This dissertation has b ee n m icrofilm ed exactly as received 6 8 -2 9 8 7

GOFF, W illiam Harry, 1925- VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D ., 1967 Education, guidance and counseling

University Microfilms, Inc., A nn Arbor, Michigan

VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE

IN

ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

DISSERTATION

P r e s e n t e d i n P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f the R equ i rem en ts f o r t h e Degree D oc to r o f P h i lo s o p h y i n the Gradua te

School o f The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y

By

W i l l i a m H ar ry G of f , B.A. , M.A.

* * * * * *

The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y 1967

Approved by

AdviDepar tment o fL E d u c a t io n

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Almost any e x p e r i m e n t a l f i e l d s tu d y in t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s i t u ­

a t i o n by i t s ve ry n a t u r e i n v o l v e s the s u p p o r t and c o o p e r a t i o n o f many

p eop le . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e where tw e n t y - f o u r c l a s s e s o f c h i l d ­

ren a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g o v e r a s i x month p e r io d o f t ime i n a p r o j e c t

which r e q u i r e d program p l a n n i n g , i n s t r u c t i o n and c o u n s e l i n g , c o l l e c ­

t i o n o f c o n s i d e r a b l e d a t a , and e x t e n s i v e s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n .

G r a t e f u l a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d to t h e t w e n t y - f o u r t e a c h e r s

and to t h e i r s t u d e n t s w i t h o u t whose e n t h u s i a s t i c p a r t i c i p a t i o n t h i s

s tudy would no t have been p o s s i b l e . P r i n c i p a l s V i r g i n i a H a rd in , F ran ­

c i s B i r t , and R o b e r t King, J r . , were mos t generous in t h e i r e n c o u ra g e ­

ment, a s were the t e a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t s and s u p e r v i s o r s i n the s ch o o ls

i n v o l v e d . Thanks i s e x p r e s s e d , t o o , to S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f Schoo ls

Robert French and t o A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t H aro ld Boda f o r t h e i r

a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u p p o r t and c o n f id e n c e .

The p r o j e c t th rough which t h i s e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n was e s t a b ­

l i s h e d was funded under an amendment t o T i t l e V-A, N a t i o n a l Defense

E d u c a t io n Act , and was a d m i n i s t e r e d th ro u g h the l o c a l s ch o o l sys tem

w i th t h e approva l o f the D i v i s i o n o f Guidance and T e s t i n g , Department

o f E d u c a t i o n f o r t h e S t a t e o f Ohio . S i n c e r e th a n k s a r e due t o the

d i v i s i o n s t a f f , D i r e c t o r John Odgers , S t a t e S u p e r v i s o r C h a r le s Weaver,

i i

and Elementary Guidance C o o r d i n a t o r Michael S h e l l e y fo r t h e i r c o n s i s ­

t e n t h e l p .

The burden of day t o day im plem en ta t ion o f the v o c a t i o n a l g u i d ­

ance program f e l l t o two e l e m e n t a r y school c o u n s e l o r s , P r i s c i l l a Cole

and K a th e r in e D a v i s . T h e i r d ev o t io n to t h i s t a s k was t r u l y o u t s t a n d in g .

My deep g r a t i t u d e i s e x p re s s e d to them as w e l l as to John W hi te , r e ­

search a s s i s t a n t f o r the Dayton s c h o o l s , who devoted many hours and

much e f f o r t to t h e s t a t i s t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n o f the d a t a . The q u e s t i o n s

and s t i m u l a t i o n o f f e r e d by Gene Hodson and Michael Bathory were a l s o

much a p p r e c i a t e d .

A s p e c i a l note o f en d u r in g and g r a t e f u l a p p r e c i a t i o n i s a c r

corded my a d v i s e r , P r o f e s s o r Herman J . P e t e r s . His encouragement and

r e a s s u r a n c e th roughou t t h e p e r io d o f my g r a d u a t e s t u d i e s a s well a s

dur ing t h e p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h i s p a p e r did much to a s s u r e b o t h the im­

p l e m e n ta t i o n and t h e com ple t ion o f the v o c a t i o n a l guidance p r o j e c t .

Words a r e in a d eq u a te to e x p r e s s my s i n c e r e thanks to him.

F i n a l l y , my e t e r n a l g r a t i t u d e must be ex tended t o my wife and

two c h i l d r e n f o r t h e i r p a t i e n c e and fo rb e a ra n c e w h i le my g rad u a te

work and r e s e a r c h program was b e in g completed. I am proud o f them.

W.H.G.

i i i

VITA

A p r i l 19, 1925 . . Born - Lima, Ohio

1943-1946 ................... M i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , United S t a t e s Navy

1948 ............................ B . A . , The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Columbus, Ohio

1950 ............................ M.A. , The Ohio S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , Columbus, Ohio

1950-1951 ................... School P s y c h o l o g i s t , Hamilton C ity S c h o o l s ,Ham i l ton , Ohio

1951-1953 ................... M i l i t a r y s e r v i c e , U nited S t a t e s Navy

1953-1956 ................... School P s y c h o l o g i s t , H am i l ton C i ty S c h o o l s ,Ham i l ton , Ohio

1956-1964 ................... Chief P s y c h o l o g i s t , C o o r d in a to r o f S p e c i a lS e r v i c e s , Hami l ton C ity S c h o o l s , H am i l ton , Ohio

1964-1967 ................... D i r e c t o r , P u p i l P e r s o n n e l , Dayton C i t y S choo ls ,Dayton, Ohio

FIELDS OF STUDY

Major F i e l d : Guidance . P r o f e s s o r Herman J . P e t e r s

Minor F i e l d s : E d u c a t i o n a l A d m in i s t r a t i o n , , P r o f e s s o r W a l t e r Hack

E x c e p t io n a l C h i l d r e n . P r o f e s s o r V io la Cass idy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS i i

VITA iv

LIST OF TABLES v i i

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix

C hap te rI . THE PROBLEM 1

S ta t e m e n t o f the Problem Im por tance o f the Study L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms O r g a n i z a t i o n o f T h i s Repor t

I I . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE ................................................................... 12

V o c a t i o n a l T h e o r i e s S e l f - C o n c e p t TheoryE lem en ta ry Guidance and V o c a t i o n a l Development Level o f A s p i r a t i o n

I I I . METHODOLOGY......................................................................................................... 54

The E x p e r i m e n t a l Des ign P o p u l a t i o n P a ra m e te r s E x p l o r a t o r y Q u e s t io n s Null H ypotheses Methods o f E v a l u a t i o n Summary o f Scope o f S tudy

IV. TREATMENT AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA................................................ 63

E v a l u a t i v e P ro c e d u re s T e s t i n g o f N u l l Hypotheses Q u a l i t a t i v e R ep o r t s

v

C h ap te r Page

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS............................................................................ 96

SummaryThe T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s D i s c u s s i o n o f F in d in g s C onc lus ions

APPENDIXES...................................................................................................................................... 116

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................................... 131

v i

LIST OF TABLES

T ab le Page

1. C lass S ize and E x p e r im en ta l O r g a n i z a t i o n ........................................ 56

2. Methods o f E v a l u a t i o n ..................................................... 61

3. Knowledge o f P a r e n t s ' O ccupa t ions ...................................................... 65

4. Number o f Jobs L i s t e d .................................................................................. 66

5. Level o f A s p i r a t i o n Mean S co res and R a n g e s ................................... 68

6. Agreement o f Judges on Rea l ism o f P u p i l Choice ......................... 69

7. Real ism o f P u p i l C h o i c e ............................................................................. 70

8. Knowledge o f P a r e n t s ' O c c u p a t i o n s , I n t r a - g r a d e Leve l Com­p a r i s o n s , E x p e r i m e n t a l and C on tro l ................................................ 73

9. Knowledge o f P a r e n t s ' O c c u p a t io n s , I n t e r - g r a d e Comparisons ,E x p e r im e n ta l Groups ................................................................................. 75

10. Knowledge o f P a r e n t s ' O c c u p a t io n s , I n t e r - g r a d e Comparisons ,C o n t ro l Groups ................................................................................................... 75

11. L i s t i n g o f Jobs S i g n i f i c a n c e L e v e l s , I n t r a - g r a d eC o m p a r i s o n s ................................................................................................... 77

12. L i s t i n g o f J o b s S i g n i f i c a n c e L e v e l s , I n t e r - g r a d eC o m p a r i s o n s ................................................................................................... 79

13. L i s t i n g o f J o b s S i g n i f i c a n c e L e v e l s , I n t e r - s c h o o lC o m p a r i s o n s ................................................... 79

14. Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n S i g n i f i c a n c e L e v e l s , I n t r a - g r a d eComparisons ................................................................................. 81

15. Level o f A s p i r a t i o n , I n t e r - g r a d e Comparisons .............................. 83

16. Level o f A s p i r a t i o n , I n t e r - g r a d e Compar isons, P r e - andP o s t - t e s t D a t a ............................................................................................... 83

v i i

T a b le Page

17. Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n , I n t e r - s c h o o l Comparisons ......................... 84

18. Rea l ism o f P u p i l Choice Comparisons Between E x p e r im e n ta land C o n t ro l G r o u p s . 85

19. Rea l ism o f P u p i l Choice Comparisons Between E x p e r im e n ta lGroups ............................................................................................... 86

20. Real ism o f P u p i l Choice , I n t e r - g r a d e Comparisons ..................... 87

21. Real ism o f P u p i l Choice , P r e - and P o s t - T e s t Comparisons . 88

22. Rea l ism o f P u p i l Cho ice , I n t e r - s c h o o l Comparisons . . . . 89

23. C o r r e l a t i o n s and Leve ls o f S i g n i f i c a n c e Between SchoolA b i l i t y and Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n .................................................... 90

24. C o r r e l a t i o n s and Leve ls o f S i g n i f i c a n c e Between A c h ie v e ­ment and Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n ......................................................... 91

25. V o c a t i o n a l O c c u p a t io n a l Knowledge Summary ................................... 102

26. S t a t u s o f S e l f - C o n c e p t Summary ............................................................... 105

v i i i

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

F ig u re Page

1. Paradigm o f R o e ' s T h e o r y ............................................................................. 20

2. Paradigm o f H o l l a n d ' s Theory .................................................................... 21

ix

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

S ta t e m e n t o f the Problem

The pu rp o s e o f t h i s r e s e a r c h was t o d e t e rm in e i f m easu rab le

in c re m e n t s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge, v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and

r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e cou ld be a c h i e v e d i n p r e d e t e r m i n e d

s i t u a t i o n s a t g rade l e v e l s two, f o u r and s i x i n the e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l .

E x p l o r a t o r y Q u e s t io n s

The h y p o th e s e s f o r t h i s s tu d y f lowed o u t o f t h e fo l l o w i n g

e x p l o r a t o r y q u e s t i o n s :

1. Can v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n be com­m u n ica te d e f f e c t i v e l y to e l e m e n t a r y schoo l c h i l d ­ren?

2. At what a g e / g r a d e do c h i l d r e n comprehend voca­t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b e s t ?

3. Does t h e c h i l d change h i s l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n a s he i s exposed to v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n ­fo rm a t io n ?

4. I s t h e r e a d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a ­t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s o f c h i l d r e n from two d i f f e r e n t so c io -ec o n o m ic b ac k g ro u n d s , b o th b e ­f o r e and a f t e r a v o c a t i o n a l g u ida nce program?

5. Does t h e c h i l d become more r e a l i s t i c i n h i s o c c u ­p a t i o n a l c h o ic e i n r e l a t i o n to h i s l e a r n i n g po­t e n t i a l and ach ievem en t a s he i s exposed t o a vo ­c a t i o n a l gu idance program?

1

2

6. I s t h e l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t dependen t upon schoo l a b i l i t y a n d / o r ach ievem en t?

7. What method o f a p p ro a c h t o v o c a t i o n a l gu idance o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i s b e s t : C la ss g ro u p , i n d i v i d u a l ( o r sm a l l group) o r a combina­t i o n o f t h e two?

8. What a r e t e a c h e r and p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s toward th e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l theme as a s i g n i f i ­c a n t a s p e c t o f th e e l e m e n t a r y gu idance program?

N ul l Hypotheses

I n an e f f o r t t o answer the above q u e s t i o n s , t h r e e n u l l hypo­

t h e s e s were p ro p o s e d . The f i r s t two q u e s t i o n s n o te d above r e l a t e to

t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge and evoked the

f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s :

1. There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n ga ined be tween:

a) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l groups a t each g rade l e v e l .

b) E x p e r im e n ta l groups a t the same grade l e v e l u s i n g v a r i e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l / c o u n s e l ­i n g a p p ro a c h e s .

c) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l groups from grade l e v e l to g rade l e v e l .

d) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l groups a t th e same g rade l e v e l b u t in d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s .

L eve l o f a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e were

chosen as avenues o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f two a s p e c t s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t in

c h i l d r e n and led t o a n o t h e r n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t o e x p l o r e q u e s t i o n s f o u r ,

f i v e and s i x :

2. There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n the s e l f - c o n c e p t s ( l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , r e a l i t y o f

3

o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e ) between groups i d e n t i f i e d i n a , l>, £ , and (1 in n u l l h y p o t h e s i s number one a b o v e .

P u r s u in g th e s e l f - c o n c e p t a s measured by l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n

one s t e p f u r t h e r , q u e s t i o n number s i x b ro u g h t f o r t h the t h i r d hypo­

t h e s i s :

3. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between the l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n o f s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s and:

a) School l e a r n i n g a b i l i t y .

b) School ach ievem en t .

Through r e s u l t ' o b t a i n e d from th e f i n d i n g s o f t h e t h r e e hypo­

t h e s e s , i t would be e x p e c te d t h a t q u e s t i o n number seven m igh t be a n ­

swered . Q u e s t io n number e i g h t r e q u i r e d t h a t a s u rv e y be made o f the

o p i n i o n s o f bo th t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s o f the c h i l d r e n in v o lv ed in the

s t u d y .

Im por tance o f the Study

Role o f E lem en ta ry Guidance

V o c a t io n a l gu idance in t h e seco n d a ry s c h o o l s , a s w e l l a s in

b u s i n e s s and i n d u s t r y , deve loped b e f o r e t h e t u r n o f th e t w e n t i e t h c e n ­

t u r y . However, e l e m e n t a r y s ch o o l gu idance a s an a r e a o f s e r v i c e

c o v e r s s c a r c e l y more th a n a deca de . The Depar tment o f E lem en ta ry

School P r i n c i p a l s o f the N a t i o n a l E d u c a t io n A s s o c i a t i o n f i r s t con­

s i d e r e d t h i s t o p i c i n the N a t i o n a l E lem en ta ry P r i n c i p a l ( 1 9 5 4 ) . A l ­

though the yea rbook committee d id n o t a t t e m p t a d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e m e n t

o f what p u p i l gu idance a t th e e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l s h ou ld b e , i t d id o u t ­

l i n e some b a s i c c o n c e p t s and g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s which r e c o g n i z e d the

need f o r a p r o f e s s i o n a l gu idance s t a f f . I n t h i s e a r l y r e p o r t , the

schoo l p r i n c i p a l was looked upon as the r e s p o n s i b l e p e r s o n f o r the

development o f an e f f e c t i v e gu idance program.

The A s s o c i a t i o n f o r Supe i / i s i o n and C urr icu lum Development

(1955) p u b l i s h e d a s m a l l volume which viewed e l e m e n t a r y gu idance as

a supp lem en ta ry s e r v i c e . I t emphasized t h a t c l a s s ro o m t e a c h i n g s h ou ld

be i n s e p a r a b l e from g u id a n c e , b u t r e c o g n i z e d t h a t a l l gu idance need

n o t be i n s e p a r a b l e from c la ss room t e a c h i n g . I t was f u r t h e r n o te d t h a t

" t h e r e i s d e f i n i t e l y a p l a c e f o r s p e c i a l i z e d gu idance c o u n s e l o r s and

f o r a p la n n ed gu idance p ro g ra m ."

A g e n e r a l t e x t which c o n s i d e r e d gu idance i n the e l e m e n t a r y

schoo l by Cot t ingham (1956) was soon fo l low ed by o t h e r s , i n c l u d i n g

M a r t in so n (1 9 5 8 ) , Knapp (1959) and P e t e r s e t (1963, 1965) . Most

r e c e n t l y ( J a n u a r y , 1967) a j o u r n a l o f E lem en ta ry School Guidance and

C ounse l ing became a s t a n d a r d p u b l i c a t i o n o f the American P e r s o n n e l

and Guidance A s s o c i a t i o n . I n the s t a t e o f Ohio, annua l c o n f e r e n c e s

w i t h s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n to e l e m e n t a r y gu idance programs and problems

have been s ponso re d by the D i v i s i o n o f Guidance and T e s t i n g , S t a t e

D epar tm ent o f E d u c a t io n .

Thus , i t i s commonly a c c e p t e d t h a t " h e l p " f o r c h i l d r e n i s b o th

i m p o r t a n t and needed i n t h e i r f o r m a t iv e y e a r s . T r a n s l a t e d t o th e

sch o o l s i t u a t i o n , t h i s i m p l i e s t h a t the e l e m e n t a r y g r a d e s p r o v i d e the

oppo r tu n e p l a c e f o r i n c r e a s e d a t t e n t i o n t o s t u d e n t needs and d e v e l o p ­

ment. The f u r t h e r i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i d e a i s t h a t such a t t e n t i o n w i l l

h e l p to p r e v e n t f u t u r e p rob lem s . By t h i s l o g i c e l e m e n t a r y gu idance

5

programs a r e t h e r e f o r e "good" and need to be enco u ra g ed .

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e , and w i t h th e b o o s t o f

f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t from the f e d e r a l government, c o u n s e l o r s a r e f a s t b e ­

coming an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e e l e m e n t a ry s c h o o l s t a f f . Yet r o l e d e ­

f i n i t i o n and f u n c t i o n c o n t in u e i n a s t a t e o f t u r m o i l and f l u x . V a r i ­

ous a u t h o r i t i e s in the f i e l d a s s i g n a myr iad o f d a i l y f u n c t i o n s to the

e l e m e n t a r y c o u n s e l o r , p r i m a r i l y p a t t e r n e d a f t e r t h e model o f th e s e c ­

ondary s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r . These r o l e s range from t h a t o f c o o r d i n a t o r

t o t h e r a p i s t , from p a r e n t e d u c a t i o n programmer to d i r e c t o r o f i n -

s e r v i c e e d u c a t i o n f o r the t e a c h i n g s t a f f , and o f t e n from t h a t o f an

a s s i s t a n t p r i n c i p a l to t h a t o f th e e d u c a t i o n a l p s y c h o l o g i s t .

A s t r o n g case can be made f o r many o f t h e s e r o l e d e f i n i t i o n s ,

even t h a t o f th e q u a s i - a d m i r . i s t r a t o r , depend ing upon the p a r t i c u l a r

c i r c u m s ta n c e s and c o n d i t i o n s . I t i s r a r e , however , t h a t the c o u n s e l o r

has been a s s i g n e d a s p e c i f i c a r e a o f f u n c t i o n i n g which would be con­

s i d e r e d a p r im ary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o a l l s t u d e n t s . Such a s a s s ig n m e n t

i s o u t l i n e d i n t h i s s t u d y . Through a focus upon v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a ­

t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n and c o u n s e l i n g , an a t t e m p t was made t o remove the

c o u n s e l o r , f o r a p a r t o f h i s t im e , from t h e p r o b l e m - c e n t e r e d , " f i r e

c a l l " app roach to the gu idance o f young c h i l d r e n . The r o l e i s then

d e f i n e d as t h a t o f b o th t e a c h e r and c o u n s e l o r i n a v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p ­

ment program, f u n c t i o n i n g i n t h i s r o l e th rough conce rn w i t h a l l c h i l d ­

r e n r a t h e r t h a n j u s t w i th th o s e e x h i b i t i n g problem b e h a v i o r .

6

Need For a V o c a t i o n a l Development Program

The argument t h a t e a r l y a t t e n t i o n t o c h i l d r e n ' s problems w i l l

a s s i s t m a t e r i a l l y i n t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f f u t u r e , more s e r i o u s ones i s

somewhat p a r a l l e l e d i n th e v o c a t i o n a l development p r o c e s s . The a p ­

p r o a c h , however , i s much more p o s i t i v e in t h e l a t t e r c a s e . E a r l y a t ­

t e n t i o n to one o f t h e u l t i m a t e conce rns i n l i f e , i . e . , o n e ' s l i f e

work, s h ou ld p r o v id e a f o u n d a t i o n o f knowledge and a w aren ess upon

which sound v o c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s can be made in t h e f u t u r e .

