Untitled - Journal of Research (Urdu), BZU

ii

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH(Faculty of Languages & Islamic Studies)

Bahauddin Zakariya

University

Multan

Vol. 9 Refereed Journal 2006

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. Dr. Anwaar Ahmad Chief Editor

Dr. Khalid Masood Member

Dr. Shamim Hanfi Member

Dr. Geoff Hall Member

Dr. Muhammad Ali Siddiqi Member

Dr. Celal Soydan Member

Dr. Emad Ali Al-Khateeb Member

Prof. Dr. Zafar Iqbal Member

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sharif Sialvi Member

Dr. Saiqa Imtiaz Asif Editor

Dr. Qazi Abdur Rehman Abid Deputy Editor

ISSN. 1726–9067

iv

JOURNAL OF RESEARCH(Faculty of Languages & Islamic Studies)

Bahauddin Zakariya

University

Multan.

Vol. 9 Refereed Journal 2006

CONTENTS

1- Trilingualism: An Asset or a Liability? 01

Dr. Saiqa Imtiaz Asif*

2- Rhetorical Figures in Pakistani Newspaper Articles: 11

A Manifestation of Ideology Investment in Discourses

Dr. Shirin Zubair, Snobra Rizwan

3- Relations and Conflicts Between Learner Motivation and 27

Teaching Method in Second Language Learning

Ziauddin Khand

4- Religious Revivalism in Pakistan: A Vicious Circle of Abhorrence 35

Dr. Omer Farooq Zain

5- The Ethics of Global Civil Society in Islamic Tradition 47

Dr. Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq

ISSN. 1726–9067

-669

-7103

-8125

v

-9145

-10155

-11161

175 -12

207 -13

229 -14

NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS

Dr. Saiqa Imtiaz Asif

Associate Professor, Department of English, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan

Pakistan

Dr. Shirin Zubair

Professor, Department of English, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.

Snobra Rizwan

Lecturer, Government Degree College for Women, Khanewal.

Ziauddin Khand

Assistant Professor, Department of English, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur.

Dr. Omer Farooq Zain

Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science and International Relations,

Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.

Dr. Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq

Chairman & Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Law, A.I.O.U., Islamabad.

Trilingualism: An Asset or a Liability?

Saiqa Imtiaz Asif*

AbstractThis paper looks at Trilingualism from different perspectives. After

giving the background of the traditional belief in the superiority of

monolingualism, this paper examines the validity of these notions

in the light of research carried out in different parts of the world.

The argument, supporting tri-multilingualism, is followed by the

conclusion that as opposed to popular belief prevalent in the West

in 1960s and in Pakistan now, trilingualism should be seen as a

blessing rather than a curse. Instead of depriving our children of

their rich linguistic heritage the parents and teachers should make

the right language choices for them.

IntroductionAs opposed to bilingualism studies, trilingualism studies have come to the fore

only recently (Genesee, 2003). These studies approach the subject of trilingualism from

an educational (Cenoz & Genesee, 1998), developmental (Quay, 2001), psycholinguistic

(Cenoz et al., 2001), and sociolinguistic angle (Hoffman & Ytsma, 2003). Among other

factors, this surge in interest can be attributed to ‘the recognition that contrary to

earlier views, simultaneous acquisition of two, or more, languages is not uncommon’

(Genesee, 2003). In the absence of any valid statistics, Tucker (1998) speculates that

the number of children who grow up as bilinguals is equal to or even higher than those

who are raised as monolinguals. It has also been claimed that, ‘Monolingual speech

communities are rare and monolingual countries are even rarer’ (Spolsky, 1998: 51).

A blanket term multilingualism is often used in sociolinguistic research into

language contact (Hofman & Ytsma, 2003). Many other studies treat trilingualism under

the umbrella term bilingualism (e.g. Dewaele, 2003). Trilingualism is said to refer to

those socio-cultural linguistic contexts which involve the use of at least three discrete

languages and the speakers who find themselves in these situations are referred to as

trilinguals (Hofman & Ytsma, 2003). For this paper I take trilingulism as the ability of

the speakers to use at least three languages actively, one of which is their mother

tongue (i.e. the language of origin).

Clyne (1997) states that apart from particular regional or national tendencies,

there has always been a constant tension between the forces of monolingualism and

multilingualism. Globally, there are waves of more positive and more negative policies

towards multilingualism. The period immediately before the World War I and between

the wars was mainly negative due to the influence of xenophobia and monoculturalism.

1

* Associate Professor, Deptt. of English, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan - Pakistan

2

Journal of Research (Faculty of Languages & Islamic Studies) 2006 Vol.9

The monolingual approach is essentially Eurocentric and is in direct opposition to the

social reality. It attempts to impose a single lens on the world where bi-or multilingualism

is a norm in the many countries (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000).

Multilingualism: A Blessing or a CurseThe belief in the superiority of monolingualism can be traced back to the Christian

religious beliefs about languages (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000). The Christian and Islamic

beliefs about the origin and diversity of languages greatly vary. The myths in Bible

make Adam invent language himself, ‘And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the

fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field’ (Genesis 2: 20). Whereas, according to the

Holy Quran, Allah taught the names of animals, plants, etc., to Adam. ‘He taught Adam

the names of all things’ (2: 31). Bible states that there was only one language at least

until the flood and then after the tower of Babel (Genesis 11: 4-9) there were divisions

of land and language. The Bible sees the diversity of languages as a curse, a punishment

for people’s pride. People’s quarrels have been seen as causing diversity in languages.

In other words, it could be the punishment for quarrelling. Conversely, the Holy Quran

sees diversity as positive and ‘has established language variation as one of the great

signs of Allah on earth’ (Abdussalam, 1998: 59). This stands equally for linguistic and

ethnic/racial diversity, ‘Among His other signs are the creation of heaven and earth

and the diversity of your tongues and colours. Surely there are signs in this for all

mankind (Holy Quran 30:22).

Most researchers in the West, until the middle of the seventeenth century,

conducted their languages-related studies with the Bible stories in the background

(Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000). A multilingual speaker is still seen by many, even in present

times, as an exception. It is interesting to note that Chomsky’s ‘ideal speaker’ (1965: 2)

is monolingual. This has been called ‘the ideology of monolingual reductionism/

stupidity/naivety’ (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2000: 238). It has been argued that this ideology

legitimises and rationalises the reduction of languages (ibid). Bi- or multilingualism is

still seen as harmful to the mental growth of a child and learning many languages, a

burden, ‘Maintaining two extra languages seems too cumbersome a task’ (Paulston,

1994: 33).

West (1958: 96) described bilingualism as an ‘inevitable disadvantage’ at both the

individual and societal level. He further stated that lack of literary tradition in the home

language can lead to people becoming ‘emotionally warped or sterilized’. When the

‘substandard child’ is made to learn at school through the medium of a different language

than the home language, their studies are ‘a dead loss’. Phillipson (1994) states that

this study conveys false information and that such approach is psycholinguistically

naïve. It draws its principles from a linguistic dogma, namely that each language is a

system of internally consistent contrasts and relations, and the two-code theory which

implied that learners were operating two distinct systems that needed to be kept separate,

and the best way to eliminate interference and errors was to learn monolingually. This

view of the relationship between mother tongue i.e. L1 and second or foreign language,

3


L2 has been rendered psycholinguistically inadequate as a result of psychological,

psycholinguistic, and educational research. The significance of cognitive development

in L1 for effective L2 learning and the interdependence of proficiency in each language

has been proved significant in the light of research (Skutnabb-Kangas and Toukomaa,

1976; Toukomaa and Skutnabb-Kangas, 1977; Cummins, 1979; 1984). It has also been

proved that failure to provide educational conditions for the development of cognitive-

academic in L1 as well as initial literacy in the L1 may invalidate efforts to build up such

skill in L2. If a multilingual child performs badly in a test it ‘is a result of neglect of one

of the languages, normally their mother tongue, a generally badly planned and/or

implemented education, and biased research, not their bilingualism (Skutnabb-Kangas,

2000: 243). It has been proved through research that high level bi- or multilinguals as a

group, compared to the group of monolinguals, are statistically more likely to perform

better on tests measuring the following:

• several aspects of general intelligence

• cognitive flexibility

• divergent thinking

• various aspects of creativity

• sensitivity to and capacity to interpret feedback and non verbal cues, and

meanings

• metalinguistics and possibly metacultural awareness

• efficiency in learning further, additional languages

(ibid)

It is believed that the advocacy of the desirability of monolingualism also helps in

propagating and perhaps legitimising some so called key tenets of ESL/EFL in the

education of dominated countries (Phillipson, 1992). These are:

• English is best taught monolingually

• the earlier English is introduced, the better the results

• the more English is taught the better results

• if other languages are used much, standards of English will drop

Labelling these tenets ‘fallacies’ Phillipson, in a detailed analysis, proves them to

be scientifically false. The monolingual fallacy has already been discussed; now we

come to the others. If the children receive maximum exposure to good mother tongue

teaching and high quality little exposure to L2, their performance has been shown

similar or even better than that of those children who have received maximum exposure

to English (Ramirez et al. 1991). Edward Williams (1998) in two large-scale empirical

studies tested about 1,500 students in Zambia and Malawi in grades 1-7. In Zambia

children were taught through the medium of English, and local language as a subject

from grade 1 (called submersion education), whereas, in Malawi, they were taught

through local languages, in most cases with their mother tongues, and English as a

subject during the first 4 years. From grade 5 onwards, children in Malawi also study

through the medium of English. The test results showed that the results of Zambian

4


students, who had all their schooling in English, were no better than those of the

Malawi children who had only studied English as a subject. In fact the Malawi children

did slightly better than the Zambian students. In the Canadian Royal Commission on

Aboriginal Peoples 1996 Report it has been stated, ‘Submersion strategies which neither

respect the child’s first language nor help them gain fluency in the second language

may result in the impaired fluency in both languages (quoted in Martin, 2000: 3). Research

has shown that if the teaching of the other language is subtractive, it yields negative

results; however, if it is additive then the results can reverse.

Trilingualism: A Liability?During my doctoral research carried out in Multan (Asif, 2005a)on Siraiki language

I discovered that the heads and teachers of the urban schools, especially the elite

English medium schools, catering for the children of middle and higher social classes

still believe in the so called key tenets of ESL/EFL (Phillipson, 1992). These schools

encourage their students to be bilingual only in Urdu and English. Bilingualism or

trilingualism is tolerated as long as one of the languages is not any regional language

of Pakistan and in this case Siraiki, which is the mother tongue or home language of the

majority of the children studying there. The parents are ‘advised’ by the schoolteachers

to raise their children as monolinguals in English and if they cannot speak exclusively

in English with them then they should use Urdu with dense code-switching from English

with their children at home. The Head of a school commented that for teaching the

‘right’ language to the children, the teachers of pre-nursery and nursery have to ‘train’

both the parents and the children, ‘I tell the parents that if they really realize the

importance of English then they must speak this language with them and if they can’t

then they must code switch to English often’, she added. Several researchers have

reported similar practices in their research. Cummins (1984) in the Canadian and US

educational context illustrates the mistaken advice given to parents by schools such

as abandoning the home language or providing extra tuition in the dominant language.

In Greece, teachers frequently advise the parents of bilingual children to speak only

Greek with their children at home (Cummins, 2003). Beardsmore (2003) believes that the

assumption held by the teachers that the elimination of the first language as quickly as

possible will help promote the learning of the second language is erroneous. Bruck

(1984) seconds this opinion with respect to her research on immersion programmes in

Canada.

A vast majority of urban parents, under the influence of such an advice by the

educationists, are depriving their children from becoming trilinguals. Such parents are

appreciated by the teachers who are not transmitting their language to their children

(Asif, 2005b). A teacher teaching nursery class in an elite English medium school in

Multan reported that almost all of her students, with a few exceptions, come with a full

knowledge of Urdu because, ‘Parents are becoming well aware, they don’t teach them

[their children] Siraiki…they know it can become very difficult, a problem for our school

system’. In other words, the Siraiki children who by any chance do not leave Siraiki

outside their school gates are perceived as ‘a problem’. The school authorities can

5


encourage the parents to transmit Siraiki, Urdu and English simultaneously but what

they are encouraging is subtractive bilingualism. The same teacher later labelled those

parents as ‘uneducated’ who ‘despite’ the advice of the school authorities encourage

their children to speak in Siraiki at home. ‘Some uneducated, some uneducated

ones…again and again, again and again we tell them not to speak Siraiki to their

children…I am not Siraiki and can’t understand it so I feel stressed if a child speaks

some Siraiki word’. The children, thus, are made to dispense with their mother tongue.

This ‘rejection of the experience of other languages, meaning the exclusion of the

child’s most intense existential experience… [is the] direct influence of linguicist

educational policies [which] cause cultural dislocation among children’ (Phillipson,

1992: 189).

The dismissal of languages other than English in such schools will deprive our

children of their unique identity and their cultural heritage. This irrevocable loss will

result in the cultural dislocation of our coming generations as, ‘Each language reflects

a unique world-view and culture complex, …each language is a means of expression of

the intangible cultural heritage of people…an irreplaceable unit in our knowledge and

understanding of human thought and world-view’ (Wurm, 2001: 13).

Why should we support Tri- Multilingualism?The decades of 1960s and 1970s witnessed essentially positive waves towards

multilingualism, reflecting a quest for human rights and social equity. In the US, e.g. a

shift to more accepting policies started in the 1960’s and in Australia in the early 1970’s

(see, e.g. Kloss, 1977; Fishman, 1985; Clyne, 1991). In Pakistan, however, neither the

language policies (Asif, 2005a) nor the attitudes of people support positive tri-

multilingualism. Trlingualism or multilingualism may be enforced, supported, accepted,

tolerated or rejected due to language policies or the attitudes of the community. These

also influence the status given to one or more than one language in a society. In

countries where language policies promote multilingualism, it may be the result of

social, cultural, political or economic factors (Clyne, 1997).

There are several reasons for striving for multilingualism. It is believed that

multilingualism enhances creativity (Stutnabb-Kangas, 2003). Wurm (2001) states that

high-level multilinguals as a group do better than corresponding monolinguals on

tests measuring several aspects of intelligence, creativity, divergent thinking, cognitive

flexibility, etc.

Wurm (2001) claims that bi- and multilinguals, by virtue of having greater volume

of memory which is the result of mastering two or more than two different language

systems with different grammars, vocabularies, idiomatic expressions and sound

structures, tend to have quicker thinking capacity, and more alert and more flexible

minds. His advice is, ‘multilingulism from very early childhood onwards, to be maintained

past the age of six years, is the most advantageous quality any person can possess’

(ibid: 15).

6


Wurm (ibid: 22) while describing the ‘intellectual and emotional advantages of bi-

or multilingualism and biculturalism’ claims the following:

1) They have access to a far greater volume of information and knowledge than

monolinguals, possess a larger stock of knowledge (both linguistic and general)

in their minds, grasp different semantic associations better, and have more flexible

minds by virtue of being used to switching languages and thought patterns.

2) They are less rigid in their attitudes and have a tendency to be more tolerant than

monolinguals (i.e. they are less hostile and suspicious); they are more likely to

regard manifestations of other cultures by individuals as acceptable and

respectable.

3) Their thought patterns and world-view are better balanced due to their familiarity

with different, often somewhat contradictory concepts results in better balanced

thought patterns and world-view. Compared to monolinguals, they possess a

greater ability to learn concepts, ideas and things that are entirely new, to fit into

novel situations without trauma. Their understanding of different facets of a

problem is also superior.

ConclusionIt is believed that language acts are acts of identity (Le Page & Tabouret-Keller,

1985) and ‘language constitutes one of the most defining attributes of the individual.

Language thus represents and mediates the crucial element of identity’ (Aronin &

Laoire, 2003: 11). Our language policies, attitudes and practices towards the mother

tongues besides damaging the identity of our children are harming their cognitive

abilities, ‘ if the sociocultural context is such that the mother tongue is devalued in the

child’s environment, his cognitive development may be delayed in comparison with a

monolingual peer’s’ (Hamers & Blanc, 1989: 77)

In the light of the argument presented in this paper, the parents should be enabled

to make the right choice for their children and the school teachers should help them in

making their children multilinguals without demeaning their mother tongues. The parents

should be made aware of the long term consequences of the language choices that

they make for their children. Quite often the school authorities put forward this excuse

that their language policies are made in the light of the desires of the parents. Pattanayak

(1991: 60), however, rightly questions, ‘Do the parents really know…of the theories

about the acquisition of language by the child? Do they know how language relates to

learning? …do they even know what is meant by good, fair, satisfactory entries in the

child’s mark card with reference to his/her language proficiency?’. He blames the social

system in which English language taught in elite English medium schools serves as a

necessary pass word to enter the higher echelons of power; ‘The individual parents, in

their anxiety for their children to participate in the spoil-sharing arrangements of the

7


elitist education, come in conflict with its social purpose. They are blinded to the

…damage done to the children in this process’ (ibid).

We will have to dispense with the notion that tri-or multilingualism is harmful to

a child. Having to learn many languages is not a burden and it does not confuse or

prevent the child from learning any language properly. New languages should not be

taught subtractively i.e. at the cost of other languages, but additively, in addition to

their own languages. To achieve this goal, ‘Scholars and policy makers need to promote

a multilingual context in which nobody pays a heavy price and all have access to social

mobility and linguistic choices and preferences’ (Olshtain & Nissim-Amitai, 2003:49).

In schools and at home we must strive to achieve this goal and aim to promote

multilingualism in our children who should be, ‘able to function in two (or more)

languages … at the same level as the native speakers and who… [are] able to identify

positively with both (or all) language groups (and cultures) or parts of them’

(Skutnabb-Kangas, 1984: 90)

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Rhetorical Figures in Pakistani Newspaper

Articles: A Manifestation of Ideology Investment

in Discourses

Shirin Zubair*

Snobra Rizwan**

AbstractThe rhetorical figures or figures of speech are employed in the

discourses by the addressers or authors for the sake of emphasis,

freshness of expression, or clarity. This paper investigates the

instances of figures of speech (which fall in the category of tropes)

in the discourses of Pakistani newspaper articles where they seem

to be serving the purpose of persuasion and consent-winning in the

process of ideology investment through the discourses. The

newspapers of Pakistan present a truthful account of sentiments,

ideologies, worldview, biases, preferences, values, beliefs and

cultural norms of its people. The discourses of newspapers in

Pakistan are used to pursue social, economic and political (i.e.

hegemonic) goals crafted by government authorities and the ruling

or privileged groups of the society. In this paper it has been

established that the figures of speech are forged in the discourses of

Urdu and English newspaper articles of Pakistan with almost equal

inclination and fervour which is a manifestation of their utility and

value as a tool for ideology propagation.

IntroductionThis paper is an attempt to establish the fact that the figures of speech are

incorporated in the discourses of English and Urdu newspaper articles of Pakistan to

maneuver the language tactfully so that the assumed readership or implied audience of

that particular newspaper might perceive contemporary affairs stained with their peculiar

socially, culturally and religiously oriented ideological beliefs.

The paper is based on the study of discourses of articles published in two Pakistani

Dailies ‘Dawn’ and ‘Jang’ (in English and Urdu languages respectively). The data

which consists of 620 sentences in total (310 sentences from each newspaper) was

analyzed to locate the instances of figures of speech in the discourses of newspaper

articles. The message encoded in the figures of speech has been decoded critically

employing Fairclough’s (1998) method of critical discourse analysis (CDA) linking it

with the process of ideology popularization and propagation which serves to

11

* Professor, Department of English, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.

** Lecturer, Government Degree College for Women, Khanewal.

12


consolidate the rule of the elite class in the society by maintaining the status quo with

the circulation of preferred discourses.

Contrary to the widely held belief about them, newspaper articles are not confined

to deal with a small range of issues (i.e. politics, state and good governance related).

They address a very wide range of issues which can be divided into many categories.

Out of these categories, the most prominent and the most frequently occurring

categories among the Pakistani newspaper articles include:

1. National Issues Related Articles

2. International Politics Related Articles

3. Religious and Patriotic Sentiments Carrying Articles

The quantification of different figures of speech, which has been made in the

form of different tables given at the end of this paper, is based on above mentioned

three categories of newspaper articles discourse.

Rhetorical Figures or Figures of SpeechThe term ‘figurative language’ has been derived from Latin language which means

to shape, from or conceive (Gray, 1999). It is one of the most enlightening aspects of

language. Figures of speech are words whose meaning cannot be determined by

examining the meanings of the words that make it up. They can be taken as ‘any

intentional deviation from literal statement or common usage that emphasizes, clarifies,

or embellishes both written and spoken language’ (“Figures of Speech”, 2005). Martin

Gray (1995) defines figures of speech as:

Any form of expression or grammar which deviates from the plainest

expression of meaning is designated a figure of speech (P. 120).

Milton Terry (cited in “Figures of Speech”, 1997) introduces the figures of speech in

relation to Biblical references as:

The natural operations of the human mind prompt men to trace

analogies and make comparisons. Pleasing emotions are excited

and the imagination is gratified by the use of metaphors and similes.

Were we to suppose a language sufficiently copious in words to

express all possible conceptions, the human mind would still require

us to compare and contrast our concepts, and such a procedure

would soon necessitate a variety of figures of speech. So much of

our knowledge is acquired through the senses, that all our abstract

ideas and our spiritual language have a material base. “It is not

too much to say,” observes Max Muller, “that the whole dictionary

of ancient religion is made up of metaphors. With us these metaphors

are all forgotten. We speak of spirit without thinking of breath, of

heaven without thinking of sky, of pardon without thinking of a

release, of revelation without thinking of a veil. But in ancient

13

Rhetorical Figures in Pakistani Newspaper Articles:

language every one of these words, nay, every word that does not

refer to sensuous objects, is still in a chrysalis stage, half material

and half spiritual, and rising and falling in its character according

to the capacities of its speakers and hearers.” (http://www.pbc.org/

dp/smith2/ch7.html)

Even at the present time when classical languages and cultures are little studied, the

study of rhetorical figures or figures of speech has not been discarded. Rhetorical

figures are rooted in the centuries old art of rhetoric (Bradford, 1997) which has 2500

years old history; right from the ancient Greeks (i.e. Sophists, Isocrates , Plato and

Aristotle) to Romans, from Romans to Renaissance, from Renaissance to Modern era,

and from Modern era to Post- Modern era. During the Renaissance, Henry Peacham

(cited in “Figure of Speech”, 2006), in his The Garden of Eloquence (1577) enumerated

184 different figures of speech. The rhetorical figures like similes, metaphors,

synecdoche, personification etc. are very popular with the writers and speakers alike

and are used very commonly in different discourses.

Figures of speech have been divided into many categories by scholars of classical

Western rhetoric. For the sake of simplicity the figures of speech can be divided in two

main categories: schemes(a deviation from the ordinary or expected pattern of words)

and tropes(figures which change the typical meaning of a word or words).

