UP DILIMANJOURNAL OF STUDENT RESEARCH

V O L U M E 1 , 2 02 1

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Dúnong: UP Diliman Journal of Student Research Volume 1, 2021

© 2022

UP Diliman Office of the Vice Chancellor

for Student Affairs Diliman, Quezon City 1101

All rights reserved. No part of this journal, in whole or in part, may be reproduced in any manner without written permission of the copyright owner, except as

permitted under Philippine copyright law.

ISSN: 2945-4182

UP DILIMANJOURNAL OF STUDENT RESEARCH

V O L U M E 1 , 2 02 1

Dúnong: UP Diliman Journal of Student Research is an annually published open-access journal of peer-reviewed research produced primarily by students of UP Diliman and secondarily by faculty or staff with research related to student affairs and welfare. It aims to publish the best of emergent and interdisciplinary student research in UP Diliman and to introduce young researchers to the editorial process toward cultivating an ethical culture of critique.

L O U I S E JA S H I L R . S O N I D O

T I M O T H Y F . O N G

issue editors

DA N A N T H O N Y D . D O R A D O

J I L L I A N A I R A S . GA B O- R AT I O

associate editors

L O U Y Z Z A M A R I A V I C T O R I A H . VA S Q U E Z

managing editor

M A R T I N A M . H E R R A S

J U L I A N A L B E R T O M I G U E L C . S A S PA

copyeditors

R O G E N E A . G O N Z A L E S

proofreader

JA S M I N E G . M A R T I N E Z

editorial assistant

D I A N A F . DAV I D

cover design and layout artist

J O S E PAO L O P . B E R N A R D O

web administrator

advisory board L O U I S E JA S H I L R . S O N I D O

vice chancellor for student affairs M A . T H E R E S A T . PAYO N GAYO N G

vice chancellor for academic affairs

G O N Z A L O A . C A M P OA M O R I I

vice chancellor for research and development

J O N A S A N G E L O L . A B A D I L L A chairperson, university student council

P O LY N N E E . D I R A editor-in-chief, philippine collegian

P R O F E S S O R E M E R I T U S M I C H A E L L . TA N

S A R A H LY N N E S A LVA D O R DAWAY- D U C A N E S

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AT T H E B E G I N N I N G , A N I N T R O D U C T I O N

louise jashil sonido, timothy ong

A N G B I S A N G TA L A B A N ,A N G U G N AYA N N G M GA PA N A N AW

ivan emil labayne

VO T E O R A D S TA I N : T H E E F F E C T O F R E P E T I T I V E

E X P O S U R E A N D T Y P E O F A DV E R T I S E M E N T O N

T H E I N C L I N AT I O N T O VO T E F O R A P R E S I D E N T I A L

C A N D I DAT E

dominique cadiz, amberly gopalan, amirah guerrero, moarley palpal-latoc, chynna reyes

A N G M GA W I K A AT A N G M GA I N S T I T U S YO N N G M A S

M ATA A S N A E D U K A S YO N S A L I P U N A N G P I L I P I N O :

S AY S AY , K A S AY S AYA N , AT K I N A B U K A S A N

princess fame pascua, gerrilyn sandocal

T H E O L FAC T O RY S E N S E A N D I T S M A N I F E S TAT I O N I N

P H I L I P P I N E L A N G UAG E S

rolien mark balisi

S A L I N-S A L A M I N : A N G PAG S A S A-F I L I P I N O N G M GA

B A N YAGA N G P R O G R A M A

leila crisostomo, ivan joseph de lara, raia alexis gallardo, manpreet singh

I T ’S N O T J U S T A B O U T S E X : U N D E R S TA N D I N G T H E

E X P E R I E N C E S A N D M O T I VAT I O N S O F T W I T T E R A LT E R

U S E R S

ruth magdalene castro, shane catherine lopez, georgie kate vinagrera, regina yamada

L AC A N : A Z O O N T O L O GY (O R H O W MY D O G A N D I

F I G U R E I N T H E A N T H R O P O C E N E)aaron philip dela cruz

contributor’s notes

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The University of the Philippines Charter (Republic Act 9500) articulates some of the key purposes of the University to “lead in setting academic standards

and initiating innovations in teaching, research and faculty development” and to “serve as a research university in various fields of expertise and specialization…contributing to the dissemination and application of knowledge.” Toward these same goals, Chancellor Fidel R. Nemenzo’s vision to “to cultivate the spirit of critical inquiry and challenge the [UP Diliman] community to seek new ways of seeing and solving problems, guided by a strong moral compass” (2020) provided fertile ground to establish Dùnong: UPD Journal of Student Research, the first peer-reviewed journal for student research that publishes the best of undergraduate and graduate research in UP Diliman.

Toward developing a culture of research and critique, Dúnong came to be with the same objectives as many undergraduate and student research journals emerging in universities across the world:

(1) to publish the best of emergent and interdisciplinary student research in UP Diliman in an open-access platform;

(2) to promote the diverse range of critical student research produced by students;

(3) to encourage students to publish their research and, vice versa, to read research by other students and for students; and

(4) to introduce young researchers to the editorial process toward cultivating an ethical culture of critique in the university.

At the beginning, an introduction

louise jashil sonido timothy ong

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These aspirations resonate and align with “a ‘clear movement’ on the international stage toward the recognition of the importance of the publication of student research” (Stone et al 2016, 149), and contribute to emerging efforts to link teaching and research in novel ways.

The quest to nurture creativity and imagination must always go hand in hand with rigorous interrogation and dialectical substantiation in a climate of freedom and non-discrimination. To hark back on the fundamental values of the university as an institution, Derek Bok (1991) reminds us that the elemental freedom and public trust in academic institutions are given to honor creativity and imagination in formulating new hypotheses, new connections, ingenious methods for testing theories and searching for knowledge. But they also require that new ideas be tested, insofar as possible, by accepted standards of logic, internal consistency, clarity of expression, and correspondence to known facts. (2)

In the Philippines, undergraduate research is rarely, if ever, published in peer-reviewed journals. This is certainly due in large part to greater competition with more experienced researchers in established journals as well as the lack of opportunities to develop and hone student work into a “proper” article after the conclusion of a class, project, or thesis. However, among the casualties of such necessary rigor has been for much of data from student research projects to, at worst, be lost to intellectual history or, at best, to lavish in the annals of library archives. Dúnong, like other student research journals, creates a “pathway” for student work to reach a wider audience and broadens the opportunity for these to “[be] communicated to the academic and practice communities” (Stone et al 2016, 157) through an open access strategy of dissemination.

The professional incentives and opportunities granted to students by having a published work are secondary, albeit material, to the nobler mission to cultivate a culture of publication, research, and critique. We envision that such a culture would foster openness, criticality, and humility that create pathways, not only to broader distribution of research data, but to richer intellectual practices, collaborative

approaches to knowledge production, and interdisciplinary modes of inquiry, writing, and review.

The maiden issue of Dúnong publishes seven (7) articles from an initial list of 32 submissions, with two written by undergraduate students and five by graduate students. These were culled from an open call for papers that received submissions from all four (4) academic clusters of UP Diliman: arts and humanities (9), social sciences and law (19), science and technology (1), and management and economics (3). The articles here, written in English or Filipino, yield valuable insight into the range of research modalities and expressions offered by UP students.

As the journal envisions itself to be one written by UP students for other UP students and the UP community at large, it aims to provide space for an immediate interrogation of the contexts that the students are immersed in and are responding to. In “Ang Bisa ng Talaban, Ang Ugnayan ng mga Pananaw,” Ivan Emil Labayne engages in a reflexive critique of the Philippine Studies Program, specifically the ways in which different perspectives are used to frame existing and emerging discourses in the study of Philippine society and culture. By drawing on personal narrative and then situating it alongside the intellectual history of Philippine studies, the article argues for a more robust re-examination of the goals and objectives of the field to transcend beyond the confines of the university.

A point of interest in this selection is also the opportunity to publish data about UP Diliman itself and its own community. One such article is “Vote or ADstain: The Effect of Repetitive Exposure and Type of Advertisement on the Inclination to Vote for a Presidential Candidate” by Dominique Cadiz et al, which provides insight into voting behavior among undergraduate students of UP Diliman. While limited in scope, the case study notably addresses a gap in published studies of voting behavior in the University, and provides important data on the digital turn in electoral processes and the place of emotional advertising in a space of intellectual exercise.

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Going beyond the university, Fame Pascua and Gerrilyn Sandocal historicize the forces that have shaped language policies and use in the Philippines, specifically by locating these in higher education institutions. In “Ang mga Wika at mga Institusyon ng Mas Mataas na Edukasyon sa Lipunang Pilipino: Saysay, Kasaysayan, at Kinabukasan,” they show that differentiations in language use - as common tongue, as pedagogical tool, as opportunity for economic mobility, or even as a nationalistic endeavor - provide an instance in which this history can be traced. Rather than seeing language as instrumental only to higher education as a medium of instruction, the authors argue that Philippine universities have also shaped the way language is made functional to respond to different historical contexts in the Philippines.

The interrelations of language, culture, and history are also explored in Rolien Mark M. Balisi’s “The olfactory sense and its manifestation in Philippine languages,” which makes an interesting method of research in harvesting “an olfaction dataset” with lexical items from 25 Philippine languages through methodical “sweeps” of digital dictionaries and resources. The study benefits from both an archival and cultural impulse, as it strives to document the ephemeral, oft-overlooked sensation of smell and reveals compelling intersections in cultural articulations of scent across indigenous languages.

Leila Crisostomo et al’s “Salin-Salamin: Ang Pagsasa-Filipino ng mga Banyagang Programa” addresses a gap in translation studies, specifically in terms of the intersections between language use and its transmedial afterlives. It takes dubbing as its critical object of study to understand the strategies used by Filipino voice actors, scriptwriters, and directors when undertaking the thorny task of translation. It also examines the policies and guidelines that are commonly taken as industry standards to further gain insights on the artistic choices one has to make in order for translation to work effectively to its target audience. Dubbing-as-translation in this case, the article argues, creatively reworks and enriches the dynamism of the Filipino language.

The increasing connectedness of humans in the contemporary digital culture has reworked the way we interact with each other. Its pervasiveness (and even perversity) begs the question: how does one think about and enact intimacy in these digital spaces? In “It’s Not Just About Sex: Understanding the Experiences and Motivations of Twitter Alter Users in Metro Manila” by Ruth Magdalene Castro et al, the problem of anonymity further complicates this question and the article is especially interested in the motivations and issues that alter users have in maintaining their online presence, specifically in the exploration of sexuality/ies and the fulfillment of sexual desires.

Finally, Aaron Philip Dela Cruz’s “Lacan: A Zoontology (or How My Dog and I Figure in the Anthropocene)” attempts a unique approach at scholarly writing in enfolding autobiography with anthropology. In the same breath that it narrativizes the historical domestication and cultural significance of dogs in the Philippines, it intellectualizes the mutual domestication of the writer-researcher and his pet dog, Lacan. In its anthropological moorage, literary reflexivity, and poetic psychoanalytical impulse, the essay embodies an interdisciplinarity that manages to be a fresh voice in academic literature.

Taken together, these articles showcase the intellectual curiosity and rigor of UP students, and it is this kind of vibrant research community that the journal hopes to foster. The student researchers featured in this issue take to heart the mandate of the national university to cultivate knowledge production that makes sense of our own Filipino experience. It is hoped that this journal can be that space where ideals that UP holds dear - academic excellence animated by a strong moral compass to serve the people - are exemplified and, most importantly, celebrated.

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R E F E R E N C E S

Bok, Derek. 1991. “Universities: Their Temptations and Tensions.” Journal of College and University Law 18(1): 1-20. HeinOnline.

Nemenzo, Fidel. 2020. “Re-Imagining UP Diliman as an Academic Center of Excellence: Inclusive, Diverse and Public Service-Oriented.” University of the Philippines. https://up.edu.ph/chancellor-candidates-present-their-visions-of-up-diliman-to-the-upd-community/..

Stone, Graham, Kathrine Jensen, and Megan Beech. 2016. “Publishing Undergraduate Research: Linking Teaching and Research through a Dedicated Peer-Reviewed Open Access Journal.” Journal of Scholarly Publishing January 47(2): 147-170. ProjectMuse. https://muse.jhu.edu/article/608455.

UP Charter (R.A. 9500). 2008. “An Act to Strengthen the University of the Philippines as the National University.” Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/.

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A B S T R A K

Ang papel na ito ay naglalaman ng mga pagmumuni-muni ng isang kapapasok na mag-aaral sa tri-college program na PhD sa Philippine Studies. Sapagkat nakasentro ang mga pagmumuni sa ilang pangunahing perspektiba sa disiplinang Philippine Studies ay maituturing ang papel na ito bilang reflexive na pagtanaw sa programang binanggit. Kung gayon ay magiging kapaki-pakinabang ang papel na ito bilang bahagi ng pagdodokumento sa paggagap ng mga mag-aaral sa programang pinapasukan. Sinipat ang mga kaalamang mula sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino ni Virgilio Enriquez, Pantayong Pananaw ni Zeus Salazar, at ang mga kaugnay ngunit naiiba ring makabayang oryentasyon nila Bienvenido Lumbera, Patricia Melendrez-Cruz at Resil Mojares. Ang ideya ng pagtatalaban na binanggit ni Ramon Guillermo ang magsisilbing tagapagtahi ng mga magkakawing at nagtutunggaliang ideyang tatalakayin. Dudulo ang papel sa panimulang panawagan para sa isang “Philippine studies” na dahil lapag sa kasaysayan at lipunang Pilipino ay magkakaroon ng kabuluhan sa mas malawak na konkestong lampas sa akademya.

Ang Bisa ng Talaban,Ang Ugnayan ng mga Pananaw

ivan emil labayne

Araling Pilipino indihenisasyon

dayalektikal na karunungan pagtatalaban

materyalismo

K E Y W O R D S

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Ang ideya ng pagtatalaban ang nais kong maging pangunahing lunsaran at iikutan ng papel na paglalagom na ito. Sa billing ng kursong PS 301 (Perspectives in Philippine Studies)—isa sa core courses ng Philippine Studies (PhilStud) program—pinupunto ang pagkakatulad at pagkakaiba, kung hindi man pagkukumpitensya, ng mga perspektiba at pananaw na tatalakayin sa unang bahagi. Panukala kong magiging mas kapaki-pakinabang kung titingnan ang samu’t-saring perspektiba bilang magkaka-ugnay kaysa naglalabanan upang magpagalingan lang, gapiin ang ibang pananaw upang itakda ang sarili bilang “pinaka” sa lahat—tagapamandila ng iisang Katotohanan, ng pinaka-wastong ideya, at iba pa. Sabayang nagaganap ang pag-uusap ng mga perspektibang ito at ang pag-kritika nila sa isa’t-isa. Ang mga prosesong ito ang nagbubunsod ng paglago ng kaisipan, kaalaman at katotohanan. Subalit mahalagang ipunto na ang tunggalian at mga ugnayan ay nangyayari hindi lang sa lunan ng ideya o ng mga kaisipan; ang mga ito ay nakalapag sa, at may pinanggagalingang materyal na kalagayan. Mula sa mas nakatuon na personal na pinanggagalingan, o konteksto ng pagkakasulat ng mga akda, hanggang sa mas malawak na sityo ng kasaysayan—hindi ang kasaysayan sa/na abstract, kundi kasaysayan bilang konkreto, masalimuot, at umaatikabong lunan ng mga kaganapan sa lipunan—ang mga ideya at artikulasyon nito ay hindi tiwalag sa materyal na realidad.

Sa papel na ito, tatangkain kong sumahin ang naunawaan kong sala-salabid na relasyon ng mga perspektibang tinatalakay sa PS 301. Ang susing ideyang pagaganahin ko ay ang dayalektikal na implikasyon ng pakikipagtalaban, ayon, at higit rin sa pagpapakahulugan ni Ramon Guillermo. Ang sisipatin sa pamamagitan ng dayalektikal na pananaw ay hindi na lang mga sistema kundi pati mga kategoryang madalas pinaghihiwalay, o natatabunan ang ugnayan: loob at labas (at permutasyon nitong “katutubo” at “dayuhan), akda at pang-akda, ideya/kaisipan at praktika/kasaysayan. Dudulo ito sa paglilinaw ng aking tindig sa harap ng samu’t-saring perspektiba. Ang mismong paglalayong tumindig ay makabuluhan na, sapagkat tumataliwas sa tendensiyang ilatag lang ang mga pananaw—

sa “marketplace of ideas”—at magtapos doon. Mabuti na lang at napahiwatig na sa taas na tulad ng pagbuo ng kaalaman, ang pagtindig ay ‘di-natatapos na proseso; maaaring pagnilayan at irebisa ayon sa pagsubok ng talab ng mga tindig na ito sa materyal na kalagayan at kasaysayan.

Ngunit bago pagtabi-tabihin at talakayin ang mga perspektibang ito ay magsisimula ako sa ilang mahahalagang karanasan bago pumasok sa programang PhilStud, ngunit kaugnay ng bago-bagong pormal na disiplinang ito. Hangad kong sa pambungad na ito ay maisalugar ko ang nabuong interes sa Philippine Studies at ang paunang magkalakip na survey ng, at pagtindig mula sa mga dominanteng perspektiba sa disiplinang ito. Nais kong ipakita ang proseso ng pagkahubog ng aking interes—kung paanong ang panimulang kislap nito na mag-uudyok sa opisyal na pagpasok sa isang programa ay unti-unting palalaguin, kundi man babaguhin din, ng panahong inilalagi sa programang ito.

Philippine Studies at Remote Learning sa Gitna ng Pandemya

Pumasok ako sa PhilStud program noong unang semestre ng akademikong taon 2020-2021—ang unang ganap na semestre kung kailan ipinatupad ang remote learning setup sa lahat ng antas ng pag-aaral sa Pilipinas. Setyembre ito nagsimula, halos kalahating taon mula nang ipalaganap ang malawakan at iba-ibang nibel ng community quarantine sa buong bansa. Kakalipat ko sa Lungsod Quezon mula sa Baguio nang kumpirmahin ang community transmission ng COVID-19 sa Pilipinas at ipatupad ang lockdowns. Matapos ang isang dekadang pamamalagi sa Baguio kung saan ko rin natamo ang BA at MA sa Language and Literature sa UP Baguio ay nagpasya akong kumuha ng PhD degree sa UP Diliman. Sumagi pa sa isip kong maghanap ng scholarship sa ibang bansa, ngunit maliban sa dami ng prosesong dapat pagdaaanan, sa huli ay ang araling nais kong pagdalubhasaan ang nagtulak sa aking piliin ang Philippine Studies program sa UPD.

Sa mga nahanap kong programa sa mga pamantasan sa ibang bansa na nagbibigay ng scholarship grants, karaniwan ang mga kursong

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Comparative Literature o Art Studies na tumutugma sa aking interes. Sinadya ko namang hanapin ang scholarship offers sa programang Urban Studies dahil bihira itong lumabas sa mga oportunidad na nakikita. Ang interes sa magkakaugnay na araling ito ay bunsod ng aking mga ‘di-gradwado at gradwadong pag-aaral at praktika sa Baguio. Sa pagtapos ng kursong Language and Literature—mula BA hanggang MA—ay higit kong kinasiyahan ang mga asignatura sa Panitikan habang kinikilala rin ang malawak na posibilidad ng interface nito sa Araling Wika at pormal na Linggwistika. Nanggaling naman ang pagkiling ko sa Art Studies sa aking praktika bilang malikhaing manunulat at pagiging kabilang ng isang art collective na dati ay Baguio-based bago lampasan ang geographical denotation na ito. Mga eksperimento sa pagsulat, sa materyalidad ng titik, sa paglikha ng sining at pagbuo ng mga komunidad na batay sa sining ang inatupag ko bilang indibidwal at bilang bahagi ng collective na Pedantic Pedestrians. Ang MA tesis ko naman na tungkol sa Burnham Park at kung paano ito nauunawaan at ginagalawan ng mga taong naglalagi dito ang pangunahing humugis sa aking interes sa espasyo at siyudad, kung gayon, ang Urban Studies.

Subalit sa huli, ang naging pasya ko ay para sa Philippine Studies. Nagmula ito sa interes na magtuon sa Pilipinas, sa bayang ito at ang samot-sari at masalimuot na mga usaping kaugnay nito. May hinala rin na magiging interdisiplinaryo ang lapit sa kursong ito dahil sa lawak ng mga maaaring paksain—mula kasaysayan at kultura, pananamit, panitikan at pagkain, hanggang ugnayang panlabas, ekonomiya, paggawa, agrikultura, at iba pa. May pagkailang ako sa pamimili ng iisang “ispesyalisasyon” at habang kinikilala ang mga posibleng kahinaan ng ganitong tindig ay nagpapaakit ako sa samot-saring paksa at diskursong pumapaloob sa Philippine Studies. Naging mabunga ang aking pag-aaral kanila Byron at Shelley, Derrida at Lacan, Lumbera at Lacaba, pati na rin kanila Chomsky at Searle at Vygotsky noong undergrad. Pinino ko ang mga natutunang ito at pinagmuhatan rin upang mula sa mga pampanitikang teksto at pormasyon ng wika ay magtuon sa materyal na espasyo at pagkilos dito ng mga tao sa aking MA. Mula sa ganitong pag-zoom in ay ninais kong mag-

zoom out muli, kahit paradoxically, may pinitas muling iisang direksyon, bagaman malawak ang daanan—ang Philippine Studies. Mas BA kaysa MA, mayroon nang mga ‘Pilipinong’ bahagi—mga asignaturang tulad ng Philippine Literature in English, Kasaysayan ng Panitikang Pilipino, Paglilinang ng Wikang Pilipino, at iba pa. Mga bahagi itong nakapaloob, at kaugnay lamang ng tukoy na larangan—Panitikan at Wika—hindi prinsipal na tuon ng pag-aaral. Sa PhilStud—tulad na rin ng inaanunsyo ng pangalan nito—ay maaasahang ang Pilipino/bayang Pilipinas at ang maraming aspeto nito ang siyang iikutan ng mga paksa.

Sa una kong semestre sa PhilStud, hindi agad-agad ang paglundag sa samot-saring paksang ito—na mistulang atat na atat na pag-usapan ang mga ito upang tapusin na, upang ma ‘cover’ na ang lahat, mula paksa #1 hanggang paksa #99. Taliwas sa ganitong karikatura sa kwantipikasyon ay ang hindi malulundagang hakbang ng paghahanda sa lunan ng pag-aaral o pagdudukal sa lupa ng pag-aaralan. Sa ibang sabi, bago talakayin ang mga paksa ay nararapat usisain kung ano ang Philippine Studies, saan ito nagmula, ano ang kasaysayan nito, paano ang naging daloy ng pag-unlad nito at ano ang mga maaari nitong tunguhin.

Upang makapagbigay ng mga paunang sagot rito ay magbabahagi ako ng aking pagtaya sa mga namayaning perspektiba sa larangang ito at kung paanong ang naging mga pag-unlad, tunggalian, at pag-uugnayan nila ay kaalinsabay ng patuloy na pag-usbong ng Philippine Studies. Magiging saligan ko ang mga babasahing ginamit namin sa klaseng PS 301 noong unang semestre ng remote learning sa ilalim ni Dr. Nancy Kimuel-Gabriel. Sa puntong ito ay marapat na kapwang ilantad ang implisitong puna sa ganitong saligan at ang mga obhetibong rebelasyon ng ganitong kalagayan. Una—parang stating the obvious ngunit sana ay maipapakita ang halaga nito: kalakhan ng babasahin ay nagmula sa silabus sa klase, isang dokumentong at most ay masasabing contingent na lamang, ‘nagkataon’ lang na ito ang silabus na ginamit ng propesor ng PS 301 sa semestreng nag-enrol ako dito. Ang worst case ay isagad ang argumento at sabihing dahil sa contingency na ito ay mahina ang magiging batayan ng eksposisyon.

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Ang mainam na sagot rito ay pabulaanan ang pagiging contingent o incidental ng mga babasahing napasama sa silabus at siyang naging batayan ng pagmumuning ito sa programang Philippine Studies. Babanggitin ko ang status ng silabus bilang pagkakakonkreto ng kapangyarihan ng mga institusyon tulad ng unibersidad sa pagbuo, pag-consolidate, at pagpapalaganap ng kaalaman. Ang mga isinaad nila Guillory at Sela-Sheffy sa kaso ng pampanitikang kanon ay maiuugnay sa kasalukuyang paksa. Sa kaniyang Pambungad sa Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation,” tinukoy ni Guillory ang tungkulin ng “school, and the institutional forms of syllabus and curriculum” hindi lang sa paglikha ng canon kundi pati sa pagpapakalat at pag-regulate sa cultural capital (vii). Mula rito, ang institusyon ng unibersidad ay mabibilang sa tinawag na “authorized consecrating agencies” (Sela-Sheffy 2002, 141), at ang silabus ay may partikular na gampaning itakda ang mga nararapat pag-aralan (ikumpara ang ‘required’ sa ‘supplementary’ readings) at ang bubuo sa mas malawak na kategoryang “kaalaman.” Bagkus, ang mga partikular na materyales na ito—itatala sa ‘Sanggunian’ na bahagi ng silabus, babasahin ng mga mag-aaral at tatalakayin sa klase at hindi malayong gagamitin muli bilang ‘Sanggunian’ ng mga mag-aaral sa kanilang mga sulatin—ay nagkakaroon ng malaking tungkulin sa patuloy na pagbubuo at pagpapaunlad sa isang larangan. Ngunit hindi simplistikong relasyon ito kung saan ang mga piling babasahin ay magiging representatibo ng isang akademikong larangan. Mas mapapayabong ang pagsipat kung bibigyang-diin ang pagsasalimbayan ng mga teksto, ang larangan, at ang kasaysayan ng mga ito. Mula rito ay maaaring ipakita kung paanong ang mga babasahin ay kapwa nakatulong sa pag-unlad ng isang disiplina habang nagbago rin ang mga ito ayon sa pagkakagamit nila sa loob ng disiplina.

Tatapusin ko ngayon ang bahaging ito sa pahayag na ang mga babasahin sa isang silabus—partikular sa silabus na pinagbatayan ko ng mga tekstong ginamit para sa papel—ay kapwa contingent, at tukoy ng espesipikong kalagayan sa kasaysayan; kapwa defined at bukas sang-ayon sa iba’t-ibang pag-unawa at pag-apply ng mga mag-aaral o mananaliksik.

Ang tangka kong engagement sa mga babasahing ito upang magmuni-muni ukol sa programang Philippine Studies na pinasukan ko ay tangkang hindi lang unawain ang isang inabutang programa o inherited tradition, kundi makibahagi rin sa pagpapatuloy ng disiplinang ito. Sa pagsalungguhit sa halaga ng kontekstwalisasyon ay madalas ang pagtuon sa mga ‘external’ na bagay na humuhugis at kinalulugaran ng mga ‘teksto’—ang kasaysayan nito, ang nagsulat dito, at iba pa. Natatabunan tuloy ang pagkilatis sa konteksto o lugar ng umaakda—siyang bumubuo ng sintesis, siyang nagbabahagi ng analisis. Ang umpugan ay nangyayari sa pagitan hindi lamang ng dalawa, (teksto at konteksto, Philippine Studies program at kasaysayan nito)kundi ng at least tatlo, kabilang na ang pumapaloob sa programang ito at umuunawa at nag-aambag sa kasaysayan nito. Sa kaso ngayon, ako ito, ang tumitipa sa keyboard ng kompyuter, isang bagong salta sa PhilStud program ng UP Diliman, sinusubukang unawain ang programang pinasukan habang nag-aambag rin sa mas malawak na pag-unawa sa, at pag-unlad ng programang ito.

Ahensya sa Pag-aakda

Heto muli ako, ang may-akda, hinahanda ang lanang kung saan idaraos ang pagmumuni. Balik sa personal na pagsasakasaysayan, tatawagin ko ang sarili bilang ‘baguhan’ sa Philippine Studies at hindi lalampas sa kalahati ng nagsulat ng mga babasahing na-engkwentro sa PS 301 ang nauna ko nang nabasa sa ibang pagkakataon. Dahil sa Panitikang bahagi ng aking BA at MA, hindi lang ako pamilyar kanila Ramon Guillermo at Bienvenido Lumbera at Resil Mojares; nakapagbasa na ako ng iba nilang sulatin. Naririnig ko na sila Zeus Salazar, Virgilio Enriquez, at Prospero Cavar—kapwa sa mga pormal na sulatin, at mas karaniwan, sa mga memes sa social media (lalo na ang una)—ngunit hindi ko pa sila nababasa. Sa PS 301—sa wakas—doon ko unang ‘pormal’ na napag-aralan at natalakay ang mga kaisipan ng sinasabing “triumvirate” ng indihenisasyong pihit na nagtulak sa pormalisasyon ng Philippine Studies sa akademya.

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Marapat kong banggitin ang una nang pagkakabasa sa Pook at Paninindigan ni Ramon Guillermo bago pa sumampa sa PhilStud program. Sa kritikang ito ng Pantayong Pananaw (PP) ni Salazar ay nagkaroon ako ng matatawag na ‘negatibong’ exposure sa PP—negatibo dahil una kong namalas ang kritika o tugon rito bago silipin ang binubunyag ng mismong pananaw. Pumukaw sa akin mula sa teksto ni Guillermo ang pag-iiba niya sa proseso ng pag-aakda at ang tinawag niyang “pang-akda.” Pinasimple ko ito upang ganapin kapwa ang pagkakaiba at relasyon ng dalawa bilang pumapatungkol sa panulat at paglikha at sa mga bagay, materyales o pagkakataon na sumusuporta sa paglikhang ito.

Ang kabuuan ng pahayag ni Guillermo ay “Hindi nauunawaan ng PT na ang pag-aakda ng daigdig ay nangangahulugan din ng pag-akda ng mismong pang-akda.”(Garcellano 1990, 76) Ipinapahiwatig nito na sa pag-aakda ay kinakailangan ring maging malay ang umaakda sa kalagayan ng kaniyang pag-akda (conditions of writing/creation). Ang mga kalagayang ito ay maaaring patungkol sa masaklaw na kasaysayang kinabibilangan at nilalahukan, o sa mas ispesipikong kalagayang nag-i-enable sa pag-akda: mga institusyong sumusuporta sa pagbuo ng kaalaman, mga rekurso para rito, mga moda ng distribusyon o pagpapalaganap sa mga inakda. Sa Ang Proyektong Araling Filipino sa Wikang Filipino,” binanggit ni Guillermo ang “mahigpit na pangkasaysayang ugnayan” sa pagitan ng indihenisasyong pihit at sa “pagsibol at paglakas ng mga makabayan at militanteng kilusang masa” noong dekada 70 at 80 (1). Sa parehong talata ay binanggit rin niya ang “pagkalas ng mga tendensyang ito sa mga panlipunang kilusan” (1)—pahapyaw sa magkaka-ugnay na proseso ng pagtatagpo at paghihiwalay, na kapwa dulot ng kasaysayan at nagpapayabong rito.

Sa pagpopook kapwa ng disiplina at programang Philippine Studies sa bugso ng makabayan at radikal na kilusang masa noong dekada sisenta at sitenta ay maipapakita ang samot-saring mga tunggalian, at ehersisyo ng ahensya. Tulad sa “Ang Proyektong Araling Filipino sa Wikang Filipino” ni Guillermo, pinahiwatigan rin sa “Marking a Turn: Thoughts on a Generation of Philippine

Scholarship” ni Mojares ang halaga ng dekada ’60 at ’70 sa kasaysayan ng bansa sa pangkabuuan at sa pag-unlad ng kaalaman. “Dramatic conjuncture” ito ayon kay Mojares at nilista niyang mga salik ang paglala ng pang-ekonomiyang krisis, paglakas ng sentimyentong kontra “Americanism” at pagsulong ng Marxismo at pagkakatatag ng bagong Partido Komunista sa Pilipinas.(Mojares, 2014) May korelasyon ang mga “pagkakawing-kawing ng mga pangyayaring”(Ramos et al. 1997, 70) ito sa paglakas ng diwang makabayan kung saan magiging tampok na usapin ang wikang pambansa—na siya namang magiging huling pagkakasunduan ng mga tradisyong “indihenisasyon” at ng mga radikal na kilusang masa. Paiigtingin pa ng Batas Militar ang impetus para sa mga radikal na kilusan, kundi man pinaypayan pa ang lumalaki nitong apoy. Ngunit alinsunod sa dayaletikal na kaisipan at ayon na rin kay Patricio Abinales na sinipi ni Mojares, hindi dapat tingnan ang panahon ng Batas Militar bilang isang “either/or situation” bagkus ay isang “spectrum where between state and revolution are found different shades of political choices.”(Mojares, 2014). Isang mainam, at nakakapukaw na paradoha: dulot ng represibong katangian ng Batas Militar ay naging masidhi ang paghahanap at pananawagan para sa demokrasya, sa kalayaan; ang ‘negatibong’ halimbawang binigay ng Batas Militar ang pumukaw sa mga iskolar, sa sambayanan, na manawagan para sa Iba, sa Hindi ganito.