The p r im a ry o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment p r o c e s s

a r e t o widen h o r i z o n s and to expand knowledge i n t h e w or ld o f work.

Concom mitan t ly , t h e r e i s a need f o r t h e p u p i l to have the chance t o

r e f l e c t upon h i s own p e r s o n a l s u i t a b i l i t y i n r e l a t i o n to t h e v a r i o u s

o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s which he exam ines . As he becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y

aware o f th e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , e d u c a t i o n and t r a i n i n g r e ­

q u i r e d f o r v a r i o u s v o c a t i o n a l e n d e a v o r s , the p u p i l may th e n r e l a t e

h i m s e l f more r e a l i s t i c a l l y to h i s own f u t u r e p ro m ise . T h i s p r o c e s s

i s n o t aimed a t e n c o u ra g in g the s t u d e n t to make an e a r l y v o c a t i o n a l

c h o i c e , b u t r a t h e r to p e r m i t him to become more s i g n i f i c a n t l y aware

o f th e many o p p o r t u n i t i e s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s toward which he can

grow as he m a t u r e s .

There a r e a l s o some b ro a d , g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s which can become

i n f u s e d i n t h i s v o c a t i o n a l development p r o c e s s , which a r e " cau g h t"

a s w e l l a s t a u g h t . For exam ple , the need f o r a c o n t i n u i n g e d u c a t i o n a l

p l a n i s u n d o u b te d ly more e a s i l y a bso rbed e a r l y in l i f e i n a d i s c u s s i o n

o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s v o c a t i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n th a n i t would be th rough a

7

o n e - s h o t " S ta y i n Schoo l" pam phle t d i s t r i b u t e d t o a l l t e n t h grade s t u ­

d e n t s . S i m i l a r l y , t h e " d i g n i t y o f work" a t t i t u d e i s p r o b a b ly b e t t e r

communicated th ro u g h a p o s i t i v e e x p l o r a t i o n o f th e im p o r t a n t c o n t r i ­

b u t i o n s t o s o c i e t y o f v a r i o u s v o c a t i o n a l p u r s u i t s th a n th e "D on ' t

be a bum" l e c t u r e o f t e n g iv e n to th e h i g h s ch o o l freshman.

R e c o g n i t i o n o f the growing i n t e r e s t i n t h e development o f o c ­

c u p a t i o n a l m o t iv e s and r o l e s i s r e f l e c t e d i n a r e c e n t a r t i c l e by Henry

Borow i n t h e second volume o f th e Review o f C h i ld Development Re-

1s e a r c h . * The a u t h o r r e p o r t s t h a t " th e l i t e r a t u r e o f c h i l d psychology

has had v e ry l i t t l e to say a b o u t th e growth o f v o c a t i o n a l m o t ive s an

a t t i t u d e s . " He th e n p ro c e e d s t o examine the numerous forms and k in d s

o f i n f l u e n c e s upon v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment and th e v a r i o u s t h e o r i e s

p roposed to e x p l a i n and d e t a i l what i s p e r c e i v e d t o be a deve lopm en ta l

p r o c e s s . T h i s p o i n t o f view w i l l be e x p l o re d more f u l l y i n Chap te r IL

L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study

The School a s a L a b o ra to ry

While th e e t h i c a l p roblem o f d e n i a l o f s e r v i c e o r program i n ­

vo lved i n a f i e l d s tu d y i n a p u b l i c s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n i s n o t o f m a jo r

im por tance i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , Bandura and W a l te r s (1963) have no ted

t h a t such a c o n d i t i o n must be c o n s i d e r e d as a p o s s i b l e s o u rc e o f con­

t a m i n a t i o n . The f a c t t h a t e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g roups do r e c e i v e

*L. Hoffman and M. Hoffman ( e d . ) , Review o f C h i ld Development R esea rch (New York: R u s s e l l Sage F o u n d a t io n , 1966) , pp . 373-422.

8

v a r y in g d e g re e s o f a t t e n t i o n may o c c a s i o n a l l y g iv e th e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t

one group i s chosen b e c a u se i t i s b e t t e r o r more c o o p e r a t i v e t h a n

a n o t h e r . T h i s may o c c u r d e s p i t e o r i e n t a t i o n to t h e c o n t r a r y . I t was

n o te d d u r i n g th e s t u d y , f o r exam ple , t h a t some t e a c h e r s whose c l a s s e s

were i d e n t i f i e d as c o n t r o l g roups e x p r e s s e d th e d e s i r e t o r e c e i v e

c o u n s e l o r a s s i s t a n c e so t h a t t h e i r c h i l d r e n , t o o , m igh t g a i n some o f

the p e r c e i v e d b e n e f i t s o f t h e program. Thus i t i s c o n c e iv a b l e t h a t

t h e s e t e a c h e r s d id make some e f f o r t to enhance program w i t h i n t h e i r

own c l a s s e s .

C lo s e l y r e l a t e d to t h e above i d e a i s t h e normal o p p o r t u n i t y

f o r b o th t e a c h e r and p u p i l t o in t e r - c o m m u n ic a t e w i t h i n t h e expe r im en­

t a l s c h o o l s . Th is i s e x p e c i a l l y t r u e when a s tu d y p ro c e e d s o v e r an

ex tended p e r i o d o f t i m e . A c o n t r o l group can n o t remain " p u r e " i n the

sense o f com ple te i s o l a t i o n from th e e x p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s , n o r can the

e x p e r i m e n t a l groups th e m s e lv es c o m p le t e ly b lo c k o u t i n t e r v e n i n g s t i m ­

u l i . C onsequen t ly , c o n t a m i n a t i o n may r e s u l t from t h i s no rm al , day

t o day ex change , l e s s e n i n g th e d eg ree o f r e a l d i f f e r e n c e s between

groups i n r e l a t i o n to the e x p e r i m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s . Mussen (1960) a l ­

ludes t o t h i s problem where l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d i e s a r e i n v o lv e d and

admonishes r e s e a r c h e r s to p l a n f o r c r o s s - v a l i d a t i o n s t u d i e s i n o r d e r

t o r u l e o u t f o r t u i t o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s which th e i n i t i a l s t u d y may un­

c ove r .

The "Hawthorne e f f e c t " ( R o e t h l i s b e r g e r and D ickson , 1939)

which s u g g e s t s t h a t p e r s o n s kn o w l in g ly i n v o lv e d i n an e x p e r i m e n t a l

r e s e a r c h p ro c e d u re w i l l respond more a c t i v e l y and p o s i t i v e l y t h a n i f

9

th e y d id n o t have such knowledge, has u n d o u b te d ly a f f e c t e d t h i s s tu d y

t o some i n d e t e r m i n a t e e x t e n t . While t h e s t u d e n t aw areness o f the e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l a s p e c t o f the program was c o n s i d e r e d m in im a l , some t e a c h e r s

and c o u n s e l o r s were i n t i m a t e l y in v o lv e d i n bo th p l a n n i n g and program.

I t mus t a l s o be r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e un iq u e n ess and newness o f the p r o ­

gram i t s e l f would te n d to g e n e r a t e more t h a n normal e n t h u s i a s m toward

s u c c e s s i n th e s t u d y .

C ounse lo r P e r s o n a l i t y

Two c o u n s e l o r s were c o n t i n u o u s l y in v o l v e d in c a r r y i n g o u t t h e

program o f v o c a t i o n a l gu idance and c o u n s e l i n g . While o p e r a t i n g w i t h i n

the same g e n e r a l framework, each c o u n s e l o r behaved d i f f e r e n t l y i n th e

conduc t o f c l a s s e s , i n p e r s o n a l c o u n s e l i n g approach and i n t h e e s t a b ­

l i s h m e n t o f r a p p o r t w i th t e a c h e r s . The c o u n s e l o r p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e

t h e r e f o r e was n o t c o n t r o l l e d and no g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can be made as t o

which c o u n s e l o r b e h a v i o r p a t t e r n was more e f f e c t i v e . The e x p e r i m e n t a l

s c h o o l s a l s o v a r i e d i n s o c io -ec o n o m ic background o f t h e c h i l d r e n and

i n p a r e n t a l s u p p o r t to th e s c h o o l , th us a l t e r i n g c o u n s e l o r b e h a v i o r .

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms

The b a s i c te rms i n t h i s s t u d y a r e no t un ique i n th e f i e l d o f

g u id a n c e , y e t a r e p e r v a s i v e enough to w a r r a n t d e f i n i t i o n .

V o c a t i o n a 1 G u idance . One o f a c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f i n t e r - r e l a t e d

gu idance s e r v i c e s p e r fo rm ed by th e s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r which a s s i s t s th e

i n d i v i d u a l i n d e v e l o p in g an aw areness o f v o c a t i o n a l r o l e s and occupa­

t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s and h e l p s him to r e l a t e t h e s e to h i s p e r s o n a l s e l f .

10

O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n . The w or ld o f work conveyed to i n d i ­

v i d u a l s th rough p r i n t e d m a t e r i a l s , f i l m s t r i p s , f i l m s , v i s i t a t i o n s and

and p e r s o n a l a c q u a i n t a n c e s h i p w i th p e r s o n s i n v a r i o u s o c c u p a t i o n a l e n ­

d e a v o r s .

V o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l A w areness . One o f the end p r o d u c t s

o f the v o c a t i o n a l gu idance s e r v i c e . T h i s r e f e r s t o th e c o n c e p t s and

knowledge g a ined by th e i n d i v i d u a l r e l a t i n g t o th e wide range o f vo ­

c a t i o n a l c h o ic e open t o him.

S e l f - c o n c e p t . P a r s i m o n i o u s l y , t h i s i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s f u l l ­

e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f . I n e s c a p a b l y , t h i s s e l f - v i e w must be r e ­

l a t e d i n s i g n i f i c a n t ways t o the env i ronm en t so t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l

may o p e r a t e s u c c e s s f u l l y w i t h i n i t . I n t h i s s t u d y , the p u p i l ' s l e v e l

o f v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and h i s r e a l i s m i n o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ice were

used a s measure s o f h i s s e l f - c o n c e p t .

Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n . The l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e

chosen by the i n d i v i d u a l on the O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t .

G e n e r a l l y , h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s r e f l e c t the g r e a t e r l e v e l o f

e d u c a t i o n , t r a i n i n g and s k i l l r e q u i r e d by th e o c c u p a t i o n .

Rea l ism o f O c c u p a t io n a l C h o ic e . O p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d , a

r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e i s one t h a t g iv e s e v id e n c e o f congruence between

e s t i m a t e s o f s ch o o l a b i l i t y and ach ievem en t w i t h th e g e n e r a l ( G ) ,

v e r b a l (V) and n u m e r i c a l (N) r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a v e ra g e job s u c c e s s a s

r e p o r t e d i n th e D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T i t l e s ( 1 9 6 5 ) . Real ism

w i l l v a ry a s t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e change th r o u g h o u t

o n e ' s deve lo p m en ta l p r o c e s s e s .

11

O r g a n i z a t i o n o f T h i s Repor t

C hap te r I I o f t h i s r e p o r t r ev iew s the r e l a t e d l i t e r a t u r e i n

th e t h r e e p r im a ry a r e a s o f co n c e rn : v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , s e l f - c o n c e p t

t h e o r y , and programs and r e s e a r c h i n v o c a t i o n a l development i n the

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l . T h i s i s fo l low ed by a c h a p t e r on r e s e a r c h method­

o lo g y which i n c l u d e s the e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n , a r ev ie w o f t h e hypo­

t h e s e s t o be t e s t e d , the d a t a t o be c o l l e c t e d , and a b r i e f d e s c r i p ­

t i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g p l a n s and p r o c e d u r e s .

C hap te r IV rev iew s th e t r e a t m e n t and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f d a t a

from b o th a s t a t i s t i c a l and q u a l i t a t i v e p o i n t o f view. The c o n c l u d ­

in g c h a p t e r c o n t a i n s a summary o f the s t u d y , p r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s ­

c u s s i o n o f f i n d i n g s , c o n b l u s i o n s , and th e i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r

r e s e a r c h . Teach ing o u t l i n e s , a b i b l i o g r a p h y o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l a i d s

and m a t e r i a l s , and e v a l u a t i v e forms a r e i n c lu d e d i n th e a p p e n d i x e s .

CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

As a background f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h r e e a r e a s were s t u d i e d :

v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , t h e o r i e s o f s e l f c o n c e p t , and e l e m e n t a ry gu idance

programs and r e s e a r c h a s t h e y r e l a t e t o v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l g u id ­

an c e . A f o u r t h a r e a i s d e a l t h w i th s e p a r a t e l y and r e l a t e s most

d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y . I t i n v o l v e s the t h e o r e t i c a l fo rm u la ­

t i o n s o f H a l l e r and M i l l e r (1961) r e l a t i n g t o l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n .

V o c a t i o n a l T h e o r i e s

B a r ry and Wolf (1962) make th e c a t e g o r i c a l s t a t e m e n t t h a t vo­

c a t i o n a l gu idance has no j u s t i f i a b l e t h e o r y today and " i t w i l l con­

t i n u e to o p e r a t e on th e b a s i s o f th e myth t h a t a t r a d i t i o n a l me thodo­

l o g i c a l t h e o r y i s a p p l i c a b l e t o th e modern w o r l d . " D e s p i t e such a

f l a t d e n u n c i a t i o n , v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s a r e found i n abundance th r o u g h ­

o u t the p r o f e s s i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e . S u p e r , Tiedeman, Roe and T y l e r a re

r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f v o c a t i o n a l gu idance t h e o r i s t s toda y .

A ccep ted a s t h e " f a t h e r " o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e , P a rsons

(1909) p r e s e n t e d t h e view o f v o c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l i n g as th e p r o c e s s o f

h e l p i n g th e i n d i v i d u a l t o s t u d y b o th o c c u p a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s and

h i m s e l f and to i n v o lv e " t r u e r e a s o n i n g " i n a c h i e v i n g a compromise b e ­

tween h i s i n t e r e s t s , a b i l i t i e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s . T h i s co n ce p t o f

12

13

f i t t i n g the round peg i n the round h o l e , o r f i t t i n g t h e p e r s o n to o r

f o r t h e s p e c i f i c j o b , h e l d sway th ro u g h o u t t h e f i r s t h a l f o f the p r e ­

s e n t c e n t u r y . Through two w or ld w a r s , c o u n s e l o r and p s y c h o l o g i s t s

s t r u g g l e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a b i l i t y , a p t i ­

tude and p e r s o n a l i t y which would f i t t h e c i v i l i a n to t h e m i l i t a r y r e ­

s p o n s i b i l i t y . The mass o f d a t a was th e n a p p l i e d to c i v i l i a n l i f e ,

m a tch ing th e p e r s o n to the job and th e n d e v e lo p in g t r a i n i n g and e d u c a ­

t i o n programs so t h a t t h e u n t r a i n e d m igh t mos t e f f i c i e n t l y p r e p a r e

h i m s e l f and choose p r o p e r l y t o a c h i e v e v o c a t i o n a l s u c c e s s .

The f i r s t h a l f o f th e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y became th e e r a o f t e s t ­

in g . The g e n e r a l a s s u m p t io n was t h a t i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were

a t a b l e and c o u ld be c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y matched t o s t a b l e job r e q u i r e ­

m e n ts . The i n f l u e n c e s o f env i ronm en t were c e r t a i n l y r e c o g n i z e d , b u t

n e v e r t h e l e s s , e n v i ro n m e n ta l e f f e c t was c o n s i d e r e d minimal e x c e p t f o r

some s p e c i f i c k in d s o f t r a i n i n g i n s k i l l a r e a s .

The end o f World War I I b ro u g h t new r e v e l a t i o n s . Not o n ly was

the aw areness o f the a v r i a b i l i t y and c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f the human p e r ­

s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p i n g , b u t the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a new and r a p i d l y chang ing

te c h n o lo g y mandated c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g c o n c e rn in g th e p roblems o f v o c a ­

t i o n a l c h o i c e . S o c i a l l e a r n i n g and d e v e lo p m en ta l t h e o r i e s began to

make t h e i r a p p ea ran ce t o c h a l l e n g e some o f th e o l d e r , p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

c o n c e p t s .

A l though G in sb e rg (1951) i s u s u a l l y c o n s i d e r e d the t h e o r i s t

who f i r s t approached v o c a t i o n s from a deve lopm en ta l p o i n t o f v iew,

Super (1964) c r e d i t s B ueh le r a s the p i o n e e r i n v o c a t i o n a l developmental

14

p sy c h o lo g y . B u eh le r (1933) a n a ly z e d th e l i f e t a s k s o f i n d i v i d u a l s a t

a g iv e n s t a g e i n t h e i r deve lopm en t . Th i s a n a l y s i s l e d t o t h e i d e n t i ­

f i c a t i o n o f f i v e l i f e s t a g e s : growth ( b i r t h t o age 1 4 ) , e x p l o r a t i o n

(a g e s 1 5 - 2 4 ) , e s t a b l i s h m e n t ( a g e s 2 5 - 4 4 ) , m a in tena nce ( a g e s 45-64) and

d e c l i n e ( ag e 65 o n ) .

The Ginsberg (1951) model conce ived o f c h o i c e o f v o c a t i o n as

f a l l i n g i n t o t h r e e p e r i o d s : th e f a n t a s y p e r i o d , from age s i x th rough

e l e v e n , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o the " l a t e n c y " p e r i o d o f p s y c h o a n a l y t i c

th o u g h t ; th e t e n t a t i v e c h o ice p e r i o d o f e a r l y t o l a t e a d o l e s c e n c e ;

t h e r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e p e r i o d o f e a r l y a d u l t h o o d . G in sb e rg p o i n t e d t o

th e work o f Frank and H e r t z e r (1931) on th e v o c a t i o n a l w i s h e s o f

c h i l d r e n from t h r e e t o t e n y e a r s o f age a s s u p p o r t f o r h i s i d e a s .

These a u t h o r s had no te d t h a t d u r i n g ages f o u r to s e v e n , work was p e r ­

ce iv e d by th e c h i l d as b e i n g p l e a s u r a b l e , and common o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o i c e s were based upon d e s i r e f o r " f u n c t i o n p l e a s u r e . " D ur ing the

e i g h t h and n i n t h y e a r s , c h o ic e s were made i n t h e l i g h t o f a d v a n ta g e s

a c c r u i n g t o the s e l f o r o t h e r s c l o s e to th e i n d i v i d u a l , a l o n g w i t h the

r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t th e p e r s o n w i l l have t o work when he grows i n t o a d u l t ­

hood. At n in e and t e n y e a r s o f a g e , i n c r e a s e d p r e s s u r e i n s ch o o l to

d ev e lo p good work h a b i t s began t o a p p e a r .

G in sb e rg n o te d f u r t h e r t h a t th e t e n t a t i v e c h o i c e p e r i o d seemed

t o emerge when th e c h i l d became d i s s a t i s f i e d w i th an o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o ic e s e l e c t e d by h i s p a r e n t s and r e a l i z e d t h a t he must do someth ing

ab o u t h i m s e l f . His t ime p e r s p e c t i v e began to s h a rp e n so t h a t he l i n k ed

p r e s e n t t o f u t u r e i n a s i g n i f i c a n t way and he became more co n s c io u s o f

15

th e permanence o f o c c u p a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n making. C onc lud ing , G in s ­

b e rg o b s e rv ed t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ice took p l a c e o v e r a s i g n i f i c a n t

t e n t o tw e lve y e a r p e r i o d . Th i s was p e r c e i v e d as a de v e lo p m e n ta l p r o ­

c e s s which was l a r g e l y i r r e v e r s i b l e and ended i n a compromise b e ­

tween c a p a c i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , v a l u e s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

I n a b r i e f c r i t i q u e o f t h e G insbe rg t h e o r y , Super (1953)

n o te d some l i m i t a t i o n s and th e n p roceeded to i n t r o d u c e whe he f e l t

were b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f an a d e q u a te t h e o r y o f v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment .

These e l e m e n t s i n c l u d e d : i n d i v i d u a l d i f f e r e n c e s , o c c u p a t i o n a l m u l t i ­

p o t e n t i a l i t y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e e x i s t e n c e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a b i l i t y

p a t t e r n s , th e im por tance o f i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f r o l e m o d e l s , t h e c o n t i n ­

u i t y o f th e a d j u s t m e n t p r o c e s s , r e c o g n i t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l l i f e s t a g e s ,

th e e x i s t e n c e o f c a r e e r p a t t e r n s , t h a t development th ro u g h l i f e

s t a g e s can be g u id e d , t h a t c a r e e r p a t t e r n s a r e dynamic , and t h a t the

s t a t u s and r o l e a r e components o f jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n . Super s t a t e d t h a t

" v o c a t i o n a l development i s the s e l f - c o n c e p t , t h a t th e p r o c e s s o f v oca ­

t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f im plem en t ing th e s e l f - c o n c e p t , and

t h a t th e d e g re e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n a t t a i n e d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e to t h e d e ­

g ree to which th e s e l f - c o n c e p t has been im plem en ted ."

