.04.048/2018-19, retrieved from the RBI Website www.rbi.org.in on 01/08/2019

Dr. Suresh Naidu Boddu (2019), "Prevention of NPAs : A Comparative Study on India Banks",

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International Journal of Scientific Research Publications, Volume 9, Issue 1, January, 2019, ISSN2250-3135

1Dr. SivakumarMuthyala, "Non PErforming Assets in Banks as an Offshoot of Failure InCorporate Governance", www.ascgujarat.org, ISSN No. 0974-035X, Feb. 2018, Vol. 10.Special Issue for ICGS -2018, Page Nos. 229 to 237

Fraud Cases – Bank Group-wise, www.indiatoday.in, accessed on 29/08/2019

Fraud Cases – Bank Group-wise, www.indiatoday.in, accessed on 29/08/2019

RBI Data, www.rbi.org.in, accessed on 1/11/2019

Hitesh N. Dave, 2019, Public Credit Registry in India : A Perspective, IJRAR May 2019, Vol 6,Issue 2, E-ISSN 2348-1269 P-ISSN 2349-5138, www.ijrar.org

Katia D’Hulster, "Regulatory and Supervisory Developments for Non- Performing Loans"http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/685901527523168861/Regulatory-and-supervisory-developments-for-NPLs.pdf

K.S. Venkateswara Kumar, K. Sripathi and S. HanumanthaRao, "A Study on Role of StatutoryBodies in Handling NPAs", International Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research,ISSN : 0972-7302

ShaleenSrivastava and PratapsinhChauhan, (2019) "Institutional Factors influencing NonPerforming Assets (NPA) in Indian Banking Sector and use of Artificial Intelligence as aremedial tool" https://www.iimidr.ac.in/wp-content/uploads/Vol10-1-04.pdf, accessed on 05/11/2019.

MeenuBhandari, (2019) "A Study of Non-Performing Assets (NPAs) of Public and PrivateSector Banks – Comparative Analysis" International Journal of Basic and Applied Research,www.pragatipublication.com, ISSN 2249-3352 (P) 2278-0505 (E), June 2019 Volume 9 Number6, UGC Approved Journal

NPAs Written of By PSBs, Press Information Bureau , 9th July, 2019, https://pib.gov.in/

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Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1578985 accessed on 10/11/2019

NPAs Written of By PSBs, Press Information Bureau , 9th July, 2019, https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetail.aspx?PRID=1578027 accessed on 10/11/2019

Reforms Agenda for Responsive & Responsible PSBs, D.O. No. 7/38/2014 – BOA dated 24th

January, 2018, website, https://pib.gov.in/newsite/PrintRelease

SaugataChaudari, RasBihari Singh, KausikMondalCognizant 20-20 insights, June 2013 "CollateralManagement in Focus" https://www.cognizant.com/whitepapers/Collateral-Management-in-Focus.pdf

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Research Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Design and Study of Fluorescent Property of Polymeric MaterialsContaining Heterocyclic Compounds in Their Backbone

Nikita Mishra¹, Saritha Naradala² &Dilip V. Vasava³*

1,2 .Department of Chemistry, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India3. Chemistry Department, St.Xavier’s college, Ahmedabad.

E-mail:dilipvasava20@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date:28-10-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

The fluorescent polymeric assemblies and nanoparticles have become a focus of intensiveinvestigation in diverse fields based on fluorescent assays for detection and labelling. The aromaticpolymers with their fluorescent property are used in wide range of applications ranging from opticalmaterials, analytical chemistry, a biological assays explosive sensing, analytical chemistry, publichealth issues, biological detectprojects and in various fields. A water insoluble aromatic polymerstructures with their hydrophobic nature containing several heterocycles of various types weresynthesised. It was synthesized by the reaction of cyanuric chloride, substituted coumarin and 2,4-Thiazolidinedione. Taking cyanuric chloride as their back bone series of polymers were synthesisedby using different aliphatic and aromatic diols. The solubility,colour and viscosity of new polymerswere studied. The new synthesised polymers were also characterised by UV, IR and fluorescencespectra.

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Keywords:substituted coumarin, 2,4-Thiazolidinedione, cyanuric chloride, fluorescence spectra

Introduction

The polymer chemistry is one of the unique branches of chemistry, as it possesses a remarkabledirect impact on the way of people nearly in every region of the world. A great deal of additionalhuman resources is required to be added year after year to polymer based industries and researchinstitutions. The polymer materials possess wide range of variety and versatility based on theirperformance, applications and characteristics. The polymeric materials have gained much morepopularity due to their low density, chemical inertness, corrosion resistance,fire resistance, elasticityor rigidity, low cost and cheap finishing products. As of the surprising variety of properties ofpolymeric materials [1]. They play a critical and ubiquitous role in everyday life [2]. This roleranges from well-known artificial plastics and elastomers to natural biopolymers such as nucleicacids and proteins that are fundamental for life. Natural polymeric resources such as amber, shellacand natural rubber have been used for centuries. A range of some other natural polymers bepresent, such as cellulose, made of up from the core part of wood and paper. The list of syntheticpolymers includes synthetic nylon, rubber, neoprene, Bakelite, PVC, polyethylene, polystyrene,polypropylene, PVB, polyacrylonitrile, silicone, and countless more [3]

Due to increased demand of polymers with high performance characteristics in various fields includingtheaerospace, automobile, and microelectronic industries,the use of these aromatic polymers isgrowing steadily. However, these polymers are generally intractable and lack of the propertiesessential for successful fabrication into useful forms. Many researchers have tackled these inherentproblems over the few decades by modifying the monomers structures [4,5].

Polymers are used in a broad variety of applications. They find wide use in almost all consumerproducts including plastic parts, cloths, lightweight jackets, shoes, sports articles, electronic items[6], appliances, cookware, countertops, flooring, telephones, toys, siding, sheathing, sporting goods,packaging, auto parts, circuit boards, bottles, containers, fishing lines, gaskets, ropes, stamp making,oil filed scale inhibitors [7], agricultural appliances, navy materials, sanitary, lenses and opticalcoatings, and photo resistors for semiconductor manufacture etc. A digital printing technologyuses a variety of polymers as critical components [8]. They also find wide use in packaging materials

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[9], films and film supports, textiles, industrial yarns, automobile bumpers, moulded items, lubricants,coating agents, adhesives, fibres , and other not reusable articles[10], as well as in biomedicalapplications.

Polymers containing s-triazine ring have become a subject of major interest because the thermalstability of the triazine ring makes it an attractive monomer for use in high temperature polymers.Extensive literature exists on thermally stable polymers in which aromatic and heterocyclic ringsare linked together in main chain [11,12,]. A variety of polymers containing s-triazine nuclei in themain chain have been reported [13,14]. The choice of this heterocyclic ring is based on its molecularsymmetry and aromaticity.

Many reports are available regarding the theoretical studies of s-triazine and its derivatives. Readingthrough of literature on synthesis of various alkoxy, aryloxy and amine or substituted aminoderivatives of 2,4,6-trichloro-s-triazine suggests that cyanuric chloride should be the classed as anacylhalide [15]. An amino group on the s-triazine ring has a character like that of an amino groupin an amide because of the electron attracting effect of the s-triazine ring. Thus it does not reactwith carboxylic acid chloride at low temperature. Analogously, a chloride group on the s-triazinering doesn’t react with an acid but it reacts with an alcohol or phenol [16]. All these experimentalfacts lend support to the belief that cyanuric chloride behaves like an acid chloride.Over the pastfew decades, s-triazine-based polymers have had enlarged awareness in material science.

Synthesis of Polymer

Synthesis of Monomer

6-(2,4 thiozilidine dione)-2,4-bis-(7-Hydroxy- Coumarin-3-Carbonyl Chloride)-1,3,5-triazine[TCTC]

Thionyl chloride (11.9ml, 0.1mol) was added into6-(2,4 thiozilidine dione)-2,4-bis-(7-Hydroxy-Coumarin-3-Carbonyl Chloride)-1,3,5-triazine [TCTC](6.56g 0.01mol) in a dry round bottomflask.The reaction mixture was refluxed at 78oC for 2hours. At the end of the reaction,excessthionyl chloride was distilled and dry product was collected. The yield was about 70%. Theproduct was recrystallized from dimethyl formamide.M.P. 2730C.

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Synthesis of Polyesters

6-(2,4 thiozilidine dione)-2,4-bis-(7-Hydroxy- Coumarin-3-Carbonyl Chloride)-1,3,5-triazine(0.01 mol [TCTC] was taken in the minimum quantity of DMF(approx.10ml) in a roundbottom flask and then stirred thoroughly. Then initiator cetrimide (0.25g) was added and heatedup to 1500C. Bisphenol-A (0.02 mol) was added in to the reaction mixture and temperature wasraised to 160-1800C and heated for 8 hours.The reaction mixture was cooled and poured into250ml of ice-cooled ware constant stirring. Solid was filters,washed with hot water with hot waterand dried. The yield was about 65%. Likewise different diols were added and polyesters weresynthesised(scheme-1).

N NN OO

N

SO

O

O O

COCl

OO

ClOC

N N

N OO

N

SO

O

O O

C

OO

CO

OR

OO

n

Scheme:1 polymerization (1-6)

[PEBPA] : Yield 84%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 826.3 (-C=N-), 1072.6, 1208.5 (Ar-O-Ar), 1596.5(>C=O), 1754.7 (>C=O (lactone)), 3350.0 (-OH).

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[PEHq] : Yield 81%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 814.5 (-C=N-), 1069.8, 1226.6 (Ar-O-Ar), 1642.2 (>C=O),1769.5 (>C=O (lactone)), 3359.4 (-OH).

[PEPh] : Yield 85%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 792.7 (-C=N-), 1084.0, 1206.7 (Ar-O-Ar), 1620.6 (>C=O),1765.6 (>C=O (lactone)), 3374.6 (-OH).

[PEC] : Yield 80%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 794.0 (-C=N-), 1087.4, 1266.3 (Ar-O-Ar), 1637.7 (>C=O),1735.5 (>C=O (lactone)), 3314.0 (-OH).

[PEEG] : Yield 72%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 804.5 (-C=N-), 1058.7, 1218.6 (Ar-O-Ar), 1615.2 (>C=O),1700 (>C=O (lactone)), 3380.0 (-OH).

[PER] : Yield 83%, IR (KBr) cm-1: 809.0 (-C=N-), 1073.0, 1261.8 (Ar-O-Ar), 1617.8 (>C=O),1734.1 (>C=O (lactone)), 3447.9 (-OH).

Result and Discussion

Colour

Substituted coumarin and thiozilidine 2,4 dione based polyesters show different colours. Formedpolyesters are mostly brown and coffee in colour. Polyesters related to Ethylene Glycol, Resorcinol,Phenolphthaleinare dark brown in colour. Hydroquinone and Bisphenol-A are light brown in colour.

No. Polyesters from TCTC

Codes Diol Color Density(gm/cm3)

1 PEBPA Bisphenol-A Light brown 1.129

2 PEPh Phenolphthalein Coffee Brown 1.176

3 PER Resorcinol Brown 1.152

4 PEHq Hydroquinone Brown 1.159

5 PEC Catechol Light Brown 1.148

6 PEEG Ethylene Glycol Brownish 1.119

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Solubility

The polyester is soluble in different solvents which reveals that their insolubility in aliphatic chlorinatedsolvents like Chloroform, carbon tetrachloride. It is also found that polyesters are insoluble inhalogenated and non-halogenated aromatic compounds like chlorobenzene and benzene. Polyesterswere soluble in dimethyl formamide, dimethyl sulfoxide, tetrahydrofuran,ether and ethyl acetate.Polyesters are partly soluble in methanol, ethanol, n-butanol, isopropyl alcohol and ether but athigher temperature some polyesters are soluble.

Solvent 1 2 3 4 5 6

Acetone + + + + + + + + + + + +

Chloroform - - - - - - - - - - - -

CCl4 - - - - - - - - - - - -

DMF + + + + + + + + + + + +

Chlorobenzene - - - - - - - - - - - -

DMSO + + + + + + + + + + + +

Methanol ± ± ± ± ± + ± ± ± ± ± +

Ethanol ± + ± + ± + ± + ± + ± +

Cyclohexane - ± - ± - ± - ± - ± ± ±

Fluorescence Spectra

The graph of florescence intensity vs wave length is mentation in figure 1. The fluorescent spectrumof the polymer PEC is based on Coumarin and thiozilidine 2,4 dione with the aromatic diol Catecholas shown in the figure. It showed that the absorption takes place by polymer from 200-290nm andemission takes place from 290-550nm. The highest intensity of polymer is at 290nm due to coumarinas an pendent molecule. The polymers shows significant intensity due to the aromatic diol.

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Figure 1: Florescence spectra of PEC polymer

Conclusion

The conclusion reveals that it gives explanation of the synthesis, characterization,and properties ofpolyesters. The colour of most of the polyesters were dark. The solubility of the polyesters indifferent solvents reveals that polyesters are insoluble in aliphatic chlorinated solvents likeChloroform,carbon tetrachloride. They are insoluble in halogenated and non-halogenated aromaticcompounds like benzene and chlorobenzene. Polyesters are soluble in dimethyl formamide,dimethylsulfoxide,tetrahydro furan,ether and ethyl acetate.Theyarepartly soluble at room temperature inmethanol, ethanol,n-butanol and isopropyl alcohol but soluble at higher temperature. A fluorescentspectrum of the polyester has proved their fluorescence depending on the structure of the polyester.

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the principal, St. Xavier’s college, Ahmedabad forcarried out the synthesis work. I also express my gratitude towards the department of chemistry,Gujarat university for necessary facilities. I also thanks to ultrasonic laboratory, Ahmedabad for IRanalysis. I would also like to express my special gratitude to UGC, New Delhi for the financial

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support.I likewise express my appreciation to CSMCRI Bhavnagar for the analysis of fluorescencespectra.

References

Benedict J.J.; US Patent Appl.; 278 969; 1981.

Benoit M.-A., Baras B., Gillard J.; Int. J. Pharm.; 184; 73-84; 1999.

Böstman O., Pihlajamäki H.; Biomaterials 21; 2615-2621; 2000.

Boutevin B.; Eur. Polym. J.; 32(2); 159-63; 1996.

Drumright R. E., Gruber P. R., Henton D. E.; Adv. Mater; 12; 1841-1846; 2000.

Gogolewski S; Int. J. Care Injured; 31; S-D28-32; 2000.

Hilty R. D., Hemond J.; Tyco electronics; 403-1015; 2008.

Ikada Y., Tsuji H.; Macromol. Rapid Commun.; 21; 117-132; 2000.

Klein D. J., Bryant R. G., Polym. Bullet;52, 307-314, 2004.

McCrum N. G., Buckley C. P., Bucknall C. B.; Oxford University Press. New York 1, 1997.

Middleton J. C., Tipton A. J.; Biomaterials 21; 2335-2346; 2000.

Painter Paul C., Coleman Michael M.; Technomic Pub. Co.; 1-5; 1997.

Rusu E., Onciu M., J.Macromol. Sci. A, Pure Appl. Chem., 42,1025-1036, 2005.

Swanson L., Flint N. J., and Gardebrecht S.; J. of Fluorescence; 8(4); 343-354; 1998.

Torchilin V. P.; Biomaterials 22; 3035-3044; 2001.

Walker K. A.; Polymer Vol. 35.; No.23; 5012-5017; 1994.

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Review Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Conservation Status of Commiphora Wightii(Guggul):An Endangered Medicinal Plant of Kutch- A Review

Avani N. Thakar¹*&Archana U. Mankad²

1. Gujarat Medicinal Plants Board, Block-19, 3rd floor,Dr. JivarajMahetaBhavan,Gandhinagar-382010.

2. Department of Botany, Bioinformatics and Climate ChangeImpacts Management, School ofSciences,Gujarat University, Ahmedabad-380009.

E-mail: avaniyajnik@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 08-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Guggul (Commiphorawightii) as an essential medicinal plant found in arid areas of Gujarat, mostlykutch and Jamangar districts. Guggul is most precious natural resource and presently being importedto fulfil the need of the pharmaceutical units of the Country. It is well-known as ‘Indian bdellium.’It has become endangered because of its time-consuming growing nature, absence of cultivation,poor seed germination rate, extreme and unscientific tapping for its gum resin by the pharmaceuticalindustries and religious purposes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)mentioned as ‘Data deficient’ at universal level.

Keywords: Guggul, Commiphorawightii, in-situ &ex-situ conservation, Endangered, Threatened

Introduction

Commiphorawightiiis member of Burseraceae family of paramount importance since ancient

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times because of its medicinal value in order to treat number of severe and unrelieved diseases indifferent form (Pareeket al., 2012). It is an extremely precious medicinal plant and yields an oleo-gum resin foremost in Ayurvedic medicine (Chakravarty, 1975). It is famous as ‘Indian bdellium’ inEnglish, as Mahisaksha, Guggulu, Amish, Palanksha and Pur in Sanskrit and as Guggul in mostIndian languages (Anon, 1950). It has anti-arthritic, hypo cholesterolaemic and hypolipidaemicproperties. In India guggul has marketed a commercial product ‘guglip’ since 1988 (Kulloliet al.,2013).

Commiphorawightiiis in danger of extinction due to its banned abuse to be used in pharmaceuticaland perfumery industries (Sabnis and Rao, 1983; Hocking, 1993; Dixit and Rao, 2000). It is alsoused as folk medicine and is one of the vastly commercially exploited species. Poor techniquesjoined with tapping of gum resin have led to its total destruction in its natural habitat (Kumar andBhandari, 1994). Guggul as its locally known has become so rare because of its overuse in Indiaspecially found – Gujarat and Rajasthan. In the present day its existence is threatened because oflittle seed production in an adverse accepted condition and topical environmental changes due tochange in rainfall pattern and increasing level of atmospheric pollution. It is struggle for its survivalin the natural habitat since a longperiod.

Kutch district is rich for C. wightiihaving extraordinary medicinal potential which are being overexploited for its commercial values (Patel et al., 2010). Dixit and SubbaRao echoed the distributionand habitat characteristics of C. wightiiin arid region of Kutch. It is categorised as ‘Lower riskand conservation dependent in Gujarat (LRcd)’ (GEC, MSU and GUIDE 2002). It is threatenedowing to invalid harvest by local community. C. wightiiis medicinally a very essential plant especially,as a source of guggulsterone. Of the 185 species of Commiphora, C. wightiiis a species known toproduce guggulsterone, the plant faces a high risk of endangerment due to various natural andmanmade reasons which have been evaluated by various workers. These comprise time-consuminggrowth, poor seed germination rate, lack of cultivation, unsustainable over- exploitation, unscientifictapping method and attack of alien species (Jain et al.,2013).

C. wightiiis deeply exploited for native medicine. A mature C. wightiican produce 250-500 gmof gum (Atalet al., 1975) and an estimated 300-400 tonnes of Guggul has been sold in Bhuj everyyear. Nearby future Crude methods of gum extraction from younger plants (Joshi et al., 2004) are

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possible to affect its abundance. This species being one of the most respected medicinal plantsneeds special care for its conservation in wild as well as promotion through cultivation. Furthermore,it is common to arid and semi-arid region of Indian subcontinent (Anon., 2002) and has beenplanned under promotional programmes of National Medicinal PlantsBoard(NMPB) New Delhi.Gujarat Medicinal Plants Board plays a vital role for conservation and promotional activities ofMedicinal plants.

Distribution in Gujarat

Apparently spatial changeability (heterogenesity) controls the distribution and abundance ofC.wightiiin Kutch Gujarat (Dixit and Rao, 2000). C. wightiiis generally found in kutch and somepart of Saurashtra regions. It is originated in the whole kutch division apart from Kara hills ofKhawada region, in North of Bhuj, Zava, Nakhtrana, Dayapar, Besulpur, Rawapur, Lakhpat,Garoli, Muru, Amara, Ganjansar and ravines of Mahi river in Gujarat (Atalet al., 1975). Circulationof this species is limited into two main habitats; Thorn and Scrub Forest. It has been facing severethreats in the form of cutting and lopping. Territories of C. wightiiwere ruined by cutting of developedtrees, encroachment, soil erosion, developing activates and human inhabitations that lead to viabilityreduction (Rajendra Kumar, 2013). Thorn forest was originated to be the proper habitat for C.wightii. Sandy soil was found to be the most appropriate substratum of its. C. wightiito bepresent in rocky hillocks and hard gravely soil (Sabnis and Rao, 1983) within the chief substratumof thin calcareous soil as well as on the sandy loamy soils in the ravines and coastal regions (Guideet al., 2002). C. wightiishowed wider distribution (75 locations respectively) and had 9774individuals respectively (Table 1).

Table-1: Abundance, Distribution and Local Threat Status (LTS) of Threatened Plants inKutch Desert (Source: Joshua et al., 2008)

Species Habit Total Abundance

Talukas (Locations)

No. of Habitats

LTS

Commiphora

wightii

Shrub 9774 8 (75) 13 Less

Threatened

(Source: Anonymous, 2007 Forest Department of Gujarat)

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Fig 1: Mapping of Guggul in Gujarat State:

(Source: Anonymous, (2007) Forest Department of Gujarat)

Figure 1 shows mapping of Guggul in Gujarat state. The quality and productivity of Guggul inKutch and Jamnagar districts is crucial in the state. Whereas, the sporadic Guggul is found all overin Junagadh,Bhavnagar, Rajkot, Botad and Amreli districts in Saurashtra, Banaskantha,Sabarakantha, Patan, Panchmahal and Gandhinagar districts. In Kutch and Jamnagar, it is foundall over district except on coastal belt within forests as fit as in wasteland. In Lakhapattaluka,maximum Guggul plants are found and because of its abundance, the forests area is known as"Gugariyana forests" (ForestDept.).

Medicinal Uses

Habitually guggul lipid has been used for rheumatism, haemorrhids, and urinary disorder. Skindiseases and high cholesterol.Guggul is effective as a weight-loss and fat burning agent. Its growthswhite blood cell counts and has strong disinfecting properties. Guggul has been a core factor inprehistoric India as Ayurvedic medicine and now’s commonly used in modern medicine for cure ofheart ailments. (Pareeket al., 2012) Its exudates, oleo-gum-resin which is famous to be veryactive in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, obesity and peptic ulcer (Atal, 1975). Literature

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review displays that the plant has been widely used in rational medicines (Jain, 1991). Used asuterine-stimulant and emmenogogue and hence used in the cure of amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoeaBhil community orally obtain the powder of bark

with water for cough and cold. They also inhale the fumes of resin to treatment fever, bronchitis,nasal, laryngitis. Phthisis and garasia communities melt the gum in warm water and use for garglingagainst Pyorrhea, tonsillitis and pharyngitis (Anonymous, 2001). The resin obtained from the barkof plant and is used as incense and in local medicines (Pandeyet al., 1983). It is also used againstarthrosclerosis, diabetes, internal inflammation, arthritis (Prajapatiet al.,2003).

Materials & Method

Compilation of documents and photographs related to Guggul from Gujarat Forest Department,Gujarat Medicinal Plants Board, Gandhinagar, Gujarat Urban Institute of Desert Ecology, Bhuj,Government AyurvedicUdhyan, NaniReldi, Kutch and also visited Kutch region for this study.

Discussion & Result

Present Conservation Status of C. wightii

C. wightiihas been included in IUCN Red data list (Nateshet al., 1999) v 2012.2 under Datadeficient v 2.3. The Government of India has included it under Rare, Endangered, threatened(RET) category (Kulloliet al., 2013) UNDP has scheduled this species as "critically endangered"The Government of India has banned the export of this species (http: //www.iucnredlist.org/details/31231/0). It is considered to be a threatened plant (Sabnis and Rao, 1983) and over-exploitedspecies in the country (Billore, 1989). As a result, there is extreme decline in the population ofguggul plants in its natural habitat. Therefore, there is an urgent need of conservation of wildgermplasm either in situ or ex situ (Samantarayet al.,2009).