Pinaigting ng Batas Militar ang pagkakahati sa lipunan—may kapangyarihan at wala, may kayamanan at wala, meron o walang kontrol sa produksiyon—habang pinasidhi rin ang tunggalian sa maraming aspeto. Sa mga iskolar, inudyukan sila ng panahon na pumili ng panig sa halip na magtala lang at magmuni sa mga kaganapan sa paligid. Habang puspusan ang pag-instrumentalize ng diktador sa magka-ugnay na “mystifying power of culture and arts” at sa tema ng “nationalism,” ay binaka rin ito ng mga iskolar.(Author?) Magandang halimbawa ang kaso ng Philippine Center for Advanced Studies na inilarawan ni Sobritchea bilang “conversion of the Asian Center into a ‘think tank’ of government” at mga retorika nito ng “national development” at “social engineering.”(Sobritchea 2002, 102) Ngunit

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maski sa isang pangungusap lang ay may pasilip sa tindig ni Sobritchea. Para siyang nagpasok ng Acknowledgement sa gitna ng isang akademikong papel: “I would like to mention in passing the valiant efforts of faculty members and students who resisted the pressure to convert their classrooms into a propaganda arm of the Marcos government.”(Sobritchea 2002). Maliban sa nagpatikim ito sa panig ni Sobritchea, pinahiwatigan rin ng akda ang paggana ng ahensya: lagi’t-laging may posibilidad ng pag-maniobra, pagtutol kahit sa harap ng mga institusyonal at malaganap na paninikil. Narito ang espasyo na maaaring maksimahin, o pagnilayan man lang kung paano magagamit, ng mga iskolar, ng mga manlilikha sa pangkabuuan, upang magsulong ng mga alternatibong diskurso at kaayusan.

Ang usapin naman ng “nasyonalismo” ay batbat rin ng kontradiksyon bilang resulta ng magkakaibang interes o ideolohiya ng gumagamit dito. Malamang sasang-ayon si Marcos sa itinuran ni Lumbera na “makapangyarihang puwersa” ang nasyonalismo pero nasa magkaibang panig sila sa pagpapagana sa ideyang ito.(Lumbera 2000). Dito papasok ang anotasyon ni Alice Guillermo sa ideya ng “articulation” ni Ernesto Laclau. Sa Covert Presence, tinukoy niya ang “nationalism” bilang isang halimbawa ng “non-ideological element” na maaaring i-articulate sa maraming paraan, ayon sa magkakaiba at nagtutunggaliang ideolohiya. (Guillermo 1989, 188-190).Ang “nasyonalismo” ni Hitler halimbawa ay purista at rasista kaya nilayong apulahin ang mga Hudyo na para bang mga ketongin o maysakit na lahi. Ang nasyunalismo ni Marcos ay may layong burahin ang mga hindi pagkakapantay-pantay, ibandila ang “kaisahan” ng bansa, kung saan ayon sa naratibo ay malaki ang gampanin ng kaniyang pamumuno, at bagkus ginagawang lehitimo ito. Taliwas rito ang nasyonalismo ng radikal na kilusang masa na “kumikiling sa panig ng mga kasalukuyang inaapi… ng dominanteng sistema.”(Guillermo 2009, 22) Hindi inosente ang mga salita, ang mga termino, ang mga akda. Nababahiran ang mga ito ng layunin, oryentasyon at interes ng lumilikha.

Masasabi mula rito na ang pagpanig ay may at least dalawang magkaugnay na aspeto: isang nakatingin higit sa labas, sa paligid—ano ba ang kalagayan ng lipunang kinabibilangan ko, paano ko ito nauunawaan—at isang nakatingin higit sa sarili—sa pagkapa at pag-unawa ko sa paligid ko, ano ang magiging tindig ko, at ano ang gagawin ko tungkol dito? Dayalektika muli, at may historikal na batayan: ang mas produktibong tanong sa aking palagay, ay hindi ano ang “tama o mali,” kundi ano ang “akma” sa isang partikular na kalagayan o kondisyon. Walang eternal na tama, tama-sa-lahat-ng-pagkakataon; mayroon lamang mga angkop na hakbang o ideya ayon sa kongkretong kalagayan.

Kamalayan sa kaligiran at kasaysayan ang binibigyan ng halaga. Nasapul ito ni Patricia Melendez-Cruz nang ilarawan niya ang lipunan sa simula pa lang ng talakayan sa “Ang Pulitika ng Wikang Panturo” bilang “mala-kolonyal, maka-uri at multilinggwal.”(Melendrez-Cruz 1996, 195). Itong tinukoy na pangkabuuang kalagayan ang naging gabay sa pagtalakay at pagsasakasaysayan niya ng naging pag-unlad at mga tunggalian sa usapin ng patakarang pangwika at wikang panturo. Matapos pasadahan ang ilang salik at pangyayari sa kasaysayan—kolonyalistang pamana sa edukasyon, oryentasyon nitong may diin sa “pagkabisa” sa halip na “pagtatanong” o “paglutas ng problema” —ay dumulo ang akda sa potensyal ng wika at wikang panturo bilang tagapagpalaya ng isipan.(Melendrez-Cruz 1996, 205)

Nais ko lang banggitin ang hawig ng turn-of-phrase sa bahaging kongklusyon ni Melendrez-Cruz at ni Enriquez. Para kay Melendez-Cruz, “maitutumpak ang pagkilos” (Melendrez-Cruz 1996, 213) matapos matalos ang kalagayan; kay Enriquez naman, “gamitin ang magagamit mula sa ibang bansa at iwaksi ang hindi.”(Enriquez 1989, 18). May ahensya sa pagkilos at sa paggamit na nakabatay sa posible nitong bisa o talab sa kalagayan kung saan sila gagamitin o ia-apply. Muli, kailangang maging malay sa mga ito: ang pinanggagalingan ng indibidwal (bias, lente, oryentasyon) at ang malawak na lipunan kung saan ilalapag at susubukin ang talab, ang paggana, ng mga kaisipan.

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Hinahanda tayo nito sa pagtalos sa talab, sa pag-bandila ng termino at kaisipang ito sa pagtatasa ng mga bagay: mula sa isang ideya o kislap-diwa, hanggang sa isang kongkretong kagamitan, o malawakang programa.

Dayalektika sa Talaban

Sa Diksiyonaryong Adarna, ang tala sa “talab” ay ang sumusunod: (1) “tagos ng anumang uri ng talim o tulis sa isang bagay; (2) bisa ng pangungusap, gamot, sumpa, at iba pa.” Sa unang pakahulugan ay litaw ang konotasyon ng talim, sharpness. Dalawang bagay ang naaalala ko. Una, ang paggamit ng “sharp” sa sirkulo ng mg aktibista, lalo sa mga kabataan. “Ang sharp ng kaniyang analisis.” “Nabasa mo na ang sagot ni A sa patutsada ni B, ang sharp!” Pangalawa, kaugnay naman sa “tagos”: “Mukhang nagdaramdam ka sa sinabi ni Mama mo ha. Tagos ba?” “Nakakatuwa ‘yung mga halimbawa ni Mam kanina sa klase a’ tagos na tagos e!” Sa mga halimbawang ito, kapag tumalab ang isang bagay ay mistulang nakuha nito ang punto, naipatagos ang gustong sabihin sa epektibong pamamaraan, o nakapukaw nang husto matapos ipakita ang relasyon ng sinasabi sa kausap.

Sa pangalawang pakahulugan naman ay bida ang “bisa”—na may implikasyong kailangan ng isang external na relasyon na siyang magiging batayan ng pagtasa sa “bisa.” Ang bisa ng pangugusap, gamot o sumpa ay masusukat o makikita hindi sa mga bagay na ito mismo, kundi sa mga bagay o kalagayan sa labas nito: ang nakarinig o nakabasa ng pangungusap, ang uminom ng gamot, ang binigyan ng sumpa. Matapos lamang isaalalang-alang ang mga panlabas ng bagay o sitwasyong ito saka maaaring tasahin ang “bisa” ng isang bagay.

Sa linggwistikong antas pa lang ay maipapakita na kung paanong ang talaban ay nag-iimply ng pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng mga bagay: ang talab ng bagay sa isa pa; ang bisa ng mga bagay ayon sa panlabas at mas malawak nitong iniiralan. Ganito ang diwang gustong paganahin sa pagtatasa ng mga perspektiba. Mainam rin na marami sa mga papel na tatalakayin mismo ay mahihiwatigan ng dayalektikal na pagtanaw. Halimbawa, banggitin ko muli ang pagsasalarawan ni Guillermo sa “pagtatalaban” kung saan “kapwa

ang pumapasok na elemento at pinapasukan nito ay nagbabago at umuunlad.”(Guillermo 2009, 18). Pinagana ni Mojares ang kahalintulad na ideya sa kaso ng panitikan, partikular sa “dialectical relation between genre and its history” at kung paanong sa pagsasakasaysayan ay mas mababanaag ang naging pag-unlad at pagbabago ng mga genre (mula epiko at awit hanggang corrido at romansa) kasabay ng pakikisangkot ng mga genre sa galaw ng kasaysayan. Ang pumapasok ay hindi lang “kinakain” ng pinasukan nito, na para bang awtomatiko ang pagpapaloob nito sa umiiral na lohika ng pinasukan; sa halip ay maaaaring magbago ang pinasukan sa tulong ng (maaari ring magbagong) pumasok na elemento.

Mainam na ipasok na rito ang mga “konsepto sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino” na tinalakay ni Virgilio Enriquez dahil matutunugan ang komparatibong pagiging bukas nito sa mga impluwensiyang banyaga, o panlabas.(Enriquez 1989, 12) Taliwas ito sa inklinasyon ng Pantayong Pananaw (PP) na higit na binibigyang diin ang “panloob na pagkakaugnay-ugnay at pag-uugnay ng mga katangian, pagpapahalaga, kaalaman, karunungan, hangarin, kaugalian, pag-aasal, at karanasan ng isang kabuuang pangkalinangan – kabuuang nababalot sa, at ipinapahayag sa pamamagitan ng isang wika… sa loob ng isang nagsasariling talastasan/diskursong pangkalinangan o pangkabihasnan.”(Salazar 1991). Habang may pagbanggit, at pagdidiin si Salazar sa mga ugnayan, ito ay sa kontekstong panloob lang—isang loob na tinuturing, o mas akma siguro, hinaharaya bilang buo at nakakapagsarili, nang walang tulong o impluwensiya mula sa labas.

Sa pagdedetalye ni Enriquez sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino (SP), bagamat may mga pasaring na mistulang kontra sa mga salita o konseptong banyaga, higit ang bigat ng akto niyang talakayin ang iba-ibang konsepto sa SP dahil mahihiwatigan ang dayalektikal na attitude, o pananaw ni Enriquez sa mga panlabas na impluwensiya. Naglista siya ng anim na uri ng konsepto: (1) mga katutubong konsepto (2) mga konseptong bunga ng pagtatakda ng kahulugan (3) ang pag-aandukha o pagbibigay ng katutubong kahulugan sa ideya at salitang hiram (4) ang pagbibinyag o paggamit ng katutubong salita para sa pandaigdigan o

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banyagang konsepto (5) ang paimbabaw na asimilasyon ng taguri at konseptong hiram at (6) mga ligaw at banyagang konsepto.(Enriquez 1989, 12-16). Susi ang halimbawa (3) at (4) sa upang ipakita ang kabukasan ng SP sa mga banyagang konsepto o termino—isang kabukasan na inaalalayan ng dayalektikal na pagtalos. Ginamit rin ni Enriquez ang salitang “andukha” at pinakita ang paggana nito sa transpormasyon ng “seizing one’s opportunity” o “chance” sa “paniniyansing.”(Enriquez 1989, 14) Kapag inilapag sa kulturang Pilipino, kumikiling sa negatibo ang kahulugan ng “tiyansing” dahil sa pagsimangot natin sa “hawak nang hawak kung kani-kanino.”(Enriquez 1989). Sa (4) naman, ang halimbawa ay ang pag-iiba sa Kastilang “quilates” na specific sa ginto ang paggamit habang mas malawak at mas malalim na ang pinatutungkulan ng Filipinized na salitang “kilatis” kapag ginamit sa kulturang Pilipino. Kung susundan ang terminolohiya ni Guillermo, ang pumapasok na elemento sa halimbawang ito ay mga salitang banyaga—Ingles na chance at Kastilang quilates—at ang pinapasukang sistema ay ang kalinangan o kultura at lipunang Pilipino. Makikita ang paggana ng ahensya, ang pagbuo at paglalaro sa kahulugan: nag-iba ang kahulugan ng mga salitang hinango at inangkin nang ilapag na ito sa kontekstong Pilipino. Sa dila ni Rodriguez-Tael, ito ang “paghalaw at pag-aangkop/adaptasyon, at/o pagsasalin ng mga konseptong mula sa labas upang mailapat sa pag-aaral ng karanasang Pilipino.”(Rodriguez-Tatel 2015, 122) Sa diwa ng dayalektikal na analisis, walang iisang direksyon ang impluwensiya, at transpormasyon. Nag-iimpluwensiyahan at mutually transformative ang maraming elemento ng isang sistema o mga kapwa-sistema/kategorya. Subalit isang antas pa lang ito ng dayalektika: ang dalawang kategorya, a at b (loob at labas, global at lokal, general at partikular, at iba pa), ay iniimpluwensiyahan ang isa’t-isa habang kapwa sila may mga internal na kontradiksyon at kompleksidad. Halimbawa, kapwa ang “Kalinangang Bayan” at ang “Kulturang Nasyunal,” na tinuturing ni Salazar na “banyaga ang batayan”(Salazar 1991, 126) ay hindi monolitiko at mayroon ding panloob na kontradiksyon. Subalit sa dualistikong pagtatapat ni Salazar sa mga kategoryang ito ay natatabunan ang internal na kompleksidad ng bawat isa.

Ito ang gustong bakahin ng dayalektika ng talaban: ang mga ideya, pangyayari, kategorya ay nag-uugnayan, nag-uuntugan, nag-aalitan, nagtatalo, nagtutulungan. Ngunit ang pagsubok—ng talab—o pagtasa—ng bisa—ay hindi lang sa isa’t-isa, na parang mga lutang lang silang konseptong nag-uusap at nagtutuos sa ere. Ang mga ideya, pangyayari at kategoryang ito ay may materyal na manipestasyon at pinanggagalingan, nakalapag sa bilis-takbo-galaw ng kasaysayan. Kung sa dila ni Bienvenido Lumbera at sa konteksto ng produksyong sining, mayroong “dynamic intercourse” at “complex dialectic between specific literary works and the realities they refer to”(Lumbera 2000, 5). Ang kasaysayan, lipunan at materyal na reyalidad ang pinanggagalingan ng mga likha (sining, ideya) na maaari rin naman nitong pakialamanan o baguhin.

Sa loob, o mas partikular pa sa masaklaw na kasaysayan ay ang usapin ng mga institusyon o aparatong kaakibat sa pagpapakalat, at pag-uugnayan ng mga ideya at ang samu’t-sari’t nagtutunggaling interes at paninindigan ng mga bumubuo sa mga ideya at kaalamang ito. Sa huling bahagi ay nais kong bumaling at magsimula sa konteksto ng akademya para lamang turulin ang mas malawak na konteskto lampas nito. Habang ang pagmumuni ay sumentro sa inisyal na paggagap sa mga babasahin sa PS 301 sa konteksto ng doktoradong pag-aaral, nais kong dumulo sa silbi o halaga ng lahat ng pagmumuning ito sa lipunan at kasaysayan. Bahagi pa rin ito sa tindig na ang kaalaman ay binubuo sa mas masaklaw na paraan, samantalang privileged ang lugar ng unibersidad sa pagpopormalisa ng kaalamang ito. Lagi’t lagi, kailangang ibalik sa labas, o lumabas ng pormal na institusyon upang subukin ang talab o bisa ng mga napag-aralan sa pormal na lunan. Ang nag-aakda ay sumisipat sa sariling pang-akda, tinatalos ang bawat pagkakataong naibibigay sa kaniya upang makapag-ambag sa kaalaman.

Ang Pulitikal ay Personal, o ang Mundo sa Labas ng Akademya

Bilang pagwawakas at paglalagom sa mga nilahad rito, binaligtad ko ang mas pamilyar na pahayag na “the personal is political” na pinanganak kasabay ng mga peministang

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kilusan. Panghuling iterasyon rin ito ng diwa ng dayalektika: ang iskolar/manunulat/akademiko ay hindi tiwalag sa lipunang kaniyang ginagalawan. Ang kaniyang mga personal na kiling, karanasan at kalagayan ay humuhugis sa kaniyang pag-aakda na maaari namang tumulong magbigay-hugis sa lipunan.

Mula rito, kapansin-pansin ang ganitong paglalahok nila Lumbera at Mojares sa kanilang mga sarili sa ilang sulatin. Sa “From Colonizer to Liberator: How U.S. Colonialism Succeeded in Re-inventing Itself after the Pacific War,” may stylistic na hakbang si Lumbera upang magsalimbayan ang “personal observations” niya at ang mas malawak na kasaysayan ng bansa. Sa pamamagitan nito ay nailabas sa larangang “personal” o indibidwal ang kaniyang mga muni-muni, nabigyan ng “objective validity, as they have been checked against available historical accounts, policies promulgated, and narratives by key personalities of the times.”(Lumbera 2000, 19) Ang mga pulitikal na sanaysay at pagsasaysay ay hindi hiwalay sa personal na karanasan. May ganito ring pag-uugnay si Mojares: hayagan niyang tinukoy ang sarili bilang kabilang sa henerasyong matuturing na “most vibrant and productive … in the country’s intellectual history”—ang henerasyong tinasa at pinagbulayan niya sa kaniyang Keynote address(Mojares 2014).

Sa mga ganitong maniobra, kahit mistulang munting bagay, ay dramatikong napapabulaanan ang tila-laganap pa ring ideya na ang iskolar/akademiko ay mukhang, o mas malala, dapat hiwalay sa kaniyang mga tinatala. Isa itong kabalintunaang dapat lansagin, at mula rito ay ang pagsusog sa panukalang ang mga akademiko/manunulat/manlilikha ay maaaring makisangkot labas sa panulat o masining na paglikha. Ito ay isang posibilidad na dapat mabanggit man lang; siguro’y kahit hindi na i-prescribe. Madalas mabanggit na ang mismong paglalathala, pagtuturo o pagpapalaganap ng ganito o ganiyang ideya—tungkol sa paksang Filipino imbes na tungkol sa “Indian fictionists,”(Lumbera 2000, 32) panulaang LGBT o babae imbes na mga kanonikong lalaki, mga kabit noong panahon ng Kastila o sa kasalukuyan—ay nagbubunyag na ng bias, ng tindig. Ngunit sa labas ng akademya, matatagpuan ang

“transformatibong pampulitikang praktika” na maaari namang ugnayan ng una upang hindi ito makahon sa “halos ekslusibong pang-akademikong fokus.”(Guillermo 2008). Muli, hindi kailangang pagbanggain dahil maaaring magtulungan, at sa aktwal ay magkakaugnay-ugnay naman ang mga larangan at sektor na ito.

Heto ngayon ang aking tindig at pagdidiin. Mahalaga ang dayalektikal na pag-unawa upang makita ang relasyon ng mga bagay: nagsasalimbayan, binabago-ang-isa’t-isa, walang iisang absolutong nakapagtatakda ng pangyayari at umaangkin ng kapangyarihan. Pagdating sa mga teorya at perspektiba, dapat usisain: saan sila nanggagaling, ano ang kongkretong batayan ng kanilang sinasabi, at susog at dagdag sa sinabi ni Melendrez- Cruz, para kanino, para saan, ano ang layunin, paano gagawin? Mahalaga ang pag-uusapm ngunit dapat itong langkapan ng kritika. Ang palitan ng ideya, hindi tulad ng panaginip sa “marketplace of ideas” o “free trade,” ay ‘di nagaganap sa pantay na playing field. May mananaig, mas pakikinggan at mas paniniwalaan. Ngunit walang-humpay din ang kontestasyon—ang “accepted” ngayon ay maaaring hindi na bukas, alalahanin natin si Ptolemy at ang sinabi niyang mundo-sa-gitna-ng-Uniberso; o ang mga nauna kay Darwin na nagsabing “hiwalay” (at mas de-kalidad) tayong nilalang sa mga orangutan o matsing—dahil walang-humpay din ang tunggalian ng mga interes at ang pag-inog ng kasaysayan.

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de Quiros, Conrado. “Ang Kapangyarihan ng Wika, Ang Wika ng Kapangyarihan.” Sa Ang

Wikang Filipino sa Loob at Labas ng Akademya’t Bansa: Unang Sourcebook ng Sangfil, 1994-2001, pinatnugutan ni Benilda Santos, 28-33. Lungsod Quezon: Sanggunian sa Filipino.

Diksiyonaryong Adarna, Unang Edisyon, s.v. “talab.”

Eagleton, Terry. How to Read Literature. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2013.

Enriquez, Virgilio G. “Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Perspektibo at Direksyon.” Nasa Sikolohiyang

Pilipino: Teorya, Metodo at Gamit, pinatnugutan ni Rogelia Pe-Pua, 5-21. Lungsod Quezon: UP Press, 1989.

Garcellano, Edel. Intertext. Lungsod ng Maynila: Kalikasan Press, 1990.

Guillermo, Alice. The Covert Presence and Other Essays on Politics and Culture. Lungsod ng Maynila: Kalikasan Press, 1989.

Guillermo, Ramon. “Ang Proyektong Araling Filipino sa Wikang Filipino.” Papel na binasa sa

Eighth International Conference on Philippine Studies (ICOPHIL), Ateneo de Manila University, Lungsod Quezon, Hulyo 24, 2008.

______________. Pook at Paninindigan: Kritika ng Pantayong Pananaw. Lungsod Quezon: UP Press, 2009.

Guillory, John. 1993. “Preface”. Nasa Cultural Capital: The Problem of Literary Canon Formation, vii-xiv. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Hila, Antonio. “The Filipino Point of View in Historical Interpretation as Articulated by Teodoro Agoncillo.” Asia-Pacific Social Science Review, vol 2, no. 1 (May 2001): 110-138.

Kalipunan ng mga Sinulat ni Dr. Jose P. Rizal (Tula, Dula, Sanaysay, Nobela, Liham). 1997.

Salin nina Jesus Fer Ramos, Ligaya Tiamson-Rubin, at Nancy C. Sena. Pilipinas: National Historical Institute at Jesus Fer Ramos, Ligaya Tiamson-Rubin, at Nancy C. Sena.

Lumbera, Bienvenido. Writing the Nation/Pag-akda ng Bansa. Lungsod Quezon: UP Press, 2000.

Melendrez-Cruz. 1996. “Ang Pulitika ng Wikang Panturo.” Nasa Mga Piling Diskurso sa Wika at Lipunan, pinatnugutan nina Monico Atienza at Pamel Constantino, 195-217. Lungsod Quezon: UP Press.

Mojares, Resil. “Marking a Turn: Thoughts on a Generation of Philippine Scholarship.” Binasa sa Philippine Studies Conference, Kyoto, Japan, Pebrero 28-Marso 2, 2014.

Rizal, Jose. Noli me Tangere. Salin ni Almario, Virgilio. Lungsod Quezon: Adarna House, 1999.

Rodriguez-Tatel, Mary Jane. “Philippine Studies, Araling Pilipino at Pilipinolohiya sa Wikang

Filipino: Pagpopook at Pagdadalumat sa Loob ng Kapantasang Pilipino.” Humanities Diliman Review, vol. 12, no. 2 (2015): 110-179.

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M G A S A N G G U N I A N

Salazar, Zeus A. 1991. “Ang Pantayong Pananaw bilang Diskursong Pangkabihasnan.”

Nasa Mga Babasahin sa Agham Panlipunang Pilipino, pinatnugutan nina Atoy Navarro at Flordeliza Lagbao-Bolante. Lungsod Quezon: C & E. Publishing, 2007.

Sela-Sheffy, Rafeket. “Canon Formation Revisited: Canon and Cultural Production.” 2002. Neohelicon, 29(2), DOI: 10.1023/A:1020386207413, pp.141-159.

Simbulan, Roland. “Renato Constantino, Revisited: Reflections on the Nationalist Paradigm in he Era of Failed Neoliberalism.” Bulatlat, Mayo 9, 2009, https://www.bulatlat.com/2009/05/09/renato-constantino-revisited-reflections-on-the-nationalist-paradigm-in-the-era-of-failed-neoliberalism/2/.

Sobritchea, Carolyn. “Reflections on the Development of Philippine Studies in thePhilippines. The UP Asian Center Experience.” Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 38, no.1 (2002): 99-109.

Tan. Michael. Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam. Lungsod Quezon: UP Press, 2008.

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A B S T R A K

During election campaigns, candidates use rampant political advertising as their means to gain the approval of voters. With this, it would be interesting to investigate how voters are affected by these advertisements. This study explores how repetitive exposure to two different types of advertisements - emotional or factual – induce the mere exposure effect, the psychological phenomenon by which people develop a preference for familiar ideas. The inclination to vote is studied as well. Participants are asked to play a decision-making game, wherein a political advertisement and a product placement advertisement are shown for a certain time interval. Afterwards, they are asked to accomplish a PsychoPy experiment to record their sentiments about the advertised candidate and the product through a continuous Likert scale. Moreover, the experiment also recorded the participants’ reaction time per statement. The conditions of this experiment satisfy a two-by-two factorial design; furthermore, a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and an independent samples t-test are used for the Likert scale and reaction times, respectively.

dominique cadizamberly gopalanamirah guerreromoarley palpal-latocchynna reyes

Vote or ADstain: The Effect of Repetitive Exposure and Type of Advertisement on the Inclination to Vote for a Presidential Candidate

political advertisements repetitive exposure

mere exposure effect inclination to vote

PsychoPy

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I N T R O D U C T I O N

Past research has shown that exposure to political advertising influences the outcome of elections. The mere exposure effect, or the increased preference for the familiar, is signifi-cant during campaign season, both in ensuring a candidate’s positive image and in shedding light on how advertising content influences the voter’s inclination to vote. The mere exposure effect has been widely studied using neutral stimuli, but studies using emotional-laden stimuli remain inadequate.

This study seeks to examine how repetitive exposures to two types of advertisements, factual and emotional, produce the mere exposure effect, as well as which type is more likely to sway individual voting behavior.

Electoral Politics in the Philippines

While the current Philippine electoral system is grounded on the 1987 Constitution, local elections have taken place as early as the American colonial period (Teehankee 2002, 149-202). Elections served as one of the many colonial footholds of the American regime, with electoral campaigns mainly serving the interests of political personalities and landowning elites. With colonialism being the backbone of Philippine democracy, the call for electoral system redesign is necessary and justified. Philippine electoral politics being extremely candidate-centric and founded upon a fractured party list system continues to be a factor in the lack of attention towards important policies and programs (Lanuza 2019, 684-87).

A significant percentage of Philippine electoral campaign budgets go to advertising (Perron 2009, 625-40). Several candidates spend more than their net worth on campaign advertisements alone (Rivas 2019). Moreover, candidates will take advantage of advertisements in all forms: from television and print to billboards and posters. The power of these advertisements is undeniable. These advertisements may be a major influence -or even absolute determinant- of a person’s vote (Castro and Paris 2019).

The Mere Exposure Effect

Zajonc (1968, 1-27) theorized that repeated exposure to a stimulus may result in a higher likelihood of object recognition, thereby contributing to attitude-formation on said stimulus. The mere exposure effect states that with frequent exposure to a certain stimulus, the more positive the attitude change would be in response and can take place “without conscious cognition” (Zajonc 1968, 1-27). However, most of the previous literature feature only “neutral” or “meaningless” stimuli (Aimers 2015), and only a few studies explore positive and negative stimuli.

Newer explanations state that repeated exposure increases processing fluency simultaneously at the decision-making point of consumers. As processing becomes more rehearsed, the individual processes the stimulus more, thereby making the individual “fluent”. This causes the individual to think positively about the stimulus, thereby giving way to misattribution. As such, individuals tend to act based on the former, possibly explaining positive valency to the repeatedly exposed stimulus.

Following Zajonc’s primary study, more researchers have conducted studies to test the generalizability of this phenomenon, including the concept of familiarity, which factors into the production of the mere exposure effect. Harmon-Jones (2004, 889-98) found that participants rated familiar stimuli as “more likeable”. However, the researchers pointed out that the positive reaction was more of a reflex rather than something intentional.

Attention and Product Placement

Other studies have incorporated other factors aside from familiarity and repetitive exposure to test the likelihood of the mere exposure effect. Yagi and Inoue (2018, 1635) and De Zilva and Vu (2013) found that the mere exposure effect was significant only when participants were requested to provide their full attention toward an advertisement, thereby increasing positive feedback and recognition. These findings suggest that repetitive exposure may not always be a certain cause for the mere

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exposure effect. However, Weinberger (2014) argued that decreased familiarity strengthens the mere exposure effect, and Bornstein (1989, 545-52) pointed out its effectiveness in product placement. Moreover, product placement can directly affect self-identification, or the process of associating oneself with an object, character, or a consumer brand (Zimmerman 2013). This implies high likelihood for consumers to favor a product after seeing it “subtly” placed on television shows or films. Interestingly, consumers have expressed positive reactions to emotional over rational advertisements (Grigaliunaite 2016, 391-414); however, such feedback has not guaranteed the customer’s purchasing intention.

To answer Weinberger’s (2014) argument, consider that the incorporation of other cognitive factors may contribute to the success of the mere exposure effect. In terms of the Philippine political context, these factors work to maintain prospective voters’ attention towards a prospective election candidate. This may explain the similar patterns that are evident among these political advertisements. In terms of the advertisement designs, the deliberate choices of color and spacing can influence a prospective voter’s attention and perception. For instance, most, if not all, advertisement posters tend to choose vibrant colors. Vibrant colors are usually successful in alerting the brain; thus, posters with vibrant colors are more effective in capturing attention (Goldstein 2018).

Another cognitive factor that may contribute to the success of the mere exposure effect would be the phonological loop (Goldstein 2018). This is primarily incorporated in advertisements that make use of songs or even jingles. These jingles are common in Filipino product advertisements and are broadcasted through the radio, television, or social media platforms. Electoral campaigns make use of these jingles as well. The phonological loop allows prospective voters to remember the song’s subject - the political candidate - even during situations in which they are not directly exposed to the stimuli.

Hot and Cold Cognition

Cold cognition is a “form of information processing” that does not involve emotions,

nor does it have “a direct impact on emotions”; whereas hot cognition “is responsible for processing emotionally relevant stimuli” (David 2017, 1-4). Through a series of experiments, Brader (2006) found that in the context of political campaigning, politically informed citizens were more easily influenced by emotional or ‘hot cognition’ advertisements compared with those who are politically unaware, thereby proposing that hot cognition advertisements were more effective than factual or ‘cold cognition’ advertisements. Moreover, advertisements invoking enthusiasm were found to be more effective than those that invoked fear, and those that “used sadness as an execution approach” were more effective than advertisements with a warm approach (Roozen 2013, 198-214). Although with a tendency to fade more quickly, negative information is more impactful when presented recently. Other findings contrast this, where positive information was found as impactful only when presented first (Goggin 2018).