Super (1953) th e n advanced t e n p r o p o s i t i o n s upon which he

l a t e r e s t a b l i s h e d h i s own t h e o ry o f v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment :

1. P eop le d i f f e r i n t h e i r a b i l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s and p e r s o n a l i t i e s .

2. They a r e q u a l i f i e d , by v i r t u e o f t h e s e c h a r ­a c t e r i s t i c s , each f o r a number o f o c c u p a t i o n s .

3. Each o f t h e s e o c c u p a t i o n s r e q u i r e s a c h a r ­a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n o f a b i l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s ,

16

and p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , w i t h t o l e r a n c e s wide enough , however , t o a l l o w b o th some v a r i e t y o f o c c u p a t i o n s f o r each i n d i v i d u a l and some v a r i e t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n eac h o c c u p a t i o n .

4. V o c a t i o n a l p r e f e r e n c e s and c o m p e te n c ie s , the s i t u a t i o n s i n which p e o p le l i v e and work, and hence t h e i r s e l f c o n c e p t s , change w i t h t ime and e x p e r i e n c e . . .making c h o ice and a d j u s t m e n t a c o n t in u o u s p r o c e s s .

5. Th i s p r o c e s s may be summed up i n a s e r i e s o f l i f e s t a g e s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s th o s e o f g row th , e x p l o r a t i o n , e s t a b l i s h m e n t , m a in t e n a n c e , and d e c l i n e , and t h e s e s t a g e s may i n t u r n be sub­d i v i d e d i n t o ( a ) t h e f a n t a s y , t e n t a t i v e and r e a l i s t i c p hases o f t h e e x p l o r a t o r y s t a g e , and (b) t h e t r i a l and s t a b l e p hase s o f the e s t a b l i s h m e n t s t a g e .

6. The n a t u r e o f th e c a r e e r p a t t e r n . . . i s d e t e r ­mined by th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p a r e n t a l s o c i o ­economic l e v e l , m e n ta l a b i l i t y , and p e r s o n ­a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and by th e o p p o r t u n i ­t i e s t o which he i s exposed .

7. Development t h ro u g h th e l i f e s t a g e s can be g u id e d , p a r t l y by f a c i l i t a t i n g th e p r o c e s s o f m a t u r a t i o n o f a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t s and p a r t l y by a i d i n g i n r e a l i t y t e s t i n g and i n the development o f t h e s e l f c o n c e p t .

8. The p r o c e s s o f v o c a t i o n a l development i s e s s e n t i a l l y t h a t o f d e v e l o p in g and im plement­ing a s e l f c o n c e p t .

9. The p r o c e s s o f compromise be tween i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l f a c t o r s , be tween s e l f c o n c e p t and r e a l i t y , i s one o f r o l e p l a y i n g , w h e th e r the r o l e i s p la yed i n f a n t a s y , i n the c o u n s e l i n g i n t e r v i e w , o r i n r e a l l i f e a c t i v i t i e s such as s c h o o l c l a s s e s , c l u b s , p a r t - t i m e work , and e n t r y j o b s .

10. Work s a t i s f a c t i o n s and l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n s de ­pend upon th e e x t e n t t o which th e i n d i v i d u a l f i n d s a d e q u a te o u t l e t s f o r h i s a b i l i t i e s , i n ­t e r e s t s , p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s , and v a l u e s ; they depend upon h i s e s t a b l i s h m e n t in a type o f

17

work, a work s i t u a t i o n , and a way o f l i f e i n which he can p l a y the k ind o f r o l e which h i s growth and e x p l o r a t o r y e x p e r i e n c e s have led him t o c o n s i d e r c o n g e n i a l and a p p r o p r i a t e .

The m a jo r work o f Super (1957) began t o r e l a t e more f u l l y th e

n o t i o n o f s e l f c o n c e p t to i d e a s o f c a r e e r development and o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o i c e . V o c a t i o n a l deve lopment was looked upon as a dynamic t h i n g

s i m i l a r t o e m o t i o n a l , p h y s i c a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l deve lopm ent . C aree r

choice was p e r c e i v e d t o i n v o lv e s t a g e s o f growth m a n i f e s t e d by:

(1) e x p l o r a t i o n o f f i e l d s open t o the i n d i v i d u a l , (2) e s t a b l i s h i n g

o n e ' s s e l f i n one o f t h e s e , (3) m a i n t a i n i n g h i m s e l f i n t h e chosen

f i e l d . O c c u p a t io n a l c h o i c e s were b e l i e v e d to r e f l e c t th e s e l f - c o n c e p t

o f the i n d i v i d u a l which was i t s e l f the p r o d u c t o f the i n t e r a c t i o n <*f

h e r e d i t a r y and e n v i ro n m e n ta l f a c t o r s .

More r e c e n t l y Super (1963a , 1964) has expanded upon h i s ea r l i e r

id e as em p h a s i z in g d e v e lo p m en ta l s e q u e n c e s , s e l f - c o n c e p t and c a r e e r

ch o ic e . The i d e a o f a c a r e e r model has been i n t r o d u c e d i n which the

concern i s f o r the sequence o f p o s i t i o n s , jo b s and o c c u p a t i o n s i n the

l i f e o f a p e r s o n o r group o f p e r s o n s w i th c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n

common. T h i s i s i n c o n t r a s t to t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l model i n which p r e ­

d i c t o r d a t a ( e . g . , t e s t s c o r e s ) a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h some c r i t e r i o n o f

o c c u p a t i o n a l s u c c e s s ( e . g . , amount o f money e a r n e d ) . He n o te s t h a t i n

the c a r e e r m ode l , the i n d i v i d u a l i s viewed as moving a l o n g one o f a

number o f p o s s i b l e pathways as p r o g r e s s i o n i s made th ro u g h the e d u c a ­

t i o n a l sys tem and i n t o and th ro u g h the w or ld o f work.

18

I n a s e a r c h f o r the e a r l y d e t e r m i n a n t s o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e ,

Roe (1957) o f f e r e d f i v e h y p o th e s e s :

1. The h e r e d i t a r y b a s e s f o r i n t e l l i g e n c e , s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s , i n t e r e s t s , a t t i t u d e s , and o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s seem u s u a l l y t o be non­s p e c i f i c .

2. The p a t t e r n o f development o f s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s i s p r i m a r i l y d e t e rm in e d by th e d i r e c t i o n s i n which th e p s y c h ic en e rg y come to be expended i n v o l u n t a r i l y .

3. These d i r e c t i o n s a r e d e t e rm in e d i n th e f i r s t p l a c e by th e p a t t e r n i n g o f e a r l y s a t i s f a c t i o n s and f r u s t r a t i o n s .

4. The e v e n t u a l p a t t e r n o f p s y c h ic e n e r g i e s , i n te rm s o f a t t e n t i o n - d i r e c t e d n e s s , i s t h e m a jo r d e t e r m i n a n t o f t h e f i e l d o r f i e l d s to which th e p e r s o n w i l l a p p l y h i m s e l f .

5. The i n t e n s i t y o f t h e s e ( p r i m a r i l y ) u n c o n s c io u s n e e d s , a s w e l l as t h e i r o r g a n i z a t i o n , i s the m a jo r d e t e r m i n a n t i n th e d eg ree o f m o t i v a t i o n as e x p r e s s e d i n acc om pl i shm ent .

Roe a c c e p t s Mas low's (1954) t h e o r y o f h i e r a r c h i c a l a r r a n g e ­

ment o f b a s i c needs :

1. P h y s i o l o g i c a l

2. S a f e t y

3. B e lo n g in g n es s and love

4. I m p o r t a n c e , r e s p e c t , s e l f - e s t e e m , independence

5. I n f o r m a t i o n

6. U n d e r s tan d in g

7. Beauty

8 . S e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n

19

She n o t e s f u r t h e r t h a t th e lower o r d e r needs must be r e l a t i v e l y w e l l

e s t a b l i s h e d b e f o r e h i g h e r o r d e r needs can a p p e a r . Job s e l e c t i o n t h e n

becomes a s o u rc e o f need s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the i n d i v i d u a l .

T r a n s l a t i n g th e need s a t i s f a c t i o n c o n c e p t f u r t h e r , Roe r e l a t e s

the c h i l d ' s home e x p e r i e n c e s to v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e ( F i g . 1 ) . The

t h e o r y t h a t i f a c h i l d e x p e r i e n c e s warm, l o v i n g p a r e n t s , he w i l l o r i e n t

towards o c c u p a t i o n s i n v o l v i n g p e o p l e , w h i l e c o n v e r s e l y , co ld and

r e j e c t i n g p a r e n t s w i l l p r e - d i s p o s e t h e c h i l d toward n o n - p e r s o n o c c u p a ­

t i o n s , i s d i a g r a m a t i c a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d on th e n e x t page . P a r a l l e l i n g

t h i s , o c c u p a t i o n s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o g e n e r a l p a t t e r n s o f groups and

l e v e l s which g ive some meaning t o th e p e r s o n - n o n - p e r s o n o r i e n t a t i o n .

H ol land (1959 , 1966) has i d e n t i f i e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c p a t t e r n s

o f v o c a t i o n a l c h o ic e as b e in g r e a l i s t i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , s o c i a l , con ­

v e n t i o n a l , e n t e r p r i s i n g , and a r t i s t i c . He, t o o , see s a d e v e lo p m en ta l

h i e r a r c h y w i t h l i f e s t y l e h e a d in g s which d e t e rm in e f o r the i n d i v i ­

d u a l the m a jo r d i r e c t i o n o f h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . These l i f e

s t y l e s c o n s t i t u t e m a jo r o c c u p a t i o n a l e n v i ro n m en ts which a r e l a b e l e d

m o t o r i c , i n t e l l e c t u a l , s u p p o r t i v e , con fo rm ing , p e r s u a s i v e and e s t h e t i c .

H ol land b e l i e v e s t h a t the f a c t o r s o f s e l f - e v a l u a t i o n and i n t e l l i ­

gence summate and d e t e r m in e the p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l o f c h o i c e w i t h i n th e

h i e r a r c h y . Th is p a r a l l e l s the p s y c h o s e x u a l h i s t o r y o f the i n d i v i d u a l ,

headed by t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f f i x a t i o n . S e l f -k n o w le d g e w i l l s e r v e to

i n c r e a s e o r d e c r e a s e t h e a c c u r a c y o f c h o i c e . I t i s r e c o g n i z e d t h a t

e n v i ro n m e n ta l l i m i t a t i o n s can e n t e r i n t o t h i s p i c t u r e ( F i g . 2 ) .

20

K S O

E ' M O T i o k J A i .

( o iJc e ^ 'K / 'T k w u - 'T f f i CHI1-P

^ (X)

GroupsI S e r v i c eI I B u s in e s s c o n t r a c tI I I O r g a n i z a t i o n sIV TechnologyV OutdoorVI Sc ienceVII G enera l c u l t u r a lVII I A r t s and e n t e r t a i n m e n t

L e v e l s 1 .2 .3.

4.5.6 .

P r o f e s s i o n a l and manag. 1 P r o f e s s i o n a l and manag. 2 S e m i - p r o f e s s i o n a l , sm a l l

b u s i n e s s S k i l l e d S e m i - s k i l l e d U n s k i l l e d

F ig . 1 . - - Paradigm o f R o e ' s Theory

21

■Range o f Choice'

M oto r ic I n t e l l e c t u a l Support ive Conforming Pe r s u a s i v e E s t h e t i c

Levelo f

Choice

S e l fK now ledge

Developmenta l H i e r a r c h y \

Leve l H ie r a r c h y

P e e r

P a r e n t s -

S i b l i n g

F ig . 2 . - - Paradigm o f H o l l a n d ' s Theory

22

T y l e r (1959) p r o j e c t s t h e h u m a n i s t i c v ie w p o in t i n rev ie w ing

"a w orkab le psycho logy o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y " i n r e l a t i o n t o v o c a t i o n a l

c h o i c e . The how o f cho ice i s b e l i e v e d t o be as im p o r t a n t as th e w h a t .

T y l e r s t a t e s :

To u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n d i v i d u a l we must know how con­s c i o u s he i s o f the c h o i c e s he i s making. A no the r a s p e c t p ro b a b ly r e l a t e d to t h i s i s th e age o r deve lopm en ta l s t a g e a t which th e f i r s t s t e p i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n was t a k e n . I t seems p r o b a b le t h a t some o f the most i m p o r t a n t c h o ic e s o f a l l a r e made i n the e a r l i e s t y e a r s , long b e f o r e the c h i l d i s c l e a r l y aware o f the d i r e c t i o n he i s t a k i n g .

T y l e r p o s t u l a t e s two a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e and b e h a v i o r c a l l e d

c h o ice and o r g a n i z a t i o n which a r e h y p o th e s i z e d as b e i n g d i s c o n t i n u o u s

(n o m in a l , no t o r d i n a l o r i n t e r v a l ) which migh t be examined th rough

n o n - p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s .

Tiedeman (1961 , 1962) has s t r e s s e d the need f o r d e c i s i o n in

v o c a t i o n a l deve lopm en t . I n o r d e r to u n d e r s t a n d th e r e a s o n f o r c h o i c e ,

the r e s e a r c h e r must tune in to t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s th o u g h t s abou t h i m s e l f

i n r e l a t i o n t o s t u d y , work and l i f e . Tiedeman and O'Hara ( 1 9 6 2 ) s t r e s s

th e f a c t t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t y i s shaped by h i s own p e r c e p ­

t i o n o f h i s c a r e e r c h o i c e . To some e x t e n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l conforms

to the v a l u e s and norms o f th o s e i n d i v i d u a l s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d in

a v o c a t i o n a l s e t t i n g . This may be a c o n s c io u s o r an unconsc ious a c t .

These a u t h o r s a l s o p l a c e a g r e a t d e a l o f emphasis on the f a c t t h a t

v o c a t i o n and p e r s o n a l i t y develop g r a d u a l l y th rough many sm al l d e c i ­

s i o n s which add c o l l e c t i v e l y t o the dynamic p r o c e s s o f s o c i a l i z a t i o n .

Bordin e_t al^ (1963) p r e s e n t the p s y c h o a n a l y t i c approach to

o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . Bordin ad m i t s t h a t h i s t h e o r y d e a l s on ly

23

p e r i p h e r a l l y w i th e x t e r n a l f o r c e s . Work i s s een a s a s u b l i m a t i o n o f

i n s t i n c t u a l d e s i r e s . The i n d i v i d u a l who does n o t a c h i e v e a s ense o f

g r a t i f i c a t i o n th ro u g h h i s work i s a u t o m a t i c a l l y exc luded from the

t h e o r e t i c a l framework. The t h r e e b a s i c a s sum pt ions o f t h i s approach

a r e :

1. Development i s c o n t in u o u s and each moment i s s i g n i f i ­c a n t l y l i n k e d t o the n e x t .

2. The same i n f a n t i l e i n s t i n c t u a l s o u r c e s o f g r a t i f i c a t i o n a r e r e t a i n e d i n complex a d u l t a c t i v i t i e s .

3. A l though need m o d i f i c a t i o n i n s t r e n g t h and c o n f i g u r a t i o n i s r e c o g n i z e d , th e f i r s t s i x y e a r s o f l i f e have d e t e r ­mined t h e i r e s s e n t i a l p a t t e r n .

Gross (1967) t a k e s a s o c i o l o g i c a l approach to the a n a l y s i s o f

p r e p a r a t i o n f o r l i f e work. He s t a t e s t h a t " i n s o c i o l o g i c a l t e rm s , p r e ­

p a r a t i o n o f an i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e w or ld o f work means f o u r d i f f e r e n t

k in d s o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n . He i s b e i n g p r e p a r e d f o r a l i f e i n an o r g a n i ­

z a t i o n , f o r a s e t o f r o l e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , f o r a l e v e l and k ind o f con ­

s um pt ion , and f o r an o c c u p a t i o n a l h i s t o r y . The i n d i v i d u a l n o rm a l ly

d e s i r e s a d i g n i f i e d j o b which makes p o s s i b l e a d i g n i f i e d l i f e , w ha t ­

e v e r th e s t a n d a r d o f d i g n i t y m igh t be . S ince t h e i n d i v i d u a l may be

e x p e c te d to have many jo b s i n h i s l i f e t i m e , he shou ld n o t be p re p a re d

to o w e l l f o r any one o f them. Looking a t o c c u p a t i o n s i n te rms o f the

l i f e c y c l e i s s u g g e s te d as one o f the b e t t e r app ro ac h es to the u n d e r ­

s t a n d i n g o f a c a r e e r .

The e x i s t e n t i a l p o i n t o f view i n v o c a t i o n a l development f i n d s

i t s s t r o n g e s t exponen t i n the works o f J e a n Pau l S a r t r e . Simons (1966)

r e p o r t s t h a t S a r t r e (1964) makes v o c a t i o n a l c h o ice c e n t r a l in the

24

dynamics o f th e l i f e p r o c e s s . This i s common to th e e x i s t e n t i a l i s t

t h e o ry o f p e r s o n a l i t y which endeavors to e x p l a i n a l l o f human e x p e r i ­

ence w i t h i n t h e framework o f each i n d i v i d u a l ' s l i f e t h e o r y .

Simons p o i n t s o u t t h a t S a r t r e (1962) " f e e l s t h a t t h e r e i s a

d r i v e w i t h i n th e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t moves him from s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s

a c r o s s the spec t rum o f l i f e s t y l e s toward a l t r u i s t i c l o v e . " However,

t h i s i s n o t seen as a one way p r o g r e s s i o n . " O b j e c t i f i c a t i o n " r e ­

q u i r e s a s e r i e s o f " u n s e t t l i n g e x p e r i e n c e s " which tend to r e v e a l to

o t h e r s th e r e a l o r o b j e c t i v e s e l f . An i n f i n i t y o f o p p o r t u n i t i e s p r e ­

s e n t s i t s e l f t o make t h i s r e v e l a t i o n , b u t i f t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a r e r e ­

j e c t e d , th e movement w i l l be a r e g r e s s i o n toward s e l f - c e n t e r e d n e s s .

The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t s e e s v o c a t i o n a l c h o ice as c r u c i a l to t h i s movement

toward o r away from a l t r u i s t i c love . Simons s t a t e s f u r t h e r :

I t i s a b s o l u t e l y n e c e s s a r y to s t r i v e to descendb e n e a th the v e n e e r o f l i f e and see o t h e r s a s they r e a l l ya r e . Only by a l l o w in g o t h e r s to s ee b e n e a th the f acades t h a t obscu re o u r p e r s o n a l i t y w i l l we be a b l e to accom­p l i s h t h i s . O b j e c t i f y i n g o n e s e l f such t h a t one i s l e f tv u l n e r a b l e t o the c r i t i c i s m o f o t h e r s , such t h a t one i s open to the shame o f h i s f i n i t e n a t u r e w i l l a lone d i s ­so lv e the wor ld o f i d e a l s and g ive t h i s same wor ld a d i ­mension t h a t i s r e a l and must be r e a l to f u l f i l l thep o t e n t i a l s o f the s e l f .

A man cannot be c o n s id e re d a s u c c e s s because he i s a bank p r e s i d e n t o r a f a i l u r e because he i s an un­s k i l l e d w orker . Men a c h ie v e s u c c e s s o n ly when th e y have found the work t h a t b r i n g s them h a p p i n e s s . The e x i s ­t e n t i a l i s t p o i n t s t o the f a c t t h a t l i f e w i l l be e n r i c h ­ing to the e x t e n t t h a t one d e l i b e r a t e l y s t a n d s o u t b e ­f o r e o t h e r s as f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r h i s a c t i o n s . And because the cho ice o f a c a r e e r i s such a t o t a l commit­m ent, i t i s th e f o c a l p o i n t o f o n e ' s l i f e and has th e g r e a t e s t i m p l i c a t i o n f o r f u t u r e ha p p in e ss o r a l i e n a t i o n .

The e x i s t e n t i a l i s t a l s o sees v o c a t i o n a l cho ice as a p ro d u c t

o f s t a g e s . I n the o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n p r o c e s s , an I - I t s t a g e i s

25

fo l low ed by a Thou s t a g e and f i n a l l y by th e 1̂ - Thou s t a g e . The

f i r s t s t a g e i s s een a s l a s t i n g as long as th e i n d i v i d u a l looks upon

o t h e r s a s o b j e c t s to be m a n i p u l a t e d , a c o n d i t i o n which may w e l l e x i s t

i n t o a d u l th o o d .