In spite of its usefulness and rare occurrence, this native medicinal shrub has received slight attentionby agricultural scientists (Dalal and Patel, 1995). Thus, it becomes very important to protect thisspecies from the danger of becoming extinct (Jain et al., 2003). Biotechnological approachesmade for guggulsterone production by cell cultures and for its micro propagation still needs animmediate notice for further research work in this direction (Pareeket al., 2012).

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Ex-situ conservation of C. wightii

Ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants involves the establishment of Medicinal Plant DevelopmentAreas (MPDA) like Vanaspati Vans, Herbal Gardens, Biotech parks, Demonstration Plots,Medicinal Gardens, Botanical Gardens, Cultivation in Nursery, Homesteads etc. Nurseries aremanaged by Gujarat Medicinal Plants Board in Government Ayurvedic Garden, NaniReldi, Bhujand Gujarat State Forest Department (GSFD) in many village pockets of Kutch Desert Island;involved in procurement of seedlings, rearing and plantation of saplings (Table 2). Figure 2 Showsstatus of Nursery in Bhuj.

Table: 2 Ex-situ Conservation of C.wightii

District- Kutch, Location- NaniReldi, Government Ayurvedic Udhyan.

No. Name of Project Implementation Year Achievements

Agency1 Nursery raising Gujarat 2015 Total No. of 20,000 plants of

Medicinal C.wightiihave been conservedPlantsBoard as well as No. of 30,000 plants of

C.wightiihave been raised inGovernment AyurvedicUdhyan,NaniReldi, Kutch.

2 Ex-situ conservation Gujarat Medicinal 2016 Total No. of 60,000 C.wightiihaveof Rare, Endangered, Plants Board & been planted in 26 hector atThreatened and Gujarat Government AyurvedicHighly utilized Urban Institute Udhyan, NaniReldi, Kutch.medicinal plants in of Desert EcologyAyurvedic Gardensin as ajointventure.Gujarat.

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Fig. 2 Nursery raising& plantation of Guggal in GovernentAyurvedicUdhyan, NaniReldi

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In-situ Conservation of C.wightii

The in-situ conservation of this species is easy owing to its broad adaptableness in various typesof habitats found within Kutch (GEC, 1996). Site between Sanatorium to Tapkeshwari MataTemple in Tapkeshwari MPCAs (Medicinal Plants Conservation Areas) have been identified asTapkeshwar Seed Bank Areas (TSBAs) for C. wightii(Joshi, 2013). MPCAs are in situconservation sites for medicinal plants that are established in natural forests following a rigorousprocedure (Table 3).

Table: 3 In-situ Conservation of C.wightii

District Location

Kutch-Bhuj Tharavada-Gandher reserve forest (TGRF)

Tapkeshwari MPCAs

Tapkeshwari, Dhirnodhar, Chhapariya, Badargadh, Kurboi-Nabhoi

Gugariyanarakhal Forests

Jamnagar Areas around Rozi, Marine National Park & SanctuaryIn Gujarat, the In-situ &Ex-situ conservation of medicinal plants has been done through variousschemes & projects. The important projects for the conservation of medicinal plants were donewith assistance from National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), New Delhi. The details of projectson Guggul are shown in Table 4.

Table: 4 showing details of GuggulProject

No Name of Project Name ofSpecies

Project Area Achievements

1 Guggul

Plantations Year-

2011

Commiphor

awightii

Project area lies in dist.

Kutch, Jamnagar,

Banaskantha,

Sabarkantha, Junagadh,

Rajkot, Porbandar,

Bhavnagar,

Surendranagar

1465 ha value

(1100 plants/ha.)

Seed Production

Area:2 Creation of 6

MPCAs 98% on

Guggul

Plantation

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(Source: Forest Department ofGujarat,2014)

Fig: 3 Plantation of Guggul in Forest land.

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Narayan Sarovar Sanctuary is one of the protected Areas of Kutch Desert Island for C.wightii(Table 5). The relative frequency and density of Commiphorawightiiwas recorded high inthe Tharawada-Gandher Reserve Forest (TGRF) of Kutch and a sacred plant for Kutch. C.wightii(KharoGugar of Guggal) is predominantly used in the traditional health care system by thevillagers in area of the TGRF (Patel et al., 2013). Andhau Reserved Forest (RFs) backingsthreatened plant species of Commiphorawightii, and Sherdi RF harbours species of C. wightiiofR&E category (Joshi et al., 2013). Gugariyana Reserve Forest in one among the important forestareas of the district having rich diversity of Guggal (Fig3).

Table: 5 Hotspots of Commiphorawightii

Zone Location Districts No of Whether Remarks

Species Protected

Area

Zone V Forest are Dist. 265 Yes(Bardawild High medicinal

Saurasthra around Jamnagar life Sanctuary) plants diversity.

Rare

Ghumliand species such as

Kutur Commiphora-

Dungaretc. wightii

near Bhanvad etc. are seen.

Area around 135 Yes (Marine a. significant

Rozi Dist. National Park because of

Jamnagar &Sanctuary) coastalvegetationb.

Rare species

suchas

Commiphora-

wightiiis seen.

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Zone VI Area Ta. 130 No a. SignificantKutch around Bhuj because of

Dist. aridflorab.

Kutch ImportantTapakeshwari Medicinal species

Commiphora-wightiiarepresent.

Gugariyanar Ta. 115 Yes (Narayan c. Biotic pressureakhal forests Lakhpat Sarovar is very high in terms

Dist. Sanctuary) of woodcutting andKutch livestockgrazing.

Significant becauseof arid flora.d.

Good abundance ofCommiphora-wightiietc.

(Source: Pandey et al., 2005)

Research Institutes and Other Agencies Active in the Conservation Programmes

Gujarat Urban Institute of Desert Ecology (GUIDE) has done lots of research work on C.wightii.IIAR (Indian Institute of Advanced Research, Gandhinagar, Gujarat) is energetically involved instudying various aspects related to this species especially somatic embryogenesis (Kumar et al,2009). CEC member, connect of IUCN, Vineetsoni, is carrying out education awarenessprogrammes in his "Save Guggul Movement" to raise awareness among local rural and tribalpeople in Rajasthan about the IUCN red-listed plant Commiphorawightii(Jain et al.,2013).

Special emphasis on Guggal

Guggul is a very essential species for Ayurvedic Drugs is naturally occurring in Gujarat and Rajshthanstates of India. The olio-gum resin is used in various Ayurvedic preparations. It is an endangeredspecies which is depleting very fast. At present, the Guggul gum is import from Pakistan and

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Afghanistan. In order to get genuine raw material and its natural conservation, this species is takenon peak priority for the state. The protection and propagation inside and outside of the forestareas of its occurrence are decided of Kutch, Saurashtra and North Gujarat region (GMPB,2014).

Conclusion

C. wightiishould be grown in all Botanical gardens for assured safety as a part ofex-situ

conservation.

Kutch (Bhuj), Jamnagar (Singh, 1994) is facing Rare and serious threat of extinction of this plant.This area should be monitored on priority basis for conservation of thisplant.

The protection measure taken by local people should be appreciated at the higher level and somesort of incentive can be given to motivatethem.

Awareness programs must be conducted from time to time at schools, rural or tribal areas ofGujarat to create people aware about the importance and conservation ofplants.

Protection cannot work without the participation of the people; therefore, communal basedconservation programmes must be conducted to conserve thebiodiversity.

Effective research programmes under the leadership of scientists working in various fields as citedabove is required to be launched for establishing reproducible and regenerable protocol for themicro propagation of C.wightii.

Awareness among the people on ecological significance of guggulmust be created. Large patcheswith threatened plants have to be designated as PreservationPlots.

Focused research efforts need to be directed to save this plant while tapping for gum, so that itdoes not turn into critically endangered and extinct in future.

References

Anonymous (1950) The Wealth of India- A Dictionary of Indian Raw Material and IndustrialProducts, Vol. II. Delhi: Council Sci. Ind. Res. P.427.

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Anonymous (1996) Biological Diversity of Gujarat, Gujarat Ecology Commission, Vadodara.

Anonymous (2001) Database on Medicinal Plants Used In Ayurveda. Central Council forResearch in Ayurveda and Siddha, Department of ISM & H, Ministry of Health & Family welfare,Government of India 223-229.

Anonymous GES, MSU and GUIDE (2002) Conservation of rare and endangered biodiversityof Gujarat

(CREB). Final Project Report submitted to Gujarat Ecology Commission, Vadodara, pp. 428.

Anonymous (2007) A Project on Conservation & Development for Guggul (Commiphorawightii)in Gujarat. Forest Department of Gujarat.

Anonymous (2014) Gujarat Medicinal Plants Board, Gandhinagar.

Atal CK, Gupta OP, Abag SH, (1975).Commiphoramukul: Sources of Gugal in Indian Systemsof Medicine. Economic Botany. 29: 208-218.

Billore KV, (1989) "Some Threatened Medicinal Plants of Rajasthan and Their Conservation,"The Indian Forester, Vol.115, No. 8, pp.595-599.

Chakravarty HL, (1975) Herbal heritage of India. Bull. Bot. Soc. Bengal 29:97-103.

Dalal KC, Patel MA, (1995) "Guggal," In: K. L. Chadha and R. Gupta, Eds., Advances inHorticulture, Vol.11- Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Malhotra Publishing House, New Delhi,pp.491-501.

Dixit AM, SubbaRao SV, (2000) Observation on distribution and habitat characteristics of Gugal(Commiphorawightii) in the arid region of Kachchh, Gujarat (India), Tropical Ecology,41(1):81-88.

Dubey K, Dubey KP, (2011) Biodiversity Conservation of Medicinal Plants, Journal of MedicinalPlants Studies,www.plantsjournal.com.

GUIDE. (2002) Study on medicinal plants of Kachchh district. Gujarat Institute of Desert Ecology(GUIDE), Bhuj-Kachchh (Gujarat), India, pp.93.

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IUCN (2000) IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Species Survival Commission (SSC),International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland.

Jain SK (1991) Dictionary of Indian folk medicine and ethno botany, Deep publications, NewDelhi, India.

Joshua J, Wesley Sunderraj SF, Joshi PN, (2008) Status Survey of Threatened Plants in KachchhDesert, Gujarat. In: Rawat, G.S. (Ed.). Special Habitats and Threatened Plants of India. ENVISBulletin: Wildlife and Protected Areas, Vol. 11(1). Pp. 101-108 Wildlife Institute of India,Dehradun,India.

Joshi PN, Joshua J, Sunderraj, SFW, (2004) Population Structure and Dynamics of ThreatenedPlant Species in Bhuj and MandviTalukas of Kachchh District. Advances Biological Sciences 3:13-17.

Joshi PN (2014) International Seminar on "Multidisciplinary Approaches in Angiosperm Systematic",Ecology, Conservation of Rare, Endangered and Threatened Plants in kutch district, Gujarat,India.

Kumar S, Jain N, Nadgauda R, (2009) "An Explant Dependent, High Frequency, RepetitiveSomatic Embryo- genesis and Plant Regeneration in Commiphorawightii," Journal of TropicalMedicinal Plants, Vol.10, No.2,pp.195-207.

Kulloli RN, Suresh Kumar, (2013) Commiphorawightii(Arnott) Bhandari: A threatened plant ofconservation concern, Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, Vol.7 (28), pp.2043-2052. (http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR)

Kumar A, Bhandari MM, (1994) Commiphorawightii- A threatened medicinal plant of the TharPradesh. In: Ethno biology in Human Welfare. Abstracts of the 4thInternational Congress of Ethnobiology, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India, 17-21Nov, pp.307.

Natesh S, Mohan Ram HY, (1999) "An Update of Green Medicine," Journal of Indian BotanicalSociety, 78, 13-23.

Neeraj Jain, Rajani S. Nadgauda (2013) Commiphorawightii(Arnott) Bhandari—A Natural

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Source of Guggulsterone: Facing a High Risk of Extinction in Its Natural Habitat, American ofPlant Sciences, 4,57-68, (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps).

Pareek A, Pareek LK, (2012) Commiphorawightii(Guggal): An Endangered Medicinal Plant ofRajasthan Needs Attention of Bio technologists for Its Conservation-A critical analysis and review,Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences, Page No. 83-84.

Pandey et al. (2005) "Medicinal Plants of Gujarat", Gujarat Ecological Education and Research(GEER) Foundation, Gandhinagar.

Pandey RP, Shetty BV, Malhotra SK (1983) A Preliminary census of Rare and Threatened Plantsof Rajasthan. In: An Assessment of Threatened Plants of India edited by Jain SK and Rao RR(Botanical Survey of Indian, Calcutta, India) 55-62.

Patel RM, Dabgar YB, Joshi PN, (2010) some noteworthy ethno-medicinal plants of westernKachchh, Gujarat. Life science leaflets, 9, 244-250p.

Prajapati ND, Purohit SS, Sharma AK, et al. (2003) .A hand book of medicinal plant (Acomplete source book).Agro bios publishers, Jodhpur, India.

Rajendra Kumar S (2013) Distribution and Abundance of Commiphorawightii (Arn) Bhandari, Inthe Forest of North Gujarat Region (NGR), Gujarat, India, Indian Journal of Plant Science pp.43-51. http://www.cibtech.org/jps.htm.

Patel R, Roy Mahato AK, Vijay Kumar, et al. (2013) Status of the medicinal plants in Tharawada-Gandher Reserve Forest of Kachchh, Gujarat and the ethno- medicinal practices of localcommunity, Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies, www.plantsjournal.com.

Sabnis SD, Rao KSS, (1983) Rare and Endangered endemics of south eastern Kachchh. In:Assessment of Threatened plant of India edited by Jain S K and Rao RR (Botanical Survey ofIndia. Howrah, India).

Shah RR, Patel DB, Patel DH, Dalal KC, (1983).Hormonal Effect of germination of Guggalcuttings. Indian Drugs, 20(2):435-437.

Samantaray S, Hidayath KP, Maiti S, et al. (2009) An isolation protocol of genomic DNA from

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Commiphorawightii (Arnott.) Bhandari: An endangered medicinal plant, International Journal ofIntegrative Biology

Soni V, Swarnkar PL, (2006) Conservation Strategies for Commiphorawightii.An ImportantMedicinal Plant Species.Medicinal Plant Conservation.12:40-41.

Website visited

UNDP, "Rajasthan Red Listed Medicinal Plants," 2008, pp.22-23.Http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/31231/0

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Review Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Cause and Effect of Heavy Metal Pollution in theLandscape: A Reivew

Amita Y. Mishra1, Zalak Rathod1& Meenu Saraf1*

1. Department of Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Sciences,Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India.

E-mail:sarafmeenu@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 30-10-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Most pollutants are introduced into the environment as sewage, waste, involuntary discharge andcompound used to protect plants such as pesticides and animals. The most common heavy metalsfound at contaminated sites, in order of abundance are Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, and Hg. Heavymetal concentrations in the soil can lead to enhanced crop uptake and negative outcome on plantgrowth. At higher concentrations, they interfere with metabolic processes and inhibit growth,sometimes leading to plant death. Zinc is required by large number of enzymes and its toxicityoften leads to leaf chlorosis. Excess copper in the growing medium can restrict root growth. Leadcan cause serious injury to the brain, nervous system, red blood cells, and kidneys. Arsenic exposureto human, results in the degenerative, inflammatory and neoplastic change of skin, respiratorysystem, blood, lymphatic system, nervous system and reproductive system. Cd is one of the bigthree heavy metal poisons and is not known for any essential biological function. Mercury Exposurecan permanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing foetuses. Accumulation of heavy

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metal by human causesmulty organ failure, Reaction to skin, affect the nervous system or otherbiological systems in the human body. This metal contamination is prevented by phytoremediationwhich is low cost and eco-friendly in nature.

Keywords: Biomagnifications, Bioaccumulation, Heavy metal, Human health, Soil, Plant health,Toxicity

Introduction

Human activities like scattering and discarding of industries and municipal wastes are the problemand major environmental concern that contaminate water, soil and aquatic ecosystem like Groundwater, land, Fertile soil etc. Pollution occurs when a manufactured goods addition to our naturalenvironment adversely affects nature’s ability to dispose it off(Wuana1 and Okieimen, 2011). Apollutant is something which adversely interferes with health, comfort, property or environment ofthe people. Most pollutants are introduced in the environment as sewage, waste, unintentionaldischarge and compound used to protect plants such as pesticides and animals. There are manytypes of pollution such as air pollution, soil pollution, water pollution and oil pollution. A wide rangeof inorganic and organic compounds cause contamination especially in rainy season, itsdecomposition produces noxious odour constituting a health hazard (Wuana and Okieimen,2011).

Human evolution has led to immense scientific and technological progress. Global development,however, raises new challenges, especially in the field of environmental protection and conservationthe demand for a country’s economic, agricultural and industrial development outweighs the demandfor a safe, pure, and natural environmental. Ironically, it is the economic, agricultural and industrialdevelopments that are often linked to polluting the environment (Jadia and Fulekar, 2009)Immobilization, soil washing, and phytoremediation techniques are frequently listed among thebest demonstrated available technologies (BDATs) for remediation of heavy metal-contaminatedsites (Wuana and Okieimen,2011).

Those metals are significant since they are capable of decreasing crop production due to the riskof bioaccumulation and biomagnifications in the food chain. There’s also the risk of superficial andgroundwater contamination. Knowledge of the basic chemistry, environmental and associatedhealth effects of these heavy metals is necessary in understanding their speciation, bioavailability,

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and remedial options. The fate and transport of a heavy metal in soil depends significantly on thechemical form and speciation of the metal. Once in the soil, heavy metals are absorbed by initialfast reactions, followed by slow adsorption reactions (days, years) and are redistributed intodifferent chemical forms with varying bioavailability, mobility, and toxicity. This distribution is believedto be controlled by reactions of heavy metals in soils such as (I) mineral precipitation and dissolution,(II) ion exchange, adsorption, and desorption, (III) aqueous complication, (IV) biologicalimmobilization and mobilization, and (V) plant uptake (Wuana1 and Okieimen, 2011).

Properties of Heavy Metals

They occur near the bottom of the periodic table, Have high densitie, Toxic in nature, Nondegradable. However Arsenic is not actually a metal but is a semi metal i.e. its properties areintermediate between those of metals and non-metals (Rajeswari and sailaja,2014).

Sources of Metal Contamination

Heavy metals occur naturally in the soil environment from the pedogenetic processes of weatheringof parent materials at levels that are regarded as trace (<1000mg kg"1) and rarely toxic.Soil hasbeing bio accumulated by most heavy metals like Fe, Pb, Ni, Cr, Cd etcresulting to serious diseaseinfection to crops, animals and human beings. Soil pollution by heavy metals such as cadmium,lead, chromium, copper and zinc is a problem of concern. Although heavy metals are naturallypresent in soil contamination and comes from local sources: mostly industry (non-ferrous industries,but also power plants and iron, steel and chemical industries) (O.A. Ekpete et al, 2013).

Access Direction of Heavy Metal

Heavy metals go in plant, animal and human tissues via air inhalation, diet and manual handling.Motor vehicle emissions are a major source of airborne contaminants including arsenic, cadmium,cobalt, nickel, lead, antimony, vanadium, zinc, platinum, palladium and rhodium. Plants are exposedto heavy metals through the uptake of water; animals eat these plants; ingestion of plant- andanimalbased foods are the largest sources of heavy metals in humans. Plants are exposed to heavymetals through the uptake of water; animals eat these plants; ingestion of plant- and animal basedfoods are the largest sources of heavy metals in humans (Rajeswari and sailaja,2014).

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Historical Converse and Metal Toxicity in Plant

Soils may become contaminated by the accretion of heavy metals and metalloids through emissionsfrom the rapidly mounting industrial areas, mine tailings, disposal of high metal wastes, leadedgasoline and paints, land application of fertilizers, animal manures, sewage sludge, pesticides,wastewater irrigation, coal combustion residues, spillage of petrochemicals, and atmosphericdeposition. The presenceof toxic metals in soil can severely inhibit the biodegradation of organiccontaminants (Maslin and Maier, 2000). Heavy metal contamination of soil may pose risks andhazards to humans and the ecosystem through direct intake or contact with contaminated soil,those metals are important since they are capable of decreasing crop production due to the risk ofbioaccumulation and biomagnifications in the food chain the food chain(Wuana and Okieimen,2011).

Schmidt (2003) reported that elevated heavy metal concentrations in the soil can lead to enhancedcrop uptake and negative effect on plant growth. At higher concentrations, they interfere withmetabolic processes and inhibit growth, sometimes leading to plant death. Excessive metals inhuman sustenance can be toxic and can cause heightened and unceasing diseases(Jadia and Fulekar,2009).The adequate protection and restoration of soil ecosystems that have been contaminatedby heavy metals require their characterization and remediation (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011).

Zinc is a transition metal with the following characteristics: period 4, group IIB, atomic number 30,atomic mass 65.4, density 7.14 g cm"3, melting point 419.5æ%C, and boiling point 906æ%C.Zinc occurs naturally in soil (about70mg kg"1 in crustal rocks) (Davies and Jones,1988) but Znconcentrations are rising unnaturally, due to anthropogenic additions. Most Zn is added duringindustrial activities, such as mining, coal, and waste combustion and steel processing. Manyfoodstuffs contain certain concentrations of Zn. Drinking water also contains certain amounts ofZn, which may be higher when it is stored in metal tanks. Industrial sources or toxic waste sitesmay cause the concentrations of Zn in drinking water to reach levels that can cause healthproblems.Zinc is a trace element that is essential for human health.Zinc shortages can cause birthdefects. The world’s Znproduction is still on the rise which means that more andmore Zn ends upin the environment (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). Zinc toxicity often leads to leaf chlorosis, High

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levels of zinc inhibit the uptake of iron, and it is common to find symptoms of severe iron deficiencyinduced by zinc toxicity. Iron deficit is characterised by a pale yellow to white interveinal chlorosison the younger leaves, and may ultimately lead to necrosis of the leaf blades and increasingpoint.(Jadia and Fulekar, 2009).

Copper (Cu) is a transition metal which belongs to period 4 and group IB of the periodic tablewith atomic number 29, atomic weight 63.5, density 8.96 g cm"3, melting point 1083æ%C andboiling point 2595æ%C. The metal’s average density and concentrations in crustal rocks are 8.1× 103 kgm"3 and 55mg kg"1, respectively. Excess copper in the growing medium can restrict rootgrowth by burning the root tips and thereby causing excess lateral root growth. High levels ofcopper can compete with plant uptake of iron and sometimes molybdenum or zinc(Davies andJones, 1988; Mishra et al,2019). Copperis essential micronutrient for plants. Copper contributesto several physiological processes in plants including photosynthesis, respiration, carbohydratedistribution, nitrogen and cell wall metabolism, seed production including also disease resistance(Jadiaand Fulekar,2009). Excess copper exposure can be potentially toxic to plants causing phytotoxicityby the formation of reactive oxygen radicals that damage cells or by the interaction with proteinsimpairing key cellular processes, inactivating enzymes and disturbing protein structure. Effect ofCu on root hair proliferation suggests that reductions in growth due to nutrient deficiency or inhibitionof nodulation may occur at lower Cu concentrations(Sheldon and Menzies, 2005,Mishra et al,2018).

Leadis a metal belonging to group IV and period 6 of the periodic table with atomic number 82,atomic mass 207.2, density 11.4 g cm"3, melting point 327.4æ%C, and boiling point 1725æ%C. It isa naturally occurring, bluish gray metal usually found as a mineral combined with other elements,such as sulphur (i.e.,PbS, PbSO4), or oxygen (PbCO3), and ranges from 10 to 30mg kg"1 in theearth’s crust (USDHHS,1999). Typical mean Pb concentration for surface soils worldwide averages32mg kg"1 and ranges from 10 to 67mg kg"1It is well known to be toxic and its effects havebeenmore extensively reviewed than the effects of other trace metals. The Pb present in the soilsolution is absorbed by the plant roots. Aa large proportion of Pb2+ is retained in plant roots inprecipitated form, The growth of aerial part of plants and roots are inhibited by the low concentrationof Pb. If the Pb content is higher in the growing medium, the inhibition is strongly seen on root

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growth(Srivastava et al,2015). Lead can cause serious injury to the brain, nervous system, redblood cells, and kidneys (Baldwin and Marshal, 1999).