Figures of Speech and Newspaper DiscourseThe figures of speech which have been extracted out of the Urdu and English

newspaper articles are from the category “tropes”. The presence of rhetorical figures in

newspaper discourse assumes great importance. It seems to stand contrary to the

widely held belief that newspaper articles are just the amalgamation of facts and figures

with some grave message and harsh criticism and have nothing to do with language

embellishment devices like figures of speech. The presence of figures of speech in

newspaper articles proves that this kind of general conception about newspapers is

not true for all the column writers and for the discourse of all the newspaper articles. If

this had been the case, the newspaper writers would have lost a vast section of

readership. The use of figurative language wielded by columnists is the device intended

for the ornamentation and adorning of the language. It can be regarded as a very

powerful tool of newspaper article writers by which the language can be made attractive

for the audience; and the process of ideology investment is facilitated.

Discourse and IdeologyIn the present paper, the discourse has been perused in relation to its major

function performed in the realm of ideologies propagation; where the use of figures of

speech in the discourses has been particularly focused. Discourse is very closely

linked to different theories of power and state; and defining discourses is seen to mean

defining reality itself. Marx (1978), Gramsci (Buci-Glucksmann 1980), Althusser (1971),

and Foucault (1972) all have made inimitable contributions to delineate ideology’s

14


sinuous mutations from the dawn of civilization up to the post modern era. Ideologies

are not created in a void, without any medium. An ideology is regarded as an ideology

when it is expressed, not necessarily by an individual but by a community. Any idea,

belief or view can be regarded an ideology only when it is shared within a group of

people or community via a medium of expression; and it is the discourse that provides

that medium of expression. Discourse is the spoken or material expression of ideologies,

or “one of the battlegrounds upon which struggle for power takes place” (Price, 1993).

These are different persuasive discourses which win this battle for the powerful or

privileged group of the society. For the achievement of persuasion the expedient

discourses are the most popular recourse available to the rulers. The rhetorical figures

because of their function as language embellishment device and their association with

the persuasive art of rhetoric can perform this job appropriately and efficiently.

It has been observed that the use of rhetorical figures is quite rampant within the

newspaper discourse. Their presence can be observed in discourses of different sections

of newspapers right from the headlines to the advertisement section.

Instances of Figures of Speech in Pakistani Dailies

“Dawn” and “Jang”Following is a succinct description of a few of the instances of the figures of

speech which have been found in the discourses of English and Urdu newspaper (i.e.

‘Dawn’, and ‘Jang’) articles of Pakistan.

Metaphors

Metaphor is a figure of comparison which is employed for implied comparison of

two things. Before making an attempt to define metaphor or any other figure of speech,

it should be kept in mind at the very outset that it is not very easy to define figures of

speech. This is the fact which compelled Leech (1989) to declare that:

It is as well to bear in mind from the start that the technical names

of figures of speech are not sacrosanct, nor have their definitions

been laid down once and for all time. In fact, the definitions of

rhetorical figures have always been notorious for vagueness and

inconsistency (p. 4).

Metaphors have been defined differently by different rhetoricians. One of these

definitions has been given as follows:

Metaphor is a figure of speech in which a comparison is made

between two things essentially unalike (“The Poetics of Robert

Frost- Examples”, http://www.frostfriends.org/figurative.html).

Metaphors are one of the most commonly used figures of speech in newspaper

articles (Dawn: 31.7% and Jang: 15.3%: (These figures are based on cumulative numerical

results of table 4C given at the end of the paper) and are very popular with columnists

15


from both English and Urdu newspapers. Metaphors are a very fascinating tool to be

employed for ideology investment. They tend to capture the imagination of the reader

readily; and the reader perceive the things in exactly the manner in which the writer

expects him/her to perceive them. In fact, the image given by the writer through the use

of the metaphor necessarily leads the reader’s imagination towards the path devised

by the writer him/herself. Hence, the ideologies of the writers or addressers are conveyed

to the readers or addressees conveniently. For example:

1. (Pakistanis are subjected to) worse of all possible worlds: no representative

government and no cakes and ales (Dawn: January 28, 2005)

2. Why must it be supplemented by turning Pakistan into a Sahara of spirit? (Dawn:

January 28, 2005)

3.

(Jang: January 12, 2005)

4.


5.

(Jang: February 22, 2005)

In Example #1, ‘cakes and ales’ are metaphorical manifestation of pleasures of life;

implying that Pakistanis have always been deprived of basic necessities of life since

the birth of the country; and in example #2 ‘Sahara’ of the spirit is pointing towards the

lack of enthusiasm and excitement among Pakistanis about political issues of the country.

In example #3 (home) stands for motherland or country and in example # 4

(sea) is pointing towards the spontaneous overflow of poet’s feelings through the

language of the couplet. In last example, (lion) stands for America which was

awakened after the terrorist attack of 9/11. The metaphor ‘lion’ is symbolizing the great

rage of America with which it attacked Afghanistan to avenge the 9/11 terrorist attack

on its land.

Metonymy

Metonymy is the figure of association or relationship. ‘The definitions of figure

metonymy are broad enough to include … two tropes metaphor and synecdoche’

(Leech, 1989). Metonymy uses a concept closely related to the thing actually meant.

The substitution makes the analogy more vivid and meaningful (“The Poetics of Robert

Frost-Examples”,

16


http://www.frostfriends.org/figurative.html).

Grant Williams,

(http://www.nipissingu.ca/faculty/williams/figofspe.htm) defines metonymy quite

comprehensively, as:

Metonymy is “a noun that is substituted for a noun in such a way

that we substitute the cause of the thing of which we are speaking

for the thing itself; this might be done in several ways: substituting

the inventor for his invention, the container for the thing contained

or vice versa, an author for his work, the sign for the thing signified,

the cause for the effect or vice versa” (http://www.nipissingu.ca/

faculty/williams/figofspe.htm)

Along with metaphors, many instances of metonymy have also been found in both

Urdu and English newspaper articles (Dawn: 7.2% and Jang: 1.1%); which include:

1. …it makes little difference to them who is in the office (Dawn: January 5, 2005)

In this example ‘office’ is epitomizing the rule or power as the head of the state.

2. ….. people are not interested in uniform issue (Dawn: January 5, 2005)

Here, ‘uniform’ stands for president’s designation as chief of army staff.

3.


4.


In both of these examples the (throne) and (crown) are embodying monarchy

and dictatorship. All of these examples provide the glimpse of importance that metonymy

assumes in newspaper articles discourse. Their presence enables the writers to present

his/her perspective in a concise and terse but comprehensive manner which not only

appeals the reader but also tends to blur their neutral and objective perception of the

scenario.

Personification

Personification is:

a variety of figurative or metaphorical language in which things or

ideas are treated as if they were human beings with human attributes

and feelings (Gray, 1999: p. 216).

17


Personification by presenting inanimate objects or abstract idea as if they

possessed life and personality evokes imagination and feeling. The columnists

or writers do like to evoke a peculiar conception and emotions in their implied

readers or audience and personification along with other figures of speech

serves this purpose..

Following are the instances of personification drawn out of newspaper articles form

both English and Urdu newspapers:

1. This addition, by raising the issue at all opened the way for the party in power to

harass, or even outlaw, its more irksome rivals. (Dawn: January 2, 2005)

2. Power grows from the barrel of a gun. (Dawn: January 2, 2005)

3.

(Jang : January 9, 2005)

4.


In the examples given above, the thing being personified and the verb through which

it is being personified both have been underlined. The personification also has the

same significance for the projection of ideologies as held by metaphors, metonymy,

synecdoche and similes. All of these figures of speech present an image for some event

going on in prevalent political scenario or for some grave social or moral problem etc.

These images are, generally, readily accepted and easily understood by the masses and

hence the process of ideology investment is reinforced.

Rhetorical Question

Almost all the questions raised in newspaper articles are rhetorical questions in

essence. The reason is that, these questions are not raised for getting an answer from

anyone. They serve the purpose to make the arguments put by the writer convincing

and effective. The examples of rhetorical questions are:

1. Why must it be supplemented with turning Pakistan into a Sahara of spirit?

(Dawn: January 28, 2005)

In this question there is an inherent belief of the writer that Pakistan is really being

turned into ‘Sahara of spirit’ which is bringing about further deterioration in already

grim situation of the country.

2. Why at the same time he should announce that the general elections would not

be held before 2007……? (Dawn: January 28, 2005)

18


This question also entails that the President should not have announced that general

elections will not be held before 2007.

Now let us look at examples from the Urdu newspaper:

1.

(Jang: March 17, 2005)

2.


3.


All of these questions from Urdu newspaper also carry their answers in themselves.

They are also not questions in the true sense of the word. They are focusing the

attention of the readers towards the real situation that is being confronted by the

efforts made for the development and dissemination of Urdu language. According to

him, the efforts made by Pakistanis to popularize Urdu are not being fruitful.

SynecdocheSynecdoche is a form of metonymy, in which a part is used to describe the whole

of something, or vice versa .

Grant Williams defines synecdoche as:

Substitution of part for whole, genus for species, or vice versa (http://

www.nipissingu.ca/faculty/williams/figofspe.htm)

Along with other figures of speech, some illustrations of synecdoche have also been

detected in the newspaper articles of both Urdu and English newspapers (Dawn: 3.6%

and Jang: 4%). The examples include:

1. The small print of Simla Accord largely unnoticed at times –bilateralism- sets the

goal post for India on Kashmir. (Dawn: January 2, 2005)

In this example, the ‘print’ is the symbol of whole manuscript of Simla Accord that was

agreed on by India and Pakistan in the aftermath of 1971 war.

2.


Here (hands and feet) points towards the bonds of responsibilities which impose

restrictions on human beings.

19


3.


In this example, (door sill) is symbolizing home.

Transferred Epithet

‘The placing of an adjective with what appears to be the incorrect noun’ (Figures

of Speech, 2006) is termed as transferred epithet which is quite popular ‘trope’ with the

writers and readers alike.

A few instances of transferred epithet have also been found in newspapers articles

discourse (Dawn: 5.8% and Jang: 1.7%). It is one of the least occurring figures of

speech. The examples include:

1. Does this knock the bottom out of Pakistan quest for an honorable settlement in

accordance with the wishes of the Kashmiri people? (Dawn: January 2, 2005)

2.


3.

(Jang : January 9, 2005)

Hyperbole

Hyperbole is a figure of overstatement which involves exaggeration to lend

emphasis and reinforcement to the discourse. The exaggerated expressions used by

the writer are not for the sake of deceit or deception. The readers or audience are well

aware of their real motive. That is why hyperbole has been termed as ‘honest deception’

by Leech (1989). Like other figures of speech, they are linked with the social knowledge

and personal understanding of the readers or addressees who extract the meaning out

of them following their peculiar ideological orientations and traditions.

The occurrence of hyperbole is not very frequent in newspaper articles discourse

(Dawn: 0% and Jang: 2.3%). An example taken out of Urdu newspaper Jang has been

given below:

(Jang:,

January 9 2005)

Oxymoron

Oxymoron is a condensed paradox at the level of a phrase. Gray (1999) defines

this figure of speech as:

20


a figure of speech in which contradictory terms are brought together

in what is at first sight an impossible combination (p. 206).

Leech (1989) has termed oxymoron as one of the absurdity of poetry (the other being

paradox).

Oxymoron like hyperbole has also been observed sparingly (Dawn: 1.4% and

Jang: 0.6%) in Pakistani newspaper articles discourse. The following instance has been

drawn out of English newspaper ‘Dawn’:

It started at a dinner party held at the very day the Pakistan cricket

team had with characteristic aplomb and predictable suddenness,

once again thrown into the towel against Australia. (Dawn: January

17, 2005)

Irony

Irony is one of the very significant devices used by newspaper article writers for

the sake of ideology propagation. Irony expresses a meaning that is directly contrary to

what is suggested by the words. It achieves desired impact by understatement because

an ironic statement says one thing and means another.

Irony is one of the very significant devices used by newspaper article writers for

the sake of ideology propagation. The ironic remarks may resume the whole history of

a country or of a particular issue in a nutshell. To grasp the implications and entailed

meanings of ironic remarks of newspaper articles one must be well aware of the issue

under discussion with its finer details. Following examples are sufficient to prove this

point:

1. If there is no democracy in Pakistan, and ISI and MI are to constitute the real

election commission of Pakistan, no point in ceaseless fretting. (Dawn: January

28, 2005)

Through this remark the writer is lamenting over the lack of democracy in Pakistan and

ineffectiveness of election commission of Pakistan. The whole process of election,

according to the writer, is a useless practice because it is done on the whims of powerful

institutions like ISI and MI.

2. His (President Musharraf’s) tenure as president (and remaining a “popular” leader)

is wholly dependent on his continuing as COAS, Pakistan army. (Dawn: January

6, 2005)

This ironic statement is a satire over Pakistani President’s claim that he is a popular

leader of Pakistan. The writer believes that this misconception of the president will be

abated as soon as he leaves his office as COAS Pakistan army. His powerful position as

COAS has blinded his perception and he is not able to perceive the reality.

21


1. (Jang: January 2, 2005)

This remark also carries an ironic tone because the president of Pakistan has already

violated the constitution by keeping two offices at the same time. Keeping two offices

(as COAS and President of the country) simultaneously is against the constitutional

norms of the country.

2.


Through this statement the writer is describing those facts in positive light which are

not positive at all. These are the facts which are causing bad name to the country; and

have brought about misery to its people and are adding to their inconvenience.

Simile

Simile, like metaphor is also a figure of comparison. Simile expresses an explicit

comparison between two things by the specific use of a word or a phrase such as: like,

as, than, seems or as if etc.

Like other figures of speech, it is also used by the newspaper article writers to add

grace and beauty to the discourse and heightens its overall effect on the reader; but its

use in Pakistani newspaper articles is less frequent than metaphor and metonymy

(Dawn: 1.4% and Jang: 1.1%).

Some examples of simile extracted out of ‘Dawn’ and ‘Jang’ have been listed below:

1. The army used them as human shields for the most dangerous operation. (Dawn:

January 17, 2005)

2. It is not so much our faith which is weak, although much can be said on that

subject as well, as our cooking oil. (Dawn: January 21, 2005)

3.


22


4.


All the similes have been underlined in the above examples where the symbol and thing

being symbolized both have been underlined.

Sarcasm

Sarcasm is an ironic statement which intends a scathing and harsh criticism. In other

words, it is a remark which aims to hurt and insult some person, some incident or some

action and so on. ‘It is common form of mockery in ordinary day to day speech’ (Gray,

1989).

It is not very easy to discern the sarcastic comments in the discourses of Urdu and

English newspapers of Pakistan unless the readers have sufficient knowledge not only

of culture and values of the particular context but also of the theme and motifs of the

subject under discussion. The proper comprehension and appreciation of this sort of

ironic statements in Pakistani newspaper articles depend on the degree to which the

addresser and the addressee (i.e. writer and the reader) share the background knowledge

of the political and social scenario.

Sarcasm is one of the most frequently occurring linguistic devices used by the

newspaper articles writers (Dawn: 17.3% and Jang: 45.5 %). In newspaper articles, it

has been observed expressing the writer’s intense feelings of dislike for some

government institution’s practices and performances, or for some national and

international authority’s policies and stances. The following illustrations throw tight

on this:

1. Next time I think of standing for the elections, I’ll first seek an appointment with

MI chief. That’s it my communist manifesto. (Dawn: January 28, 2005)

The writer is scorning the MI’s interference in the election process of the country

and is sarcastically revealing his intentions for contesting the next election under the

guidance of MI’s chief.

2. It is amazing that just about a year after the unanimous adoption of the 1973

constitution, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s government began to see deficiencies in this

covenant and proceeded to amend it. (Dawn: January 2, 2005)

Here, the writer expresses his disdain over the way the amendments are made in the

constitution of the country with particular reference to Bhutto’s government.

3.


Here, the writer is addressing US president in a very obedient manner as if he were in a

royal court and is facing an emperor.

23


2.


In this example, the writer is criticizing the American leadership for its way of probing

into former Lebanese Prime Minister, Rafiq Hariri’s murder.

Sarcasm is very effective and efficacious linguistic device for ideology projection. It is

because of its effectiveness that its frequency of occurrence is quite high in newspaper

article discourse as is evident from the tables 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Tabular RepresentationThe instances of figurative language in the most frequently occurring categories of

newspaper articles have been summarized in tables given on the following pages.

Table 1Numerical findings showing the tendencies of Figures of Speech from Category

# 1 National Issues related Articles.

Sr. # Figures of Speech Dawn Jang

Original %age Original %age

1 Metaphors 07 11.7 10 16.4

2 Metonymy 05 8.3 00 00

3 Personification 14 23.3 07 11.5

4 Rhetorical Questions 04 6.7 03 4.9

5 Synecdoche 04 6.7 01 1.6

6 Transferred Epithets 02 3.3 00 0

7 Hyperbole 00 0 01 1.6

8 Oxymoron 01 1.7 00 0

9 Irony 07 11.7 14 23.0

10 Simile 01 1.7 01 1.6

11 Sarcasm 15 25 24 39.3

Total 60 -- 61 --

24


Table 2Numerical findings showing the tendencies of Figures of Speech from Category # 2,

International Issues Related Article

Table 3Numerical findings showing the tendencies of Figures of Speech from Category # 3,

Religious and Patriotic Sentiments Carrying Articles



1 Metaphors 22 53.6 07 12.0

2 Metonymy 02 4.8 02 3.4


4 Rhetorical Questions 00 0 00 0

5 Synecdoche 01 2.4 01 1.7

6 Transferred Epithets 04 9.8 00 0

7 Hyperbole 00 0 00 0

8 Oxymoron 00 0 00 0

9 Irony 08 19.5 00 0

10 Simile 00 0 00 0

11 Sarcasm 0 0 38 65.5

Total 41 -- 58 --



1 Metaphors 15 39.5 10 17.5

2 Metonymy 03 7.9 00 0


4 Rhetoric Questions 00 0 0 0

5 Synecdoche 00 0 05 8.8

6 Transferred Epithets 02 5.3 03 5.3

7 Hyperbole 00 0 03 5.3

8 Oxymoron 01 2.6 01 1.8

9 Irony 02 5.3 0610.5

10 Simile 01 2.6 01 1.8

11 Sarcasm 09 23.7 18 31.6

Total 38 -- 57 --

25


Table 4Numerical findings showing Cumulative Results of Figures of Speech from all three

categories

ConclusionThe abundant use of figures of speech in the newspaper articles reveals that

contrary to the common perception about it the discourse of newspaper articles is not

always lifeless, dry and dreary. It is not only satiated with critical expressions and

opinionated vocabulary but is also capable of use of figurative and creative expressions,

which are generally associated with the imaginative writing. From the use of figures of

speech, it can be inferred that newspaper publishing groups and article writers have to

ply hard to live up to the expectation of different sections of the readers. The results

elucidate that the article writers or columnists from both English and Urdu newspapers

show almost equal fervor and inclination for using the figurative language in their

articles. The numerical findings shown on the previous pages establish this fact.

However, the overall results reveal that compared with the English paper

columnists, the figurative language is more favorably used by Urdu newspaper

columnists (Dawn: 139 instances and Jang: 176 instances). Hence, it could be argued

that since Urdu is the native language of Pakistani columnists and the Urdu columnists

are more in tune with the traditions, rhymes, slogans, and the mottoes of families and

institutions of their own cultural and social background; therefore, the figures of speech

Sr.

#Figures of Speech Dawn Jang

Table # 1 2 3 Total % 1 2 3 Total %

1 Metaphors 07 22 15 44 31.7 10 07 10 27 15.3

2 Metonymy 05 02 03 10 7.2 00 02 00 02 1.1

3 Personification 14 04 05 23 16.6 07 10 10 2715.3

4 Rhetorical Questions 04 00 00 04 2.9 03 00 00 02 1.7

5 Synecdoche 04 01 00 05 3.6 01 01 05 07 4.0

6 Transferred Epithets 02 04 02 08 5.8 00 00 03 03 1.7

7 Hyperbole 00 00 00 00 00 01 00 03 04 2.3

8 Oxymoron 01 00 01 02 1.4 00 00 01 01 0.6

9 Irony 07 08 02 17 12.2 14 00 06 20 11.4

10 Simile 01 00 01 02 1.4 01 00 01 02 1.1

11 Sarcasm 15 00 09 24 17.3 24 38 18 80 45.5

Total 60 41 38 139 -- 61 58 57 176 --

26


occur to them more naturally and spontaneously than English columnists. Finally, it

may be concluded that the figurative language is a very effective instrument of ideology

dissemination and propagation and is used very favorably by columnists from both

English and Urdu newspapers of Pakistan.

References

Althusser ,L. (1971) Ideology and ideological state apparatuses, Lenin and Philosophy

and other Essays.

www.cla.purdue.edu/engl/theory/marxism/modules/althusserideologymainframe.html.

Bradford, R. (1997) Stylistics. London: Rout ledge.

Bradshaw, R. I., Figures of Speech http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_idioms.html.

Buci-Gluckmann, C. (1980) Gramsci and the State. London: Lawrence and Wishart.

Fairclough, N. (1998) Critical Discourse Analysis. New York: Longman.

“Figures of Speech” (2005) Encyclopedia Britannica: Deluxe.

“Figures of Speech” (2006) Wikipedia, The free encyclopedia,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Figure_of_speech.

“Figures of Speech” (1997) Basics of Bible Interpretation: Phase 2. Figurative

Language Chapter 7, http://www.pbc.org/dp/smith2/ch7.html.

Foucault, M. (1972) Archeology of Knowledge:

London: Routledge.

———————-(1981) History of Sexuality, Vol. 1. London: Penguin Books.

Gray, M. (1999) A Dictionary of Literary Terms. London: Longman.

Leech, G. N. (1989) A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry. London and New York:

Longman.

Marx, Karl (1978) Selected Writings.In Mclellan, D. (ed), Suffolk: Chaucer.

Price, Stuart (1998) Media Studies, London: Longman

“The Poetics of Robert Frost – Examples”, Figurative Language

http://www.frostfriends.org/figurative.html

William, Grant, “ Figures of Speech”

http://www.nipissingu.ca/faculty/williams/figofspe.html

Relations and Conflicts Between Learner

Motivation and Teaching Method in Second

Language Learning

Ziauddin Khand*

AbstractThe relationships and conflicts in learner’s motivation and teaching

methodology depend on several important factors in teaching

content. This paper first discusses the relationships and then the

conflicts between the two in Second Language Learning. In the

light of the research, done so far in this respect, it is, worthwhile to

investigate in this paper to find out the relationships and the

conflicts between learners’ motivation and classroom situation

especially the method of teaching, syllabus and learners’ goals.