As m igh t be e x p e c te d w i th any t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n , c r i t i c s

a r e q u ic k to appea r to s u g g e s t what i s m i s s i n g . Zytowski (1965) , f o r

example , n o t e s t h a t avo id an ce b e h a v i o r as a component o f v o c a t i o n a l

m o t i v a t i o n m igh t improve th e v a l i d i t y o f v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y . LoCascio

(1964) f e e l s t h a t the t h i n k i n g o f v o c a t i o n a l development o n ly i n te rm s

o f c o n t i n u i t y and p r o g r e s s may be i n s u f f i c i e n t . He s u g g e s t s co n c e p t s

o f " d e l a y e d ” and " im p a i r e d " development which cou ld f i t i n t o S u p e r ' s

(1963b) c a r e e r t h e o r y .

B r a y f i e l d (1964) c i t e s the c u r r e n t a t t e m p t t o l i n k r e s e a r c h

w i th t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n as t h e most s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f

v o c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h to d a y . He looks upon t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f " concep ­

t u a l framework" as an i n t e r m e d i a t e s t r a t e g y between l o f t y t h e o r y and

c rude e m p i r i c i s m . Such an approach o r g a n i z e s e m p i r i c a l d a t a so t h a t

t h e o ry may l a t e r be fo r th c o m in g . Two m a jo r emphases in o c c u p a t i o n a l

p sych o lo g y a r e c i t e d : (1) th e p sycho logy o f c a r e e r s which s t r e s s e s

o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , j o b a t t a c h m e n t and an e v o l v i n g c a r e e r p a t t e r n

and (2) t h e p sycho logy o f job b e h a v i o r , which emphasizes per fo rm ance

i n th e work s i t u a t i o n . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , B r a y f i e l d made no s p e c i f i c

r e f e r e n c e to r e s e a r c h i n the e a r l y c h i ld h o o d y e a r s .

P erhaps the c u r r e n t s t r e s s and s t r a i n in v o c a t i o n a l th e o ry

i s b e s t summed up by S t e f f l r e (1966) , who p ro p o ses "Ten p r o p o s i t i o n s

26

i n s e a r c h o f a t h e o r y " o f v o c a t i o n a l deve lopm ent . R e co g n iz in g what

he b e l i e v e s t o be t h e f a l l a c y o f a l l - p u r p o s e t h e o r i e s o f v o c a t i o n a l

development which a p p l y to a l l p e o p l e —men and women, lower to upper

c l a s s s o c i o - e c o n o m i c a l l y , W es te rn and non-W este rn c u l t u r e s and v a r i e d

fam i ly c o n s t e l l a t i o n s — S t e f f l r e s e t s f o r t h some i d e a s " i n an e f f o r t

t o work toward a u n i f y i n g t h e o r y w h ich , under t h e g e n e r a l r u b r i c o f

r o l e t h e o r y , may l e a d to b e t t e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f th e v a r y i n g s i g n i f i ­

cances o f o c c u p a t i o n a l m em bersh ip ."

1. "An o c c u p a t i o n p e r m i t s an e x p r e s s i o n o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t y which i s a s p e c i a l i n s t a n c e o f d i f f e r ­e n t i a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n . " Work i s viewed h e re as an e x ­p r e s s i o n o f t h a t p a r t o f t h e p e r s o n t h a t he wants to r e ­v e a l p u b l i c l y , and n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a comple te e x p r e s s i o n o f the p e r s o n as he s e e s h i m s e l f .

2. "The. o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a r e p r e s e n t s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s c h o ic e among th o s e masks he would l i k e t o wear and th o s e t h a t c o c i e t y w i l l p e r m i t him to w e a r . " This p r o p o s i t i o n r e f l e c s the l i m i t a t i o n s o f c a p a c i t y as w e l l as t h a t o f o p p o r tu i t y .

3. "An occupa i o n a l r o l e may r e p r e s e n t a v o id an ce r e a c t i o n s as w e l l a s , ->r i n s t e a d o f , app roach r e a c t i o n . "

4. "The im por tanc o f t h e work a s p e c t o f th e p u b l i c p e r s o n - a l i t y - - t h e occuy t i o n a l p e r s o n a - - v a r i e s from b e i n g p s y c h o ­l o g i c a l l y p e r i p h e r a l to b e i n g c e n t r a l . " I t i s n o te d h e r e t h a t the p e c u l i a r l y W es te rn c o n c e p t o f work i s o f t e n th o u g h t t o be u n i v e r s a l . The w i l l i n g n e s s o f f r e e men t o work even a f t e r t h e i r v i t a l needs have been s a t i s f i e d i s somewhat i n c o m p re h e n s ib l e t o many p e o p le o u t s i d e the O c c i ­d e n t .

5. "The s o c i e t a l l y l i m i t i n g f o r c e s t h a t d e t e rm in e th e o ccu p a ­t i o n a l p e r s o n a o f any i n d i v i d u a l v a ry from th e a c c i d e n t a l t o th e e s s e n t i a l . " I t i s r a r e t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l can make h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e w i t h comple te freedom. A c c i ­d e n t a l , economic , s o c i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r p h i l o ­s o p h i c a l f o r c e s may l i m i t s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a .

27

6. "The e x p r e s s i o n o f the p u b l i c p e r s o n a l i t y th ro u g h an o c c u p a t i o n - - t h e s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a - - must be made on in c o m p le te i n f o r m a t i o n . " I t i s h e r e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t some p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l ig n o ra n c e i s i n e v i t a b l e when an o c c u p a t i o n i s chosen .

7. "The s t a b i l i t y o f th e c h o ic e o f an o c c u p a t i o n a f t e r a d d i ­t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a bou t th e work r o l e becomes a v a i l a b l e v a r i e s d i r e c t l y w i t h th e p s y c h o l o g i c a l commitment t o the o c c u p a t i o n on th e p a r t o f th e c h o o s e r . " The i n d i v i d u a l i s more a p t t o accommodate h i m s e l f t o h i s j o b r a t h e r th a n move t o a n o t h e r one when i t i s more c e n t r a l t o h i s l i f e .

8. "As f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t the s e l f comes to l i g h t , i ti s more a p t t o l e a d to change w i t h i n the o c c u p a t i o n f o rth o s e who a r e p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y committed t o t h e o c c u p a t i o n as opposed t o change to a d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t io n f o r o t h e r s . "

9 . "The o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a and th e s e l f - c o n c e p t have a s y m b io t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t moves them toward c o n g r u e n c e . " The way t h a t a p e r s o n behaves on t h e job and the way he r e a l l y i s t end to become more harmonious .

10. "The s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a t i o n a l pe rsona may e x p r e s s anyo f f o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e s e l f and s o c i e t y . "

a) The " f i t t i n g " r e l a t i o n s h i p . The s e l f (S) i s con­g r u e n t w i t h th e s e l f - c o n c e p t (SC), which i n t u r n i s c o n g ru e n t w i t h th e o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a (OP) which has been s e l e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f an a c c u ­r a t e o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n (ORE).

I n t h i s i n s t a n c e , th e s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a t io n becomes t h e im p le m e n ta t io n o f the s e l f - c o n c e p t .

b) The " p e r m i t t i n g " r e l a t i o n s h i p . The s e l f and s e l f - c o n c e p t a r e n o t c o m p le t e ly c o n g r u e n t , even though th e o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a may be c o n g ru e n t w i t h the s e l f - c o n c e p t and the o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n may be a c c u r a t e .

s ~ s c= ° P^ORE

S t e f f l r e b e l i e v e s t h e mechanism o f r e p r e s s i o n in p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t h e o r y b e s t e x p l a i n s the r e l a t i o n ­s h i p between th e i n d i v i d u a l and th e s e l e c t i o n o f h i s work r o l e .

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c) The " t r a n s f o r m i n g " r e l a t i o n s h i p . S e l f and s e l f - concep t a r e c o n g r u e n t , b u t the i n d i v i d u a l does n o t p e r m i t h i m s e l f to d i s p l a y a l l o f h i s s e l f - concep t i n an o c c u p a t i o n .

S = S C ^ 0 P = 0 R E

Role t h e o r y seems to e x p l a i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n b e s t .

d) The " b in d in g " r e l a t i o n s h i p . The o c c u p a t i o n a l p e r ­sona has been s e l e c t e d on the b a s i s o f i n a c c u r a t e o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n , even though th e s e l f - c o n c e p t i s c o n g ru e n t w i th b o th s e l f and o c c u ­p a t i o n a l p e r s o n a .

The t r a i t / f a c t o r t h e o r i e s b e s t e x p l a i n t h i s s i t u a ­t i o n .

S t e f f i r e i s q u ic k t o remind the c o u n s e l o r t h a t th e c o u n s e l o r ' s

work v a l u e s a r e o f t e n d i f f e r e n t from those o f th e c o u n s e l e e . He s u g ­

g e s t s t h a t th e c o u n s e l o r r e c o g n i z e t h a t a g e , s e x , s o c i a l c l a s s , n a ­

t i o n a l i t y and o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s make i n d i v i d u a l o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ice o f

v a r y in g im por tance t o him, t h a t t h e c o u n s e l o r shou ld be a l e r t t o

s e a r c h f o r th e h id d e n meaning i n v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e , and t h a t t h e coun­

s e l o r s h o u ld aim to h e l p the c o u n s e le e u n d e r s t a n d h i m s e l f and n o t

m e re ly be conce rned t h a t he make a "w ise" c h o i c e .

While t h e r e l e v a n c e o f t h e o r i e s f o rm u la te d by G in s b e rg , Roe,

and Super to th e e l e m e n t a r y schoo l age c h i l d a r e l o g i c a l l y a p p a r e n t ,

few r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s have p u t t h e s e f o r m u l a t i o n s to a t e s t . Davis ejt

a l (1962) c l a im s u p p o r t f o r t h e G insbe rg c o n c e p t o f t h r e e o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o ice l e v e l s : f a n t a s y , t e n t a t i v e , and r e a l i s t i c . I n a s t u d y o f 116

twelve y e a r o l d s i x t h grade s t u d e n t s , t e n t a t i v e c h o i c e s were i d e n t i ­

f i e d a s made by s i x t y p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s . The a u t h o r s conc luded

29

t h a t "More m a tu re c h o i c e s seem t o c o r r e l a t e p o s i t i v e l y w i t h i n t e l l i ­

gence and fem in ine s e x , i n v e r s e l y w i t h r e a d i n g r e t a r d a t i o n , b u t n o t

w i t h r a c e o r soc io -ec onom ic e n v i ro n m e n t . "

O'Hara (1962) a l s o examined t h e G insberg a p p ro a c h . Two q u e s ­

t i o n s were p r e s e n t e d t o 1,579 f o u r t h , f i f t h and s i x t h g rade p u p i l s

(829 b o y s , 750 g i r l s ) : (1) What s o r t o f p e r s o n do you want t o b e ­

come? and (2) Why do you want to be t h a t k ind o f pe r s o n ? The " t e n ­

t a t i v e " c h o i c e s e x p r e s s e d were c a t e g o r i z e d on th e b a s i s o f i n t e r e s t ,

v a l u e , f a m i ly and c a p a c i t y . " I n t e r e s t s " c l e a r l y dominated the b a s i s

o f c h o ice f o r boys w h i l e " v a l u e " was dominant f o r g i r l s . G i r l s e v i ­

denced a n e g l i g i b l e number o f f a n t a s y c h o i c e s , b u t boys acc o u n te d f o r

f i f t e e n p e r c e n t o f them. Four o c c u p a t i o n s were found t o a c c o u n t f o r

t w o - t h i r d s o f th e g i r l ' s c h o i c e s : t e a c h e r , n u r s e , s e c r e t a r y and

m o th e r .

Gregg (1959) t e s t e d one o f R o e ' s h y p o th e s e s c o n c e rn in g th e

e a r l y t r e a t m e n t by p a r e n t s and o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s l a t e r assumed as

a d u l t s . Th i s h y p o t h e s i s s u g g e s t s t h a t e m o t i o n a l l y warm and a c c e p t i n g

p a r e n t s tend t o gu ide th e c h i l d toward p e r s o n - o r i e n t e d o c c u p a t i o n s

w hereas c o l d , n e g l e c t i n g o r r e j e c t i n g p a r e n t s t end to l e a d t h e i r

c h i l d r e n toward n o n -p e r s o n o r i e n t e d o c c u p a t i o n s . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e a p ­

p ro a c h was u sed w i th women g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s i n f i e l d s o f n u r s i n g

( p e r s o n - o r i e n t e d ) , c h e m i s t r y , p h y s i c s and m a them a t ic s ( a l l n o n -p e r s o n

o r i e n t e d ) . A l though women i n s c i e n c e and m a them a t ic s d id r e p o r t a

s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t a s c h i l d r e n in t h i n g s r a t h e r t h a n in

com pan ionsh ip , those i n n u r s i n g d id n o t r e p o r t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

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i n t h e i r e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e w i th p a r e n t s from women in n o n -p e r s o n o c c u ­

p a t i o n a l f i e l d s . The a u t h o r congludes t h a t v a r i a b l e s o t h e r than th e

e x p e r i e n c e of p a r e n t a l r e a c t i o n s i n ch i ldhood a r e more p e r t i n e n t t o

a d u l t o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . I n commenting on t h i s s t u d y , Roe r a i s e s

some q u e s t i o n s c o n c e rn in g the p o p u l a t i o n sample and c a s t s doubt upon

th e adequacy of t h e t e s t i n g o f h e r h y p o t h e s i s .

While n o t t e s t i n g any o f the s p e c i f i c t h e o r i e s p r e v i o u s l y r e ­

p o r t e d , A l l e n (1955) d id examine the i n f l u e n c e s o f e a r l y c h i ld h o o d

upon the s i n g l e p r o f e s s i o n o f t h e M e th o d i s t m i n i s t r y . The annua l s a l ­

a r y o f t h e m i n i s t e r was used as th e c r i t e r i o n index o f upward m o b i l i t y

i n the p r o f e s s i o n . Among many f a c t o r s which d i f f e r e n t i a t ' - the h ig h

s t a t u s (upper q u a r t i l e ) from the low s t a t u s ( lo w er q u a r t i l e ) m i n i s t e r s

a t the .01 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e were th e f o l l o w i n g :

1» Qi came from the l a r g e s t communit ies and the l a r g e s t s c h o o l s .

2. Qj s t a r t e d t o h igh school e a r l i e s t , l a t e s t .

3. f e l t a c c e p te d by h i s m othe r e a r l i e s t l a t e s t .

4. came from the s m a l l e s t f a m i ly , from the l a r g e s t .

At o r below the .05 l e v e l were f a c t o r s such a s ;

1. Qj moved community r e s i d e n c e more o f t e n th a n Q^.

2. Q| had a p r o f e s s i o n a l f a t h e r more o f t e n than Q^.

3. P a r e n t s o f Qj had t h e g r e a t e s t number o f y e a r s o f e d u c a ­t i o n , had the s m a l l e s t .

4. F a t h e r o f was most h a p p i l y m a r r i e d , l e a s t .

I t i s e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o summarize the meaning o f v oca ­

t i o n a l t h e o ry when a p p l i e d t o the day t o day f u n c t i o n i n g o f the schoo l

31

c o u n s e l o r . There a p p e a r s t o be a d i f f e r e n c e i n emphasis between

t h e o r i s t s who lo ok upon th e v o c a t i o n a l c h o ice and o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e

o f th e i n d i v i d u a l a t a p a r t i c u l a r t im e , and th o s e who see v o c a t i o n a l

development as a p r o c e s s o f s u c c e s s i v e c h o i c e s which can be p r e d i c t e d

as a c a r e e r p a t t e r n . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e i s g e n e r a l agreement t h a t

v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e i t s e l f i s a s p e c i f i c subgoa l i n a c o n t in u o u s l i f e

p r o c e s s and t h a t t h i s c h o ic e does n o t r e p r e s e n t the end o f t h a t p r o ­

c e s s . While s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r y has r e c e n t l y been making a s i g n i f i ­

c a n t impact upon v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , i t i s by no means u n i v e r s a l l y a c ­

c e p ted a s the c a u s a l o r p r e d i c t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n i n v o c a t i o n a l s e l e c ­

t i o n . C h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y , t h e s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r remains i n th e p o s i ­

t i o n o f e c l e c t i c i s t , o p e r a t i n g from a b a s e o f r e a s o n a b l y sound e d u c a ­

t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y r a t h e r th a n th ro u g h a c o n s i s t e n t v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y .

S e l f - C o n c e p t Theory

E n g l i s h and E n g l i s h (1958) d e f i n e " s e l f - c o n c e p t " a s f o l l o w s :

A p e r s o n ' s view o f h i m s e l f ; the f u l l e s t d e s c r i p t i o n o f h i m s e l f o f which a p e r s o n i s c ap a ­b l e a t any g iv e n t im e . Emphasis i s upon th e p e r ­son as o b j e c t o f h i s own s e l f - k n o w l e d g e , b u t h i s f e e l i n g a b o u t what he c o n c e iv e s h i m s e l f t o be i s u s u a l l y i n c l u d e d .

J e r s i l d (1960) s u g g e s t s :

Tha t which we c a l l the s e l f comes i n t o b e i n g as the c h i l d , w i t h a l l t h a t i s i n h e r e n t in h i s make-up , comes t o g r i p s w i t h th e e x p e r i e n c e s o f l i f e . The s e l f , as i t f i n a l l y e v o l v e s , i s made up o f a l l t h a t goes i n t o a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i ­ences o f h i s i n d i v i d u a l e x i s t e n c e .

He th e n adds t h a t t h e s e l f i n c l u d e s t h r e e components : (1) the

p e r c e p t u a l component , (2) t h e c o n c e p tu a l component , ( 3 ) th e a t t i t u d i n a l

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component. The p e r c e p t u a l a s p e c t i n v o l v e s t h e way i n which the p e r s o n

p e r c e i v e s h i m s e l f and h i s co n ce p t o f the im p r e s s i o n s t h a t he makes

upon o t h e r s . The c o n c e p t u a l component d e a l s w i th t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s

aw areness o f h i s d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , h i s r e s o u r c e s , a s s e t s

and l i m i t a t i o n s . The a t t i t u d i n a l a s p e c t co n ce rn s th e f e e l i n g s which

t h e p e r s o n has ab o u t h i m s e l f , h i s a t t i t u d e s abou t p r e s e n t , p a s t and

f u t u r e , and h i s view o f h i m s e l f as a p e r s o n o f w o r th .

The above d e f i n i t i o n s and comments p r o v id e some i n s i g h t i n t o

the c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e co n ce p t o f s e l f i n p s y c h o l o g i c a l

l i t e r a t u r e . Like v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r y , s e l f - c o n c e p t a s i t r e l a t e s t o vo ­

c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n i s in a s t a t e o f t h e o r e t i c a l d i s a r r a y . F i e l d ej: a_l

(1963) p o i n t to the l a c k o f common d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s e l f - c o n c e p t .

T h e i r r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t s e l f - c o n c e p t i n v o c a t i o n a l development

i s n o t o n ly a p p e a r i n g to be more c e n t r a l , b u t a l s o more complex th a n

had been f i r s t im agined . F i e l d and h i s c o l l e a g u e s b e l i e v e t h a t an

e f f e c t i v e framework f o r r e s e a r c h must i n c l u d e a c h a n g in g , d e v e l o p in g

complex o f c o n c e p t i o n s o f s e l f , a l l o f which would be s u s c e p t i b l e t o

th e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e s i t u a t i o n . They s t a t e :

Man can view h i s l i f e as a p r o c e s s a s w e l l as ex­p e r i e n c e h i m s e l f as an o b j e c t . T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , a l t h o u g h s u b t l e , i s c r i t i c a l f o r d e l i n e a t i o n o f s e l f c o n c e p t . A p e r s o n who c o n s t r u e s l i f e as a p r o c e s s can see t h a t h i s b e h a v i o r i s p a r t o f a co n t in u o u s unbroken f low o f e x p e r i ­ence which he can n e v e r f u l l y comprehend. A p p r e c i a t i o n , however , may be deepened upon r e f l e c t i o n , a n a l y s i s and i n t e g r a t i o n .