Arsenic has the following properties: atomic number 33, atomic mass 75, density 5.72 g cm"3,melting point 817æ%C, and boiling point 613æ%C, and exhibits fairly complex chemistry and canbe present in several oxidation states ("III, 0, III, V)( Smith et al, 1995). In aerobic environments,As (V) is dominant, usually in theform of arsenate (AsO43") in various protonation states:H3AsO4,H2AsO4

", HAsO42", and AsO4

3".Arsenate andother anionic forms of arsenic behave as chelatesandcan precipitate when metal cations are present (Bodek et al,1988).Arsenic exposure to humanresults in degenerative, inflammatory and neoplastic changes of skin, respiratory system, blood,lymphatic system, nervous system and reproductive system. There is no particular remedial actionfor chronic arsenic poisoning(Singh et al, 2007). Arsenic is to disturb biochemical and metabolicpathways such as impeded nutrient absorption, the negative effect on photosynthetic apparatus,the disruption of plant water status, interaction with the functional groups of enzymes and replacementof essential ions from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in plants growing in As-contaminatedsoils(Abbas et al, 2017)

Chromiumis a first-row d-block transition metal of group VIB in the periodic table with the followingproperties: atomic number 24, atomic mass 52, density 7.19 g cm"3, melting point 1875æ%C, andboiling point 2665æ%C. It is one of the less common elements and does not occur naturally inelemental form, but only in compounds. Chromium is mined as a primary ore product in the formofthe mineral chromite, FeCr2O4(Wuana and Okieimen,2011).Its exposure can cause damage toliver, kidney circulatory and nerve tissues, as well as skin irritation (Martin and Griswold, 2009).Cr also causes deleterious effects on plant physiological processes such as photosynthesis, waterrelations and mineral nutrition. Metabolic alterations by Cr exposure have also been described inplants either by a direct effect on enzymes or other metabolites or by its ability to generate reactiveoxygen species which may cause oxidative stress(Shanker et al,2005, Mishraet al, 2019).

Cadmium is located at the end of the second row of transition elements with atomic number 48,atomic weight 112.4, density 8.65 g cm"3, melting point 320.9æ%C, and boiling point 765æ%C.Together with Hg and Pb, Cd is one of the big threeheavy metal poisons and is not known for any

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essential biological function (Wuana and Okieimen,2011).Ingesting high levels rigorously irritatesthe stomach, leading to vomiting and diarrhea AND Cd-induced effects include oxidative stress,genotoxicity, inhibition of the photosynthetic apparatus, and inhibition of root metabolism (Martinand Griswold, 2009).

Mercury belongs to same group of the periodic table with Zn and Cd. It is the only liquid metal. Ithas atomic number 80, atomic weight 200.6, density 13.6 g cm"3, melting point "13.6æ%C, andboiling point 357æ%C and is usually recovered as a by-product of ore processing. Exposure to Hgcan also reduce photosynthesis, transpiration rate, and water uptake and chlorophyll synthesis(Smithet al, 1995). Mercury in soil and water is converted by microorganisms to methyl mercury, a bioaccumulating toxin. The nervous system is very sensitive to all forms of mercury. Exposure canpermanently damage the brain, kidneys, and developing foetuses. Effects on brain functioning mayresult in irritability, shyness, tremors, *89-changes in vision or hearing, and memory problems.Short-term exposure to high levels of metallic mercury vapours may cause lung damage, nausea,vomiting, diarrhea, increases in blood pressure or heart rate, skin rashes, and eye irritation (Martinand Griswold, 2009). Hg have been related to seed injuries and reducing seed viability. Exposureto Hg can also reduce photosynthesis, transpiration rate, and water uptake and chlorophyll synthesis.Both organic and inorganic Hg have been showed to cause loss of potassium, magnesium, andmanganese and accumulation of iron (Azevedoand Rodriguez, 2012)

Potential for Human Exposure of Metal

Heavy metals are known to cause toxicities around the world. Accumulation of heavy metal byhuman cause many dieses like organ failure, Reaction to Skin, Affect the nervous System or otherBiological system in Human body (Jadia and Fulekar, 2009). Toxic metals can bio accrues in thebody and in the food chain. A common attribute of toxic metals is the chronic nature of theirtoxicity (Rajeswari and sailaja, 2014).

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Table 1: Clinical Aspects of Chronic Toxicities Metal (Mahurpawar, 2015)

Metal Target Organs Primary Sources Clinical effectsArsenic Pulmonary Industrial Dusts, Perforation of Nasal

Nervous System, Medicinal Uses Septum, RespiratorySkin Of Polluted Water Cancer, Peripheral

Neuropathy:Dermatomes,Skin, Cancer

Cadmium Renal, Skeletal Industrial Dust Proteinuria, Glucosuria,Pulmonary And Fumes And Osteomalacia,

Polluted Water Aminoaciduria,And Food Emphysemia

Chromium Pulmonary Industrial Dust Ulcer, Perforation ofAnd Fumes And Nasal Septum,Polluted Food Respiratory Cancer

Manganese Nervous System Industrial Dust And Central And PeripheralFumes Neuropathies

Lead Nervous System, Industrial Dust Encephalopathy,Hematopoietic And Fumes And Peripheral Neuropathy,System, Renal Polluted Food Central Nervous

Disorders, Anemia.Nickel Pulmonary, Skin Industrial Dust, Aerosols Cancer, DramatisTin Nervous , Pulmonary Medicinal Uses, Central Nervous System

System Industrial Dusts Disorders, VisualDefects And EEGChanges,Pneumoconiosis.

Mercury Nervous System, Industrial Dust And ProteinuriaRenal Fumes And Polluted

Water And Food

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Remediation of Soil Using Plants

Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process that uses various types of plants to remove, transfer,stabilize, and/or destroy contaminants in the soil and groundwater. Plants use photosynthesis toextract chemicals from the soil and to put down them in the on high part of their bodies, or toconvert them to a less contaminated form. These plants can then be harvested and treated,removing the pollutants(JayBoi , 2015;Mishra et al,2018).The study and development ofphytoremediation for metal-contaminated soils was taking place about 40 years ago, and thephytoremediation for organic pollutants are more recent. Phytoremediation has gained extensivelyattention and much progress in remediation of inorganic and organic contaminants, and the meansfor enhanced phytoremediation. Phytoremediation are expected to be used as a vital tool insustainable management of contaminated soils. Contaminated site managers should considerphytoremediation when evaluating remedial alternatives(Oh et al, 2014)Plants Used For Phytoremediation

Brassica juncea L (Indian mustard) (Info: Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. – Indian Mustard....Salix species (Willow)Populus deltoides (Poplar tree)Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)Helianthus Annuus L (Sunflower) ,Helianthus annuus L. (common sunflower)(Jay Boi , 2015)

Fig: 1 Phytoremediation of soil (Solke H De Boer, 2001)

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Mechanism of Phytoremediation

There are several ways by which plants clean up or remediate contaminated sites. The uptake ofcontaminants in plants occurs primarily through the root system, in which the principal mechanismsfor preventing toxicity are found (Subhashini and Swamy , 2013). The root system provides anenormous surface area that absorbs and accumulates the water and nutrients essential for growthalong with other non-essential contaminants (Vamerali et al,2010).Plant roots cause changes at thesoil-root interface as they release organic and inorganic exudates in the rhizosphere. These rootexudates affect the number and activity of microorganisms, the aggregation and stability of the soilparticles around the root, and the availability of the contaminants (Ali and Sajad,2013). Rootexudates by themselves can increase or decrease (immobilize) the availability of the contaminantsin the root zone of the plants through changes in soil characteristics, release of organic substances,changes in chemical composition and/or increase in plant assisted microbial activity (Vamerali etal,2010).Phytoremediation of contaminated soils is generally supposed to take place through oneor more of the following mechanisms or processes: phytoextraction, phytostabilization,phytodegradation, phytovolatilization, rhizofiltration and rhizodegradation(oh et al,2014)

Fig:2 Mechanism of Phytoremediation(Pauloet al, 2004)

Phytoextraction

Phytoextraction also called phytoaccumulation refers to the uptake and translocation of metalcontaminants in the soil by plant roots into the aboveground portions of the plants. Certain plants,

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called hyper accumulators, adsorb unusually large amounts of metals in comparison to other plants(Subhashini and Swamy, 2013). One or a combination of these plants is selected and planted ata particular site based on the type of metals present and other site conditions. After the growthperiod of the plants, they are harvested and either incinerated or composted to recycle the metal(Elekes, 2014). This procedure may be repeated if necessary, to bring soil contaminant levelsdown to permissible limits. If plants are incinerated, ash is disposed off in a hazardous wastelandfill (Ali and Sajad,2013). The volume of ash will be less than 10% of the volume that iscreated, if the contaminated soil itself were dug up for treatment (Saxena et al,1999). Metals suchas nickel, zinc and copper are the best candidates for removal by phytoextraction because it hasbeen shown that they are preferred by a majority of the (approximately400) plants that uptake andabsorb unusually large amounts of metals (Elekes,2014).

Fig: 3 Phytoextraction(Pauloet al, 2004)

Rhizofiltration

Rhizofiltration (rhizo- means root) is the adsorptionor precipitation on to plant roots or absorptionof contaminants in the solution surrounding the root zone. Rhizofiltration is similar to phytoextraction,but the plants are used primarily to address contaminated ground water rather than soil (Tangahu

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et al, 2011). The plants to be used for cleanup are raised in greenhouses with their roots in waterrather than in soil (Saxena et al, 1999). To acclimatize the plants, once a large root system hasbeen developed, contaminated water is collected from a waste site and brought to the plantswhere it is substituted for their water source. The plants are then planted in the contaminated areawhere the roots take up the water and the contaminants along with it. As the roots become saturatedwith contaminants, they are harvested.

Phytostabilization

Phytostabilization is the use of certain plant species to immobilize contaminants in the soil andground water through absorption and accumulation by roots, adsorption on to roots, or precipitationwithin the root zone of plants (rhizosphere) (Alkorta et al,2004). This process reduces the mobilityof the contaminant and prevents migration to the ground water, and it reduces bio-availability ofmetal In to the food chain. This technique can also be used to reestablish vegetation cover at siteswhere natural vegetation fails to survive due to high metals concentrations in surface soils or physicaldisturbances to surface materials (Tangahu et al, 2011). Metal-tolerant species is used to restorevegetation at contaminated sites, thereby decreasing the potential migration of pollutants throughwind erosion and transport of exposed surface soils and leaching of soil contamination togroundwater (Alkorta et al, 2004).

Fig 4:Phytostabilization(Paulo et al, 2004)

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Phytovolatilization

Phytovolatilization This involves the use of plants to take up contaminants from the soil, transformingthem into volatile forms and transpiring them into the atmosphere(Paz-Ferreiro et al, 2014) .Phytovolatilization also involves contaminants being taken up into the body of the plant, but thenthe contaminant, a volatile form thereof, or a volatile degradation product is transpired with watervapour from leaves (Dushenkov et al, 1995). Phytovolatilization may also entail the diffusion ofcontaminants from the stems or other plant parts that the contaminant travels through before reachingthe leaves (Tangahu et al, 2011).Phytovolatilization can occur with contaminants present in soil,sediment, or water. Mercury is the primary metal contaminant that this process has been used for.It has also been found to occur with volatile organic compounds, including trichloro ethene, as wellas inorganic chemicals that have volatile forms, such as selenium, and arsenic (Dushenkov etal,1995). The advantage of this method is that the contaminant, mercuric ion, may be transformedinto a less toxic substance like elemental Hg (Paz-Ferreiro et al,2014). The disadvantage to this isthat the mercury released into the atmosphere is likely to be recycled by precipitation and thenredeposited back into lakes and oceans, repeating the production of methyl mercury by anaerobicbacteria (Paz-Ferreiro et al, 2014).

Indexs of Phytoremediation

There are some index that helps to calculate efficiency of phytoremediation and assessment ofplant ability in up taking and translocation or mobilization (Kisku et al., 2000) of metallic elements.these index use for collecting hyper accumulator plant species (McGrath and Zhao, 2003).

Bio concentration factor (BF)

The ratio of concentration of metallic elements in plants tissue (roots, shoots) to that in contaminatedsite (Tu et al., 2002),it also termed as bio concentration factor (BCF) (Marchiol et al., 2004).

Enrichment Coefficient (EC)

It termed as degree of metallic elements accumulation in plants (shoot, roots) to concentration ofmetallic elements at contaminated site (Kisku et al., 2000). It also termed as biological accumulationcoefficient (BAC).

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EC= concentration of metallic elements in roots or shoots

concentration of metallic elements at contaminated site

Translocation (mobilization) factor (TF)

This factor calculated to determine the translocation of metallic elements from the root of plant toshoot (McGrath and Zhao, 2003). where; TF in hyper accumulator species is more than one

TF= concentration of metallic elements in plant shoots

Concentration of metallic elements in roots

Relative treatment efficiency index (RTEI)

Introduced by (Marchand et al., 2010)which is based on comparing control treatment metal removalwith influent metal concentration and effluent treatment metal removal ,meanwhile previous indexare suitable now .

Conclusion

The pollution of soil and water with heavy metals is an majorenvironmental concern. Metals andother inorganiccontaminants prevalent forms ofcontamination found at waste sites, and theirremediationin soils and sediments are among the most technically difficult. Heavy metals affect theplant health and human health. Contamination of soil and water with heavy metal decrease thequality of it. The most common heavy metals found at contaminated sites, in order of abundanceare Pb, Cr, As, Zn, Cd, Cu, and Hg. Zn is an essential trace nutrient to all high plants and animals.Zinctoxicity often leads to leaf chlorosis. Cuis essential micronutrient for plants, but it can be toxic athigher concentrations. Exposure to Hg,Ar,Crand Pb can also reduce photosynthesis, transpirationrate, and water uptake and chlorophyll synthesis. This Metal contamination can be prevented byPhytoremediation which is low cost and ecofriendly in nature.

Acknowledgement

Financial help received from the Gujarat pollution control board, Gujarat,Gandhinagar, India isgratefully acknowledged.

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Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Polysemy in GujaratiPost Positions / i / AND/ne/

Devashree Trivedi*& Sampada Deshpande

1. Department of Linguistics, Gujarat University2. Independent Researcher

E-mail:dtrivedi.msub@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 02-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Gujarati is an Indo-Aryan language, native to the Indian state of Gujarat. Postpositions, in Gujarati,are observed to have multiple, related senses. This paper undertakes a cognitive approach toexamine the polysemic behaviour of the Gujarati postpositions / i/ and /ne/ with the help of imageschematic structures. It further explains how these senses are related by means of the concept ofprototypicality. The classical model advocates strong semantic boundaries disallowing all thesederived senses to fall under the same category; however, Lakoff’s (1987) prototype approachallows for fuzzy boundaries and thus, explains the relatedness between the senses within the samecategory by assigning them core and peripheral membership. The analysis attempts to identify thedifferent senses that the use of

/ i/ and /ne/ convey in various instances on account of their metaphorical and metonymical extensions.

This paper seeks to intensify the understanding of a native Gujarati speaker of his/her own spatialcognition, and aid the speakers of other languages to identify the contrast of their mental schema

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with that of the native Gujarati speakers. Moreover, it aims to provide senses of these markersbeyond the available existing glossary, and contribute to the lexicographical works as well aslanguage teaching methods and sources in Gujarati.

The paper is divided into three sections. The first section deals with introduction to the

category of postpositions in Gujarati language as well as some of the basic tools of CognitiveLinguistics employed in the paper. The second section derives the core and peripheral senses foreach postposition. The third section forms the conclusion.

Keywords: postposition, polysemy, prototype, image schema, conceptual metaphor, metonymicextensions.

Area: Cognitive Linguistics

Introduction

Gujarati language is one of the prominent members of the Indo-Aryan language family, and part ofthe greater Indo-European language family. The Gujarati script is a variant of Devanāgarī script,differentiated by the loss of the characteristic horizontal line running above the letters and by asmall number of modifications in the remaining characters.

1. Morphologically, Gujarati is an agglutinative language and syntactically, a head-final SOV language.

Though Gujarati grammar incorporates a prominent case-system, the total number and the typesof cases that form the case-system is debatable. While most Gujarati grammar references mentionthe occurrence of seven cases, certain grammarians indicate the presence of eight. Also, the casesare commonly referred to by their number as prathama, dvitiya, tritiya, etc. as per the Sanskrit-based Indian Grammatical Tradition; consequently, there being an ambiguity regarding the accuracyof their types. Phadake (1842/2008: 11-13) states that Gujarati grammar involves seven cases, ifvocative case is omitted, and that only the fourth case – objective – is made up by means ofsignificant postpositions, whereas the rest are formed by terminations or affixes added. He furthernames the seven cases and their respective markers, in the order of their number, as Nominative (-Ø), Accusative (/ne/), Implementive (/e/), Dative (/ne Y~ e/), Ablative (/ i/ or / Yki/), Genitive (/no/ or /ni/ or /ni/) and Locative (/mã/) (with Vocative being the eighth which he considers to be

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functioning same as Nominative). Taylor (1985: 23) mentions the cases in Gujarati as being seven– including the Vocative case; and refers to the remaining six as Subjective (-Ø), Objective (/ne/‘to’ or ‘for’), Agential (/e/ ‘by’), Ablative (/ i/ ‘from’ or ‘by’), Genitive (/no/ or /ni/or

/ni/ ‘of’) and Locative (/e/ ‘on’ or ‘at’ and /mã/ ‘in’). / Yki/), Genitive (/no/ or /ni/ or /ni/)

and Locative (/mã/) (with Vocative being the eighth which he considers to be functioning same asNominative). Of these, the given paper examines the locative markers /mã/ and /e/ and explorestheir polysemic behavior through image schematic structures as well as their metaphorical andmetonymical extensions.

The present analysis attempts to derive the different senses that the use of /mã/ and /e/, at variousinstances, convey, followed by establishing the relatedness between the various respective senses.It also aims at identifying the senses that serve as the ‘typical members’ of the categories of /mã/and /e/ respectively, so as to obtain the core and peripheral members of the categories through thePrototype Approach. The Classical Theory advocates the uniformity of categories in their inclusionof members that share the necessary and sufficient features by its strong proposition of ‘clearboundaries of common properties’. The members that do not fulfill this set of conditions or featuresfall outside the strong boundary of the category. However, the Prototype Approach allows fuzzyboundaries and further expounds ‘membership gradience’ or ‘degree of variation’ by assigningcore (or central) and peripheral membership within the category.

Polysemy, as stated by Taylor (2003:103), is the association of two or more related senses with asingle linguistic form. He further adds that ‘a polysemous item associates a phonological form witha number of more or less discrete though related meanings, which cluster in a family resemblancecategory.’ (Taylor 2003:124). Some of the early works on polysemy by Lakoff (1987: 417)reveal that ‘The senses of a word are related to one another more or less closely by variousmeans, one of which is conceptual metaphor.’ The image schematic structures used in this paperact as one of these means.

2. Wittgenstein’s (1953) notion of ‘family resemblances, centrality and gradience’ by explainingthe range of senses that count as game, points out the absence of boundaries, thereby falsifying theprediction of Classical Theory. Austin (1961) infers the concept of a ‘primary nuclear sense’ for

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the central or prototypical senses through the analysis of adjective healthy. Coleman and Kay(1981) also analyze different senses of the word lie through the prototype view. Thus, the prototypemodel marks the central or typical members ofa

category, the exemplars, as the ‘prototypical’ members and the other related members of thecategory as less typical or ‘peripheral’ (Rosch 1973b, 1975, Rosch and Mervis 1975, Rosch etal. 1976).

A diagrammatic representation, that allows us to vividly associate the different senses of a categoryand assists in deducing which of the members maybe more typical, is the Image Schema. Accordingto Mark Johnson (1987), ‘an Image Schema is a primitive level of cognitive structure underlyingmetaphor and which provides a link between bodily experience and higher cognitive domains suchas language. Embodied experience give rise to image schemas within the conceptual system. Imageschemas derive from sensory and perceptual experience as we interact with and move about in theworld. Image schemata are the conceptual structures that emerge out of our interaction. Imageschematic structures are metaphorically projected from concrete to more abstract domains ofunderstanding.’

Metaphor is no more a concept limited to the figurative language use of being a poetic device orfigure of speech but ascertains a fundamental usage in everyday language in accordance withCognitive Semantics. Cognitivists insist on the influence of metaphors over a wide range of linguisticexpressions because of their strong presence in speaker’s mind. As Taylor (2003:134) puts it,‘Metaphor is seen as a means whereby more abstract and intangible areas can be conceptualizedin terms of the familiar and concrete.’ Therefore, ‘Metaphors allow us to understand one domainof experience (target) in terms of another (source).’ (Lakoff and Johnson1980). Here, the donorconcept can be treated as source domain and the receptor as the target domain.

A similar conceptual process which involves identifying a referent by something associated with itis Metonymy. Metaphor is viewed as mapping across conceptual domains whereas metonymyestablishes a connection within a single domain. (Lakoff and Johnson 1980, Lakoff 1987, Lakoffand Turner 1989). ‘A cognitive linguistic analysis of metonymy is the ability of a speaker to selecta different contextually salient concept profile in a domain or domain matrix than the one usually

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symbolized by the word.’ (Croft and Cruse 2004:48)

Thus, the given concepts help us comprehend and enhance our linguistics abilities, as expressed byEvans and Green (2006:5), ‘Language offers a window into cognitive function, providing insightsinto the nature, structure and organization of thoughts and ideas. The most important way in whichcognitive linguistics differs from other approaches to the study of language, then, is that language isassumed to reflect certain fundamental properties and design features of the human mind.’

3.Analysis ofPostpositions

POSTPOSITION / i/

The postposition / i/ typically marks the ablative case signifying either the existence of a particularaction since a previous point of time or detachment or disconnection from a previous point ofaction. Furthermore, it also indicates the instrument of the action, thereby assigning instrumentalcase as claimed by certain grammarians. Both the features of the postposition have been distinctlyanalyzed here.

2.1.1/ i/ occurring as an ablativemarker

‘I went walking to school from home.’

In example (1.a), / i/ is bound to the noun ‘house’ where the commencement of action is taking

starting

point

of

action

end

point

of

action

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place. However, the course of action furthers by detachment from this point of commencementtowards a definite goal. In (1.a), the mental schema generated is a path schema but with twodefinite points at both ends of the path. It also explicitly states the agent, the point of initiation andpoint of conclusion of action – thus, stating a specified goal.

Therefore, / i/ occurs as an ablative marker in (1.a) giving the prototypical sense from.

agent

point

of

initiation

path (detachment from previous point of action)

In example (1.b), / i/ is attached to the name of the place indicating where the action commences.As the action progresses, the agent moves away from this point of initiation with a consequentdisconnection. Thus, the postposition assigns ablative case to the noun ‘Surat’ and derives theprototypical sense from; the only difference between (1.a) and (1.b) being that there is no mentionof a specified goal in (1.b).

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‘Guests have left Surat.’

In example (2), the postposition is bound to ‘yesterday’. It temporally determines the point ofinitiation of the event of ‘raining’. Here, the time is metaphorically perceived as a site of

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commencement of event. As the event advances, it surpasses this duration of time and moves intoanother temporal space – that is the time of speaking. The sense derived for this usage is from(yesterday) or more appropriately, since.

/ i/ occurring as an instrumentalmarker

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In example (3), the occurrence of postposition / i/ with the noun ‘pencil’ implies the function of thenoun as an instrument to perform the given action. This can be reasoned for the fact that, here, thepostposition does not indicate a site of action for the noun it is bound to neither does it cause anydisconnection from the noun to further the action. Rather, it states the noun as being a tool forcarrying out the action. Hence, it acts as an instrumental marker in this example. As the action of‘writing’ is being carried out with the help of ‘pencil’, the sense derived for the postposition here iswith – a prototypical sense of / i/ as an instrumental marker..