IntroductionThere is increasing empirical evidence in the field of second language learning

research which reflects various factors (inside and outside classroom) that prove to be

the sources of learners’ positive or negative motivation in the process of language

learning. This paper focuses on a proposition that learners’ motivation and the classroom

learning situation are in correlation with each other. The assumption being that learners’

intensity of perseverance to learn a target language and their willingness to attend to

the given classroom tasks depend upon factors like syllabus design, long/short term

goals and the practices and procedures used in teaching.

At the very outset, it is important to discuss briefly as to what is meant by

motivation and methodology. Most researchers and methodologists believe that ‘it is

accepted for the most fields of learning that motivation is essential to success: that we

have to want to do something to succeed at it. Without such motivation we will almost

certainly fail to make the necessary effort’ (Harmer, 2001:51). Lewis (1999:76) believes

that lack of motivation drags people down in their language learning and high motivation

pulls them up. The exact nature of motivation is not so clear but most methodologists

agree that it has something to do with drive. Such as Harmer, J. has come to the view

that ‘motivation is some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in

order to achieve something’ (ibid). Brown points out that a cognitive view of motivation

includes factors such as the need for exploration, activity, stimulation, new knowledge,

and ego enhancement (Brown, 2000 cited in Harmer 2001:51). Again William and Burden

suggest that motivation is a ‘state of cognitive arousal’ which provokes a ‘decision to

act’ as a result of which there is ‘sustained intellectual and /or physical effort’ so that

the person can achieve some ‘previously set goal’ (Williams and Burden, 1997 cited in

27

* Assistant Professor, Department of English, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur.

28


Harmer 2001:51). As a result, the researchers have different perceptions of the term, but

my concern here will be only to quote the ones referring to classroom situation. Harmer

(ibid), keeping the behaviorist view in the process of learning defines motivation as

‘some kind of internal drive that influences the learners to follow a course of action’.

The internal drive could be learners’ sense of achievement, a wish to attain a goal,

making a decision to do something etc. Thus, one of the concepts of motivation is

willingness or choice learners make as to what goals they will approach and the degree

of effort they will exert in that respect.

Teaching and learning is a contract between two parties for which they both need

to agree the terms. It is vital that both teacher and students have some confidence in

the way teaching and learning take place. Both are comfortable with the method being

used, success is much more likely (Harmer, 2001:95). In the words of David Nunan

(1991:5), method of teaching is concerned with ‘selection and sequencing of learning

tasks and activities’. It consists of the procedures and practices of teaching used by

the teacher. Since any method of teaching depends critically on teacher’s role (Richards

& Rodgers, 2001: 28), it is believed that the teacher plays a powerful part in making any

method a success by creating a feasible classroom environment for effective language

learning. Again Alan Rogers points out, ‘motivation….is as much a matter of concern

for the teacher as it is for the learner; it depends as much on the attitudes of the teacher

as on the attitudes of the learners’(Rogers, 1996 cited in Harmer, 2001:54).

Having been given to understand that motivation is a strong factor in language

learning no matter what method of teaching the teacher uses, one ultimately thinks

about several questions which demand reasonable answers. Is the experience of second

language-learning likely to influence learners’ attitude and involvement? Is it possible

for a language teacher to control or influence learners’ motivation in the process of

language learning? One might, of course, say that less motivation in learning a second

language poses key problems for a language teacher, but is it then the teacher’s

responsibility if a learner is not motivated? Can s/he bring about a change in learners’

attitude to learning? To answer yes to these kinds of questions is demanding too much

from a teacher and to answer with an emphatic no also is unreasonable. Those who

tend to believe in motivation as a force operating from outside on which the teacher

has no control (Allwright, 1977 cited in Harmer, 2001:53) do not hold him/her as wholly

responsible in this connection. In the past few years, however, it has been established

that the teachers’ attitude and his/her teaching techniques influence the learners’

motivation.

However, fairly recently, in the wake of ever-changing methods of teaching, (for

instance, the introduction of a communicative method in recent years), the focus is

being given more on teaching as learner-centered. Consequently, learners’ attitude is

considered as of prime importance in the process of language learning. To quote Harmer

(2001: 52) again who holds, if the learners find the method of teaching “boring they will

probably become demotivated”. Hence, it is believed that language teacher exerts

considerable influence on the learners with her/his method of teaching, personality,

29

Relations and Conflicts Between Learner Motivation and Teaching ...

and knowledge of the subject which s/he shares with the learners. Supporting the idea

that motivation can be strongly affected by what happens in the classroom, one can

argue that the method of teaching must be one of the factors with positive and negative

effects on learners to motivate or demotivate them.

The Following factors concerning the teaching method are strongly correlated

with learners’ motivation: the classroom activities e.g. pre-reading/listening tasks,

teacher’s insight into and prediction of expected difficulties, equal interest in all the

learners, error correction, feedback, and getting the level of challenge right. All these

factors are discussed one by one as follows:

The Classroom activities are backbone of teaching. The teacher’s success or

failure depends on the way s/he plans, organizes and controls the tasks. Take for

example pair and group work. Much of the motivation of learning a second language

comes when that language is needed to communicate. Only the teacher can foster this

need by asking the learners to work in groups or pairs and do the designed tasks.

Grouping within the classroom creates opportunity for learners to talk to each other.

The idea behind the pair and group work is simply that since the language learnt is

used by the learners, working together in pairs and groups, they become highly

motivated to communicate and there by learn more. Such classroom activities designed

to involve learners experience, knowledge, feeling and expectations, undoubtedly, arouse

their interest and they willingly take part in language learning through the given tasks.

Effective learning takes place with the help of text and materials which the teacher

designs/supplements and uses in a second language learning classroom. The learners

demonstrate more motivation and interest if the lessons in the textbook are pleasurable

and the content is interesting.

Relevance of the materials content to the learners’ instrumental and personal

motive needs is a powerful incentive for second language learning. Stern (l992: 55)

emphasizes materials design according to the classroom teaching requirements with

reference to the objectives, content and procedures. If the learners know about the well

defined the objective of the syllabus, and if the teacher’s plan of teaching is according

to their needs, their degree of motivation may be heightened. Furthermore, the learners’

degree of interest and motivation increases if the text is of a reasonable length and

there are not too many difficult technical terms to read or listen. Hence, among the

motivating factors one should not forget the text/material used, and the mode of

presentation of materials, as these are important to a considerable degree in increasing

the learners’ motivation.

Before presenting the teaching material and involving the learners in to classroom

activities, the teacher may engender learners’ interest by his/her remarks about the

forthcoming activities. His/her positive remarks could develop in the learners a sense

of curiosity and fun. In consequence, high likelihood of success can be assured if the

learners’ expectations about the tasks are positive which generate in them positive

motivation.

30


Teaching method requires that the teacher predict the learners’ difficulties during

classroom activities. The teacher also predicts some unexpected problems, which may

emerge during teaching. In both the cases he has to use his pedagogical wisdom to be

able to help the learners in difficulty and be flexible enough to cope with the problems.

For instance, a teacher must temporarily depart from the set syllabus if she/he notices

a certain dullness creeping into the class due to monotony or tiredness. Before rounding

off the class in an unpleasant experience, the teacher may introduce an activity to

wake the learners up and they will become involved. If often left unattended in the state

of lethargy, the learners gradually lose interest in learning and their motivation falls to

lower level. In tackling monotony the teacher gains the learners’ confidence. They will,

thus, be ready for more intakes and become motivated to practice and produce the

target language. Ignoring learners’ difficulties and problems may also negatively affect

their learning process.

It is quite natural for teachers to worry about learners’ errors. To what extent

should a. teacher correct learners’ errors? Should she/he be more tolerant about error?

While discussing “mistakes are not always a mistake”, as one of the principles in

language learning. An experience teacher regards errors as a natural part of learning.

However, one should see that error correction in form of feedback is limited so that it

does not create any misunderstandings rather than help learners learn from their error.

In case, nagging over-correction persist successively then it often proves unproductive

and the learners get extraordinarily demoralized and demotivated. In contrast, limited

error correction is not only desirable, but most likely would trigger further the learners’

motivation for learning.

Error correction should essentially be in form of a positive feedback. It is a factor

strong enough to boost further learners’ motivation. In this regard Brown (1991:143)

remarks, that ‘sincerely delivered positive feedback… can increase or maintain {learners}

intrinsic motivation’. Feedback could be in form of inviting questions from the learners

to check not only their language production, but to check whether they have got the

information right. Since feedback encourages questioning, participating, engagement

and involvement, it is vital contributing factor to the motivational domain in the process

of language learning.

Creating positive feelings by orienting the learners toward the target language

community is yet another factor which contributes to learners motivation. This involves

generating learners’ integrative motivation, which is only possible by arousing in learners

a desire for traveling abroad, serving in English-speaking countries and their wish to

integrate in target language culture. Many learners often show their eagerness to visit

English-speaking countries and because of their future plans they learn second language

with enthusiasm.

Harmer’s (2001:53) study shows that the learners want a teacher who understands

and motivates them through enjoyable and interesting classes. Now the remarkable

fact, according to Harmer, is that a teacher’s role becomes that of a catalyst. Once she/

31


he gains the learners confidence through professional abilities and by maintaining

relations with them, a teacher can easily create positive feelings by orienting them

toward target language.

The factor of judging learners’ ability also plays a vital role in language learning

and learner motivation. If the classroom tasks/activities do not coordinate with the

learners’ abilities, the result is rather discouraging. When a learner perceives the level

of challenge higher than his/her level of ability the result is anxiety and frustration and

if the learner perceives the level of challenge in the given task as lower than his/her

ability, the result often is boredom and intellectual blockage. If this situation persists

for a long period of time, the learners may get fed up and demotivated to the extent of

creating a sense of apathy for second language learning. It is, therefore, required of a

teacher to assess the learners’ ability and give them tasks according to their level to

save them from getting demotivated and frustrated.

While the teacher and his/her teaching method are discussed above as a

justification for learners’ motivation and success, there are factors inside and outside

classroom which could prove to be negative influence in second language learning.

These factors are discussed as follows:

The Social and Psychological Distance:What if learners bring extrinsic motivation to classroom due to the social and

psychological distance between them, their community and the target language

community? Can such factors be controlled by the language teacher? AllWright (1977,

cited in Harmer, 2001:53) argues that a language teacher cannot be exclusively

responsible for all of learners’ motivation: in the end that must be the learners’

responsibility, he maintains. AllWright’s argument seems reasonable as the teacher

can, in no possible way, integratively motivate the learners who identify strongly with

their own culture and resist any attempts to integrate them into the target language

culture. If the learners are involved in culture conflict, the optimum language learning

may not take place in classroom, no matter what a teaching method is used by the

teacher.

Conflict between Method of teaching and Learners:In addition to what has been discussed above there are other possible underlying

conflicts e.g. between a method of teaching and learners.

It is an acknowledged fact that learners do not easily adjust with the new teaching

method and sometimes show their resistance to it. There is strong possibility that the

learners do not accept, for instance, the communicative method of teaching in place of

the lecture method. The reasons being:

i. Learners being unaccustomed to the techniques of the new method.

ii. Their nature, in that they may not be open to discussion with their teacher and

the classmates.

32


Short-term goals could prove to be another negative factor in this regard. In

almost all the non-English-speaking countries English is introduce as a compulsory

subject in the national curriculum. Whether the learners like it or not, they have to

study it. Accordingly, they have short-term goals where they simply want to pass the

examination rather than to learn the language. If they constantly fail to achieve the

goal, the second language learning becomes boredom and the subject as an additional

burden hard to carry more. Under these conditions, it seems rather difficult to the

extent of impossibility for a language teacher to motivate such learners for learning a

target language. Apart from it, following factors are also quite beyond the teachers’

control e.g. learners’ introvert nature, defensive attitude, unwillingness to interaction

in the classroom, no conscious desire for achievement, total dependence on the teacher,

and inability to develop learning strategies.

One cannot expect a language teacher to change learners’ nature, nor can one

hold a teacher responsible when learners are introvert, not open to class discussion,

peer correction or group activities- the activities most vital for second language learning.

Such learners leave a teacher far behind and helpless to make his teaching a success. In

addition, dealing with more reluctant learners and personality of the teacher are equally

important in dealing with this issue.

Learners Reluctance to Learning the Second Language:As motivation is the concomitant language learning success, the initial experience

of failure in learning second language might powerfully exert a negative influence on the

learners. It can, therefore, be assumed that the failures experienced in the past could well act

so strongly on the learners’ attitudinal system that the teacher cannot, by any means,

overcome such a situation. Even if the teacher takes responsibility for motivating such

learners, one must realize that s/he should not be necessarily expected to succeed.

Personality of the Teacher:It is not only learners’ shyness or their introvert nature and the socio-cultural

background which could play negative role in demotivating them, but the teacher’s

personality could also prove to be discouraging sometimes in their process of language

learning. There are teachers adored by the learners and there are also ones who hardly

can establish plausible relations with their students. The former can motivate the learners

and give them great confidence, but one doubts if the later can possibly motivate them

in the situation where the learners are shaky and less confidence. If a teacher, is not

supportive, is hardly open to change and is more reserved, one is afraid to say that she/

he might exert a devastating effect on the learners’ motivation. This is more true when

there is only one teacher of such a kind of teaching almost all the learners of a School,

College or a University.

Conclusion:From the foregoing discussion one can draw conclusion that motivation in formal

second language learning is very conspicuous and that motivation and the method of

33


teaching have strong correlation with each other. Furthermore, the teacher’s personality,

his/her way of exposing the learners to language data, and other classroom activities

play a significant role in motivating the learners.

However, the learners’ learning behaviour, on the other hand, is up with a wide

range of psychological, social and cultural factors, which could play profound negative

role in demotivating them. Under such conditions, the teacher’s role to motivate the

learners may become less effective.

Nevertheless, a language teacher’s role can hardly be ignored in giving his/her

learners confidence, courage and motivation in the area of second language learning. It

is rather the teacher’s method of teaching, which is more effective factor to reawaken

the learners’ sensitivity, receptivity and motivation to second language learning. So

long the teacher’s method of teaching does not mismatch with learners goals and

needs, so long s/he is supportive and encouraging, the process of second language

learning becomes effective and successful. Undoubtedly, all these factors mentioned

above play a considerable role and would prove to be a turning point in the career of

those learners influenced by the cultural, social and community barriers.

References

Allwright, R. L. (1977) Motivation: The Teacher’s Responsibility? ELT Journal 31/4.

Brown, D. H. (1991) Toward a new understanding of the role of motivation in your language

classroom in Kral, T. (ed.) Explorations and Innovations in ELT. Methodology. CULI.

Brown, D. H. (2000) Principles of Language Learning and Teaching (4th edn.). Harlow:

Longman.

Harmer, J. (2001) The Practice of English Language Teaching (3rd edn.) Harlow: Pearson

Education Ltd.

Lewis, M. 1999. How to Study Foreign Languages. Basingstoke: Macmillan Press Ltd.

Nunan, D. (1991) Syllabus Design. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers (2001) Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching: A Description and Analysis (2nd edn.). Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press.

Rogers, A. (1996) Teaching Adults (2nd edn). Milton Keynes: Open University Press.

Stern, H. H. (1992) Issues and Options in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University

Press.

Williams, M. and Burden, R. (1997) Psychology for Language Teachers. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Religious Revivalism in Pakistan:

A Vicious Circle of Abhorrence

Dr. Omer Farooq Zain*

AbstractExtreme forms of religious revivalism or religious activism not only

hold in the interests of intellectuals but also, throughout the world

of our own day, are in the very forefront of contemporary public

consciousness and concern. Pakistan is one such country among

the Muslim states where religious revivalism and extremism is

growing at a high scale. Undoubtedly, the image of country has

received a big blow and Pakistanis all over the world are

increasingly being viewed with suspicion and distrust. Particularly

after 9/11 and 7/7, Pakistan has been facing severe criticism for

harbouring religious extremist outfits. Since, it is also being alleged

that three or more of the suspects in July 7 events were British

nationals of Pakistani descent, who had visited Pakistan prior to

undertaking their suicide missions, this had drawn international

attention to the role of the religious schools (Madrassas) in Pakistan

and, in general, to the growth of religious extremism in the country.

Moreover, religious extremism has led to sectarian confrontation,

internal destabilization and serious security concerns in the country.

Extremist tendencies among the youth has grown alarmingly in

rural as well as urban areas creating further panic in an already

intolerant society. Vicious propaganda is being carried on against

one another contrary to Islam’s basic teaching that “All Muslims

are brothers.” Therefore, this paper attempts to study the evolution

and development of the phenomenon of religious revivalism because

the country is in the process of being divided along sectarian, anti-

democratic and anti-secular lines. It also demystifies the process of

religious frenzy which seeks to provoke repressive reactions while

making the country a centre of gravity for extremist / revivalist

forces all over the world.

The Advent of Religious Revivalism in PakistanAlthough, the British colonization of the Indian Sub-continent produced Islamic

revivalist movements, both militant and intellectual, the partition of India weakened

that process. Like the rest of the Islamic world, democracy could not take roots in

Pakistan and the armed forces as the largest power brokers rose to the top of political

35

* Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science and International Relations,

Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan.

36


hierarchy. In this backdrop, the local Islamic groups that subscribed to the revolutionary

ideology of the brotherhood during the 70’s and maintained close contacts with

international Islamic movements and networks, allied themselves with the Pakistan

military and emerged on the scene as a pro-establishment entity. However, the political

activism of certain Islamic revivalist groups and the state-sponsored Islamic

organizations did not reflect religiosity on the part of the majority of the country. In the

late 70’s, a number of factors aided by shifts in the domestic, regional as well as

international scene, such as the Nizam-i-Mustafa Tehreek and the over throw of Mr.

Bhutto’s democratic government (1977), the Iranian revolution (1979), and the Induction

of the Soviet troops in Afghanistan (1979), turned out to be the main causes of religious

revivalism in Pakistan. Unlike the first three decades of Pakistan’s history, the fourth

saw a significant transformation of the society. This change occurred gradually but left

a deep and lasting impression on the society. Pakistan had lost much of its modern

orientation and was considerably closer to the neighbouring Muslim countries and

transnational Islamic networks of the West-Asia (Zaheer, 1998).

In its early days, the state-sponsored religious revivalism in Pakistan manifested

itself in several areas of collective life. In politics, it denied the legitimacy of people’s

parliamentary democracy and, instead, sought to introduce a political system based on

so-called Islamic principles. One manifestation had been a referendum which tried to

seek a mandate for further Islamization and, by implication, the extension of the tenure

of the president general for five more years. In economics, religious revivalism expressed

itself in compulsory collection of Zakat and Usher and the introduction of an interest-

free banking and investment system. In the legal sphere, which held top priority on the

Islamization agenda of Islamic groups in Pakistan, revivalism meant the reintroduction

of Islamic penal laws which provide Islamic punishments for drinking alcohol, theft,

adultery, and kazaf (false accusation concerning sexual offences). Further ordinances

established a Federal Shariah Court as well as local Qazi courts to hear criminal and civil

cases under Islamic laws. The Federal Shariat Court, in both its original and appellate

jurisdictions, ruled on whether existing laws were in accordance with Islam or not —-–

except, of course, those issued under the authority of martial law of General Zia-ul-Haq.

Another addition was the introduction of the Islamic law of evidence under which, in

certain cases, the evidence of two women is regarded as equal to that of one man. In the

cultural sphere, religious revivalism manifested itself in the banning of dance clubs;

the imposition of strict gender morality; the observance of Islamic moral standards in

the production and screening of television programs; the revision of all textbooks to

express an Islamic orientation; increasing allocations for religious instruction; declaring

Friday as the weekly holiday instead of Sunday; obligatory prayers break during working

hours in governmental and private offices; emphasis on the Urdu language and national

dress in government offices; and a kind of moral aversion, at least in rhetoric if not in

substantive behavior, on the part of intellectuals as well as government authorities,

against non-Muslim cultural symbols and institutions (Ahmad, 1994). It is also pertinent

to note that an upsurge of international Islamic cultural exchanges and conferences as

well as unprecedented enthusiasm and public display in celebrating Islamic religious

37

Religious Revivalism in Pakistan: A Vicious Circle of Abhorrence

festivals and holidays, further supported the process of transformation of Pakistani

society under the umbrella of a fanatic-military regime.

While the early parliamentary regimes used a “Liberal-Modernist Islam”, Ayub

Khan a “Developmentalist Islam”, Yahya Khan a “Nationalist Islam”, Bhutto a

“Socialist-Populist Islam” or “Islamic-Socialism”, to legitimize themselves, however

another military dictator General Zia-ul-Haq used overtly a “Revivalist-Fundamentalist

Islam” to legitimize his brutal, oppressive, undemocratic and inhuman grip on the

political system of Pakistan. The so-called Islamic government of Zia sought to elicit

the moral commitment of the people by linking the destinies of Islam and Pakistan with

that of the military regime. General Zia maintained that the military rule had been vital

for the preservation of Islam and Pakistan. Zia’s revivalist commitment may be seen

from one of his statements, while addressing the councilors of Multan District, Zia

declared: “Pakistan was achieved in the name of Islam, and Islam alone could provide

the basis to run the government of the country and sustain its sovereignty and

integrity……. But no Un-Islamic government would be allowed to succeed the present

regime”(Ahmad, 1998). Thus, the trinity of Islam, Pakistan and the military regime

became one and the same thing.

There is no denying the fact that, the Afghan-Soviet war proved to be a major

factor in the spread of religious revivalism in the entire Muslim world, particularly in

Pakistan. The war added a further dimension to the mosaic of religious groups which

were being operated through “behind the scene operators.” An unprecedented rise in

the establishment of “Deeni Madrassas” (religious seminaries) in Pakistan reinforced

by Western capitalist democratic block and their Muslim stalwarts, namely, Saudi Arabia,

Egypt and UAE, began changing the political scenario at home. Pakistan had never

remained under such conditions but, now, was forced to evolve a process of revivalism

and extremism. The ruling elite of Pakistan was of the view that the Jihadi revivalist

network of organizations would serve as a double-edged sword for Islamabad. On the

one hand it would ensure strategic depth for Pakistan against India by turning

Afghanistan into a Pakistani satellite and successfully implementing Pakistan’s strategy

to hold down hundreds of thousands of regular Indian troops in a low-cost war in

Kashmir. And on the other, it would restrict the democratic forces’ movement of

establishing an autonomous civil order which could become a threat to military’s

corporate interests and their permanent presence in the power corridors. This was also

the same period when Al-Qaeda (A transnational Islamic Network of revivalists) started

laying its worldwide network by attracting the youth of the Muslim world for Jihad

against the Soviet Union. Hundreds of thousands of young men from Morocco to

Malaysia reached Pakistan (the base camp of Afghan Jihad) either to participate in the

Afghan war or get admission in madrassas (Lawrence, 1999). Over a period of time, the

revivalists infiltrated the decision making authority and their collaboration facilitated

the transformation of Pakistani society, without taking the fallout of that change into

consideration.