The r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e which a f f e c t

ch o i c e by d e t e r m i n i n g th e b a s e s f o r c h o o s in g i s th e b a s i s o f F i e l d ' s

(1962) s t r u c t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l deve lopm en t . This

33

t h e o r y s u g g e s t s t h a t " i n d i v i d u a l s choose a c t i o n s which f i t t h e i r c u r ­

r e n t n o t i o n s o f : (1) what t h e y a r e l i k e , (2) what th e y can be l i k e ,

(3) what th e y want t o be l i k e , (4) what t h e i r s i t u a t i o n i s l i k e ,

(5) wha t t h e i r s i t u a t i o n migh t become, and f i n a l l y (6) the way th e y

see t h e s e a s p e c t s o f s e l f and s i t u a t i o n as b e in g r e l a t e d . "

As m igh t be e x p e c t e d from th e p r e v i o u s r e f e r e n c e s , Super

(1963a) i s v i t a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r y a s i t r e l a t e s

to v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment . He o b j e c t s to th e t r a i t / f a c t o r t h e o r i e s

which look upon s e l f - c o n c e p t a s s im ply th e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f a p e r ­

son by an o u t s i d e a g e n t . Super b e l i e v e s " I t i s the ' I am . . . ' type

o f s t a t e m e n t t h a t r e v e a l s the i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f h i m s e l f , " and

t h i s can be r e v e a l e d th ro u g h open ended i n s t r u m e n t s such a s incom­

p l e t e s e n t e n c e s r a t h e r t h a n th ro u g h i n t e r e s t i n v e n t o r i e s , Q - s o r t s and

a d j e c t i v a l check l i s t s . From S u p e r ' s p o i n t o f v iew, t h e r e a r e t h r e e

m a jo r e l e m e n t s c o n s t i t u t i n g an a d e q u a te s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r y o f v o c a ­

t i o n a l deve lopm ent . The f i r s t o f t h e s e i s t h e p r o c e s s o f f o r m a t i o n ,

d u r i n g which th e i n d i v i d u a l e s t a b l i s h e s a p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y which i s

d i s t i n c t from, y e t r e s e m b le s o t h e r p e r s o n s . E x p l o r a t i o n i s t h e f i r s t

phase o f t h i s p r o c e s s , accompanied by s e l f - d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and i d e n t i ­

f i c a t i o n , and fo l low ed by r o l e p l a y i n g and r e a l i t y t e s t i n g e x p e r i e n c e s

which s t r e n g t h e n and modify s e l f - c o n c e p t s .

The second m a jo r e l em en t i n S u p e r ' s t h e o ry i s t h a t o f t r a n s l a ­

t i o n o f s e l f - c o n c e p t s i n t o o c c u p a t i o n a l t e rm s . T h i s i s a t h r e e phase

p r o c e s s which in v o l v e s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h an a d u l t , e x p e r i e n c e i n a

r o l e i n which one i s c a s t , and f i n a l l y the deve lopm en t o f an aw areness

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o f o n e ' s a t t r i b u t e s s a i d to be i m p o r t a n t i n a c e r t a i n f i e l d . The

f i n a l e l em en t i n v o l v e s th e im p le m e n ta t io n o f th e s e l f - c o n c e p t s p r e ­

v i o u s l y deve loped i n t o a c a r e e r c h o i c e and c a r e e r p a t t e r n .

Once a g a i n , t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e o r y t o t e c h n o lo g y becomes as

d i f f i c u l t w i th s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r y as i t i s w i th v o c a t i o n a l d e v e l o p ­

ment t h e o r y . T y l e r ( 1 9 5 9 ) , p r e v i o u s l y c i t e d , laments t h a t an exam ina­

t i o n o f c o n c e p t s drawn from p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o ry r e v e a l s t h a t h a r d l y any

le ad t o an a d e q u a te and w orkab le v o c a t i o n a l t e c h n o lo g y . She f e e l s

t h a t " i n d i v i d u a l i t y w i l l c o n t i n u e to e l u d e us a s lo ng as we r e s t r i c t

o u r t h i n k i n g t o models based on d im ens ions o r t r a i t c o n t i n u a . " She

n o t e s , to o , t h a t r e s e a r c h on c o n c e p t s o f s e x r o l e seems t o show t h a t

a c c e p ta n c e o f o n e ' s own sex and th e code t h a t goes w i t h i t i s o f t e n

made by the age o f t h r e e . Thus , she w r i t e s :

At each s t a g e o f o u r l i v e s , we impose l i m i t s on th e n e x t s t a g e , by t h e c h o i c e s we make and th e ways i n which we o r g a n i z e what we have e x p e r i e n c e d . There i s an i m p o r t a n t someth ing t h a t e a c h i n d i v i d u a l must do f o r him­s e l f . . . . I t seems p l a u s i b l e t o me t o assume t h a t one o f t h e main t h i n g s t h a t happens as t h e boy o r g i r l i n t e r ­a c t s w i t h t h i s complex m i l i e u ( h i s e a r l y env i ronm en t) i s t h a t he d e v e lo p s p a t t e r n s o f c h o i c e s t h a t s e rv e t o l e t some t h i n g s i n and t o keep o t h e r s o u t .

A lthough T y l e r b e l i e v e s t h a t a l a r g e p a r t o f the c h o ic e p a t ­

t e r n e x e r c i s e d by i n d i v i d u a l s i s u n c o n s c i o u s , freedom o f c h o ic e ob­

t a i n s when aw areness e n t e r s i n t o the p i c t u r e . She a dds :

And i n t h i s s m a l l m a rg in o f d i f f e r e n c e t h a t aw are ­n e s s makes l i e s ou r b e s t hope f o r p r o g r e s s i n l i v i n g o u r own l i v e s w i s e l y and h e l p i n g th o s e i t i s o u r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o h e l p .

Thus , b o t h s e l f - k n o w le d g e and s e l f - a w a r e n e s s a r e looked upon as con­

t r o l l i n g c o n ce p ts in c a r e e r c h o i c e , c o n t r i b u t i n g t o the more g lo b a l

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i d e a o f " s e l f - c o n c e p t . " I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g b o th 9 e l f and e n v i r o n ­

m e n ta l o p p o r t u n i t i e s m igh t t h e n be ex p ec ted t o c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

toward more s u c c e s s f u l v o c a t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t in l a t e r l i f e , i f such

i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d on a c o n t i n u i n g b a s i s a s the i n d i v i d u a l

grows and d e v e l o p s .

A t h e o r y o f c a r e e r c o n c e p t s th rough more b a s i c l i f e c o n ce p ts

has been f o rm u la te d by F l e t c h e r (1966) . He n o t e s t h a t "Concepts a r e

based on a c t i o n s o r e x p e r i e n c e s by the i n d i v i d u a l . . . and concep t

f o r m a t i o n i s l i m i t e d by th e e x t e n t o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e s . " M eaningfu l

e x p e r i e n c e s a r e seen t o have s i g n i f i c a n t f e e l i n g s o r a f f e c t cha rge s

which d e t e rm in e th e im pac t o f th e e x p e r i e n c e upon the i n d i v i d u a l .

F l e t c h e r , l i k e Roe, a c c e p t s Maslow's b a s i c human needs a s pr ime m o t i ­

v a t o r s toward g a i n i n g e x p e r i e n c e . I n t e r e s t s , v a l u e s and a t t i t u d e s a r e

a l l c o n c e p t s d e r i v i n g from e x p e r i e n c e . The s e l f - c o n c e p t i s a c c e p te d

a s an i n t e r t w i n e d t o t a l i t y o f o n e ' s c o n c e p t s . The c a r e e r c o n c e p t i s

t h e r e f o r e one e x p r e s s i o n o f the s e l f - c o n c e p t . F l e t c h e r ' s approach

would t e n d to h i g h l i g h t th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e a r l y " a f f e c t i v e " e x p e r i ­

en c e s o f a p o s i t i v e and r e a l i s t i c n a t u r e which would l a t e r s e r v e the

i n d i v i d u a l i n c a r e e r c o n c e p t development .

S i g n i f i c a n t l y , b e f o r e th e whole i d e a o f " s e l f - c o n c e p t " e n t e r e d

t h e l e x i c o n o f p s y c h o lo g y , S e a r s (1940) d e m o n s t r a te d t h a t s e l f - c o n f i ­

d e n t , s u c c e s s f u l c h i l d r e n r e a c t t o a l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n s i t u a t i o n i n

a s i m i l a r way, w h i l e t h o s e who a r e l a c k i n g i n c o n f id e n c e and who a r e

u n s u c c e s s f u l a c a d e m i c a l l y , a d a p t a v a r i e t y o f b e h a v i o r t e c h n i q u e s .

U n s u c c e s s f u l c h i l d r e n i n h i s s t u d y were l e s s r e a l i s t i c and l e s s a b l e

36

to p r e d i c t t h e i r own performance than were s u c c e s s f u l on es .

More r e c e n t l y , i n a g e n e r a l c r i t i q u e o f the v o c a t i o n a l l i t e r a ­

t u r e , S t rong and Feeder ( 1961) , S t rong and F eede r (1961) rev iewed f i f ­

t e e n d i f f e r e n t i n s t r u m e n t s and t e c h n iq u e s which have been d e v i s e d to

measure some form o f th e i n d i v i d u a l ' s concep t o f h i m s e l f . None o f

th e s e were a p p l i c a b l e t o the e l e m e n ta ry school age c h i l d .

E lem en ta ry Guidance and V o c a t i o n a l Development

Growth o f E lem en ta ry Guidance Programs

While v o c a t i o n a l gu idance in th e seco n d a ry s c h o o l s developed

b e f o r e the t u r n of th e c e n t u r y , as p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d , gu idance as an

a r e a o f s e r v i c e in the e l e m e n ta ry s ch o o l c o v e r s s c a r c e l y more than

a decade . The r a t i o n a l e f o r such s e r v i c e s i n the e a r l y s ch o o l y e a r s

has been e s t a b l i s h e d by many w r i t e r s . Conant ( 1959 ) , f o r example ,

g ive s s u p p o r t t o e l e m e n ta ry c o u n s e l i n g s e r v i c e s and recommends t h a t

they be c l o s e l y a r t i c u l a t e d w i t h th e s econdary school program.

The f a c t t h a t e l e m e n ta ry school c o u n s e l o r s a r e wanted and

needed i s s t r e s s e d th ro u g h su rveys o f e l e m e n ta ry schoo l p e r s o n n e l by

F o s t e r (1967) and Brown and P r u e t t ( 1967 ) . Hatch (1961) emphasizes

t h a t gu idance s e r v i c e s shou ld be f o r e v e ry p u p i l , t h a t th e p r im ary

goa l o f the e l e m e n t a ry program i s " p r e v e n t a t i v e m a i n t e n a n c e , " and t h a t

th e t e a c h e r w i l l be ex p ec ted t o p ro v id e the m a jo r p o r t i o n o f the g u id ­

ance s e r v i c e s wlthough t r a i n e d p e r s o n n e l w i l l a l s o be needed . P u p i l

i n v e n t o r y , i n f o r m a t i o n a l , c o u n s e l i n g , p lacem en t and fo l lo w -u p s e r v i c e s

a r e c o n s id e r e d e q u a l l y d e s i r a b l e f o r the e l e m e n ta ry program as f o r t h e

Film ed as re c e iv e d

w ith o u t p a g e (s )________ 37

UNIVERSITY EICROFTLMS,

38

seco n d a ry s c h o o l program.

However, a l l i s n o t sw e e tn es s and l i g h t . I n r e f l e c t i n g upon

the c u r r e n t manpower p o l i c y i n the U n i te d S t a t e s , G in sb e rg (1966) r e ­

f l e c t s a r e a l conce rn ab o u t gu idance and c o u n s e l i n g p rograms:

We s t a r t by acknow ledging t h a t many p e o p l e , e s p e ­c i a l l y young p e o p l e , c an n o t e a s i l y f i n d t h e i r own way i n a r a p i d l y chang ing and i n c r e a s i n g l y complex economy and s o c i e t y . And y e t I wonder what the r e a l e v id e n c e i s t h a t j u s t i f i e s the m a jo r e f f o r t s now under way t o expand s ub ­s t a n t i a l l y the number o f c o u n s e l o r s a t many d i f f e r e n t p o i n t s i n ou r s o c i e t y - - i n s c h o o l , i n th e employment s e r ­v i c e , i n s o c i a l w e l f a r e a g e n c i e s .

I n s p i t e o f such s p e c u l a t i o n and r e s e r v a t i o n , t h e r e i s no

q u e s t i o n t h a t th e r o l e o f th e gu idance s p e c i a l i s t i n t h e e l e m e n t a ry

s c h o o l i s expand ing r a p i d l y . Books and a r t i c l e s a r e b e in g w r i t t e n ,

c o n f e r e n c e s and workshops a r e b e i n g h e l d , u n i v e r s i t y c o u r s e s a r e

b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d and c o u n s e l i n g p o s i t i o n s a r e b e in g c r e a t e d and

f i l l e d . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h i s newly c r e a t e d f i e l d to v o c a t i o n a l -

o c c u p a t i o n a l programming w i l l t h e r e f o r e be e x p l o r e d .

V o c a t i o n a l - O c c u p a t i o n a l Programs

R e fe re n ce was made e a r l i e r t o a r e c e n t rev iew o f t h e c h i l d d e v e l ­

opment l i t e r a t u r e by Borow (1966) i n which i t was n o te d t h a t th e l i t e r ­

a t u r e o f c h i l d p sycho logy has v e ry l i t t l e to say a b o u t th e growth o f

v o c a t i o n a l m o t iv e s and a t t i t u d e s . As one example , D r e ik u r s (1 9 5 7 ) ,

t h e c u r r e n t l e a d i n g a p o s t l e o f th e A d l e r i a n approach t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g

c h i l d r e n , makes no r e f e r e n c e t o v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t i n

h i s t e x t , Psycho logy i n th e C la ss room .

39

A h i s t o r i c a l r ev iew o f t h i s s i t u a t i o n from a v a r i e t y o f p u b l i ­

c a t i o n s w i l l a f f o r d some p e r s p e c t i v e toward th e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the

development o f v o c a t i o n a l co n ce rn s i n e l e m e n t a ry e d u c a t i o n . McCracken

and Lamb (1923) e x p r e s s e d th e need to b r i n g s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n a l i n ­

fo r m a t io n t o s t u d e n t s b eca u se o f t h e g r e a t number o f s t u d e n t s l e a v i n g

s c h o o l i n t h e s i x t h g rade! Th is was t h e on ly p l a c e , i t was n o t e d ,

where a m a j o r i t y o f s t u d e n t s g a t h e r e d t o g e t h e r p r i o r to f u l l t ime em­

p loym ent . A g r a d u a t e d v o c a t i o n a l gu idance co u r s e was s u g g e s t e d to be

i n i t i a t e d a t t h e k i n d e r g a r t e n o r f i r s t grade l e v e l .

J u s t t e n y e a r s l a t e r , Adams (1933) s t a t e d a v ie w p o in t which i s

r e f l e c t e d by many w r i t e r s to d a y :

V o c a t i o n a l gu idance i s a co n t in u o u s p r o c e s s which shou ld fo l l o w the y o u n g s t e r s from th e t ime th e y s t a r t t h e i r e d u c a t i o n u n t i l t h e y a r e w ork ing s u c c e s s f u l l y i n some o c c u ­p a t i o n . The r o l e o f th e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l i n t h i s p r o c e s s i s n o t to im p a r t i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s p e c i f i c o c c u p a t i o n s b u t t o a c q u a i n t th e p u p i l s i n a g e n e r a l way w i t h the work­ing w or ld around t h e m . . . . . The most im p o r t a n t phase o f t h i s program i s t o c u l t i v a t e i n c h i l d r e n the d e s i r e t o s e ­c u re r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e th e y make v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e s i n th e f u t u r e . I t i s c e r t a i n l y n o t th e p l a c e f o r any v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e .

For v o c a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n i n t h e e l e m e n ta ry s c h o o l , T o r ranc e

(1945) s u g g e s t e d r o l e p l a y i n g and r o l e t r a i n i n g as a t e c h n i q u e .

C h i l d r e n would be encouraged to e n a c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r o l e s b o th in

and o u t s i d e th e community, t h e n t o d i s c u s s the d i s c r e p a n c i e s be tween

the p i c t u r e p r e s e n t e d by th e a c t o r and th e a c t u a l demands o f t h e jo b .

The w r i t e r f e l t t h a t t h i s t e c h n iq u e cou ld even b e g i n i n the n u r s e r y

s c h o o l .

B a l l a r d (1952) e x p r e s s e d th e b e l i e f t h a t w ise t e a c h e r s can and

shou ld he lp t o p romulgate th e i d e a t h a t e v e ry workman c o n t r i b u t e s to

the w e l f a r e o f t h e community, t h a t t h e r e i s d i g n i t y in a l l w ork , and

t h a t young c h i l d r e n can g a i n some good i d e a s a b o u t th e w o r ld o f work

which w i l l be u s e f u l to them i n l a t e r d e c i s i o n making. K i t c h (1953)

has a d v o ca ted v o c a t i o n a l g u ida nce i n th e e l e m e n t a r y g rades w i t h the

f o l l o w i n g f o u r p r o v i s i o n s :

1. L e a rn in g e x p e r i e n c e s p r o v i d i n g c o n c r e t e and r e a l i s t i c knowledge o f o c c u p a t i o n s i n th e community t h ro u g h d i ­r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , drama and s o c i a l s t u d i e s work.

2. L e a rn in g e x p e r i e n c e s which p r o v i d e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o n e ' s own i n t e r e s t and a b i l i t i e s .

3. L e a rn in g e x p e r i e n c e s which w i l l d ev e lo p wholesome a t t i t u d e s toward work.

4. T e a c h e r - p a r e n t c o n f e r e n c e s to h e l p u n d e r s t a n d t h e c h i l d and the f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g h i s b e h a v i o r .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , B a r r (1958) g iv e s o n ly a p a s s i n g nod t o the

gu idance r o l e o f the t e a c h e r i n v o c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g in e l e m e n t a r y

s c h o o l s , s t a t i n g t h a t " i t i s a t t h a t l e v e l t h a t c h i l d r e n s t a r t form­

ing t h e i r v a l u e s toward th e w o r ld o f work and t h a t th e y s t a r t d i s ­

c o v e r i n g t h e i r com petenc ie s t h a t may be used i n v o c a t i o n s . "

P r e s s e y (1957) c i t e s t h r e e m a jo r p s y c h o - e d u c a t i o n a l prob lems

w i th which t h e school must be c o n t i n u a l l y co n c e rn e d : c o o r d i n a t i o n o f

e d u c a t i o n w i t h development , t h e a d j u s t m e n t t o i n c r e a s e d i n d i v i d u a l

d i f f e r e n c e s , and th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f e n l a r g e d , c o m p l i c a t i n g s o c i a l p r o b ­

lems. P r e s s e y b e l i e v e s t h a t a focus upon e a r l y e x p e r i e n c e , e a r l y

a s s e s sm e n t and e a r l y cho ice w i l l be n e c e s s a r y f o r t o d a y ' s c h i l d to

grow s a t i s f a c t o r i l y i n t o to m orrow 's w o r ld .

41

Yet d e s p i t e a l l o f t h i s e a r l y s u p p o r t , A rbuck le (1963-64) has

p o i n t e d t o the p a u c i t y o f a r t i c l e s i n p r o f e s s i o n a l books and j o u r n a l s

r e l a t i n g to v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l gu ida nce i n t h e e a r l y schoo l

y e a r s . He s t a t e s the b e l i e f tfrai. much o f th e t h e o r e t i c a l s t a t e m e n t s

c o n c e r n in g o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e and v o c a t i o n a l deve lopm en t a r e i n the

d i r e c t i o n o f a " d e t e r m i n i s t i c , b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e view o f man as b e in g

a c r e a t u r e of h i s d e s t i n y r a t h e r th a n th e c r e a t o r o f h i s d e s t i n y . "

A rbuck le s t a t e s a number o f o t h e r c r i t i c i s m s ap ropos t o the c u r r e n t

t h i n k i n g r e g a r d i n g the v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e o f young c h i l d r e n :

The s t r e s s on p r o g n o s i s , p r e d i c t i o n and the m a tch ­in g o f a c h i l d ' s a b i l i t i e s to someone e l s e ' s p l a n s , i m p l i e s a h igh l e v e l o f the i m p o s i t i o n o f one human on a n o t h e r .I t i s r e s t r i c t i v e . The i m p l i c a t i o n i s t h a t one i s bound by o n e ' s b o u n d a r i e s , and t h a t t h e t a k i n g o f a ch a n c e , the r i s k i n g o f p o s s i b l e f a i l u r e i n d o in g someth ing t o c h a l l e n g e th o s e b o u n d a r i e s , i s t o be a v o i d e d a t a l l c o s t s .

F a i l u r e i s o n ly d e a d e n in g when an i n d i v i d u a l f e e l s and b e l i e v e s t h e r e i s n o t h i n g he can do ab o u t i t .