The Mere Exposure Effect Factors in Political Advertisements

Candidates are more likely to win elections if they achieve a sense of “familiarity” with the voters through advertisements or press coverage (Gaissmaier and Marewski 2011, 73-88); the mere act of knowing a candidate’s name can influence their inclination to vote. Recognition, despite knowing little information, aids voters in discerning between candidates.

In a study by Becker and Doolittle (1973) on the mere exposure effect in political advertisements, the results showed that candidates who utilized “mass media advertisements” for “name recognition” were more likely to achieve political victory. In studying a subject’s ignorance towards certain “key issues” in the campaign itself, the researchers coined the term “conventional wisdom” in political advertising. This is the “belief that simple exposure of the electorate to elementary information about a candidate” will generate favorable success (i.e., political advantage) to one’s campaign through the usage of “broadcast, print, and outdoor advertising”.

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Crisp et al. (2009, 133-149) stated that the manifestation of the mere exposure effect weakens over time. Prolonged exposure leads to a “decrease in liking” and reverses the effect. Stimulus saturation occurs, wherein overexposure can lead to boredom, which then decreases positive affect towards the stimulus itself (Montoya et al. 2017, 459-498). Stang and O’Connell (as cited in Bornstein 1989) observed a “plateau” effect after several exposures, of which the optimal duration for a positive mere exposure effect was 2 or 10 seconds, confirming Zajonc’s study (1968, 1-27), with the longer time frame being less effective. Moreover, moderate effects were found when presented in a “heterogenous presentation sequence”, where the mere exposure effect increased when “interspersed” with other conditions (e.g., with other advertisements or television programs) rather than presented in a homogenous sequence. Furthermore, complexity of stimuli may influence the saliency of the mere exposure effect (Bornstein 1989, 545-52).

The Two-factor Model

Berlyne and Stang (as cited in Bornstein 1989, 545-52) explained such exposure effects through the two-factor model, focusing on stimulus habituation and stimulus familiarization in the mere exposure effect. Stimulus habituation is where the stimulus is met with “enhanced affect” due to the increase in familiarity and the decrease in its novel yet possibly threatening nature. Stimulus familiarization is similar to the learning curve, in which the stimulus is met with positive affect as it becomes more familiar to the subject, until stimulus saturation is achieved. This explains the “inverted-U function” between frequency and affect.

Newer modifications to the model consider “implicit, unconscious” learning and how such cognitive processes may occur through “subliminal stimulus exposures” despite the lack of conscious awareness and “higher level cognitive processing”, which was previously focused on in earlier versions of the model. According to Kihlstrom (as cited in Bornstein 1989, 545-52), these “subliminal stimulus exposures” may cause a greater change in affect than readily recognized stimuli because

the former lacks “conscious countercontrol processes” that the latter has. These processes may “restrict and counteract” these stimuli and perhaps even introduce defensive strategies, such as “rationalization, denial” and “attributional biases”. Subliminal and supraliminal stimuli may manifest the mere exposure effect, but the latter may go against these counterproductive processes that hinder the optimal manifestation of the phenomenon.

Another factor is the evolutionary aspect of adults preferring familiar over newer, unfamiliar stimuli. There is an “evolutionary advantage” to choosing familiarity over taking a risk with unfamiliarity. However, adults also mention that others go through unfamiliar stimuli in hopes of finding an “unnoticed but potentially useful object” should a time arise wherein this is adaptive. Nevertheless, it is explained that only after repetitive exposure to a stimulus without negative reinforcement (related to the stimuli) will the subject deem these stimuli as “non-threatening”.

On the Usage of Positive Stimuli and the Importance of Context

Most studies on the mere exposure effect widely use neutral stimuli; nevertheless, the general theories regarding this phenomenon still hold when positive stimuli are used (Aimers 2015). This can be attributed to “associative learning”, wherein stimuli are not “merely exposed”; rather, through “affect transference”, the stimuli will “assume affective valence” from its association in the context of the situation or environment in which the stimuli is exposed (regardless of valency). With repeated exposure, affect transference strengthens, thereby leading to the assessment being influenced by such circumstances and other outside factors.

Hypotheses

Two independent variables are present for this study; thus, the researchers will test two hypotheses for independent effects, as well as for an interaction effect. Hence, the hypotheses for the study are the following:

If the participant is repeatedly exposed to a political advertisement featuring a candidate

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they are initially unfamiliar with, then they will likely approve of said candidate.

If the participant is shown an emotionally appealing advertisement about a political candidate, then they are more likely to approve of said candidate.

Null Hypothesis: There is no interaction effect between the frequency of exposure and the type of advertisements.

Alternative Hypothesis: There is an interaction effect between the frequency of exposure and the type of advertisement.

M E T H O D S

Sample

The researchers conducted the study on undergraduate students aged 18 and above from the University of the Philippines Diliman. No restrictions were applied on other demographic characteristics. Participants were selected through simple random sampling and were randomly assigned to the different treatment conditions. In the experiment, four participants participated simultaneously and accomplished consent forms prior to the study proper. The consent form (Appendix A) reiterates that they may opt out of the experiment at any time and does not explicitly state the study’s purpose until the debriefing session afterward to avoid any form of participant bias. During the debriefing, the participants were informed that they may also choose to omit their data if they decide to do so in the future.

The sample size of 280 participants was determined using G*Power, with 70 participants in each treatment, an effect size of 2, and a power value of 0.8. The study conducted had a two-by-two factorial design involving two independent variables, which included the type of political advertisement and the number of exposures. Because of time constraints, the researchers were only able to conduct the study on 186 participants, three treatments with 46 participants, and one with 48 participants.

Measures

variables

The effects of two independent variables, Number of Exposures and Type of Political Advertisement, on the Mere Exposure Effect, was studied. These variables had two levels, thereby making for a two-by-two factorial design that was processed through a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA).

Number of Exposures refers to the number of times the subject will view the political advertisement and includes two levels: viewing the advertisement once or five times. Type of Political Advertisement refers to its content, and this variable also has two levels: Emotional (advertisement appeals to the emotions of the subject) and Factual (advertisement appeals to the logic of the subject).

I N S T R U M E N T S

Emotional Political Advertisement

An emotional political advertisement contains material about the fictional political candidate that was created to appeal more to a subject’s emotions (“He saved my life”, “He gave me money when I needed it the most”, etc.). In this advertisement, an emotionally driven testimonial by a constituent will be presented, integrated into an overall campaign statement.

Factual Political Advertisement

A factual political advertisement contains material about the fictional political candidate that was created to appeal more to a subject’s logic (“He studied at the University of the Philippines, Diliman”, “He implemented several projects in his organizations”, etc.). In this advertisement, facts about the candidate are presented, and all these facts point to supposed selling points.

Product Placement Advertisement

An dvertisement on a product without any associated political content was shown to the participants as well. This facilitated a level of deception that prevented the participants from completely figuring out the true nature of the study.

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Decision-making Game: Microsoft PowerPoint Presentation

The participants’ exposure to the advertisements were done using a Microsoft PowerPoint presentation that flashed the advertisements at certain points for a specific time interval; the exposure was formatted as a decision-making game that narrated a regular day in the life of a regular student. During the game proper, an advertisement was presented and interrupted their game for five (5) seconds before proceeding with the game. The type of political advertisement and number of exposures were dependent on the treatment a participant was in. Held constant across all treatment conditions was the presence of a product placement advertisements. The four experimental conditions were aptly assigned to four (4) variations of the game through PowerPoint presentations on four different laptops; moreover, game mechanics were provided in the game itself.

PsychoPy Experiment

The experimental instrument was built on PsychoPy, an open-source software package with a builder version that is frequently utilized in similar psychological studies. The application is used for behavioral science experiments due to its precise spatial control and apt timing of stimuli being especially helpful (Peirce et al., 2019), it was thus deemed acceptable for this experiment.

Each statement and question were shown in an interactive format, and this setup was constructed to give students the ability to move along each stage by pressing a specified key. The first half of the experiment focused on measuring the participants’ proficiency in recalling the content of the decision-making game, with only little emphasis on the advertisements. In the second half of the experiment, the participants were asked to rank using a Likert scale their agreement or disagreement with statements, on the events in the decision-making game, advertised candidate, and product.

Data gathered from this PsychoPy experiment was mainly from every participant’s input for five (5) statements on the political candidate. Moreover, reaction times for each statement were recorded. Statements about the product placement mainly served the purpose of deception and were not analyzed (Appendix F).

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Methods for Enhancing Measures

In creating the PsychoPy Likert scale, previously created scales that were deemed relevant to this study were examined and referenced (Becker and Doolittle, 1973; Yagi and Inoue, 2018). Because the Likert Scale is typically used to measure how much a subject agrees or disagrees with statements, the statements were worded to elicit agreeableness or disagreeableness from the subjects regarding the fictional political candidate.

Independent Variables (IV) IV 2: Type of Political Advertisement

IV 1: Number of Exposures

1 Exposure x

Emotional PoliticalAdvertisement

1 Exposure x

Factual Political Advertisement

5 Exposuresx

Emotional Political Advertisement

5 Exposuresx

Factual Political Advertisement

figure 1. two-by-two factorial design of the two independent variables.

Subjects were randomly assigned to one of the four treatment conditions, all of which were manipulated according to the levels of the two independent variables (Figure 1). This study was conducted as a between-subjects design. There were two levels for the first independent variable: Type of Political Advertisement - Emotional and Factual Political Advertisement; whereas there were two levels for the second independent variable: Number of Exposures - 1 Repetition, and 5 Exposures.

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P R O C E D U R E

The experiment was conducted with four (4) participants per session. After providing their informed consent, participants proceeded with the experiment proper.

The participants were provided with a laptop to play an interactive game created on Microsoft PowerPoint. The game required the participants’ inputs and involved them choosing their own paths by selecting which action to do or say. The storyline of the decision-making game, which was about a regular day in the life of a student, was unrelated to the actual study. The items of interest in the PowerPoint presentations were the political advertisements flashed at random points in the story for five (5) seconds. The advertisements only disappeared once the participants had chosen an option to move forward within the game. The advertisements presented in the

experiment were created by the researchers and were purely fictional; additionally, the identities, credentials, and testimonials were created by the researchers. In determining the visual aspects of the advertisement, the researchers considered comments from the pilot test regarding which features classify a credible and trustworthy candidate. The number of questions in between the advertisements were determined if they were randomly assigned to the control group (one exposure) or the manipulated group (five exposures), as well as on the type of advertisement shown (emotional or factual).

Upon completing the game, the experimenter in the room directed each of the participants to the PsychoPy experiment, which required inputs from the participants. The first half of the experiment comprised multiple-choice questions and were all about the decision-making game, whereas the second

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R E S U L T S

ll participants in this study were undergraduate students from University of the Philippines Diliman for A.Y. 2018-2019. There were 46 participants in all factual treatment conditions and the one exposure-emotional group, whereas the five exposure-emotional treatment had 48, with a total of 186 participants. All answered the questionnaire through PsychoPy to measure their inclination to vote for the candidate. A set of data following the stated demographic and number of participants was generated. The following tables and graphs show the results in SPSS for the two-factor ANOVA.

Cronbach’s Alpha Cronbach’s Alpha based on standardized items N of Items

.627 .623 .5

table 1. reliability statistics for the statement about the candidate.

The questionnaire measuring the subject’s inclination to vote for the candidate consisted of 5 items (α = .627).

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Type Exposure Mean Std. Deviation N

Emotional

One Exposure 3.1826 0.93981 46

Five Exposures

3.3542 1.02417 48

Total 3.2702 0.98230 94

Factual One Exposure 3.4217 0.89067 46

Five Exposure 3.8913 1.18187 46

Total 3.6565 1.06712 92

Total

One Exposure 3.3022 0.91843 92

Five Exposures

3.6170 1.13086 94

Total 3.4613 1.04053 186

table 2. reliability statistics for the statement about the candidate.

Those exposed to the Emotional, One Exposure condition (E1) were found to be less likely to vote for the candidate (M=3.18, SD=0.94); whereas those exposed to the Factual, Five Exposures condition (F5) were the most likely to vote for the candidate (M=3.89, SD=1.18) (Table 2). Nevertheless, the Factual, One Exposure group (F1) was more likely to vote (M=3.42, SD=0.89) than the Emotional, Five Exposure cluster (E5) (M=3.35, SD=1.02); this, however, does not show much of a significant difference. The ratings of E1 and F5 vastly contrasted.

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Levene Statistic df1 df2

sig.

Statement response

Mean

Based on Mean 3.1826 3 182 0.523

Based on Median

3.3542 3 182 0.604

Based on Median with adjusted df

3.2702 3 159.423 0.604

Based on trimmed mean

3.4217 3 182 0.504

table 3. levene statistics for the statement response mean.

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SourceType III Sum of Squares

df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

SquaredNoncent. Parameter

Observed Powerb

Corrected Model 12.701a 3 4.234 4.107 0.008 0.063 12.322 0.842

Intercept 2229.121 1 2229.121 2162.580 0.000 0.922 2162.580 1.000

Type 7.003 1 7.003 6.794 0.010 0.036 6.794 0.737

Exposure 4.777 1 4.777 4.634 0.033 0.025 4.634 0.572

Type*Exposure 1.032 1 1.032 1.001 0.318 0.005 1.001 0.169

Error 187.600 182 1.031

Total 2428.680 186

Corrected Total 200.301 185

table 4. tests of between-subject effects for the statement response mean.

a. r squared = 0.063 (adjusted r squared = 0.048)b. computed using alpha = 0.05

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figure 1.plot of exposure and type of advertisement on the mere exposure effect.

The means and standard deviations of the statement responses for each treatment condition are shown in Table 2. The two-factor ANOVA showed a significant main effect for type of advertisement, F(1, 182) = 6.794, p=0.010, η2=0.036, a significant main effect for number of exposures, F(1, 182) = 4.634, p=0.33, η2=0.025; however, no significant interaction effect was seen between the type of advertisement and number of exposures, F(1, 182) = 1.001, p=0.318, η2=0.005.

The observed power for the type of advertisement variable was 0.737, whereas the number of exposures variable was 0.572. The interaction between these two factors’ observed power was 0.169.

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Type Exposure Mean Std. Deviation N

Emotional

One Exposure 5.7066 1.53387 46

Five Exposures

6.0516 1.55333 48

Total 5.8828 1.54528 94

Factual One Exposure 6.1485 2.12138 46

Five Exposure 6.4684 2.00786 46

Total 6.3084 2.06031 92

Total

One Exposure 5.9275 1.85424 92

Five Exposures

6.2556 1.79276 94

Total 6.0933 1.82591 186

table 5. descriptive statistics of the reaction time mean for each treatment.

Levene Statistic df1 df2

sig.

Statement response

Mean

Based on Mean 1.987 3 182 0.118

Based on Median

1.902 3 182 0.131

Based on Median with adjusted df

1.902 3 158.929 0.131

Based on trimmed mean

1.949 3 182 0.131

table 6. levene statistics for the reaction time mean.

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df Mean Square F Sig. Partial Eta

SquaredNoncent. Parameter

Observed Powerb

Corrected Model 13.573a 3 4.524 1.365 0.255 0.022 4.095 0.359

Intercept 6904.564 1 6904.564 2083.252 0.000 0.920 2.585 1.000

Type 8.567 1 8.567 2.585 0.110 0.014 2.585 0.359

Exposure 5.138 1 5.138 1.550 0.215 0.008 1.550 0.236

Type*Exposure 0.007 1 0.007 0.002 0.963 0.000 0.002 0.050

Error 603.206 182 3.314

Total 7522.661 186

Corrected Total 616.779 185

table 4. tests of between-subject effects for the statement response mean.

a. r squared = 0.022 (adjusted r squared = 0.006)b. computed using alpha = 0.05

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figure 2.plot of exposure and type of advertisement on the lenght of response (in seconds).

The means and standard deviations of the reaction times for each treatment condition are shown in Table 2. The two-factor ANOVA showed no significant main effect for either type of advertisement, F(1, 182) = 2.585, p=0.110, η2=0.014, or for number of exposures, F(1, 182) = 1.550, p=0.215, η2=0.008. Moreover, no significant interaction effect was found between the independent variables, F(1, 182) = .002, p=0.963, η2=0.000.

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D I S C U S S I O N

Evidently, type of advertisement and number of exposures significant affect one’s inclination to vote for the advertised candidate. This finding affirms previous studies about the mere exposure effect, wherein subjects have greater positive feedback the more they are exposed to the stimulus. Moreover, this supports related findings on familiarity and repetitive exposure, wherein the inclination to vote can be motivated by mere name recognition after a series of exposures from mass media advertisements (Becker and Doolittle, 1973). Other participants attributed their choice for voting for the candidate to name recognition; participants stated that they felt enabled to put this candidate above others if given a list, due to their “sense of familiarity” with the name. Using Bornstein’s modified Two-Factor model, this familiarity can bring about an “increased liking” to the stimulus through explicit and implicit processing. Furthermore, Bornstein suggested that the phenomenon is manifested strongly through adults who, over time, develop a sense of autonomy in choosing such “familiar” preferences over novel stimuli. In this case, they are more likely to accept and vote for candidates that they are familiar with.

Our results coincide with previous research that emphasizes how the mere exposure effect is strengthened when the subject is not ‘aware’ of the intention of their environment. Given that the exposures were momentary in nature, less overt attention to the political advertisement was preferred, to be able to eliminate suspicions and preconceived notions that may influence their ratings later. The heterogeneous presentation sequence used related to incidental exposure, where the secondary information (target stimulus) received less ‘resources’ for processing, given a primary task with the addition of such stimuli. This was in relation with Zajonc’s (1968) conclusion and Bornstein’s (1989) meta-analysis that the phenomenon is still fortified when the stimuli is processed without conscious cognition, and that the mere exposure effect is stronger with less stimulus recognition. Conscious “counter-control processes”, such as “defensive strategies”, may take place if such stimuli are distinctly “recognized” (Aimers, 2015). In the experiment, the true nature of the

study was initially unknown to the subjects so that no misattribution should occur. This, however, does not imply that the subject was unaware of the properties of the stimuli (as cited in Bornstein and D’Agostino, 1992); rather, it emphasizes that the subject’s lack of awareness of the relationship of the advertisement and consequent questions may have facilitated the effect to take place.

Furthermore, based on previous literature, emotional advertisements appeal more to consumers compared to those of the rational or factual kind (Grigaliunaite, 2016). Emotionally appealing advertisements utilize hot cognition, which is hypothesized to largely influence someone’s inclination to vote for a candidate. One explanation for this hypothesis is the Filipino’s fondness for emotional content, as manifested in the vast vocabulary of indigenous and borrowed words to describe personality traits and emotions (Church et al., 1996). The results showed otherwise, as factual or rational advertisements caused participants to be more likely to vote for the candidate. A possible explanation for this is that some participants may have perceived the emotional stimuli as unpleasant, especially if they interpret the usage of such testimonies in the advertisement (and the lack of factual information) as unreliable, thus casting doubt on the candidate. The emotionally laden advertisement may have been unappealing in the context of presidential elections for other subjects, especially those that commented on how they perceive such stimuli as a stereotype of a “traditional politician”. Furthermore, subjects may have placed varying levels of societal importance on the information in the emotional political advertisement, and this was highlighted by the candidate paying for another man’s education.

Furthermore, the Figure 1 illustrates that there is no interaction effect between the two independent factors. Thus, the ‘inclination to vote’ ratings of subjects exposed to either an emotional or factual advertisement were not dependent on the number of exposures, or vice versa. Although the five exposures group had higher means (3.35, 3.89) for the emotional and factual groups, respectively, these results were not highly different from those in the one exposure group (3.18, 3.42). The subjects’

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‘inclination to vote’ ratings only varied between 3-4 in a range of 1-7. Even though the subjects that were exposed to the advertisements five times had a higher average, their mean was smaller and had similar differences in both types of advertisements compared with the one exposure group. A significant effect was seen for both factors; however, this was trivial. However, the graph implies that a larger sample size may show a significant interaction effect and perhaps a larger effect size.

The Importance of Political Atmospher

This study was held after the 2019 University Student Council Elections and before the 2019 Philippine Senatorial Elections; these two events caused the political climate within the campus interesting to consider. Interestingly, heightened political awareness among students might have affected the study outcome. The experiment’s proximity and relatedness to these events may explain the subjects’ strong criticism and skepticism towards voting, as well as their reasons for voting or not voting.

What this recalls is Sales and Burgess II’s study (1971), wherein ratings of neutral stimuli are influenced by particular contexts through “associative learning” between the environment and stimulus. Given the context of the aforementioned elections, students may have had either positive or negative associations with the prior events, and these associations may have influenced their ratings. However, the increasing ratings for inclination to vote between the one exposure and five exposure treatments follow Perlman and Oskamp’s (1971) study, which suggests that although stimuli are presented in a “negative” context, the mere exposure effect is still manifested (i.e., has a “positive influence”).

Over the years, people have grown accustomed to mass media in different forms and have developed cognitive skills for effective information processing. Thus, in an environment that stimulates and encourages political discourse (e.g., the University of the Philippines), most students choose to do their own research about candidates rather than merely accepting and believing what they are exposed to, and this may explain the near-neutral

ratings. Moreover, given the circulating events during the study’s timeline, the participants’ affective evaluations of the circumstances could have been associated with the stimuli, and with repeated exposure, the “affect transference” (Aimers, 2015) strengthened. The way the participants felt towards their circumstances (e.g., to their environment, events surrounding them) influenced their ratings positively or negatively and this was strengthened by the mere exposure effect. Furthermore, participants may have previously experienced political advertisements, thus their attitudes towards media with political agenda (be it positive, negative, or neutral) could have affected the ratings they gave

On the Subjective Inputs of the Participants

Two potential extraneous factors that could have affected the participants’ answers were their views of political contexts and the possibly increased political sensitivity due to the upcoming Philippine Senatorial elections. To explain the latter, the experiment was conducted within three weeks before the elections; hence, the intensified political sensitivity may have been present. The researchers then collected the participants’ subjective inputs to see what other factors, aside from the treatment each participant was given and the context of the status quo, might have influenced their answers. Part of the participants’ debriefing was an informal interview where they were asked if they agreed, disagreed, or remained neutral in voting for the political candidate in the experiment. Moreover, they were asked for a brief reason as to what influenced their decisions. All answers were compiled and tallied based on similar responses. The following graphs show the summary of inputs by the participants. Additionally, the varying reasons fell under three main categories: Yes, No, and Neutral.

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The graph above shows the participants’ inputs in the one exposure-factual set-up, wherein each participant was shown a ‘cold cognition’ or factual political advertisement once. For this treatment, majority of the participants opted to not vote for the candidate. A portion mentioned not knowing enough of the candidate’s credentials to be convinced, another group found the advertisement distracting, and the other significant group expressed personal bias, as they do not usually trust advertisements. Following this, a large percentage was neutral about whether to vote for the candidate in the advertisement. The primary reason for this was that they were unable to focus on the advertisement’s contents.

figure 3. participants’ inputs under one exposure-factual type

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The difference between the participants in the five exposures-factual set-up and those in the previous set-up is that the participants in the five exposures-factual set-up were shown the same factual political advertisement but four more times, for a total of five exposures. According to the participants who felt inclined to vote for the candidate, they were convinced by the candidate’s credentials; moreover, others felt familiarized with the portrayed candidate. On the other hand, those who voted “No” shared that they remained unconvinced by the candidate’s credentials, were skeptical of the candidate’s wealth to be able to afford many advertisements or were simply annoyed by how many times the ad showed up throughout the gameplay.

figure 4. participants’ inputs under five-exposures factual type

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Participants under the one exposure-emotional set-up were shown an emotional or ‘hot cognition’ political advertisement once. Most of the participants in this set-up did not want to vote for the candidate. Majority of those who stated “No” expressed that they did not usually trust advertisements. Moreover, many felt that they needed to see credentials before even considering voting a candidate. The third group (of those who voted “No”) were unable to retain the content of the advertisement. Furthermore, the majority of those who voted “Neutral” shared the same reason with a certain group who voted “No”; they felt that they needed to see more credentials to make a concrete decision to vote.

figure 5. participants’ inputs under one exposure-emotional type

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Lastly, those under the five exposures emotional set-up were shown an emotional political advertisement five times. For this graph, majority of the participants did not feel inclined to vote for the candidate in the advertisement. A larger percentage was repelled by the notion that the candidate was too wealthy because the candidate was able to afford multiple ads. Others found the frequent “pop up” of advertisements bothersome, whereas another group felt that explicit credentials about the candidate would be helpful in their decision making. The latter group that voted “Neutral” said they remained unconvinced by the advertisement campaign and thus would not be able to vote.

figure 6. participants’ inputs under five exposures-emotional type

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Evidently, common answers and accompanying reasons were present from each treatment group, such as voting “No” or “Neutral” due to lack of conviction from the advertisement. Moreover, the informal interview managed to show that despite having the same reason, some participants may have had different inclinations. A primary example of this would be between those who voted “No” and “Neutral”; clearly, both parties had different decisions, but their reasons were the same, which was being distracted by the advertisements.

Collectively, all participants admitted no suspicion regarding the real purpose of the experiment. This feedback was significantly different from the feedback from the pilot testing. The addition of the product placement prevented participants from considering that the experiment was suggestive toward the political advertisements being shown.

Based on the participants’ feedback, imposed attention did not prove to be as consistently effective; this contrasted with Yagi and Inoue’s (2018) study, which emphasizes that to achieve positive feedback, attention is more important than increasing the number of exposures. The five exposure-factual treatment managed to yield positive feedback because the participants became familiar with the candidate thru advertisement. Among the treatments with five exposures, some participants similarly expressed annoyance with how often the ads appeared in the middle of gameplay. This can be explained by Crisp et al.’s (2009) study wherein multiple exposures may yield either positive feedback or stimulus saturation.

Notable observations were found on the participants’ inputs regarding the type of advertisement. Evidently, factual or ‘cold cognition’ treatments yielded more “Yes” votes compared with emotional or ‘hot cognition’ treatments. This finding contrasts the findings of both Grigaliunaite’s (2016) and Becker and Doolittle’s (1973) studies; in these studies, participants preferred the factual stimuli over the emotional stimuli even if the emotional advertisement was of a simpler form.

On Participants’ Reaction Times

An analysis of the latencies for the advertisements flashed during the decision-making game showed no significant main effects from any of the independent variables, as well as no significant interaction effect between the two. This can be explained by the possibility that the advertisements were not properly received by most of the participants, thereby prompting them to respond with little to no consideration for the contents of the advertisements; instead, they based on their own political beliefs instead. The advertisements’ effectiveness can also be a factor, as the formatting may not have been interesting enough and the participants did not pay attention. Furthermore, the airtime for each advertisement may have been short, because five seconds was insufficient for the ads to be memorable for the participants.

Despite the lack of influence from the independent variables, the plot of the reaction time showed a highly similar pattern to the plot of the statement response means. The five exposure-factual treatment, on average, received the most positive and lengthy response. This can imply that a factual political advertisement that is shown more than once will be taken seriously.

C O N C L U S I O N

Effective campaign strategies lead to higher probabilities of electoral success. As such, effective advertisements are vital in ensuring that candidates and their platforms are well-known by their electorates. Among the four treatment conditions, the five exposures-factual set-up was the most optimal treatment condition, thereby debunking the initial hypothesis that the emotional, five exposures treatment would be the most optimal. The five exposures-factual condition contained credentials, such as the candidate’s educational and political background. This may imply that the selected sample of voters, although limited to a specific context, values factual than emotional information to a greater extent. Another implication may be that elections are significantly affected by certain contexts. The results suggested that the participants investigated rational and factual information before voting; however, this would not translate

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to national elections. One can attribute this to the manner by which the youth participates in elections being lacking compared to that of their older counterparts.

As mentioned, all participants were undergraduate students from the University of the Philippines Diliman. The University’s current political climate may have been a unique factor in the subjects’ assessment of the shown conditions. This suggests that the local civic culture surrounding political participation, such as in voting, within this institution highlights a certain psychological orientation regarding the processing of the contents of electoral materials with more scrutiny.

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

Several considerations can be made for replications of this study. The advertisements shown can be in other formats, such as video, which can provide a more active view of the candidate. Seeing as this study involved stimuli with positive content, future studies can consider stimuli that contain negative content. Moreover, future studies can prepare participants by providing information relevant to the candidate prior to the experiment proper (e.g., tackling graft and political dynasties with the candidate). Exposures to such pieces of information may provide a new perspective to voting behavior.

The buffer time between completing the decision-making game and starting the PsychoPy experiment was possibly a confounding variable. To address this problem, the two aspects of the procedure can be combined into one continuous program so that the experimenter’s assistance is no longer needed. This will ensure a fluid transition from the storyline to the PsychoPy program, and this can shorten participant interaction.

Demographics, such as age, educational attainment, and socio-economic statuses, can highlight possible generational differences regarding internet-use proficiency and may provide further insight into the advertising approach that can yield the best results for specific groups. Moreover, the gender of the participants may be noted, especially in

the cases of political advertisements using approaches that cater to a specific gender category. Additionally, the subject’s history on voting history can be studied (e.g., first-time voter, eligible citizens who had not participated in voting), as well as their attitude formation regarding political participation. As this study primarily focused on subjects within one university, future studies should consider ‘election hotspots’ together with the aforementioned factors to account for varying political cultures, which possibly play a role in affect and behavior regarding political advertising.

In investigating the interplay of these factors in voting behavior, we will be able to look deeper into the utilization of contemporary strategies, covert or overt, in modern-day democracy in the Philippines. Local studies on political participation provide insight to influences on our inclination to vote, as well as awareness of civic virtue. With awareness of these approaches present in advertising, citizens may be able to counteract these present social influences, thereby positively contributing to their discernment in politics. Further exploring their application on voting behavior can enlighten the existing political culture surrounding Philippine society. Its evolving literature may propose various courses of action that could determine our future as a nation, and ultimately, those who the citizens choose to lead it.

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realize

Ang wika ay functional, o may layuning isinasagawa. May wikang kumakatawan sa mga partikular na yugto ng kasaysayan o tradisyon. May wika rin na

kinukupkop ng iba’t-ibang mga grupo ng tao. Sinisimbolo ng wika ang kapwa positibo at negatibong mukha nito, na ayon sa aspirasyon ng mga taga-loob na nakikinabang sa pagiging bahagi ng komunidad na nagsasalita, gayundin sa mga aspirasyon ng mga nasa labas [taga-labas] ng nasabing komunidad (Brumfit, 2004).

Sa papel na ito, ilalahad kung paano nagiging kasangkapan ang mga Institusyon ng Mas Mataas na Edukasyon (IMME) sa Pilipinas sa pagiging “functional” ng mga partikular na wika; na ang wika ay hindi lamang kasangkapan ng IMME bilang midyum o gabay sa pagtuturo at/ o bilang obheto ng pag-aaral. (Brumfit, 2004). Samaktwid, layunin na ipakita ang saysay ng wika at IMME sa isa’t-isa at ng bawat isa sa lipunang Pilipino. May yugto ng kasaysayan kung saan kumikiling ang saysay ng wika sa aspetong ekonomikal o kultural. Ngunit upang higit na maunawaan ang pagkiling na ito, marapat na sipatin ang kapaligiran/ kasaysayan kung saan nakapaloob ang wika.

Iba’t-ibang hamon din ang hinarap at haharapin ng wika at IMME. Maaring suriin ang nakaraan bilang pagtukoy sakung paano haharapin ang kinabukasan.

Ang mga Wika at ang mga Institusyon ng mas Mataas na Edukasyon sa Lipunang Pilipino: Saysay, Kasayasayan, at Kinabukasan

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A N G U S T AT A N G W I K A N G

C O M M O N L A N G UAG E

Sa mga IMME sa Pilipinas, ang Unibersidad ng Santo Tomas (UST) ang pinakaunang naitatag ng mga Espanyol. Sa kalipunan ng kaunti, malalayo sa isa’t-isa at pawang mga pribadong institusyon (Orata, 1956), ang UST ang naging dominanteng IMME sa halos tatlong siglo (Simpson, 1980). Sinasabing hindi napag-iiwanan ang mas mataas na edukasyon sa Pilipinas noong panahon ng mga Espanyol,manapa’y masasabing nakahihigit sa pangkalahatang antas ng mas mataas na edukasyon sa Espanya. Isa sa nagpapatibay dito ay ang malaking bilang ng mga Pilipinong mag-aaral na nakapasok sa mga paaralan sa Espanya (Schumacher, 1975).