The postposition / i/ is bound to the first person singular pronoun in example (4), indicating

its role in the performance of the action. Here, the action ‘break’ is being intentionally carried outby the agent and the attachment of / i/ confirms its role as an instrument to execute the action.Considering that, in (4), the instrument itself executes the action; the sense obtained from thisexample is by (in the view of the action being carried out by the agent / instrument). This, again, canbe deemed as a prototypical sense for this alternative usage.

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Example (5) illustrates the action ‘talk’ to be performed with the help of the abstract feeling of‘love’. Hence, the abstract noun ‘love’ is being metaphorically perceived to be a physical unit thatcan aid the execution of an action; implying its role as an instrument for the given action. Thoughthe sense derived here is with, it is peripheral on account of its metaphorical conceptualization.

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In example (6), / i/ is bound to the phrase ‘to write by oneself’ signifying that this entire act as awhole aids in the consequent performance of ‘remembering’. Hence, this act is perceived

as a tool employed to enable the action of ‘remembering’. Therefore, the sense that is metaphoricallyobtained here suggests ‘one can grasp well’ by ‘writing on one’s own’.

2.2 POSTPOSITION/ne/

The postposition /ne/ generally assigns the objective case in Gujarati language to the direct objector indirect object of the verb.

Example (1) shows ‘Ram’ as the agent and ‘Reena’ as the recipient of the verb ‘meet’. Thepostposition /ne/ bound to the recipient ‘Reena’ assigns objective case to it. As the action isdirected towards the recipient by the agent, /ne/ provides the sense to for the given usage.

This is the prototypical sense for postposition /ne/.

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The occurrence of /ne/ with ‘organization’ in example (2) suggests a variant use of the postposition.Here, the entire event of the ‘completion of specific time duration’ has been perceived as an eventhappening to the object ‘organization’. Thus, the sense to has been metaphorically derived byviewing the temporally perceived event as a physical entity being directed towards the object,making it a peripheral sense.

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Example (3) is an imperative sentence wherein both – the recipient ‘decency’ and the goal of theaction – have been metaphorically derived. Here, /ne/ shows the relation between the noun itpostpositions and the manner in which the action should be carried out. The action of the‘appropriateness of behaviour’ is directed to suit ‘decency’. The action is perceived as an entitybenefitting or being provided to an abstract noun by again comparing the latter to a physical unitwhich can receive it. Hence, the peripheral sense, metaphorically derived here, is to.

Conclusion

We have analyzed the distinct and diverse senses that the various uses of the given postpositionsprovide. This insight is offered by the construction of schemas that are formed as a consequence ofthe human mind’s creativity and ability to give form and shape to its spatio-physical and spatio-temporal experiences and interactions. The analysis leads us to infer that diversity of perception ishighly characteristic of human mind, and this diversity may be influenced by socio-cultural normsthat aid in shaping the understanding of individual entities and establishing a relation between them.The attemptmade here is to identify the distinctions between different linguistic forms employed byusers of two different languages to express their perception of the same reality.The results of thisstudy are summarized with an account of the distinct senses derived from each example.Thepostposition / i/ marks the ablative case as well as indicates the instrument of action (functioningas instrumental marker) in Gujarati language. For the occurrence of / i/ as an ablative marker, the

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core sense derived is from, when obtained spatially referring to a particular point in geographicalspace. For its temporal derivation, the sense obtained is since. These senses become lessprototypical when applied to abstract domains.

When / i/ is utilized as an instrumental marker, it gives the prototypical sense with or by denotingthe tool that aided in the performance of the action. These senses shift to periphery when used toestablish relation between metaphorically conceptualized entities. The postposition /ne/ assigningthe objective case to the direct or indirect object of a verb in a sentence provides the central orcore sense as to when used to indicate the entity towards which the action is directed or beingperformed for the benefit of. When the postposition is employed for establishing a temporal and/or metaphorical relation between the subject and object, the sense to shifts to its peripheral usage.Thus, from the data obtained and analyzed in the given dissertation, it can be concluded that thepostposition /mã/ exhibits maximum polysemous behavior by conveying a number of senses distinctlyderived through its employment in various usages. Contrastingly, the postposition /ne/ shows lesspolysemic behavior as compared to those preceding it in the analysis. However, all postpositions,in varying degrees, involve senses other than their core or central sense when used in differentkinds of utterances; and these different senses associate with the core sense in varying degreesaccording to their different features. The classical or formal model of categorization would beunable to put together all these senses under one category; whereas the notion of prototypicalityprovides explanation for these various mental interpretations of space and time as being related.As Lakoff (1987:5) endorses, ‘There is nothing more basic than categorization to our thought,perception, action, and speech’. This stands as a testimony to the fact that speakers of differentlanguages construct reality in their own unique way. By delineating the senses derived by theseunique perceptions, an attempt has been made to intensify the understanding of a native Gujaratispeaker of his/her own spatial cognition, and aid the speakers of other languages to identify thecontrast of their mental schema with that of the native Gujarati speakers.

References

Austin, John L. 1961. Philosophical Papers. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chandler, Daniel. 2003. Semiotics: The Basic. London: Routledge

Coleman, Linda, and Paul Kay. 1981. Prototype semantics: The English word lie. Language

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57:1, 26-44.

Croft, William, and D. Alan Cruse. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge UniversityPress.

Evans, Vyvyan and Green, Melanie. 2006. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press Ltd.

Johnson, Mark. 1987. The body in the mind: The bodily basis of meaning, imagination, andreason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, fire and dangerous things: What categories reveal about themind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Lakoff, George, and Mark Johnson. 1980/2003. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Lee, David. 2004. Cognitive Linguistics: An Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Phadake, Gangadhar Shastri. 1842. The Principles of Gujarati Grammar: Comprising the

Substance of a Gujarati Grammar. Bombay: Imperial Press by M.S.D’Azaveido.

Regier, Terry. 1995. Cognitive Linguistics 6-1: 63-88. University of California at Berkeley.Rosch, Eleanor and Mervis, Carolyn B. 1975. Family Resemblances: Studies in the Internal

Structure of Categories. Cognitive Psychology 7:573-605.

Rosch, E., Mervis, C. B., Gray, W.D., Johnson, D., & Boyes-Braem, P. 1976. Basic objects innatural categories. Cognitive Psychology 8:382-439.

Saeed, John I. 2003. Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Taylor, Geo P. 1985. The Student’s Gujarati Grammar: with Exercises and Vocabulary. NewDelhi: Asian Educational Services.

Taylor, John. 2003. Linguistic categorization. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wittgenstein,Ludwig. 1953. Philosophical investigations. New York:Macmillan.

Web References

http://www.lmp.ucla.edu

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Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Status of Plant Tissue Culture Research in India

Nitee Tomar* , Archana Mankad & Himanshu Pandya

Department of Botany, Bioinformatics and Climate Change Impacts Management ,School of Science, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 06-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Plant tissue culture, or the aseptic culture of cells, tissues, organs, and their components underdefined physical and chemical conditions in vitro, is an important tool in both basic and appliedstudies as well as in commercial application. It owes its origin to the ideas of the Germanscientist, Haberlandt, at the beginning of the 20th century.The technique of PTC is well translatedfrom ‘concept’ to‘commercialization’. With the passage of time , PTC has been well spreaded inall of the possible ways and has immense major discoveries . The growth of PTC industry in India,its impact on the growing needs of the market, its business potential and the challenges this industryis facing are discussed under this article.

Keywords :Plant Tissue Culture,in vitro, commercialization, industry

Plant Tissue Culture : Foundation and Techniques

Based on this premise, in 1902, a German physiologist, Gottlieb Haberlandt for the first timeattempted to culture isolated single palisade cells from leaves in knop’s salt solution enriched with

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sucrose. The cells remained alive for up to one month, increased insize, accumulated starch butfailed to divide. Though he was unsuccessful but laid down the foundation of tissue culture technologyfor which he is regarded as the father of plant tissue culture.

In plant cell culture, plant tissues and organs are grown in vitro on artificial media, underasepticand controlled environment. The technique depends mainly on the concept oftotipotentiality ofplant cells[9] which refers to the ability of a single cell to express the full genome by cell division.Along with the totipotent potential of plant cell, the capacity of cells to alter their metabolism,growth and development is also equally important and crucial to regenerate the entire plant [1] .Plant tissue culture medium contains all the nutrients required for the normal growth and developmentof plants. It is mainly composed of macronutrients, micronutrients, vitamins, other organiccomponents, plant growth regulators, carbon source and some gelling agents in case of solidmedium [2] . Murashigeand Skoog medium (MS medium) is most extensively used for the vegetativepropagation of many plant species in vitro. The pH of the media is also important that affects boththe growth of plants and activity of plant growth regulators. It is adjusted to the value between 5.4- 5.8.The type and the concentration of hormones used depend mainly on the species of the plant,the tissue or organ cultured and the objective of the experiment[3] .

Significant Discoveries in Plant Tissue Culture :

Some of the major discoveries took place in tissue culture are summarized:- 1902 - Haberlandt proposed concept of in vitro cell culture. On the basis of that 1902 addressand his pioneering experimentation before and later, Haberlandt is justifiably recognized as thefather of plant tissue culture.- 1926 - Went discovered first plant growth hormone –Indole acetic acid- 1941 - Overbeek was first to add coconut milk for cell division in Datura- 1955 - Skoog and Miller discovered kinetin as cell division hormone- 1966 - Steward demonstrated totipotency by regenerating carrot plants from single cells oftomato- 1972 - Carlson produced first interspecific hybrid of Nicotianatabacumby protoplast fusion- 1977 - Chilton et al. successfully integrated Ti plasmid DNA from Agrobacterium tumefaciensinplants

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- 1984 - Horshet al. developed transgenic tobacco by transformation with Agrobacterium- 2005 - Rice genome sequenced under International Rice Genome Sequencing Project .

Applications of Plant Tissue Culture :

In Agriculture :

Production of improved crop varietiesProduction of disease-free plants (virus)Genetic transformationProduction of secondary metabolitesProduction of varieties tolerant to salinity, drought and heat stresses.

In Pharmaceuticals :Plant cell and tissue cultures hold great promise for controlled production of myriad ofuseful secondary metabolites[4].Combine the merits of whole-plant systems with those of microbial and animal cell cultures.Production of valuable therapeutic secondary metabolites [5].Production of medicinal compounds from plants .

The protocols of certain commercially important endangered plant species are presented ascasestudies :-

Case study 1 :Micropropagation of Phalaenopsis "The Moth Orchids" :

In vitro culture techniques are adopted for quick propagation of commercially importantorchid species.The callus was maintained on MS medium added with 3.0 % sucrose, 0.8 % agar, anddifferent concentrations of BAP and 2, 4-D. Callus was sub-cultured after every 30days for proliferation.Maximum callus proliferation was obtained when the medium was supplemented with0.5 mg/lBA. Maximum shoot elongation was obtained in medium supplemented with1.0 mg/l GA3

Case study 2 :Tissue culture of Tobacco (NicotianatabacumL.) :

Callus induction andproliferation was carried out on MS medium supplemented with

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different concentrations of 2,4-D.

Excellent growth of callus was obtained at medium containing 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D.

For root induction different concentrations of IBA and NAA were tested and the resultwas found best on the same medium supplemented with 2.0 mg/l IBA

Case study 3 :In vitro propagation of Honey Plant (Stevia rebaudianaBertoni) :

This was conducted by inoculating seeds on MS medium .

The nodal explants were inoculated on MS mediumsupplemented with 3.0% sucroseand 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 3.0 and 4.0 mg/l of BAP and Kn (Kinetin) alone or in combinationswith 0.25 and 0.5 mg/l of IAA.

The optimal rooting (81%) was observed on MS medium containing 0.5 mg/l NAA with2 % sucrose within two weeks of culture transfer.

Case study 4 :Multiplication and regeneration of Potato (Solanum tuberosumL.) fromnodal explants:

Five days old sprouts were used as explantsfor direct proliferation.

The Espinosa medium plus vitamin B5 supplemented with different concentrations ofBAP and GA3 alone and in combinations was utilized.

Highest shoot length of shoots was observed in presence of 0.5 mg/l BAP and 0.4 mg/l GA3 with the ability to produce maximum plantlets per explant .

Case study 5 :Tissue culture of physic nut (Jatropha curcasL.) :

Murashige& Skoog (1962) medium supplemented with different growth regulatorformulations including 2,4-D and IBA was used.

Excellent growth of callus on leaf explants was obtained in medium supplemented with1.0 mg/L 2, 4-D. While 1.0 mg/L 2,4-D was proved to be most effective in inducingcallus on a large scale in short period of time.

Current & Future Status of Plant Tissue Culture :

Nowadays, one of the most promising methods of producing proteins and other medicinal

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substances, such as antibodies and vaccines, is the use of transgenic plants [6]. Transgenic plantsrepresent an economical alternative to fermentation-based production systems. The number offarmers who have incorporated transgenic plants into their production systems in 2008 was 13.3million, in comparison to 11 million in 2007 [7].

In the upcoming future, Plant-made vaccines or antibodies (plantibodies) are especially striking, asplants are free of human diseases, thus reducing screening costs for viruses and bacterial toxins.

Conclusion

Plant tissue culture represents the most promising areas of application at present time and giving anout look into the future.The areas ranges from micropropagation to all biotechnological approacheslike genetic engineering, haploid induction, or somaclonal variation to improve traits strongly dependon an efficient in-vitro plant regeneration system. As such, it has a great role to play in humanwelfare , development and productivity.

References

Ferrante E, Simpson D (2001) A Review of the Progression of Transgenic Plants Used to producePlantibodiesFor Human Usage. Bio.& Biomed. Sci. Issue 1.

Hellwig S, Drossard J, Twyman RM, Fischer R (2004) Plant cell cultures for the production ofrecombinant proteins. Nat. Biotechnol. 22: 1415- 1422.

James C (2008) Global Status of Commercialized Biotech/ GM Crops. ISAAA Brief No. 39.Ithaca, NY. 243.

Murashige T, Skoog F (1962) A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobaccotissue cultures. Plant Physiol. 15: 473-497.

Thorpe T (2007) History of plant tissue culture. J. Mol. Microbial Biotechnol. 37: 169-180.

Ting IP (1982) Plant physiology. Addison-Wesleyn Reading, Massachusetts. 642.

Vijayasree N, Udayasri P, Aswani KY, Ravi BB, Phani KY, Vijay VM (2010) Advancements inthe Production of Secondary Metabolites. J. Nat. Prod. 3: 112-123.

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Research Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Modern CSR - A Shift From Profit Maximization to ProfitOptimization and Shareholders to Stakeholders

Monali P. Shah

Research Scholar , Gujarat University School of Law, AhmedabadE-mail: monali.shah24@hotmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 03-11-2019

Published Date:15-03-2020

Abstract

There is today a growing perception among enterprises that sustainable business and shareholdervalue cannot be achieved solely through maximizing short – term profits but instead through market-oriented yet responsible behaviour.CSR is the process by which an organization thinks about andevolves its relationships with stakeholders for the common good, and demonstrates its commitmentin this regard by adoption of appropriate business processes and strategies. Thus CSR is notcharity or small donations. Corporate Social Responsibility is also called Corporate Citizenship...

Taking a closer look, each of the eleven areas of CSR prescribed in Schedule VII of Section 135in the revised Companies Act of 2013 could be linked to multiple SDGs. To illustrate this pointwith a few examples: CSR area 1 on eradicating poverty, hunger and malnutrition and promotingpreventive healthcare and sanitation could be correlated to SDG goals #1 (No Poverty), #2 (ZeroHunger), #3 (Good Health & Well Being) and #6 (Clean Water & Sanitation). Similarly, CSRarea #2 on promoting education and vocational skills, including special education for the aged,

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differently-abled and women, and livelihoods could be correlated with SDGs #1 (No Poverty),#2(Zero Hunger), #4 (Quality Education) and #8 (Decent Work and Economic Growth). CSRarea #3 on promoting gender equality, empowering women, providing housing for women, orphans,elders and daycare centres for children and reducing inequalities faced by socially and economicallybackward groups could be correlated with SDGs #1 (No Poverty), #5 (Gender Equality) and#10 (Reduced Inequalities).

Keyword : C.S.R ( Corporate Social Responsibility),M.C.A (Ministry of Corporate Affairs),

S.D.G (Sustainable Development Goal)

Profit maximization is the primary aim of a capitalist economy. The mantra of hard-core capitalismis profit, more profit and only profit, but recently a new concept has emerged called co-operationalcapitalism or co-op capitalism. This "new" capitalism, though focused on the profit motive, alsoincorporates the essence of cooperation, accountability, and values in the social context. Such anidea of modern capitalism is reflected incorporates, too. For the new generation of corporateleaders, profit optimization is more critical than only profit maximization. Hence there is a shift inaccountability from shareholders to stakeholders (including employees, consumers and affectedcommunities),and a growing realization that long-term business success can be achieved only bycompanies that recognize that the economy is an "open subsystem of the earth’s ecosystem whichis finite, non-growing and materially closed."

Concept of C.S.R

The concept of CSR is not simple to define; various concepts and themes overlap this term. Theconcepts of corporate citizenship, sustainable business, environmental responsibility, the triple bottomline, social and environmental accountability, business ethics and corporate accountability are allvery much linked with CSR.

The term CSR itself came into common use in the early 1970s.The last decade of the twentiethcentury witnessed a shift in focus from charity and traditional philanthropy towards a more directengagement of business in mainstream development and concern for disadvantaged groups insociety. In India, there is a growing realization that business cannot succeed in isolation and socialprogress is necessary for sustainable growth. An ideal CSR practice has both ethical and

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philosophical dimensions, particularly in India where there is a wide gap between sections ofpeople in terms of income and standards as well as socio-economic status (Bajpai, 2001).

Importance

CSR HAS BECOME AN IMPORTANT ISSUE BECAUSE OF THE FOLLOWINGFACTORS:

CSR helps in strengthening the relationship between companies and stakeholders.

It enables continuous improvement and encourages innovations.

Attracts the best industry talent as a socially responsible company.

Provides additional motivation to employees.

Mitigates risk as a result of its effective corporate governance framework.

Enhances the ability to manage stakeholder expectations.

History and Evolution of Indian CSR:

India has the world’s most prosperous tradition of corporate social responsibility. Though the termCSR is comparatively new, the concept itself dates back to over a hundred years. CSR in Indiahas evolved through different phases, like community engagement, socially responsible productionand socially responsible employee relations. Its history and evolution can be divided into fourmajor phases.

Phases of Evolution

Phase 1 (1850 - 1914) Phase 2 (1910 - 1960) Phase 3 (1950 - 1990) Phase 4 (1980

onwards)

Purely philanthropy

and charity during

industrialization;

corporation is only

responsible to owners

and managers.

CSR as social

development during

the Independence

struggle; the

corporation is

responsible to owners,

managers and

employees.

CSR under the “mixed

economy paradigm”;

the corporation is

responsible for

owners, managers and

other target

environments.

CSR in a globalized

world is confused; the

corporation is

responsible to owners,

managers, other target

environments and the

public at large.

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CSR Activities in India

India is the first country to require that some firms spend a percentage of their profits on sociallyresponsible activities (as designated by law), or explain why they do not. This rule is part ofSection 135 of the Companies Act 2013, which lays out the approach to CSR in two broad steps– first, by specifying which firms are subject to Section 135, and second, by specifying the obligationsof these firms. Section 135 only applies to firms that satisfy at least one of three thresholds in anyfinancial year – either having net worth (the face value of shares initially issued by the corporation,adjusted for subsequent retained earnings and various reserves) exceeding INR 5 billionturnover(i.e., sales) exceeding INR 10billion, or net profits exceeding INR 50 million. All publicly tradedand privately held firms with operations in India (including foreign-owned firms) are subject toSection 135 if they cross any of the thresholds.Moreover, the "in any financial year" languageappears to indicate that these thresholds apply going forward from the effective date of theCompanies Act 2013.

If a firm crosses any of these thresholds, then:

it must constitute a "Corporate Social Responsibility" (CSR) committee with threedirectors, of which one must be independent,

it must disclose the composition of the CSR committee,

the CSR committee must formulate a CSR policy recommending the kinds and amountsof CSR spending the firm is to pursue, and the committee must monitor that

policy

the Board is to approve and publicize the firm’s CSR policy (after taking into accountthe CSR committee’s recommendations) and to ensure that the policy is followed,and

the Board is to ensure that the firm spends at least 2% of the firm’s average net profits(over the last three years) on activities listed in the firm’s CSR Policy or providereasonsfor why this spending level was not achieved (i.e., a "comply-or-explain "rule)

It is noteworthy that the "comply-or-explain" rule only applies to the amount spent onCSR (i.e.,2% of average net profits); the other requirements (items (I) to (IV)) are mandatory, and failure tomeet them would trigger liability regardless of what explanation was provided. Failure to meet the

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2% spending requirement would not trigger liability if an acceptable explanation for failing to meetit were provided (although it is not entirely clear to whom such an explanation must be providedand what the standard of "acceptability" is). If such an explanation is not provided and the firmfailed to spend at least 2% of average net profits on CSR activities, then Liability would be triggeredhere too. The penalty on the firm and every officer of the firm who violates Section 135 is INR10,000 for the first day of the violation plus an additional INR 1,000 a day if the violation continues.

Finally, the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) has promulgated a set of rules in 2014 thatprovides a list of the activities that satisfy the requirement for CSR spending. The activities listedare comprehensive and cover a large swath of what is typically considered CSR and perhapsmore (e.g., spending on education, health, poverty eradication, environment, arts, gender equality,reducing other inequalities, some designated government programs, funds for technology incubatorsin Government Academic institutions), thereby leaving firms with considerable discretion in directingtheir CSR spending. However, the MCA’s rules do not count as CSR spending those expendituresthat would have been undertaken in the ordinary course ofbusiness, that are meant to benefitemployees or political parties, or that relate to activities occurring outside of India.

Key Concerns

The threshold limit of Rs.5 crores net profit for applicability of CSR requirements seems, incomparative terms, to be on the lower side vis-à-vis net worth and turnover thresholds of Rs.500crores and Rs.1,000crores respectively. This may result in companies getting covered under CSReven when they do not meet net worth/turnover criteria.

It is not clear whether a company will need to create a provision in its financial statementsfor the unspent amount if it fails to spend 2% on CSR activities in a particular year.After some initial confusion over the tax applicable, it is now clear that CSR expenditurewill be taxable, although, for a few activities, tax exemption will be allowed from thefinancial year 2014-15. However, there is no clarity yet on these activities.

Critiques

A disturbing aspect of Section 135 relates to the linking of a company’s profit-makingwith the development of local areas. Companies are required to spend 2% of theiraverage net profits from the preceding three years and focus on local areas around

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which they operate. This is an absurd proposition as it will increase inter-state disparitiesin social indicators. For instance, states like Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh(as also Odisha in 2013), with their large number of industrial units, are likely to seemore significant social development on account of higher CSRspend by the privatesector.

The rules in the Companies Act-2013 would make it difficult for companies to pursuestrategic CSR - aligned to business strategy - since any expense that can be traced backto financial profits may have to be set aside from CSR, as indicated by the law.

It is possible that companies would prefer to spend on activities specified in the Act,(such as protection of national art, heritage and culture, promotion of sports, contributionto the Prime Minister’s National Relief Fund), which have a lower long-run social impact,ignoring real problems like inter-regional inequality or particular social stigmas.

Conclusion

CSR as a concept has been the focus of various deliberations and much research over the pastfew years; and has come to occupy an essential place in the academic and business arena. Evolvingall the time, it has morphed from a purely philanthropic to a systemic and, finally, strategic activity.India is the first country to have legislated CSR mandates. Others like Sweden, Norway, UK,South Africa, Ghana and Ivory Coast follow some specific codes for sustainable and sociallyaccountable business practices, like Social Labour Plan (SLP) and Local Content Law (LCL).The US, though it has a vibrant presence of industrial firms and big corporates, has only somemandates for reviewing reports on corporate spending. There is no strong legislation, as in India,for CSR spending.