38


Rise of Revivalist Forces in the 90’sWith the pullout of Soviet forces from Afghanistan in 1986, religious revivalism in

Pakistan had reached a level where it had begun to imperil the image of Pakistani

nationhood, and from all accounts, this dreadful campaign was so well organized and

so well equipped, that even after the death of General Zia-ul-Haq, the anti-revivalist

political parties and civil society organizations found themselves out of depth in tackling

the vicious circle of revivalism. There seemed no doubt that the oil-rich states of the

Gulf, behind the scene operators of Pakistan and Islamic transnational networks, had

made a common cause for a variety of reasons (domestic as well as external) by turning

Pakistan into a war-theater. At the conclusion of Afghan-Soviet war, and the departure

of U.S.-led Western support from Afghanistan amid infighting among various Afghan

factions for control of the devastated country, which affected Pakistan’s political

scenario and their Pakistani stalwarts opened another chapter of hatred in the name of

sectarianism. Also contributing to the inflammation of religious revivalism, was the

flow of religious cadres graduating out of the madrassas. There had been a dramatic

increase in the number of such madrassas within one and a half decade.

Unfortunately, by default or design on the part of the ruling elite, Arab and

Iranian money had gone into the establishment of rival sectarian mosques, imam bargahs

and madrassas (Sultan, 2002). Since these institutions charged no fees and frequently

provided even free boarding and lodging, the products of these madrassas which

emerged were not only steeped in religious fanaticism and sectarian prejudices, but

also committed to operating as dedicated volunteers on behalf of the organizers of the

madrassas. They came out primed to act aggressively in support of any thing they were

induced to accept as a holy cause. And all they needed were training, weaponry,

political / financial support and a cause for activities which were readily available and

were promptly provided to them by the state organs in order to preserve their corporate

interest inside and outside the country. Pakistan had all the ingredients for a religious

blow up all lined up.

The emergence of Taliban in Afghanistan, further boosted the morale of religious

revivalists in Pakistan and they tried to make efforts to reshape Pakistani culture

according to their vision and vigor. During that time, Osama Bin Laden with his

transnational Islamic network established a permanent base in Afghanistan, Pakistan,

Central Asia and a few Arab countries from where they planned their moves on the

international chessboard. Although, the Americans took a very serious notice of anti-

American activities, successfully carried out by the Muslim extremists in various parts

of the world, yet, Pakistan’s successive civil and military regimes remained quiet

(Leonard, 2001). The new military dictator General Musharraf, who turned out to be

pro-modernist and anti-revivalist vis-a-vis General Zia’s state sponsored Islamization,

was reluctant (before 9/11) to fully cooperate with the U.S. because the military wanted

to see country’s western borders stable and secure. On the other hand, Indian’s military

build up on the eastern borders of Pakistan and their traditional stand on Kashmir

issue, kept Pakistan aloof from taking any serious measures to curb revivalist forces.

39


The Rollback of Pro-Revivalist Policy in the Aftermath of Taliban-

America War in AfghanistanThe Taliban-America war in Afghanistan, in the aftermath of 9/11 events, proved

to be fatal for revivalist outfits and a major shift in Pakistan’s domestic and foreign

policies regarding its traditional stance was witnessed. In his efforts to earn the

cooperation of Americans, General Musharraf provided tactical assistance, intelligence

support, land and air space to U.S. forces for the overthrow of the Taliban. On the other

hand, in clearing away the wreckage of its past policies, the ruling elite made their

erstwhile companions of the last two and a half decades, the scapegoats (Richard,

2002). With a view to cleansing the society of revivalism or extremism, the government

banned five religious extremist groups and launched a series of crackdowns on religious

activists sealing their offices and headquarters and rounding up a large number of

leaders, workers or sympathizers. Moreover, the government put a sixth outfit on the

watch list, laid down rules for regulating and regularizing madrassas and mosques and

declared that Pakistan would not allow anyone to use its territory for covert or overt

subversive activities in the country, the region and the world. The government officials

however admitted that announcing the decision was an easy task but its implementation

would be a real test. Meanwhile, authorities initiated a probe mission to check the

credentials and funding of the revivalist outfits involved in “Jihad”.

There is no denying the fact that previous regimes, after 1988, both civil and

military, had been pursuing a tentative policy to contain revivalists, rather deliberately

ignoring the fact that most of the religious institutions were producing an army of

diehard fanatics who were brain-washed and were led to believe that they were destined

to accomplish a divine mission. However, the changed geo-political circumstances in

the region forced the present regime to deal effectively with the destructive forces of

revivalism. Although, most of the religious parties in the country disclaimed any

connection with attempts to trigger extremist violence, nonetheless they could hardly

absolve themselves of the charge of promoting bigotry and fanaticism (Charles, 2002).

Some mainstream religious political parties had been guilty of mounting hate campaigns

against the rival sects, minorities and liberal shades of opinion and incited their loyalists

to use force, despite the fact that the large majority of peace-loving, tenacious, vibrant

and enterprising Pakistanis always rejected the dictated social orders and religious

fanatics who forcibly tried to implement their ruthless agenda.

It is generally believed that the events of September 11 and the fall of Taliban, in

many ways provided a unique opportunity and impetus for Pakistan to re-evaluate its

directions and make a conscious decision to effect a departure from the past. As part of

various measures taken by the government to rollback its long standing pro-revivalist

policy, a code of conduct for madrassas and ulemas was evolved, requiring restraints

to be observed in various matters, for instance, admission in the madrassas, students

from foreign countries, registration of the madrassas, curriculum and training. Along

with this move, objectionable sectarian literature, contentious issues regarding other

religions and literature having revivalist overtones were tried to be confiscated with

40


the raising of number of law enforcement personnel to combat the menace (Tariq, 2001).

However, these measures have not proved enough in stemming the raging tide of revivalist

militancy and violence is evident from countless events occurring all over the country. A

certain degree of diffidence and lack of clarity seems to characterize the government’s

policy towards the revivalist forces. Often, government officials contradict each other,

while in the recent move to contain fund-raising and related activities of these outfits, the

federal and provincial governments appeared to differ on the strategy to be followed.

Therefore, a damage to the government’s intentions and image is being caused by its

seeming inaction or helplessness. More alarming still, the revivalist do not seem to care

how much losses have been caused to them, but they are carrying out their operations and

taking part in political activities according to their routine. It goes without saying that the

present situation calls for an urgent, whole hearted and decisive action, for only a reactive

approach on the demand of external powers will take us no-where.

The Drastic Impacts of Revivalism on Pakistani SocietyThe emergence of armed gangs with a religious agenda of their own brand, trying

to enforce their writ in defiance of law of the land and people’s aspirations, is above all

a challenge to the authority of the state apparatus and people’s will. Needless to say, all

madrassas, which have proliferated over the last two and half decades, either under the

state patronage or reinforced by the neighbouring countries for their strategic purposes,

have clear cut revivalist and sectarian objectives. According to a report there were in

2004, at least 834 religious schools engaged in extremist sectarian training, and 1216

graduates of these institutions were wanted by the law enforcement agencies on charges

of violent crimes but were absconding (Askari, 2002). No matter how positive a

contribution the madrassas have made as a parallel school system for the under

privileged classes, there are no two opinions about the evil being done by the nurseries

of revivalist warriors. So long as militant outfits preaching violence and resorting to

extremist activities as a means to accomplish their revivalist goals, have the facility to

recruit cadres from the madrassas, the supply-line for religious warfare will remain in

place, no matter how prompt and efficient the law-enforcing organizations are in

responding to acts of violence.

Undoubtedly, in the absence of a genuine democratic culture in Pakistan, religious

revivalism has played a crucial role in incorporating religious fervour in a particular

class of youth. Most students come from low income families and many gladly hand

over their young ones to an institution where meals etc. are provided, and where the

parents will also have the blessings of the mullah and the community (Talat, 1999).

Most parents are not the slightest bit perturbed by the harsh punishments meted out

to their children and these are seen to be the correct way to discipline them as well as

to have divine sanction. Furthermore, students who graduate from madrassas are

immediately qualified to become teachers in these institutions. Their attitudes towards

secular education is mocking and contemptuous. To them, religious education and

revivalist literature is both an obligation and a salvation without which they have

neither a career nor any hope for the future. It is also pertinent to note that the subjects

41


which are taught at madrassas are: Arabic grammar, logic, religious philosophy (mostly

of the Arabic language), hadith, Islamic jurisprudence, Islamic history, debate and

discussion on religious issues and interpretation of the Quran, besides the grand

designs of Jews, Christians and Hindus also come under discussion (Rasheed, 1998).

Almost in all the madrassas, whether of Sunnis or Shias, the walls are plastered

with posters glorifying the Afghan Jihad, Iranian revolution, war in Iraq and guerilla

war in occupied Kashmir against the Indian troops. The madrassas have much to offer

in the way of inspiration for a young adventure seeker. Every madrassa is fed with an

ample supply of pro-jihad literature. These institutions receive books and audio tapes

on Jihad as well as newspapers reporting from war fronts inside Afghanistan, Iraq,

Chechnya, Palestine and Kashmir. Today, approximately 8000 registered and another

2000 unregistered deeni madrassas (religious schools or seminaries) are disseminating

the revivalist message of all brands all over Pakistan and outside the country

(Salahuddin, 2004). Particularly, the spirit of jihad is a by-product of life in the madrassas.

There are invariably a few warrior students in every madrassa who make regular visits

to the war fronts of foreign countries like Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asian states,

Chechnya, Iraq and occupied Kashmir (Shakeel, 2003). They return with tales of valour

and glory which are recounted to the impressionable minds at these schools. Thus, the

recruitment of males begins in their early teens to fill the front-lines in the war. The

widespread proliferation of modern small arms and semi-automatic rifles helps

involvement of children under the age of 18 in conflicts with a glamour for martyrdom.

Unfortunately, this maddening frenzy is continued despite heavy damage to the

society and the passion for revivalism is becoming the sum and substance of a large

number of unemployed, ignored and victimized youth of the down-trodden classes.

Interestingly, however, there has not been a very strong reaction from political parties,

bureaucracy and intelligentia who, except pointing their accusing finger at the “foreign

hand”, show little concern.

ConclusionSince the very inception of the new state, Pakistan’s rulers have used Islam to

legitimize their authority which was, more often than not, derived from the coercive

apparatus of the state rather than from popular support. Since the majority of the

regimes came into power through extra-constitutional means, their claims to legitimacy

were dubious. As a result, these regimes tried to portray Islam as a source of legitimacy

rather than taking Islam as a source of inspiration to provide social justice to the down-

trodden communities of Pakistan; The chaotic parliamentary regimes from 1948 to 1958,

Ayub Khan’s so-called development-oriented government, Yahya Khan’s transient

government, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto’s populist corporatism, Zia-ul-Haq’s conservative

authoritarianism, Benazir Bhutto’s feudal-dominated regime and Nawaz Sharif’s

authoritarian capitalist regime — all benefited from the same tactics (Suleman, 2001). In

each phase, Islamic ideology was invoked, albeit with varying emphases, in order to

legitimize not only the authority of the incumbents but also their contemporary policy

42


goals. But, particularly, General Zia-ul-Haq’s oppressive regime is considered to be

responsible for creating a situation in which road to salvation had become

indistinguishable from purely political objectives and the regime’s need for legitimacy.

His monopoly over the instrumental use of Islam proved to be fatal for the future of the

country. The non-sectarian, non-violent and non-ideologized part of the population, at

about 98 percent, felt constrained under the new culture manufactured and thrusted on

the masses in pursuit of religious ritualism. Islam’s good name had been exploited

ruthlessly with a view to seeking the support of the religious political parties and to

create a constituency among the lower middle class of the Punjab, urban Sind, and the

North West Frontier Province. Issues like Zakat, Ushr, Islah-i-Mu’ashra, Chadar and

Chardivari paved the way for the religious outfits to legitimize their nauseant grip on

political power and to safeguard the interests of the ruling elite, which tried to compound its

bases of support among the masses (Tasawar, 2003). Since then, every regime whether civil

or military, has desperately clutched at the coat-tails of the fundamentalists when their

governments had been rocked by a crisis of confidence or political legitimacy. Moreover,

the continuing failure of governments to provide education and jobs to the swelling tide of

the unemployed, became a fertile breeding ground for alienation and religious revivalism.

Even today, the tragedy is that despite all the tall talk about economic breakthrough indulged

in by the government, there is no tangible evidence on the ground of its having launched

a comprehensive, concrete and credible action plan for ameliorating the appalling misery of

the masses. In its efforts to fight the American war on terrorism on Pakistani soil, the

Government (and General Musharraf) had to face the wrath of the revivalists. Bomb blasts,

rocket fires, missile attacks and other acts of subversion and sabotage from tribal / rural

areas to major cities has become the every day feature in Pakistan. A dangerous situation of

rebellion, therefore, is brewing up as the army is battling the local and foreign extremists in

the North West Frontier Province.

In contemporary Pakistan, therefore, an intense struggle is underway between

the spirit of liberalism and dogmatism. The former is generous, moderate, compassionate,

and is focused on the real issues of men and women in the present-day context; whereas

the latter is unrealistic, uncompromising, power-hungry, and finds inspiration in religious

dogma, sectarian pride and dictatorship. Enlightenment takes the individual as the measure

of all things and resists abstractions that go beyond the dimensions of man. Dogmatic

dispensation cannot justify the cruelties caused to individuals in pursuit of a faith or an

ideology, nor justify pain in the present for the sake of a utopian future or a paradisiacal

hereafter. And yet such cruelties and pain are intentional tactics deliberated in religious

conflicts. The revivalist seeks to provoke repressive reactions which may drive the moderates

and democrats out of the political arena and simultaneously bind those who remain more

tightly to the “cause”. In their fervor, revivalists condemn democracy as a crime and as the

traditional conception of religion in Pakistan embraces all aspects of human life, neither

politics nor economics is autonomous of religion; they are simply encompassed by religion.

Therefore, the battle against religious fanaticism has to be an all-out battle. It calls for going

the whole hog in fight to the finish spirit. There is no half-way house, no room for compromise,

nor complacency, or expedient adjustments.

43

Reli

gio

us

Reviv

ali

sm i

n P

akis

tan

: A

Vic

iou

s C

ircle

of

Ab

ho

rren

ce Pakistani religious revivalist groups, their sub-organizations, splinter organs and breakaway factions

Jamiat Ullema-i-Islam

JUI

(Sami-ul-Haq)

JUI

(Fazlur Rehman)

JUI

(Darkhawsti)

Jamiat Tahaffuz-i- Khatam-

i-Nabuwat (Mohammad

Khan)

Tablighi Jamat

(Abdul Wahab)

Harkat-Al-

Mujahideen

Sipah-i-Sahaba

Pakistan (now working as

Milat-e-Islamia Pakistan)

Harkat-Al-

Ansar

Harkat-Al-Jihad-

Al-Islami

Lashkar-i-Jhangvi

Jamiat Ishat-i-

Tauheed-o-Sunnat

(Ziaulla Bokhari)

Harkat-Al-

Mujahideen Al-Alami

Jundullah

Tahaffuz-i-Ahal-i-

Sunnat (Abdul

Majeed Nadeem)

44

Jo

urn

al

of

Rese

arc

h (

Fa

cu

lty o

f L

an

gu

ag

es

& I

sla

mic

Stu

die

s) 2

00

6 V

ol.

9

Jamiat Ullema-i-Pakistan

JUP

(Noorani Group)

Jamaat-i-Ahal-i-Sunnat

(Tahirul Qadri)

JUP

(Kazmi Previously

Niazi Group)

Sunni Tehrik

(Saleem Qadri)

Dawat-i-Islami

(Ilyas Qadri)

Tehrik Tahaffuz-i- Namoos-

i Risalat (Tahirul Qadri)

Minhaj-ul-Quran

(Tahir-ul-Qadri)

Anjuman

Naujawanan-i-

Islam (Saeedi)

Jamat-i-Islami

Shabab-i-Mili

(Youth

Organization)

National Labour

Federation

(Labourwing)

Islami Jamiat Talaba

(Student Wing)

Pegham Union

(Labour Wing)

Jamiat Talaba-i-

Arbia (Student

Wing)

Al-Badar

Mujahideen

(Militant Wing)

Al-khidmat

Foundation

(Social Wing)

Pasban (Youth

Organization)

Anjuman Talaba-i-

Islam ATI (Students

Wing of JUP)

JUP

(Fazal Karim &

Haji Hanif Tayyab)

45

Reli

gio

us

Reviv

ali

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n P

akis

tan

: A

Vic

iou

s C

ircle

of

Ab

ho

rren

ce

* Compiled from data provided by Mehmood Zaman, “Blood, Sweat and Tears” in The Review, Karachi, September 11-17, 2002, PP.4-8.

Jamiat Ahal-i-Hadith

Jamiat Ahal-i-

Hadith (Sajid Mir)

Lashkar-i- Taiba

(Hafiz Saeed)

(Militant Wing)

Jamaat-i-Ahal-i-

Hadith (Ibtasam Elahi

Zaheer)

Jamiat Ulema

Ahal-i-Hadith

(Qazi Abdul

Qadeer Khamosh)

Tehreek-i-Jafaria Pakistan

TJP (Sajid Naqvi)

Imamia Students

Organization

Jafaria Students

Organization

TNFJ

(Hamid Ali Moosvi)

Sipah-i-Muhammad

(Militant Wing)

Pakistan Islami

Tehreek

Tehreek-i-Islami

(Dr. Israr-ul-Haq)

Tehreek Nifaz-i-Shariat-i-Muhammadi

(Moulana Sufi Muhammad)

Tanzeem-al-Ikhwan

(Maulana Akram Awan)

Khaksar Tehreek

(Khan Ashraf Khan)

46


References

1. Zaheer ul Islam, Religious Violence in South Asia, New Delhi: Oxford University

Press, 1998, P.11.

2. Ahmad, Abdul Mansur, Secularism Versus Religion in Pakistan, London: Oxford

University Press, 1994, PP.21-27.

3. Ahmad Mumtaz, Islamic Revival in Pakistan, In C.A. Pullapilly Editor. Islam in

the Contemporary World, Notre Dame: Cross Roads Press, 1998. PP.261-273.

4. Lawrence A. Bobb, The Puzzle of Religious Modernity, In J. R. Roach, Editor

South Asia 2010: The Next Ten Years, New Delhi: Surjeet Publications, 1999,

P.176.

5. Sultan Ahmad, The Enemy Within, England: Penguin Books, 2002, PP.47-69.

6. Leonard Smith, Politics, Religion and State, New York: Macmillan Company,

2001, P.83.

7. Richard J. Eric, Islamic Revivalism, New Delhi: Manohar, 1999, PP.21-32.

8. Charles Nathan, The Resurgence of Islamic Extremism, New Delhi: Concept

Publishing Company, 2002, P.199.

9. Tariq Butt, Govt. Evolves Strategy to Curb Religious Extremism, The News,

Islamabad, December 2, 2001, P.4.

10. M. H. Askari, Government at the Crossroads, The Dawn, Karachi, September 2,

1998, P.6.

11. Talat Majeed, The Scourge of Religious Revivalism, The Dawn, Karachi, September

15, 1999, P.6.

12. Rasheed Behzad, More Power to Combat Revivalist Outfits, The Muslim,

Islamabad, January 9, 1998, P.7.

13. Salahuddin Khan, Govt. to Check Supply Lines of Jiahadis, The Nation, Islamabad,

March 11, 2001, PP.7-8.

14. Shakeel Sheikh, Outlawed Outfits Still Working Under New Names, The Muslim,

Islamabad, October 17, 2003, P.5.

15. Suleman Shehzad, Crackdown on Banned Groups Launched, The News,

Islamabad, November 19, 2001, P.5.

16. Taswar Shaheen, A Revolutionary Step, The Muslim, Islamabad, June 3, 2003, P.7.

The Ethics of Global Civil Society

in Islamic Tradition

Dr. Muhammad Zia-Ul-Haq*

Abstract: The present move towards a global world demands sincere efforts

for a better mutual understanding on ethical basis so that the visions,

loyalties, ideals and values of individuals irrespective of their

religious affiliations can be developed. This study aims to present

the importance of Islamic ethics for the global society. It briefly

examines the Islamic ethics and suggests that Quran, Sunnah, the

literature of Adab and legal rulings are the main sources of ethics

in the Islamic tradition. This is followed by a discussion on the

Islamic injunctions on important ethics of multi-faith society such

as righteousness and goodness. This is followed by the discussion

on religious pluralism as the basic ethic of global society. The

opinions of the Muslim jurists about the liberty of faith are also

explored. The final part of the paper analyses in detail the legal

rulings of Islam regarding interfaith marriages and social relations

among the followers of different religious traditions.

In the present age, human beings are willingly moving toward a ‘one world’ inwhich aloofness, estrangement and alienation are not desirable. The shell of isolation,which had provided a large measure of insulation to different religious communities inthe past, has been shattered. To be a Muslim in modern world, or a Jew or a Christian,is to be so in a society in which other men, intelligent, devout, and righteous, areBuddhist, Agnostic and Hindus. In such a global society, the need for interfaithunderstanding and harmony, based on certain ethical grounds, is obvious. Theshrinkage of our world into a global village due to enlightenment and socio-economicdevelopment demands that the learned people of each faith should search ethicalguidelines of their own faith for regulating relations among the members of global civilsociety. Mutual understanding, careful appreciation and respect can be developed onthe bases of these ethics.

Muslims are aware of this need from the early days of Islam because theestablishment of their first society was based on multi faith relations. Later on, duringthe period of development and compilation of their legal codes, they developed alegacy of ethical rules for interfaith relations. It is time that such rules and regulation,that not only provide ethical grounds for interfaith understanding and co operationbut also match to the present needs of global society, should be identified so that anappropriate framework for the ethics of global civil society can be suggested. This is

47

* Chairman & Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Law, A.I.O.U., Islamabad.

48


the main problem that is before us in this paper. On the bases of which sources, Islamicethics developed? What are important ethics of global society in Islamic tradition?How these ethics regulate interfaith relations and religious diversity in Islam? To whichextend Islam recognizes liberty of faith? How Islam looks interfaith marriages? In thefollowing lines these and other questions related to these are delved into more deeply.

Islamic tradition is distinguished for diversity of opinions. Ethical issues havegot much attention in the writings of Muslim theologians and jurists. The analysis ofall these opinions in one article is not possible therefore it is out of the scope of thisstudy. This study includes only those opinions, which seem appropriate for presentneed of multi faith global civil society.