Samantala, sa panahon pa rin ng pananakop ng mga Espanyol, ang mga ilustrado [mga nagsipagtapos sa UST, atbp. at nakapag-aral sa Espanya] ay isinulong ang pagturo ng wikang Espanyol sa masa upang magkaroon ng common language. Sa hangaring ito, ang mga IMME [dahil sa mga mag-aaral nito] ay nilipos ng suspetsa at pangamba na pag-uusbungan ng rebolusyon. At dahil nga karamihan pa rin sa mga posisyon sa Pilipinas ay nasa kamay ng mga dayuhang propesyonal, ang mga Pilipinong nakapag-aral ay nakasali din sa rebolusyon. Hindi nangyari ang pagkakaroon ng common language” (Alcala, 1999). Gayunpaman, sinasabing ang mas mataas na edukasyon ang responsable sa paglikha ng mga nakapag-aral na minorya na nanguna sa masa para magsagawa ng rebelyon at gawing malawakan ang makabayang kilusan at ito ay sa pamamagitan ng paglalagay sa kamay ng mga kabataang mag-aaral ng sandatang hindi iba kundi “wikang Espanyol” (Schumacher, 1975).

A N G U P A T A N G W I K A N G

P A M P U B L I K O N G E D U K A S Y O N

Sinakop ng mga Amerikano ang Pilipinas sa katapusan ng ika-19 na siglo. Kaakibat ng kanilang pananakop ay ang pagbibigay-diin sa edukasyon, ekonomiya, at politika (Orata, 1956). Sa pagtatatag ng Act No. 74 ng 1901 ay inilunsad ang libreng primaryang [pampublikong] edukasyon, kung saan ang ang

instruksyon ay nasa wikang Ingles (Alcala, 1999; Isidro, 1957; Orata, 1956). Nagkaroon din ng mga bagong kolehiyo sa panahong ito kung saan ang karamihan ay itinatag ng mga organisasyon sa ilalim ng pangrelihiyong Amerikano (Cardozier, 1984).

Bukod sa paglalayon sa wikang Ingles ay nilayong maging pambansang wika ng mga Pilipino (Isidro, 1957), nilayon din itong maging wika ng mga Pilipinong propesyonal na pupuno sa mga posisyon sa kolonya (Alcala, 1999) at nang malaon ang Pilipinas ay makapagkaroon ng pagsasariling-pamahalaan (Isidro, 1957). Sa larangan ng pampublikong mas mataas na edukasyon, nagkaroon ng Unibersidad ng Pilipinas (UP) upang tugunan ang mga layuning nabanggit (Alcala, 1999).

A N G M G A D I - S E K T A R Y A N G

P R I B A D O N G I M M E A T A N G

W I K A N G “ O P O R T U N I D A D -P A N G K A B U H A Y A N ”

Sa ilalim ng pananakop ng mga Amerikano, nagkaroon din ng mga [di-sektaryang] pribadong paaralan. Itinatag ang mga itoupang saluhin ang tumataas na kahingian para sa mas mataas na edukasyon, at, ipanatili ang pambansang pamana at makaiwas sa ganap na Amerikanisasyon ng mga Pilipino (Alcala, 1999) gamit gawa ng pampublikong edukasyon.

Ngunit dahil ang pag-aaral ng wikang Ingles ay kadikit ng pangkabuhayang oportunidad sa kolonya, naging abala pa rin ito para sa mga Pilipino. Maraming mga Pilipino ang nag-iisip na ang edukasyon ay katumbas ng abilidad na gumamitng wikang Ingles.Sapagkat ang mga unang nakapagtapos ng elementarya (na may kaunting kaalaman sa Ingles) ay kagyat na pinahintulutang maging guro (Magsaysay Committee on General Education, 1960). Sa kung saan mang larangan, madaling mamayani ang mga edukadong marunong sa Ingles. Ipinangangalandakan ng mga edukadong ito na Ingles ang susi sa kanilang tagumpay kung kaya’t [maraming nag-iisip na] dapat paghusayin pa ang pag-aaral ng Ingles (Almario, w.p.).

Dahil dito, ang mga di-sektaryang pribadong paaralan ay pinagtuunang-pansin ang kursong Edukasyon bagamat sinasabing isa

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ito sa “low-cost courses” (Alcala, 1999). Dagdag pa, kinilala rin ang pagtuturo bilang isa sa pinakanirerespetong propesyon sa Pilipinas. Kaya naman isa ito sa pinakamabentang negosyo kung saan ang mga tao ay handang magbayad para rito (Orata, 1956) dahil abot-kaya ito ng karamihan ng pamilyang Pilipino at nagbibigay ng oportunidad napangkabuhayan (Alcala, 1999).

Kasama ng Komersyo at Batas, isa sa mga naging epekto nito pagtukoy sa Edukasyon bilang ilan sa “over-crowded” na mga kurso. Samantalang isa sa penomenal na pagbabago sa panahong ito ay ang paglaganap ng pribadong institusyong pang-edukasyon (Isidro, 1957) na naglalako ng kursong ito. Masasabing ang penomenang ito ay isa ring tangka na kontrahin ang ideya na: “ang edukasyon ay makabuluhan lamang para sa mga mayayaman at gitnang uri, habang wala namang kabuluhan sa mga mahihirap na higit na nakararami sa populasyon” (Galdon, 1981).

A N G P U B L I K O ’ T P R I B A D O N G I M M E

A T A N G M G A W I K A / A S I G N A T U R A

N G M G A K U R S O

Habang naging positibo ang mga pagbabago para sa mga di-sektaryang pribadong IMME, nagkaroon naman ng Educational Act of 1940 na naglayong bawasan ang bilang ng baitang sa el-ementarya, na mula 7 ay ginawang 6 na lamang (Isidro, 1957). Gayunpaman, sa aspeto ng wika, itinanghal bilang pambansang wika ang Tagalog (Alfonso, 1985) noong 30 Disyembre 1937 sa bisa ng Executive Order No. 134 (Constantino, w.p.), batay na rin sa Konstitusyong 1935 (Baumgart-ner, 1977). Sinundan ito ng pagkakaroon ng Presidential Proclamation of 1940 kung saan ang Kagawaran ng Edukasyon ay hinihingi na ang pambansang wika na nakabatay sa Tagalog ay maituro bilang asignatura sa elementarya, sekondarya, at sa lahat ng “teacher-education curriculum,” sa lahat ng eskwelahang publiko at pribado (Constantino, w.p.).

Sa aspeto ng mas mataas na edukasyon, may mga departamento ng wikang Filipino [Tagalog] sa Maynila na mayroong mga major subjects para sa mga kumukuha ng mga kursong Bachelor in Secondary Education (BSE) at Bachelor of Arts (AB). Gayundin, nagkaroon ng Republic Act (RA) No. 343 kung saan hinihingi nito na ituro ang wikang Espanyol sa

sekondaryang antas. Sa mga nasa mas mataas na edukasyon naman, hiningi na magkaroon ng 12 units ng wikang Espanyol ang mga mag-aaral bago makapagtapos. Samantala, doble nito o 24 units ng wikang Espanyol ang kailangan upang makapagtapos ang mga nasa kursong Law, Commerce, Foreign Service, Education, at Liberal Arts batay sa Act No. 1881 (Carson, 1961).

Sa pananakop naman ng mga Hapon noong Ikalawang Digmaang Pandaigdig, nagkaroon ng mga paaralang “Japanese-sponsored” , kung saan ito ay mayroongbahagyang instruksyon sa Ingles. Kung tutuusin, kauntiang mga aklat na nasa wikang Ingles noong panahong iyon dahil sa sistematikong pagsira ng mga batayang aklat na naglalaman ng mga Amerikanong ideya at mga simbolo (Isidro, 1957). Dagdag pa napinalitan ang kurikulum pang-edukasyon sa panahong ito upang makaiwas sa kahit anong kanluraning impluwensya (Orata, 1956).

Pagkatapos ng digmaan ay binura rin ang lahat ng bakas ng impluwensyang Hapon sa mga paaralan maging sa iba pang aspeto ng buhay (Orata, 1956). Nagbukas na muli ang mga paaralan at ang mga pribadong kolehiyo’t unibersidad ang pinanggalingan ng 90% ng mga nasa mas mataas na edukasyon (Cardozier, 1984). Ang paggamit ng Ingles, ay hindi na naging ganap (hindi tulad ng bago mag digmaan). Sa sekondaryang antas mula 1946 hanggang 1957, Ingles ang wikang ginagamit sa pagtuturo at mababasa sa mga batayang aklat. Mayroon nang mga klase ng wikang Filipino [Tagalog] at wikang Espanyol (Carson, 1961). Dagdag pa, nagkaroon din ng eksperimentasyon kung saan ginamit ang mga wikang bernakular upang maging midyum ng instruksyon sa mababang baitang. Nagbunga ito ng benepisyo sa mga mag-aaral kaya naman unti-unti ay natanggap ang paggamit ng lokal ng wika. Bagamat mula ikatlong baitang hanggang sa gradwadong antas ay nanatiling Ingles ang midyum ng instruksyon, batayang aklat, at iba pang gamit sa pagtuturo ay nanatiling may puwang pa rin sa pagitan ng mga paaralan at komunidad sapagkat ang mga natututunan ng mga bata sa paaralan ay hindi maibahagi sa komunidad (Isidro, 1957). Isa pa sa naging puna ng Convention of School Superintendents noong 1956 sa kurikulum ng mga mag-aaral ay nasobrahan ito sa mga

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kahingiang pangwika habang kulang naman sa agham at matematika. Sa iba pang pagkakasabi, “the college students of the Philippines must perforce to be something of a linguist” (Carson, 1961). Sa kabila ng mga punang ito ay hindi natinag, bagkus, dinagdagan pa ng Kagawaran ng Edukasyon ang mga yunit para sa wikang Espanyol kung saan 24 units na ang pinakamababa para sa mga kursong Bachelor of Arts (BA) at Bachelor of Science (BS) (Carson, 1961). Naisaalang-alang din ang rekomendasyon ng United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) noon pa lang 1949 na: “the national policies requiring schools to teach the National Language, to use English as the primary medium of instruction, to offer Spanish in the high schools, and to permit teachers to use the local dialect to assist them in teaching be continued” (Carson, 1961).

A N G U P A T A N G W I K A N G D I W A N G

M A K A B A Y A N

Noong 1959, sa pamamagitan ng Department [of Education] Order No. 7, “Pilipino” ang itinawag sa National Language na batay sa Tagalog--ang wikang opisyal, wikang panturo, at asignatura sa wikang pambansa (Constantino, w.p.). Ayon kay Saniel (1975), karapat-dapat magkaroon ng panibagong oryentasyon sa direksyon ng paggamit ng mga materyal na sariling atin kung noon ay mapapansin ang pagkakaroon ng konsentrasyon sa paggamit ng mga materyal at mga modelo ng pag-aaral buhat sa Amerika. Gayundin, ang pambansang wika ang daluyan ng diwa [makabayan] at kamalayang Pilipino (Tolentino, 2015). Sa pag-igting ng diwang makabayan umuunlad din ang pagkabatid na ang wika ay kultural na midyum, at ang tunay na kulturang Pilipino ay hindi maaring mahulma ng banyagang dila. Sa UP, ang pangangailangan na mabatid ang (noon ay) wikang “Pilipino” (sa paglaon ay magiging “Filipino”) ay kinilala ng College of Arts and Sciences sa simula pa lang ng administrasyon ng presidente ng UP na si Salvador P. Lopez (1969-1975) bagamat ang bilinguwal na lapit sa wika ng pamantasan (Ingles at Filipino). Di nagtagal, sa Araw ng Pagtatapos noong 1970 sinambit sa wikang Pilipino ang panunumpa ng katapatan sa Unibersidad, gayundin ang pagsalin sa wikang Pilipino ng himno ng UP--ang UP Beloved patungong “UP Naming Mahal.”

Sa taong ding ito nilathala ang Philippine Collegian, opisyal na pahayagan ng mga mag-aaral ng UP, sa wikang Pilipino (Abrera, 2009).

Mula taong 1959 hanggang 1973, “Pilipino” ang tawag sa pambansang wika. Ang Pilipino ay Tagalog din sa nilalaman at istruktura at walang wikang Pilipino bago ang 1959 gayundin walang wikang Filipino bago ang 1973. Magkaiba ang Pilipino sa Filipino kahit parehong naging wikang pambansa ang mga ito dahil magkaibang konsepto ang mga ito--ang una ay batay sa iisang wika, at ang ikalawa naman ay base sa iba’t ibang mga wika sa Pilipinas, gayundin ang ibang mga wika tulad ng Ingles at Kastila. Higit na mahalagang tandaan ang dahilan kung bakit pinalitan ang unang letra ng salitang Pilipino sa “Filipino” simula 1973. Una, hindi nabigyan ng pagkakataon ang mga di-Tagalog na maging bahagi ng pagpapayaman at pagpapaunlad ng Pilipino. Ikalawa, naging suliranin ang matagal na pamamayani ng Tagalog. Halimbawa, sa paghahanap ng trabaho, mas unang kukunin ang nagsasalita ng Tagalog kaysa ang di-Tagalog. Ikatlo, ang letrang “F” ay hindi kinakailangang mula sa Ingles o Kastila, bagkus ito ay simbolo [at gamit] ng ibang wika sa Pilipinas gaya ng Ibanag, Bilaan, Manobo, at iba pa (Constantino, w.p.). Ditonaibatay ang Filipino sa mga wikang katutubo ng Pilipinas para mabilis na tanggapin din ng ibang rehiyon (Almario, w.p.).

Noong 1989, ang administrasyon ng UP sa ilalim ni Jose V. Abueva (1987-1993) ay nagpanukala na ang Filipino ay gawing nag-iisang midyum ng instruksyon sa antas-kolehiyo (Kintanar, 1991). Sinusugan pa ito ng mga sumunod na administrasyon, partikular ni Emil Q. Javier (1993-1999), kung saan ang Filipino ay ginamit hindi lang bilang midyum ng instruksyon kundi maging ng opisyal na komunikasyon. Dagdag pa, itinatag sa kanyang panahon ang Sentro ng Wikang Filipino (SWF) at ang opisinang ito ng UP ay malaong nakapaglimbag ng UP Diksyunaryong Filipino noong 1999 (Abrera, 2009).

A N G M G A I M M E A T A N G W I K A N G

G L O B A L I S A S Y O N

Mula taong 2000, ang UNESCO ay nagdeklara ng International Mother Language Day upang itaguyod ang paggamit ng katutubong wika

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at upang kilalanin ito bilang puso ng lipunan, ekonomiya, at kultura. Ang 2008 ay itinalaga ng parehong organisasyon bilang International Year of Languages na may mensahe na ang kalahati ng kabuuang wika sa mundo ay nanganganib mawala dahil sa globalisasyon (Abrera, 2009) na kaakibat ay ang “pagiging agresibo” ng wikang Ingles (Constantino sa Santos, 2009).

Sa Pilipinas, masasabing hindi pa huli ang lahat para sa wikang Filipino. Sa pamamagitan ng Commission on Higher Education (CHED), isang ahensya ng gobyerno na sinisigurong responsable sa pagtatakda ng mga layunin at pamantayan para sa mas mataas na edukasyon sa Pilipinas simula 1984 (Alcala, 1999), inilabas ang CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 20 noong 2013 na nagbibigay-diin sa mahalagang papel na ginagampanan ng wika sa edukasyon gayundin ang papel ng edukasyon upang mapaunlad ang wika (hal. intelektwalisasyon ng wikang Filipino sa pamamagitan ng paggamit nito sa mga diskursong akademiko). Upang mapaunlad, ang Filipino ay hindi lamang dapat ituro bilang asignatura bagkus dapat gamitin sa paraang pasulat at pasalita sa akademya. Hinihimok din ang bawat propesor, nagtuturo man ng GE o major subjects, na magkaroon ng kontribusyon sa intelektwalisasyon ng pambansang wika. Nababatid ng CHED na ang prosesong ito ay hindi magiging mabilis, bagkus magiging dahan-dahan lamang sa pagsasaalang-alang sa iba’t-ibang salik na may kaugnayan sa pagpapalit ng wika bilang medyum ng instruksyon. Bukod pa rito, upang balansehin ang nakasaad sa Konstitusyon ukol sa pambansang wika at kalayaang-akademiko, ang Komisyon ay nagmungkahi rin ng lapit kung saan ang mga materyales para sa pagtuturo ay parehong nasa wikang Filipino at Ingles.

P A G S U S U R I A T K O N K L U S Y O N

Sa panahon ng mga Espanyol, ang wikang Espanyol ay kasangkapan ng mga pribadong IMME, kung saan pinagunahan ito ng UST, bilang midyum ng pagtuturo. Bagamat wikang banyaga, kinupkop ito ng grupo ng mga ilustrado o ng mga taga-loob na nakinabang (sa aspeto ng edukasyon) sa pagiging bahagi ng komunidad na nagsasalita ng wikang Espanyol. Sa kapakinabangang iyon, aspirasyon

ng mga ilustrado na ituro rin sa masa ang wikang Espanyol para magkaroon ng “common language” (Alcala, 1999). Samantala, batay sa reaksyon ng mga mananakop at ang mga IMME, sa pamamagitan ng mga estudyante nito na malao’y naging ilustrado, ay naging kasangkapan sa pagtataguyod ng “common language.”

Sa panahon ng mga Amerikano, ang wikang Ingles ay kasangkapan ng mga pampublikong IMME, pangunahin ng UP, bilang midyum ng pagtuturo. Ang mga Amerikano mismo ang naghangad na gawin ang Ingles na pambansang wika (higit pa sa “common language”) at gawing kasangkapan sa pagtupad ng hangaring ito ang mga pampublikong IMME, pangunahin ang UP. Kaya hindi nagtagal at nagkaroon ng mga di-sektaryang pribadong IMME. Taga-labas man ng komunidad ng pampublikong edukasyon (ngunit hindi sa komunidad ng mga nagsasalita ng wikang Ingles), aspirasyon ng pag-iral ng mga di-sektaryang pribadong IMME na kontrahin ang elitisasyon ng edukasyon sa paraang maakses din ang edukasyon ng mga mahihirap/ mas maraming populasyon--ang talagang “pampublikong” edukasyon.

Sa panahon ng Commonwealth (mula 1935) at maging sa pagsisimula ng Ikatlong Republika (mula 1946), ang wikang Ingles ay nanatiling kasangkapan ng mga publiko at gayun na din ng pribadong IMME bilang midyum ng pagtuturo. Samantala, ang Tagalog at Espanyol ay naging mga asignatura o naging kasangkapan naman ng IMME bilang obheto ng pag-aaral. Ang pagpasok sa kurikulum ng wikang Tagalog ay kinupkop/ sinuportahan ng mga IMME sa Maynila (Carson, 1961) bilang bahagi ito ng Katagalugan. Higit pa dito, masasabing ito ang unang konkretong hakbang para sa kaganapan ng dati nang aspirasyon at/ o tinangkang “makabayang kilusan” (Schumacher, 1975), “pag-iwas sa Amerikanisasyon” (Alcala, 1999) o “pag-iwas sa kahit anong kanluraning impluwensya” (Orata, 1956), at “paggamit ng mga materyal na sariling atin” (Saniel, 1975). Bukod sa mga IMME sa Maynila, maaring sabihing aspirasyon din ito ng mga nasa labas ng komunidad ng mga nagsasalita ng wikang Espanyol o Ingles sa mahabang panahon.

Pagsapit ng 1959, ang wikang Pilipino

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(nakabatay sa Tagalog) ay naging kasangkapan na din ng mga IMME bilang midyum ng pagtuturo (kasama ng wikang Ingles) bukod pa bilang obheto ng pag-aaral. Hindi malayong sinuportahan din ng mga IMME sa Maynila maging sa Katagalugan ang wikang Pilipino bilang isa sa midyum ng pagtuturo. Ngunit masasabing una sa mga IMME ang UP na nakagawa pa nga ng ilang hakbang gaya ng magsalin ng kanilang panunumpa, awit, at pahayagan sa wikang Pilipino. Kahit sa pagiging Filipino (ng wikang Pilipino) ay nakasuporta pa rin ang UP at ginawa itong midyum ng pagtuturo at opisyal na komunikasyon; nagtatag ng Sentro ng Wikang Filipino na naglimbag ng UP Diksyunaryong Filipino (Abrera, 2009). Maaaring sabihin na ang wikang Filipino ay aspirasyon din ng mga nasa labas ng komunidad ng mga nagsasalita ng wikang Espanyol, Ingles, at Tagalog sa mahabang panahon. Samantala, para sa loob ng komunidad na nagsasalita ng wikang Espanyol, Ingles, at Tagalog ay maaring sabihing ito ay isang inklusibong wika).

Naipakita rin sa papel na ito na ang wika ay “functional” sa paraang ekonomikal, lalo na sa panahon ng mga mananakop (Espanyol at Amerikano). Ang edukasyon, partikular ang pagkokolehiyo (Perlman, 1978), ay inaasahang makakapagpaahon sa kahirapan (Chao, 2012). Gayunpaman, magkaiba ang naging sitwasyon sa panahon ng Espanyol at Amerikano. Sa panahon ng mga Espanyol, nadismaya ang mga Pilipinong nakapag-aral (at nakapagsasalita ng Espanyol), sapagkat ang mga posisyon sa kolonya ay nanatiling nasa mga di-Pilipinong propesyonal. Hindi nabigyan ng pagkakataon sa posisyon ang mga marami sa mga Pilipinong nakapag-aral. Samantala sa panahon ng mga Amerikano, pinlano ng mga mananakop, sa pamamagitan ng mga pampublikong paaralan, na magkaroon ng mga Pilipinong propesyonal na pupuno sa mga posisyon sa kolonya sa kondisyong magsasalita ang mga ito ng wikang Ingles. Pinatunayan ito nang ang mga may kaunting nalalaman sa Ingles ay kagyat na ginawang guro (Magsaysay Committee on General Education, 1960). Marami sa mga Pilipino ang nahimok na kumuha ng kursong Edukasyon dahil sa kaakibat nitong oportunidad-pangkabuhayan (Alcala, 1999). Para naman sa mga di-sektaryang IMME na naglako ng nasabing kurso, ito ay naging

mabentang negosyo (Orata, 1956).

Makikita rin sa papel na ito na ang wika ay “functional” sa paraang kultural, lalo sa panahon ng pamumunong Pilipino (Commonwealth, Ikatlong Republika). Ang wika ay buhay na katibayan ng kultura (Lumbera, 2003). Kung sa mga nakaraan ang wikang pambansa ay wikang banyaga (Ingles), mula sa panahon ng Commonwealth ang wikang pambansa ay wikang katutubo (Tagalog) na. Kaakibat nito ang unti-unting pagpasok ng wikang Tagalog sa edukasyon (bilang obheto ng pag-aaral at malao’y midyum ng pagtuturo) na agad namang nasuportahan. Makikita rin kung paano nagbagong-diwa ang UP (mula sa pagiging kasangkapan sa pagtataguyod ng Ingles) patungo sa makabayang diwa (pagtataguyod ng Pilipino/ Filipino). Nagbagong-diwa rin ang UNESCO mula sa pagrerekomenda noong 1949 na gamiting midyum ng pagtuturo ang Ingles (Carson, 1961) patungong pagtataguyod noong 2000 ng paggamit ng katutubong wika (Abrera, 2009).

Bilang panghuli, ang globalisasyon ay nagpapatuloy gayundin ang “pagiging agresibo ng Ingles (Constantino sa Santos, 2009). Dahil dito, ito ay banta lalo na sa kinabukasan ng wikang Filipino. Sa gitna ng globalisasyon, patuloy ang CHED sa pagbibigay-diin sa mahalagang papel na ginagampanan ng wikang Filipino sa IMME (bilang midyum ng pagtuturo) gayundin ang papel ng IMME upang mapaunlad ang wikang Filipino (bilang wika ng intelektwalisasyon). Bagamat naalis ang asignaturang Filipino sa kurikulum ng kolehiyo (Benildean Press Corps, 2019) o IMME bilang obheto ng pag-aaral, ayon kay Lumbera, “hindi kinakailangan magbunga ang globalisasyon ng panibagong pagkaalipin para sa sambayanan.” Katunayan, nariyan ang “Filipinisasyon” ng kulturang dayuhan na pumapasok sa bansa (hal. pagsasalin sa wikang Filipino ng mga telenobelang Koreano, bersyong Pinoy ng mga programang banyaga gaya ng Survivor at Big Brother, atbp) (Santos, 2009). Bukod sa Filipinisasyon ng kulturang dayuhan, umaasang magkakaroon pa ng ikutang pangyayari sa malapit hinaharap upang ang Filipino ay matupad na maging wikang ng intelektwalisasyon, gayundin patuloy na maging “functional” sa iba’t-ibang aspeto.

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P I L I N G S A N G G U N I A N

Abrera, Bernadette L (2009). “A Vision for the Future: Recapturing the Sense of National Purpose” in Ferdinand C. Llanes, UP in the Time of People Power (1983-2005): A Centennial Publication. Diliman, Quezon City: UP Press.

Alcala, Angel C (1999), “Higher Education in the Philippines,” Philippine Studies, Vol. 47 No.1 (First Quarter), 114-128.

Alfonso, Oscar M (ed) (1985). University of the Philippines: The First 75 Years (1908-1983). Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.

Almario, Virgilio S (w.p.), “Filipino ang Filipino,” sa Mga Babasahin sa Komunikasyon I, mga pahina 17-26.

Baumgartner, Joseph (1977), “The National Language, Bilingualism, and Literacy: Some questions on the current policy,” Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society, 5, 266-269.

Benildean Press Corps (2019), “Pagtanggal ng Korte Suprema sa Panitikan at Filipino sa kolehiyo pinal na,” Naakses sa https://thebenildean.org/2019/05/pagtanggal-ng-korte-suprema-sa-panitikan-at-filipino-sa-kolehiyo-pinal-na/ noong 18 Setyembre 2021.

Brumfit, Christopher (2004), “Language and Higher Education: Two current challenges,” Arts and Humanities in Higher Education, Vol 3 (2), 163-173.

Cardozier, V R (1984), “Public Higher Education in the Philippines,” International Review of Education, Vol 30 No 2, 193-198.

Carson, Arthur L (1961). Higher Education in the Philippines. US Department of Health Education and Welfare.

Chao, Roger Jr (2012), “Democracy, Decentralization and Higher Education: The Philippine Case,” Asia-Pacific Social Science Review 12:1, 31-44.

Constantino, Pamela C (w.p.), “Tagalog/ Pilipino/ Filipino: Mag Pagkakaiba Ba?”

Galdon, Joseph A (1981), “A General Education Program for Filipino Students,” Philippine Studies, Vol. 29 No.1 (First Quarter), 111-114.

Isidro, Antonio (1957), “Philippine Education: Social Reconstruction through the Schools,” The Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 39 No. 3, 119-123.

Kintanar, Thelma B (1991). “At the Heart of the University: The Liberal Arts Tradition,” in

Belinda A. Aquino (ed), The University Experience: Essays on the 82nd Anniversary of the University of the Philippines. Diliman, Quezon City: UP Press.

Lumbera, Bienvenido (2003), “Ang Wikang Filipino at ang Banta ng Globalisasyon,” Bulatlat, Vol. 3 No. 7.

Orata, Pedro T (1956), “Philippine Education Today,” International Review of Education, Vol 2 No. 2, 150-173.

*Perlman, Daniel H (1978), “Higher Education in the Philippines: An Overview and Current Problems,” Peabody Journal of Education, Vol 55 No 2, 119-126.

Saniel, Josefa M (1975), “Ang pag-aaral ng Isang Area: Isang Pagtatampok ng Multi-disiplinaryong Pamamaraan sa Pag-aaral ng mga Agham-Panlipunan,” Dyornal ng Malawakang Edukasyon (General Education Journal), Vol 27-28, 388-403.

Santos, Tomas U (2009), “Globalisasyon at ang wikang Filipino,” Naakses sa https://varsitarian.net/news/20090830/globalisasyon_at_ang_wikang_filipino noong 18 Setyembre 2021.

Simpson, Renate (1980), “Higher Education in the Philippines under the Spanish,” Journal of Asian History, Vol 14 No 1, 1-46.

Schumacher, John N (1975), “Philippine Higher Education and the Origins of Nationalism,” Philippine Studies, Vol 23, No. 1/ 2 (First and Second Quarters), 53-65.

“Statement of the Commission on Higher Education on Filipino and the Revised General Education Curriculum,” (CMO No. 20, Series of 2013).

Toward the General Education in the Philippines: Report of the Magsaysay Committee on General Education (1960). Manila.

Tolentino, Rolando (2015), “Wika at Diwang Filipino sa Media at Komunikasyon sa UP,”

Daluyan: Journal ng Wikang Filipino, 168-175.

p a s c u a ls a n d o c a l

As an archipelago composed of numerous islands, the Philippines can be synonymous with diversity. The country’s scattered geography has led to the

diversity of people, with their unique environments affecting their cultures and languages. An article by Michael Tan (2018) titled “Smellscaping” in his column “Pinoy Kasi” briefly describes the existence of the many “smell words” embedded in Philippine languages and their shared connection with other Southeast Asian and Pacific cultures. Tan noted the contrast between “smell cultures”, such as the Philippines and its Southeast Asian and Pacific neighbors; and “non-smell cultures”, like most of the English-speaking Western parts of the world - where smells are somehow limited to “nice” (i.e., fragrant, pleasant) and “not nice” (i.e., smelly, stinky, foul); as supported by an article by Ed Yong (2015) titled, “Why Do Most Languages Have So Few Words for Smells? And why do these two hunter-gatherer groups have so many?”

To investigate these phenomena, several studies were conducted to record and understand these “smell cultures”. A study titled, “Odors are expressible in language, as long as you speak the right language” by Majid & Burenhult (2014) observed the Jahai people of the Malay Peninsula and discovered that these nomadic hunter-gatherers have a proficient vocabulary in describing numerous odors in their native environment. In “Revisiting the limits of language: The odor lexicon of Maniq”, Wnuk & Majid (2014) studied the speakers of Maniq, a language spoken by a small population of nomadic hunter-gatherers in southern Thailand. Over a dozen of Maniq smell terms have complex meanings, and semantically exist in two dimensions, namely pleasantness, and dangerousness. Moreover, these smell words are tightly connected to the community of the speaker’s cultural constructs.

The olfactory sense and its manifestation in Philippine languages

rolien mark m. balisimaster of arts in linguistics

linguistics Philippine languages olfaction

senses diachronic linguistics

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Recently, studies on the olfactory lexicon of these small language communities have been revisited to gather more data. In Majid et al.’s (2018), “Olfactory language and abstraction across cultures”, they returned to study the Jahai hunter-gatherers and Dutch participants in an odor-naming experiment and compared the results from these two groups. Their findings showed that the Dutch participants relied on odor sources in naming the odors, whereas the Jahai participants used their abstract vocabulary to name the same odors; these showed that the Jahai participants were more adept in naming and identifying odors.

After studying the olfactory vocabulary of small hunter-gatherer societies, further studies on larger language communities have been done. Wnuk, Laophairoj, & Majid’s (2020) study, “Smell terms are not rara: A semantic investigation of odor vocabulary in Thai”, argues that diverse olfactory vocabulary is not only limited to small language communities. Moreover, they show that the Thai people have a wide lexicon of terms for olfactory qualities despite being a language with a population of tens of millions of speakers. They investigated Thai semantics using a multi-method approach. Their findings concluded that languages with larger groups of speakers can manifest comprehensive smell lexicons, thus not only limited to small and isolated societies.

Despite these developments, studies on the olfactory lexicon in Philippine languages is a field that is not comprehensive. In terms of olfactory lexicons, only mere descriptions of odors and smells exist. For instance, the Ilocano Dictionary and Phrasebook by Rubino (1998) includes a chapter on smells that identifies forty-two (42) smells ranging from neutral, pleasant, and unpleasant odors. This leaves a huge gap in documenting olfactory lexicons from other Philippine languages and prevents them from being studied extensively.