S u re ly t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r and c o u n s e lo r can h e lp the c h i l d to more in t h e d i r e c t i o n o f b e i n g what he i s , t o l i v e i n a w or ld o f h i s making , u n l e s s th e y t o o , o f c o u r s e , have a c c e p te d th e numb, s e c u r e and dead e n in g com for t o f the w or ld o f Mr. O r w e l l , which i s n o t u n l i k e t h a t o f Mr. S k in n e r .

Choosing i s n o t f i n d i n g t h " r i g h t " t h i n g , b u t r a t h e r t h e a b i l i t y to move w i t h i n r e s t r i c t i o n s , m o d i fy in g and chang­in g them. . . . I t might be b e t t e r i f we were t o s t o p t a l k i n g a bou t p r e p a r i n g a c h i l d f o r th e w or ld t o come, and h e l p him t o do t h e b e s t he can in l i v i n g th e l i f e he i s l i v i n g . The o n ly r e a l l i f e t h a t he can know i s the l i f e he l i v e s . I n a l l the r e s t t h e r e must be an e l em en t o f f a n t a s y and dream­in g .

Murphy (1 9 6 2 ) , i n h e r s e n s i t i v e work w i t h young c h i l d r e n ,

r e f l e c t s some o f th e same c o n c e r n s . She w r i t e s t h a t , "Seldom do

42

we t h i n k o f the c h i l d as a sm al l human b e i n g , c a r r y i n g on h i s own

s t r u g g l e to make s e n s e o u t o f l i f e - - b u t d i f f e r i n g from a d u l t s e s p e ­

c i a l l y i n p r o p o r t i o n to th e newness t o which he i s e x p o s e d . " She then

n o t e s t h a t th e l i t e r a t u r e i s f u l l o f thousands o f s t u d i e s o f m a lad ­

ju s t m e n t f o r each one t h a t e x p l o r e s t h e ways i n which p e r s o n a l

s t r e n g t h and adequacy l e a d t o t h e management o f l i f e ' s p rob lem s .

N o r r i s e t al_ (1960) r e f e r to o c c u p a t i o n a l , e d u c a t i o n a l and

s o c i a l i n f o r m a t i o n as im p o r ta n t to the e l e m e n t a r y gu idance program

and s u g g e s t the f o l l o w i n g s p e c i f i c g o a l s :

1. To h e l p y o u n g s t e r s t o e x p l o r e jo b f i e l d s and to a s s e s s t h e i r own s t r e n g t h s and t h e i r i n t e r e s t s i n which th e y can deve lop t h e i r a b i l i t i e s .

2. To p r o v i d e abundant e x p e r i e n c e s which w i l l a c q u a i n t c h i l d r e n w i th many d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f w o r k e r s , p a r ­t i c u l a r l y community h e l p e r s in t h e i r own l o c a l i t y .

3. To a s s i s t p u p i l s to s e e i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among v a r i o u s f i e l d s o f work.

4. To a s s i s t p u p i l s in b u i l d i n g good work h a b i t s and l e a r n ­in g how to work w i t h a l l k in d s o f p e o p l e .

5. To a i d p u p i l s i n d e v e l o p i n g p r o p e r a t t i t u d e s toward a l l t y p e s o f s o c i a l l y u s e f u l work.

6. To a c q u a i n t p u p i l s w i t h some o f th e p roblems encoun­t e r e d i n c h oos ing a v o c a t i o n .

7. To a c q u a i n t p u p i l s w i t h c e r t a i n prob lems r e l a t e d t o e d u c a t i o n a l p l a n n i n g and e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s a v a i l ­a b l e .

8. To a s s i s t t h o s e s t u d e n t s i n h igh schoo l t o seek employ­ment on th e b a s i s o f v a l i d i n f o r m a t i o n .

The a u t h o r s n o te t h a t t h e p r e s e n t day env i ronm en t i s growing to o com­

p l e x to " s a v e " f o r s tu d y d u r i n g th e j u n i o r o r s e n i o r h ig h s ch o o l

y e a r s .

43

The v a l u e o f l o c a l gu idance r e s e a r c h i n f a c i l i t a t i n g t h e edu­

c a t i o n a l - v o c a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g o f th e h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t has

been s t r e s s e d by Clarke e t a l (1965) who r e i t e r a t e t h e b e l i e f t h a t

" t h e g r e a t e r th e knowledge a s t u d e n t has c o n c e rn in g th e p o s s i b l e s e ­

quences o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t l e a d from h i s p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n , t h e more

l i k e l y he w i l l be a b l e t o d i r e c t h i s deve lopment toward th e outcomes

he d e s i r e s . "

A number o f i d e a s f o r v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s i n the

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l a r e o u t l i n e d by Kaback (1960 , 1966) . She c a u t i o n s ,

however , t h a t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n a lo n e i s n o t enough. For dy­

namic a p p e a l t o c h i l d r e n , o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n must be r e l a t e d to

th e s u b j e c t m a t t e r u n d e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i n the c l a s s ro o m as w e l l as

p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t s . Younger c h i l d r e n a p p e a r t o t a k e a much g r e a t e r

i n t e r e s t i n th e a c t u a l pe r fo rm a n ce o f the j o b i t s e l f .

Kaback (1965) f e e l s t h a t the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f such c o n c e p t s as

" d i g n i t y o f work" and " r e s p e c t f o r a l l l e v e l s o f work" has n o t been

conveyed t o the s t u d e n t even though th e c o n t i n u i n g need f o r more edu ­

c a t i o n p e rm e a te s the e n t i r e s c h o o l sys tem . P r e s e n t s o c i a l and s c i e n ­

t i f i c i d e o l o g i e s le ave l i t t l e room f o r such m o r a l i s t i c p r i n c i p l e s as

t h a t o f "work i s v i r t u o u s " and " l e i s u r e i s the work o f th e d e v i l . "

She a dds :

The c a p a c i t y f o r j o y and s a t i s f a c t i o n , i n h e r e n t in t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i t s e l f , a p p e a r s t o have b een e d u c a te d o u t o f c h i l d r e n . I n s t e a d , t h e a c c e n t has a l l t o o f t e n been on th e v a lu e s o f " e d u c a t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o f u t u r e v o c a t i o n s , " " e d u c a t i o n f o r th e n e x t p rom ot ion" and " e d u c a t i o n and l i f e ­t ime e a r n i n g s . "

44

The f a l l a c y o f e d u c a t i n g young c h i l d r e n i s s p e c i f i c occupa ­

t i o n a l a r e a s i s h i g h l i g h t e d by P e t e r s and Angus (1965 ) . The space

i n d u s t r y , i t i s n o t e d , i s e x p e c te d to doub le the s i z e o f t h e a u t o i n ­

d u s t r y by 1970. Most o f th e jo b s i n t h i s f i e l d were n o t even i n e x ­

i s t e n c e t e n y e a r s ago and i t can be a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t many new k in d s

o f p o s i t i o n s w i l l deve lop in the n e a r f u t u r e . The p o i n t i s made t h a t

i n d i v i d u a l c u r i o s i t y and f l e x i b i l i t y w i l l become o f i n c r e a s i n g impor­

t a n c e , a l o n g w i t h a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the e f f e c t s and c o n t r o l o f

c o n t i n u a l change .

Roeber (1965-66) summarizes t h e c u r r e n t r e a c t i o n to v o c a t i o n a l

gu idance i n e a r l y l i f e by s t a t i n g f i v e g e n e r a l c o n c e p t s which a p p e a r

t o have ev o lv e d from th e s o - f a r u n t e s t e d v o c a t i o n a l t h e o r i e s :

1. C a re e r development b e g in s a t b i r t h and c o n t i n u e s th r o u g h ­o u t a l i f e t i m e .

2. A l l c o n t a c t s w i th p e o p l e , t h i n g s and i d e a s ( o r l a c k o f s a m e ) , have p o t e n t i a l i t i e s f o r i n f l u e n c i n g c a r e e r d e v e l ­opment .

3. A complex ne twork o f e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e the p a t t e r n o f a p e r s o n ' s c a r e e r deve lopment (and some o f the e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s can be c o n t r o l l e d o r c h a n g e d ) ; however , e q u a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t a r e i n t e r n a l f a c t o r s , i . e . , n e rv o u s s y s tem , g l a n d u l a r deve lopm en t , and some f a c e t s o f p e r s o n a l a p p e a ra n c e .

4 . I n a complex, dynamic s o c i e t y , p r o g r e s s i v e movement i n c a r e e r development i s dependen t upon i n t e r m i t t e n t c o n t a c t s w i t h e d u c a t i o n a n d / o r o n - t h e - j o b t r a i n i n g th ro u g h o u t a l i f e t i m e .

5. The n a t u r e o f change i n o u r s o c i e t y makes i m p e r a t i v e t h e r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t c a r e e r development i s a p la n n ed p r o c e s s , one t h a t i s i n h e r e n t l y t i e d t o s e l f - e x p l o r a ­t i o n s , s u c c e s s i v e p l a n n i n g a p p r o x i m a t i o n s , p e r i o d i c i n v e n t o r y o f s o c i e t a l t r e n d s , i n t e r m i t t e n t e x p l o r a ­t o r y o p p o r t u n i t i e s , and o p p o r t u n i t i e s to r e - a s s e s s s e l f i n r e l a t i o n s h i p to e x p l o r a t o r y o p p o r t u n i t i e s .

45

R esea rc h in V o c a t i o n a l Development

T y l e r (1951) h a s begun a l o n g i t u d i n a l s t u d y o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l -

o c c u p a t i o n a l deve lopm ent o f c h i l d r e n . I n i t i a l l y , 115 c h i l d r e n w i t h

no k i n d e r g a r t e n e x p e r i e n c e and from an above a v e ra g e so c io -ec o n o m ic

s i t u a t i o n i n a f i r s t g rade program were e v a l u a t e d on an i n t e r e s t

s c a l e which p a i r e d i t e m s in f o u r c a t e g o r i e s : A c t i v e o u td o o r p l a y , i n ­

door p l a y w i th t o y s , p a p e r - p e n c i l c r a y o n a c t i v i t y , and h e l p i n g a d u l t s

w i t h work. The S c ie n c e R esea rc h A s s o c i a t e s P r im ary Mental A b i l i t i e s

t e s t was used t o e v a l u a t e l e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l i t y a l o n g w i th a "guess

who" s o c i o m e t r i c t e c h n i q u e . A l though t h i s i n i t i a l a t t e m p t g e n e r a t e d

no h y p o t h e s e s , some n e g a t i v e s u g g e s t i o n s were o f f e r e d : (1) t h e r e a p ­

p e a r s t o be no a u t o m a t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween i n t e r e s t s and a p t i t u d e ;

(2) t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t h a t p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t s a r e r e l a t e d t o a d ­

ju s t m e n t o r p o p u l a r i t y ; (3) r o l e t h e o r y i s s u g g e s t e d by s p e c i a l a b i l i ­

t i e s c o r r e l a t i n g w i th b o y s ' i n t e r e s t s b u t n o t w i t h t h a t o f the g i r l s .

Work and p l a y i n t e r e s t s were a l s o n e g a t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d , p o p u l a r i t y

among p e e r s was r e l a t e d to freedom from a g g r e s s i v e n e s s and to a t t r a c ­

t i v e a p p e a r a n c e , and p a p e r a c t i v i t y i n d i c a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p

w i t h m en ta l a b i l i t y . H e lp ing w i t h work in the home was n e g a t i v e l y

c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a b i l i t y .

Three y e a r s l a t e r , T y l e r (1955) fo l lowed up the p r e v i o u s s tu d y

by lo o k in g a t many o f t h e same group o f c h i l d r e n a t a g o u r t h g rade

l e v e l i n an a t t e m p t to d i s c o v e r how l i k e - d i s l i k e p a t t e r n s do o r i g i n a t e

i n t h e c h i ld h o o d y e a r s so t h a t h e l p would be g a ined i n e x p l a i n i n g what

t h e s e may mean i n a d u l t i n t e r e s t p a t t e r n s . Her r e s u l t s a r e p e r t i n e n t

46

to t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e l a t i o n t o t h e change n o te d

o v e r a p e r i o d o f t ime. They may be summarized as f o l l o w s :

1. " L ik e " r e s p o n s e s to t h e Dreese and Mooney I n t e r e s t I n v e n ­t o r y f o r E l em en ta ry Grades were f a r more numerous t h a n " i n d i f f e r e n t s " o r " d i s l i k e s . "

2. There was no ev id en ce o f a l i k e - d i s l i k e p o l a r i t y , i . e . , d i s l i k i n g a r i t h m e t i c d id n o t n e c e s s a r i l y mean l i k i n g l i t e r a t u r e .

3. "The s u g g e s t i o n t h a t g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e s may t a k e p r e c e ­dence over e x p e r i e n c e w i th s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s i n o r g a n ­i z i n g o n e ' s i n t e r e s t s may be t h e most im p o r t a n t outcome o f t h i s r e s e a r c h . "

4. Four " f a c t o r s " s i g n i f i c a n t t o i n t e r e s t s were i s o l a t e d f o r b o y s : R e j e c t i o n o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s , an a n t i ­s i s s y f a c t o r , an a n t i - w o r k f a c t o r , and a p o s s i b l e a n t i ­i n t e l l e c t u a l f a c t o r .

5. S i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s f o r g i r l s emerged a s ; A n t i - a c t i v i t y , a n t i - a g g r e s s i o n , and a g e n e r a l f a c t o r r e j e c t i n g a l l s o r t s o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t i e s .

6. " . . . p a t t e m e d - i n t e r e s t s d e v e lo p th ro u g h th e a c q u i s i ­t i o n o f d i s l i k e s by i n d i v i d u a l s whose i n i t i a l a t t i t u d e i sf a v o r a b l e to w a rd e v e r y t h i n g , n o t th rough th e emergence o fb o t h l i k e s a n d d i s l i k e s on a n e u t r a l ground. . . .Sex d i f f e r e n c e s a r e w e l l e s t a b l i s h e d by the t e n y e a r l e v e l . "

A c l a s s o f t h i r t y , t h i r d grade c h i l d r e n i n a m id d le to u p p e r -

m idd le c l a s s Chicago s u b u r b was s t u d i e d by W e l l in g to n and Olechowski

(1966) These c h i l d r e n w ere encourage t o i n t e r v i e w the p e o p le th e y

knew, s e e k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n about jo b t i t l e , working h o u r s , p l a c e o f em­

p loym ent , how the i n d i v i d u a l ' s work h e l p e d f a m i l i e s i n the community

and what t h e worker l i k e d b e s t a b o u t h i s j o b . Through t h i s p r o c e s s ,

c h i l d r e n a p p a r e n t l y g a i n e d a g r e a t e r aw areness o f a d u l t s a s work ing

p e o p l e , more knowledge o f the f a t h e r ' s o c c u p a t i o n , th e r e c o g n i t i o n

47

t h a t j o b s have bo th a d v a n ta g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s , and a g e n e r a l i d e a

o f what " job w e l l done" s a t i s f a c t i o n means.

The o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s o f c h i l d r e n o f u p p e r m i d d l e - c l a s s

background was compared w i t h o t h e r s o f a lower c l a s s background by

G a l l e r (1951) . Groups were d i v i d e d on th e b a s i s o f s e x , age and a

s o c i a l background f a c t o r . S tu d e n t s were a l s o asked to g ive t h e r e a ­

sons f o r t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s . The s tu d y in v o lv ed two age

g r o u p s - - t e n and e l e v e n y e a r - o l d s , and tw elve to f o u r t e e n y e a r - o l d s .

The s tu d y r e v e a l e d t h a t upper c l a s s s t u d e n t s chose on th e b a s i s o f i n ­

t r i n s i c r e a s o n s , i . e . , i n t e r e s t i n the j o b i t s e l f . Younger c h i l d r e n ,

b o th boys and g i r l s , were more i n f l u e n c e d i n c h o i c e by e x t r i n s i c f a c ­

t o r s , i . e . , an i n t e r e s t i n e x t r i n c i c r e w a rd s , n o t the jo b i t s e l f . A l ­

t r u i s t i c r e a s o n s p redom ina ted i n c h o i c e s o f upper c l a s s boys . S i g n i ­

f i c a n t l y , s e l f - e s t e e m was n o t a m a jo r r e a s o n d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g the

s o c i a l g roups .

S t e w a r t (1 9 5 9 ) , i n c o n t r a s t w i th Murphy, f e e l s t h a t much i s to

be ga ined by examin ing th e d e v i a t e s from norm g ro u p s . He i n v e s t i g a t e d

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween soc io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s and c h i l d r e n ' s o ccu p a ­

t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s i n a group o f 243 f i f t h g rade boys . The f a t h e r ' s o c ­

c u p a t i o n was t h e c r i t e r i o n o f soc io -ec o n o m ic c l a s s w h i l e t h e Dreese

and Mooney I n t e r e s t I n v e n t o r y f o r E lem en ta ry Grades was u sed t o a s s e s s

i n t e r e s t l e v e l s . A "guess who" t e s t and r e s p o n s e s to a s e t o f draw­

ings d e p i c t i n g o c c u p a t io n s from d i f f e r e n t s o c io -ec o n o m ic l e v e l s were

a l s o i n v o l v e d . I t was d e te rm in e d t h a t o n e ' s own s t a t u s had l i t t l e to

do w i t h th e p e r c e p t i o n o f the s t a t u s o f a p i c t u r e d o c c u p a t i o n e x c e p t

48

t h a t boys from low er s t a t u s homes p e r c e i v e d th e u n s k i l l e d workmen as

l i v i n g i n th e n i c e s t house . G e n e r a l l y a l l s u b j e c t s had a f a i r l y w e l l -

d e f i n d e e x p e c t a t i o n o f how a boy o f a p a r t i c u l a r s t a t u s ought t o b e ­

have . Choice o f f r i e n d s a p p ea red t o be w i th o u t r e g a r d to s o c i a l c l a s s

a t t h i s age .

I n a l a t e r s t u d y , S t e w a r t (1959b) found t h a t u p p e r s t a t u s boys

were i n d i f f e r e n t and d i s l i k e d more i t em s on an i n t e r e s t s c a l e t h a n d id

lower s t a t u s boys . From t h i s , he h y p o th e s i z e d t h a t s o c io -ec o n o m ic

s t y l e i s more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d f o r u p p e r s t a t u s c h i l d r e n . Upper s t a t u s

c h i l d r e n seemed t o have a t t a i n e d a b r o a d e r e x p e r i e n c e b a s e .

The r e p l i e s o f 156 g i f t e d c h i l d r e n ( I . Q . 120 and h i g h e r ) i n

g r a d e s t h r e e t h ro u g h s i x i n s p e c i a l c l a s s e s were examined by Barbe and

Chambers (1963 ) . C aree r c h o ice r e q u i r e m e n t s o f the c h i l d r e n were com­

p a re d w i t h th o s e o f t h e i r p a r e n t s . C h i ld r e n a t t h e s e age l e v e l s were

found to r e p o r t " g iv e me an o p p o r t u n i t y to be h e l p f u l to o t h e r s " as

most i m p o r t a n t , w h i l e p a r e n t s l i s t e d "p ro v id e an o p p o r t u n i t y t o use my

s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s o r a p t i t u d e s " a s th e most s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in c a ­

r e e r c h o i c e .

F i n a l l y , two s t u d i e s have looked b r i e f l y a t o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s ­

t i g e among young c h i l d r e n . Gunn (1964) sampled twenty boys i n each o f

t h e f i r s t tw elve g rad es w i t h a p r e s t i g e s c a l e and conc luded t h a t "some­

t ime w i t h i n th e t h i r d g r a d e , t h e c h i l d e v i d e n t l y b e g i n s to s ee a s t a ­

t u s h i e r a r c h y i n j o b s . S i m i l a r l y , Simmons (1962) s t u d i e d s t u d e n t

r a n k in g s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e o f b o th boys and g i r l s i n g rades

f o u r , e i g h t and tw e l v e . F ou r th g rad e boys were found t o be much more

49

aware t h a n g i r l s o f th e o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e r a n k in g s o f a d u l t s ,

l e a d i n g th e a u t h o r to b e l i e v e t h a t th e a c q u i s i t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

knowledge may be d i f f e r e n t f o r boys th a n f o r g i r l s .

Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n

A s tu d y by the N a t i o n a l O pin ion R esea rc h C en te r (1947) d e v e l ­

oped a t e c h n iq u e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l e v a l u a t i o n among a d u l t s known as the

" N o r t h - H a t t " t e c h n i q u e , a f t e r the a u t h o r s . T h i s approach in v o lv e d an

open-ended s e n t e n c e c o m p le t i o n t e c h n iq u e u s in g t h e f o l l o w i n g f o u r i n ­

t r o d u c t o r y s t a t e m e n t s :

1. The o c c u p a t i o n s which I have though abou t go ing i n t o a r e : (a)______ , <t>)______ , ( c ) ______ , ( d ) ______ .