I- Evolution of Ethics in IslamThe ethical norms and the legal rules that have characterized belief and actions in

Islam have initial inspiration from Quran and Sunnah. Muslim jurists and theologians,on the bases of these sources, derived a set of practical rules and regulations regardingIslamic ethics, which have been embodied in literature of Tafsîr, Hadîth, Fiqh and Adâb.Islamic ethics, weather religious or philosophical are ultimately based on the Qur’an.Many Muslim philosophers have given Islamic orientation to Greek ethical conceptson the bases of teachings of Qur’an and Sunnah. Other has taken ethical verses of theQuran and given them a new meaning from the perspective of Greek ethics. Therefore,in order to appreciate the latter development of ethics, one should first understand thenature of ethics in Qur’an.1 The semantic and theological foundations for detailedQur’anic system of ethics have been laid down in the scholarly works of contemporaryscholars such as Izutsu2 ,Rahman and Hourani. Rehman in his Major Themes of the

Qur’an reinterpreted the Quran according to the overarching virtue of social justicebut without minimizing the principles of divine justice. Hourani, in his Ethical

Presuppositions of the Qur’an, demonstrated that the Quran teaches ethical valueswith an objective reality, and that ethics can not simply be reduced to the commandsand prohibitions of God.3

The ethical dimensions of the Quran are integrated to the social context in whichit was revealed. That includes both the context of the pagan Arabs and the earlycompanions of the Prophet Muhammad. The various religious, legal and moralobligations are interconnected as they are subsumed under God’s will. However, thereis also a teleological dimension where people obey God because he is good, and wherethey seek, by means of their innate character (fîtrâh),to progress toward happiness andto become the best community to be brought forth for humankind.4

1 Yasien Mohamed, ‘The Evolution of Early Islamic Ethics’, The American journal of

Islamic Social Sciences , Vol.18,fall 2001,No.4,p.90-91.2 See T.Izutsu, The Structure of Ethical Terms in the Koran (Tokyo, 1959);God and Man in

Qur’an (Tokyo,1959).3 Denny M.F, Ethics and the Qur’an: Community and World View, (Malibu,1985),p.104.4 Ibid.,p.108.

49

The Ethics of Global Civil Society in Islamic Tradition

Many of the qualities that became part of Islamic ethics were virtues of pre-Islamic Arabs that transformed and took new meaning with the conversion of thepagan Arabs to Islam. In pre-Islamic Arab society two characteristics of ArabsJâhl(ignorance) and hîlm(forbearance, patience)were very prominent. Through theimpact of Quran the vengeful spirit of the Arabs was transferred into a positive qualityof hîlm. The person called halîm is self controlled, moderate and generous.5 Accordingto Izutsu, hîlm is a dominant virtue in the Quran that enables a person to control hisfierce temper.6 In a certain sense the spirit of hîlm dominates the ethos of the Quran asa whole. The constant exhortation to kindness (ihsân) the emphasis laid down onjustice (adl), the forbidding of wrongful violence (zûlm), the bidding of abstinence andthe control of passions, the criticism of groundless pride and arrogance — all areconcrete manifestations of the spirit of hîlm.7

Furthermore, the Quran also considers Prophet Muhammad to be the standard ofmoral conduct both in relation to God and in relation to other humans. He is from theperspective of the Quran, a messenger of ethical guidelines and a model of piety. Moredetails information about his moral conduct can be found in the Hadîth literature. Likethe Quran, the Hadîth deals with ceremonial, ritualistic and ethical requirements of thefaith. It provides information on the action, utterance spoken and unspoken approvalof the Prophet.8 The ethical traditions of Prophet Muhammad can also be found in theSîrah (Biography of the Prophet) and in Adâb literature, which deals with good manners,education and cultures. A glance at the content lists of the major sources of Hadîthshows that it includes topics such as faith, prayer, religious duties, civil regulations,ceremonial law, moral admonition of virtues and the moral character of the Prophet. Italso incorporates obligations to the sick, requirements of trade and borrowing, and thepaying of debts. The Sûnnah is rich in admonition about personal habits regardingfood, drink, and clothes, ornaments cordial greetings and the proper practice of nursinginfants.9 Other ethical aspects of Sûnnah are respect for parents, moderation in spending,hospitality, forbearance, and faithfulness in keeping a trust. Thus, emulation of themoral conduct of the prophet has become a part of the Muslim way of life.10

Muslim Jurists derived from Qur’an and Sunnah detailed rules of Muslims conductrelated to individual, collective, local as well as international social and moral matters.These detailed rules as injunctions of Shari’ya have been compiled in books of Fiqh(Islamic Law). These injunctions include forbidden actions (haram) such as premeditated

5 Yasien Mohamed, ‘The Evolution of Early Islamic Ethics’, op.cit.,p.89.6 C.Pellat, Encyclopedia of Islam, ‘Hilm’ New ed., Vol. iv, p. 390-392.7 T. Izutsu, God and Man in the Koran, p.216.8 Wahwah al-Zuhalî, Usool al-Fiqh al-Islami, (Tehran: Dar Ihsan,1998)p.1/449.9 See Al Bukhari Abu Abdullah Muhammad bin Ismael d.870, Al Jamiya Al Sahi, ( Dâr Ibn

Kaseer,1987) Kitab isti’dhan 9;Bab Adab no.57.62; Muslim bin Hjaz, Al Jamiya, ( Beirut:Dar al-fikar,1983),Kitab Birr,23,25,26;Adab,47.

10 Ibn Hisham, al Sîra al Nabawiyya,( ed.) Mustafa al-Saqqâ, Ibrâhim al–Abyârî and AbdulHafeez Shalabî, (Beirut: Dâr al-Khayr, 1990),p.4/205.

50


murder, adultery, sodomy, the drinking of wine, theft, slander, false witness, disobedienceto parents, eating the flesh of swine, hoarding and usury.11 Literature of fiqh alsoprovides guidance for interfaith relations, liberty of faith, tolerance and interfaithmarriages.

Adâb, which is defined as an ethical, high quality of soul, good upbringing,urbanity and courtesy,12 is an important source of inspiration for later Islamic ethics asit was the kind of literature that could easily incorporate philosophical elements withoutaffecting religious sensibilities. From the first century of Hijrah it came to imply the sumof the intellectual science, as distinct from the religious knowledge, which makes a mancourteous. The third century writer al-Jihiz, was not only a perfect proponent of Arabicpoetry and prose, but also of ethics. The ingredients of that are morel and socialupbringing, intellectual education and entertainment.13 The social sense of adab wasfirst implied in the middle ages and therefore refers to the etiquette of eating, drinkingand dressing; the etiquette of the boon companion; the etiquette of disputation andthe etiquette of study and teaching.14 Ethical sayings attributed to the prophet can alsobe found in Adâb literature that dealt with religious education and moral instruction.

The moral guidance of these sources of Islamic Ethics provides foundation forthe Muslims’ devotional and ethical practices. Some Muslims ethics are related toindividuals while others other deal with collective social relations. Some of these ethics,which are related to global civil society, are explored in this paper.

II- Goodness (Khayr/salih) and righteousness (birr)Goodness and righteousness are core of Islamic Ethics. These are not only ethics

of good individuals but also ethics of civil society. The term khayr, which is used in themeanings of goodness, is a comprehensive one that connotes valuable, beneficial,useful, and desirable, covering both the material field and that of religious belief. Thisterm is also used in the meanings of wealth in Qur’an.15 The opposite of Khayr is sharr.

The term salih (righteous) is less general and more specific than Khayr and is specificallyrelated to belief, as suggested by the following verse: those who believe and do goodwork are the people of paradise, when they will dwell forever.”16 These good works arestated in the verse, ‘When you made a covenant with the children of Israel: ‘You shallworship none other than Allah; Show kindness to your parents, to the near kin, to theorphans and to the poor, speak to people, perform the prayer, give the alms-tax.17 Goodworks, therefore, includes the belief in One God ( tawhid) ,pious acts such as prayer,

11 Yasien Mohamed, op.cit.,p.90.

12 H.Kilpartrick , Encyclopedia of Arabic Literature ‘Adab’ ( London,1998),p.56.13 Ibid.,p.56.14 Books on these matters refers as Adab al-dars, Adab al-alim wa-l-muta’allim ,and Tadris

see for details: F.Gabrieli, Adab, Encyclopedia of Islam,p.1/175.15 Al- Qur’an 2:104.16 Al-Qur’an 2:82.17 Al-Qur’an 2:240.

51


and moral action such as being kind to one’s parents ,the orphans and the poor. Heretoo we can see in this verse that belief is inseparable from righteousness.

The world birr(righteous) is similar to salih. It suggests that piety is inseparablefrom social justice and love for others, as can be observed from the Qur’anic verse,:“Righteousness is not to turn your faces towards the East and the West; the Righteousis he who believe in Allah, the Last Day, the angels, the Book and the Prophets; whogives of his money ,in spite of loving it, to the near of kin, the orphans, the needy, thewarfare’s and the beggars, and for the freeing of slaves; who performs the prayers andpays the alms-tax. Such are those who keep their pledges once they have made them,and endure patiently in privation, affliction and in time of fighting.”18

These verses show that these ethics are more important than a certain religiousexpression and if a person is not possessing it , his faith is not completed. On the basesof these Qur’anic injunctions, during the early period of Islam, Muslims were use toextend social, finical and moral sport not only to the Muslims but also to the non-Muslim communities. Ethics of goodness and righteousness aimed at goodness witheveryone irrespective of religious affiliation and this could play very important role increation of sense of humanization in global civil society. The Qur’anic concepts ofKhayr goodness and birr 19 provides principles of interfaith corporation and harmonyand It can create feelings of sympathy, love, respect and appreciation among thefollowers of different religious traditions.20

III- Justice and ResponsibilityJustice is a supreme virtue in Islam to the extend that it stands in order of priority

to belief in Oneness of God and the truth of the Prophet Muhammad.21 There are manyverses in the Qur’an that command believers to adopt this as a morel ideal; ‘Godcommands you to deliver trust to their owners and if you judge between people, tojudge, justly’.22 ‘O believers be upholders of justice, witness for Allah, even if it beagainst yourselves, your parents or kinsman. Whether rich and poor, Allah takes bettercare of both. Do not follow your desire to restrain from justice’.23 Justice demands thatpeople should be true in words and deed.24 Faithfully observed contracts.25 Weigh

18 Al- Qur’an 2 :177.19 See Al- Qur’an 2:148;5:48.20 Issa J. Boullata, ‘Fa-stbiqû ’l-khayrât: Qur’anic Principles of Interfaith Relations’,

Christian-Muslim Encounters edited by Yvonne Yazbeck Haddad,Wadi Zaidan Haddad,(U.S.A: University of Florida prees,1995),p.43-44.

21 T. Izutsu, The Structure of the Ethical Terms in the Koran,p.210-215;M.Fakhry,EthicalTheories in Islam(Leiden,1991),p.14-15; B.H. Dar, Ethical Teachings of the Quran ,AHistory of Muslim Philosophy ( Wiesbaden,1963),vol.1,p.162; Muhammd Hashim Kamali,Freedom, Equality and Justice in Islam,(Petaling Jaya,1999),P.147.

22 Al- Qur’an 4:58.23 Ibid., 4:135.24 Ibid.,3:17.25 Ibid.,2:177.

52


goods justly, and not be fraudulent in measure to cause loss to others.26 Nor unjustlywithhold from others what is due to them.27 For it would lead to spread of mischief onearth.28 The word qist is also use to connote justice and equality. The word adl is alsothe equivalent of qist in the sense of legal justice, that is the exercise of justice in thecourts of law, and it is mentioned in many verses of the Quran.29

If the Quran commands men to be just, then it logically presupposes human freewill, which according to Fakhry is placed with in a particular context of legal duties andeschatological implications. Although free will is not discussed theologically, there arecertain verses in the Quran, which refer to it. Man’s responsibility, in the Quran, takesthe form of accountability before God. Qur’an says: ‘And you will be surely bequestioned about what you do’.30 Responsibility in turn presupposes freedom of will.The substantive noun huriyyah or freedom does not occur in Qur’an, but appears asan adjective or in a transitive from in an others place.31 The man’s responsibility is alsodenoted by the term isti,ah( capacity).This capacity implies implication of morel freedomand responsibility. It occurs in the Qua’an mostly in the verbal from, and as a preconditionto moral or religious obligation, as for example in the case of the pilgrimage: ‘It is theduty to Allah incumbent on those who can ( man istita’ah),to make the pilgrimage tothe House’.32

Ethics of Justice and human responsibilities in Islam are not dependent on anyparticular religious affiliation but theses are for all human beings across the religiousaffiliations. There is no hurdle to take these ethics as ethics of global civil societybecause it is not specific to any particular religious tradition but common for all humanbeings.

IV- Religious pluralismIslam believes that the core of the massages of all the prophets and messengers

was the same33 and that is submission to God in the light of guidance communicated bythe prophets. All prophets were Muslims (submitters to the God), and Islam is notmerely the religion preached by Muhammad but was also the religion of all the trueprophets of God such as Noah, Abraham, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, and Jesus and their

26 Ibid.,6;152.27 Ibid.,26:181-183.28 Ibid.,9:85.29 Ibid.,4:128;4:61;6:153 and 5:105.30 Ibid.,16:93.31 Ibid.,2:178.32 Ibid.,3:97.33 According to Islamic beliefs, Prophet hood is a channel for communication between God

and human beings, his creature. Since the need for divine guidance is an essential one,revelation and prophet hood go back to the very beginning of human life on earth. Thehuman ancestor Adam was the first recipient of revealed guidance and Muhammad wasthe last. See for details, Nasr Seyyed Hossein, Ideals and Realities of Islam ( Unwinpaper backs, London, 1979 ) ,p.84-88.

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followers.34 Islam believes that there has been no nation, which had not been visited bya warner35 so that, the different religious traditions of the world presumably had anauthentic starting point.

Qur’an provides evidence that Judaism and Christianity represent authenticreligious traditions, revealed from the God. No doubt ,Qur’an criticise several Jewishand Christian doctrines but it confirms the message of God that is contained in theirScriptures.36 Although from time to time God’s revealed guidance was modified in respectof certain detailed legal perceptions such as forms of worship, dietary laws, etc., thefundamentals of true religion always remained the same. Muslim scholars generallyrecognize that where as Dîn or essential religion remained the same, the shari’ah orreligious prescriptions of the people, which are named in Christianity as Hodos, inJudaism as Halakah and in Chinese religion as Tao,37 are varied.38 Zafar Ishaq Ansariobserves that the evaluation of religious phenomena in an Islamic perspective showsthat the religious life of humankind and encounter between humans and God is genuineand is not limited to any particular race or territory. It embraces all humankind. All thosewho responded sincerely to God’s revelation and sought to obey God are respectableirrespective of when and where they lived or which religious leader they followed.39

The religious experience of Muhammad is in certain way distinct in the opinions of theMuslims but it was not essentially different from that of other prophets of God, for eachhas received authentic revelation from God. It is for this reason that God has repeatedlyprohibited distinction between the Messengers of God,40 and Muhammad disliked thathe should be considered above Moses and other prophets of God.41

The above discussion shows that Islam looks on religious diversity as naturalphenomena, as a concomitant of God’s bestowal of free will and choice on humanbeing. God could have compelled all people to follow the truth, but did not do so.42 IfGod in infinite wisdom did not compel people to embrace the truth, how it can bepermissible for human beings because there is no compulsion in religion.43 In fact majorjustification for use of sword is to protect the religious freedom of all people. Qur’ansays: [And were God not to repel some people by others, cloisters and churches and

34 See Al Qur’an 2:127-133 ; 3:51-52,84 ; 6:161-163 ; 10:83-84 and 90.35 Al Qur’an 35:24.36 Ibid., 2:49, 81,91,101; 3:50,81; 4:74; 5:46.37 Leonard Swidler, ‘Interriligios and Interideological Dialogue: the Matrix for all Systematic

Reflection today’, Leonard Swidler(edi.), Towards a Universal Theology of Religions

(Maryknoll, New York 10545: Orbis Books, 2nd edi.,1988 ),p.12.38 Zafar Ishaq Ansari, ‘Some Reflections on Islamic Bases for Dialogue with Jews and

Christian,’ Journal of Ecumenical Studies, vol. 14,1997,p.436.39 Ibid.40 Al Qur’an 2:136,285; 3:84 and 4:15.41 Al Bukhari, Al Jamiya Al Sahi, Kitab al-Khusûmât , and Kitab al –Tawhîd.42 Al Qur’an 5:51 and 6:108.43 Ibid., 2:256

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synagogue and mosques in which God’s name is much remembered would have beenpulled down.]44 The mentioning of churches and synagogue along with mosques isperhaps significant for analysing Islamic view regarding religious diversity andpluralism.

Richard K. Khuri acknowledges that the Prophet of Islam had a sustainedencounter with the infinite, with divine presence. The embodiment of that encounter istestimony to the impossibility of interpretational permanence. He feels that Qur’an is abook forever capable of generating new interpretations that differ significantly fromthe old. It also refers explicitly to the other ways toward the infinite. If one seeks it, onemay find implicit acceptance of every striving for divine, because there is a primordialIslam that refers to humanity’s general and religious disposition. He concludes, thatIslamic experience provides a solid foundation for true pluralism.45 Which today hailedas the reality of a world composed of diverse cultures, belief systems, and standards ofmorality.46 It is, therefore, no accident that (a) there are several schools of jurisprudencefor the drafting of Laws,(b)Muslims were able to engage Qur’anic interpretation in awide diversity of ways for many centuries, even occasionally departing from the notionthat it was never created or that it is literally the word of God, and (c)they havemanaged to coexist with Christians ,Jews , Hindus, Buddhists, Confucians andpagans(specially in Africa) in many places and over several years. Above all, manyMuslims have awakened to the spiritual reality of their experience and have sought torecapture it in their own lives. Many orders were built around that quest. It is becauseSufis have had access to the inner aspect of religion and, hence, morality, which theyhave frequently been at peace with others in a manner untouched by the vicissitudesto which pragmatists, must submit.47

Schachter notices that Islam has given us first thrust in the direction ofscholasticism. It was Islamic thought and scholarship that made us enter into dialoguewith philosophy. It was so fruitful in its own day, he observes, that I cannot believe thatthere is presently hardly any of this dialogue.48 He further acknowledges that Muhammadhimself declared that what he conceived as bringing the shari’ah of Judaism andChristianity into line with the conditions of this day and age. Even during lifetime ofMuhammad Islamic law changed to fit the changing conditions. There must have beendevelopments in the shari’ah to deal with the industrial revolution.49

44 Ibid., 22:4045 Richard K. Khuri, ‘ True and False Pluralism in Relation to Islam and West,’in Plamen

Makariev (ed.) Islamic and Christian Cultures: Conflict or Dialogue, Bulgarian

Philosophical Studies (U.S.A: The Council for research in Values and Philosophy, 3rdedition, 2001) ,p.235.

46 Mahmut Aydin, ‘Religious Pluralism: A Challenge for Muslims-A Theological Evaluation,’Journal of Ecumenical Studies, vol. 38:2-3,(2001),p.331.

47 Ibid.,p.335.48 Zalman M. Schachter , ‘Bases and Boundaries of Jewish ,Christian, and Moslem Dialogue,’

Journal of Ecumenical Studies, vol. 14, (1977),p.417.49 Ibid.

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50 Siddiqui Attaullah , Christian-Muslim Dialogue in the Twentieth Century,( MacmillanPress Ltd, London ,1997),p.125.

51 Al-Qur’an 3:64.52 Gottlob Schrenk, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament (Ed.) Gergard friedrich et

al , (trans.) Geoffrey Bromiley,(Grand Rapids, MI,WM.B.Eermans Publishing Company,1974), p. 2/93: Simon Harunblower and Antony Spawforth (edi.), The Oxford Classical

Dictionary (New York, Oxford University Press, 3rd Edition, 1996), p.46253 Ibn Khathîr , Imad al- Dîn Abû al-Fidâ Ismâ’îl, Tafsîr al-Qur’an al-Azîm(Beirut :Dar al-

fikar,1970),p.1/245.54 Hamidullah Muhammad, The Muslim Conduct of State (Lahore: Sh. Muhammad Ashraf

Publishers, 1996), p.111-112.

The relationship of Da’wah with pluralism is an other point needs to be discussed.Contemporary Muslim scholars consider Da’wah as other evidence of favourableIslamic trend toward pluralism, which encourages dialogue. Da’wah is also a form ofdialogue because it involves ingredients of dialogue such as knowing, learning,reaching, talking, discussing, persuading each other etc.50

Islamic view of religious pluralism, which is one of the most important needs ofglobal civil society, clarifies that religious pluralism can create atmosphere of interfaithharmony, which could strengthening different elements of world wide civil society.Islam confirms existence of truth in other religious traditions and is not against theirsurvival along with it. It does not consider that salvation is not possible withoutembracing Islam. Islamic concepts such as prophet hood, start of religion, authenticityof other scriptures and recognition of diversity in religious ways together shapedpicture of religious pluralism in Islam. Islamic religious pluralism could be used as a toolfor creating better opportunities of interfaith understanding and harmony among thefollowers of different religious traditions.