This paper aims to explore the olfactory sense, its process —olfaction, and its manifestations in Philippine languages. These aims will be accomplished by creating an olfaction dataset containing lexical items from twenty-five (25) Philippine languages concerning (1) the olfactory sense, (2) the instrument for

olfaction, (3) olfactory pleasantness, and (4) olfactory unpleasantness. The languages chosen for this study were selected and delimited based on their availability online, given that physical fieldwork was not possible due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

These lexical items will then be analyzed according to the phonological changes and innovations, and lexical distribution and substitutions that have occurred. Moreover, their current forms will be compared to their respective protoforms from comprehensive dictionaries and vocabulary databases.

M E T H O D S

A. Data Collection

i. selection of languages

The work done in this section was completed in collaboration with the author’s colleagues from the MA linguistics program Mr. Noah Cruz and Ms. Lyrabelle Yorong for their Diachronic Linguistics “Senses” Project. As a preliminary part of the data collection process, twenty-five Philippine languages and their available dictionaries and/or informants were selected for this paper, with Tagalog as their baseline language, namely:

◊ Agutaynen – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Asi (Bantoanon) – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Ayta Abellen – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Ayta Mag-antsi – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Bikol (Standard) – Wintz (1971)◊ Bolinao – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Bontok – Reid (1976)◊ Casiguran Dumagat – Headland &

Headland (1974)◊ Cebuano – Cabonce (1983), Wolff (1972)◊ Dupaningan Agta – Robinson (2008)◊ Hiligaynon – Motus (1971)◊ Ibatan – SIL Philippines (n.d.)◊ Ilokano – Constantino (1971)◊ Kapampangan – Forman (1971)◊ Manobo – Gelacio (2000)◊ Mansaka – Svelmoe & Svelmoe (1990)◊ Maranao – McKaughan & Macaraya

(1967)◊ Masbatenyo – Wolfenden (2016)

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◊ Pangasinan – Benton (1931)◊ Sambal – (informant)◊ Tagalog – Panganiban (1972)◊ Tagbanwa – ______ (1979)◊ Tausug – Hassa et. al. (2018)◊ T’boli – Awed et. al. (2010)◊ Waray - Rakji (2007)

The languages chosen for this study were selected and delimited based on their availability online, given that physical fieldwork was not possible due to the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.

ii. tagalog dictionary sweeps for lexical items/metaphorical expressions concerning concerning olfaction

To begin data collection, dictionary sweeps from reputable Tagalog dictionaries and wordlists were done to collect or ‘sweep’ for lexical items/metaphorical expressions related to olfaction.

iii. creation of dataset grounded on tagalog olfaction lexical items/metaphorical expressions

Once lexical items/metaphorical expressions were collected from Tagalog dictionaries and wordlists, they were divided further into lexical subdomains, namely, smell (or olfaction), body parts and actions related to smell/smelling, pleasant odors, unpleasant odors, neutral odors, and other related lexical items. Their orthographic and phonetic representations were also recorded.

iv. dictionary and Informant sweeps for other Philippine languages based on the Tagalog olfaction lexical items/meta-phorical expressions

After creating the olfaction dataset grounded on the collected Tagalog lexical items/metaphorical expressions, dictionary and informant sweeps from other Philippine languages were done. Their orthographic and phonetic representations were also recorded.

v. creation of a consolidated olfaction dataset for Philippine languages

As the last step in data collection, olfaction lexical items/metaphorical expressions from the Tagalog dataset were merged with the data collected from other Philippine languages in a spreadsheet to produce a consolidated olfaction dataset for Philippine Languages. Additional data were gathered from Greenhill, Blust & Gray’s Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database (2008).

B. Procedures for Analysis

After the collection and organization of olfaction-related lexical items/metaphorical expressions from the selected Philippine languages, words directly related to the olfactory sense (i.e., to smell), the instrument for olfaction (i.e., the nose), olfactory pleasantness, and olfactory unpleasantness

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table no. 1 lexical items for the olfactory sense in philippine languages

were each separated and analyzed based on their (1) phonological changes and innovations and (2) lexical distribution and substitutions that occurred.

R E S U L T S

a. The olfactory sense (to smell)

to smellIbatan [ma.ʔa.ŋut] [a.ŋot] / maangut, angot

Bontok [ˈʔaː.gɔb] / agob

Pangasinan [a.'ŋob] / angob

Ilokano [a.ŋu.təm] [a.ŋot] / angutem, angot

Casiguran Dumagat [ʔa.ˈhob] / ahob

Dupaningan Agta [ʔa.rob] / arob

Ayta Abellen [da.ʔɛp]/[man.da.ʔɛp] / daep, madaep

Ayta Mag-antsi [da.ʔɛp] [hi.ŋot] / daep, hingot

Kapampangan [ba.wu.an] / bawuan

Bolinao [ma.ka.a.ŋot] / makaangot

Sambal [ʔa.ŋu.tɔn] / anguton

Tagalog [a.mu.jin] / amuyin

Cebuano ['sim.hot] [hi.ŋus] / simhot, hingus

Masbatenyo [mag.'hi.ŋos] / maghingos

Hiligaynon [sim.ˈhɔt] / simhot

Waray [ˈbaː.hɔʔ] / baho

Asi (Bantoanon) [hú.gom] / hugom

Bikol (Standard) [ˈpaː.ɾɔŋ], [ˈsaː.ŋɔ] [ha.ŋot] / parong,

sango, hangot

Manobo ['hiŋ.guk]; ['ŋa.dog] / hingguk, ngadog

Tausug [ha.mu.tun] / hamutun

Maranao [sa.ja.mot] / sayamot

Mansaka [ba.'oɁ] [i.ŋos] / ba-o, ingos

Tagbanwa [ʔa.rɨk] / arik

Agutaynen [ʔo.ŋaw] / ongaw

T'boli [ges.luf]; [u.ŋef] / gesluf, ungef

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D I S C U S S I O N A N D A N A L Y S I S

Based on the data in Table No. 1, a total of 9 out of 25 languages, namely, Ibatan [ma.ʔa.ŋut] [a.ŋot], Ilokano [a.ŋu.təm] [a.ŋot], Bolinao [ma.ka.a.ŋot], Sambal [ʔa.ŋu.tɔn], Bikol (Standard) [ha.ŋot], Manobo [‘hiŋ.guk], and Maranao [sa.ja.mot], share some similarities to form the word “to smell” with the final syllable [-ŋot], [-ŋut], and other similar variations. According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010 –ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoform for “to smell” is the reconstructed PAN *haŋut or the reconstructed PWMP *Siŋus, which also means “to sniffle or snuff up”.

Bontok [ˈʔaː.gɔb], Pangasinan [a.’ŋob], Casiguran Dumagat [ʔa.ˈhob], and Dupanginan Agta [ʔa.ˈhob] share similarities with their final syllable [-ob]. Moreover, Ayta Abellen [da.ʔɛp]/[man.da.ʔɛp] and Ayta Mag-antsi [da.ʔɛp] use a similar form for the word “to smell”.

Kapampangan [ba.wu.an], Waray [ˈbaː.hɔʔ], and Maranao [ba.’oɁ] share similarities to form the word “to smell”, with the initial voiced bilabial plosive [b] followed by a front open vowel [a], the middle consonant that is either a voiceless glottal fricative [h] or a voiced velar glide [w], and ends with either a closed-back vowel [u] or a close-mid back vowel [o]. According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010 – ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoform of the Kapampangan [ba.wu.an] is PWMP *bahu-an, which means “to give off an odor”; whereas the protoform for the Waray [ˈbaː.hɔʔ] and Maranao [ba.’oɁ] is PMP *bahuq, which means “odor; stench”

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Based on the consolidated olfaction dataset for Philippine Languages, the lexical items about the olfactory sense are presented below in Table No. 1.

R E S U L T S

b. The instrument for olfaction

Based on the consolidated olfaction dataset for Philippine Languages, the lexical items about

noseIbatan [mu.mu.dan] / mumudan

Bontok [ʔɨ.ˈŋɨl] / ingil

Pangasinan [e.'leŋ] / eleng

Ilokano [a.goŋ] / agong

C a s i g u r a n Dumagat

[du.ˈŋos] / dungos

D u p a n i n g a n Agta

[doːŋ] / dong

Ayta Abellen [ba.lɔ.ŋɔh] / balongo

Ayta Mag-antsi [ba.lu.ŋuh] / balungu

Kapampangan [ʔa.ruŋ] / arung

Bolinao [a.goŋ] / agong

Sambal [ʔaʔ.lɔŋ] / along

Tagalog [Ɂi.'loŋ] / ilong

Cebuano [Ɂi.'loŋ] / ilong

Masbatenyo [i.'roŋ] / irong

Hiligaynon [ʔi.ˈlɔŋ] / ilong

Waray [ʔi.ˈɾɔŋ] / irong

Asi (Bantoanon) [Ɂi.'loŋ] / ilong

B i k o l (Standard)

[du.ˈŋɔʔ] / dungo

Manobo [si.'mud] / simud

Tausug [i.luŋ] / ilung

Maranao [ŋi.roŋ] / ngirong

Mansaka [i.loŋ] / ilong

Tagbanwa [ʔu.ɾuŋ] / urung

Agutaynen [ʔo.roŋ] / orong

T'boli [i.luŋ] / ilung

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Based on the data in Table No. 2, a total of 17 out of 25 languages, namely, Pangasinan [e.’leŋ], Ilokano [a.goŋ], Kapampangan [ʔa.ruŋ], Bolinao [a.goŋ], Sambal [ʔaʔ.lɔŋ], Tagalog [Ɂi.’loŋ], Cebuano [Ɂi.’loŋ], Masbatenyo [i.’roŋ], Hiligaynon [ʔi.ˈlɔŋ], Waray [ʔi.ˈɾɔŋ], Asi (Bantoanon) [Ɂi.’loŋ], Tausug [i.luŋ], Maranao [ŋi.roŋ], Mansaka [i.loŋ], Tagbanwa [ʔu.ɾuŋ], Agutaynen [ʔo.roŋ], and T’boli [i.luŋ], share a common form for the word “nose”. The initial phoneme is either a glottal stop [ʔ] or a voiced velar nasal consonant [ŋ], and/or followed by a vowel [a, e, i, o, u]. The middle consonant seems to be based on voiced liquids [l, r, ɾ] or a voiced velar plosive consonant [g] followed by a vowel [a, e, i, o, u]. The final consonant is a voiced velar nasal consonant [ŋ]. According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010–ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoform for “nose” is the reconstructed PMP *ijuŋ, with *ejuŋ, *ŋijuŋ, and *ujuŋ as its variations.

Ayta Abellen [ba.lɔ.ŋɔh] and Ayta Mag-antsi [ba.lu.ŋuh] almost share the same word for “nose”, with the difference in [u] and [ɔ]. Moreover, Casiguran Dumagat [du.ˈŋos] and Dupaningan Agta [doːŋ] bear similarities, with the difference being Casiguran Agta’s addition of the syllable [-os].

Although geographically far apart, Ibatan [mu.mu.dan] and Manobo [si.’mud] bear similarities with the existence of [-mud]. Upon further investigation of this similarity, both the Ibatan’s and Manobo’s usage of the word nose is synonymized with a snout of an animal.

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the olfactory sense are presented below in Table No. 2.table no. 2 – lexical items for the instru-ment of olfaction in philippine languages

R E S U L T S

c. The manifestation of olfactory pleasantness

Based on the consolidated olfaction dataset for Philippine Languages, the lexical items about the olfactory sense are presented below in Table No. 3.

to smell

Ibatan [ma.ʔa.ŋut] [a.ŋot] / maangut, angot

Bontok [ˈʔaː.gɔb] / agob

Pangasinan [a.'ŋob] / angob

Ilokano [a.ŋu.təm] [a.ŋot] / angutem, angot

C a s i g u r a n Dumagat

[ʔa.ˈhob] / ahob

D u p a n i n g a n Agta

[ʔa.rob] / arob

Ayta Abellen [da.ʔɛp]/[man.da.ʔɛp] / daep, madaep

Ayta Mag-antsi [da.ʔɛp] [hi.ŋot] / daep, hingot

Kapampangan [ba.wu.an] / bawuan

Bolinao [ma.ka.a.ŋot] / makaangot

Sambal [ʔa.ŋu.tɔn] / anguton

Tagalog [a.mu.jin] / amuyin

Cebuano ['sim.hot] [hi.ŋus] / simhot, hingus

Masbatenyo [mag.'hi.ŋos] / maghingos

Hiligaynon [sim.ˈhɔt] / simhot

Waray [ˈbaː.hɔʔ] / baho

Asi (Bantoanon) [hú.gom] / hugom

B i k o l (Standard)

[ˈpaː.ɾɔŋ], [ˈsaː.ŋɔ] [ha.ŋot] / parong, sango, hangot

Manobo ['hiŋ.guk]; ['ŋa.dog] / hingguk, ngadog

Tausug [ha.mu.tun] / hamutun

Maranao [sa.ja.mot] / sayamot

Mansaka [ba.'oɁ] [i.ŋos] / ba-o, ingos

Tagbanwa [ʔa.rɨk] / arik

Agutaynen [ʔo.ŋaw] / ongaw

T'boli [ges.luf]; [u.ŋef] / gesluf, ungef

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D I S C U S S I O N A N D A N A L Y S I S

Based on the data in Table No. 3, a total of 12 out of 25 languages, namely, Ibatan [ba.ŋo], Bontok [baŋ.lɔ], Ilokano [na.baŋ.lo], Dupaningan Agta [ma.ba.ŋoɡ], Ayta Abellen [ba.ŋɔh], Kapampangan [ma.baŋ.lu], Bolinao [ma.baŋ.lo], Sambal [ma.baŋ.lɔ], Tagalog [ma.ba.ŋo], Asi (Bantoanon) [báŋ.jo], Mansaka [ma.bal.lo], Tagbanwa [ma.baŋ.lu], and Agutaynen [baŋ.lo], share a common form for the word “fragrant”. The initial phoneme is a voiced bilabial plosive [b] followed by a front open vowel [a] and a voiced velar nasal consonant [ŋ] and ends with (1) either a closed back vowel [u] or a close-mid back vowel [o], or (2) the syllables [-lo] or [lu].

Cebuano [ma.hu.’mut], Masbatenyo [ma.hu.’mot], Hiligaynon [ha.ˈmɔt], Waray [ha.ˈmot], Bikol (Standard) [ha.ˈmɔt] , Manobo [ho.’mut], and Tausug [ha.mut] share a common form of the word “fragrant”, where the initial syllable is either [ha-] or [ho-] followed by the final syllable that is either [-mot] or [-mut].

According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010 – ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoform for the Ilokano [na.baŋ.lo], Agutaynen [baŋ.lo], and Ayta Abellen [ba.ŋɔh] is PPh *baŋ(e)lúh, which means “fragrance, pleasant odor”; whereas the protoform for Kapampangan [ma.baŋ.lu], Sambal [ma.baŋ.lɔ], and Mansaka [ma.bal.lo] is PPh *ma-baŋ(e)luh, which means “fragrant, sweet-smelling”.

b a l i s i

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to smell

Ibatan [ma.ʔa.ŋut] [a.ŋot] / maangut, angot

Bontok [ˈʔaː.gɔb] / agob

Pangasinan [a.'ŋob] / angob

Ilokano [a.ŋu.təm] [a.ŋot] / angutem, angot

C a s i g u r a n Dumagat

[ʔa.ˈhob] / ahob

D u p a n i n g a n Agta

[ʔa.rob] / arob

Ayta Abellen [da.ʔɛp]/[man.da.ʔɛp] / daep, madaep

Ayta Mag-antsi [da.ʔɛp] [hi.ŋot] / daep, hingot

Kapampangan [ba.wu.an] / bawuan

Bolinao [ma.ka.a.ŋot] / makaangot

Sambal [ʔa.ŋu.tɔn] / anguton

Tagalog [a.mu.jin] / amuyin

Cebuano ['sim.hot] [hi.ŋus] / simhot, hingus

Masbatenyo [mag.'hi.ŋos] / maghingos

Hiligaynon [sim.ˈhɔt] / simhot

Waray [ˈbaː.hɔʔ] / baho

A s i (Bantoanon)

[hú.gom] / hugom

B i k o l (Standard)

[ˈpaː.ɾɔŋ], [ˈsaː.ŋɔ] [ha.ŋot] / parong, sango, hangot

Manobo ['hiŋ.guk]; ['ŋa.dog] / hingguk, ngadog

Tausug [ha.mu.tun] / hamutun

Maranao [sa.ja.mot] / sayamot

Mansaka [ba.'oɁ] [i.ŋos] / ba-o, ingos

Tagbanwa [ʔa.rɨk] / arik

Agutaynen [ʔo.ŋaw] / ongaw

T'boli [ges.luf]; [u.ŋef] / gesluf, ungef

table no. 3 – lexical items for the mani-festation of olfactory pleasantness in

philippine languages

R E S U L T S

d. the manifestation of olfactory unpleasantness

Based on the consolidated olfaction dataset

for Philippine Languages, the lexical items about the olfactory sense are presented below in Table No. 4.

The

olfa

ctor

y se

nse

and

its m

anife

stat

ion

in P

hilip

pine

lang

uage

s

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table no. 4 – lexical items for the manifestation of olfactory unpleasantness in

philippine languages

D I S C U S S I O N A N D A N A L Y S I S

Based on the data in Table No. 4, a total of 9 out of 25 languages, namely, Kapampangan [ma.ba.wú], Tagalog [ba.ho], Cebuano [ba.’huɁ], Masbatenyo [ba.hoɁ], Hiligaynon [ba.ˈhɔʔ], Waray [‘ba.hoɁ], Manobo [bo.’huɁ], Tausug [ba.huɁ], and Mansaka [ba.ŋug], share a common form for the word “smelly, stench”, where the initial syllable is [ba-] followed by a final syllable that is either [hoɁ] or [huɁ], or similar variations. According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010 – ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoforms for these languages are PMP *bahuq, which means “odor; stench”; PMP *ma-bahu, which means “smelly, stinking”; and PWMP *ma-bahuq, which means “smelly, stinking”.

In addition, Pangasinan [ba.’ŋet], Ilokano [baŋ.sit], Casiguran Dumagat [beŋ.tet], Kapampangan [ban.tut], and Bolinao [baŋ-’Ɂt] share similarities. According to Blust and Trussel’s (2010 – ongoing) Austronesian Comparative Dictionary, the protoforms for these

b a l i s i

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C O N C L U S I O N

The findings in this paper are important contributions to the continuing study and narrative of Philippine culture and history. Unlike most senses, olfaction can be considered the most ephemeral and abstract. With the strong current of trends in our rapidly progressing world, we must document and preserve these fleeting fragments of knowledge that have been passed down to us by our forebears; these fragments offer a glimpse of the evolution and variety of our olfactory sense and our indigenous language communities. Moreover, this paper can strengthen and empower linguistic and cultural communities that are commonly overlooked and prove that our sense of smell is not as secondary as it seems.

The

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languages are PWMP *baŋsit, which means “stench”; and PMP *baŋ(e)qeR₂, which means “rotten smell, stench”

R E F E R E N C E S

Awed, S., et. al. (2010). Tboli - English Dictionary. SIL Philippines.

Benton, R. (1971). Pangasinan Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Blust, R, & Trussel. S. (2010 – ongoing). Austronesian comparative dictionary. http://www.trussel2/com/acd.

Cabonce, R. (1983). An English-Cebuano Visayan Dictionary. National Book Store, Inc.

Constantino, E. (1971). Ilokano Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Forman, M. (1971). Kapampangan Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Gelacio, T., et. al. (2000). Manobo Dictionary. SIL Philippines.

Greenhill, S.J., Blust. R, & Gray, R.D. (2008). The Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database: From Bioinformatics to Lexomics. Evolutionary Bioinformatics, 4:271-283. https://abvd.shh.mpg.de/

Hassa, I., et. al. (2018). Tausug-English Dictionary Kabtangan Iban Maana. SIL Philippines.

Headland, T, & Headland, J. (1974). A Dumagat (Casiguran)-English Dictionary. Pacific Linguistics.

Majid, A. & Burenhult, N. (2014). Odors are expressible in language, as long as you speak the right language. Cognition 130 (2014) 266–270.

Majid A, Burenhult N, Stensmyr M, de Valk J, Hansson BS. (2018). Olfactory language and abstraction across cultures. Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society Publishing. 73: 20170139. http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2017.0139

McKaughan, H. & Macaraya, B. (1967). A Maranao Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Motus, C. (1971). Hiligaynon Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Panganiban, J. (1972). Diksyunaryo – Tesauro, Pilipino – Ingles. Manlapas Publishing Co.

Rakji, A. (2007). A Concise Waray Dictionary.

Reid, L. (1976). Bontok-English Dictionary. Pacific Linguistics.

Robino, C. (1998). Ilocano Dictionary and Phrasebook. Hippocrene Books.

Robinson, L. (2008). Dupaningan Agta: Grammar, Vocabulary, and Texts. University of Hawaii.

SIL Philippines. (1979). Classified Word List: English, Tagalog, Tagbanwa.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Agutaynen Dictionary. SIL Philippines.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Asi Dictionary. SIL Philippines.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Ayta Abellen Dictionary and Texts Introduction.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Ayta Mag-antsi Dictionary.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Bolinao Dictionary.

SIL Philippines. (n.d.). Ibatan Dictionary.

Svelmoe, G. & Svelmoe, T. (1990). Mansaka Dictionary. SIL Philippines.

Tan, M. (2018). Smellscaping. Pinoy Kasi Column. @inquirerdotnet. Philippine Daily Inquirer. 05:18 AM January 26, 2018

Wintz, M. (1971). Bikol Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press.

Wnuk, E. & Majid, A. (2014). Revisiting the limits of language: The odor lexicon of Maniq. Cognition 131 (2014) 125–138.

Wnuk, E., Laophairoj, R., & Majid, A. (2020). Smell terms are not rara: A semantic investigation of odor vocabulary in Thai. Linguistics. De Gruyter Mouton. https://doi.org/10.1515/ling- 2020-0009.

b a l i s i

A B S T R A K

Ang pagsasalin ay pamamaraan ng pagdaloy ng mga ideya, impormasyon, at kultura mula sa iba’t ibang wika at lipunan. Mayroon nang mga pananaliksik tungkol sa pagsasalin sa Filipino, ngunit malimit lamang ang mga pag-aaral ukol sa pagsasaling nagaganap sa multimedia, partikular na sa dubbing. Sa pananaliksik na ito, nakapanayam ang anim na indibidwal mula sa lokal na industriya ng dubbing sa Pilipinas upang malaman ang mga polisiya at batayan sa dubbing, ang mga prosesong administratibo, scriptwriting, at dubbing, at iba pang kaugnay na mga teknikal na kaalaman. Bilang pag-aaral naman sa daluyan ng wika at kultura, tig-isang Hollywood movie, Korean historical drama, at Japanese anime ang inanalisa ang semantiko upang ipagkumpara ang mga salin sa pinagmulan na teksto. Nalamang may mga naganap na (1) pagsasalin ng mga pangalan, (2) pagpapanatili ng banyagang salita sa salin, (3) pagsama ng mga lokal na salita sa salin, at (4) malalayong saling Filipino mula sa Ingles. Sa kabuuan, maihahalintulad ang proseso ng pagsalin sa dubbing sa pagiging dinamiko ng wikang Filipino.

leila crisostomoivan joseph m. de lararaia alexis t. gallardomanpreet singh

Salin-Salamin: Ang Pagsasa-Filipinong mga BanyagangPrograma

salin dubbing wika

K E Y W O R D S

multimedia semantik analisis

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PA N I M U L A

Mahalaga ang papel na ginagampanan ng pagsasalin sa palitan at daloy ng kultura at kaalaman sa isang bansa. Ang pagsasalin ay ang pagpapalit ng tekstwal na materyal sa simulang lenggwahe o source language (SL) ng katumbas na tekstwal na materyal sa tunguhing lenggwahe o target language (TL). 1 Datapwat, pangunahing pamamaraan ito para mas madaling dumaloy ang mga ideya, dalumat, impormasyon, at iba pang produksiyong intelektuwal mula sa iba’t ibang wika at lipunan.2 Hindi maikakaila na malawak ang impluwensya ng pagsasalin sa pang-araw-araw na pamumuhay ng isang Pilipino. Nariyan ang mga isinasagawang pagsasalin sa iba’t-ibang larangan kagaya ng literatura, agrikultura, industriya, agham, edukasyon, kalusugan, komersyo, aliwan, at marami pang iba.

Mayroon nang mga pananaliksik patungkol sa pagsasalin sa Filipino, ngunit madalas ay sa pang-akademikong teksto at literatura lamang ito nakatuon. Sa panahon ngayon kung saan ang multimedia ay laganap at bukas para sa publiko, nararapat na suriin ang mga pagsasaling nagaganap sa mga midyum na ito lalo na’t hindi pa masyadong dokumentado ang larangan.3

Nagsimula ang pagsasa-Filipino ng mga programa sa telebisyon noong unang bahagi ng dekada ‘90, partikular na noong 1994 sa pagsikat ng programang “Marimar.”4 Naging patok ang telenovelang ito sa mga Pilipino dahil bagamat dayuhan ang mga karakter ay isinalin sa wikang Filipino ang mga diyalogo, kung kaya’t ito ay mas naintindihan at mas nadama ng mga manonood.

Ang pag-aaral ng pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa telebisyon ay mahalaga dahil mas mauunawaan ng mga mananaliksik ang pagyabong ng wika sa pamamagitan ng interaksyon ng iba’t-ibang kultura. Malalaman din kung paano nag-uugnay ang banyagang kultura sa ating sariling kultura, at kung ano ang epekto at implikasyon ng panonood ng mga isina-Filipinong programa sa wika, kultura, at kaisipang Filipino. Mayroon ding mga problema at pagkukulang na kinahaharap ang pagsasa-Filipino at ang pagsasalin ng mga banyagang programa na layong tugunan sa pagpapayabong ng mga ganitong klaseng pananaliksik.

Sa pamamagitan ng pag-aaral na ito, magagawang:

(1) Suriin ang proseso ng pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa telebisyon (2) Tukuyin ang mga batayang dapat isaalang-alang para sa pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa telebisyon; at (3) Pagkahuluganan ang palitan ng kulturang banyaga at Filipino sa mga isina-Filipinong banyagang programa

Inaasahang makapagbibigay-halaga ang pag-aaral na ito sa industriya ng pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa at sa kabuuang palitan ng kultura at kaisipang pandaigdig at Filipino.

Ang

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1 John Cunnison Catford, A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics (OXE: Oxford University Press, 1965), 22 Mario I. Miclat. Pangkalahatang sitwasyon ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas. [Manuskrito, workshop ukol sa kanon ng mga akdang dapat isalin]. Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil, pat. GS. Zafra. (Diliman: Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2000), 33 Perlita G. Manalili. “Pagsasalin at komunikasyon: Pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa telebisyon sa kaso ng telenovelang ‘Cristina’” (Diliman: College of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines Diliman, 2004), 24 Gerardo Peralta, “Mari-Mar: A study on intertextuality and polysemy.” (Diliman: College of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1998

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PA M A M A R A A N

Pangangalap ng Datos

Bilang ang pananaliksik na ito ay isang kwalitatibong pag-aaral, ang pangunahing datos ay nagmula sa iba’t ibang panayam at sa mismong semantik analisis. Para sa mga nakapanayam, ang mga mananaliksik ay kumausap ng anim na indibidwal mula sa lokal na industriya ng dubbing sa Pilipinas:

(1) gail calusa (GMA-ALTA Productions) voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor (2) rosel manahan-cello (ABS-CBN ALTA Productions) voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor (3) vincent gutierrez (ABS-CBN ALTA Productions) voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor (4) eliza dela fuente (ABS-CBN ALTA Productions) voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor (5) pocholo gonzales (CreatiVoices) voice actor, scriptwriter, direktor, at tinaguriang “voice master of the Philippines” (6) mary kristine salditos (CreatiVoices) voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor

Sila ay napili sa pamamagitan ng purposive sampling kung saan nasa sariling pasya ng mga mananaliksik kung sino at ilan ang kailangan makapanayam. Ginagamit ang ganitong teknik sa pagpili ng sampol kapag kaunti lang ang populasyong pinanggagalingan. Nakatutulong din ang ganitong teknik sa mas intensibong analisis ng mangangailang kaso. Ang mga mananaliksik ay nagtakda ng pagtatagpo sa mga napiling nakapanayam na mga voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor.

Sa bahagi naman ng semantik analisis, ang tatlong programang napili ay nagmula sa tatlong kategorya: Hollywood movie, Korean historical drama, at Japanese anime. Ang mga napili para sa bawat kategorya ay ang mga sumusunod:

(1) Hollywood Movie: The Spy Next Door (2010) (2) Korean historical drama: Moon Lovers: Scarlet Heart Ryeo Episode 14 (2016) (3) Japanese Anime: Detective Conan: Season 3 Episode 26/80 The Wandering Artist (1997)

Napili ang mga programang ito ayon sa accessibility ng resources. Hindi pinahintulutan ng mga production studio na makakuha ang mga mananaliksik ng mga iskrip ng mga programa dahil labag umano ito sa karapatang magpalathala (copyright) at kanilang kontrata. Kung kaya ay gumamit ang mga mananaliksik ng dubbed at orihinal na bidyo mula sa online public domain. Saling iskrip sa Ingles ang ginamit sa halip na orihinal na banyagang wika ng mga programang Koreano at Hapones sapagkat hindi bihasa ang mga mananaliksik sa mga wikang ito. Relay translation ang tawag sa ganitong pamamaraan at ito rin daw ang madalas na nagaganap sa mga production studio na nakapanayam.

Pagsusuri ng Datos

Ang mga mananaliksik mismo ang nag-transcribe ng kanilang mga inirekord na panayam. Ang pangunahing layunin sa pakikipanayam ay ang mailarawan ang proseso ng pagsasalin at mailahad ang mga polisiyang gumagabay sa prosesong ito. Dagdag dito ang malaman din ang mga problemang hinaharap sa pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa aspeto ng pagsasalin at sa mismong industriya. Ang impormasyong nakalap mula rito ay nakatulong sa pagpapatibay ng pananaliksik.

Para naman sa semantik analisis, sa pamamagitan ng mga nakuhang bidyo, ang mga mananaliksik din mismo ang nag-transcribe ng ilang parte ng iskrip sa Filipino at sa Ingles. Nagkaroon sila ng apat na pangunahing batayan na ginamit sa pagsusuri ng mga napiling programa:

(1) Pagsasalin ng mga pangalan (2) Banyagang salita na napanatili sa salin

c r i s o s t o m od e l a r a

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(3) Lokal na salitang isinama sa salin (4) Gaano kalayo ang saling Filipino mula sa Ingles

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Ang mga ito ay nagsilbing gabay upang mas maging masusi ang analisis. Nilimita rin ng mga mananaliksik ang mga batayan sa pagsusuri upang mas mabigyang diin ang apat na aspetong ito sa pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa. Ang bawat desisyon ng grupo ay kailangan sang-ayunan ng lahat o ng karamihan upang ito ay maipatupad.