2. The o c c u p a t i o n t h a t I p l a n t o fo l l o w i s : ______ .

3. I f I were a b s o l u t e l y f r e e to go i n t o any k in d o f work I w an ted , my c h o ice would b e : ______.

4. The ty p e o f work I would l i k e to be do ing t e n y e a r s from now i s : ______ .

From t h i s N.O.R.C. r e s e a r c h e v o lv ed some t h e o r e t i c a l fo rm u la ­

t i o n s by H a l l e r and M i l l e r (1961) i n v o l v i n g th e c o n c e p t o f the l e v e l

o f a s p i r a t i o n . These f o r m u l a t i o n s and th e deve lopment o f an Occupa­

t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n S c a l e (OAS) a r e most p e r t i n e n t to the p r e s e n t s tu d y

i n t o th e r o l e o f v o c a t i o n a l programming i n th e development o f what i s

c o n s i d e r e d as one a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t i n c h i l d r e n . For t h i s r e a s o n

th e y w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d h e r e i n some d e t a i l .

I n i t i a l l y H a l l e r and M i l l e r rev iewed th e g e n e r a l co n ce p t o f

l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , s t a t i n g , "At p e rh a p s th e mos t fundamenta l l e v e l ,

the te rm i n d i c a t e s t h a t one o r more p e r s o n s a r e o r i e n t e d toward a

50

g o a l . " I t i s more complex, however s i n c e " the p e r s o n ' s goal i s a s e ­

l e c t i o n o f one among t h e a l t e r n a t i v e b e h a v i o r l e v e l s t h a t a r e p o s s i b l e

w i t h r e s p e c t to an o b j e c t . These a l t e r n a t i v e b e h a v i o r l e v e l s mus t

v a ry i n th e deg ree to which th e y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o a c h i e v e . T h a t i s ,

the a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e ranked i n a con t inuum o f d i f f i c u l t y . " But i n ad­

d i t i o n to th e p e r s o n ' s g o a l , t h e r e i s a v a r i a b l e in t h e p e r s o n ' s o r i ­

e n t a t i o n , the c e n t r a l te ndency o f which " i s a p o i n t o r l i m i t e d range

o f p o i n t s which has h i g h e s t v a l e n c e f o r him. T h i s i s t h e p e r s o n ' s

l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n .

The a u t h o r s f u r t h e r r e p o r t t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l may have a range

o f a s p i r a t i o n s , w i t h rough upper and low er b o u n d a r i e s , and the whole

range may v a ry a c c o r d i n g to w h e th e r o r n o t he i s conce rned w i th h i s

g o a l s f o r the immediate f u t u r e o r f o r some more d i s t a n t t ime. People

w i l l o f t e n make a d i s t i n c t i o n between w ha t th e y hope th e y w i l l be ab l e

to do and what t h e y a r e s u r e th e y can d o , and between t h e i r s h o r t and

long range hopes and e x p e c t a t i o n s .

The Level o f O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n (LOA) i s c o n s i d e r e d a s p e ­

c i a l i n s t a n c e o f l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n and a l s o a s a ty p e o f a t t i t u d e .

H a l l e r and M i l l e r e x p l a i n :

Like a l l a t t i t u d e s , LOA i s p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n toa c t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t to a s o c i a l o b j e c t . As an o r i e n t a t i o nt o a c t i o n , i t r e p r e s e n t s the p e r s o n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f and d e ­s i r e f o r a f u t u r e s t a t e . The s o c i a l o b j e c t i s the o ccu p a ­t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e , w i th p a r t i c u l a r o c c u p a t i o n s ranked from h i g h e s t t o l o w e s t in te rm s o f p r e s t i g e . A p e r s o n ' s LOA t h u s s t a n d s f o r h i s o r i e n t a t i o n to a c t i o n w i th r e s p e c t t o a p o i n t o r a l i m i t e d range o f p o i n t s on the o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e h i e r a r c h y . But one q u e s t i o n which may be r a i s e d i s w h e th e r a p o i n t on o r range o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e h i e r a r c h y may be c o n s id e r e d to be a r e a l o b j e c t . Th is may

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be answered by n o t i n g an o ld p r i n c i p l e i n t h e b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s which ho lds t h a t when peop le d e f i n e something as r e a l , i t i s r e a l in i t s consequenc es .

The a u t h o r s t h e n r e f l e c t the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f LOA to the con­

c e p t o f g o a l :

LOA i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o the c o n c e p t o f g o a l . Ag o a l may be c o n s i d e r e d to be a s p e c i a l k in d o f o b j e c t t o ­ward which t h e p e r s o n has a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e . A t t i t u d e s may v a ry toward an o b j e c t co n c e iv e d as a g o a l , b u t on ly i n t h e deg ree to which they a r e f a v o r a b l e . They a r e no t u n f a v o r a b l e . But LOA's p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t s a r e more com­p l e x in t h a t th e y a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s . The p a r t i c u l a r one c h o s e n may be c o n s i d e r e d a g o a l , b u t the r e s t o f t h e a l ­t e r n a t i v e s a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i l y viewed even a s s u b s t i t u t e g o a l s by any one p e r s o n . He w i l l r e j e c t some a l t o g e t h e r .Only the p a r t i c u l a r r ange t o which the p e r s o n i s o r i e n t e dmay be c o n s id e r e d to be a g o a l f o r him.

The i n v e s t i g a t o r s n e x t evo lved e i g h t h y p o th e s e s which p r e s e n t

p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h r e e t y p e s : (1) consequences o f LOA, (2) causes o f

LOA, (3) no r e l a t i o n s h i p . The a u t h o r s s t a t e :

1. A h igh p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tweenLOA and s u b se q u e n t l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l ach ievem en t .

2. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tween LOA andany measure o f s u c c e s s i n s c h o o l .

3. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tween t h e p e r ­s o n ' s LOA and th e s u c c e s s o r i e n t a t i o n s o f the groups to which he b e l o n g s .

4. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found between LOA andthe d e g r e e to which the s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n o f th e p e r ­son t e n d s to p roduce s u c c e s s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l l y r e ­l a t e d a r e a s o f b e h a v i o r .

5. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tween LOA andany p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n t e n d i n g to p roduce th e e x p e r i ­ence o f s u c c e s s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d a r e a s o f b e h a v i o r .

6. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tween LOA ands e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s c o n c e rn in g s u c c e s s and ach ievem ent o r i e n t a t i o n .

52

7. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n w i l l be found be tween LOA and any p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n e x p r e s s i n g th e w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c t i n d e p e n d e n t l y .

8. A c o r r e l a t i o n a p p ro a c h in g z e r o w i l l be found be tween LOA and a l l v a r i a b l e s n o t s p e c i f i e d under p r e d i c t i o n s (1) th ro u g h ( 7 ) .

The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e t h e n p r e s e n t e d :

I n b r i e f , bo th t h e t h e o r y o f LOA and the d a t a a v a i l ­a b l e c o n c e r n in g i t s c o r r e l a t e s show i t t o be a v a r i a b l e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p romise in e x p l a i n i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l e d u c a t i o n a l and o c c u p a t i o n a l a c h ie v e m e n t . I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e v a r i a b l e cou ld have p r a c t i c a l im por tance t o those conce rned w i th e d u ­c a t i o n a l a c h i e v e m e n t , v o c a t i o n a l and e d u c a t i o n a l c o u n s e l ­in g and s o c i a l m o b i l i t y . But p r e s e n t t e c h n i q u e s a r e n o t ad eq u a te t o t h e t a s k .

H a l l e r and M i l l e r n e x t a d d r e s s e d th e m s e lv es to t h e t a s k o f

d e v e l o p in g a s c a l e which would measure LOA a c c u r a t e l y and e a s i l y . The

outcome was an O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n S ca le (OAS). The OAS asked the

a d u l t r e s p o n d e n t t o answ er e i g h t q u e s t i o n s by c hec k ing one o f t e n jobs

which had been ranked i n te rms o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e . For example ,

"Supreme Court J u s t i c e " was c o n s i d e r e d h i g h e s t i n o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s ­

t i g e , w h i l e " F i l l i n g S t a t i o n A t t e n d a n t " was lo w e s t on t h e s c a l e . The

e i g h t q u e s t i o n s were p r e s e n t e d a l o n g two d im e n s io n s , one o f e x p r e s s i o n

l e v e l and th e o t h e r in te rm s o f a t ime d im ens ion . The " i d e a l i s t i c "

e x p r e s s i o n l e v e l asked th e s u b j e c t to check a j o b he would choose i f

he were " f r e e t o c h o o s e " , w h i l e t h e " r e a l i s t i c " e x p r e s s i o n l e v e l r e ­

q u i r e d th e c h o ic e to be on the b a s i s o f t h e job "you a r e r e a l l y s u r e

you can g e t . " A s h o r t r ange t ime d im ens ion was o r i e n t e d toward "when

your s c h o o l i n g i s o v e r " w h i l e th e long range c h o i c e was on the b a s i s

o f " th e t ime you a r e t h i r t y y e a r s o l d . "

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Both th e N o r t h - H a t t t e c h n iq u e and the O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a ­

t i o n S c a l e have been m o d i f i e d i n t h e p r e s e n t s tu d y to meet t h e l e v e l

o f e l e m e n t a r y s ch o o l c h i l d r e n . As w i l l be n o te d i n C hap te r V, a com­

m u n i c a t i o n prob lem d id a p p e a r i n work ing w i t h second g rade c h i l d r e n ,

b u t t h i s was overcome t o some e x t e n t in p o s t - t e s t i n g t h ro u g h i n d i v i ­

d u a l i n t e r v i e w s w i t h c h i l d r e n .

V o c a t i o n a l and s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s , e l e m e n t a r y gu idance p r o ­

grams r e l a t i n g t o v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n and i n s t r u c t i o n ,

and th e s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s g ive n a t t e n t i o n i n th e N.O.R.C. s t u d i e s

and th e H a l l e r and M i l l e r r e s e a r c h , a l l form th e background f o r the

p r e s e n t s t u d y . The e x p e r i m e n t a l d e s i g n and r e s e a r c h methodology a re

o u t l i n e d i n th e f o l l o w i n g c h a p t e r .

CHAPTER I I I

METHODOLOGY

The E x p e r im e n ta l Des ign

I n o r d e r to d e t e rm in e i f m e a su ra b le in c re m e n t s o f o c c u p a t i o n ­

a l knowledge, v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l cho ice

cou ld be a c h i e v e d w i th p u p i l s a t an e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l th ro u g h a program

o f v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l g u id a n c e , e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups

were e s t a b l i s h e d in two e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s a t each o f t h r e e g rade l e ­

v e l s : two, f o u r , s i x .

The two s c h o o l s were s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s tu d y on the b a s i s o f

the f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a :

1. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f a t l e a s t f o u r homogeneous c l a s s g roups in each o f th e second , f o u r t h and s i x t h g r a d e s .

2. E l i g i b i l i t y f o r t h e s e r v i c e s o f a f u l l t ime e l e m e n t a r y c o u n s e l o r f o r th e 1966-67 schoo l y e a r .

3. W i l l i n g n e s s on th e p a r t o f t h e s ch o o l p r i n c i p a l and the a s s i g n e d c o u n s e l o r to conduc t an e x p e r i m e n t a l program in v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e .

A g r a n t o b t a i n e d u n d e r T i t l e V-A, N a t i o n a l Defense E d u c a t io n

A c t , th rough th e D i v i s i o n o f Guidance and T e s t i n g , Depar tm ent o f Edu­

c a t i o n o f the S t a t e o f Ohio, f a c i l i t a t e d th e a s s ig n m e n t o f t h e two

f u l l t ime c o u n s e l o r s and e n a b le d b o th th e p u rc h a s e o f v o c a t i o n a l ma­

t e r i a l s and th e employment o f s u p e r v i s o r y and c o n s u l t a n t a s s i s t a n c e .

54

55

A l though f u l l y c e r t i f i c a t e d by the D epar tm ent o f E d u c a t io n o f the

s t a t e , n e i t h e r c o u n s e l o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g in t h e s tu d y had p r e v i o u s l y

s e rv e d as an e l e m e n t a r y schoo l c o u n s e l o r . However, b o th c o u n s e l o r s

s e l e c t e d d id have an av e rage o f t e n y e a r s t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a t t h e

e l e m e n t a r y l e v e l .

A s e r i e s o f u n i t s f o c u s in g on v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l con­

c e rn s was deve loped th ro u g h th e j o i n t e f f o r t s o f the two c o u n s e l o r s

i n v o l v e d , t h e i r s u p e r v i s o r , a u n i v e r s i t y c o n s u l t a n t and th e w r i t e r .

These u n i t s (Appendix A ) , a l o n g w i th a v a i l a b l e v o c a t i o n a l gu idance

m a t e r i a l s , were i n t r o d u c e d t o the e x p e r i m e n t a l groups d u r i n g the

s ch o o l y e a r , from O c tober t h ro u g h March, on a one ho u r a week b a s i s

i n each c l a s s . E x p e r im en ta l g roups were d e s i g n a t e d a s f o l l o w s :

E - l Teacher o n l y p r e s e n t a t i o n .

E-2 Counse lo r on ly p r e s e n t a t i o n p l u s i n d i v i d u a l and sm al l group c o u n s e l i n g .

E-3 Teacher and c o u n s e l o r c o o p e r a t i v e e f f o r t in p r e s e n t a t i o n .

The d e s i g n a t e d c o n t r o l group a t each grade l e v e l made use o f

the u s u a l s e r v i c e s o f the c o u n s e l o r , b u t n e i t h e r a s s i s t a n c e no r d i r e c ­

t i o n was o f f e r e d i n t h e v o c a t i o n a l o c c u p a t i o n a l a r e a .

A t o t a l o f 592 p u p i l s , i n c l u d i n g c o n t r o l s , was m a in t a i n e d

th ro u g h o u t the s i x month p e r i o d o f t h i s s t u d y . Tab le I p r e s e n t s th e

p i c t u r e o f th e c l a s s s i z e s and the e x p e r i m e n t a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

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TABLE 1

CLASS SIZE AND EXPERIMENTAL ORGANIZATION

School IradeE - l

T chr .O n lyE-2

Couns .OnlyE-3

T c h r . /C o u n s .C

C o n t ro lTo t .

N

A 2 22 24 23 24 93A 4 27 2 5 25 24 101A 6 31 26 32 27 116

T o t a l 80 75 80 75 310

B 2 22 23 21 29 95B 4 23 19 27 21 90B 6 30 22 25 20 97

T o t a l 75 64 73 70 282

T o t a l N Both Schools 155 139 153 145 592

P o p u l a t i o n P a ra m e te r s

The two s c h o o l s chosen f o r s t u d y a r e a p a r t o f a l a r g e c i t y

s c h o o l sys tem i n Ohio e n r o l l i n g 60 ,000 s t u d e n t s . Due to th e need f o r

f o u r c l a s s groups a t each grade l e v e l , the s c h o o l s them se lves were

l a r g e in s i z e . School A has a r e g u l a r e n r o l l m e n t o f 1,250 p u p i l s

w h i l e School B c o n t a i n s 1,825 s t u d e n t s , w i th k i n d e r g a r t e n t o t h i r d

g r a d e s in one b u i l d i n g (p r im a ry ) and g rades f o u r th rough e i g h t in

a n o t h e r ( e l e m e n t a r y ) . The two b u i l d i n g s making up School B have two

p r i n c i p a l s and s e p a r a t e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s . With the e x c e p t i o n o f the

t h r e e e x p e r i m e n t a lg r o u p s i n the second g r a d e , th e schoo l c o u n s e l o r

w orked o n ly i n the e l e m e n t a r y b u i l d i n g a t t h i s s c h o o l .

The two s c h o o l s a l s o p r e s e n t a c o n t r a s t in the background o f

the s t u d e n t s who a t t e n d . School A i s l o c a t e d in a suburban r e s i d e n t i a l

57

a r e a o f m idd le to u p p e r -m id d le c l a s s homes. A l l p u p i l s a r e Caucas ian .

Both p a r e n t s a re p r e s e n t i n most o f the homes. F a t h e r s a r e employed

i n l a r g e m a n u f a c t u r i n g conce rns i n the m e t r o p o l i t a n a r e a , a r e w e l l -

p a i d b u s i n e s s men, o r r e p r e s e n t t h e p r o f e s s i o n s o f m e d ic in e , law, e n ­

g i n e e r i n g o r t e a c h i n g .

C h i ld r e n a t t e n d i n g School B a r e a lm os t a l l Negro and come from

a lower s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t r a t a on th e c i t y ' s wes t s i d e . T w e n ty - th re e

p e r c e n t o f the f a m i l i e s a r e w e l f a r e r e c i p i e n t s , w h i l e n i n e t y - t h r e e

p e r c e n t o f the p u p i l s a r e d e s i g n a t e d as e d u c a t i o n a l l y d e p r iv e d a c c o r d ­

in g t o f e d e r a l government s t a n d a r d s . In some c l a s s r o o m s , f i f t y p e r c e n t

o f t h e f a m i l i e s r e p r e s e n t e d have o n ly the m o the r i n th e home, a l t h o u g h

most o f th e c h i l d r e n do have some r e g u l a r c o n t a c t w i th male r e l a t i v e s .

D e s p i t e th e economic s i t u a t i o n , however , th e p a r e n t s o f c h i l d r e n in

t h e s ch o o l a r e v e r y r e s p o n s i v e t o th e l e a d e r s h i p p ro v id e d by the

s c h o o l s t a f f .

E x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups were chosen randomly by the

s c h o o l p r i n c i p a l a t the g rade l e v e l s d e s i g n a t e d . A l l t e a c h e r s , i n ­

c l u d i n g th o s e in t h e c o n t r o l g ro u p s , t e a c h e r c o n s u l t a n t s and schoo l

p r i n c i p a l s were f u l l y a p p r i s e d o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a s p e c t s o f the

s tu d y i n two m e e t in g s a r r a n g e d p r i o r to t h e b e g i n n in g o f the program.

A ssurance was g iv e n to th e c o n t r o l group t e a c h e r s t h a t they had no t

b een "chosen to be l e f t o u t " o f t h e r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t .

As no ted i n C hap te r I , t h e h y p o th e se s f o r t h i s s tu d y f lowed

o u t o f the f o l l o w i n g e x p l o r a t o r y q u e s t i o n s :

1. Can v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n be commu­n i c a t e d e f f e c t i v e l y t o e l e m e n t a ry s ch o o l c h i l d r e n ?

58

2. At what a g e / g r a d e do c h i l d r e n comprehend v o c a ­t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b e s t ?

3. Does the c h i l d change h i s l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n a s he i s exposed to v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n ­fo rm a t io n ?

4. I s t h e r e a d i f f e r e n c e i n th e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a ­t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s o f c h i l d r e n from two d i f f e r e n t so c io -ec o n o m ic b a c k g ro u n d s , b o th b e ­f o r e and a f t e r a v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program?

5. Does th e c h i l d become more r e a l i s t i c in h i s occu­p a t i o n a l c h o ic e i n r e l a t i o n to h i s l e a r n i n g po­t e n t i a l and ach ievem en t as he i s exposed t o a vo­c a t i o n a l gu idance program?

6. I s the l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t dependen t upon s ch o o l a b i l i t y a n d / o r ach ievem en t?

7. What method o f app roac h to v o c a t i o n a l gu idance o fe l e m e n t a r y s ch o o l c h i l d r e n i s b e s t : C la s s g roup ,i n d i v i d u a l ( o r sm al l g roup) , o r a co m b in a t io n o f t h e two?

8. What a r e t e a c h e r and p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s toward the v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l theme a s a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y gu ida nce program?

N ul l Hypotheses

I n an e f f o r t t o answer t h e above q u e s t i o n s , t h r e e n u l l hypo­

t h e s e s were p ro p o s e d . The f i r s t two q u e s t i o n s r e l a t e t o th e a c q u i s i ­

t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge and evoked th e f o l l o w i n g

h y p o t h e s i s :

1. There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n g a ined be tween:

a) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups a t each g rade l e v e l .

b) E x p e r i m e n t a l g roups a t the same g rade l e v e l u s i n g v a r i e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l / c o u n s e l i n g ap ­p r o a c h e s .

59

c) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups from grade l e v e l t o g rade l e v e l .

d) E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups a t t h e same g rade l e v e l b u t i n d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s .

Leve l o f a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e were cho­

sen as avenues o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f two a s p e c t s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t in c h i l d ­

r e n and l e d t o a n o t h e r n u l l h y p o t h e s i s to e x p l o r e q u e s t i o n s f o u r , f i v e

and s i x .