V- Interfaith Harmonious Relations through DialogueThe consequence of religious pluralism is interfaith relations based on dialogue

and respect and not on clash and hatred. Dialogical methodology of interfaith relationsis proposed by Qur’an, which says: ‘O People of the scriptures come to a world whichis common between you and us that we worship none but God( Alone), and that we hadassociate no partners with him, and that non of us shall take others as lords besidesGod.’51 Here we have found a literal translation of ‘dialogue’ i.e., a ‘world between”(dia-

logos) conversation partners.52 In this verse all believers irrespective of their religiousaffiliations have been provided common platform for dialogue between them and theyhave been asked to start their dialogue on the bases of confession of one God.53

Islam not only recognizes non-Muslims as citizen of the Islamic State but alsoprovides legislation regarding their rights. Muslim law, as a principle protects lifeproperty honour and liberty of conscience (of religion) of all human beings withoutany kind of discrimination including faith. No doubt that Islamic law maintains adifference of treatment between Muslims and non-Muslims but in many respects letterare better off.54 Qur’an has mentioned non-Muslim religious communities such as the

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Banû Isrâ’îl and Jews(Yahûd),the Christians(Nasârâ),the Zoroastrians(majûs),the Sâbi’a,and the polytheists who associate others deities with Allah. As for as revealed booksare concerned, Qur’an, in addition to Tawrât and Injîl, mentions ‘scroll of Abraham andMoses (suhuf Ibrâhîm wa Mûsâ)’,‘the first scroll(al- suhuf al-ûlâ)’, ‘the books of ancientpeople (zubur al-awwalîn)’,the Zabûr of David ,commonly identified with the Psalms,and the scroll of Shîth.’55

Islam has always displayed a keen interest in the comparative description, analysisand criticism of religions other than Islam. Judaism and Christianity have received thelion’s share of Muslim attention. From the Muslim point of view, these two religionshave much in common with it. Together with the Jâhilî polytheism, they were thereligions, which Islam faced at the early stage of its development .The Muslim perceptionof Judaism and Christianity was inspired by the interpretation of abundant Qur’anicmaterial. The well-known Muslim view is that Jews and Christians are people of book(ahl al-kitab); those of them who are subject to Islamic Jurisdiction, pay the poll tax(Jizya), and agree to live in accordance with the Muslim laws concerning them areconsidered as “protected people”(ahl al-dhimma). The concept of dhimma which ismisconceptionlly assumed as inferior status of non-Muslims in Islamic society isdescribed by Al-Zarqa ‘as a Juristic description that is presumed by the legislator toexit in human being and according with which [the person] becomes able to obligedand be obliged.’56 This terminology is used for the expression of aspects of legalpersonality, which is supposed to contain an account of all the person’s rights andobligation whether they are religious or financial in nature. This status allows a personto enjoy his rights and perform his duties.57After attaining the legal capacity in form ofdhimma, non-Muslims become citizen of Islamic states and Muslims may marry theirwomen, may consume meat slaughtered by them and should allow them their respectedfaiths. Unlike the Muslims, they are exempted from the surplus property tax (zakât).58

They are also exempt from conscription, where all Muslims are subject to compulsorymilitary service. They enjoy a sort of autonomy; their cases are adjudicated by their co-religionists in accordance with their personal law and their life and property is protected

55 Qur’an:3:163,4:162,17:55,20:133,21:105,26:196:53:36,80:13,87:18-19; Mâwardî,Abû al-Hassan Al î b. Muhammad b. Habîb, Al-Hâwî al-Kabîr fî fiqh madhhab al-imâm al-

Shâfi….. wa huwa sharh mukhtasar al-Muzanî (Ed) Alî Muhammad Mu ‘awwad andÂ d i l Ahmed Abd al-Mawjûd ( Beirut :Dâr al-Kutab al-ilmiyya,1992).,vol.9/226; IbnQudamah, Almughani (Ed.) Abdullah bin Abdul Muhssan al-Turki and AbdulfatahMuhammad Alhulaw(Kingdom of Saudi Arabia :Dar Alimal Kutab,1999)vol.8,p.501,590-591;Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al dhimma,(Ed.)Subhi al Sâlih (Damascus,1961).p 2/432-433.

56 Al-Zarqa, Ahmed M., Al-Madkhal al-fiqhî al-am( 6th edn. ,1959),p.2/737.57 Mahdi Zahraa-, ‘Legal personality in Islamic Law’ , Arab Law Quarterly p.20358 According to Islamic Law, all the Muslims male or female, young or old, pay every year

at the rate of 2.5% on their savings, above the minimum of 25£. See Hamidullah,op.cit.,p112.

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by the Islamic state even as those of Muslim subjects.59 In return for all this they arerequired to pay from 12 to 48 dirhams(1.5£ to 6£)per person with several exceptions.The rules regarding payment Jizya are too lenient in comparison to the Zakat, which isessential element of the Islamic faith and its payment is obligatory on the Muslims.This is reason that presently almost this tax is abolished in all Muslim countries. TheProphet Muhammad and his successor caliphs instructed for kind careful and gentletreatment of the non-Muslim subjects of Islamic State. The Prophet Muhammad said:‘Who ever oppress a non-Muslim subject or taxed him beyond his capacity, then I shallbe the opposite party to him in the litigation on Doomsday’.60 Umar b. al-Khattâb, thesecond caliph of Islam, advised at his deathbed: ‘I exert my successor regarding thetreatment to be meted out to the people protected (i.e.non-Muslim subject) by theMessenger of God. They should receive the fullest execution of their covenant andtheir life and property should be defended even by going to war, and they should notbe taxed beyond their capacity.’61 Once Umar b. al-Khattâb passed along a street wherean old and blind poor Jew was asking for charity. He asked him why you are askingcharity? He replied I have to pay the captivation tax; I am poor and an old. At this ‘Umertook him by the hand and led him to his own house and gave him something from hisprivate coffers. Then he sent following directive to the head of the state treasury:‘Look at him and his like. By God ! we should never be doing justice if we eat his youthand leave him deserted in the old age. The government taxes are meant for the poor andthe indigent. The poor are Muslims and this one is an indigent from among the scriptures’.Then Umar b. al-Khattâb remitted the Jizya from him and his like.62

The status of ahl al dhimma was originally laid down by the Qur’an regardingthe Scripturies or ahl al Kitab from Jews and Christians. The Qur’an is silent regardingthe status of other non-Islamic creeds. The practices of the Prophet Muhammad andOrthodox Caliphs has, however decided that all non-Muslims may be allowed to stay inIslamic state and status of dhimma can be extended to them. Uthmân extended thisstatus to the Berbers and Abdul Malik to the Lingayats and Brahmins of India.63 Hnafî, Mâlikî, some Hanablîs,Imam al-Awzâ‘î and according to some reports Ibn Hanbalhimself recognize that all non-Muslims living in Islamic countries under Muslim ruleare ahl al-dhimma.64

The Islamic attitude to the followers of the other religious traditions can be seenin the treatment of Muslims with these. The Jews and Christians are at the top foraccommodation with in Islamic Society. The Samaritans is treated as a Jewish group

59 Ibn Fadlallâh al-Umariy,al-tarîf bil mustlah al-sharîf ,p.142-146.60 2 Abû Yoûsaf has mentioned this hadîth in his Kitâb al-Kharâj at p.68.61 Abû Yoûsaf, Kitâb al-Kharâj, p.70.62 Ibid.,p.71.63 Al-Sarakhsî , Sharh Kîtâb al-siyar al-kabîr li-Muhammad b.al-Hassan al-Shabânî, Ed.Salâ

al-Dîn al-Munajjid 9 ciaro,1971),p.4/139 ; Hamidullah Muhammad, op.cit.,p118.64 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,vol. 1/188.

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65 San ‘ânî, Musannaf, no.10043,p6/74;Abû Yoûsaf, Kitâb al-Kharâj, p.122;Shâfi ‘î,Kitâb

al-Umm ,p.4/259; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,vol. 1/90-92,245,431;Ibn Qudâma,Mughnî,p,432-433.

66 Ibn Qudâmah, al-Mughnî, vol.8,p.496.67 Richard K. Khuri, ‘ True and False Pluralism in Relation to Islam and West,’in Plamen

Makariev (ed.) Islamic and Christian Cultures: Conflict or Dialogue, Bulgarian

Philosophical Studies (U.S.A: The Council for research in Values and Philosophy, 3rdedition, 2001) ,p.238.; See Lewis, Bernard, The Jews of Islam (London : Routledge &Kegan Paul, 1984 ). p.12; S.d. Goitein ,Jews and Arabs ,P.74-75; Minou Reeves,Muhammad in Europe, ( Uk: Garnet Publishing Limited,2000),p.34.

because they observe the law of Tawrât.65 In the earliest books of law, the Christiansare mentioned as one group, but Ibn Qudâma al-Maqdisî, who lived in Jerusalem andDamascus during the Crusades, enumerates various Christian denominations, such asthe jacobites, the Nestorians ,the Melchites ,the franks(faranjiyya),the Byzantines andArmenians.66 The treatment of Islamic law with the Zoroastrians as ahl al dhimma isparticularly very interesting because many beliefs of Zoroastrians are against the clearIslamic traditions.

Richard K. Khuri reminds us that it took six centuries for the population in thenear east to shift from its Christian majority to one that is Muslim. This shows thatMuslims by and large eschewed forced conversions. They had enough confidence inthemselves and their faith does not require that it should be universally followed byforce. He expounds that for long period of time and in many places, their treatment ofothers communities was unprecedented in its openness and generosity. One need onlycontrast this with what happened to non-Christian, apart from small number of Jewsand to dissenting Christians, throughout most of Europe after it became Christianised.67

Above discussion treats theological and legal bases of Muslims relation with thefollowers of other religious tradition. Like the people of all other faiths, Muslimsconceived their faith best, most comprehensive and suitable for them but at the sametime they are not denying this right for followers of other religious traditions. Thisaspect of Islamic tradition could be useful for present situation and Muslims can shapetheir conduct in present multi faith global civil society on its bases. No doubt manynorms of Islamic society are Islamic oriented but it can provide ethical teachings whichcan be followed irrespective of any particular religion. These are human values and canuse for better, peaceful global civil society.

Above discussion treats theological and legal bases of Muslims relation with thefollowers of other religious tradition. Like the people of all other faiths, Muslimsconceived their faith best, most comprehensive and suitable for them but at the sametime they are not denying this right for followers of other religious traditions. Thisaspect of Islamic tradition could be useful for present situation and Muslims can shapetheir conduct in present multi faith global civil society on its bases. No doubt manynorms of Islamic society are Islamic oriented but it can provide ethical teachings whichcan be followed irrespective of any particular religion. These are human values and can

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use for better, peaceful global civil society.

VI-Tolerance, Respect and Liberty of a FaithExtreme fundamentalism is not only a big hurdle in better relations among the

followers of different religious traditions but it is also a challenge for global civil society.Originally, the term fundamentalism would refer to an evangelical, anti modernistmovement from the beginning of the 20th century.68 At that time the term was used onlyin Christian context but later on this was applied to other religious movements.69 Anumber of scholars, Muslims as well as non-Muslims, are worried that the term‘fundamentalism’ could become misleading when it drawn from the Christian contextand applied carelessly onto Islam.70 Milko Youroukov finds extreme religiousfundamentalism as incompatible with civil societies- not only as notion, but also asphenomena. Inter religious dialogue, which is core of interfaith relations in civil societies,takes place among the persons who identify with particular religious communities anddefend different positions with regard to matters of religion, theology and philosophy.But if they have fundamental trends than this exercise will be fruitless and wastage oftime.71 He proposes tolerance as solution to the problem of extreme fundamentalism.For the adherence of harmonisation between civilisations, in his words, tolerance shouldbecome a basic criterion to judge attitudes toward one an other and toward othersrespective religions.72

Muhammad Talbi, Tunisian scholar involved in interfaith dialogue, opposes thisopinion. He feels that this problem of fundamentalism could be over come by willingnessto listen to others and certain amount of openness, respect, and humility. He associatestolerance with the medieval mentality; at that time it represent a certain degree ofprogress. He drives that Roberts’s dictionary defines it as the fact of not for bidding orrequiring, although it would be possible to do so. Therefore, he thinks that tolerance is

68 See for details Williuam M.Shea, ‘Catholic Reaction to Fundamentalism’, Theological

Studies , No. 57( March ,1996) p.264-285; John F. Whealon, ‘ ChallengingFundamentalism’, Amreca ,No. 55( September 27,1986) p.136-138.

69 Jaroslav Pelican, ‘Fundamentalism and /or Orthodoxy? ‘Towards an Understandingof the fundamentalist Phenomenon’ in The Fundamentalist Phenomenon.Ed.,Norman j. Cohen ( Michigan: Grand Rapids, 1990), p.2.

70 For more information on the Muslims’ reaction on the use of this terminology see:Syeed Hussain Nsar, ‘Present Tendencies, Future Trends,’ in Marjorie Kelly (edi.)Islam: The Religious and Political Life of a World Community, (New York: Praeger,1984), p.279; Fredric M. Denny, Islam and Muslim Community (New York: Harper& Row, 1987), p.117.

71 Milko Youroukov, ‘Dialogue Between Religious Traditions as a Barrier againstcases of Extreme Religious Fundamentalism,’ (Ed.) Plamen Makariev Islam and

Christian Cultures: Conflict or Dialogue (Washington, D.C.: Council forResearch in Values and Philosophy, 2001), p.64.

72 Milko Youroukov, Ibid., p.64.

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not a right but it is an act of pure indulgence by some one in a dominating position .Itimplies inferiority and condemnation. We tolerate error, although errors are entitled toprohibit it on the name of truth. What is tolerated is perceived as evil that cannot beextirpated except at the price of greater evil. To tolerate this evil is to put up with ittemporarily and unwillingly, as an act pass charity with certain condescension dictatedby a benevolent superiority. Respect, instead, is a right and presupposes the completeand absolute equality of the partners. He concludes that only respect can guaranteethe dignity of all. In respect there is neither inferior nor superior. In tolerance there isthe one who tolerated, at a higher level, and the one who is tolerated, at a lower level,while this disparity is eliminated in respect.73

Tolerance or respect, what ever we suggest as a treatment of clash and hatred, isavailable in Islamic Tradition. In the most period of Islamic History, Muslims wieldedpolitical power and were in the position to accord (or deny) tolerance to others. In aninteresting episode, it is however significant to point out that the earliest manner inwhich religious intolerance manifested itself in Islamic history was the religiouspersecution endured by Muslims in Mecca before the hijra. In a certain sense, thetwelve years between 610 and 622 in Islam can be compared to the first three centuriesof the Christian history. Though the suffering of these early Muslims for their faithlasted only for a short period of time and gained only limited importance in the Islamicethos, an analysis of the question of religious tolerance in Islam cannot be comparewithout some reference to this nascent period of Islamic history.74

The idea of religious tolerance and non-coercion in the matters of beliefs in Islamis based on the verse of the Qur’an, which says: ‘There is no compulsion in religion.Verily, the right path has become distinct from wrong path. Whoever disbelieves inidols and believes in Allah, and then he has grasped the trustworthiest handhold thatwill never break. Allah is All hearing, All knowing.’75

The earlier commentators relate the revelation of this verse to a pre-Islamic customin Medina. In this custom women whose children tended to die in infancy, or who boreonly one child (miqlât)76 used to vow that if a child is born to them and survives, theywould make him a Jew and let him live among the Jews. When Islam came into being,consequently, some of these children were living with the Jews. During the expulsionof Jews form Medina, the Ansâr attempted to prevent the expulsion of their offspring.They argued that in the Jâhiliyya they had caused their children to adopt Judaismbecause they thought that this religion was better than their heirs. Now that Allah hashonoured them with Islam, they wanted to force their sons to embrace the new faith, so

73 Mohammed Talbi, ‘Possibilities and Conditions for a Better Understanding betweenIslam and the West’, Journal of Ecumenical Studies, Vol. 25, 1988, p.180.

74 Friedmann Yohanan, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the MuslimTradition(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003 ).p.87.

75 Qur’an:2:256.76 For an explanation of this term, see Ibn Manzû, Ibn Manzoor, Lisan Al Arab,(ed.)Yousaf

al khiyat (Beirut, Dar Al Jil wa dar Lisan al Arab,1988).,s.v. miqlât,p.2/72-73.

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that they be permitted to stay in Medina with their biological parents. When theycommunicated their intentions to the Prophet Muhammad, he did not respond at first:then the verse in question was revealed, giving a clear, and negative, response to therequest. Therefore, when the Banû Nadîr were expelled from Medina by the Prophet,these sons of the Ansâr were given the choice to embrace Islam and stay, or to retaintheir adopted Jewish faith and leave the city with other Jews. No compulsion waspractised against those who chose the latter alternative. A similar tradition is relatedabout Ansârî children who were suckled by the women of Banû Qurayza.77

According to an other tradition, the verse was revealed in connection with acertain Ansârî called Hasayn (or Abû al- Hasayn) whose two sons were converted toChristianity by Byzantine merchants who came to sell their78 goods in Medina. Theirfather asked the Prophet to pursue them and bring them back to Islam. On this occasionthese verses revealed. It is reported elsewhere that the verses revealed when an Ansârîman became frustrated after the failure of his attempt to force his black slave to embraceIslam.79 Umer b. Khattâb is reported to have interpreted and implemented in a similarmanner. He offered to his mamlûk (or mawlâ) Wasaq al-Rûmî to become his assistant inthe management of Muslims affairs after embracing Islam. He refused to embrace Islamand Umer left him alone, invoking these verses of Qur’an. Similar was his reaction whenan old Christian woman refused to convert to Islam at his behest.80

Tunisian scholar, Ibn Âshûr maintains that Jihâd with the purpose of conversionwas enjoined only in the earliest period of Islam. This type of Jihâd is reflected in thetradition in which the Prophet said that he had been commanded to fight the peopleuntil they pronounce the Shahâda. In contradiction to the traditional commentaries,which consider this verse abrogated, he maintains that this Qur’anic verse revealedlate. It was revealed, in his view, after the conquest of Mecca, after the subjugation ofthe Arabian Peninsula by the Muslims, after its purification from polytheism and afterthe massive conversion of its inhabitants to Islam. Consequently it is not abrogated.On the contrary it is itself abrogating Qur’anic verses and Prophetic traditions according

77 Tabarî,Muhammad b.Jarîr, Jâmi ‘ al-bayân an ta’wîl ây al Qur’an(Cairo, 1954).,p.3/14-16; Abu Ubaid, al-Qâsim sim b. Sallâm al-Harawî, Kitâb al-nâsikh wa al-mansûkh

(Ed.) J.Burton .E.J.W. Gibb Memorial Trust (Cambridge : St. Edmundsbury Press,1987), p. 96-99; Bayhaqî, Abû Bakr Ahmed b. al-Husayn b.Alî ,al-Sunan al-Kubrâ(Haydarâbâd (deccen):Dâr ‘irat al-ma’ârif al-Uthmâniyya,1356A.H).P.9/186;Ibn al-Arabî, , Ahkâm al-Qur’an( Beirut: Dâr al- ma ‘rifa,n.d.) p.1/233; Qurtabî, Abu AbdAllah Muhammad b. Ahmed al _ansârî, al Jâmi li –ahkâm al-Qur’an (Beirut: Dâral-fîkr,1993).,p.3/256.

78 Tibirî, Jâmi al –bayân,p.3/15.79 Tabrisî,Ahmed b. Ali, Majma al-bayân fi tafsîr al Quran ( Beirut: Dâr al-fîkr wa

Dâr al-Kitâb al-Lubnânî,1954).,p.2/305.80 Ibn Zanjawayhi,Humayd , Kitâb al- amwâl, Ed. Shâkir Dhîb Fayyâd, (Riyâd:

Markez al-malik Fasal lil buhûth wa al-dirâsât al-Islâmiyya,1986)., p.1/145.

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to which Jihad was designed to bring about conversion. Since this revelation haschanged the purpose of Jihad, its aim is now to expend the rule of Islam and induce theinfidels to accept its dominion by the contracts of dhimma. He feels that the newsituation is reflected in verse no. 9:29, where the unbelievers are required to submit andpay Jizya, but not to embrace Islam. Ibn Âshûr also maintains, again in contradiction tothe majority of the opinions, that Qur’an 9:29 abrogated Qur’an 9:73 which does notmention the payment of jizya and could be understood as enjoining jihad for the purposeof conversion.81 A similar view is expressed by al-Qâsmî who reaches the conclusionthe “ sword of jihad” , which is legitimate in Islam,… is not used to force people toembrace the ( Islam) religion, but to protect the Da ‘wah and to ensure obedience to thejust rule and government of Islam.82

In explanation of this verse, Hasan al-Basrî says, ‘The people of the Book are notto be coerced in to Islam.’83 In the light of this verse it can be say that As for thedhimmîs , they are not to forced to embrace Islam. If they choose to ignore the truth ofIslam after it made clear to them, God will take care of their punishment in the hereafter,but no religion coercion is practiced against them on earth.84

Many Muslim jurists have rejected the validity of forcible conversion to Islam.According to Abû Hanîfa, al-Shâfî and Ibn Qudâmah, if some one acts in contraventionof this principle and illegitimately forces a dhimmî or a musta’min to embrace Islam, thelatter’s conversion is not valid unless he remained a Muslim voluntarily after the coerciveforce ceased. This opinion has practical significance: if a person was forcibly convertedto Islam and later reverted to his former religion, he is not considered an apostate andmay not be punished in the crime of apostate.85

The second part of the verse in question speaks: “Rectitude has become clearfrom error.” This part shows that the truth of Islam is so self-evident that no one is inneed of being coerced into it; and embracing Islam because of coercion would notbenefit the convert in any case.86 In an other explanation of this verse it is maintainedthat this verse is not a command at all. It is rather ought to be under stood as a peaceof information (khabar), or to put it differently, a description of the human condition toconvey the idea that embracing a religious faith can only be the result of empowermentand free choice ( tamkîn ikhtiyâr).It can not be the outcome of constrain and

81 Ibn Âshûr,Muhammad al-Tahir ,Tafsîr al-Tahrîr wa al-Tanwîr, Tunis : Al-Dâr al-Tûnisiya li-nashr, 1973)., p.3/26.

82 al-Qâsmî, Jamâl al-Dîn , Mahsin al-ta’wil, ( Cairo: Dâr Ihyâ al-Kutub al-arabiyya,1957)p.3/665.

83 Sa ‘id b.Mansûr, Sunan (ed.) Sa ‘d b. Abd Allah b. Abd al-Azîz Âl Humayyid(Riyâd : Dâr al-Samî Li-l-nashr wa-tawzî,1993).,p.3/961.

84 Tibirî, Jâmi al –bayân,p.3/16; Ibn al-Arabî,Ahkâm al-Qur’an,p.1/233.85 Ibn al-Arabî,Ahkâm alQur’an,p.1/233-134.86 Ibn Khathîr , Imad al- Dîn Abû al-Fidâ Ismâ’îl, Tafsîr al-Qur’an al-Azîm(Beirut :Dar al-

fikar,1970),p.1/551.

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coercion(qasr ijbâr).87 It is said that belief is “an action of the heart “ in which nocompulsion is likely to yield sound results. Religious coercion would also create atheologically unacceptable situation: if people were coerced into true belief, their positiveresponse to prophetic teaching would become devoid of value, the world would ceaseto be “an abode of trial”( Dâr al-ibtilâ),88 and, consequently, the moral basis for theidea of reward for punishment would be destroyed.

The above discussion shows strong argumentation from mainstream Islam infavour of no coercion in the matters of faith. It also proves that intolerance and hatredthat is being observed in some Muslim societies has no religious foundations. Theremay have some other reasons for this situation. Search of theological teachings ofreligions regarding liberty of faith could be a great contribution for global civil societybecause without attaining the ethics of liberty of faith no civil society can survive incontemporary world.