R E S U LTA AT TA L A K AYA N

Mga Polisiya at Batayan sa Pagsasalin

Walang mga opisyal na polisiya ang naisusulat ukol sa proseso ng dubbing. Alinsunod ito sa sinasabi ni Miclat na kawalan ng planado at organisadong programa sa pagsasalin. 5 Sa katunayan, ang kaalaman sa proseso ng dubbing ay ipinapasa lamang sa di pormal na pamamaraan katulad ng coaching at pag-ensayo, ayon kay Gail Calusa.6 Sa pangkalahatan, ang pinaka tanyag na tuntunin ay ang pagiging tapat sa orihinal na iskrip. Dagdag dito ang ilang mga gabay tulad ng pagiging in-sync sa bibig ng karakter ng mga isinaling diyalogo, paggamit ng mga salitang nagtatapos sa mga letrang “o” at “a,” at ang antas ng pormalidad (language registers) na depende sa tagpuan at sa bawat karakter. Ang mga ito ay ibinuod ni Pocholo Gonzales sa kanyang 10 Commandments of Dubbing:

No. Commandment

1 Thou shall count the words.

2 Thou shall reword when awkward.

3 Thou shall translate the conTEXT, not the conTENT.

4 Thou shall match the mouth.

5 Thou shall know when to stop trying.

6 Thou shall keep your eyes on the monitor.

7 Thou shall BECOME the character.

8 Thou shall learn STRETCH and TIGHTEN.

9 Thou shall be good inside the booth.

10 Thou shall fill gaps with REAX.

talahanayan 1. 10 commandments of dubbing 7

5 Miclat, 26 Panayam kay Gail Calusa, voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor sa GMA-ALTA Productions, Abril 5, 20197 Panayam kay Pocholo Gonzales, voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor sa CreatiVoices, Abril 24, 20198 MTRCB classifications. Movie and Television Review and Classification Board, 2011, https://midas.mtrcb.gov.ph/site/#!/classification9 Broadcast code of the Philippines, Kapisanan ng mga Broadkaster ng Pilipinas, 2011, https://www.kbp.org.ph/wp-content/

uploads/2008/04/KBP_Broadcast_Code_2011.pdf7 Panayam kay Pocholo Gonzales, voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor sa CreatiVoices, Abril 24, 2019

Bukod dito, ang mga institusyon ng gobyerno ay may handog na regulasyon lamang sa pag-iwas sa mga bulgar na salita. Sa Movie and Television Review and Classification Board (MTRCB) ay may Classifications para sa mga programa sa telebisyon at ang Kapisanan ng mga Broadkaster ng Pilipinas (KBP) ay tahasang nagbabawal ng bulgar, mahalay, at malaswang pananalita.8,9

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Proseso ng Pagsalin

Nakabuo ang mga mananaliksik ng pangkalahatang daloy ng mga proseso ng pagsalin sa dubbing mula sa iba’t ibang production studio. Nahahati ang buong proseso sa tatlo: Administratibo, Scriptwriting, at Dubbing. Isinama ng mga mananaliksik ang mga prosesong Administratibo at Dubbing sa kabuuang proseso ng pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang palabas sapagkat sa administratibong antas nakukuha ang materyal na isasalin at patuloy ang pagrerebiso ng iskrip habang nagaganap ang mismong dubbing. Kung kaya’t nakikilahok din ang direktor at mga voice actor sa gawaing pagsasa-Filipino.

P A G T A N G G A P

N G M A T E R Y A L

N G P R O D U C T I O N

S T U D I O

P A G P I L I N G

D I R E K T O R

C A S T I N G A T

P A G B U O N G

P A N G K A T N G M G A

S C R I P T W R I T E R

Nagsisimula ang proseso ng dubbing at scriptwriting sa pagtanggap ng proyekto. Ang kliyente o ang network ang bumimbili ng karapatan sa banyagang programa at ibinibigay nila sa production company ang mga materyal na kakailanganin sa pagsalin. Kasama dito ang mga mga bidyo ng programa at ang iskrip sa Ingles, kung mayroon. Ang direktor na pipiliin ay ang bubuo ng kanyang pangkat ng mga scriptwriter at siya ring pipili ng voice actors o magtatakda ng audition para sa mga ito. Bilang pandagdag, ayon kay Rosel Manahan-Cello, sinisikap ng ABS-CBN hangga’t kaya na gawing iisang tao lamang ang kukuhaning voice actor na gaganap sa isang aktor ng Hollywood.12

Ito raw ay upang mapanatiling consistent ang boses ng aktor sa kahit ano mang pelikula siya ipalabas. Sa pagtanggap naman ng iskrip, nabanggit din niya na mas mainam kung ang kanilang natatanggap ay iyong may mga paliwanag at interpretasyon. Ngayon lamang daw sa buong industriya ng dubbing nagiging karaniwan ang ganitong mga iskrip kung saan nililinaw ang konteksto ng bawat linya upang mas madali itong maintindihan at isalin.

pigura 1. prosesong administratibo

10 Panayam kay Gail Calusa, Abril 5, 201911 Panayam kay Mary Kristine Salditos, voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor sa CreatiVoices, Abril 24, 201912 anayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, mga voice actor, scriptwriter, at direktor sa ABS-CBN-ALTA Productions, Abril 13, 2019

Nagiging batayan din sa pagsalin ang kwalipikasyon at karanasan ng scriptwriter, ngunit ayon kina Calusa at Mary Kristine Salditos ay walang kinakailangang antas ng pinag-aralan o kursong natapos para sa trabahong ito.10,11 Dapat lamang ay nakakaintindi ng Ingles (pinakamadalas na SL) at Filipino (TL). Sa production studio ng Creativoices, ang mga scriptwriter daw ay dumadaan sa workshop na isang araw lamang. Dito ay tinuturuan sila sa mga papel ng scriptwriter at voice actor upang mahasa ang flexibility lalo na sa maliit na industriya ng dubbing. Kapansin-pansin din ang diin ng mga nakapanayam sa pagtawag sa kanilang mga scriptwriter bilang “dubbing scriptwriter” imbes na “tagasalin” sapagkat higit pa raw sa pagsasalin ang gawain ng scriptwriter.

c r i s o s t o m od e l a r a

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P A G T A N G G A P

N G M A T E R Y A L

N G P R O D U C T I O N

S T U D I O

P A G P I L I N G

D I R E K T O R

C A S T I N G A T

P A G B U O N G

P A N G K A T N G M G A

S C R I P T W R I T E R

pigura 1. prosesong scriptwriting

P A G S A L I N N G

I S K R I P S A I N G L E S

P A T U N G O N G

F I L I P I N O

P A G S U L A T N G

I S K R I P A Y O N S A

P O R M A T

Ayon sa mga nakapanayam, madalas ay kasama na sa mga materyal na ibinibigay ang iskrip na Ingles kung kaya ay gaya ng nabanggit sa simula, relay translation ang nagaganap sa mga isinasa-Filipinong programa ng mga Korean drama at Japanese anime. Mula sa mga orihinal na wika, isinasalin ito sa wikang Ingles bago isa-Filipino. Sa pagkakataong walang ibinigay na iskrip na Ingles ay nagso-source out ang production studio ng transleytor. Iba pang patunay ng mahabang panahong ginugugol sa masuring pagsisiyasat ng programa ay ang pagkilala sa bawat karakter ng palabas at ang panonood ng buong serye o lipon ng mga kaugnay na programa.

P A G S U M I T E N G

D U B B E D I S K R I P

P A G S A B A K S A

D U B B I N G B O O T H

P A G D A G D A G A T

P A G B A W A S N G

M G A L I N Y A S A

I S K R I P

P A G P A P A L A B A S

S A T E L E B I S Y O N

P A G - A P R U B A N G

A D M I N I S T R A S Y O NP A G - E E D I T N G

S O U N D E N G I N E E R

pigura 3. prosesong dubbing

Sa pagsalang ng mga dubbed iskrip sa dubbing booth, nalalaman ang pagkakangkop ng mga salita sa banyagang programa. Ang mga maliliit na pagbabago tulad ng pagbagal o pagbilis ng salita ay nasa pagpapasya na ng direktor, sound engineer, at voice actor. Madalas din umano ang pagdaragdag ng mga maliliit na enclitic particles tulad ng “lang,” “na,” at “naman” na karaniwang ginagamit sa wikang Filipino. Isa ito sa mga pagkakataon kung saan makikita kung paano nahahaluan ang mga banyagang programa ng ating wika at kultura.

Bilang karagdagan, nakakalap din ang mga mananaliksik ng mga terminong madalas na ginagamit sa industriya ng dubbing. Ito ay maaaring nakikita sa iskrip o kaya’y binibigkas ng mga direktor habang nasa dubbing booth. Nakatutuwang malaman na sa diskusyon ng wika sa pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa ay may lumilitaw din na sosyolekt sa ganitong larangan. Ang mga terminong nakalap ay nakatala sa susunod na talahanayan.

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Termino Kahulugan

Off Hindi kita ang bibig ng karakter na nagsasalita

On Kita ang bibig ng karakter na nagsasalita

To On/Off Paglipat ng pagiging On/Off ng karakter

Reax Mula sa salitang “reaction,” na maaaring nakalilito kung ibabaybay sa iskrip

Overlap Kapag dalawa o higit pang karakter ang nagsasalita nang sabay

… o / Hinto o pause sa diyalogo

Stretch Habaan pa ang diyalogo o bagalan ang pagbigkas

Tight Iklian ang diyalogo o bilisan ang pagbigkas

Kaliwa Nudge o iusog nang kaunti ang voice record para mailapat nang mas sakto sa bidyo

talahanayan 2. mga terminong ginagamit sa industriya ng dubbing

S E M A N T I K A N A L I S I S

Pagsasalin ng Pangalan

Termino The Spy Next Door Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14 Detective Conan: S3 E26/80

Walang binago

• Bob Ho• Gillian• Anton Poldark• Farren • Ian• Nora• Colton James

• Wang So• Go Ha-jin / Hae Soo• Wang Wook

• Conan Edogawa• Ran Mouri• Detective Kogoro

Mouri• Inspector Megure• Wataru Takagi• Tatsuo Hayase• Kimie Hayase

May binago • “Byukrando” naging “daungan”

• “Beika Art Museum” naging “Beika Art Gallery”

Walang pagbabagong naganap sa mga pangalan ng mga karakter. Sa The Spy Next Door ito ay maaaring dahil kapanahunan ang palabas at ang mga pangalang Ingles ay karaniwan at laganap na ginagamit sa bansa. Sang-ayon ito sa sinabi ni Calusa na ang pangunahing layunin ng pagsasalin ay para sa pagkaunawa ng masang Pilipino.13 Kung kaya’t isinasaalang-alang talaga ang pagtanggap ng manonood sa mga konsiderasyon para sa pagtatanghal. 14 Dagdag dito ay ang mabilis na pag-alala sa mga madaling bigkasing pangalan na nakatutulong sa pagsubaybay ng mga serye at mahahabang palabas tulad ng mga pelikula.

13 Panayam kay Gail Calusa, Abril 5, 201914 Jerry C. Respeto. Si Rolando Tinio at ang pagmimina ng dulang banyaga (o kung paano Isinialin ni Tinio ang St. Joan). Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil, pat. GS. Zafra. (Diliman: Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2009)

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Sa kabila ng pagiging di-karaniwan o mahirap bigkasin, ang mga pangalang Koreano sa Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14 ay nanatili rin. Ito ay maaaring dahil ang palabas ay isang historikal na drama kung kaya’t nangangailangang maging tapat sa orihinal na iskrip para umangkop sa makalumang tagpo at panahon. Ayon kay Manahan-Cello, natatangi ito sa kadalasang pagbabago ng mga pangalang Koreano sa ibang modernong programa tulad ng The Coffee Prince. Sabi niya, “ang trend is kapag Korean, ang pangalan automatically Western,” pero kapag sa mga historikal drama naman ay, “nawawala yung essence ‘pag pinalitan mo siya. It has to be accurate.”15 Sa Detective Conan: S3 E26/80 ay wala ring pagpapalit ng pangalan ng mga karakter, hindi katulad ng adaptation name changes nito sa Amerikanong pagtatanghal.16 Pati ang mga titulo nila “Detective Kogoro Mouri” at “Inspector Megure” ay hindi na tinumbasan sa Filipino bilang bahagi na ng kanilang mga pangalan.

Halimbawa naman ng mga pangalang binago ay ang tagpuang “Byukrando” sa Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14 na isinalin bilang “daungan” o isang pamilihang tabing dagat. Hindi na ulit nabanggit ang “Byukrando” o “daungan” sa palabas kung kaya’t baka hindi naging importante ang pagpapanatili ng pangalang ito.

Sa kabilang dako, ang kakaibang pagpalit ng huling salita sa “Beika Art Museum” na naging “Beika Art Gallery” sa Detective Conan: S3 E26/80 ay maaaring may implikasyon ng magkaibang pagpapakahulugan sa salitang “museum” at “gallery” sa kulturang Hapon at kulturang Filipino. Mula sa mga linyang “Maganda at nakakuha tayo ng libreng tickets para sa exhibit na ito mula sa isa sa mga cliente natin (Eksena 1)” marahil ay sa paggamit ng salitang “gallery” ay binigyang diin ng scriptwriter ang pagiging eksklusibo ng puntahang lugar. Kataka-taka nga lang na sa susunod na diyalogo ay “museum” ang gamit na salita. Ayon kay Manahan-Cello, minsan ay gumagamit sila ng mga salitang magkasingkahulugan para hindi paulit-ulit ang mga linya. Mas mapag-uusapan pa ito sa susunod na batayan ng pagsusuri.17

Banyagang Salita na Napanatili Sa Salin

May mga Ingles na salitang nanatili sa saling Filipino. Marahil wala itong direktang katumbas sa Filipino, masyadong maraming katumbas, malalim na ang salin, o may angkop na katumbas naman pero pinili pa ring gamitin ang salitang Ingles. Maaaring ang mga banyagang salitang ito ay hiniram mula Ingles at binago ang baybay, sang-ayon sa ikatlong estratehiya ng pagsasalin ni Almario.18 Ngunit hindi ito mapapatunayan nang husto dahil sa limitasyong makakuha ng mismong mga iskrip sa Filipino. Gayunpaman, tanyag ang sitwasyong di-maisalin o untranslatability lalo na sa mga salitang makabago tulad ng “download”, “cyborg”, “jumpsuit”, “drone”, “mole”, “dork” at sa mga salitang teknikal tulad ng “amnesia”, “fingerprint“, “emergency exit“, “avalanche“, “embezzle“, “nearsighted”, at “disaster disappearance.”19

May mga ekspresyon ding binubuo ng dalawang salitang tinuturingang kolokesyon o bagay nang magkasama bilang isang buong parirala.20 Kabilang dito ang “good news“, “burn mark“, “heavy smoker“, at “living room” na subalit madaling isalin sa Filipino ay napiling panatilihing Ingles.

15 Panayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, Abril 13, 201916 “The Wandering Artist Murder Case.” Quebec: Detective Conan World, 2019, https://www.detectiveconanworld.com/wiki/The_Wandering_Artist_Murder_Case17 Panayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, Abril 13, 201918 Virgilio S. Almario, Mga estratehiya ng pagsasalin sa agham at ibang makabagong larang, Tradisyon at Wikang Filipino (Quezon City: Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 1997)19 Lilia F. Antonio at Florentino A. Iniego, Jr., Botchan at ang lupain ng taglamig: Sulyap at suri sa pagsasaling kros-kultural ng dalawang nobelang Hapones. Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil, pat. Galileo S. Zafra (Diliman : Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2006)20Consuelo J. Paz, Ang Pagsalin sa Filipino. Ang Wikang Filipino: Atin Ito. (Diliman: UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 1995), 51

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The Spy Next Door Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14

Detective Conan: S3 E26/80

Walang direktang katumbas sa Filipino

• Download• Cyborg• Dork• Jumpsuit• Mole• Drone

• Amnesia• Fingerprint• Emergency exit• Avalanche• Nearsighted• Ashtray• Disaster

disappearance

Masyadong maraming katumbas sa Filipino

• Promise (pangako, salita)

• Purple (lila, ube)• Pressure (presyon,

panggigipit)• Future (hinaharap,

kinabukasan)

• Identify (kilalanin, alamin)

• Painting (larawan, pintura)

• Portrait (larawan, pintura)

• Embezzle (lustay, dispalkuhin)

Malalim ang salin sa Filipino

• Remembrance (pag-alaala)

• Panty (salungki)• Address (direksyon)

• Lady (Ginang) • Hobby (apisyon)• Ticket (bilyete)• Frame (kuwadro)• Clue (bakas)

May angkop na katumbas sa Filipino

• Retire (retiro)• Good news

(mabuting balita))

• Drawing (guhit)• Burn mark

(sunog)• Heavy smoker

(malakas manigarilyo)

• Living room (sala)

talahanayan 4. mga banyagang salita na napanatili sa salin ng mga piling banyagang programa

Ang paggamit ng mga salitang Ingles ay maaaring para maiwasan ang saling hindi angkop sa language register ng mga karakter at konteksto. Ayon kay Calusa, pati ang estado sa lipunan ng mga karakter ay nagiging basehan ng mga salitang ginagamit.21

Madalas nga daw ang paggamit ng mga Ingles na salita kapag ang karakter ay mayaman o may pinag-aralan. O baka naman ay ginagamit ang mga salitang Ingles upang maiwasan ang mga mahahabang salin na hindi tutugma sa bibig ng mga karakter. Isa din ito sa mga idiniin nila Salditos at Vincent Gutierrez na nagsimula bilang mga voice actor.22,23

Bagamat aminado sina Calusa at Salditos (2019) na “kayang gawan ng paraan” ang pagsasalin ng mga diyalogo mula SL papuntang TL ay hindi sa lahat ng sitwasyon ito ay naaangkop. Bumabalik-balik lang ulit sa pangunahing layunin ng pagsasalin sa dubbing, na kumikilala sa pagiging bukas

21 Panayam kay Gail Calusa, Abril 5, 201922 Panayam kay Mary Kristine Salditos, Abril 24, 201923 Panayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, Abril 13, 2019

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ng wikang Filipino.24,25 Dahil dito at sa kakayahang bumuo ng mga salita gamit lamang ang mga apiks ay nagiging bahagi na ng wikang Filipino ang marami sa salitang Ingles tulad ng “panty” at “purple.”26

Lokal na Salitang Isinama sa Salin

Ang mga inilista sa itaas ay mga natatanging salitang Filipino na ginamit sa mga salin. Ang “po” at “opo” ay tanda ng paggalang sa wikang Filipino. Kadalasang ginagamit ito kapag ang kausap ay nakatatanda, tulad ng ipinakita ng mga batang karakter ng Detective Conan: S3 E 26/80 na sila Conan, Gente, Mitsuhiko, Wataru, at Ran; o sa mas nakatataas na posisyon tulad ng paggamit ng mga mga nars sa ospital patungo sa doktor sa Detective Conan muli, at nina Hae Soo at Chae Ryung sa mga may katungkulan sa Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14. Nakatutuwang malaman na sa simpleng pagdagdag ng mga ingklitik na ito ay nailalakip at naipapakita ang pagiging magalang ng mga Pilipino. Patunay lang ito ng palitan ng kulturang nagaganap sa pagsasalin sa dubbing.

Pandagdag pa ang mga salitang “manong” at “tita” na ikinabit o idinagdag sa unahan ng pangalan bilang tanda rin ng paggalang. Sa Detective Conan: S3 E 26/80, ginamit ni Conan ang mga katawagang ito para tukuyin ang mga karakter na hindi niya gaano kilala at mas nakatatanda. Sa katunayan, tinawag niyang “tita” si Kimie Hayase kahit hindi naman niya ito tiyahin o kamag-anak, sumasalamin muli sa natatanging kulturang Filipino. Maganda ring ipagkumpara ang mga diyalogo kung saan makikita ang katawagan. Mapapansin na ang paggamit ng “tita” ay pantumbas sa “miss” habang ang “manong” ay dinagdag na lamang sa linya.

The Spy Next Door Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14

Detective Conan: S3 E26/80

Ingklitik (Po, Opo) • (Sinabinila Principal, Bob Ho, Larry)

(Sinabi nila Hae Soo, Chae Ryung)

(Sinabi nila Conan, Gente, Mitsuhiko, Wataru, Ran, mga nars sa ospital)

Interjeksyon • Nako (Nora) • noh (Ran, Ayumi)• porket (Kimie)

Katawagan • manong (Conan) • tita (Conan)

talahanayan 5. mga lokal na salitang isinama sa salin ng mga piling banyagang programa

conan: Are you all right?!conan: Uy manong, anong nangyayari sa inyo?E K S E N A 2

conan: Say, Miss. Did you remodel this room recently?conan: Curious lang po, Tita. Bago po ba lahat ng furniture niyo dito sa sala?

E K S E N A 3

24 Panayam kay Gail Calusa, Abril 5, 201925 See note 2126 Consuelo J. Paz, Ang Pagsalin sa Filipino. Ang Wikang Filipino: Atin Ito. (Diliman: UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 1995), 50

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Sa kabilang dako, ang mga interjeksyon o mga biglaang pahayag tulad ng “nako,” “noh,” at “porket” ay mga idinudugtong sa mga pangungusap upang magkaroon ng karagdagang emosyon. Sa saling Filipino ng Detective Conan: S3 E 26/80, makikita ang susunod na diyalogo na naglalarawan sa paggamit ng “noh.”

ran: Ganoon din ako, pero maganda naman ang mga painting noh?E K S E N A 1

ayumi: Oo nga noh! Hawak mo pa pala yan?E K S E N A 3

Kapansin pansin na ang mga babaeng karakter lamang ang gumamit ng mga interjeksyon. Maaaring sinasalamin nito ang mas madalas nilang paggamit ng mga salitang ito, o kaya’y implikasyon ng sinasabing pagiging mas mapagpahayag ng mga babae kaysa sa lalaki.

Gaano Kalayo ang Salin

Ang mga susunod na halimbawa ng diyalogo ay nagpapakita ng malayong pagsasalin sa Filipino. Piling mga linya lang ang tinalakay upang ipakita ang pagkakatulad ng mga pagbabagong naganap. Ginamit ng mga mananaliksik na batayan ang diyalogo sa Ingles sa pag-aanalisa at pagkukumpara sa salin sa Filipino.27

The Spy Next Door

No. Karakter Diyalogo sa Ingles Salin sa Filipino

(1) IAN: Mom! She needs to be medicated! Ma! Nababaliw na naman si Farren oh!

(2) NORA: Jethro, you’re getting a time out. Jethro, naiinis na ako sa’yo!

(3) BOB HO: God forbid. Oo naman.

(4) BOB HO: When pigs fly. Subukan mo lang.

(5) BOB HO: He switched belts. Nasaan ang totoo?

talahanayan 6.1 pagkumpara sa mga diyalogong ingles at filipino sa the spy next door

Parehong nanatili ang kahulugan ng mga linyang (1) at (2) sa kabila ng pagpalit ng kaayusan ng pangungusap. Ang mga Ingles na diyalogo ay sumusunod sa paksa muna (“she”, “you”) bago pandiwa (“needs”, “are”); samantalang sa mga salin sa Filipino ay nauuna ang pandiwa (“nababaliw”, “naiinis”) bago ang paksa (“si Farren”, “ako”). Nanatili din ang pagbanggit ng pangalan ng kausap na karakter, “Ma” at “Jethro”. Ang pagtutumbas na naganap ay pagpalit lamang ng mga salita ayon sa konteksto ng eksena. Mas naiintindihan ng mga Pilipino ang “nababaliw” kaysa sa “gagamutin”, para sa direktang salin ng “medicated”. Gayundin ang paggamit ng “naiinis” sapagkat walang direktang salin ang salitang “time out” sa Filipino.

Ang mga linyang (3) at (4) naman ay halimbawa ng mga pahayag o idyoma na hindi maaaring direktang isalin sa Filipino. Ang “when pigs fly” ay naglalarawan ng imposibilidad. Maaari sanang ginamit ang kahawig na katagang Filipino na “kapag pumuti ang uwak” na pareho ang kahulugan.

27 Ursula Hess, Sacha Senécal, Gilles Kirouac, Pedro Herrera, Pierre Philippot, Robert E. Kleck. “Emotional expressivity in men and

women: Stereotypes and self-perceptions.” Cognition and Emotion 14, no. 5 (2000): 610.

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Bilang huli, ang (5) ay nagbago nang lubusan ang uri ng pangungusap. Mula pasalaysay na pangungusap, ito ay naging patanong. Talagang malayo na ang literal na ibig sabihin ng diyalogong Ingles sa Filipinong salin. Maaaring iniwasan ng scriptwriter ang pagsalin sa salitang “belt” kung kaya’t piniling baguhin ang kabuuang pahayag na naaayon pa rin naman sa konteksto ng pagkawala ng tunay na sinturon ng karakter ni Bob Ho sa The Spy Next Door.

The Scarlet Heart Ryeo E14

No. Karakter Diyalogo sa Ingles Salin sa Filipino

(1) WOOK: I hope there are no girls crying over losing such a good man.

Tiyak akong maraming kababaihan ang masasaktan dahil ikakasal ka na.

(2) SO: Are you trying to make me give up on you or do you want me to look only at you?

Pinagagaan mo lang ba ang loob ko ngayon upang lalo pang mahulog ang loob ko sa’yo?

(3) SO:HAE SOO:

Can I do it?No, you can’t.

Oo namanOo sinabi mo ‘yon.

(4) HAE SOO: It’s a rose fragrance. It’s a precious oil made from distilled rose leaves. It will be perfect for an incense pouch. I love it.

Gawa sa rosas ‘to. Langis ‘to na gawa sa talulot ng mga rosas. Mainam ‘tong gamitin na pampabango kaya maraming salamat.

(5) BAEK-HA: He wandered around. He ended up coming back with nothing or something like that.

Alam mo si Prinsipe So, maghapon kaming nag-ikot sa buong daungan upang maghanap ng handog. Wala siyang nakita.

talahanayan 6.2 pagkumpara sa mga diyalogong ingles at filipino ng scarlet heart ryeo e14

Sa (1) ay mula sa kawalan ng katiyakang sa pahayag na “I hope” ay naging kasiguruhan ito sa pahayag na “tiyak ako”. Kasalungat din ang pahayag na “no girls” na pinalitan ng “maraming kababaihan”. Samantalang, may pagtumbas namang naganap sa mga salitang “masasaktan” at “crying” na maaaring isang dulot ng sakit. Dahil sa mga pagbabagong ito ay nabawasan ng uyam o pagkabiro ang mga saling Filipino kumpara sa Ingles na diyalogo. Ang mga sangkap na ito ay dinala na lamang sa paraan ng pagkakasabi ng voice actor.

Mula sa may pinagpipilian ay naging sanhi-at-bunga naman ang anyo ng saling Filipino sa (2). Subalit nito ay nanatili pa rin ang kilig na damdamin. Pansin naman ang mga pahayag na “pinagagaan [...] ang loob” at “mahulog ang loob” na karaniwang ginagamit sa Filipino. Dagdag pa dito ang pagsasalamin sa sikolohiyang Pilipino kung saan pangunahing konsepto ang kalooban.28

Nakapagtatakang sobrang layo ng salin sa (3) dahil ibang-iba na ang kahulugan ng saling Filipino. Ngunit, kapag pinanood ito ay maaaring angkop pa rin ang mga pahayag sa konteksto ng pantutukso ng halikan. Ayon kila Manahan-Cello, Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente madalas ay nangyayari ito sa kabila ng pagpapahalaga pa rin sa kabuuang konteksto ng palabas.29

Sa mga linyang (4) at (5) naman ay makikita ang tradisyunal na pananalitang inaasahan sa isang

28 Virgilio G. Enriquez, Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Perspektibo at direksyon. Ulat ng unang pambansang kumperensya sa sikolohiyang

Pilipino. pats. Lilia F. Antonio, Esther S. Reyes, Rogelia E. Pe, at Nilda R. Almonte (Quezon City: Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang

Pilipino, 1976), pp. 221-24329 Panayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, Abril 13, 2019Pilipino, 1976), pp. 221-243

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historikal na drama. Napanatili ito sa paggamit ng mga salitang “talulot” imbes na “dahon (leaves),” “pampabango” imbes na “pabango (incense pouch),” at “maraming salamat” imbes na “mahal ko ito (I love it).” Mas binigyang diin ang pagiging makaluma ng tagpuan sa (5) na tila mas malalim ang wikang ginamit para sa Filipinong salin kumpara sa Ingles.

Detective Conan: S3 E 26/80

No. Karakter Diyalogo sa Ingles Salin sa Filipino

(1) GWARDYA: Please, sir! Don’t touch the art! And smoking is prohibited!

Bawal pong lumapit sa mga painting, sir. Hindi kayo pwedeng lumagpas sa nilagay naming harang! At isa pa, bawal pong manigarilyo dito sa loob ng museum!

(2) KOGORO: What a weirdo. Paano ba siya nakapasok?

(3) MITSUHIKO: Then let’s go back! Okay lang, nandito pa naman tayo.

(4) MGA BATA: Hello! Good afternoon po!

(5) GENTE: What was it, again? Sabihin niyo na, sabihin niyo na dali!

talahanayan 6.3 pagkumpara sa mga diyalogong ingles at filipino ng detective conan: s3 e 26/80

Sa (1) ay halatang humaba ang salin sa Filipino kumpara sa diyalogo sa Ingles. Ang pahintulot na “please” ay napalitan ng “Bawal pong lumapit sa mga painting, sir. Hindi kayo pwedeng lumagpas sa nilagay naming harang!” marahil iba ang kahulugan ng salin ng “please” sa Filipino. Nanatili naman ang katawagang “sir” sapagkat bahagi na ng wikang Filipino ang salitang ito na kalimitang ginagamit ng mga guwardya, tulad ng inilarawan sa eksena.

Ibang iba naman ang mga kahulugan ng mga pahayag sa (2), (3), (4), at (5) na patunay na lamang ng pag-aangkop sa konteksto ng eksena, programa, at bansa ng TL. Sa kabuuan, ang malalayong saling Filipino mula sa diyalogong Ingles ay nagpapatotoo sa pagiging culture-bound ng mga pahayag. Naiiba ang mga kahulugan depende sa taong nagsasalita, kung paano ginagamit, at sa lugar at wikang pinag gagamitan. Ipinapatunay lang nito na hindi talaga maaaring magsalin gamit ang simpleng pagtutumbas lamang ng mga salita. Ika nga ng mga nakapanayam, “i-transleyt ang konteksto, hindi ang teksto.”

K O N K L U S Y O N

Sa kabuuan, maihahalintulad ang proseso ng pagsalin sa dubbing sa pagiging dinamiko ng wikang Filipino. Ayon pa nga kay Tullao:

“Ang pag-aaral ng pagsasalin ay hindi lamang pagkokompara at pagsusuri ng pares ng pinagmulang teksto at isinaling teksto. Pag-aaral din ito tunkgol sa masalimuot na ugnayan ng pagsasalin, kultura, lipunan, kasaysayan, at kapangyarihan.”30

Para sa polisiya, nais maiparating ng mga mananaliksik na mainam kung magkaroon ng pamantayan sa pamamaraan ng pagsalin upang ang industriya ay mas lumaganap at makapag-impok pa ng

30 Tereso S. Tullao, Pagsasaling-wika sa ekonomiks at kalakalan. [Manuskrito, forum workshop ng mga tagasalin] (Manila: Komisyon

sa Wikang Filipino, 2004)

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maraming konseptong maaaring idagdag at magpayaman sa ating wika at kultura. Sa ganitong paraan, mas maraming mga palabas, aklat, at iba pang literatura ang maaaring maibahagi sa mas maraming Pilipino na ayon rin kay Manahan-Cello ay napatunayang magandang paraan upang ang mga ito ay mas maunawaan ng nakararami.31 Kabilang sa mga nabigyang liwanag pa ng pananaliksik na ito ay ang iba’t ibang batayan sa pagsusuri ng mga banyagang programang isinalin sa wikang Filipino. Napatunayan gamit ang mga batayang ito na mas madalas na ngayong mag-asimila ng mga banyagang konsepto ang mga kasalukuyang scriptwriters at mga direktor, kaysa piliting magpataw ng mga konseptong lokal sa mga banyagang programa. Dahil dito, mas naipapakita lamang na walang tunggaliang nagaganap sa pagitan ng dalawang wika sapagkat ang lumalabas ay isang cultural exchange kung saan ang parehong panig ay nakikinabang sa isa’t isa. Tulad ng wika, ang dubbing ay nagbabago at lumalago kasabay ng paglipas ng panahon. Hindi ito nananatili sa isang anyo — ito ay yumayabong, yumayaman, at patuloy na sumusulong.

30 Panayam kila Rosel Manahan-Cello, Vincent Gutierrez, at Eliza dela Fuente, Abril 13, 2019

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S A N G G U N I A N

Almario, Virgilio S. Mga estratehiya ng pagsasalin sa agham at ibang makabagong larang. Tradisyon at Wikang Filipino. Quezon City: Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 1997.

Antonio, Lilia F. at Florentino A. Iniego, Jr. Botchan at ang lupain ng taglamig: Sulyap at suri sa pagsasaling kros-kultural ng dalawang nobelang Hapones. Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil. Inedit ni Galileo S. Zafra. Diliman : Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2006.