After the enactment of the Companies Act-2013, it is estimated that approximately 2,500companies have come in the ambit of mandated CSR; the budget could touch approximately INR15,000 crores.The new legislation will likely be a game-changer, infusing new investments, strategicefforts and accountability in the way CSR is being conceived and managed in India. It has openednew opportunities for all stakeholders (including the corporate sector, government, not-for-profitorganizations and the community at large) to devise innovative ways to contribute to equitablesocial and economic development. Currently, CSR in India is headed in a positive direction as

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there already exists a multitude of enabling organizations and regulatory bodies such as theDepartment of Public Enterprises (DPE), Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA), and Indian Instituteof Corporate Affairs (IICA). These institutions have already set the wheels in motion and areplaying an essential role in making CSR a widespread practice and in ensuring success in reducinginequalities without risking business grow

From the limited experience over the last few years, some lessons nonetheless emerge.Thegovernment introduces CSR because they want the corporation to become more responsible forsociety or for its stakeholders itself. As we know, CSR offers real opportunities for corporationsto contribute to various activities that directly or indirectly help the welfare of society. Corporationsare social entity so they must take care of all stakeholders; it is vital for them to take charge of thisresponsibility in an efficient way so that all participants of the corporation feel satisfied. As weknow, corporates cannot stand alone; they also need the support of their society at large which isessential for their development and goodwill. Many large corporations are now taking steps toimprove their environmental and social performance through the use of voluntary initiatives such ascodes of conduct, environmental certification and reporting, social audits, fair trading schemes andsocial investment programmes. Corporates and government must work together and through this,they can bring dramatic changes in the welfare schemes of society

References

Co-op Capitalism believes that public goods must be managed in ways to ensure fair access anduse by all - Noreena Hertz.

John Elkington gave the triple Bottom Line concept; it talks about the social, economic andenvironmental responsibilities of organizations.

http://www.soulace.htm (accessed on 29.07.2014 at 2.46pm).

Net worth is based on a firm’s "paid-up share capital" (the number of shares outstanding, multipliedby the face value at which the share certificates were originally issued), but also takes account ofthe face value of preferred stock, and adjusts for retained earnings and various reserves (seeDharmapala and Khanna, 2013).

9 Section 135 (1), Companies Act 2013. The US Dollar totals are based on an exchange rate of1 USD = 65 INR.

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Ministry of Corporate Affairs, Companies (Corporate Social Responsibility Policy) Rules (2014)(hereinafterCSR Rules).

Id.

Section 135 (2), Companies Act 2013

Section 135 (3), Companies Act 2013.

Section 135 (4), Companies Act 2013.

Section 135 (5), Companies Act 2013. Section 135 (5) also notes that the firm should givepreference to CSR spending in its local areas; this has generated some negative commentary(Afsharipour and Rana, 2014).

Section 450, Companies Act 2013 (also attaching liability to other persons who are in default).Although it is not clear who is to enforce Section 135 from its wording, one can assume that it isthe Ministry of Corporate Affairs. Note that if the violation is repeated within a 3 year period, thefine can be doubled – Section 451, Companies Act 2013.

CSR Rules (2014). These rules become part of Schedule VII of the Companies Act 2013.

CSR Rules (2014).

business that is meant to benefit employees or political parties or that relate to activitiesoccurringoutside of India.19

http://www.thehindubusinessline.com (A flaw in the CSR Design, published on 18th June2014 byT.Jayakumar).

http://www.thehindubusinessline.com (A flaw in the CSR Design, published on 18th June2014 byTulsi Jayakumar).

From a study conducted by Ernst & Young and Ph.D. chamber, published in Global CSR Summit- 2013.

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Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Blend Dialects Muslims of Ahmedabad

Rifat J. Quadiri

Ph.D Research Scholar, Gujarat UniversityDepartment of English, F. D. Arts and Commerce College, Ahmedabad.

*Corresponding Author

Received Date:17-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Ahmedabad is the largest city of Gujarat which is located on the banks of the river Sabarmati byfour Muslim saints. People following different religions reside in this huge city. Muslims are one ofthem. They mostly reside in the heart of the city-the old city, such as Jamalpur, Khanpur, Shahpur,Shahibaug, Kalupur, Dariapur, etc. Different Muslim communities such as Saiyed, shaikh, Pathan,Mansuri, Memon, Chhipa, Vohra, etc. reside in this city. It is a general idea that Muslims speakUrdu language. But Muslims staying in different areas of Ahmedabad speak a little bit differentdialects from one another. Gujarati is the regional language of Gujarat. Mansuri and Ghanchicommunity speak Gujarati. While other communities speak blend dialect.

How People Settled Down in Gujarat and Their Langauges

It is said that when Temur invaded Dehli in December 1398, it was totally ruined. This invasion notonly affected the administration but also the common people of Dehli as well as the outskirts ofDehli were almost completely ruined. The administration had become so weak that the emperorhimself left Dehli and went away. People also started deserting the city. The subedars of Delhibecame autocratic. In this way, the Subedar of Gujarat also became autocratic and afterwards

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became the Sultan of Gujarat. He came to be known as Muzaffar Shah. He was very attached toSufi saints. He patronized them and gave them the highest position in his court. Gujarat by thenwas noticed by the Walis of Delhi. Delhi being greatly destroyed and disturbed, there was noscope of security for common people. They considered Gujarat as the most peaceful place andstarted migrating to this place. This incident has been documented in Meerat-e-Ahmedi. Therewas a great impact on the language of Gujarat because of this migration. People, who came toGujarat from Delhi, brought their languages also. In this way, there was a great influx of the wordsof other languages into Gujarati and other dialects of Gujarat. This created a mixed language. Andit is believed that Urdu language originated from such a mixed language or either from the languagesspoken in the military camps of those times. This language was first called Dakhani Urdu, Hindiand at last only Urdu. Along with Dakhani, it is also called Gujri or Gujarati. The newly originatedUrdu was not only used in literature but also by common people in their day to day life. Its spokenform was called hindi in delhi as well as in Agra. Hindu merchants in military camps used toconverse with Muslim soldiers, Pathans and Mughal Soldiers in Urdu and gradually there evolveda mixed language. There was a great impact of Persian on Hindi and it got a touch of Urdu, whichhad a grammatical structure of Hindi and vocabulary of Persian.

During the arrival of Muslims in Gujarat, a market prevailed by the people near the fort of Bhadraand the language spoken in that market was known as Gujri. The impact of Persian was more onGujarati than Urdu. The main reason of this is during the reign of Sikandar Lodhi, hindus tried tolearn Persian and in 1582, Akbar Todarmal made Persian a state language. since 12thcentury,there has been a great wage of Arabic and Persian words in Gujarati language. Such examples canbe found in the literature of middle ages such as Bharteshwar Bahubali Ras (1185) Samaras(1315) of Ambev Sur, Ramalla Chand of Shridhar Vyas, Pruthvi Chandra Charit (1422) ofManikeychandrasuri. There was also a deep rooted study of Persian through universities. Mughalsultanate came to India between 1573 and 1583 A.D. and Persian came to India with them. Urduwas also developing at that time. Nagars, Brahmakshatriyas and even Brahmins learnt Persian toget high positions in administrative offices. Persian became a symbol of status in society. Gujartisbecame bilingual in this manner. Chhotubhai Naik has worked on Persian language in his book"Farsi Shabdono Sarth Vyutpatti Kosh". There are so many Persian, Turkish and Arabic words

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which are frequently used in Gujarati or the dialects of Gujarat. Following are the examples:

Dard, charbi, mehman, sabu, dardi, pedash, safed, lal, narangi, etc are Persian words. Top, harod,chaku,etc. are Turkish words and hukem, mafi, karaar, salaah, wajan, julam, khamis, etc. areArabic words.

Different Muslim Communities of The City and Their Languages:

1. SAIYED COMMUNITY: They are basically religious heads. Their ancestors had migratedto India to spread Islam. They are quite different from others as far as language and manners areconcerned. They mostly use ‘aap’ instead of ‘tum’ even though they talk with the persons youngerto them. Most of them speak Urdu. Their pharyngeal pronunciation of the sound ‘Q’, ‘KH’ and‘G’ is clearer than the people of other communities. The main reason of this may be the fact thattheir ancestors’ mother tongue was either Arabic or Persian.

Words spoken by Saiyed community and other communities

Saucer tashtari sasar

Kitchen bawarchikhana rasoda

Outside bahar bar

To me mujhe mereko

Had said kaha tha kiya tha

2. QURESHI COMMUNITY:

Qureshi belong to the Quresh community of Arabia. There is a history behind how and why theycame to India. Arabs invaded India during the time of Hazrat Umar, the Caliph of Arabia. Theyinvaded India to spread Islam over here. With the advent of Islam, slaughter of animals for muslimsbecame legal over here. But Muslims didn’t know the art of ‘ziba’. People of Quresh communitybeing expert in this art, migrated here and settled in different parts of India. They came to Ahmedabadtoo and settled down here. Today too we find Arabic touch in their language. being butchers theyuse certain Arabic words in their profession. For example, the kateb; the shoulder of an animal.The other word is Shabina. It means who or which has witnessed night. Their names are also

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mostly Islamic- Fatema, Ahmedi, Amena, Zainab, Ayesha, Muhammad, etc. As Parsis settleddown in India leaving Iran, they left their mother tongue gradually and adopted Gujarati. In thesame way, Qureshis also left Arabic and adopted the mixed dialect. In Arabic, there aren’t voicedor voiceless retroflex plosives like \t\ or \d\. So even today, these Qureshis cant speak \d\ clearly.\d\ becomes \r\ with them. There are many other Arabic words which they use in their day to daylife. For example, ijan, ija, etc. They also use code numbers in their business. They are as under:

Numbers code name

1 /ikkar/

2 /jor/

3 /dhala/

4 /araba/

5 /kol/

6 /zalli/

7 /sumar/

8 /nimati/

9 /ekasar/

10 /ashar/

11 /ashar ikkar/ and so on.

20 /mi/

30 /dhala ashar/

40 /arba ashar/

50 /fadiya/

100 /gorina/

200 /jor golina/

500 /kolso/

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Other code words are: ‘sikku’ for butcher, ‘selna’ for to go, ‘raga’ for customer, ‘ancha’ for small,‘chhiba’ for calf,etc.

3. SHAIKH COMMUNITY: The meaning of Shaikh is Sardar or a leader. They aredivided into 3 sub-communities. They are Siddique, Farooqui and Abbasi. Farooquisare also divided into Chisti and Faridi. Some of the people of this community have Urduas their mother-tongue. Most of them speak a cocktail language as there is a greatimpact of other languages on their mother tongue. They use ‘mereko’ for ‘mujhe’, ‘chopdi’for ‘kitab’, ‘rasoda’ for kitchen or ‘bawarchikhana’, etc.

4. PATHAN COMMUNITY: They belong to Afghanistan. Their mother tongue is Pushto.They had come to Gujarat as soldiers. It is difficult to say that young generation speaksPushto fluently as their elders do.

5. MEMON COMMUNITY: In 1422 A.D., seven hundred Luhana families had adoptedIslam. Those who settled down in Halar region of Saurashtra are known as Halari Memonsand those who migrated to Kuchh are called Kuchchhi memons. Gradually, they scatteredinto different regions and there are many memons residing in Ahmedabad also. They aretraditionally quite different from other communities. Their language is known as memonlanguage. But while speaking to others, they shift to either Gujarati or Urdu language.

6. They were basically brahmins who had been converted to Islam during Solanki Dynasty.Gujarati is their mother tongue. But while communicating with other communities, theyshift to Hindi, Urdu or mixed dialect. They are peculiar in pronouncing certain sounds,such as instead of alveolar /t,d/ they pronounce dental /t,d/.

7. KHOJA COMMUNITY: They were also converted to Islam. Originally they belongedto Bhatiya or Luhana community. Gujarati is their mother tongue.

8. CHHIPA COMMUNITY: They are basically from Rajasthan. They speak Chhipa,Marwadi or Rajasthani language. They too shift to Hindi or Urdu while interacting withother communities.

Besides these, there are Mansuri and Ganchi communities also who too speak Gujarati. As

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they have various mother tongues, while interacting with other communities, there is agreat language shift. And it will not be wrong to say that due to this language shift thereemerges mixed dialect. The other reason for the emergence of mixed dialect may beimpact of other languages on one’s mother tongue.

Reference

Chaudhary Raghuvir, Ed. Urdu Sahitya Ane Gujarat. Ahmedabad: Gujarat Sahitya Parishad,1981.

Clark, Rajvi. Vdhya. Ahmedabad: Gujarat University Press,2008

Nayak, Chotubhai Ranchhodbhai. Farsi Shabdono Saarth Vyupattikosh. Vol I to IV. Ahmedabd:Gujarat University Press,1974.

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Research Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Environmental Rights and Human Rights ofWomen in Unorganized Sectors

Vaishakhi Thakkar &Prachi V. Motiyani*

Ph.D Research Scholar, University School of Law, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.Assistant Professor, University School of Law, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.

E-mail: prachivinod3012@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date: 12-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

The use of the term 'organised' and 'unorganised' as used in India, which is internationally knownas 'formal' and 'informal'. "Unorganised workers consist of those working in the unorganisedenterprises or households, excluding regular workers with social security benefits, while the workersin the formal sector without any permanent employment and social security benefits provided bythe employers". Basically there is lack of employer-employee relationship in unorganized sector.In recent years, the problems relating to empowerment and improvement of women have gainedmuch attention. These women are paid less and are deprived of other necessary benefits. Some ofthe young women are even subjected to sexual exploitation. There are virtually no medical facilities,rest rooms and crèche facilities. It is a harsh reality that a woman of this country has been sociallyand economically handicapped. As a result, they are unable to participate equally in the socio-economic activities of the nation with their male counterpart and hence the basic human rights aresnatched away from women labours. They have to work in unhygienic, polluted and unhealthy

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environment. In such an environment, the quality of women’s employment is very important anddepends upon several factors. If labour rights are incorporated in human rights documents, theyare human rights. This paper discuss about the human rights and environmental rights which aregiven to the women workers. However, due to illiteracy and other factors, many of the womenworkers are unaware about their rights.

Keywords: Unorganised sector, Women workers, environment and human rights

Introduction

In India, most of the tentatively 260.3 million people living below the poverty line are women.There is lack of means, education, skills in women workers. The women workers are generallyengaged in the informal sectors like handlooms, handicrafts, weaving, fisheries, construction,agriculture and domestic help, putting them outside the traditional covers. Women as workers,mostly unskilled, are engaged in agriculture and, in particular, home-based work (over 50 % ofnon-agricultural workers). Women are dependent on unofficial arrangements and contracts andfew are dependent on domestic and local market. Women thus find themselves unprotected, trappedbetween unorganised work and household responsibilities, and lacking access to support in thework of seasonal contingencies .Their contribution is not recognized even though they contribute alot to the income/saving of the family.

Unorganised sector formulates a huge part of work-force in the Indian economy. The unorganizedeconomy employs about 86 per cent of the country’s work force and 95 per cent of its womenworkers. A high proportion of socially and economically impoverished women of society arevigorous in informal economic activities. These women workers are earns for their families. Thereasons for their vulnerability are:

(a) Non-uniform work,

(b) Low economic level,

(c) Lack of bargaining power,

(e) Need to balance paid work with child care and household work,

(f) Little or no access to institutional credit, training and information, and

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The link between human rights and environmental protection has become increasingly clear inrecent years. Environmental damage is often worse in countries and in areas with human rightsviolations. Rights of association, access to justice, access to information and freedom of expression,are covered under environmental and human rights. Environmental and human rights issues areclosely linked and exist coextensively.

1. Objective of the Study :

The basic aim of the study is to understand the environment and human rights of women who areengaged in unorganized sector. Issues and challenges facing by women worker is also one of thevital parts of this research paper. This paper will discuss the reasons why women workers are notgetting environment rights, human rights and social securities.

The specific objectives of the research paper:

(a) To know the human rights in context of women workers engaged in unorganized sector.

(b) To explore the basic concepts and principles of environmental law.

(c) To know about the issues and challenges facing by women workers who are engaged inunorganized sector.

(d) Lastly, to suggest ways for their betterment in future.

2. Environment and Human Rights:

An important problem confronting policy makers today is the challenge of preserving the naturalenvironment while side by side promoting development to meet the basic needs of humanity.According to the United Nations Millennium Eco-system Assessment Report (MEA), released in2005, ecosystem changes ‘may occur on such a large scale as to have a catastrophic effect on theeconomic, social and political process on which social stability, human well-being and good healthdepend. Advances in science and technology have substantially changed our understanding of theenvironment over the last century. The relation between the environment and human rights has ledto considerable interest in the subject of ‘environmental rights’ – which raises the possibility offormulating claims relating to the environment in terms of human rights. As well as the case lawconcerned with certain human rights, we therefore find environmental treaties with provisions on

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freedom of information and similar guarantees and, at the most general level, a discussion of theadvantages of adding a broad ‘right to environment’ to the list of traditional human rights. Thisarticle discusses the value of rights, the rights we have, who can have rights, issues of determinacyand consistency, who bears the corresponding obligations, the content of rights, the relationshipbetween different rights, and legal rights and moral rights.

3. Collaboration between Human Rights and Environment Rights:

Human rights and the Environment are intertwined; human rights cannot be enjoyed without a safe,clean and healthy environment; and sustainable environmental governance cannot exist without theestablishment of and respect for human rights. This relationship is increasingly recognized yetparadoxically environmental rights are increasingly violated. Environmental rights are composedof substantive rights (fundamental rights) and procedural rights (tools used to achieve substantialrights). Beyond equal distribution and access to clean and sustainable resources, EnvironmentalRights also include an additional obligation from those in the industrialized nations. It requires us toact responsibly in our own use of natural resources, and to regulate our levels of consumption in amore equitable manner. Environmental Rights are the protection of natural resources; the access toand use of natural resources; and how the access to and use of these resources affects surroundingpopulations, as well as the resources themselves.

4.1 Environmental Rights

Having the right to food, shelter, education, clean water, having a safe and sustainable environment isparamount as all other rights are dependent upon it. The right to a clean environment is fundamentaland deeply connected to the right to health and well-being. It is of fundamental importance to notethat there is a connection between the quality of the environment and the health of the people livingto those environments. The responsibility for the provision of a safe and healthy environment isoutlined in a range of legislation and different sections of the Constitution. Section 24 of theConstitution provides that everyone has a right to an environment that is not dangerous to theirhealth and well-being; and to have the environment protected for the benefit of current and futuregenerations, through valid legislative and other measures that prevent pollution and ecologicaldegradation and secure ecologically sustainable development and use of natural resources. The

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Constitution provides an obligation in terms of section 152 (1)(b) and (d) on the part of localgovernment as stipulated in sections 4(2)(d) and 4(2)(i), 73(1) and (2) of the Municipal SystemsAct 32 of 200 to ensure that the right to a clean and healthy environment is satisfied.

Environmental rights are composed of substantive rights (fundamental rights) and procedural rights(tools used to reach substantial rights).

4.1.1 Considerable Rights of women workers:

To have a protection against discrimination and have equal protection of the law, in relation tothe get benefit of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment.

To freedom of expression and to seek and impart information and ideas via any media andnevertheless of boundaries.

To freedom of federation and peaceful assembly in relation to environmental matters.

To work at a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment.

To freedom from threats, harassment, frightening and violence whilst working on human rightsand the environment.

To self-determination; to freely determine your political status and freely chase your economic,social and cultural development.

4.1.2 Procedural Rights of working women:

To take part in public decision-making about environmental affairs.

To equivalent access to public service in his country.

To effectuallegal remedies for violations of these rights.

To be intimated, at the time of arrest, of the reasons for arrest and shall be punctually informedof any charges against one.

To seek, receive, and provide environmental information

To compensation after unlawful arrest or detention.

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4.1.3 Private Sector Obligations:

Business have a liability to respect environmental rights. This means that they should avoid violationon the human rights of others and should address unfavorable human rights impacts with whichthey are involved. This includes the obligations:

To evolve policies that respect environmental rights.

To undertake due diligence processes to identify, prevent, moderate and account.

To create processes to enable the corrective of any adverse human rights impacts that theycause or to which they contribute .

4.2 Human Rights:

Most human rights treaties were drafted and adopted before environmental protection became amatter of international concern. As a result, there are few references to environmental affairs ininternational human rights gadgets, although the rights to life and to health are of course includedand some formulations of the latter right make reference to environmental issues. Human rights arethe basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world. They are based on importantprinciples like dignity, fairness, respect and equality. Our human rights are protected by the legislation.If your employer is a public authority, they must follow these principles.

Human Rights are universal legal guarantees protecting individuals and groups against actionswhich obstruct with fundamental freedoms and human dignity. These rights are the due birthright ofevery human being, for the sole fact of being human. They can be understood to be a socialcontract between individuals and the State (we allow the state to rule over us, in exchange forspecific guarantees), naturalistically, as inborn properties of every human being.

4. Linkage between Human Rights and Constitutionalism :

Reporting of human rights incidents, barriers to human rights enjoyment and protection in a countryare important. Human rights supervising and reporting provides individuals and their governmentobjective information on the country’s performance with respect to examination of human rights,their protection and above all respect for rule of law, and maintenance of the dignity of the individual.

Constitutionalism is a system of political arrangement that is governed by a supreme law, that can

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only be amended by the will of the people or through their constituent representatives, inwhich thepractice of the rule of law, separation of powers, checks and balances and good governance areexamined, and the rights and development of the citizens are paramount.

It is this concept of constitutionalism, this intersection of law and politics, which lies at the heart ofthe present investigation. This intermingling of diverse fields creates an inherent need for an approachwhich is somewhat syncretic in nature.

5. Women workers in the Unorganised sector in India:

6.1 Unorganised Sector:

Unorganized sector means an enterprise owned by individual or self-employed workers and engagedin the production or sale of goods or providing service of any kind whatsoever, and where theenterprise employees workers, the number of such worker is less than 10.

The term "unorganised sector" used by the Indian National Account Statistics is equivalently knownas informal sector internationally. Unorganised, unregulated, traditional, household and informalare different terms used interchangeably in contrast with organised, regulated, modem, corporateand formal sector. The increasing interest of the researchers over the problem of urban unemploymentand poverty has given birth to this concept.

The first National Commission on Labour, under the Chairmanship of Justice Gajendragadkar,defined the unorganised sector as that part of the workforce ’who have not been able to organisein pursuit of a common objective because of constraints such as

(a) Casual nature of employment,

(b) Ignorance and illiteracy,

(c) Small size of establishments with low capital investment per person employed,

(d) Scattered nature of establishments and

(e) Superior strength of the employer operating singly or in combination.

In India, the terms ‘unorganised sector’ and ‘informal sector’ are used interchangeably in researchliterature. The term ‘unorganised sector’ is used commonly in all official records and analyses. It is

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defined as the residual of the organised sector. The term ‘organised’ is generally used when werefer to enterprises or employees in which 10 or more employees work together. The unorganisedsector is in no way an independent and exclusive sector. It cannot be denied that the unorganisedsector does not get enough protection through labour legislation. As the workers in the unorganisedsector, particularly women, have not been able to organise themselves, they are further discriminatedagainst in the sector.

6.2 Issues and Challenges of Working Women :

A high proportion of socially and economically underprivileged women of our society areconcentrated in informal economic activities. Many of these women workers are primary earnersfor their families for sheer survival. Low income women workers, especially in the informal sectorform one of the most vulnerable groups in the work force.

Despite of having Human Rights, women workers are facing following issues:

(a) irregular work

(b) low economic status

(c) little or no bargaining power

(d) lack of control over earnings

(e) need to balance paid work with child care and household work

(f) Little or no access to institutional credit, training and information, and

(g) Lack of assets

(h) Lack of Social Security

Moreover, women workers are also facing environmental issues. They have also given theenvironmental rights. But there are few factors, who snatched away the environmental rights ofwomen workers of unorganized sector.