VII- Interfaith marriages in Islamic LawAs a citizen of global civil society, like the followers of other religious traditions,

Muslims will also required guidance from their own religion for interfaith marriagesbecause this will show nature of social relationship between Muslims and others. Islamis substantially different from Judaism and Christianity in its attitude to the question ofinterfaith marriages. In the religious laws of these two traditions, the attitude to allreligiously mixed marriages is negative. Both the Old Testament and the Talmud containinjunctions, which prohibit marriage between Jews and non-Jews.89 While Christian’scanon law allowed continuation of a religiously mixed marriages contract till theconversion of the spouses to Christianity. However numerous councils of the churchurged Christians of both genders not to enter into wedlock with any non-Christian andsome of them even imposed penalties for violation of this rule.90

The situation is different in Islam. Since the very beginning of its development,Islam made distinctions between marriages with various types of non-Muslims. Muslim

87 Ibn al-Jawzî, Jâmal al-Dîn, Zâd al-masîr fi ilm al-Tafsîr( Beirut:1965),p.1/306;Tibrisî,Majma al-Bayân,p.2/305.

88 Ibn al-Jawzî ,Zâd al-masîr,p.4/67.89 Encyclopaedia Judica,s.v. “Mixed marriage” Inter marriage ?;L.M.Epstein, Marriage Laws in

the Bible and Talmud, ( Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University press,1942),p.145-219.90 Encyclopaedia of religion and Ethics ,s.v. marriage (Christian ) ; James A Brundage,

udica,s.v. “Mixed marriage” Intermarriage between Christians and Jews in Medieval canonlaw”, in Jewish history 3(1988),p.25-40;A Linder ,The Jewish in Roman imperiallegislation, (Detroit: wayne State University Press and the Israel Academy of Scienceand Humanities ,(1987),p.178-182.; Linder ,The Jews in the legal sources of the earlymiddle ages, index s.v.” marriage and Sexual relations” especially p.211;Nirenberg,Communities of violence , persecution of minorities in the middle ages ( Princeton :PrincetonUniversity Press, 1996),p.127-165; Patrick Viscuso and Kristopher L. Willumsen, MarriageBetween Christians and Non-Christians: Orthodox and Roman Catholic Perspectives,Journal of Ecumenical Studies, summer-Fall 1994,p269-278.

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sources have abounded material for governing interfaith marriages. Law for interfaithmarriages in Islam is based on the verses of the Qur’an.91 These verses prohibit marriagebetween Muslims and idolaters.92 However it allows marriage of Muslim male withscripture female.93 The permission of Marriage is mentioned in the following verses ofthe Qur’an:

‘Today the good things are permitted to you, and the food of thosewere given the Book is permitted to you, and permitted to them isyour food. Likewise believing women in wedlock, and in wedlockwomen of them who were given the Book before you if you give themtheir wages, in wedlock and not in license, or taking lovers.’94

This verse allow Muslims to marry “virtuous” or free (Muhsanât) women fromthe People of the Book. The verse does not refer to the possibility of giving Muslimwomen in marriage to the scriptuary men; this is reason that this possibility is firmlyand unanimously rejected in Islamic law. Interfaith marriage in the Islamic context istherefore a marriage between a Muslim man and a scriptuary woman.95

Ibn Abd al-Barr have the opinion that permission to wed Kitâbî women was agesture honouring the People of Book. He further maintains that those who have noBook cannot share in this honour.96

Modern Muslim scholar considers permission to wed a Kitâbî women reflectionof Islamic tolerance. They feel that a religion, which allows its men to wed women ofother faith, does not harbour any enmity to these faiths. When asked why, on the otherhand, Muslim women are forbidden to marry non-Muslim men, the answer is that thiswould create a wholly different situation. Muslims believe in the prophet hood ofMoses and Jesus and are commanded not to impose their religion by force. They aretherefore unlikely to create any inconvenience to their non-Muslim wives because oftheir religion. Conversely, a Muslim wife wedded to a Kitâbî husband, who does notbelieve in the prophet hood of Muhammad and is not prohibited from spreading hisreligion by force, would not be able to stand in his way. In such kind of marriage sheand her children would be in danger of changing their religion.97

91 Qur’an 2:221.92 Qur’an 60:10.93 Tibirî, Jâmi al –bayân,28/69-73; Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,Ed.

Subhî al-Sâlih ( Damascus,1961)p. 2/422.94 Qur’an 5:5.95 Tibirî, Jâmi al –bayân,28/69-7396 Ibn Abd al-Barr al-Namarî, al-Tamhîd li-mâ fî al-Muwatta min al-ma ‘ânîwa al- asânîd,

Ed. Mustafâ b.Ahmed al-Alawî and Muhammad Abd al-Kabîr al-bakrî(Rabât: al-Matba‘a al-malakiyya,1988),p.2/117.

97 Abd al-Rahman al-Jazîrî, al-Fiqh alâ al-Madhâhib al-arba ( Cairo, n.d., fifth edition),vol.4,p.76-77;Ahmed Shukri, Muhammaden law of marriage and diverse,( New York:Columbiauniversity press,1917),p.30.;Al Hûfî, Ahmad Muhammad , Samâhat al-Islâm,( Cairo:Dâr nahdat Misr li l-tab ‘ wa al-nashr,1979) .p.78-79; Muhammad Asad, The Road to

Mecca (New York,1954)p.200-201.

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Important figures from early Islamic period married with non-Muslim females.98

Once the interfaith marriage is concluded, the non-Muslim wife, in Islamic ethics, is tobe treated equally with the other wives. In general, the obligation of the spousestoward each other is the same as in a marriage between Muslims. The husband isobliged to spend with his non-Muslim wife time equal to her Muslim counterparts. Theliving allowances (nafaqa) of Muslims and non-Muslims wives will also be equal. Therules pertaining to divorce and to the waiting period are the same for all wives irrespectiveof their religious affiliations. There are, however, certain differences, for example if thehusband falsely accuses his scriptuary wife of adultery (qadaf),he is not punished byhadd but only by Ta’zîr.99

There are diversity of opinions among Muslim Jurists regarding cultural socialand religious liberties of the spouses. According to Ibn Qudamah, he(Muslim husband)may ask her (non-Muslim wife)to refrain from drinking wine, but he cannot force her todo so. Al-Shafi, maintains that the husband may prevent his wife from drinking thewine because it affects her mind adversely. However, according to the opinion of al-Mâwardî he cannot prevent her from drinking a small amount of wine in the frameworkof a religious ritual of hers.100

Some rulings of Islamic law provide exceptional permissions to the scriptuarywoman, but not to the Muslim woman. These rules, which seem specifically related toa non-Muslim wife, pertain to her freedom to practice her religion. Ahmed b. Hanbelstates that the Muslim husband should forbid his wife to bring a cross into her home,but cannot prevent her from doing it.101According to Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, he cannotprevent her from observing a fast prescribed in her religion, even if as a result of herfasting he cannot enjoy her on that day. He cannot prevent her from praying towardsthe east, cannot force her to violate the Sabbath, and cannot force her to eat meat oruse fat of a kind, which is forbidden in her religion. The non-Muslim wife can recite herholy book, provided that she does not raise her voice excessively. He should not buya zunnâr for her, but he can not prevent her form baying herself.102 Malik b. Anasmaintains that a Muslim husband may not prevent his Christian wife from eating pork,drinking wine or going to her church.103Al-Awazâ ‘î is reported to have said that he sees

98 Shafi Muhammad b.Idrîs ,Kitâb al-umm, (Beirut: Dâr al-kutub al-ilmiyya,1993) p.4/389.99 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,p. 436-438; Sahnûn b. Sa ‘îd. ,al-

Mdawwana al-kubrâ,( Beirut and Baghdad:Matba ‘at al-saâda,1323 A.H) ‘vol.2/32-33;Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughnî ,p.8/538; Mâwardî ,al-Hâwî al-Kabîr, p.9/227-228.

100 Shafi,Kitab al-umm,p.4/381,5/1; Mâwardî ,al-Hâwî al-Kabîr, p.9/230.;Khallâl, Ahl al-

milal,p.114-115; Ibn Qudamah, al-Mughnî ,p.8/537-538.101 Khallâl,Abû Bakar Muhammad b.Hârun b.Yazîd al-Baghdâdî Ahl al-milal wa al-ridda

wa al-zanâdiqa wa târik al-salât wa al-farâ’id min Kitab al-Jâmi, Ed. Ibrâhim b. Hamadb.Sultân ,( Riyâd: Maktabat al-ma ‘ârif li-‘l-nashr wa al-tawzî,1996),p.430; Ibn Qayyimal-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,p. 440.

102 Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya, Ahkâm ahl al-dhimma,p.2/ 440-441; Khallâl, Ahl al-milal,p.115-116.

103 Sahnûn ,al- Mdawwana al-kubrâ,vol.p.2/307.

66


no harm in allowing a Christian girl from going to the church, but also sees no harm inpreventing her.104 Al-Mawardi explains that the husband ‘s right to prevent his wifefrom leaving home is designed to avert the possibility that he will not be able to enjoyher while she is away.105

In short, Islam allows its male to get marry with non-Muslim Christian and Jewswomen. Islamic ethics govern such kind of interfaith marriage and Muslim jurists haveprovided rulings regarding the nature of this contract, rights and duties of the spousesand other relevant matters. They also took into their consideration the liberty of faithand cultural identity of non-Muslim wife. Her social matters, which are distinct fromMuslims, also got attention of the Muslim jurists. Nevertheless, the research on theaspects of Islamic laws, which deal with interfaith marriages, is still infancy and deservesmore attention of academic pursuits.

ConclusionThe material treated in this enquiry bears upon a number of issues relevant to

ethics of global civil society as explored by Islamic tradition. The study reveals thatQuran and Sunnah are sources of Islamic ethics and it have been embodied in literatureof Tafsîr, Hadîth, Fiqh and Adâb. Islam condemned bad habits of Arabs such asJâhl(ignorance) however it appreciated their good characteristics like hîlm expendedthem in shape of kindness (ihsân),justice (adl)and control of passions( sabâr).Themoral conduct of the Prophet Muhammad is role model of Islamic ethics. His Sunnahnot only provides guidance for religious matters but it also includes admonition ofvirtues and morals in its domain. The ethical teachings of Quran and Sunnah are alsofound in legal rulings which includes forbidden actions (haram) such as premeditatedmurder, adultery, sodomy, the drinking of wine, theft, slander, false witness, disobedienceto parents, eating the flesh of swine, hoarding and usury. Etiquette of eating, drinking,dressing, companion ship, disputation and the etiquette of study and teaching arefound in Adâb literature.

Khayr (goodness) and birr (righteousness) are basic principles of Islamic Ethics.It includes beliefs, pious acts, and moral action. Qur’an shows that belief is inseparablefrom righteousness however ethics of goodness and righteousness aimed at goodnesswith everyone irrespective of religious affiliation. This particular functions ofrighteousness which desires goodness with every human being irrespective of hisfaith is missing in the practices of the contemporary Muslim societies. Through theadaptation of these principles Muslims not only can cerate better understanding oftheir religion in global society but also can contribute in making it civilized society.Today’s world, which composed of diverse cultures, belief systems, and standards ofmorality, is in dear need of religious pluralism. Islam, which considers itself as continuityof revealed guidance for human being and Prophet Muhammad as the last responsibleof prophetic office, fully approved concept of religious pluralism. It believes that all

104 Khallâl, Ahl al-milal,p.431.105 Mâwardî ,al-Hâwî al-Kabîr, p.9/229.

67


parts of this world and all nations received divine guidance with different intervals inshape of Books and Scriptures. Therefore the encounter between God and humanbeing is genuine and the start of different religious traditions is authentic. It acceptsreligious diversity as natural phenomena of God’s creation. The relation of Islam withprevious religions is a unique characteristic, which could establish firm ground forfuture interfaith cooperation particularly between Ibrahimic religions i.e. Islam,Christianity and Judaism. There are many things common in these religions includingtheir ultimate source and ends.

The discussion regarding the legal position of non-Muslims shows that theconcept of dhimma, which is misconceptionlly, assumed as inferior status of non-Muslims in Islamic society, is actually a legal requirement that has to be fulfilled by allthe citizens of Islamic State irrespective of their religious affiliations.

This study also reveals liberty of faith in Islamic ethics. Qur’anic principle of ‘nocompulsion in religion’ and the circumstances of its revelation provide sufficient groundsfor the establishment of Islamic doctrine of liberty of faith. In the diversity of opinionsregarding religious liberty in Islamic tradition, a strong trend is found towards non-coercive attitude to invite the people to embracing Islam. This trend shows that peoplecannot force to embrace Islam and Jihad cannot use as a tool for forcing the people tobecome Muslims. According to Muslims jurists, the validity of forceful convergence toIslam is questionable and it will not be valid until a person remains willingly Muslim.

The permission to wed non-Muslim scriptuary women is also reflection of toleranceand liberty of faith. The respect for the religion of the People of Books is behind thispermission. Muslims believe in the prophet hood of Moses and Jesus and are commandednot to impose their religion by force. They are therefore unlikely to create anyinconvenience to their non-Muslim wives because of their religion. This permission ofmarriage with scriptuary women is expression of Islamic honor and respect for otherreligions. The detail rulings of Islamic law provide comprehensive protection to therights of non-Muslim wives.

The above mention observations indicate that righteousness, goodness, justice,tolerance, religious diversity, dialogue and liberty of faith are Islamic Ethics. Theseethics are also adaptable for any non-religious global society. It is therefore need of thetime that the reflection of these ethics must come out from the individual and collectiveattitude of the Muslims. The peace in the world cannot possible without peace betweenfaiths. Therefore it is duty of the follower of each faith that they should strive on theirtheological grounds for further cooperation between faiths and followers of differentreligious tradition on the bases of these ethics.

69

]ÖÃ†æ•nùè XX Ö×Ûf†ù� ûûû ]ÖÓ^Úþ³þ³Ø �…]‰è

* ]Öv^ÊÀÚvÛ‚‰†æ…

Abstract

Distinguished scholars of Arabic are generally convinced that Al-Kamel, written by

Al-Mubarrad, is one of the most authentic and original sources of Arabic language and

literature. Out of the four sources of Arabic language and literature, they consider this

work the most valuable. In this work Al-Mubarrad has explained the rules and

regulations of Arabic and has provided the readers with illustrations from the Arabic

verses. In this paper the researcher, after studying the prosody of the verses of this

work, describes the meter with their scansion. He also illustrates Zehafat E‡u³³^Ê³^lD and

Elal EÂ³³³×³³³ØD to illustrate different theoretical and technical aspects of the language and

prosody of Arabic.

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!!!! ]]]]ÖÖÖÖÓÓÓÓ^ÚÚÚÚØØØØVVVVMMMMKKKKLLLLOOOONNNN UUUUPPPPIIII

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102


103

hā»u»g~è<ØY(ÆÇ~ 1618X1707 Zzg8-id$¬K)

* 6,zWeZË·{−&Š** 6,zWeZËGZ°Ý

Abstract:

This article argues that personal adoption of Hanfi Madhhab by kings and royal

patronage and prevalence of a Madhhab among the masses do not signify official

recognition of that Madhhab by the state. The official recognition is obtained when a

Madhhab is the exclusive source of state legislation and the judges are required to

apply the law of a particular Madhhab exclusively. I have found no evidence to support

this position.

The phenomenon of the official recognition of Madhhab is essentially territorial, and

Fiqh doctrines, are essentially personal. I have shown that the Hanfi Madhhab,

especially as expounded in the "Fatwa Alamgiri", recognizes the fact that

administration of justice operates on a different level as far as state is concerned. An

analysis of "Alamgiri Farman'' shows that state refers to the principal of Siyasa more

than to Madhhab doctrines in its legislation. I have also shown that the principal of

Siyasa, though recognized by the Madhhab doctrine, could not be integrated into the

Madhhab theory. It remained juxtaposed with other principles. The state seems to have

developed a parallel source of its legislation.

0*Îy~ÎfZsxÆK~ºm}ÆZZYÆgD**]z_]]0*ñYD÷Zzg‰òVÅ§sÐZkŸ~IZi',¤â~ÇÆ›Šzg!*<m¬K~Ç»jZ!ÌŠc*Y@*ìXZkÚø~tÎZwZ½@*ìāZkÇ~ā»u»g~è<ØHåXik,Ã*y~ZsòZßw}ÆczsâCÙeZË·{−&ŠäZk!*"$ZKó»zl7ÅìTÅ)~ZÌÌìÔz{²āŠgZiJ-ZŠZg{î]ZsòZsxM!*ŠÐzZhgìZzgZkz‰ÜZsòÃc*CÃ±ÆœgdÆîg6,zs»g÷Xik,Ã

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÷X(Ã 23@*21 (ÑZ[ZzgŠv¯]Åyh+z�Ûz|#ZzgZEw)Ši 20 N·Zñg��Z)Ši X4

÷áï÷X(X 33 Zzg 32, 28 °Zr»gzZðÆç5])Ši X5

tZ%Ñëf™ìāZk�Ûâyäuz±k,ZzgÑ<z(„ÃáZi~Z˜q]Æîg6,f™HìXZyÆZEw»‹tÔZkŠzg~gc*4‡âyZzgè<ØÆâÎmÆ‰'×h+ZëUîVÃ

118


119

ZY¤/™@*ìXZ2è<ØÔuZzg±k,ÆâÎwZîVÅŠzZlxÆîg6,ZqÐiªCÙ™D÷Xu»mºmZì)ag~Ôi**Ôoi**Ôe1ÌZzgŒz](ZzgZyÅÙwZîVÐìX‡èZyºmZìÆ´z{ŠvZñgÃZìŒÛZgŠ¶ZzgZyÆZg‚[™äzZßVÃwZNŠ¶ÆßZ$+h+~Z(gZ]g‚rìXªCÙìāZk�Ûây~uÔ±k,Zzg(„ÅÓxZ˜q]»m÷{�ÛtÆ‚BwZîVÐìX

Zk�Ûây~LLuóóÅZ˜bÎ!ÐiZZ+Zì~ÐÜsag~ZzggDÙãÆjZ!ÐZEwƒðìX©āZyŠzZì~p&îg6,uÅwZNf™7ÅI�è<ØÆZ2~©

āëz~¬K~~Òy”{÷X�ÛâyLL(„óóÅZ˜bgc*„Ð´ZìZzgZŠZâ]ZzgN·ZñgÐ0ZEw™@*

ìX�Ûây~!*¹Zì»±k,Æîg6,jZ!Šc*ŠHìXLLÑ<óóÅZ˜bÜsZyŠd]~ZEwÅˆì�Zq-›yÃÝx¯äÔ›y

Zzg)Â!fòÆŠgxy÷áŠ~ÔÑZ[ZzgŠv¯]ÆZEwÔZgD+ZŠZzg=h}ÝxÅÆÐ0÷XZk§bÆlâ]~‡èÃzZãîg6,Z(gŠc*ŠHìz{Ñ<Æ_.Zy»ê

™}Xt¾qwZkÃªCÙ™@*ìāŒV©āZkN~Ì4è<Ø»ÃðjZ!7X�ÛâyÔo]Ñ¦)‡âão](ÅZ˜bÃ¹ic*Š{ZEw™@*ìT»|xpZ{Ñ<

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2�ÛâyZkßg]~wZññ]?m,™@*ìZ#ag~»!*g!*gZg‚[HYñZzgãÅ (55) ƒX

1ëz~Š~%ûag~Åßg]~ (56) wZêxÃag-VÆZg‚[Ðgz1~**»xƒYñXãÅwZ?m,™@*ìÆªêxÅ«ŠzwZîV~Zq-;BZzgZq-0*îV»N*Y[ƒXÍëz~Zkºml)~gc*„ÃZk!*]ÅÌZYi]Šêìāz{�g(„êxÃwZññ]Š}Š}X

t!*]Ñëf™ìā�Ûây~�gwZ;ðVÆ»U»ÃðE+™{7Oçz{±k,ZzgwZñ{ (57)

ÐZŒ%µ~wZññ]?m,™@*ìXëz~Zzg�ÛâyŠzâVŠzï]6,5÷ZzwtāZkl)~wZññ]ÅLL(„óóÆZßw

6,ZYi]ìXZzgŠzxtāLL(„óóZq-xZßwìXêxÅ�~ZðzZâyÃn{™äÅ120


121

Zk§bè<ØÔ(„ (58) Ã@VÅ¯6,ëz~Ô(„ÆZßwÃik,¿ÑäÅzŸs#™@*ìXÃZq-¬xZßwÆîg6,³™äÃªCÙ™@*ì�ƒYìāgc*„ZzgÎ‚ÌÆ¢Š~è<Ø

ÆÃc*]ÃÃZ0+Zi™Š}XLL(„óóÆ!*Ÿ‚¯äÃZâx)gc*„(ÅßZ$+h+6,ghDƒñè<ØÔgc*4‡ây‚i~Æâ~.Æîg6,ZkÆxZßwƒä6,5ƒä»ÌZÖg™@*ìX

�ÛâyzZãîg6,Gag~ÆxÆl)~)Ì(ZÏwÃzZãîg6,Z(g™@*ìX4ZßwÔGag)ml(Ðag)‚gt(Æîg6,çn7™@*YèG~ñ�ŠZâYË¿Å!Zzg

Dîg6,G~ñ�ŠèÐ07ƒ'Ô4è<ØzZãîg6,GagzVÆ;B»U»zZãîg6,²Šzu~§s�Ûây)Zkçn~(;B»UÅwZ»ç™@*ìÆªß/» (59) f™7™@*X

(60) Íg3,Zzg°ZrZfZy.îg6,Zkê6,qX

ëZk�ÛâyÃ(„ÅãCŠ6,Švlâ]~Ì4è<ØÆêÃÃZ0+Zi™@*ƒZ0*D÷X�gVwgDÙã™äzZßVÆl)~Z¤/pÑ<ÆZßßVÆ_.xU*"$ƒ[ƒÍg3,ß/Zzg°ZrZfZytê™Mh÷āZyÃwZññ]:Š~YñZzg(„ÆZßwÆ_.)Ãð

ZÏ§bZq-¿ËÃ†˜.$™O™ŠêìÂëz~Zk6, (61) Šzu~(wZŠ¶6,¿™Mh÷XwZññ])Ÿm(Yg~7™@*X4è<ØÆ_.OZq-—xìZzggc*„ÜsOW,{�Û&)>wÆzgU*Y(Æì6,ÃuƒÏX1Z+ßg]~āÃð¿Zkx»!*g!*gZg‚[™}Â

²�ÛâyZkxÆ%>¿Æ (62) ëz~¬K~(„ÅãCŠ6,wZññ]ÅZYi]ŠêìXn«!*gãÅwZZzg¬Š~êxÆn{mîg6,ñ]»f™G%Üs(„ÅwZ)ßZ$+h+~

(63) wZ(?m,™@*ìX

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úZx~Zk»�ÛzrÔgc*„Å§sÐZkè<ØÃu»g~îg6,t™äÃªCÙ7™@*XÃðè<Ø

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LLè<ØóóÅu»g~t”{w»1Dîg6,gc*„Æu»g~‡ây�āÑiòîg6,´‡ðZzg'Z5ðƒ@*ìZzgÃc*]�āãCŠ~îg6,—ƒD÷ÔÆâÎ!*b©]»g»XìX~äzZãHìā4è<Ø!*<m6āëz~¬K~~ÒyHŠHìZk|Ã³™@*