Catford, John Cunnison. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics. OXE: Oxford University Press, 1965.

Enriquez, Virgilio G. Sikolohiyang Pilipino: Perspektibo at direksyon. Ulat ng unang pambansang kumperensya sa sikolohiyang Pilipino. Inedit nila Lilia F. Antonio, Esther S. Reyes, Rogelia E. Pe, at Nilda R. Almonte. Quezon City: Pambansang Samahan sa Sikolohiyang Pilipino, 1976.

Hess, Ursula, Sacha Senécal, Gilles Kirouac, Pedro Herrera, Pierre Philippot, Robert E. Kleck. “Emotional expressivity in men and women: Stereotypes and self-perceptions.” Cognition and Emotion 14, no. 5 (2000): 609-642.

Broadcast code of the Philippines. Kapisanan ng mga Broadkaster ng Pilipinas, 2011. https://www.kbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2008/04/KBP_Broadcast_Code_2011.pdf

Manalili, Perlita G. “Pagsasalin at komunikasyon: Pagsasa-Filipino ng mga banyagang programa sa telebisyon sa kaso ng telenovelang ‘Cristina’” Diliman: College of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines Diliman, 2004

Miclat, Mario I. Pangkalahatang sitwasyon ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas. [Manuskrito, workshop ukol sa kanon ng mga akdang dapat isalin]. Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil. Inedit ni GS. Zafra. Diliman: Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2000.

MTRCB classifications. Movie and Television Review and Classification Board, 2011. https://midas.mtrcb.gov.ph/site/#!/classification

Paz, Consuelo J. Ang Pagsalin sa Filipino. Ang Wikang Filipino: Atin Ito. Diliman: UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 1995.

Peralta, Gerardo. “Mari-Mar: A study on intertextuality and polysemy.” Diliman: College of Mass Communication, University of the Philippines Diliman, 1998.

Respeto, Jerry C. Si Rolando Tinio at ang pagmimina ng dulang banyaga (o kung paano Isinialin ni Tinio ang St. Joan). Salin-suri : Panimulang pagmamapa ng mga larangan ng pag-aaral ng pagsasalin sa Filipinas: Ikatlong sourcebook ng Sangfil. Inedit ni GS. Zafra. Diliman : Sanggunian sa Filipino, UP Sentro ng Wikang Filipino, 2009

“The Wandering Artist Murder Case.” Quebec: Detective Conan World. 2019. https://www.detectiveconanworld.com/wiki/The_Wandering_Artist_Murder_Case

Tullao, Tereso S. Pagsasaling-wika sa ekonomiks at kalakalan. [Manuskrito, forum workshop ng mga tagasalin] Manila: Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino, 2004.

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A B S T R A K

‘Alter’, a community of anonymous Twitter users, is increasingly attracting an online audience in the Philippines; however, research regarding this community is scarce. This study aims to understand the experiences and motivations of Alter users for creating and maintaining their accounts. Semi-structured interviews are conducted on active Alter users (5 males, 4 females) and analyzed using thematic analysis through the interpretivist paradigm. This study establishes that anonymity is the central mechanism for Alter users to perform the two central themes of their experiences: motivations and issues. Results reflect that the motivations for participating in Alter are (1) disagreement with the dominant view of sex as taboo while (2) finding a sense of community perceived as an open space where people can freely express themselves and explore their sexuality and sexual desires, thereby promoting a positive outlook towards sex within the community. However, several issues arise from using anonymity for maintaining it. Finding this sense of belongingness on Alter shows that it is using anonymity for the wrong purposes: (1) identity as a currency within an exchange in order to fulfill each other’s desires, and (2) maladaptive use of anonymity, specifically exploiting anonymity in threatening other members of the community. This study suggest that cyber-social moral ethics bounds the freedom perceived in Alter.

It’s Not Just About Sex: Understanding the Experiences and Motivations of Twitter Alter Users in Metro Manila

ruth magdalene dc. castroshane catherine g. lopezgeorgie kate m. vinagreraregina p. yamada

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Sex and Religion

Sex and sexuality are topics typically avoided in public conversations despite being parts of human nature. According to the cultural relativism perspective of sexuality, cultural beliefs significantly influence the perception of sex as either right or wrong and the decision to engage in sexual activities (Rathus, Nevid, Fichner-Rathus, 2014). Religion is viewed as a pivotal factor in shaping sexual attitudes of people, as investigated by Longest and Uecker (2017) in a two-part survey regarding sexual activities and religiosity conducted on adolescents and young adults. This study concludes that significant regard for one’s religious beliefs and parents’ religiosity influences the participants’ sexual behaviors.

Catholicism in the Philippines

In the Philippines, a country whose culture is deeply anchored to religion, citizens having conservative views on sexual attitudes is not surprising. Moreover, male and female citizens highly value virginity. Furthermore, they are not receptive to the ideas of premarital sex, multiple sex, casual sex, cohabitation, same-sex relationships, and female masturbation mainly because they believe that sex is sacred; that sex is an act that should only be done by married couples (Jose, 2013). This perception of sex is largely expected considering the influence of Catholicism (Delgado-Infante & Ofreneo, 2014; Nadal, 2009, as cited in Tuason, Bernarte, & Dong, 2017).

Catholicism, the religion with the highest number of followers in the country (Philippines Statistic Authority, 2015), is a vital tool that continues to shape society and education. It promotes the belief that children and adolescents are improbable to engage in sexual activities, thereby leaving an impression that discourses about sex are unnecessary (Nadal, 2009, as cited in Tuason et al., 2017). Society constantly avoids discussions regarding sex and sexuality, thus fostering the perception that sex is taboo. Moreover, Catholicism serves as a form of social control by presenting consequences for deviance, such as shame, guilt, and embarrassment (Ellison & Levin, 1998). Furthermore, sex-related information

acquired from parents is restricted within the concepts of gender roles and prohibitions on engaging in sexual activity (Tan, 2001). As a result, adolescents rely more on their sexually experienced friends regarding information and emotions about sex (Chung et al., 2005; “Salud y hábitos sexuales,” 2004, as cited in de Irala, et al., 2009). Unfortunately, the acquired information is often insufficient and improper (de Irala, et al., 2009).

Technology and Sex Education

Sexuality education—an approach used to gain knowledge and form behaviors and beliefs about sexual identity, sex, affinity, and relationships—is needed to address the gap described above (Avert, 2009). This type of education involves enhancing the skills of the youth in making wise decisions; in other words, helping them develop the capacity to determine right from wrong, and this disposition can later facilitate perceptive discourses on social and moral issues about sex and sexuality (Avert, 2009).

Talking about sex in educational and casual conversations is constantly avoided, which lead people to resort to the Internet to find sexually explicit content (Katelyn, McKenna, Green, & Smith, 2001). A study done by Rothman, Kaczmarsky, Burke, Jansen, and Baughman (2014) reports that youths aged 16 to 18 from low-income families use the Internet to access pornographic materials for the purposes of entertainment, for addressing loneliness and boredom, and for gaining sexual gratification. Furthermore, participants in this study expressed that they watch porn to learn how to have sex; this supports the statement regarding the lack of sexual education and unanswered curiosities about sex. As the Internet becomes increasingly accessible and affordable, it provides a highly efficient avenue for people to explore sex and sexuality (Cooper, 1998; Cooper, Scherer, Boies, Gordon, 1999; Cooper, McLoughlin, Campbell, 2000). This benefit catalyzes easier access to managing curiosities about sex (Daneback, Mansson, Ross, & Markham, 2012). The Internet affects certain aspects of people’s lives, and influences how people present themselves online and form social relationships. In this era of rapid technology, the constant Internet usage, specifically for social media, and its

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dramatic influence on accessing information and mediating interpersonal communication, brings new dimensions to sexuality (Cooper, McLoughlin, & Campbell, 2000).

Social Media and Twitter

Social media is a multifaceted technology utilized in various ways (Akram and Kumar, 2017). It is commonly used to establish online connections and disseminate and acquire relevant information (Hermida, Fletcher, Korell, & Logan, 2012). An example of this is Twitter, a prominent social networking site that facilitates online connections and a popular source of information on a wide variety of topics. Different social media platforms offer unique features that attract various users. For example, certain Twitter features allow their platform to become a viable source of information, including highly sensitive topics, such as sex.

Twitter lets its users control the content they see and even report sensitive media; however, numerous tweets containing sensitive content remain uncensored. Twitter does not screen nor remove content unless a particular post is reported to be violating the media policies of the site (“About Offensive Content”, n.d.). Another notable feature of Twitter is it does not impose the Real-Name policy in creating usernames for new accounts, unlike in other social media sites, such as Facebook and Google+ that require using a person’s real name (“Create your Google+ profile name”, n.d.; “Facebook’s Name Policy”, n.d.). The option to use pseudonyms instead of real names when creating new accounts allows users to be anonymous. This allowance paves the way for Twitter to become a platform for accessing and exchanging various kinds of information, including sexual content (Peddinti, Ross, & Cappos, 2014).

Anonymity on the Internet

Anonymity significantly impacts online behavior. Specifically, when people are anonymous online, they tend to engage in acts that they do not usually do in real-life settings—a phenomenon termed as ‘online disinhibition effect’ (Suler, 2004). Suler (2004) postulates that anonymity is among the main factors that encourage the online disinhibition effect.

On the other hand, when people find ways to isolate their online actions from their personal and real-world identities, they are more likely to self-disclose personal experiences; this phenomenon is identified as ‘benign disinhibition’.

Another outcome of being anonymous is that people may be encouraged to partake in behaviors that violate social norms (e.g., bullying or online sexual harassment), a phenomenon called ‘toxic disinhibition’. Their actions cannot be associated with their offline identities; thus, they are not compelled to acknowledge and take responsibility for their actions. This way, anonymity facilitates how people navigate the Internet in expressing and exploring deviant actions. Moreover, this reflects that anonymity is essential for many Twitter users (Peddinti, Ross, & Cappos, 2014), especially those in a community that identifies sexuality as a common form of self-expression and interest. Their Twitter profiles are called “Alter” accounts.

Alter Twitter

Few studies, such as those of San Mateo (2017), Piamonte et al. (2020), and Cao (2021), cover the community of Alter accounts on Twitter. San Mateo (2017) looks into the Alter community on Twitter and employs an online ethnographic approach to describe the Alter community and its various aspects, such as how its members interact and how anonymity influences their participation in the community. The online and offline experiences of 12 Alter community members were gathered using semi-structured, face-to-face interviews; moreover, the Twitter posts of the participants were directly observed over 30 days. All participants self-identify as part of the LGBTQ+ community. Based on San Mateo’s observations and the interview responses, the term “Alter” seems to come from the word “Alternative,” thus implying that an Alter account is characterized by the “construction of an Alternative persona or the alteration of one’s offline identity.” While the members of this virtual community affirm the community’s existence, the participants of San Mateo’s (2017) study could not provide the origin of the Alter community. However, these Alter accounts possibly gather for a specific purpose: to utilize the anonymity on Alter Twitter in

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constructing online personas to explore their sexuality and reveal aspects of themselves that still face disapproval of society. Moreover, members view their community as a “safe space” wherein they can freely express themselves, be open about their sexuality, and engage in sexual activities to satisfy their desires, all without being subjected to usual social stigmas offline. Hence, anonymity is considered a fundamental part of the community.

Piamonte et al. (2020), in their online ethnography about the Alter community, examine the motivations behind users in joining and staying in the Alter community. In the study, 11 men who have sex with men (MSM) Alter users are interviewed. The study shows that while complex social benefits, such as building networks, exchanging advocacies, finding safe spaces, and receiving emotional support, enrich the experiences of the users, their sole reason for joining the Alter community is sexual satiation.

Cao (2021), in a recent study, uses a virtual ethnography approach to understand how Twitter’s technicalities and user practices enable and inhibit the production and spread of pornography, and how these affect gay masculinity and sexual politics. The research contends that the Alter community remains ghettoized due to Twitter’s algorithms and sensitive media policies. Moreover, the participants demonstrated that they deem Twitter to be safe space for as long as they conform to the standards of masculinity posed by most of its users. With this, they highlighted that in terms of sexual politics on Alter Twitter, the desire of gay men to be visible and accepted is hindered.

Understanding the Alter Community

As a relatively new and rising phenomenon, we wanted to know and understand the experiences and challenges faced by Alter Twitter users. In connection with these experiences, we investigated the underlying motivations that may have influenced their continued participation in said community. Moreover, engagements within the Alter Twitter community were further explored by analyzing the nature of the community members’ activities. Lastly, the effects of their continued participation in the

Alter Twitter community on their personal and professional lives were investigated.

The scarcity of research on Alter users’ experiences prompted us to conduct a study that would provide expand this area of interest. We deemed this to be important in preventing the stigmatization of the community, given its noncompliance to the Filipinos’ predominant view on sex. Through this research, members of the Alter Twitter community were given a chance to shed light on their reality. Moreover, we understood the reasons behind creating Alter accounts in our current society. In extension, further knowledge of Alter users’ experiences encouraged us to be receptive to these kinds of online engagements. Additionally, this study helped us understand the context of Alter Twitter in the country, as to its uses as a medium of expression and an avenue to express sexuality. This study bridged the gap in the current pool of research because it tackled the experiences and motivations of various Alter users across the gender spectrum. Through this study, we constructed the downsides and threats present in the Alter community. Lastly, this study benefited us outsiders because it provided meaningful discourse by challenging the prevailing notions surrounding the expression of sex and sexuality.Method

We conducted semi-structured in-person interviews with active Alter Twitter users residing in Metro Manila. We opted for this method to establish rapport with the interviewees given the nature of the study. Jenner and Myers (2019) found that interviews conducted in private settings, whether virtual or in-person, create a greater depth of data and facilitate sharing of deeply personal experiences. Additionally, in-person interviews produce advantages for conversation turns and probing (Johnson et al., 2019). To guide us during the interview, we created an interview guide that contained general questions regarding the definition of ‘Alter’ and the users’ experiences and motivations. We ensured that all participants used their Alter accounts for the past month by tweeting, retweeting, liking, interacting with other Alter users through direct message, and viewing other Alter accounts in order to capture their experiences and motivations. Moreover, we made sure that

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all participants were at least 18 years old due to the sensitive topics during the interview. Due to the secretive nature of Alter, we used purposive sampling and snowball technique for recruiting participants. We created a group Twitter account to find prospective participants and sent direct messages to potential interviewees. Additionally, we used the hashtags ‘#AlterPH’, ‘#AlterPinoy’, ‘#AlterPinay’, and other similar hashtags to find public Alter Twitter accounts that fit our study criteria. Lastly, we looked at the ‘followers’ and ‘following’ lists of these Alter users to find more accounts within their networks.

Given the sensitivity of our topic, the risk for ethical issues arising throughout our research was high. Thus, we applied preventive measures to avoid unethical practices. First, we sent participant information sheets (PIS) to our prospective interviewees for the purpose of transparency. The PIS contained details of the interview and the data analysis and manuscript writing that will be done. This step was done to ensure that participants were aware of the process, benefits, and risks of participation.

We provided consent forms to explain the nature of the study and its objectives, as well as their rights as participants; moreover, we furnished the participants with consent forms for the audio recording of the interview. To ensure the participants’ data privacy, anonymity, and confidentiality, we used pseudonyms and redacted sensitive information that might reveal their real and online identities. Importantly, the participants did not disclose their real names throughout the interview, and as researchers, we only knew them by their online identities. Finally, we password-encrypted all audio files and transcripts from the interview.

To understand the world in which Alter users interact within their community, we studied the data using the interpretivist paradigm, a setting in which the research aims to capture the subjective meaning of the experiences of the chosen population. This paradigm helped us further understand the Alter users by evaluating and interpreting their experiences in order to develop a general picture of their motivations for creating and maintaining their Alter accounts. Moreover,

we used thematic analysis to interpret their narratives in a manner that captured their realities in Alter. Manifesting these, we coded the transcripts, compiled Google Sheets codes, and made a codebook. Using the codebook, we extracted a thematic map that captured the experiences of Alter users.

As researchers, we may have had biases and characteristics that may affect the interpretation of data. Firstly, we were raised Roman Catholic and have conservative views on sex and nudity. Nevertheless, we have been exposed to diverse groups of people and strive to be open to other different beliefs and practices, such as those of Alter users. Furthermore, as we do not own Alter accounts, we are considered outsiders. Nevertheless, given our personal backgrounds, we acknowledged that our preconceptions from limited sources may cause misinterpretation of the data; therefore, we prepared validity procedures, such as reflexivity, member checking, and audit trail.

R E S U L T S A N D D I S C U S S I O N

Our data analysis revealed that anonymity is the central mechanism that allows for the free and unrestricted self-expression of sexuality. Anonymity, in the context of Alter, becomes an essential factor for facilitating participants’ motivations for joining and continuously participating in Alter. Moreover, we identified several issues that arise from using anonymity for wrongful purposes. To clarify this phenomenon, we expounded on the beneficial and harmful uses of anonymity in the Alter community.

As stated, anonymity affords Alter users a space to satisfy their curiosities regarding sex and fulfill motivations aligned with their sexuality. We derived two sub-themes that reflect Alter users’ motivations for participating in the Alter community: (1) motivations for creating an Alter account are rooted in the disagreement with the dominant view of sex as taboo, whereas (2) motivations for maintaining these accounts are tied to finding a sense of community online. The users’ motivations were divided as such due to the observed difference in motive during the creation of the account and the continuous participation in the community. Finding this sense of belongingness on Alter shows that Alter

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is perceived as an open space where people can freely express themselves and explore their sexuality and sexual desires, thereby promoting a more positive outlook towards sex within the community.

On the other hand, we categorized the issues into the following themes: (1) identity as a currency and (2) maladaptive use of anonymity. The latter results in illicit acts, such as harassment and participation of minors on Alter, which will be further discussed later.

We now proceed to explain further the role of anonymity on Alter, the meanings of each theme, and their interconnections.

Beneficial Uses of Anonymity

Anonymity on Alter, as mentioned, encourages users to express themselves and explore diverse stands and activities. This mechanism allows its users to fulfill their motivations for joining the community without sacrificing their real identities and risking their reputations. Alter users can separate their true identities from their online selves by becoming anonymous. This argument is supported by Suler’s (2004) concept of disinhibiting effect—a phenomenon in which people tend to act in ways that are not in line with one’s usual behavior (e.g., disclosing personal information online) or with societal norms (e.g., posting nudes) because of anonymity. They can do and say whatever they want on Alter without the negative consequences they might face if they do such actions in their personal lives. Anonymity protects people from social consequences in several ways, including the ability to deny any accusations. With anonymity providing a safety barrier to people’s identities, Alter users are confident to disclose various things. This is displayed by a participant named ‘Tiger’:

“You could be you. You could expose what you want to express. They would judge you, but it won’t affect you kase they don’t know you personally. Unlike sa real world, kilala ka nila so they could judge easily

(...) unlike in Alter, okay attack me but you can never attack me personally because you don’t know

the real me”.

Alter Twitter is described as an avenue for candor; however, some Alter users use it to create

make-believe content to appease their followers. Ultimately, anonymity allows Alter users to construct and reconstruct their online identities.

“50% real me plus 50% not real me (...) There are times na nag-eexpress ako sa Alter, may parts na ay ‘ako talaga to.’ Pero may mga times na may pagka-fantasy na parang yung (...) Let’s try to be imaginative. It can happen in real life, but I didn’t do it. Most of the time, ‘pag nag-oopen up ako about sa life, syempre totoo yun. (‘Elliot’)”

Alter Twitter in itself may seem paradoxical. Anonymity enables the expression of one’s different side, and simultaneously separates that different side from the wholeness of one’s personality. As a result of this separation, Alter users may not acknowledge the “unacceptable” acts society dictates, because they deem these ‘Alter’ sides to not be entirely them.

Motivation to Join: Disagreement with the Dominant View of Sex as Taboo

The conservative mindset of Filipinos is firmly embedded in the Filipino culture, dominating society’s views on sex as a taboo topic. This was a recurring response from participants when asked to share their motivations for creating their Alter accounts. According to ‘Meg’, one of the participants, this may have been the result of Filipino families’ religious views and moral standards. ‘Lora’, another participant, further supported Meg’s statement:

“Alam mo ‘yung usual close-minded society (...) ang dami nilang masasabi sa ‘yo kahit anong gawin mo, tapos ayon, ang country naman natin medyo aloof

pa diyan, taboo pa ‘yung usapan . . . ng sex.”

This result supports Jose’s (2013) findings, which showed the unreceptiveness of Filipinos on several ideas and discourses surrounding sex, such as premarital sex, multiple sex, and casual sex, due to the belief that sex is a sacred act. Our participants recognized that sexuality is innate in human beings; however, due to societal norms that forbid the outright expression and exploration of sex, most of them shared that they sought a discreet space that is receptive to unconventional ideas and practices regarding sex.

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Anonymity was established by Cooper (1998) as one of the factors that enable the Internet to be an avenue for expressing sexuality. Alter Twitter, with its anonymity feature, then becomes the platform for many users to voice their disagreement against prevailing views on sex. ‘Damon’ explains how needing to express and explore one’s sexuality has enticed some Twitter users to resort to Alter:

“They don’t feel … like they should suppress … themselves from who they really are, and I think as human beings talaga naman na...talagang basic satin na we really want sex. It’s just that a lot of

people are not that open into the idea of accepting na they really want sex. So itong mga taong ‘to since...

not norm nga, they resorted to something more discreet but at the same time could be potentially

strong which is now obviously... a testimony. Nangyari na siya.”

Joining Alter became the participants’ way of rejecting norms while also being cautious. Alter users are enshrouded by anonymity as they express themselves and remain free from the consequences of refusing society’s ideals and norms.

Motivation to Maintain: Sense of Community

Self-expression. Users see Alter as a community that provides an open space to communicate various perspectives, especially unconventional views on sex and sexuality. This freedom in turn motivates users to remain in Alter.

As people learned more about sex and sexuality through the Internet (Leiblum, 1997; Cooper, et al., 2000; Rothman, et al., 2014), they became increasingly open to the concepts of gender and sexuality. However, this openness might be limited to tolerance and not acceptance; thus, some LGBT individuals try to establish spaces for themselves. This aligns with Cooper et al.’s (2000) findings, wherein they found that the Internet allowed marginalized groups, such as the LGBT community, to form virtual communities and become a majority on their own. Given that they shared common interests, people in these virtual communities can freely disclose their sexuality without the fear of judgment (Cooper, et al, 2000).

Similarly, the narratives of our participants displayed a sense of support found within the Alter community. Alter became a haven for free expression, especially for marginalized groups, such as the LGBT community. Eventually, Alter became the space for LGBT individuals to find acceptance and a sense of belongingness with likewise LGBT Alter users. According to the participants’ testimonies, Alter users are highly accepting of individuals who identify as gender-fluid. ‘Dan’ elaborated on this idea:

“Okay kasi para sakin ang Alter account talaga is a sanctuary . . . for the … LGBTQ community, whole

community. It . . . serves as a safe place for people who would want to know where they belong… hindi

kasi lahat ng bakla, open. Hindi lahat ng bakla natatanggap ng magulang. This is a place where

they get to speak.”

Nonetheless, our participants acknowledged that Alter users remain judgmental of certain Tweets, especially if the Tweets go against their moral standards. ‘Lala’ described this in one of her experiences:

“Kasi even if it’s a safe space for you to express yourself, people still hold certain standards. So

cheating is not... definitely not one of them. They don’t tolerate it. So, if you say that Alter... is... is

a safe space where you can be yourself and still be accepted by people... you can be yourself, period.

But... it’s not a given... that you will be accepted by other people.”

Lala’s statement denotes that Alter provides a space for venting and free expression; however, complete acceptance of any and all views is not assured. While anonymity can protect Alter users’ real identities, their online identities remain open to criticism, rude comments, and bashing within the online space. Thus, some participants labeled Alter an “open space” rather than a “safe space”:

“As in open community, the people there ha. Hindi as in to the... WholeWorld . . . Kasi nga ‘di ba

discreetly open community kumbaga kapag nandun ka na it’s very open but at the same time... hindi

ka pa rin naman exposed to the world eh (. . .) may limit pa rin yung openness niya. It’s like an open

secret society, a secret open society.” (‘Damon’)

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Despite this, many users stay on Alter Twitter for the purpose of self-expression, because the consequences of online criticism outweigh those of real life. Concealing one’s real identity and being on Alter Twitter proves advantageous because people would not be able to make personal attacks.

Alter Twitter became a viable platform for users to articulate their views on sex and sexual experiences. Alter users usually stay on Alter because they have the freedom to post sexually explicit content, which they cannot do on their main social media sites due to fear of wrecking their real-life and online reputations. Through Alter, they can express their sexuality without the fear of judgment and criticism from others.

“Parang siguro siya yung escape ng ibang tao sa criticism, sa judgment, of course we live in a country

wherein the catholic religion is very dominant kapag expressive ka when it comes to sex, iba ‘yung

connotation. Iba ‘yung dating sa kanila, ang dating kaagad is kumbaga pokpok ka or babaeng

mababa ang lipad ka.” (‘Tiger’)

This statement reflects the findings of Cooper, McLoughlin, and Campbell (2000) on online sexuality that found that the Internet provides an opportunity for isolated or disenfranchised individuals to create an online community where they can talk about sexual topics of shared interest. The Alter community became a tool for people to view sex positively and veer away from its stigma. According to ‘Lala’, people on Alter do not consider sex as taboo: “people in Alter are generally sex-positive people. Which is nice. If you wanna express yourself . . . your...sexuality, it’s... that’s good. And Alter is supposedly a safe space for that.”

Alter users share a similar interest in expressing sexuality and in forwarding positive views toward sex. Being able to exhibit their sexuality by posting sexual content, such as nudes and sex videos, allows them to receive likes based on their appearance, and this helps boost the participants’ confidence. ‘Meg’ mentioned how she feels a sense of validation and affirmation when people show appreciation of her appearance:

“Dun ko nga nakukuha ‘yung appreciation and affirmation eh so when (...) I feel like people

appreciate how I look, whenever I feel secure, dun pumapasok na I’m worth something.”

The attention and validation Alter users receive are directly proportional to their fame and reach. This was an evident motivation behind Alter users’ choice to remain on Alter. When asked why she stayed on Alter despite having negative experiences, ‘Jane’ stated that receiving attention for posting nude photos motivated her to stay:

“Hmm the amount of attention that I get kasi is...nakakatuwa rin sya (...) Masarap sya sa feeling to be honest. Kung tatanungin mo most of the people sa Alter, yung attention talaga na nage-gain mo is...ano nakaka-overwhelm pero at the same time parang naboboost yung self-esteem mo. Parang

nava-validate ka.”

Importantly, Alter is not just a space solely for speaking about sexuality; some users share their advocacies on HIV awareness and other interests, such as political stances, gaming, art, and pop culture.

These stories about Alter users’ experiences regarding their freedom to express adhere to previous studies’ findings that show how communication using a sex positivity-aligned approach leads people to reduce the stigma around sexual choices and start potential intervention work (Higgins et al. 2011; Moore and Smith 2012). Alter users not only created a community where they can freely express themselves and satisfy their curiosities; they also highlighted issues that surround the conservative nature of most Filipinos.

Exploration. The Alter Twitter community serves as a refuge for exploring sexual desires, sexual fantasies, interacting with strangers, and creating new relationships, facilitated by anonymity. Moreover, many users can express their exhibitionistic tendencies. As expressed by ‘Samuel’, one may find their sexual desires by exploring one’s sexuality and finding comfort in knowing one’s sexual desires.

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“I guess for me, it’s kind of a kink or fetish uhm...medyo may pagka-exhibitionist so I like showing

off and stuff like that... so knowing that I’ve turned someone on, also turns me on.”

The sense of community, as eased by anonymity, allows for the exploration of one’s sexual desires. On Alter Twitter, social boundaries that prohibit the expression of sexuality are not present. Interest and consent are mutual within the community in expressing inhibited sexual desires and fantasies.

“. . . through Alter I’ve also experienced one of my fantasies before...so... one of my fantasies was

having a threesome so through Alter I was able to do that as well.”

(‘Samuel’)

Finding people with the same interests eases the extent of topics and questions that may be talked about. To an extent, Alter allows its users to physically manifest their sexual fantasies, granted that they find users with similar desires.

In the Philippine context, we cannot simply ask vulgar questions in casual conversations. As mentioned, the cultural impact of religion shaped us to be conservative and this restricts conversations to wholesome discussions. In contrast, Alter does not conform to this norm, and this nonconformity amplifies openness to sexual exploration and fulfillment of sexual desires. Alter users can freely divulge their sexual experiences within the community without fear of judgment:

“. . . and then you could actually express din na, “I just had the most boring sex”, “I just had the most fun sex”

‘yung mga ganun bagay. Unlike in real life, gusto mong i-express ‘yun na--gusto mong i-share but you cannot kase siguro five minutes later ijujudge ka na ng mga

kakilala mo. Ayon.” (‘Tiger’)

Given that the networks of Alter users share the same degree of sexual freedom, they also get vicarious pleasure from the experiences and stories of other Alter accounts. Being on Alter further promotes the sense of community by supporting each other’s kinks and sexual explorations, as shared by one of the participants:

“Unlike with … Alter, kapag pinost mo ‘yon, parang i-kukulitin ka pa nila, “oh tell us about it”, “kwento

mo”, “post mo” ‘yung mga ganon.” (‘Tiger’)

Evidently, anonymity enables the exploration of a side of an individual that is hidden from society. Being anonymous helps Alter users freely express their sexual explorations without hesitation and fear of judgment because they are with a group of people who share the same curiosity and passion regarding sex.

Building on these, Alter users form relationships within their community as they make friends and support open-mindedness. This becomes a motivation to stay in Alter because they can forge meaningful connections and find belongingness within a community:

“Ayun yung maganda sa Alter kasi nakakabuild ka ng relationship with people without having to judge each other unlike pag face-to-face kasi ano eh so you

have to assess [the] person muna. Unlike sa Alter kasi makikilala mo na yung person all the more na

nag-iinteract kayo online.” (‘Lala’)

Harmful Uses of Anonymity

Fulfilling the users’ motivations for creating and maintaining their accounts is an essential factor in their continued use of Alter. Nonetheless, they still pointed out issues they must face to prolong their stay. One such issue is the usage of identity as a currency within the Alter community.

Issues: Identity as currency

As an avenue for forming relationships, Alter entails establishing trust, which is in turn built through transactions of identity. This is where the paradox of anonymity comes into play. Anonymity breaks the barriers of self-expression and exploration and serves as a social lubricant. However, the pursuit of establishing profound connections may entail breaking the cloak of anonymity:

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“So, gets, if...it’s not established na you’re the alpha one, na you’re the more desired one between the two

of you, then definitely...hindi siya magbibigay ng picture. So…pano tatakbo yung gusto niyong

mangyari. Hindi siya mangyayari.” (‘Damon’)

In these transactions, identity is used as a currency. Using one’s identity in this manner is likened to the concept of “social currency,” which Botsman (2018) defines as the reputation of an individual or entity acquired in a particular social network. Social currency reflects the individual’s value within a specific network. However, using identity as such provides leeway for several risks. The more discreet an Alter user is, the more value their identity possesses. Thus, Alter users find the need to be protective of themselves. An imagined political field seems to be present across Alter, wherein a user finds the need to establish their authority first.

“So halimbawa super...I like all his videos, I like all his photos, and I really wanna have sex with him.

But the thing is...I don’t wanna give up my identity. Because when I approach him...he would ask...

something...first. He would ask for...how I look like... It’s either face pic or dick pic...ganon and I’m not

willing to give that.” (‘Damon’)

Establishing dominance in Alter can serve as protection for one party but a risk for another. The person who reveals himself has greater perceived risk if the other party does not reveal themselves in return. This form of social transaction can become problematic when harm is inflicted upon the ‘revealed’ party. A possible threat is trauma secondary to broken trust and promises; moreover, the intangibility of the ‘unrevealed’ party may be exacerbated by the power of anonymity.

Issues: Maladpative Use of Anonymity

The issue of the usage of identity as a negotiation chip brings to light another issue: exposing an Alter user’s identity without consent. This has become widespread due to the exchange of members’ identities.