Let’s discuss environmental issues:

(a) location of work place

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(b) poor health condition

(c) absence of social security

(d) occupational hazardous and health issues

(e) lack of physical environment at work place

(f) lack of sanitary and urinal facilities

(g) lack of permanent residence

(h) Safety and Social Sustainability

These women find themselves vulnerable, caught between unorganised work and householdresponsibilities, and lacking access to support in the event of seasonal or life-cycle contingencies.Though they are contributing a lot to the income/saving of the family and to the GDP of the country,their contribution is not recognized. Sometimes they are subjected to many social evils like genderdiscrimination, domestic violence and sexual harassment at work-place. Despite the existing lawslike, ‘Prevention of Domestic Violence Act of 2005’; ‘Sexual Harassment Act of 2013’; ‘AntiDowry Act etc., they are subjected to different kinds of exploitation. Therefore, it is time toaddress their issues, evolve policy measures, and initiate reforms and institutional changes for theiremancipation and empowerment.

6. Case studies

7.1 Vishaka vs State of Rajasthan (AIR 1997 SC 3011)

This is a case which deals with the evil of Sexual Harassment of a women at her workplace. It is alandmark judgment case in the history of sexual harassment which as being decide by SupremeCourt. Sexual Harassment means an uninvited/unwelcome sexual favor or sexual gestures fromone gender towards the other gender. It makes the person feel humiliated, offended and insulted towhom it is been done. In many of the cases, it has been observed that homosexual labor harass anemployee belonging to the same sex to which he belongs.

The Supreme Court held that, women have fundamental right towards the freedom of sexualharassment at workplace. It also put forward various important guidelines for the employees tofollow them and avoid sexual harassment of women at workplace.

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7.2 Jackson v. Birmingham Board of Education (2005)

In a 5-4 decision, the Supreme Court rules that Title IX, which prohibits discrimination based onsex, also inherently prohibits disciplining someone for complaining about sex-based discrimination.It further holds that this is the case even when the person complaining is not among those beingdiscriminated against.

7.3 Mary Roy Vs State of Kerala

Women from the Syrian Christian community in Kerala were prevented from inheriting propertydue to patriarchal traditions. This decree was challenged by Mary Roy, a woman's right activistand educator.

After the demise of her father, she filed a case against her elder brother when she was denied equalshare in the family's inheritance. Though the plea was rejected by the lower court, the Kerala HighCourt overruled the previous judgment.

In 1986, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark judgment that granted Syrian Christian womenthe right to seek an equal share in their father's property.

7.4 Lata Singh Vs State of Uttar Pradesh

Lata Singh was an adult when she left her family home to be joined in matrimony with a man froma lower caste. Her brothers, who were unhappy with the alliance, filed a missing person report,and alleged Lata had been abducted. This resulted in the arrest of three people from her husband'sfamily.

In order to get the charges dropped, Lata Singh filed a petition which resulted in the landmarkjudgment by the Supreme Court that allowed an adult woman the right to marry or live withanyone of her choice.

The court further ordered that the police initiate criminal action against people who commit violenceagainst those who decide on inter-religious or inter-caste marriages.

7.5 Termination of 24-week old pregnancy permitted on account of abnormal fetus

The petitioner, a rape survivor, who wished to remain unidentified, approached the Supreme Court

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seeking permission to abort her 24-week abnormal fetus.

The petition challenged the 46-year-old Maternal Termination of Pregnancy Act that does notpermit abortion of a fetus after 20 weeks.

The Supreme Court ruled in favour of the petitioner after the medical board submitted a reportstating that continuing with the pregnancy would put the mother's life at risk.

7.6 Centre for enquiry into Health and Allied themes (CEHAT) Vs Union of India

With the advent of pre-natal diagnostic techniques that could determine the sex of a fetus, thegrowing trend of aborting female fetuses was observed. In a bid to curtail female feticide, thegovernment of India issued the PNDT Act in 1996.

The provisions of the PNDT Act, however, were not being effectively implemented by the stateand central government.

The Centre for Enquiry into Health and Allied themes filed a petition which led to the SupremeCourt directing the Central and State governments to enact the provisions of the act immediately,and banned all advertisements relating to pre-natal sex determination techniques.

Conclusion

The rise in environmental movements is thus closely linked to the new phenomenon of globalization,which has transformed the structure of the international system, and which can be defined as ‘theprocess of increasing interconnectedness between societies far away. Environmental movementsin the developing world have emerged in a distinct way from those in the developed world. Women,for instance, have played much more of a crucial role in the rise of environmental movements indeveloping world. No one can snatch away the rights of working women. The employers shouldprovide the basic necessities, social security, healthy and clean environment to the women workers.The 1994 Draft Declaration of Principles of Human Rights and the Environment reiterates theimportance of equality of access to a healthy environment.

References

Social Watch India Report 2005

Mean Years of Schooling of Non-agricultural Workers by Sector and Sex 2004 – 2005

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MEA-Millennium Eco—system Assessment Report

World Health Organisation.2005.

Chief Justice Sabharwal, Y.K., ‘Human Rights and the Environment’

United Nations University, Environmental Changes and International Law

http://supremecourtofindia.nic.in/new_links/humanrights.htm.

http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.357.aspx.pdf.

Code of Ethics for Environmental Journalists, see http://www.oneworld.org/slejf/ethics.htm. Sitevisited on 04/08/02

The Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, Act 108 of 1996.

The sub-section states that the council of a municipality, within the municipality’s financial andadministrative capacity and having regard to practical considerations, has the duty to strive toensure that municipal services are provided to the local communities in a financially andenvironmentally sustainable manner.

Garret Gardin, "The Tragedy of the Commons" 162 Science (1968) 1243-1248

Ref: The United Nations System and Human Rights: Guidelines and Information for the ResidentCoordinator System" approved on behalf of the Administrative Committee on Coordination (ACC)by the Consultative committee on Programme and Operational Questions (CCPOQ) at its 16thSession, Geneva, March 2000.

http://unep.org/dpdl/poverty_environment/pdf.

https://www.legal-tools.org/doc/1cbff0/

The unorganized worker’s social security act,2008.

Data on workplace of the unorganized workers reveals that 5.7 per cent rural and 13.6 ruralwomen workers have no fixed workplace. Larger proportions of rural women (41.1 %) are workingat their own residence and are carrying out mainly home based works.

National commission for enterprise in unorganized sector.

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See further on this Hinarejos (2008); Syrpis and Novitz (2008)

Article 37(2) of the ILO Constitution provides for a mechanism to set up a tribunal which has notbeen used.

Article 14, Constitution Of India, (Right To Equality)

Article 19 (1)(G) Constitution Of India, (Right To Practice Ones Profession)

Baylis, The Globalization of World politics, an introduction to international relations, p.7.

Womenaid International, ‘The Green Belt Movement, at http://www.unep.org/documents.

http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2010/html.

(Endnotes)

Assistant Professor, University School of Law, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad.

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Review Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

Phytochemical Significance of Selected Allium cepaVarieties–A Review

Swati Jayswal*, Ancy Fernandes & Bharat Maitreya

Department of Botany, Bioinformatics, Climate Change and Impacts Management,SOS, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad

E-mail: swatijayswal1994@gmail.com

Received Date: 01-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

Herbal medicines as the major remedy in traditional system of medicine have been used in medical

practices since antiquity. Medicinal plants have been used from the rural dwellers throughout the

world. A medicinal plant is any plant which, in one or more of its organs, contains substances that

can be used for therapeutic purposes, or which are precursors for chemo-pharmaceutical synthesis.

Such a plant will have its parts including leaves, roots, rhizomes, stems, barks, flowers, fruits,

grains or seeds, employed in the control or treatment of a disease condition and therefore contains

chemical components that are medically active.The study of natural products on the other hand is

called phytochemistry. Phytochemicals are complex group of primary metabolites and secondary

metabolites. Primary metabolites are essential for plant’s growth and reproduction while secondary

metabolites if present may have significant effects. Now-a-days it is clearly known that they play

roles in the protection of human health, when their dietary intake is significant. Allium species are

believed to possess medicinal properties including antioxidants. The bulb of onion is used medicinally

and onion has been consumed as food for many centuries. The generated data from the three

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different extracts of Allium cepa varietiesprovided the basis for its wide uses in the traditional and

folk medicines.

Keywords- : Phytochemistry, Allium, Herbal, Metabolites, Phytochemicals.

Introduction

Since ancient times, onions (AlliumcepaL.) have been an important dietary resource and have

also been of interest for medical purposes (Rose et al., 2005). Traditionally, onions and plants

belonging to the Allium genus have been used as an herbal remedy for a wide range of ailments,

due to their association with many pharmacological effects. Onion is known for being a good

natural source of flavonoids mainly represented by the flavonols - quercetin and kaempferol, which

are present as their glycosides. In recent years, many publications have reported evidence of

beneficial health effects attributed to flavonoids including antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory, cardio

protective, anticarcinogenic and antioxidant properties. Several epidemiological studies have also

associated the consumption of flavonoids with a reduction of the risk of chronic diseases including,

cancer, diabetes and coronary heart problems (Ponnulakshmi R et al., 2013).

In addition, onions contain hydroxyl benzoic acids, protocatechuic acid, phloroglucinoll acid and

pyrocatechol. A large number of diseases such as asthma, arthritis, cancer etc. can be cured not

only through pharmaceuticals chemicals but also by plant based drugs without any side effects.

An onion is an herbaceous biennial plant. It is included in Liliaceae family. It is grown for its edible

bulb. It is a vegetable and widely cultivated species of the genus Allium (Boyhan GE and Kelley

WT, 2008; Drost D, 2004; Schwartz, 2008).The height of the onion plant is 15-45 cm (6 to 18

inches). The stem of the plant is a flattened disc at the base and the tubular leaves form a pseudo

stem where there sheaths overlap. The leaves are yellowish to bluish green and grow alternately in

a flattened, fan shaped swathe. The leaves are either erect or oblique and there are 3-8 per plant.

The leaves are fleshy, hollow and cylindrical with one flattened side. The ending portion of it is like

blunt ends. The base of each leaf is flattened, usually white sheath that grows out of a basal disc.

From the underside of the disc, a bundle of fibrous root extends for a short way into the soil. As the

onion matures food reserves begin to accumulate in the leaf bases and the bulb of the onion swells

(Brickel, 1992).

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The bulb of the onion is made up of several layers, each corresponding to a leaf. They are generally

oval but shape can be variable and occur in clusters of 3-18 to a plant. The bulb is protected by a

membrane which turns to a papery coat. The onion plant produces pink or white flowers clustered

on stalks. The floral stalk is rigid, hollow and waxy and the plant is over a meter tall, with an

umbrella inflorescence and spherical shape. The hermaphrodite flowers are white, the fruit is a

capsule. Reproduction occurs through the glossy black seeds (triangular in cross section) (Boyhan

GE and Kelley WT, 2008; Drost D, 2004; Schwartz, 2008).

Phytochemicals

Phytochemicals (from the Greek word phyto, meaning plant) are biologically active and naturally

occurring chemical compounds which are found in plants and provide health benefits for humans

further than those attributed to macronutrients and micronutrients. They protect plant from disease

and damage and contribute to the plant’s color, aroma and flavor. In general, the plant chemicals

that protect plant cells from environmental hazards such as pollution, stress, drought UV exposure

and pathogenic attack are called as phytochemicals. Recently, it is clearly known that they have

roles in the protection of human health, when their dietary intake is significant (Mamta S et al.,

2013).

Primary and Secondary Metabolites

Phytochemicals are classified as primary or secondary constituents, depending on their role in

plant metabolism. It is said that primary metabolites are essential in plant growth and reproduction.

In the absence of these that processes do not occur properly. While secondary metabolites are not

as essential as primary. But primary metabolites have their particular role in living organisms. Primary

metabolites include the common sugars, amino acids, proteins, purines and pyrimidines of nucleic

acids, chlorophylls etc. Secondary metabolites are the remaining plant chemicals such as alkaloids,

terpens, flavonoids, lignans, plant steroids, curcumines, saponins, phenolics, flavonoids and

glycosides.

Phenolics

Phenolics phytochemicals are the largest category of phytochemicals and the most widely distributed

in the plant kingdom. The three most important groups of dietary phenolics are flavonoids, phenolic

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acids, and polyphenols. They are aromatic compounds containing benzene ring and one or more

hydroxyl groups produced by plants which are responsible for protection against stress. The function

of phenolic compounds in plant physiology and interactions with biotic and abiotic environments

are difficult to overestimate.

It plays an important role in plant development, particularly in lignin and pigment biosynthesis and

provides structural integrity and support to plants. Importantly, phenolic phytoalexins, secreted by

wounded or otherwise perturbed plants, repel or kill many microorganisms and some pathogens

can counteract or nullify theses defenses or even subvert them to their own advantage (Bhattacharya

A et al., 2010). They are generally known for their free radical scavenging activity, which depends

on the structure, the number and positions of the hydroxyl groups and the nature of substitutions on

the aromatic rings. Fruits, vegetables and beverages are the major sources of phenolic compounds

in the human diet (Nagendran B et al., 2005).

Fig. 2 Formation of Phytochemicals

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Materials

Scientific Name: - Allium cepa L. (from Latin cepa "onion")

Family: - Liliaceae

Common Name:-Onion, Dungali, Kanda, Pyaj

There are many varieties of onion available in the market. These varieties are classified on the basis

of their shape, size, color, pungency or their maturation habits. ICAR documented important varieties

under the All India Co-ordinated Vegetable Improvement Project, which are given below:-

1. Red onion: Seven varieties of red onion are known. Some of them are given below,

a) Pusa Red: This type of onion variety is having medium size bulb, purple red in color, weighs 70-

90 gms. It has poor pungency. India is known for growing this type of onion largely.

b) Agri Found Dark Red: This variety has dark red bulb, medium pungency and round in shape. It

is kharif season crop and having storage capacity.

2. White onion: Six varieties of white onion are known. Some of them are given bekow,

a) Pusa White Round: This variety has white bulb, round in shape, long as 4.65 cm and wide as

6.21 cm.

b) S-48: This type is having good keeping quality, flavour and texture. Bulb is flat round in shape.

Seven new improved onion varieties have been developed by National Research Centre for Onion

and Garlic. They all are having high yield and quality potential.

They are: Bhima Raj, Bhima Red, Bhima Super, BhimaKiran, Bhima Shakti, BhimaShweta, Bhima

Shubra

Red coloured bulbs: Punjab Selection, N-2-4-1, PusaMadhavi, ArkaNiketan, ArkaKalyan,

AkraPragati, N-53, Baswant-780, and Udaipur 101

Yellow coloured bulbs: Early Grano, Spanish Brown and PhuleSuvarna

White coloured bulbs: Udaipur 102, PhuleSafed and N-257-9-1

Small common onion: Agrifound Rose andArkaBindu

Multiple onion: Co-1, Co-2, MDU-1 andAgrifound Red

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Fig.1: Different varieties of Allium cepa species

Plant Description

Spring Onion: The plant is native to Central Asia. It is also called scallions and green variety, are

young onions harvested when their tops are green and the underdeveloped bulbs are 13mm 0.5inch)

or less in diameter having a mild flavor. The entire onion, including top, stem and bulb, is used raw

in salads and sauces, as a garnish and as a seasoning for prepared dishes (Fig.1.1).

White variety: The plant is native to Central Asia. It has a thin, dry paper sheath with a crisp

translucent pearl white flesh which is pungent, savory and warm. Its barely sweet finish can be

attributed to its higher moisture content than yellow onions. It is used in Mexican foods or

complementing the flavors of other ingredients. It can be sauteed to a dark brown color and

served to provide a sweet and sour flavor to other foods (Fig. 1.2).

Red variety: It is a native plant of Southwestern Asia. It found to flourishly grow in three distinctly

different regions, Turda in Romania, Tropa in Italy and Wethersfield, Connecticut within the United

States. Red onions are shallow-rooted and need a friable soil that retains moisture well, especially

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after cultivation (Laura G et al., 2002). They are often consumed raw, grilled or lightly cooked

with other foods or added as a decoration to salads. They tend to lose their color when cooked

and are available throughout the year. The red color comes from anthocyanidins such as cyanidin

and it contains high amount of flavonoids. They can be stored for 3 to 4 months at room temperature.

They are used in various ways like culinarilly, non-culinarilly and medicinally (Fig. 1.3).

Uses

Historical Uses:

• In ancient Greece, athletes ate large quantities of onion because it was believed to lighten

the balance of blood.

• Roman gladiators were rubbed down with onions to firm up their muscles.

• In the middle Ages, onions were such an important food that people paid their rent with

onions and even gave them as gifts.

• Doctors were known to prescribe onions to facilitate bowel movements and erections

and in relieving headaches, coughs, snakebite and hair loss.Onions were also prescribed

by doctors in the early 16th century to help with infertility in women (Robertson et al.

1998).

Culinary Uses:

• Onions are commonly chopped and used as an ingredient in various hearty warm dishes

and may also be used as a main ingredient in their own right, for example in French onion

soup or onion chutney.

• They are very versatile and can be baked, boiled, braised, grilled, fried, roasted, sautéed

or eaten raw in salads.

• Onions are a staple in Indian cuisine, used as thickening agent for curries and

gravies.Onions picked on vinegar are eaten as a snack.

• Young plants may be harvested before bulb is produced and used whole as spring

onions (Rodriguez et al. 2008).

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(a) Non-culinary Uses:

• It is used in education purpose for observing cell structure, because cells of onions are

large and easily observed as separate layers.

• The pungent juice of onions has been used as a moth repellent and can be rubbed on the

skin to prevent insect bites.It has been used to polish glass and copperware and to

prevent rust on iron.

• Onion skins have been used to produce a yellow-brown dye (Roldan et al. 2010).

(b) Medicinal Uses:

• It is used in wound treatment because it has mild antimicrobial qualities.

• European, Asian and Native American medicines are filled with onion. Some of them

include cough relief during colds and their use as poultices drawing poisons from wounds

and ulcers.

• Even in relatively modern times, onion poultices are used on the soles of the feet to

reduce high fevers or placed on the chest to relieve congestion. One ancient remedy

included onion tea to relieve cholera, fevers and headaches, as well as being treatments

for gout, arthritis, soothing burns, and speeding healing.

• Modern research is proving that eating onions and garlic reduces LDL(low density

lipoprotein) or cholesterol, responsible for dogging the arteries.These anti-clotting

properties make them doubly helpful to the circulatory system. Onions have also been

known to lower blood sugar levels, and they have readily demonstrated their antimicrobial

properties.

• Onions also have substances called saponins that fight against cancer. To put it simply

saponins help the cell DNA to stop producing bad cells and make only good ones.Onions

can help fight off bacteria, fungi and viruses in the body.

• Chewing raw onion for at least three minutes is said to kill any bacteria in the mouth that

might be causing toothaches or the gums to bleed.Putting a slice of onion directly on an

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insect bite will cut down on the itching and prevent infection (Joseph MD and Amy RA,

2013).

• In North America, Native Americans used onion to treat insect stings and relieve colds.

It is also used in traditional Chinese medicine.Homeopaths make a tincture of onion to

treat a variety of conditions including cold, cough, diarrhea, facial paralysis, hay fever,

hernia, laryngitis, pneumonia and trauma.Over the centuries onion has been used for

healing both internally and externally. Internally onion has been recommended to treat

colds, cough, bronchitis, whooping cough, asthma and other respiratory problems. It is

believed to help loosen congestion in the lungs and expand the airways.Onion is also

used internally to relieve excess gas and calm an upset stomach. Onion is also thought to

stimulate the appetite(Sengupta et al. 2004).

Allium cepa varieties: (Green onion, Red onion, White onion)

Allium cepa varieties belong to Allium Species were focused here which includes green onion,

red onion and white onion. The science of application of these indigenous or local medicinal remedies

including plants for treatment of diseases is currently called ethno pharmacology but the practice

dates back since antiquity (Doughari JH, 2012). According to previous research, Alliumcepa

varieties are meant to possess anti-bacterial and anti-fungal activities and they contain the powerful

antioxidants, sulfur and other numerous phenolic compounds which have aroused great interests

for food industries. During the last 20 years, Alliumcepa varieties have been among the most

studied vegetables and aroused great interest. One of the advantages of these Onion Varieties is

that they could be dried and preserved for several months. On the other hand, Alliumcepa varieties

contain other antioxidant components, such as flavonoids and volatile sulfur compound. According

to previous study it is well known that onion is a great source of phenolics.

Conclusion

According previous study we can say that the metabolites present in the three selected Allium

cepa varieties are alkaloids, tannins, phenols, flavonoids, saponins, terpenes, carbohydrates and

proteins except cardiac glycosides. In addition to that the main group of phytochemical which is

present widely includes phenolics.The presence of these secondary metabolites gives large scope

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for the separation and isolation of various phytoconstituents for studying their bio-efficacy.

References

Boyhan GE & Kelley WT (Eds.) (2008). Onion production guide.University of Georgia

Cooperative Extension.

Drost D (2004). Onions in the garden.Utah State University Cooperative Extension.

Schwartz HF and Mohan SK (Eds.) (2008). Compendium of Onion and Garlic Diseases and

Pests.Second Edition.American Phytopathological Society Press.

Brickell and Christopher (ed) (1992). The Royal Horticultural Society Encyclopedia of

Gardening. Dorling Kindersley. p. 345.

Doughari JH (2012). Phytochemicals: Extraction methods, basic structures and mode of action as

potential chemotherapeutic agents. INTECH Open Access Publisher.

Ponnulakshmi R and Balasubramanians E (2013). Efficacy of bulb extracts of Allium cepa varieties

(Red, White and Small Onion): An in vitro antifungal and antioxidant activity. International Journal

of Pharma and Bio Sciences.4(4): 692-713.

SahiraBanu K and Cathrine L (2015).General Techniques Involved in Phytochemical

analysis.Inrenational Journal of Advanced Research in Chemical Science (IJARCS). 2(4):

25-32.

Mamta S, Jyoti S, Rajeev N, Dharmendra S and Abhishek G (2013).Phytochemistry of Medicinal

Plants.Journal of pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 1(6): 168-182.

Bhattacharya A, Sood P and Citovsky V (2010). The roles of plant phenolics in defence and

communication during Agrobacterium and Rhizobium infection.National Centre for Biotechnology

and Information.PubMed.

Nagendran B, Kalyana S and Samir S (2006). Phenolic compounds in plants and agri-industrial

by-products: Antioxidant activity, occurrence and potential uses.ELSEVIER Journal of Food

Chemistry. 99(1): 191-203.

❑

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Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

A Study of Vocational Interest of Std.10th Students inContext to Their Educational Achievement

Shaikh Afifabanu

Research Scholar,Department of Education, Gujarat University, Navrangpura, Ahmedabad.

E-mail : afifa1362@gmail.com

*Corresponding Author

Received Date:12-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

Abstract

In our country, the decisions related to children’s career or vocations are mostly taken by their

parents and teacher. This decision was also accepted by children. This choice or decision is not

well informed or well thought decision, rather it is driven by one or more of the factors listed

earlier, all this may cause a great amount of frustration to these students which may give to many

social problems, apart from the problem of unemployment. To ensure that this situation does not

arise, it is necessary that to know the interest of the student for the better career because of this

reason, researcher selected this study.

Introduction

Education is the key to national prosperity and welfare. No investment is likely to yield greater

returns than the investment in human resources of which education is most important component.

Modern societies cannot achieve their aims of economic growth and higher cultural standards,

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without making effective use of the talents of their citizens. This necessitates that education should

be provided according to the capability and potentiality, for admission to the schools or colleges.

Our school or colleges should therefore, offer a diversity of educational programme suited to the

varying aptitude, interest and talents of the students. Parents also should give right guidelines to

their children in relation to their children’s interest, when the children select stream or vocation for

his career.