ìā°w»Äz°ZZ0+ZiÐ',zñ»gÑc*Y@*ì6āgc*„»»£ƒ@*ìX¬K~�Ûây»‹tªCÙ™@*ìāgc*„ÔZK‡ây‚i~~èIÃc*]Ðic*Š{(„ÆZßw»jZ!ŠîìX~ätÌzZãHìā(„»Ÿ‚Z¤/pèIZßwÆ�t”{ìÔè<ØÆÃtÆ‚Bæ§7HYYXt$+2gŠvÃc*]Æ£.ÞìX-Vgc*„ZK‡ây‚i~Æn�Šwâ~.»Z(ggBbƒðÃMCìX

jjjjZZZZÙÙÙÙzzzzjjjjZZZZ!!!!YYYY]]]]Y~;gze-Eg;1V~LLŠ~ÎZÑZò»Ð÷',Zñ 2000 Zk*y»Z’ZðÇ X1

Zsò‡âã_°]:è<ØóóÆñµ6,7HŠHåXSarkar 1952: 101 X2Ahmad 1978: 48 X3Saran 1973: xix X4

Siddiqi 1969: 240-259 X5Schacht 1966: 65 X6Schacht 1966: 65 X7

Marshall G. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, Vol.3 (Chicago: The X8University of Chicago Press, 1974), P.110

Escovitz 1982: 529-531 X9Allouche 19875: 317-320 X10

Nielsen 1984: 167-76 X11Jackson 1995: 52-65 X12

Šzu~§sZÅ.ā.çE~)ZÅ)Ó45éGEg~(Å£?~ÐZq-»qDZi+cÔzZã™@*ìām X13

yz*y~|Z]~ZÅ.ā.çE~Zq-‡.Þf™÷áw‡èåXz{Zk´‘Æczs÷áw‡r3ðE

GV

Æ{0+ZyÐmg‚råXZÅ.ā.çE~Å"ŒÛ>Z7'+:)é EX]Z−+ÔZ&+zkÔ5.Zzgê7g122


123

Ma'bari Æ÷áwæZgk~7,Jc*YäzZÑczs÷áwQåX¬]ÆnŠ¶1985: 5, 6, 15

Brockelmann 1949, 2: 554 X14

Siraj 1985, 1: 649 VwÆnŠ¶ X15

ZkN6,~6,zWZ$tZ£ƒÐöEOÆ¬zy»NyƒVX X16

Siddiqi 1969: 247 X17Siddiqi 1969: 248 X18

Saran, Provincial Government, P.320 X19Maqdisi 1906: 481 and Maclean 1989 X20

Hujwiri 1995: 125-130 X21Hujwiri 1995: 56, 77 X22

Smith 1917: 178 X23

~eÚZÝßÔ»F,À7™zVÇÔ@*ëÃgÏQÐ».Þ™Dƒñ~äFÓVÃ) X24

÷áïŠ¬ìÔZyÆF,À»ZŸ†%,¸¯~™zVÇXAl-Badaoni 1973, 2:379-80 X25

Masud 1995: 53 X26Baqa', 1973 X27

Nizam 1831, 3: 378, Ali N.d. 5: 107 X28Nizam 1831, 3: 383, Ali N.d. 5: 113 X29Nizam 1831, 3: 383, Ali N.d. 5: 113 X30Nizam 1831, 3: 385, Ali N.d. 5: 114 X31

Nizam 1831, 3: 378-379 X32Nizam 1831, 3: 378 ff X33

Nizam 1831, 3: 433, Ali N.d. 5: 163 X34Nizam 1831, 3: 439, Ali N.d. 5: 168 X35Nizam 1831, 3: 434, Ali N.d. 5: 163 X36

Masud 2001 ¬]ÆnŠB X37Bhatti 1973: 30 X38

Khan 1979, 1: 387 X39Khan 1979, 1: 387 X40

Khan 1871: 525 X41


Khan 1979, 1: 387 X42Schacht 1966: 55 X43

Hasan 1928: 249-253 X44Hasan 1928: 268-274 X45Hasan 1928: 277-283 X46Hasan 1928: 298-300 X47Hasan 1928: 296-298 X48

Hasan 1928: 296 X49

ZkwÃ6,izg§iÐ7™@*ìXz{Òy™@*ìā‡è (1972,18) MYZ−+',ã X50

&ä´îZ−+IÃzŸs#7ÅÔZâxZ1�XÆëcz»g÷ÔÆ´z{ÃðZzgZâxyzîVÐbtheÅZYi]7ŠêÔZyÆ4,Šq-ÂyzîVÆnŠz„gZ5÷ZsxJw™,c*ñ]:MYZ−+',ãŠg|Z\k™@*ìāÎyúŠ)çâ~(äyz*y~yzîV6,÷áwè<Ø»Z:t7HÔŠzu~Y+$ëz~¬K~ZkZ%»ç™@*ìāÜsbk,Ò²[Æ"$6,2VÆnÃðZzggZ3:åÔŠvÓx"$6,„ZIÂ[Å§b›âVÆ‚BkBÐvÆnbtŠ¶»Z(ggnp÷X-WÆnŠ¶

(Nizam 1831, 2:347 ff.)

Islam 1978:126 X51

�ÛâyÆM¸i~LLøDZÇóóÅZ˜btªCÙ™äÆnZEwÅYC¶āt�Ûây X52

Nadvi N.d. 21 !*Š÷á{ÅY+$ÐYg~HXZyZ˜q]ÅzŸs#ÆnŠ¶Hasan 1928: 278 X53

Nizam 1831, 2: 245 X54Nizam 1831, 2: 248 X55

Hasan 1928: 278 X56Nizam 1831, 2: 258 X57Nizam 1831, 2: 258 X58Nizam 1831, 2: 252 X59

Hasan 1928: 279 X60Hasan 1928: 279 X61Nizam 1831, 6: 5 X62Hasan 1928: 279 X63

124


125

Z½¦Z¿Š~£œÑ<ZzgZ°ç»™ŠZg* eZË·Z™xgZ**

Abstract :

It is an established fact that the role of Ijtihad in the past Muslim societies has been

crucial. In the present scenario of global world, the importance of this source of law

cannot be denied. It has been observed that the process of globalization has affected

the individual and social aspects of the lives of the Muslims. The paper after tracing

the history and development of Ijtihad describes its role offered by Shatibi. He has

offered some objective which may be considered in the making of Ijtahad. The paper

thus advocates that legal maxims and objectives of Shariah offered by Shatibi .be

taken into consideration for the development of collective Ijtihad.

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ÂäZLgÎw~VÆgÎwÃTqÅÂ=Š~ìZkÐZv»gÎwplìX

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126


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EtÆÂÌZEw

ƒäÑXZ¤//g�YZzg‡âyÆâCÙ+5ƒVÂ¸Z¿ŠÔZ)qBä4ìX1�ªkÅn0™Z˜bZEwƒðz{ZIyBðXZ¦sä‡ây‚i~~ZkÐæŠàÔZâxZ�wäZk

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144


145

¬–Åf!�d$Ð#¿* eZË°wÎGZy

Abstract:

This paper is about the attitude of Mehmet Akif towards the Western culture and

civilization. A critical appraisal of Akif's poetic collection Safahat reveals a strong

opposition against the Western political ideas and civilization. This conflict springs

from two factors namely: the failed innovative movements that the Ottoman Empire

experienced and Akif's own religion based political and social concept of the world.

These two aspects constitute an inevitable conflict in Akif's mind which is clearly

revealed through his poetry.

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Karakoç, Sezai; "Mehmet Akif", Diriliş Yayınları, Đstanbul 1987, p. 15, 1XYetiş,Kazım; "M.Akif'in Sanat-Edebiyat ve Fikir Dünyasından 2XÇizgiler," Atatürk Kültür, Dil ve Tarih Kurumu, Ankara 1992, p. 79

Ersoy, M. Akif, "Safahat" Diyanet Đşleri Başkanlığı Yayınları, Ankara 3X1992, p. 153

Karakoç, p. 42 6X 5XZsÔm841 4XZsÔm051

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155

DELIBOZUKLAR LL¢yd°æYNðÆL”VÆÃgxó

(~Xßóó GIFTLIGI)

* W�yÜZziYy

Abstract

In this paper, we are going to look into the identity problem in one of the leading

novelists of contemporary, Turkish Literature Osman Necmi Qurmen's novel,

Delibozuklar Giftligi, through the concept of the conflict between the Eastern and the

Western Cultures.

The protagonists of the novel Selim , Fatin and the narrator go to Paris for Education.

After these, three friends come back their country, they mold their lives their

conception of world. Particularly, we witness which phases the inner and outer worlds

of Salim and Fatin pass.

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NOTES

(1) "Gurmen, Osman Necmi, Delibozuklar Giftligi,

Menler Basin Yayin Ltd Sti, Istanbul, 2003, S.37.

(2) Zsm64

(3) Zsm53

(4) Zsm63

(5) Zsm65

(6) Zsm57

(7) Zsm69

(8) Zsm211

(9) Zsm071

(10) Zsm7

(11) Zsm071

160


161

LLZ7g»Z~óóÅŠzSoV~Z%½Q)Zq-óY,{(

* eZËgzŸg=

Abstract:

This research article deals with a comparative study of two different editions of an

Urdu Novel Ali Pur K Aeili written by Mumtaz Mufti critics believe that Mufti has

never revised his texts in different editions of his creative works. This study shows be

did so, the reasons to change the text are different. He changed the text in Ali Pur Ka

Aieli due to some psychological, social, political, and literary reasons. These changes

have been detected and their reasons have also been determined.

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175

ZgŠz**zw~ZKã£tZzg4C“»Åg* eZË&bZ−+Šgz÷

Abstract

This research paper deals with the situation of human rights and class conflicts as

shown in the tradition of Urdu Novel. The first part of the paper presents theoretical

discussion on human rights. In the second part the works of the novelists like Nazir

Ahmed, Hadi Ruswa, Prem Chand, Krishan Chander, Qurat-ul-ain Hyder, Anees Nagi,

Intzar Hussain, Abdullah Hussain and Tarar have been analyzed in the light of their

deep concern with the human rights and class conflict. The paper ends with the

conclusion that these writers have been successful in their attempt to discuss these

issues in their works.

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hqÝìóÝòÅCÙÃ»³xŒÛZgŠc*ŠHóËÌ¿ÃfªWöwZ7Š~Y$ËóCÙ¿»thìāZkÅ‡âãwÃtHYñó‡âVÅÃ~ƒ',Z',÷óË¿Ãšzz¤/ëgóÃÈc*°zí7HYYóCÙ¿Åi0+Ïó{āi0+Ïóy!*gZzgâzÂ"$~°xæZìÃ‡âãDqÝƒÇóCÙ¿ÃZ0+gzyoZzgÛzyoÜzw•c*xj-$»åhqÝƒÇóCÙ¿Ãè»hqÝìZzgËÃZkhÐøzx7HYYó±ó¸èc*è<ØÅãCŠ6,!*Ú%ŠzVZzgúgÂVÃ÷áŠ~Ò{ÆçA~DqÝìóCÙ¿!»hg‚rìóCÙZKyÃWiZŠ~„óWiZŠ~;ZzgWiZŠ~è<Ø»7gZhìóZkh~è<Øc*o}Ãps™äZzgZ½¦c*ZÐZŠ~îg6,{ñÙÐc*AÈzVZLo}ÅVóZk6,¿ZzgZkÅ„ŠZ]ZzggÎâ]7g~™äÅWiZŠ~Ì÷áïìóCÙ¿WiZŠ~gZñ»hg‚rìZzgZ³‚i~™YìóúZògZñŠ„Ó#ÖÆZMZgÅãCŠƒÏóCÙ¿Ã"gziÇg~ÆÜsD»hìóCÙ¿ÃWgZx™äZzg�Û›ÆÏ]pÎZg§jÐ¦/Zgä»hg‚rìóCÙ¿Ã¡ó½ókyópgZuÅœpV»hqÝìóCÙ¿ZK¸òpDi0+Ï~WiZŠZ:zheó.y[ÐnƒäZzg‚³óZŠ!z/ÃÅ"»hg‚rìót£tZzgWiZŠc*VËqª~

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Ÿð÷XZkšg~ZKyÃã~wqÝìXZk»ñçqš&g8-ó±óè<Øói!*yZzgo}ÆµâqZKyÅ4~ìXZkšgÃë{µZKyŠz„šgŒÛZgŠ}Mh÷�ZKyŠz4ÆÓx]»çVÐëW}ìX

ZKyŠz4Å’q-ZzgÃb»ãCŠ~ñçqÌZKã£t÷XtZKã£t„÷āXÆ”wÆ!*)ZKyçÑ}~�gLLZKyóóZCçÑCZzg»ÑC£x0*YìXZ4£tÆ�ÛZbÅË~ZKyZL�ÛZøÐÌWÇ{ƒ@*ìX£tÅ°xŠø7!Æ!*)ZKã�ÛZø»¦gÌ+ƒY@*ìXZKã@*gõÆZg»YÆ!*)CÙZkv[çÑ}~ā�pŠÃv[„B@*ƒZkçÑ}ÐCÙZKyŠz4Å’q-tÂµgBbìāz;VZKã£tÃ‡âãDqÝƒÇXZkZßwÆ7Ã�ÌçÑ{æic*Š{ZKã£tÅŠø7!»1ƒÇz{ZÏŠgv[ZzgZdZKãZÜª]ZŠZgZzggzZc*]»qïŒYñÇóZÏ§bTçÑ}~ZKã£tÅTŠg0*âàƒÏz{çÑ{ÌZÏŠg)v[BñÇZzgZ(çÑ{ZdZKãZÜª]óZŠZgZzggzZc*]ÐÌZÏŠgøzxŒYñÇXZKã£t»D„™{Zgn6,…zZá™zhzVZKâVÆpÎZgó¡qZzggz×

wÅQyìX:ZKy„ÃZKy»�]Š®{ŒY@*ìZzg¸ZßwZKãŠz4ÆÃbÃgYá»qï¯ŠêìX

"FORBIDDEN ¬@ZKyŠz„’rVÆgzbgzZV0*w™u,äÌZKÂ[~ZKyŠz4ÆñçqÆnŠk FRUIT: THE ETHICS OF HUMANISM"

ãCŠ~âÎÆZKã£t»Zq©HìXQrVäZKZkÂ[~ŠvZÂ:ZKã£tÆ£«~ZyŠkZKã£tÃÃtZKyŠz4ÅZ‚kŒÛZgŠc*ì:

I. Right to life

1. Security and protection of one's person (freedom from fear )

2. Defense form external aggression.

3. Freedom from endangerment by the state.

II. Right to personal liberty

1. Freedom of movement and residence.

2. Freedom from involuntary servitude or slavery.

3. Freedom of thought and conscience.

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179

4. Freedom of speech and expression.

5. Moral freedom

6. Privacy

III. Right to Health Care

IV. Freedom from want

1. Basic economic needs.

2. Right to work.

3. Care for elderty.

4. Right to leisure and relaxation.

V. Economic rights.

1. Right to own property.

2. Public property.

3. Right to organize.

4. Protection from fraud. .

VI. Intellectual and cultural freedom.

1. Free inquiry.

2. Right to learn.

3. Right to cultural enrichment.

VII. Moral equality.

VIII. Equal protection of law.

IX. The right to Democratic participation in Government.

1. Right to vote.

2. Legal right of opposition.

3. Civil liberties

4. Right of assembly and association.

5. Separation of church and state.

X. Right of marriage, family and childern."(3)

ZKyŠz4Å¬@’q-ÆÐVšgzV~ZKã£tÃãCŠ~ZÌŠ~ˆìpZkjZáóó¹ZëìXZkÆqgY]Æ HUMANIST MANIFESTO 2000 ÐŠZšgLL

A P L A N E T A R Y B I L L O F R I G H T S A N D ‚Â,{~LLóóÆÄZyÐ¬@R6,‰6ZuZsÃÌ÷áïHŠHìXZZx RESPONSIBILITIES

�{Æ¬@ZKã£tÆšgÆï]ÃuZ_ƒñZKã£tÆZk6.Þ~XŠkZuZs


Ã÷áïHŠHìSyÆ!*g}~zŸs#tÅˆìātZuZsZå,œ~Æ¬@)bó»çVZzgF,¶]»Zq©™D÷ZzgtātZuZsâqZKã»ZKã£tÆ”w»Z†%³ìXtŠkZuZsŠg`fs÷:

"First we should strive to end poverty and every

where and to provide advocate health care and shelter

for people energuhere on the planet.

Second, we should strive to provide economic

security and advocate income for everyone.

Third, every person should he protected from

unwarranted and unnecessary injury, danger and death.

Fourth, individuals should have the right to live in a

family unit or household of their choice, consonant with

their income, and should home the right to bear or not to

bear children.

Fifth, the opportunity for education and cultural

enrichment should be universal.

Sixth, individuals should not be discriminated against

because of race, ethic origin, nationality, culture, caste,

class, creed, gender or sexual orientation.

Seventh, the principles of equality should be

respected by civilized communities.

Eighth, it is the right of every person to be able to

live a good life pursue happiness, achieve creative

satisfaction and leisure in his or her own terms, so long

as he or she does not harm others.

Ninth, individuals should have the opportunity to

appreciate and participate in the arts-including literature,

poetry, drama, sculpture, dance, music and song.

Tenth, individuals should not be unduly restrained,

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181

restricted, or prohibited for exercising a wide range of

personal choices.'' (4)

Š*½ÆŠ‚¾~ãCŠ~£tÅ�ÛZbÃƒÐ(,~gc*4ó‡âãZzg�Yf)ŠZg~ŒÛZgŠc*

Y@*ìXOçZyŠ‚¾~ãCŠ~£tÃ{mZÈxÆ‚B÷áïHY@*ìZzgZk!*]Å‡âãwŒÛZgŠ~YCìāZKã£tāX»Z0+gZ`ZyŠ‚¾~HY@*ìQ7:Üstā‡âãD

qÝìÉZyãCŠ~£tÆo°æÌ¸Z2ƒVÐ»³xŒÛZg0*NÐXZsò/t0*ÎyYÆWM~ZyãCŠ~ZKã£tÅZq-z„Š~ˆìXSkWMÆ¬„!*[~ 1973Æ

ãCŠ~ZKã£tÃWgçWJ@**K÷áï™Šc*ŠHìXãCŠ~ZKã£t»DWgçWJÅ«ZzgŠzu~Ô~-VHŠHì:

LL1:Ãð‡âyógÌc*gzZ`�‡ây»¬g‚rƒóÚ³ÅZkuJ-»³xƒÇTuJ-z{Zk!*[~«™Š{£tÆo°ƒX

2:�ÃðZ(‡âyzä7™}Ï�!*,îg«™Š{£tÃtc*Á™}ZzgCÙz{‡ây�ZkÔÅÜszgi~~zäHYñÇQkÜszgi~

(5 ÅuJ-»³xƒÇXóó)YÆWM~Ìz{ÓxZKã£tāXÅâÎ¬@ìZzg 1973 Zsò/t0*ÎyÆ

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7Vîg6,ˆg]ó»gz!*gc*cÆZ(gÅWiZŠ~qÝìóCÙà~Ãà~YGZŠ»hqÝìó0*ÎyÆÓxà~š&óg8-ó±óè<Øó½ói!*y‡âãîg6,)z~wgnp÷óZÏ§b


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ā˜Vgc*4R6,ZKã£tÃ!*Ññ¤tgÄŠc*Y@*ìóz;V�Yó;CZzgpDR6,Z+ZŠZgÀhe@÷āTÆ!*)ZKã£tÅ0*âàógzi%{ç5]»Àòz0YCìXM%Z:ÓáV~Z#à-VÆãCŠ~ZKã£tÃt™1Y@*ìÂg›¿Æîg6,çÑ}~Z+ZÜª]Àg÷ā�gCgCZKãÑÅqïZdŠgzVÃ',!*Š™ÆgÄŠî÷XVwÆîg6,’k,z½k,6,0*È~Æ!*)‡W,W»‚³óÃc*CZzgZÜ¹Âx—h»DgƒY@*ìXP»âjwÐ]ó"iZg~ó°xzŸs#Zzg{ŠZÐZŠ~Zzg¤/z„ÎaÃÀŠêìXZq-ZKã�`~ZKâVÆZ4]�gZKyZLW\Ã(ÏZzg�Yf)ŠZg-VÐWÇ{B÷óz{ZdZKãZŠZgZzgZÜª]»ÅgÌgnp

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™™™™********cccc****ZZZZkkkk»»»»èèèèZZZZttttZZZZhhhhZZZZ********cccc****QQQQkkkkÐÐÐÐZZZZāāāāZZZZssss™™™™********zzzzííííŠŠŠŠ####7777ììììZZZZzzzzgggg::::¼¼¼¼ZZZZgggg~~~~XXXX¸zzzz{{{{qqqqìììì&&&&ëëëëZZZZ˜bbbb~~~~

((((7 LLLLLLLLWWWWiiiiZZZZŠŠŠŠ~~~~ZZZZÖÖÖÖggggóóóóóóóó»»»»********xxxxŠŠŠŠïïïï÷÷÷÷óóóóóóóóXXXX))))ZKyŠz„„ÅF,zó~/ge$ZzgWiZŠ~„z{ãCŠ~ÑZ_÷āXÆ!*)ZKã£t»Åg›zú0*@*ìXWiZŠ~ZÖgŠgZÝz{ãCŠ~ZKãhZzgzaìāTÆfg)ZŠ[Zzg.È

[F,¹™D÷XZKyŠz„®»gÖú.$Æ–w:"The Hum anist stress on com plete cul tural

democracy and freedom of expression means that

artists and writers should have the widest latitude in

what they produce and say. A free art and a free

literature are absolute essentials for a free culture."(8)

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(3) PAUL KURTZ FORBIDDEN FRUIT: THE ETHICS OF

HUMANISM, New York, Promitheus books, 1998, P.85 to 194

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(8) Corliss Lamont, the phylosophy of Humanism New York, The

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207

CLLZ°góóÆ†]�* eZË‡è†Z°9.è WE¬$+

** ·ZÑs¾w

Abstract:

It has been a long standing tradition that standard journals devote the whole issue to

critically evaluate the literary contribution of a scholar. This tradition is quite strong in

Urdu literary journals. Prestigious Urdu journals like Naqoosh, Nigar, Auraq and Saqi

have contributed well to this tradition. This paper attempts to demonstrate that Afkar

has contributed more than any other journal to this tradition. Twenty three of its issues

have been devoted to famous literary figures like Iqbal, Faiz,Manto, Krishan Chandar

and Ali Sardar Jaffary. The paper presents a critical appraisal of these issues.

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228


229

L�§]jHóc*L§]ŒHó?)ózW~Y,{(

* Z',Zg†Z?x

Abstract

This Research Article deals with a misunderstanding spread in the all

histories of Urdu Literature. Malka Hayat Baksh is very important women

from Deccan. Histories of Urdu literature name this famous women Hayat

Bakhshi Begum. This article tries to correct this misunderstanding with the

help of valuable histories of Deccan.

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Untitled - Journal of Research (Urdu), BZU

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