Exposure of identity. Although the risk of one’s identity being exposed already starts upon joining

the Alter community, the risk keeps growing as a user engages further with other users. ‘Damon’ narrated one scenario that exhibited this: “kasi biruin mo ano nagvivideo sila together . . . so yung parang even though only one person has those files…that one person can still...expose you all.”

Moreover, we can infer from the above statement the tremendous amount of trust involved when Alter users reveal their identities to other members when they physically engage in sexual activities.

As a currency in Alter, identity increases in value as the person participates in more different activities. With immense value attached to one’s identity, a greater challenge is seen in evading damage to the reputation when one is exposed. How far these pieces of information will go is uncertain. Betrayal of trust by exposing the identity of an Alter user serves to deter Alter’s existing users from joining several activities, as told by ‘Jane’ in her story:

“We have this term ‘tukmols’ sa Alter Twitter, sa community namin. And..I encountered that tukmol

from [college] and he exposed me. And as a [year level] yeah I’m a [year level] medyo scary sya so medyo...lie low na. But I’m still active in Alter.”

Expression of hate. Aside from the form of harassment that stems from the users’ flawed usage of the knowledge of one’s identity, other harassment issues exist. The first involves the fact that Alter is an open space, but not necessarily a safe space. Alter is said to be a place of refuge, but hostility from the Alter community can never be discounted.

“Like most cliques or groups, there are some backstabbing issues, and they use their platform or

their accounts to throw shade at each other especially with the anonymity factor; it’s pretty easy to bring

someone down.” (‘Samuel’)

Most participants said that Alter Twitter is an avenue for self-expression that comes without judgment. However, the acceptance of the community has a limit. Open-mindedness to sex and its related topics is the Alter community’s unique characteristic; however, morals and principles prevail when judging

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right from wrong, or personal preference may still interfere with the freedom of expression of others (i.e., hating just because), as seen from evidence. For this reason, many users still curate their content despite the promoted idea of free self-expression on Alter. This is narrated by one of the participants:

“You got criticized, so ano from that point on... maybe yung struggle of staying as safe as possible sa

mga tweets. Halimbawa, you would want to tweet smart, ayaw mo nang maka-attract ng negativity,

ayaw mo nang mabash ka. So, kung yung mga tweets ko well-constructed, iwas bash.”

(‘Dan’)

Validating another user in Alter is undoubtedly as easy as bashing others. There are only two ways to send validation on Twitter, namely, via likes and retweets, unlike hatred that can be conveyed via subtweeting and sending direct messages. These acts of hatred and bashing can be explained by the influence of anonymity on Twitter. Zimmerman and Ybarra (2016) found that anonymous online users have higher tendencies to be aggressive than those who are not anonymous. This increase of negative behaviors online occurs because of the disinhibition effect facilitated by anonymity (Suler, 2004). Anonymity masks the individual from being accused of their uncharacteristic and aggressive behaviors.

Identity Theft. Online content is on public domain, thereby facilitating easy access to information. Some users abuse this advantage for personal gains. One is by using someone else’s photos or content to mirror compliments given to the original source of content.

“Others use... other people’s photos. But... that’s... uhm... in... discouraged in Alter kasi... there...

there’s... this thing called catfishing... in Alter and... using someone else’s photo, not just for your profile photo but also for your content...

na… you’d be identified as catfish kasi you’re using someone else’s identity.”

(‘Lala’)

As with other social media spaces, Alter accounts or identities can be claimed by other users, which may compromise the real users’ safety. The authentic accounts may bear the

unnecessary repercussions of the unacceptable action (i.e., misleading other users) of the catfisher—somebody who pretends to be someone they are not.

Sexual Objectification. One’s identity is not the only matter at risk on Alter; dignity and psychological health are on the line. These become severely damaged whenever Alter users take advantage of anonymity and sexually objectify other users. Sexual objectification is usually exhibited by Alter users who immediately assume naked photos as invitation for sex, as recounted by ‘Lala’:

“Putting your body out there... you are... putting yourself in a position where you can easily be

objectified by men. It’s not their fault . . . if they want to express themselves that way . . . It’s just

that, in this society we live in, where objectification of women is really a thing, hindi mo talaga . . .

maiiwasan na ma-objectify ka. In fact, it’s one issue in Alter na when you post your…nudes, matic yan maraming magd-DM sayo if you . . . wanna have sex with them . . . it’s sad kasi . . . it’s supposedly a

safe space for women... and for men naman.”

Unfortunately, the Alter community is not a simulated environment that is free from uncontrollable factors. With the intention of promoting body positivity when posting nudes, the risk of expressing to a vast audience comes attached. Some users immediately assume nude content is invitation for sex. This risk shows that Alter cannot be an absolutely safe space, as it is not entirely composed of members with pure intentions. This further supports the earlier statement that Alter is an “open space” rather than a “safe space” for people seeking refuge in this community.

Participation of Minors. The Alter Twitter community continues to grow, and with this the unpredictability of profiles increases. As seen in the aforementioned risks, this unpredictability is disturbing to some users, as ‘Jane’ states:

“Every year dumadami yung users sa Alter, although...merong parts kasi na...nagiging sketch kasi hindi mo alam kung sino yung mga minor…

Hindi mo alam kung sino yung catfish.”

Jane’s account shows that apart from the

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catfishers, minors are a risk and at risk within the community. Unfortunately, as of today, no strict measures have been put up that prevent the participation of minors in Twitter, specifically in Alter Twitter. This leniency allows minors to be exposed to the risks of Alter, as ‘Lala’ recounts:

“Oo, may mga minors din ‘don...at least yung mga...the good Alter accounts (...) pinupulis naman nila ‘yon (...) Yung mga tukmol lang talaga yung mga

nag…na.. tuwang-tuwa diyan sa mga . . . menor de edad.”

Twitter’s leniency notwithstanding, the community applies certain grounds on who can participate in Alter Twitter. This shows that despite being an open space, the Alter community still adopts some social rules of the real world, but only those perceived to belong at a higher tier (e.g., moral standards). Nonetheless, Alter users do not follow these standards by way of intruding on others’ personal decisions, especially those of minors; instead, some users advise and guide them.

Some maladaptive usages of anonymity, such as attacking other users, spreading false information, and revealing other peoples’ identities, are shown in Peddinti, Ross, & Cappos’ (2014) discourse regarding the favorable and unfavorable functions of anonymity on Twitter. Thus, the misuse of anonymity is not exclusive on Alter but is ever-present on the medium itself.

C O N C L U S I O N

Given the scarce resources available regarding Alter, the need to create Alter accounts had to be first understood. This study sought to understand the experiences and motivations of Twitter Alter account users for creating and maintaining their accounts.

The study revealed that the experiences of Alter users are anchored on the concept of anonymity. Anonymity is the central mechanism of Alter Twitter and it enables users to engage with the community. However, participation within the Alter community has limits. First, due to the Philippines being dominantly Catholic, most Filipinos have conservative views,

especially regarding sex and sexuality. From our interviews, Alter users regard Alter Twitter as an outlet to express their sexuality, views, opinions, and advocacies that are commonly refused by society. Our interviewees stressed that they felt more able to speak using their Alter accounts, given their anonymity and their audience being liberated and like-minded. Moreover, based on the users’ answers, they continue to use their Alter accounts because they experience a sense of community within the open space that is established for self-expression and exploration of sex and sexuality. Aside from these, users move within a community that accepts their Alter personalities. This study further demonstrated that users create Alter accounts due to the dominant view of sex being taboo.

On the other hand, anonymity on Alter Twitter permits several risks and issues within the community. The interactions and relationships built within the community may involve maladaptive usages of anonymity, such as expression of hate, identity theft, sexual objectification, and the participation of minors. Additionally, identity is an essential component within relationship building on Alter. Hence, identity is considered a currency that allows users to navigate Alter Twitter.

Lastly, while most Alter Twitter content is sexual in nature, this majority does not represent all of Alter Twitter. Alter Twitter tackles several societal topics that are not usually discussed with friends and acquaintances offline. Moreover, Alter Twitter can serve as a repository of information regarding sex, sexuality, and societal issues. Alter Twitter is paradoxical; it provides leeway for Alter users to construct and reconstruct their online identities. Furthermore, Alter Twitter allows users to be upfront without their opinions being attributed to their ‘real world’ personalities.

I M P L I C A T I O N S

In the Philippines, the present discourse on sex and sexuality remains predominantly conservative and heteronormative. This study reflects that online users’ participation in the Alter community is a well-thought action in response to the prevailing views on the expressions of gender and sexuality. Due to sex

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being taboo, important topics, such as sex, sexual health, and SOGIE, are not openly discussed in public and are thus mostly inaccessible. The lack of discussion and awareness translate to discrimination towards members of the LGBTQ+ community and those who have preferences that may seem unorthodox, such as casual partnerships and polygamous relationships.

Through this study, we hope to contribute to the small body of research regarding Alter. Shedding light on this topic may help alleviate the stigma about the Alter community, given that they do not conform to the Filipino society’s prevailing views on sex and sexuality. Moreover, we aim to challenge the prevailing notions surrounding the expressions of sex and sexuality to further discussions in the Philippines.

L I M I T A T I O N S A N D

R E C O M M E N D A T I O N S

Our study showcases the experiences of Alter Twitter users, specifically their motivations for creating and maintaining their accounts and their perceived risks of staying in the said community. We generated rich data regarding this community; however, we acknowledge that we only provide a general overview of it. Several limitations can be further examined and developed, namely:

1. Due to logistical concerns, all participants are from Metro Manila. We recognize the possibility of differences among users from different parts of the Philippines; therefore, we highly recommend recruiting geographically diverse participants in future studies.

2. Our sample does not entirely represent all genders and sexual orientations. Emphasizing the differences among genders and sexual orientations may further enlighten the phenomenon. Additionally, when covering liberated and gender-fluid groups, understanding the LGBTQ+ community may provide potency to the goal.

3. The data were gathered via in-person interviews because we wanted to build trust and rapport while providing confidentiality

to our participants. However, despite the confidentiality provided by this method, the participants were not completely anonymous. This lack of anonymity may have given rise to social desirability. To deal with this tendency, future researchers may opt to gather supporting information by pre-existing textual data collection due to its efficiency in exploring people’s experiences and practices, and this aligns with the objectives of this study (Malik & Coulson, 2008, as cited in Braun & Clarke, 2013).

4.Our study only focused on analyzing the data related to sex and sexuality. Consequently, we failed to delve deeper into their experiences in forming and maintaining relationships, forwarding advocacies, consuming pornography, dealing with gender politics, establishing roles in the community, using Twitter as a platform, exposing their nakedness, and being body positive. All these aspects within the community warrant exploration, as each may contain different yet related narratives that can expand the knowledge on the phenomenon of interest.

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“Dogs are not surrogates for theory; they are not here just to think with. They are here to live with. Partners in the crime of human evolution.” – Donna Haraway

Lacan sits at the corner of my room, intently watching me. He waits with anticipation, looking for signs that I’m awake, so he can shower me with licks and kisses the moment I move even a finger. We are each other’s 7 o’clock appointment. I push myself up from the bed with a jolt, causing him to scamper towards me. As he covers my face with licks, I stand up and walk to the kitchen counter to prepare his breakfast—both of us getting ready for the day ahead.

We found ourselves landlocked in this social terra firma, entangled in this conjoined ontological choreography one fateful day on the last week of January 2019. The spirit of the New Year’s celebration had already passed and I found myself staring blankly at my new apartment. The thrill of living on my own with a meager salary from working at a nearby university did not hit as expected. Something was missing; a feeling of emptiness despite my new freedom. I was browsing Facebook one night, seeing virtual animals on my timeline when I realized: I was alone. And I was lonely.

The day I fetched him, I carried him in a blue shoe box. I placed him in a diaper to prepare for the taxi ride from Makati to Marikina. Lacan was the runt of the litter, the unluckiest draw from the gene pool of an aspin father and a shih tzu mother. Phenotypically, he manifested his father’s characteristics: lacking shaggy fur, and this made him an improper shih tzu. This marked him as being unwanted.

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The day I met him, Lacan was veritably marked aspin—spared from getting tossed to the streets, from being askal.

‘Aspin’ is the socially acceptable term, as suggested by the People Animal Welfare Society (PAWS) when referring to Lacan’s type. ‘Askal’ or ‘asong kalye’ reeks of ignominy associated with living in the streets. This city is harsh to street dwellers. Moreover, such socially constructed categories matter in the animal kingdom. These categories decide who gets to live in a home, thrown into the streets, or served on a plate. Aspin denotes a ‘home’ dog, usually chained as ‘bantay’; on the other hand, askal is a vagabond, with skin patched with mange, constantly searching for scraps.

Representations of animals affect the trajectory of a species’ history. The background of Palawan Pangolins, considered the most trafficked animal in the world, demonstrates this; the pangolins’ scales are said to be ingredients in traditional medicine, and this claim has caused the species to be critically endangered. Burt (2001) asks us to examine animal categories in order to see how species bear the symbolic and biological consequences of an anthropocentric imagination. Dog history, for instance, is a story of biopower and biosociality (Haraway, 2003). Moreover, echoing the accounts of human repressions in Michel Foucault’s We the Other Victorians, canine bodies underwent violent and explicit biological engineering to develop the apex dog breed (vonHoldt and Driscoll, 2017). During this time, the American Kennel Club (AKC) was formed, which in corollary heralded an astute focus on artificial breeding. Prestigious pedigrees with desirable phenotypic traits, such as dwarfism, were bred out of canine genes via continuous artificial selection and reproduction. Furthermore, this was the time of breed-specific ailments that erupted in and out dog bodies due to the severe mutations (Haraway, 2013).

The need to acquire a show dog during this era was partly meant to display the dog owner’s wealth. Bodies of dogs symbolized human affluence. Pure-bred dogs contributed to fabricating an elite social capital. Centuries later, Lacan still carries the weight of this gentrification. In the Philippines, aspins are

still considered lower in rank compared to their pedigreed kin.

Even the categorization of “pet” in the Philippines opens trivial inquiry about what it means to be one. Lasco (2021) cites as uncommon the differences in the ways Filipino households treat their alaga, in which the pedigreed dog is allowed inside while the aspin is left outside as bantay. Serpell (1986) says that an animal being considered a pet is to elevate its status by allowing it inside human domiciles. But aren’t pets also victims of abuse? Bodies exploited in puppy mills, dogs chained and left in backyards because the novelty of having a cute puppy has expired.

Lacan, for instance, is a pet. More precisely, he is my pet. I follow all the performative derivatives that come when I say that I am his pet owner, or when I say that he is my pet dog. I enter ontological routes that conceptually and socially construct the person I am when I utter such a pronouncement, from being dog and/or animal lover, to veterinary-bill payer, to pet-goods shopper, and even as fur parent.

The word pet (n.) comes from its other form as a verb. An animal is a pet if it is meant to be petted, to be held, and to engage in communication where touch is the medium of transaction and instruction. To be pet is to be touched. On most nights, Lacan even asserts his pet-ness by wedging his head between my chest and resting elbow. He not only asks to be petted, but demands. Our human-animal relationship is based precisely on this co-touching. Touch: the basic medium of the animal’s body. Classen (2012) asks: aren’t animals “virtually all body” (p. 92)? Thus, dogs are essentially beings of touch.

Lacan and I share interspecies transfectin—passing to one another our histories; our own significations—“vibrant practices of love” as philosopher Donna Haraway (2003, p. 16) calls it.

Still, a greater symbiogenetic story is inscribed and encrypted in our flesh, and this story entangles us together as Homo sapiens and Canis familiaris. Dog and humans share an evolutionary history that shaped us through and with another biologically and culturally,

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even before I came and earned the right to call him my pet (Kendall, 2008).

I like to imagine that the world prepared itself for millennia up until the day Lacan and I met on that fateful day in Makati: the distinct evolutionary history of our species intertwining to form a knot, an entanglement. Filipino archaeologists have found evidence of human-dog socialization in the Philippines, proving that dogs have always occupied a special position in their society relative to other animals. A right occipital fragment of a dog from late Holocene was found in Pasimbahan Cave, Palawan (Ochoa et al., 2014) and a dog burial situated among human burial sites during the Neolithic Period was found in Nasagbaran, Northern Luzon (Amano et al. 2013) suggest that dogs were valued by early natives. Mourning and placement among human burial sites tell of the gravity of the death of a canine companion. Today, some of us are familiar with this pain. Pets are family members. Sometimes, even, they are the only family we have.

Lacan’s progenitors are grey wolves (Canis lupus). Archaeozoologists agree that dogs are the first species of animals that were domesticated by early hominins (Clutton-Brock, 2017; vonHoldt, 2017; Hiby and Hiby, 2017). Taming and domestication refer to different things. Taming means a person allows a wild animal to get accustomed to his presence, whereas domestication incites genetic, physiological, and behavioral changes in the animal that leads to the development of a “unique human–animal relationships that vary greatly both in quality and intensity” (Clutton-Brock, 2017). In the phylogenetic tree, dogs diverged from wolves 100,000 years ago; however, analysis of their respective mitochondrial DNA shows that the diversion happened as early as 16,000 to 12,000 years ago.

Dogs tamed humans, too. Lacan’s first few days in my apartment were challenging. His presence changed the way I planned my every day. I thought I had prepared for the worst by researching extensively about housebreaking, but I did not expect to him to be resistant to using the potty mat I provided. He taught me patience. Or maybe it was something that I always had, but he brought out of me. Waking

up in the morning to a mess after Lacan missed the potty mat took adjustment. Worse were his nightly tantrums that made me question my decision to adopt him. Yet, I understood his cries; I knew what it meant to leave the pack. I knew that after some time, Lacan will eventually learn to trust me as his companion, just as his ancestral wolf kin learned to live adjacent to early human settlements. VonHoldt and Driscoll (2017) speculated that the first proto-dogs were born from wolves that had the “propensity to associate with or tolerate some degree of proximity to human groups.” (28). These tolerant wolves eventually pioneered the first generation of proto-dogs by passing on to their offspring the genetic code of their less aggressive temperament to humans (ibid.). These proto-dogs scavenged around human-settlements instead of hunting, and this behavior eventually led to the failure of developing skeletal and muscular tools for hunting megafauna (Clutton-Brock, 2017). Domestic dogs carry the history of their contact with humans in their body. Their contact with humans changed them.

In this evolutionary narrative, wolves and humans tamed each another. However, prevalent literature on the subject is only interested in showing that dogs are the only ones that underwent these biological changes through domestication. None of these studies show the evolutionary implications of dog domestication to us as a species. Refusal to acknowledge the profound effects of dog domestication indicates the height of our “anthropological egocentrism,” which means to regard “ourselves as miraculously unmarked by the effects of these phenomena, especially in our evolutionary relationship with the oldest domesticated species” (Kendall, 2008, p. 201).

The Philippine colonial experience demonstrates how Filipino-becoming and identity-making are affected by the entanglement of human-canine ontologies. The 16th-century Visayan high regard for domestic dogs, who they “pampered,” “fondled,” kissed, and “carried” on top of shoulders (Scott, 1994, 48), was challenged when in 1544 a Spanish solider insulted a Leyte merchant by comparing him to a “dog” (Scott, 84, 1994). The Spaniard’s pronouncement of the word dog as an insult

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intuits the injection of anthropocentric western attitude towards animals that considers them as lesser beings than humans in the native psyche. This worldview stems from the Aristotelian notion of the Scala Naturae (The Great Chain of Being) that hierarchizes beings according to their “perfection”, in which Humans are considered species par excellence (DeMello, 2012). By comparing the Leyte merchant to a “dog”, the Spanish soldier reduced him to something less than human.

A similar occasion happened at the advent of American colonialism in the Philippines, in which Filipinos were framed as savages through the asocena. Asocena is a portmanteau of the words aso (dog) and the Spanish cena (dinner) and means dog eating (Fernandez, 2010). In the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair during the Louisiana Purchase, dog-eating Igorot were exhibited as if zoo animals. Note how the category animal was once again juxtaposed to the human. The Igorot traditionally practiced dog-eating as part of their rituals (Heinrich, 2017) and this was to acquire the “brave spirit” of the animal. Thus, canines were tied and aggravated first to unleash such aggression for the consumption of the masculine warrior class, which was especially needed in head-hunting expeditions (Heinrich, 2017, p.34). Here, western dietary ideology regarding dog consumption conflicted with the Filipino asocena, which it considered taboo. Thus, It is through the body of the dog that we were crucified in the Western gaze as Other. Their existence prompted the necessary conditions for the Philippines to undergo the experience of colonization. This historical moment inspired the writer Jessica Hagedorn to name one of her novels Dogeaters (1990).

Even contemporary examination of the subject reveals the western influence towards dog eating in the Philippines. The archaeological literature I described earlier by Amano et al. (2013), which discusses Philippine Neolithic and Metal attitudes towards dogs, found that besides dog burials, there were also skeletal remains of dogs that exhibited butchering marks in the area. They surmised that these butchered dogs were treated as lesser than other dogs that underwent burial rites or were freely roaming the area. Yet, butchering dogs does not mean that a culture diminishes

the societal status of an animal. Consider for instance what 19th-century explorer George Caitlin saw in the case of the Sioux Indians who served their companion dogs to him to honor his arrival. Caitlin pointed out that dogs that were served as meat did not necessarily mean that they were looked down upon by Sioux society. For in the case of the Sioux, the very offering of their companion animals was a form of ultimate sacrifice to indicate their willingness to let go for the sake of another (Serpell, 1986). Other sacrifices in their society would symbolically amount to nothing because there was no attached emotional investment in them. Hence, dogs in Sioux society possessed great cultural value, and that was why they fit the requirement of a prestigious sacrifice.

However, I am opposed to the practice of dog eating. If Lacan could read my mind, he can sleep soundly knowing that I am not contemplating eating him as I write this. Invoking cultural relativism is tempting on the matter of dog-eating now that it persists until today in the form of festivals, such as the controversial Yulin Festival in China. Moreover, a quick Google search shows that dog eating is still done in some areas in the Philippines.

The pressing weight of our entangled history compels me to oppose it. Anthropocentrism dictates that humans emerged as humans upon the mastery of nature. However, multiple species are bound, shaped, enmeshed, and sometimes pitted against each other within a collective patchwork of the evolution of the world. I have never been just a human as Lacan has never been just a dog (Haraway, 2013), and perhaps this is what compelled me to frame the I in this essay within this larger zoontology of our species. To challenge dominant anthropocentric narratives, we insist telling ourselves that in learning Lacan’s history, I find pieces of myself within it. We are made from the same star-stuff, after all.

These past nights, Lacan jumps on top of my bed and proceeds to stare at the open jalousie, towards the full moon up the sky. Winds coming down from a distant mountain flit past Loyola Memorial and then towards him, gently touching his face. I imagine the primal need to howl start building in his body—

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the ghostly wolf buried within, deep in his cells and nerve receptors. I rise from by bed and join him in his watch. This is how we face the Anthropocene: together—his paw by my hand, his fur by my skin, each atom brushing upon each infinitesimal atom.

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W O R K S C I T E D

Amano, Noel Philip J. Piper , Hsiao-chun Hung & Peter Bellwood (2013) Introduced Domestic Animals in the Neolithic and Metal Age of the Philippines: Evidence From Nagsabaran, Northern Luzon. The Journal of Island and Coastal Archaeology, 8(3)317-335. DOI:10.1080/15564894.2013.781084

Burt, J. (2001) The Illumination of the Animal Kingdom: The Role of Light and Electricity in Animal Representation. Society and Animals, 9 (3) (p. 304). Retrieved fromhttps://www.animalsandsociety.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/burt.pdf

Classen, C. (2012). Animal Skins. The Deepest Sense: A Cultural History of Touch (p. 92). Chicago: University of Illinois Press.

Clutton-Brock, J. (2017) Origins of the dog: The Archaeological Evidence. In James Serpell (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People, 2nd ed (pp. 7 -21). UK: Cambridge University Press.

DeMello, M. (2012). Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies. NY: Columbia University Press.

Fernandez, D. (2010). Ang Pilipino’y Maaaring Kilanlin sa Kaniyang Pagkain. In Alvin B Yapan (Ed.) Burador (pp. 29 – 38). Manila: Ateneo De Manila University Press.

Haraway, D. (2003). The Companion Species Manifesto: Dogs, People, and Significant Otherness. Chicago: Prickly Paradigm Press.

Heinrich, S. (2017). The ‘Savage’ Filipino Natives and Their Dog-Eating Habits [PDF File]. In Western Illinois Historical Review. Vol. 8, 26. Retrieved from http://www.wiu.edu/cas/history/wihr/pdfs/wihr-filipino-dog-eaters.pdf

Hiby, E., & and Hiby, L. (2017). Dog Population Management. In James Serpell (Ed.), TheDomestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People, 2nd ed (pp. 385 -403). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Kendall, K. (2008). The Face of a Dog: Levinisian Ethics and Human/Dog Co-Evolution. In Noreen Giffney and Myra J. Hird (Eds.) Queering the Non-Human (pp 185 -204).UK: Ashgate Publishing.

Lasco, G. (2021) What dog breeds say about race. SAPIENS. Retrieved September 17, 2021, from https:/www.sapiens.org/column/entanglements/dog-breeds-race/.

vonHoldt, B., and Driscoll, C. (2017). Origins of the dog: Genetic insights into DogDomestication. In James Serpell (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People, 2nd ed (pp. 22-41). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Scott, W. H. (1994). Barangay: Sixteenth-Century Philippine Culture and Society. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press.

Serpell, J. (2017). From Paragon to Pariah: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Attitudes to Dogs. In James Serpell (Ed.), The Domestic Dog: Its Evolution, Behavior and Interactions with People, 2nd ed (pp. 300 - 316). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Serpell, J. (1986). Four-Legged Friends. The Company of Animals: A Study of Human-Animal Relationships (pp. 125 – 144). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Ochoa, J., Lewis, H., Paz, V., & Carlos, J. (2014). The archaeology and palaeobiological record of the Pasimbahan-Magsanib site, Northern Palawan. Philippine Science Letters, 7 (1), (pp. 22–36.) Retrieved from https://www.philsciletters.net/2014/PSL%202014-vol07-no01-p022-036%20Ochoa.pdf

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Contributors

R O L I E N M A R K B A L I S I is taking his MA in Linguistics at the University of the Philippines Diliman. Aside from sociolinguistics, ethnolinguistics, and applied linguistics, his research interests include literary, media, and cultural studies. At present, he serves as an Instructor in the Department of English Language Studies at Tarlac State University.

D O M I N I Q U E C A D I Z graduated as cum laude from the University of the Philippines Diliman with a BA in Psychology in 2021. She enjoys reading and writing fanfiction, exercising, and meeting new people. Currently, she is pursuing her Juris Doctor degree at the UP College of Law.

R U T H C A S T R O is a cum laude graduate of Psychology from the University of the Philippines Diliman. She spent the majority of her undergraduate years volunteering in her organizations, which has translated to her current position as a Product Manager, where she can combine human-centered design, technology, and business. She enjoys the outdoors and is always up for adventure.

Si L E I L A C R I S O S T O M O ay kasalukuyang mag-aaral ng BS Industrial Engineering sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman. Siya ay nagnanais na pumasok sa industriya ng global supply chain, kung kaya’t sinisikap din niyang intindihin ang kulturang pandaigdig at ang impluwensya nito.

Si I VA N J O S E P H D E L A R A ay kasalukuyang mag-aaral ng BS Electrical Engineering sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman. Bagama’t teknikal na propesyon ang pagiging inhinyero, mahalaga sa kanya ang pagiging dalubhasa sa sining ng pagsulat at ang pag-aaral ng kultura at literatura ng bansa.

A A R O N P H I L I P D E L A C R U Z is a graduate student of MA Anthropology at the University of the Philippines Diliman. He obtained his degree in Literature at the University of Santo Tomas. He is also an assistant instructor at the Ateneo de Manila University and a Community Member of the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) in UP Manila. His research interests include gender studies and human-animal studies or anthrozoology.

Si R A I A A L E X I S GA L L A R D O ay kasalukuyang mag-aaral ng B Landscape Architecture sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman. Bilang isang designer, naniniwala siya na ang komunikasyon at pagkakaintindihan ay ang diwa ng buhay. Nais niyang ipagtambal lagi ang kanyang mga interes sa wika, linggwistika, disenyo, at sining bilang mga mabisang daluyan ng ideya.

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A M B E R LY E R I N G O PA L A N is an undergraduate student finishing up her studies in BS Psychology at the University of the Philippines Diliman. Aside from research writing, she likes to create illustrations based on her favorite shows and books. At present, she is undergoing training for mitigating emotional distress and peer counseling.

A M I R A H PAU L E N E G U E R R E R O is currently an undergraduate student in her last year, taking up BA Psychology in UP Diliman. Her research interests include positive psychology, child psychology, and LGBT psychology. Aside from these, she has an ardent passion for graphic design and East Asian media, specifically Japanese slice-of-life films and Korean popular music.

Si I VA N E M I L L A B AY N E ay bahagi ng art collective na Pedantic Pedestrians at ng Department of Humanities ng Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Los Baños. Kasalukuyan siyang kumukuha ng PhD in Philippine Studies sa UP Diliman habang nagpapanatili ng mga kolum sa mga lokal na pahayagang Northern Dispatch at Baguio Chronicle. Nailathala ang mga akda niya sa Kritika Kultura, Asian Cha, Daluyan, Katipunan, Jacket2, Entrada, at iba pa.

S H A N E E R I N E L O P E Z graduated cum laude from the University of the Philippines Diliman with a bachelor’s degree in Psychology. Born and raised in a supportive household, she once dreamt of being a medical doctor. Her career did not pan out as planned, but she still managed to take part in improving people’s lives as a Recruitment Manager. She is driven to live her life to the fullest together with her family and dogs.

J O H N M OA R L E Y PA L PA L-L AT O C studied Psychology in UP Diliman. He is a proud immigrant and currently resides in California. As a firm believer that health is a right, he hopes to advocate for access and equity in health for the underserved.

Si P R I N C E S S FA M E PA S C UA ay nagtapos ng BA History at MA Philippine Studies at kasalukuyang kandidata sa pagtatamo ng PhD in Philippine Studies sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman. Naging miyembro siya ng mga samahang mag-aaral gaya ng UNESCO UPD Club, UP CBI, UPKAS at iba pa. Pinagkalooban siya ng Angara Scholarship noong 2008 gayundin ng karangalang Outstanding Student noong 2013.

C H Y N N A T H E R E S E N I C O L E R E Y E S received her BS in Psychology, graduating summa cum laude in the University of the Philippines Diliman in 2021. Her interests span from social and developmental psychology to graphic design and brewing coffee. At present, she is pursuing her MD at the UP College of Medicine, and hopes to bridge her background in the social sciences with medicine in the near future.

Si G E R R I LY N S A N D O C A L ay nagtapos nang may karangalang cum laude sa kursong BS Geography sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman noong 2021 sa kabila ng hamon ng pandemya. Nagsilbi siya bilang Secretary General ng Junior Philippine Geographical Society (JPGS) at Student Assistant sa UP Geography Department. Pinarangalan siya bilang Outstanding Student noong 2020.

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Si M A N P R E E T S I N G H ay kasalukuyang mag-aaral ng BS Chemical Engineering sa Unibersidad ng Pilipinas Diliman. Lubos niyang pinahahalagahan ang epekto ng komunikasyon at wika sa ating pang-araw-araw na buhay. Sa kasalukuyan, patuloy pa rin siyang nagsusumikap upang mapabuti ang kaniyang pag-unawa at pagpapahalaga sa wika upang maging isang mahusay na mananaliksik.

G E O R G I E K AT E V I N AG R E R A graduated cum laude with a bachelor’s degree in Psychology from the University of the Philippines Diliman. Her active participation in several organizations during her undergraduate years solidified her passion in helping people maximize their potential. Nowadays, she is able to channel this passion into her work as a government employee in the field of Human Resource Performance Management. She likes to sing and to listen to music in her free time.

R E G I N A YA M A DA is a cum laude graduate of Psychology from the University of the Philippines Diliman. Her passion for advocating and helping people was seen in her volunteerism in several organizations such as the Teach Peace Build Peace Movement and UPD Psychosocial Services (PsycServ). She is also an outdoor enthusiast and continues to share her passions through photography. She now lives in Japan.