In reality, In India country the decision related to children career or vocations are mostly taken by

their parent without knowing their children interest. The children also accept the decision of his

parents. At a much later stage many of them realize that it was a wrong decision, but by that time

is too late for them to do something about it. As a result many of them find it extremely difficult to

cope with the line of education chosen by them. Many complete their education with poor grades.

Many of them fail to get a proper employment in this way, student become victim of frustration and

stress. To ensure that this situation does not arise it is necessary that to know the interest of student

for their better career.

This study provide knowledge about current vocational interest of higher secondary students in

their relationship with educational achievement. This study helpful for students, teacher, parents

and educational administrators in different ways like to understand current trend of vocation in

market and it’s effectiveness. So the researcher selected this problem for the present study as an

effort of knowing the interest of students in one or more fields of vocation, so that proper direction

can be provided to them according to their interest.

1. Objectives of the study

1. To know the vocational interest of std.10th students.

2. To know the educational achievement of std.10th students.

3. To study the vocational interest of std.10th students in the context to their educational

achievement.

2. Variables of the Study

In this study researcher not manipulate independent variable (vocational interest of students)

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but study variable in as it is form. In this study researcher find out the relationship between

independent variable and dependent variable.

1. Dependent Variable : Vocational Interest

2. Independent Variable : Educational Achievement

a. Higher Educational Achievement

b. Lower Educational Achievement

3. Moderator Variable : Standard 10

4. Control Variable : (1) Parent’s Education (2) Father Occupation

5. Intervening Variable : Social Environment

3. Area of Research

The present study was conducted to examine vocational interest of students of 10th std., so it

was connected to the field of ‘educational – psychology’.

4. Research Methodology

In the present study, researcher compared two variables. So the causal comparative method

was adopted in the present study.

5. Sampling

In the present study, districts were selected by random sampling and area were selected by

using stratified randomly sampling, schools were selected by using systematic sampling method,

finally, students were selected by using cluster method from the selected schools. In short,

multistage sampling method was used to select sample for the present study.

Sample of the Study

Total 2558 students were included in the sample of the present study, in which 522 students

were selected from North Gujarat, 589 students from Central Gujarat, 438 students from

South Gujarat, 517 students from Saurashtra and 492 students were selected from Kutch

region.

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6. Research Tool

Vocational Interest Inventory Constructed and Standardized by researcher. The vocational interest

inventory consisting 120 statements was constructed, including 11 fields of interest such as literature,

art, persuasive, commercial, sports, agriculture, science, computer science, engineering, government

and public administration and health-care.

7. Data Analysis

Statistical techniques were used for data analysis. Scores of various areas were obtained on the

basis of the responses given by students. Thereafter, on basis of these scores, data was analyzed

by calculating t-test.

Testing of Hypothesis

No. Hypothesis CR-Test

Level of Significance

1 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10thhaving

high and low educational achievement obtained

in literature field of vocational interest

inventory.

0.167 N.S.

2 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in Arts field of vocational interest.

3.44 0.01

3 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th

having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in persuasive field of vocational interest

inventory

2.56 0.05

4 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement

Obtained in commercial field of vocational

interest inventory

1.62 N.S.

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5 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement

Obtained in sports field of vocational interest

inventory.

1.97 0.05

6 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement

Obtained in agriculture, animal & plant related

field of vocational interest inventory.

4.03 0.01

7 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in science field of vocational interest inventory.

6.06 0.01

8 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in computer science field of vocational interest

inventory.

0.15 N.S.

9 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in engineering field of vocational interest

inventory.

8.25 0.01

10 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in government and public administration field

of vocational interest of inventory.

4.15 0.01

11 There is no significant different between the

mean scores of the students of Std.10th

having

high and low educational achievement obtained

in health care field of vocational interest of

inventory.

3.61 0.01

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1. Research Findings

The objective behind this study was to study the vocational interest in relation to certain

variables. The findings deprived at the end of the study were as follows:

1. The students of Std.10th having high and low educational achievement are equal in interest

in literature field.

2. The students of Std.10th having low educational achievement show more interest than

the students of having high educational achievement of Std.10th in art field.

3. The students of Std.10th having high educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std.10th having low educational achievement in persuasive field.

4. The students of Std.10th having high and low educational achievement are equal in interest

in commercial field.

5. The students of Std.10th having low educational achievement show more interest than

the students of having high educational achievement of Std.10th in sports field.

6. The students of Std.10th having low educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std.10th having high educational achievement in agriculture, animal &

plants related field.

7. The students of Std.10th having high educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std.10th having low educational achievement in science field.

8. The students of Std.10th having high and low educational achievement are equal in interest

in computer science field.

9. The students of Std.10th having high educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std.10th having law educational achievement in engineering field.

10. The students of Std.10th having high educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std.10th having low educational achievement in government and public

administration field.

11. The students of Std.10th having high educational achievement show more interest than

the students of Std. 10th having low educational achievement in health-care field.

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2. Educational Implications of the Study

Educational implication means presentation about by whom and which reformative steps can be

taken based on results of the study. Some implications are mentioned here based on the findings of

the present study.

• School should arrange the programme which is related to literature, for increasing the

interest of students of Std. 10th having high and low educational achievement.

• Teacher or vocational counsellor should have take a lecture related to the persuasive

field & give the information about this field, so the student’s interest will increase in this

field.

• It is necessary to held different type of competition on different field like essay writing

competition, dance competition, sports competition. So students increase their interest

in the different field.

• Parents & teacher should discuss about children’s interest area for his bright figure in the

PTA (Parent – Teacher Association) meeting.

• If school give freely or full of freedom atmosphere to students, they begin to take interest

in certain fields.

Conclusion

Everyone is ambitious in the modern age and these ambitions can be completed when one is

expert and has interest in that particular area. The work is definitely successful which is done with

interest by fully and this study helpful to the students, to select vocational area according to their

own interest in education, then they walk proper direction for their career path. The teacher can

know vocational interest of students by using this vocation interest inventory (VII) and become

helpful to student to select right vocation. The significance of the present study is based on its

fruitfulness.

References

Anastesi A., Psychological Testing, (Third Edn), The Macmillan Co. New York : 1968

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Borg, Water R. and M.D. Gall, Educational Research an Introduction, New York : Longman,

1983.

Buch; M.B. (Ed.), A Survey of Research in Education, Baroda : M.S. University of Baroda,

1974.

Buch; M.B. (Ed.) Second Survey of Research in Education (1972-1978), Baroda SERD : M.S.

University of Baroda, 1979.

Charles Jackson, Understanding Psychological Testing, Bombay : Jai Co. Publishing House, 1960.

Cochran, William G. Sampling Techniques, Bombay : Asia Publishing House, Asian Students,

Edition, 1959.

❑

Shaikh

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Vidya (2020) Vol : 15(1)

Original Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

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X‡uˆ… X N…´…… Y H‡Ì HÌ…´…≠˜ ß…… N…´……,

e≈ÙHÌ… ¥…… N…´…… Y H‡Ì æ˙…HÌ… ±…… N…´……. (≠˜…i……, ~…‡. 165)

+…©… "ª……‰≠˜…∫ ƒÚ ª……~l…… æ˙H‡Ì' y……‡±…‡≠˜… ª…l´……O…æ˙{…“ ª……o…‡ +{´… ª…l´……O…æ˙ UÔ…¥…i…“+…‡ +懥……±……‡ UÔ…~…“ ≠˜…∫ ƒÚ{…“

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l……‡ HÌqˆ…S… "y……‡±…‡≠˜… ª…l´……O…æ˙' ~…i… {… o…´……‡ æ˙…‡l….

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©……N…«, +©…qˆ…¥……qˆ-380001, °…o…©… +…¥…fi n…-2012

(2) q‡ª……>, eÙ…‡. ∂……≈ l…±……±… ©….,≠˜…∫ ƒÚ{……‡ ª¥……l…≈m´…ª…≈O……©… +{…‡ N…÷W≠˜…l…,´…÷ {…¥…ê…`Ú“ O…≈o… {…©……«i…

•……‡e«Ù, N…÷W≠˜…l… ≠˜…V´… +©…qˆ…¥……qˆ-6, °…o…©… +…¥…fi n…, 1972

(3) ≠˜…i……, eÙ…‡. æ˙≠˜~……±…,N…÷W≠˜…l…“ W¥……≈©…q« ~…m…HÌ…≠˜…‡, +…qˆ∂…« °…HÌ…∂…{…, 1760, N……≈y…“

©……N…«, +©…qˆ…¥……qˆ-380001, °…o…©… +…¥…fi n…-2014

❑

≠˜…i……

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Review Paper

ISSN: 2321-1520

¶……Æ˙i…“™… ∫…Δi……‰ E‰Ú ¶… HÚ™……‰M…  ¥…π…™…EÚ  ¥…S……Æ˙

S……ËΩ˛…x… i…®…xx…… B®….

{…“BS….b“. ∫……‰v…UÙ…j……,

i…k¥…Y……x…  ¥…¶……M…,

M…÷V…Æ˙…i…  ¥…∑… ¥…t…±…™…, +Ω®…n…§……n

Received Date: 12-11-2019

Published Date: 15-03-2020

∫……Æ˙…Δ∂…

∫…xi……‰ E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ EÚ… ®…÷J™… =q‰∂™…  S…k… EÚ…‰ §……¡ ¥…fi k…™…… ∫…‰ Ω]ı…EÚÆ˙ ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ“ ∫…‰¥…… ®… E‰ÚŒxpi… EÚÆ˙x…… Ω˲ *

=xΩ…Âx…‰ ®…x… EÚ…‰ §…xv…x… i…l…… ®……‰I… EÚ… EÚ…Æ˙h… §…i……™…… Ω˲ * V…§… ®…x…-EÚ…®…, GÚ…‰v…, ±……‰¶…, ®……‰Ω, ®…n +… n  ¥…π…™…- ¥…EÚ…Æ˙…‰

®…Â +…∫…HÚ Æ˙Ωi…… ΩË i……‰ ¥…Ω §…xv…x… EÚ… EÚ…Æ˙h… §…x… V……i…… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ V…§… ®…x… <x…  ¥…EÚ…Æ˙…Â EÚ…‰ i™……M…EÚÆ˙ n÷&J…-∫…÷J… EÚ“ +¥…∫l……

∫…‰ >{…Æ˙ =`EÚÆ˙ ¶…M…¥……x… ®… +x…÷Æ˙HÚ Ω…‰i…… ΩË i……‰ ¥…Ω ¶… HÚ E‰Ú Ø˚{… ®… {… Æ˙h…i… Ω…‰EÚÆ˙ ®……‰I… EÚ… ∫……v…x… §…x… V……i…… Ω˲ * =x…E‰Ú

+x…÷∫……Æ˙ ™……‰M…, V…{…, i…{…, Y……x… +… n ¶… HÚ E‰Ú  ±…B ∫……‰{……x… Ω˲ *

∫…xi……‰ x…‰ +{…x…‰ EÚ…¥™… ®… x……Æ˙n“ ¶… HÚ, °ÚEÚ“Æ˙“ ¶… HÚ, |…‰®… ¶… HÚ, ¶……¥… ¶… HÚ, ∫…ΩV…… ¶… HÚ +… n {…Æ˙ |…EÚ…∂… b…±……

Ω˲ * =x…EÚ… ∫……Æ˙… EÚ…¥™… ¶… HÚ EÚ“ ¶……¥…x…… ∫…‰ +…‰i…-|……‰i… Ω˲ * ∫…xi… EÚ ¥…™…… x…‰ +{…x…‰ {…n…Â, ∫…… J…™…… B¥…Δ §…… x…™…… ®… §……Æ˙-

§……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú ®…Ω…i®™… EÚ… M……x…  EÚ™…… Ω˲ *

∫…xi……‰ EÚ“ ∫……v…x…… ¥…∫i…÷i…& ¶… HÚ, |…‰®… +…ËÆ˙ Æ˙Ω∫™……x…÷¶…⁄ i… EÚ“ ∫……v…x…… Ω˲ * ¶… HÚ <«∑…Æ˙ |……Œ{i… EÚ… ∫…Æ˙±…i…®… ∫……v…x…

Ω˲ *

|…∫i……¥…x……

¶… HÚ +…ËÆ˙ ™……‰M… n…‰x…… ∫…Δ∫EfiÚi… E‰Ú ∂…§n Ω˲ * ™……‰M… EÚ… +l…« ΩË - "V……‰cx……' ™…… " ®…±…x…' i…l…… ¶… HÚ EÚ… +l…« ΩË -

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" n¥™… |…‰®…, •…¿ E‰Ú ∫……l… |…‰®…, {…Æ˙®… ∫…k…… ∫…‰ |…‰®…' *

¶… HÚ ∂…§n "¶…V…¬' v……i…÷ ∫…‰ §…x…… ΩË,  V…∫…EÚ… +l…« ΩË "∫…‰¥……' *  EÚxi…÷ ¥……∫i…¥… ®… ¶… HÚ =∫…‰ EÚΩi…‰ ΩÈ, V……‰ "<«∑…Æ˙

E‰Ú S…Æ˙h…… ®… {…⁄h…«∞¸{… ∫…‰ +…i®…∫…®…{…«h… EÚÆ˙i…… ΩË i…l…… <«∑…Æ˙ ®… {…⁄h…«∞¸{… ∫…‰ +x…÷Æ˙HÚ Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω…‰' *

∏…“ ¶…M…¥……x…÷¥……S…

®…™™……¥…Ë∂™… ®…x……‰ ™…‰ ®……Δ  x…i™…™…÷HÚ… ={……∫…i…‰ *

∏…r™…… {…Æ˙™……‰{…‰i……∫i…‰ ®…‰ ™…÷HÚ®…… ®…i……& ** 12-2 **

¶…M…¥…n¬M…“i…… E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ EÚ… +l…« ΩË, ""V……‰ ¥™… HÚ +{…x…… ®…x…  ∫…°«Ú ®…÷V…®…Â ±…M……i…… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ ®…Â Ω“ =x…E‰Ú  ¥…S……Æ˙…‰

®… Æ˙Ωi…… Ω⁄ƒ, V……‰ ®…÷V…‰ |…‰®… +…ËÆ˙ ∫…®…{…«h… E‰Ú ∫……l… ¶…V…i…‰ ΩË, +…ËÆ˙ ®…÷V… {…Æ˙ {…⁄h…«  ¥…∑……∫… Æ˙J…i…‰ ΩË ¥……‰ =k…®… ∏…‰h…“ E‰Ú Ω…‰i…‰

Ω˲ *''

¶… HÚ™……‰M… EÚ“  ¥…¶……¥…x…… &

¶… HÚ™……‰M… EÚ“  ¥…¶……¥…x…… ∫{…π]ı EÚÆ˙x…‰ ∫…‰ {…Ω±…‰ Y……x…, EÚ®…« EÚ… ¶… HÚ ∫…‰ C™…… ∫…Δ§…Δv… ΩË, ¥…Ω V……x…x…… V…Ø˚Æ˙“ Ω˲ * EÚ®…«,

Y……x… +…ËÆ˙ ¶… HÚ-i…“x…… ∫……v…x…… EÚ“ +i™…Δi… ®…Ωk¥…{…⁄h…« |…h…… ±…™……ƒ Ω˲ * ™…‰ ∫¥…i…Δj… ¶…“ ΩË +…ËÆ˙ {…Æ˙∫{…Æ˙ BEÚ-n⁄∫…Ɖ E‰Ú {…⁄Æ˙EÚ

¶…“ Ω˲ * EÚ®…« ®… <Œxp™…… EÚ“ |…v……x…i…… Æ˙Ωi…“ ΩË, i…l…… Y……x… ®… §…÷ r EÚ“ B¥…Δ ¶… HÚ ®… ∏…r… EÚ“ |…v……x…i…… Æ˙Ωi…“ Ω˲ * <x…E‰Ú

+ i… Æ˙HÚ ™……‰M… ¶…“ BEÚ ®…Ωi¥…{…⁄h…« |…h……±…“ ΩË * ∫¥……®…“  ¥…¥…‰EÚ…x…Δn E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙, ""BEÚ {…I…“ EÚ…‰ =cx…‰ E‰Ú  ±…B i…“x… +ΔM……‰

EÚ“ +…¥…∂™…EÚi…… Ω…‰i…“ Ω˲ & n…‰ {…ΔJ… +…ËÆ˙ BEÚ {…i…¥……Æ˙ ∫¥…∞¸{… {…⁄ƒUÙ * Y……x… +…ËÆ˙ ¶… HÚ ®……x…… n…‰ {…ΔJ… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ ™……‰M… {…⁄ƒUÙ,

V……‰ ∫……®…ΔV…∫™… §…x……B Æ˙J…i…“ Ω˲ *'' (À∫…Ω, 1977, 169)

¶… HÚ™……‰M… ¥…Ω ΩË,  V…∫…®…Â ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ… +…∏…™…  ±…™…… V……B, {…Æ˙®……i®…… E‰Ú M…÷h……Â EÚ“ |…“ i…, EÚ“i…«x…, ∫i…÷ i… B¥…Δ +{…x…‰

EÚ…‰ ∫…¥…«l…… =∫…E‰Ú +v…“x… ®……x…EÚÆ˙ ∫……Ɖ EÚ®…« +…ËÆ˙ =x…E‰Ú °Ú±… ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ…‰ +{…«h… EÚÆ˙x……, ¶…M…¥……x… E‰Ú |…i™…‰EÚ  ¥…v……x… ®…Â

J…÷∂… Æ˙Ωx…… i…l…… ¶…M…¥……x… E‰Ú x……®… EÚ…  x…Æ˙xi…Æ˙ V…{… EÚÆ˙x…… * V……‰ ¥™… HÚ ∫¥……l…«, ±……±…∫…… ™…… ¶…™… E‰Ú EÚ…Æ˙h… x…Ω”  EÚxi…÷

®…x… EÚ“ ∫¥……¶…… ¥…EÚ |…¥…fi k… E‰Ú EÚ…Æ˙h… {…Æ˙®……i®…… EÚ“ +…ËÆ˙ =x®…÷J… Ω…‰i…… ΩË ¥…Ω“ ¥™… HÚ +…i®…∫……I……iEÚ…Æ˙ i…l……

•…¿∫……I……iEÚ…Æ˙ EÚÆ˙i…… Ω˲ *

x……Æ˙n x…‰ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú ∫¥…Ø˚{… EÚ…  x…¥…«S…x… EÚÆ˙i…‰ Ω÷B EÚΩ… ΩË  EÚ ¶…M…¥……x… E‰Ú |… i… {…Æ˙®… |…‰®… Ω“ ¶… HÚ Ω˲ * ∫……v…EÚ

<∫… +®…fii…Ø˚{…… ¶… HÚ EÚ…‰ |……{i… EÚÆ˙ {…⁄h…«EÚ…®…, i…fi{i…, +®…Æ˙ i…l……  ∫…r Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω˲ * <∫… {…Æ˙®… |…‰®… ∫…‰  EÚ∫…“ EÚ…®™…

¥…∫i…÷ EÚ“ |……Œ{i… x…Ω” Ω…‰ ∫…EÚi…“, C™…… EÚ V…§… i…EÚ ={……∫…EÚ E‰Ú æn™… ®… ∫……Δ∫…… Æ˙EÚ ¥……∫…x……Bƒ P…Æ˙  EÚB Æ˙Ωi…“ ΩË, i…§…

i…EÚ <∫… |…‰®… EÚ… =n™… x…Ω” Ω…‰i…… * <∫… ¶… HÚ ™…… |…‰®… EÚ…‰ {……EÚÆ˙ |…‰®…“ EÚ…‰ +…ËÆ˙ E÷ÚUÙ ¶…“ {……x…‰ EÚ“ +…EÚ…ΔI…… x…Ω” Æ˙Ω‰i…“ *

¥…Ω ∫…÷J…-n÷&J…, <«π™……«-uËπ… +… n ∫…¶…“ uxu… ∫…‰  x…¥…fik… Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω˲ * (À∫…Ω, 1977 & 170)

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¶… HÚ™……‰M… ®… <∫…“ ¶… HÚ EÚ…‰ ∫……v…x…… EÚ… ∫……v…x… ∫¥…“EÚ…Æ˙  EÚ™…… V……i…… Ω˲ *  ¥…¥…‰EÚ…x…Δn E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙, "" x…πEÚ{…]ı ¶……¥…

∫…‰ <«∑…Æ˙ EÚ“ J……‰V… EÚ…‰ Ω“ ¶… HÚ™……‰M… EÚΩi…‰ Ë>* <∫… J……‰V… EÚ… +…ÆΔ¶…, ®…v™… +…ËÆ˙ +Δi… |…‰®… ®…Â Ω…‰i…… ΩË * <«∑…Æ˙ E‰Ú |… i…

BEÚ I…h… EÚ“ ¶…“ |…‰®……‰x®…i…i…… Ω®……Ɖ  ±…B ∂……∑…i… ®…÷ HÚ n‰x…‰¥……±…“ Ω…‰i…“ Ω˲ *'' ¥…∫i…÷i…& ¶… HÚ™……‰M… =SS…i…Æ˙ |…‰®… EÚ…  ¥…Y……x…

EÚ…  ¥…Y……x… Ω˲ * <∫…®… |…‰®… EÚ… ¶……¥… Ω“ ®…÷J™… ΩË *  ¥…x……‰§…… EÚΩi…‰ ΩË  EÚ, ""¶……¥…{…⁄¥…«EÚ <«∑…Æ˙ E‰Ú ∫……l… V…÷b V……x…‰ EÚ… +l…«

ΩË ¶… HÚ™……‰M… *'' V…“¥…x… ®… +x…‰EÚ ¶……¥… B‰∫…‰ Ω…‰i…‰ ΩË, V……‰ ®…x…÷π™… EÚ…‰  x…®x…… ¶…®…÷J… §…x…… n‰i…‰ Ω˲ * ¶… HÚ™……‰M… ®… =∫…E‰Ú ∫¥…Ø˚{…

EÚ…‰ ∫…¥…«l…… §…n±… n‰i…… Ω˲ *

 ¥…¥…‰EÚ…x…Δn E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ""¶… HÚ™……‰M… EÚ… Æ˙Ω∫™… ™…Ω ΩË  EÚ ®…x…÷π™… E‰Ú æn™… ®…Â  V…i…x…‰ |…EÚ…Æ˙ EÚ“ ¥……∫…x……Bƒ +…ËÆ˙ ¶……¥…

ΩË, =x…®… ∫…‰ EÚ…‰<« ¶…“ ∫¥…∞¸{…i…& J…Æ˙…§… x…Ω” Ω˲ * =xΩ v…“Ɖ-v…“Ɖ +{…x…‰ ¥…∂… ®… ±……EÚÆ˙ =x…EÚ“ M… i… GÚ®…∂…& =SS… ∫…‰ =SS…i…Æ˙

 n∂…… ®…Â °‰ÚÆ˙x…“ Ω…‰M…“ * +…ËÆ˙ ™…Ω i…§… i…EÚ EÚÆ˙x…… Ω…‰M……, V…§… i…EÚ  EÚ ¥…‰ {…Æ˙®……‰SS… n∂…… EÚ…‰ |……{i… x… Ω…‰ V……Bƒ * =x…EÚ“

∫…¥……ÊSS… M… i… ΩË ¶…M…¥……x… +…ËÆ˙ =x…EÚ“ ∂…‰π… ∫…§… M… i…™……ƒ  x…®x…… ¶…®…÷J…“ Ω˲ *''

¶… HÚ E‰Ú |…EÚ…Æ˙

¶… HÚ +x…‰EÚ |…EÚ…Æ˙ EÚ“ ®……x…“ M…<« ΩË * ∏…“®…n¬ ¶……M…¥…i… ®…Â x…¥…v…… ¶… HÚ EÚ…  ¥…¥…‰S…x… <∫… |…EÚ…Æ˙ ΩË - (1) ∏…¥…h…

(2) EÚ“i…«x… (3) x……®…-∫®…Æ˙h… (4) {……n∫…‰¥…x… (5) |…¶…÷¥…Δnx… (6) +S…«x… (7) n…∫™… (8) ∫…J™… +…ËÆ˙ (9) +…i®… x…¥…‰nx… *

<∫…‰ ¶… HÚ EÚ… x……Ë Ø˚{… ®……x…… V……i…… Ω˲ * ™…Ω x…¥…v…… ¶… HÚ ∫……v…x…Ø˚{…… Ω˲ * ∫……v™…Ø˚{…… ¶… HÚ EÚ…‰ |…‰®…±…I…h… ™…… |…‰®……¶… HÚ

EÚΩ… V……i…… Ω˲ * x……Æ˙n ¶… HÚ∫…⁄j… ®… ¶… HÚ x……®…EÚ ¶……¥…- ¥…∂…‰π… EÚ“ BEÚ…n∂… "+…∫… HÚ™……ƒ' ®……x…“ M…<« ΩË, V……‰ <∫… |…EÚ…Æ˙

ΩË - (1) M…÷h…®……Ω…i®™……∫… HÚ (2) Ø˚{……∫… HÚ (3) {…⁄V……∫… HÚ (4) ∫®…Æ˙h……∫… HÚ (5) n…∫™……∫… HÚ (6) ∫…J™……∫… HÚ (7)

EÚ…Δi……∫… HÚ (8) ¥……i∫…±™……∫… HÚ (9) +…i®… x…¥…‰nx……∫… HÚ (10) i…x®…™…i……∫… HÚ (11) {…Æ˙®… ¥…Æ˙Ω…∫… HÚ *

¶… HÚ ∫……v…x…… ®…Â +π]ı  ¥…EÚ…Æ˙, <«∑…Æ˙ E‰Ú |… i… + ¥…∑……∫…, ®…‰π…, E⁄Ú∫…ΔM… i… <i™…… n EÚ…‰ §……v…EÚ ®……x…… M…™…… ΩË * ¶… HÚ

®… ®……™…… +…ËÆ˙ x……Æ˙“ EÚ…‰ {…÷Ø˚π… EÚ“ ¶… HÚ, ®…÷ HÚ +…ËÆ˙ Y……x… i…“x……‰ EÚ…‰ x…π]ı EÚÆ˙x…‰¥……±…… EÚΩ… Ω˲ * ¶… HÚ™……‰M… E‰Ú ∫……v…EÚ EÚ…‰

+…v™……Œi®…EÚ S…S……«, ∫…i∫…ΔM…, <«∑…Æ˙ EÚ“i…«x… <i™…… n ®…Â  x…™… ®…i… Ø˚{… ®…Â ¶……M… ±…‰x…… S…… ΩB * +…ËÆ˙ ={…Æ˙…‰HÚ +π]ı  ¥…EÚ…Æ˙…‰ -

EÚ…®…, GÚ…‰v…, ®……‰Ω, ±……‰¶…, +ΩΔEÚ…Æ˙, EÚ{…]ı, +…∂…… +…ËÆ˙ i…fiπh…… EÚ… i™……M… EÚÆ˙x…… S…… ΩB * ™……‰M… ∫……v…x…… ®… ∫…Δ ±…{i… Æ˙Ωi…‰

Ω÷B <«∑…Æ˙ ¶…V…x… ®…Â Ω“ +x…÷Ø˚HÚ Æ˙Ωx…… S…… ΩB * + i…∂…™… n÷Æ˙…S……Æ˙“ ¶… HÚ ¶…“ ™… n +x…x™… ¶……¥… ∫…‰ <«∑…Æ˙ EÚ“ ∂…Æ˙h… ®…Â

+… V……i…… ΩË i……‰ ¥…Ω ∂…“Q… Ω“ v…®……«i®…… §…x… V……i…… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ ¥…Ω {…Æ˙®… ∂……Œxi… EÚ“ |……Œ{i… EÚÆ˙i…… Ω˲ *

∫…Δi……‰ x…‰ +{…x…‰ EÚ…¥™… ®… x……Æ˙n“ ¶… HÚ, °ÚEÚ“Æ˙“ ¶… HÚ, |…‰®… ¶… HÚ, ∫…ΩV…… ¶… HÚ +… n {…Æ˙ |…EÚ…∂… b…±…… Ω˲ * =x…EÚ…

∫……Æ˙… EÚ…¥™… ¶… HÚ EÚ“ ¶……¥…x…… ∫…‰ +…‰i…-|……‰i… Ω˲ * ∫…Δi… EÚ ¥…™……‰ x…‰ +{…x…‰ {…n…Â, ∫…… J…™…… B¥…Δ §…… x…™…… ®… ¶… HÚ E‰Ú ®…Ω…i®™…

EÚ“ §……i… EÚ“ Ω˲ * ({… ]ı™……±…, 2005 : 115)

∫…÷xnÆ˙n…∫… x…‰ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú i…“x… +ΔM…  nB ΩË - (1) EÚ x…π`… (2) ®…v™…®…… +…ËÆ˙ (3) =k…®…… * =xΩ…Âx…‰ x…¥…v…… ¶… HÚ E‰Ú

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x……Ë +ΔM……‰ EÚ… ¶…“ =±±…‰J…  EÚ™…… Ω˲ *  V…∫… |…EÚ…Æ˙ ®…UÙ±…“ EÚ…‰ {……x…“ EÚ“,  ∂…∂…÷ EÚ…‰ n⁄v… EÚ“, §…“®……Æ˙ ¥™… HÚ EÚ…‰ n¥……<« EÚ“,

S……i…EÚ EÚ…‰ ∫¥…… i… §…⁄ƒn EÚ“, S…EÚ…‰Æ˙ EÚ…‰ S…xp EÚ“, ∫…{…« EÚ…‰ S…xnx… EÚ“,  x…v…«x… EÚ…‰ v…x… EÚ“ i…l…… EÚ… ®…x…“ EÚ…‰ {… i… EÚ“

+…¥…∂™…EÚi…… Ω…‰i…“ ΩË, =∫…“ |…EÚ…Æ˙ ¶…HÚ ¶…“ {…Æ˙®……i®…… ∫…‰  ®…±…x…‰ E‰Ú  ±…B +…i…÷Æ˙ Æ˙Ωi…… Ω˲ *

¶… HÚ =q‰∂™…

∫…Δi……‰ E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ EÚ… ®…÷J™… =q‰∂™… ™…Ω ΩË  EÚ ®…x… EÚ…‰ §……¡ ¥…fi k…™…… ∫…‰ Ω]ı…EÚÆ˙ ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ“ ∫…‰¥…… ®… E‰ÚŒxpi…

EÚÆ˙x…… Ω˲ * =xΩ…Âx…‰ ®…x… EÚ…‰ §…xv…x… i…l…… ®……‰I… EÚ… EÚ…Æ˙h… ®……x…… ΩË * ∫…Δi……‰ EÚ… ®……x…x…… ΩË  EÚ V…§… ®…x… ™… n EÚ…®…, GÚ…‰v…,

±……‰¶…, ®……‰Ω, ®…n +… n  ¥…π…™…- ¥…EÚ…Æ˙…‰ ®… +…∫…HÚ Ω…‰ V……i…… ΩË i…§… ¥…Ω §…xv…x… EÚ… EÚ…Æ˙h… §…x… V……i…… Ω˲ * {…Æ˙ V…§… ®…x…

<x…  ¥…EÚ…Æ˙…Â EÚ…‰ i™……M… n‰i…… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ ¥…Ω ∫…÷J…-n÷&J… EÚ“ +¥…∫l…… ∫…‰ >{…Æ˙ =`EÚÆ˙ ¶…M…¥……x… ®…Â i…±±…“x… Ω…‰ V……i…… ΩË, i…§…

¥…Ω ¶… HÚ E‰Ú Ø˚{… ®… {… Æ˙h…i… Ω…‰EÚÆ˙ ®……‰I… EÚ… ∫……v…x… §…x… V……i…… Ω˲ * =x…E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ™……‰M…, V…{…, i…{…, Y……x… +… n ¶… HÚ

E‰Ú ∫……‰{……x… Ω˲ *

∫…Δi……‰ E‰Ú ¶… HÚ™……‰M…  ¥…π…™…EÚ  ¥…S……Æ˙

EÚ§…“Æ˙ E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ“ ¶… HÚ ∫…‰ ¥™… HÚ EÚ… ®…x… <v…Æ˙-=v…Æ˙  ¥…π…™… ¥……∫…x……+…Â ®…Â ¶…]ıEÚi…… x…Ω” ΩË,  EÚxi…÷

¥…Ω x……®… ∫®…Æ˙h… ∫…‰ ™…Ω V…“¥…x… EÚ¥…x… E‰Ú ∫…®……x… §…Ω÷®…⁄±™… Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω˲ * ¥™… HÚ ¶…M…¥……x… EÚ“ EfiÚ{…… ∫…‰ Ω“ ¶… HÚ EÚ“ +…ËÆ˙

=x®…÷J… Ω…‰ V……i…… ΩË +…ËÆ˙ =∫…‰ Y……x… Ω…‰ V……x…‰ {…Æ˙ ∫……Æ˙“ ∂…ΔEÚ…+…‰ n⁄Æ˙ Ω…‰ V……i…“ Ω˲ * EÚ§…“Æ˙ E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ®……™…… +…ËÆ˙  ¥…π…™…-

¥……∫…x…… ¶… HÚ EÚ… §……v…EÚ Ω˲ * i…l…… |…‰®… ¶… HÚ EÚ… ®…⁄±……v……Æ˙ Ω˲ * <∫… |…EÚ…Æ˙ EÚ§…“Æ˙ x…‰ |…‰®… +…ËÆ˙  ¥…Æ˙Ω, {…Æ˙S……, ∫…⁄Æ˙…i…x…,

{… ¥…j…i……, ={…V… h… +… n +ΔM……‰ ®… ¶… HÚ EÚ… +i™…Δi…  ¥…∫i……Æ˙{…⁄¥…«EÚ =±±…‰J…  EÚ™…… Ω˲ * =x…EÚ… ®……x…x…… ΩË  EÚ Ω Æ˙¶… HÚ E‰Ú

 §…x…… ®…÷ HÚ +∫…®¶…¥… Ω˲ * (®…‰ΩÆ˙…, 2010 & 38)

S…Æ˙x…n…∫… E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ EÚ… ∫……‰{……x… ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙ Ω˲ * =xΩ…Âx…‰ EÚΩ… ΩË  EÚ ""M……‰®…i…“ EÚ… {…÷h™… +SU‰Ù EÚ®……Ê ∫…‰  ®…±…

V……i…… ΩË, ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙ ∫…‰ +v…®…«Ø˚{…“ ®…˱… v……‰ ±……‰, I…®…… ®… x…¥…«n… EÚ… {…÷h™… V……x……‰, ∂…“±…Ø˚{…“ ∫…Æ˙…‰¥…Æ˙ ®… ∫x……x… EÚÆ˙…‰, ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙

∫…‰ EÚ…®……ŒMx… EÚ“ i…{…x… §…÷Z…… ±……‰, GÚ…‰v… EÚ…‰ {…⁄V…… ∫…‰ n⁄Æ˙ EÚÆ˙…‰ * ∫…i™… ®… ™…®…÷x……, ∫…Δi……‰π… ®… ∫…Æ˙∫¥…i…“, nË™…« ®… M…ΔM…… EÚ…

{…÷h™… V……x……Â, V…⁄ ®…i… §……‰±……‰,  x…±……ʶ…“ §…x……‰ +…ËÆ˙ n™……Ø˚{…“ i…“l…« ∫…‰ §…÷Ɖ EÚ…®…… EÚ… x……∂… EÚÆ˙…‰'' ( ¥…™……‰M…“, 1958 & 445)

∫…Δi… ®…±…⁄EÚn…∫… ®……x…i…‰ ΩË  EÚ, ¶… HÚ EÚ“ ¶……¥…x…… B¥…Δ =∫…EÚ… ∫…®§…xv… V…§… |…M……f…¥…∫l…… EÚ…‰ {…Ω⁄ƒS… V……i…… ΩË i…§…

∫……v…EÚ |…‰®… ∫……v…x…… ®… +x…÷Æ˙HÚ Ω…‰EÚÆ˙ ∫…¥…«j… {…Æ˙®……i®…… EÚ“ |…‰®…®…™…“ ∫…k…… EÚ… n∂…«x… EÚÆ˙i…… Ω˲ *

n…n÷ n™……±… E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ ∫……v…x…… ®… •…¿{…÷Æ˙,  ∂…¥…{…÷Æ˙, ¥…ËE÷Úh`{…÷Æ˙, <xp…∫…x…, ®……‰I…, @Ò r- ∫… r ¥™…l…« Ω˲ *

¶…M…¥……x… n∂…«x…… E‰Ú  ±…B i…x…-®…x… EÚ…‰ ¶…÷±……EÚÆ˙, ∫¥…M…«-x…Æ˙EÚ EÚ…‰ ±…÷]ı…EÚÆ˙, +…i…÷Æ˙ Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω˲ *

∫…ΩV……‰§……<« E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ M…÷Ø˚ EfiÚ{…… ∫…‰ Ω“ ¶… HÚ EÚ… °Ú±…  ®…±…i…… Ω˲ * ¥…Ω ®……x…i…… ΩË  EÚ ™…Y…, n…x…, i…“l……«]ıx…, ™……‰M…

+… n ¥™…l…« ΩË * =x…EÚ… ®……x…x…… ΩË  EÚ  x…πEÚ…®… ¶……¥… ∫…‰ EÚ…™…« EÚÆ˙x…… S…… ΩB +…ËÆ˙ ®…x… EÚ…‰ Ω Æ˙ ®…Â  x…®…Mx… EÚÆ˙E‰Ú ΩÆ˙ ∫…®…™…

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x……®…-∫®…Æ˙h… EÚÆ˙x…… S…… ΩB *

®…Ω…Æ˙…V… Ω Æ˙n…∫… EÚ“ ¶… HÚ ®… |……h……™……®…, ∫…⁄™…«-S…xp EÚ…‰ ∫…÷π…÷®x…… ®… Œ∫l…i… EÚÆ˙x……, M…M…x…®…hb±… ®… x……n EÚ… ∫…÷x…x……,

§…EÚx……±… EÚ… Æ˙∫…{……x… EÚÆ˙x…… +… n EÚ… =±±…‰J…  EÚ™…… ΩË *

x……®…n‰¥… x…‰ ¶… HÚ ®… x……®… ∫……v…x…… {…Æ˙ + v…EÚ §…±…  n™…… ΩË i…l…… =xΩ…Âx…‰ x……®… ∫®…Æ˙h… EÚ…‰ Ω“ ¶… HÚ EÚ… ∫…¥…«∏…‰π`

∫……‰{……x… ®……x…… Ω˲ * =x…EÚ… ®……x…x…… ΩË  EÚ ∫…¶…“ ß…®…… EÚ… x……∂… x……®…-∫®…Æ˙h… ∫…‰ Ω…‰ V……i…… Ω˲ *

M…÷Ø˚ x……x…EÚ x…‰ Æ˙…M……Œi®…EÚ… ¶… HÚ {…Æ˙ + v…EÚ §…±…  n™…… ΩË * ∫…n¬M…÷Ø˚, x……®…, ∫…i∫…ΔM… i…, +…i®…∫…®…{…«h…, EÚ“i…«x…,

∫®…Æ˙h…, of  ¥…∑……∫…, {…Æ˙®……i®…… EÚ… ¶…™… +… n =x…EÚ“ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú ®…÷J™… ={…EÚ…Æ˙EÚ Ω˲ * M…÷Ø˚+… u…Æ˙…  x…Ø˚ {…i… ∫…¶…“ {…n -

EÚ®…«®……M…«, ™……‰M…®……M…« +…ËÆ˙ Y……x…®……M…« ¶… HÚ Ω“ v……Æ˙… ∫…‰ ∫…Δ S…i… Ω˲ * =x…EÚ… ®……x…x…… ΩË  EÚ EÚ®…«™……‰M… EÚ…‰  x…πEÚ…®… EÚ®…«™……‰M…,

Y……x… EÚ…‰ •…¿ Y……x… i…l…… ™……‰M… EÚ…‰ ∫…ΩV… ™……‰M… ®… ¶… HÚ Ω“ {… Æ˙h…i… EÚÆ˙i…“ Ω˲ *

ÆË n…∫… x…‰ ®……x… ∫…EÚ ¶… HÚ {…Æ˙ |…EÚ…∂… b…±…… Ω˲ * =x…E‰Ú +x…÷∫……Æ˙ ¶… HÚ ®… {…⁄V……-{……`, n…x…, x…¥…Ët… +… n ß…®… ®……j…

Ω˲ * ¥…Ω EÚΩi…‰ ΩË  EÚ ¥™… HÚ EÚ…‰ ΩÆ˙ ¥…HÚ ®……x… ∫…EÚ Ø˚{… ∫…‰ |…¶…÷ ∫®…Æ˙h… ®…  x…®…Mx… Æ˙Ωx…… S…… ΩB *

{…“{……V…“ E‰Ú æn™… ®…Â §…S…{…x… ∫…‰ Ω“ Ω Æ˙¶… HÚ ®……ËV…÷n l…“ * =xΩ…Âx…‰ EÚ§…“Æ˙ E‰Ú ®…i… "V……‰  {…hb ®…Â ΩË ∫……‰ •…¿…hb ®…Â

ΩË' EÚ…‰ |… i…{…… ni…  EÚ™…… Ω˲ * ¥…Ω EÚΩi…‰ ΩË  EÚ, ®……x…¥… E‰Ú ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙ E‰Ú +xnÆ˙ Ω“ <π]ın‰¥…, ®…ŒxnÆ˙ +…ËÆ˙ ∫…®…∫i… S…Æ˙ V…“¥…

Ω˲ * {…⁄V…… EÚ“ ∫……Æ˙“ ∫……®… O…™……‰-°Ú±…-°⁄Ú±…, v…⁄{…-n“{…, x…Ë¥…‰v… Ω®……Ɖ ∂…Æ˙“Æ˙ ®…Â Ω“  ¥…t®……x… Ω˲ *

<∫… |…EÚ…Æ˙ ∫…Δi……‰ EÚ“∫……v…x…… ¥…∫i…÷i…& ¶… HÚ, |…‰®… +…ËÆ˙ Æ˙Ω∫™……x…÷¶…⁄ i… EÚ“ ∫……v…x…… Ω˲ * ¶… HÚ Ω“ <«∑…Æ˙ EÚ“ |……Œ{i… EÚ…

∫…Æ˙±…i…®… ∫……v…x… Ω˲ * ({… ]ı™……±…, 2005 & 117)

 x…πEÚπ…« &

EÚ®…«, Y……x…, ¶… HÚ B¥…Δ ™……‰M…-∫…¶…“ EÚ… v™…‰™…  x…∫∫…Δ nMv… Ø˚{… ∫…‰ |……™…& BEÚ Ω“ Ω˲ * <x…®…  ¶…z…i…… ∫……v…x……‰ EÚ…‰ ±…‰EÚÆ˙

Ω˲ *  ¥… ¶…z… ∫…Δ|…n…™… ®… <x…®… ∫…‰  EÚ∫…“ BEÚ EÚ…‰ |…n…x… ®……x…i…‰ ΩË +…ËÆ˙ ∂…‰π… EÚ…‰ M……Ëh… ®……x…i…‰ Ω˲ *

¶… HÚ™……‰M… ®… ¶… HÚ Ω“ ®…÷J™… Ω…‰i…“ ΩË * ¶… HÚ +x…x™… |…‰®…Ø˚{…… ΩË * <«∑…Æ˙ EÚ“ |……Œ{i… E‰Ú  ±…B ™…Ω ∫…Æ˙±…i…®… ∫……v…x…

Ω˲ * M…“i…… E‰Ú x…¥…‰ +v™……™… ®… ¶…M…¥……x… x…‰ +{…x…“ {…⁄V…… EÚ…‰ +i™…Δi… ∫…÷±…¶… §…i……™…… ΩË * =xΩ…Âx…‰ EÚΩ… ΩË  EÚ, V……‰ ¶…“ ¶…HÚ

{…j…, {…÷π{…, V…±… +…ËÆ˙ °Ú±… ∏…r…{…⁄¥…«EÚ +Ã{…i… EÚƉ M……, ¥……‰ =∫…‰ ∫…Ωπ…« ∫¥…“EÚ…Æ M…‰ * ∫…Δi……‰ ∫……®……x™…i…& ¥…Ëv…“ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú {…I…P…Æ˙

x…Ω” l…‰ * ¥…‰ ¶… HÚ E‰Ú §……¡…S……Æ˙ E‰Ú  ¥…Æ˙…‰v…“ l…‰ * <∫… ±…B ∫…Δi……‰ EÚ…‰ B‰∫…… EÚ…‰<« ¶…“ +…S…Æ˙h… {…∫…Δn x…Ω” l……,  V…∫…∫…‰

¶… HÚ |…n∂…«x… EÚ“ ¥…∫i…÷ §…x… V……B * <∫…“ EÚ…Æ˙h… =xΩ…Âx…‰ V…{…, i…{…, {…⁄V……-{……`, ®…Δ nÆ˙, i…“l…« +… n EÚ“ ®…Ωk…… EÚ…

+∫¥…“EÚ…Æ˙  EÚ™…… l…… * =x…E‰Ú  ±…B ¶… HÚ +Δi…&EÚÆ˙h… EÚ“ ¥…∫i…÷ l…“ * <∫… ±…B, ¥…‰ æn™… ®…Â ∫®…Æ˙h…, M…÷h……x…÷¥……n ™…… v™……x…

EÚ…‰ + v…EÚ ®…Ωi¥… n‰i…‰ l…‰ * ¥…‰ ∫…¥…« + v…EÚ ¶… HÚ ®… ∫…®…{…«h… EÚ…‰ ∫…®…l…«x… EÚÆ˙i…‰ l…‰ * =x…EÚ… =q‰∂™… +x…x™… ¶……¥… ∫…‰ ¶…M…¥……x…

S……ËΩ˛…x…

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EÚ“ ∂…Æ˙h… ®… V……x…… Ω˲ * <∫… ±…B ¥…‰ EÚ®…«™……‰M… <i™…… n EÚ… §… ΩπEÚ…Æ˙ EÚÆ˙E‰Ú ¶… HÚ EÚ… ∫¥…“EÚ…Æ˙ EÚÆ˙i…‰ l…‰ *

∫…Δn˘¶…«∫…⁄ S…

1) {… ]ı™……±… Æ˙ ¥…E÷Ú®……Æ˙ (2005)  Ωxn“ ∫…Δi… EÚ…¥™… ®…Â ™……‰M…i…k¥…,  n±±…“ & ∫…ΔV…™… |…EÚ…∂…x…, |…l…®… ∫…Δ∫EÚÆ˙h… *

2) À∫…Ω Æ˙…®…‰∑…Æ˙|…∫……n (1977) ∫…Δi… EÚ…¥™… ®… ™……‰M… EÚ… ∫¥…∞¸{…, {…]ıx…… & +x…÷{…®… |…EÚ…∂…x…, |…l…®… ∫…Δ∫EÚÆ˙h… *

3) ¶…M…¥…n¬M…“i……

4) M…÷{i… Æ˙…®…E÷Ú®……Æ˙ (2012) M…÷V…Æ˙…i… EÚ…  Ωxn“ ∫…Δi… ∫…… Ωi™…, Ω Æ˙™……h……, ∂……Œxi… |…EÚ…∂…x…, |…l…®… ∫…Δ∫EÚÆ˙h… *

5) ®…‰ΩÆ˙…  n±…“{… E‰Ú (2010) ®…v™…EÚ…±…“x…  Ωxn“ EÚ…¥™…, EÚ…x…{…÷Æ˙ & Y……x… |…EÚ…∂…x…, |…l…h… ∫…Δ∫EÚÆ˙h… *

6)  ¥…™……‰M…“ Ω Æ˙ (1958), ∫…Δi…-∫…÷v……-∫……Æ˙,  n±±…“-®……i…«Æ˙…b ={……v™……™…, |…l…®… ∫…Δ∫EÚÆ˙h… *

❑

S……ËΩ˛…x…

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