2. There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n the s e l f - c o n c e p t s ( l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , r e a l i t y o f occupa ­t i o n a l c h o ic e ) be tween groups i d e n t i f i e d i n £ , b ,£ , and d i n n u l l h y p o t h e s i s number one above .

P u r su in g th e s e l f - c o n c e p t as measured by l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n

one s t e p f u r t h e r , q u e s t i o n number s i x b ro u g h t f o r t h th e t h i r d hypo­

t h e s i s :

3. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p be tween th e l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n o f s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s and:

a) School l e a r n i n g a b i l i t y .

b) School ach ievem en t .

Through r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from th e f i n d i n g s o f the t h r e e hypo­

t h e s e s , i t would be e x p e c te d t h a t q u e s t i o n number seven m igh t be a n ­

swered. Q u e s t io n number e i g h t r e q u i r e d t h a t a s u rv e y be made o f th e

o p i n i o n s o f bo th t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s o f the c h i l d r e n in v o lv e d i n th e

s tu d y .

Methods o f E v a l u a t i o n

P r e - t e s t i n g o f a l l e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups was accom­

p l i s h e d i n O c to b e r , p r i o r t o th e b e g i n n in g o f the formal a s p e c t s o f

the program. An open ended q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o e l i c i t knowledge o f

60

p a r e n t a l o c c u p a t i o n and c u r r e n t v o c a t i o n a l c h o i c e (Appendix B) and an

O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t (Appendix C) were a d m i n i s t e r e d t o

a l l g roups f o l l o w i n g s t a n d a r d i n s t r u c t i o n s g iv e n by th e c o u n s e l o r .

P o s t - t e s t i n g o f a l l groups w i th the same two i n s t r u m e n t s was

comple ted i n May, a p p r o x im a te ly one month a f t e r th e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o ­

gram had been concluded i n t h e c l a s s ro o m . The f i v e i t em O c c u p a t io n a l

I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e was g iv e n o r a l l y to second g rade s t u d e n t s on

an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s , w h i l e the a s p i r a t i o n s c a l e was e l i m i n a t e d a l t o ­

g e t h e r f o r t h i s g rade l e v e l group . A l l c h i l d r e n were g iv e n an a d d i ­

t i o n a l a s s ig n m e n t t o "Think o f a s many k in d s o f work t h a t p eop le do

and w r i t e them on th e l i n e s b e l o w . " Three m i n u te s were a l low ed f o r

the co m p le t io n o f t h e t a s k .

The Lorge -T hornd ike I n t e l l i g e n c e S c a l e and th e M e t r o p o l i t a n

Achievement T e s t were u sed to e v a l u a t e s c h o o l a b i l i t y and ach ievem en t

a t t h e second g rade l e v e l . The Ohio Survey T e s t s were used t o accom­

p l i s h the same p u rp o s e s a t the f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade l e v e l s . Scores

from the C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f Menta l M a t u r i t y , a p a r t o f th e c i t y wide

t e s t i n g program, were a v a i l a b l e to r e l a t e to o t h e r s c h o o l a b i l i t y

s c o r e s .

I n o r d e r t o c a t a l o g some q u a l i t a t i v e r e s p o n s e s , a q u e s t i o n ­

n a i r e (Appendix D) was g iv e n t o t e a c h e r s i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s

and a n o t h e r (Appendix E) was g iv e n to the p a r e n t s of th e c h i l d r e n in

t h e s e g ro u p s . I n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d from t h i s approach p e r m i t t e d some

feedback on th e program from t h o s e o t h e r th a n th e c h i l d r e n in v o l v e d .

61

The e v a l u a t i v e app roach i s summarized i n Tab le 2. S t a t i s ­

t i c a l a n a l y s e s c o n s i s e d o f p e r c e n t a g e c o m p ar i s o n s , v a r i a n c e r a t i o

(F) t e s t s f o r homogenei ty o f sam ple , and c h i - s q u a r e (x2) and t - t e s t

a n a l y s i s f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n c o m p ara t iv e g ro u p s . Appendix

G summarizes th e s t a t i s t i c a l models employed.

TABLE 2

METHODS OF EVALUATION

Grade Time Technique S t a t i s t i c Q u e s t io n Hypoth.

2 Oct. Lorge-T hornd ike I n t e l l i g e n c e S ca le

S t a n i n e 6 3

2 O c t . M e t r o p o l i t a n Achievement T e s t

S ta n i n e 6 3

4 ,6 O c t . Ohio Survey T e s t s S t a n i n e 6 3

2 , 4 ,6

Oct. C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f Mental M a tu r i t y

S ta n i n e 6 3

2 , 4 ,6

Oct. ,May

O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( I tem s 1,2)

P e r c e n t 1,2 1

2 , 4 ,6

Oct. , May

O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( I tem s 3,4, 5)

X2 5 2

4 ,6 Oct. ,May

O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t

t - t e s t 3 ,4 2

2 , 4 , 6 May L i s t i n g o f Jobs t - t e s t 1,2 1

- May T ea ch e r Q u e s t i o n n a i r e D e s c r i p t . 1,8 -

- May P a r e n t Q u e s t i o n n a i r e D e s c r i p t . 1,8 -

62

Summary o f Scope o f Study

T h i s s tu d y u n d e r s to o k th e ex a m in a t io n o f p o s s i b l e changes

which m ig h t be e x p e c te d t o o c c u r i n t h e r e s p o n s e s o f c h i l d r e n in

normal c l a s s ro o m s i t u a t i o n s f o l l o w i n g v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f exposu re t o

a v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program. In c r e m e n ts i n o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge ,

l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ice

were measured . The r e l a t i o n s h i p between l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n and meas­

u re s o f s choo l a b i l i t y and ach ievem ent was e x p l o r e d . The o p i n i o n s

o f t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s were s o u g h t i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n some q u a l i t a ­

t i v e r e s p o n s e s t o the v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program from p e r s o n s o t h e r

th a n th e c h i l d r e n who p a r t i c i p a t e d .

The n e x t c h a p t e r fo cu s es upon th e t r e a t m e n t and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n

o f d a t a and i n c l u d e s an e x a m in a t io n o f th e e v a l u a t i v e p r o c e d u r e s , the

t e s t i n g o f n u l l h y p o t h e s e s , and a rev iew o f th e q u a l i t a t i v e r e p o r t s

r e t u r n e d by p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s .

CHAPTER IV

TREATMENT AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

E v a l u a t i v e P ro c e d u re s

The d a t a from t e s t s , check l i s t s and q u e s t i o n n a i r e s p r e v i o u s l y

summarized i n T ab le 2 were a ssem bled i n t o f i v e d i f f e r e n t c a t e g o r i e s

p r e p a r a t o r y to t e s t i n g th e n u l l h y p o th e s e s and exam in ing th e q u a l i t a ­

t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y . These c a t e g o r i e s i n c l u d e d : v o c a t i o n a l -

o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge , l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n , r e a l i s m o f o c ­

c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , l e v e l s o f s ch o o l a b i l i t y and a c h ie v e m e n t , and p a r ­

e n t and t e a c h e r r e s p o n s e s .

V o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l Knowledge

Two m easures o f v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge were em­

p lo y e d : (1) r e p o r t e d knowledge o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n o f b o th p a r e n t s

and (2) a l i s t i n g o f j o b s .

O c cu p a t io n o f p a r e n t s . R e p o r t s from p u p i l s i n answer t o the

two q u e s t i o n s , "What k in d o f work does your f a t h e r do?" and "What k ind

o f work does y o u r m o the r do?" were o b t a i n e d from th e O c c u p a t io n a l I n ­

f o rm a t io n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Appendix B) and r e c o r d e d f o r c o r r e c t n e s s o f

r e s p o n s e b o th b e f o r e and a f t e r the v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program. S t a n ­

d a rd i n s t r u c t i o n s g iv e n to a l l s t u d e n t s a sked t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n be an ­

swered f o r the "man you know b e s t i n yo u r f a m i ly " i f no f a t h e r was

63

64

p r e s e n t in the home, and f o r t h e "woman you know b e s t i n your f a m i ly "

i f t h e mother was a b s e n t from th e home. These q u e s t i o n s were p r e ­

s e n t e d o r a l l y t o second grade s t u d e n t s on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s d u r i n g

p o s t - t e s t i n g , s i n c e e x p e r i e n c e w i t h p r e - t e s t d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e s e

c h i l d r e n were n o t y e t a b l e to w r i t e a d e q u a te r e s p o n s e s . The p e r c e n t ­

age g a i n in c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s from p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t i n g and the p e r ­

c e n t a g e o f t o t a l p o s s i b l e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s f o r each c l a s s group i s

r e c o r d e d in T a b le 3.

L i s t i n g o f j o b s . A " l i s t i n g o f j o b s " a s s ig n m e n t was g iv e n to

a l l groups in t h e s tu d y i n May, a month a f t e r t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e

formal a s p e c t s o f the v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program. The p u p i l was

p e r m i t t e d t h r e e m in u te s to "Think o f a many k in d s o f work t h a t p eop le

d o , " and to l i s t t h e s e on a s h e e t o f p a p e r w i t h numbered l i n e s . Th is

t a s k was p r e s e n t e d to second g rade c h i l d r e n on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s .

The number o f j o b s o r k in d s o f work were coun ted and r e c o rd e d f o r each

c l a s s group and a r e summarized i n T ab le 4 . A v a r i a n c e r a t i o (F) t e s t

was f i r s t used t o d e t e rm in e t h e homogenei ty o f each g roup . The a p ­

p r o p r i a t e s e p a r a t e v a r i a n c e o r poo led v a r i a n c e t - t e s t was th e n a p p l i e d

a c c o r d i n g to t h e formula and g u i d e l i n e s o u t l i n e d i n Appendix G.

65

TABLE 3

KNOWLEDGE OF PARENT'S OCCUPATIONS

C o r r e c t ResponsesSchool Grade Group N P re - Post P o s s i b l e % Gain 1 T o t a l

A 2 E - l 22 4 44 44 91 100E-2 24 11 45 48 76 94E-3 23 14 42 46 67 91C 24 18 41 48 56 85

A 4 E - l 27 44 49 54 8 91E-2 25 20 46 50 57 92E-3 25 28 46 50 39 90C 24 32 37 48 14 77

A 6 E - l 31 39 54 62 28 87E-2 26 35 50 52 30 96E-3 32 46 58 64 21 91C 27 45 49 54 8 91

B 2 E - l 22 0 31 44 100 70E-2 23 0 29 46 100 63E-3 21 0 36 42 100 86C 29 5 48 58 90 83

B 4 E - l 23 22 27 46 41 80E-2 19 10 19 38 47 50E-3 27 9 45 52 80 87C 21 8 25 42 68 60

B 6 E - l 30 33 40 60 18 67E-2 22 22 29 44 24 66E-3 25 19 30 50 37 60C 20 22 26 40 15 65

66

TABLE 4

NUMBER OF JOBS LISTED

School A School BGrade Group Mean Range Mean Range

2 E - l 15.6 7-24 5.1 1-11E-2 15.3 10-21 2 .1 1- 5E-3 13 .4 6-21 7 .5 5-14C 9 .7 4-13 7 .0 1-17

4 E - l 14.0 9-23 13.1 4-25E-2 15.1 7-21 12.3 5-22E-3 15.2 5-25 13.2 6-23C 12 .4 3-18 1 1 .4 6-21

6 E - l 17.3 10-25 14.7 9-21E-2 19 .5 4-30 11.3 7-27E-3 15.9 5-24 10.3 1-23C 19 .4 13-27 11.0 4-21

Level o f V o c a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n

An O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t (Appendix C) was a d m i n i s ­

t e r e d t o each s t u d e n t a t the same t ime as t h e O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , b o th b e f o r e and a f t e r the v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o ­

gram. This c h e c k l i s t was a s c a l e a d a p te d from the O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a ­

t i o n S c a l e deve loped by H a l l e r and M i l l e r ( 1 9 6 1 ) . Even th e a d a p t a t i o n

d id n o t prove to be a p p r o p r i a t e to second g rade l e v e l s t u d e n t s , how­

e v e r , and f o l l o w i n g u n s u c c e s s f u l r e s p o n s e s i n p r e - t e s t i n g , t h i s a p ­

p roach was e l i m i n a t e d f o r second g rade p u p i l s d u r in g p o s t - t e s t i n g .

The f e a s i b i l i t y o f p i c t u r e s o f o c c u p a t i o n s t o r e p l a c e t h e c h e c k l i s t

67

was c o n s i d e r e d b u t r e j e c t e d on th e b a s i s o f b o th d i f f i c u l t y in c l e a r l y

r e p r e s e n t i n g some o c c u p a t i o n s i n d rawings and the l i m i t e d range o f r e ­

sponse which would be o f f e r e d by such a t e c h n i q u e .

The p u p i l was g iv e n the o p p o r t u n i t y to check one i t em o u t o f

t e n l i s t e d which s u g g e s t e d the one job "you would choose i f you were

f r e e t o choose any o f them you w ished when you a r e grown u p , " o r t h e

one j o b "which you t h i n k would be t h e b e s t one you a r e r e a l l y s u r e you

can g e t when you grow u p . " A t o t a l o f s i x q u e s t i o n s , t h r e e o f th e

" f r e e to choose" and t h r e e o f th e " b e s t one" v a r i e t i e s p r o v id e d a

t o t a l o f s i x t y jo b t i t l e s from which to choose . Each of t h e s e j o b s

was ranked i n te rm s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l p r e s t i g e from a h ig h p r e s t i g e r a n k ­

ing o f "9" to a low o f "0" , p a r a l l e l i n g the N.O.R.C. (1949) and th e

H a l l e r and M i l l e r (1961) s t u d i e s (Appendix E ) . The h i g h e s t occupa­

t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n r a t i n g would t h e n be f i f t y - f o u r , w h i l e the low es t

r a n k in g cou ld be z e r o . Tab le 5 r e c o r d s t h e mean a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s and

the range o f r e s p o n s e f o r each o f t h e groups i n g rad es f o u r and s i x .

A t - t e s t was a g a i n employed to t e s t the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e

d i f f e r e n c e between means o f the g roups f o l l o w i n g th e v o c a t i o n a l g u i d ­

ance program.

Rea l i sm o f O c c u p a t io n a l Choice

The q u e s t i o n , "What do you want t o do when you grow up?" was

asked o f each s t u d e n t on t h e O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e

( I tem 3 ) . Four j u d g e s , a l l c e r t i f i c a t e d c o u n s e l o r s w i th p r e v io u s

c o u n s e l i n g e x p e r i e n c e , were t h e n asked t o make a judgment on the

" r e a l i t y " o f the p u p i l ' s c h o ic e f o l l o w i n g g u i d e l i n e s g iv e n in the

68

TABLE 5

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION MEAN SCORES AND RANGES

Pre - t e s t P o s t - t e s tSchool Grade Group Mean Range Mean Range

A 4 E - l 30 .0 14-45 29 .3 12-48E-2 28 .7 17-47 26.9 10-49E-3 29 .4 11-47 29.2 12-47C 28 .5 18-46 30 .8 18-45

A 6 E - l 29.9 18-46 29.2 17-42E-2 31.1 12-46 31 .7 22-45E-3 30 .3 16-44 32 .1 13-49G 32.3 15-53 35 .6 18-51

B 4 E - l 24 .0 6-34 24 .2 12-39E-2 26 .5 15-42 28 .4 18-48E-3 30 .5 13-47 33 .3 19-44C 34.6 25-44 3 8 .4 31-50

B 6 E - l 2 6 .4 13-48 26 .7 11-47E-2 29.2 19-44 31 .0 19-45E-3 25 .4 15-47 24 .2 14-45C 25.9 16-48 24 .2 12-36

D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T i t l e s (1965) r e l a t i n g to g e n e r a l (G) ,

v e r b a l (V) and n u m e r i c a l (N) a p t i t u d e s needed f o r a v e r a g e , s a t i s f a c ­

t o r y per fo rm ance on a p a r t i c u l a r jo b . The G, V and N s c o r e s were con­

v e r t e d to s t a n i n e s to a l l o w an e a s y compar ison w i t h s ch o o l a b i l i t y s t a -

n i n e s and ach ievem en t t e s t - s c o r e s in r e a d i n g and a r i t h m e t i c . The c r i ­

t e r i o n f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g a c h o ice as r e a l i s t i c o r u n r e a l i s t i c was a g r e e ­

ment by t h r e e o r more o f the j u d g e s . I n c a s e s where a s p l i t judgment

o c c u r r e d , the c h o i c e o f th e c o u n s e l o r who knew th e c h i l d p e r s o n a l l y

was t a k e n . I n a l l o f t h e 1 ,184 judgments made by each o f the fo u r

69

c o u n s e l o r s , o n ly f i f t y - e i g h t r e s u l t e d i n a s p l i t c h o i c e . T ab le 6 t a b ­

u l a t e s th e agreement o f t h e judges a t e a c h o f t h e g rade l e v e l s .

TABLE 6

AGREEMENT OF JUDGES ON REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE

School Grade2 Judge

S p l i t3 Judge Agree

4 Judge Agree

T o t a l D ec is ions

A 2 14 105 67 186A 4 14 101 87 202A 6 15 99 118 232

B 2 2 47 141 190B 4 4 61 115 180B 6 9 45 140 194

T o t a l s 58 458 668 1184

The a c t u a l number o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s f o r eac h c l a s s group i s

r e c o rd e d i n Tab le 7. The c h i - s q u a r e (X^) s t a t i s t i c was used to make

compar isons be tween p r e - and p o s t - t e s t i n g r e s p o n s e s i n te rm s o f " r e a l ­

i s t i c " v e r s u s " u n r e a l i s t i c " c h o i c e s .

L eve ls o f School A b i l i t y and Achievement

At each grade l e v e l , a measure o f s c h o o l a b i l i t y and schoo l

ach ievem en t was o b t a i n e d . T h i s was a c c o m p l i sh e d on a group b a s i s

u s i n g s t a n d a r d i z e d t e s t s . R e s u l t s were used n o t o n ly to a s s i s t j u d ­

ges in making a d e c i s i o n on th e r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e no ted

above , b u t a l s o t o check on two o f t h e ma jor f a c t o r s , a b i l i t y and

a c h ie v e m e n t , t h a t might be ex p ec ted t o i n f l u e n c e the p u p i l ' s l e v e l

70

o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n . A l l o f t h e s e t e s t s were a d m i n i s t e r e d d u r ­

in g th e month o f O c to b e r , p r i o r to the b e g i n n i n g o f th e fo rmal a s p e c t s

o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program.

TABLE 7

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE

Grade 3roup

School A School BR e a l i s t i c Choice R e a l i s t i c Choice

N P r e - t e s t P o s t - t e s t N P r e - t e s t P o s t - t e s t

2 E - l 22 5 10 22 0 52 E-2 24 7 14 23 0 32 E-3 23 7 16 21 0 42 C 24 8 13 29 1 8

T o t a l 93 27 53 95 1 20

4 E - l 27 11 13 23 3 84 E-2 25 6 9 19 3 74 E-3 25 10 11 27 4 64 C 24 4 9 21 3 5

T o t a l 101 31 42 90 13 26

6 E - l 31 17 13 30 8 86 E-2 26 9 16 25 3 46 E-3 32 14 14 25 3 46 C 27 13 21 20 3 2

T o t a l 116 53 64 97 16 15

The g rade a p p r o p r i a t e l e v e l o f b o t h the Lorge-T hornd ike I n t e l ­

l i g e n c e S c a l e and th e M e t r o p o l i t a n Achievement T e s t s were g iv e n to th e

second grade c h i l d r e n , th e l a t t e r t e s t p r o v i d i n g b o th r e a d i n g and

a r i t h m e t i c s c o r e s . The Ohio Survey T e s t p ro v id e d m easu re s o f s ch o o l

a b i l i t y , r e a d i n g and m a them a t ic s f o r f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade s t u d e n t s .

A l l raw s c o r e s were c o n v e r t e d to s t a n i n e s f o r e a s e o f compar ison

71

between s c o r e s and f o r l a t e r m a tch in g w i t h the G, V and N s c o r e s from

the D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T i t l e s . R e s u l t s from th e C a l i f o r n i a

T e s t o f Menta l M a tu r i t y f o r a l l g rad es were a v a i l a b l e from th e r e g u l a r

c i t y wide t e s t i n g program o f t h e s ch o o l sys tem . The CTMM r e s u l t s , t o o ,

were used by th e c o u n s e l o r - j u d g e s in making r e a l i t y judgments o f o c c u ­

p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s .

P a r e n t and T e a c h e r Responses

From a q u a l i t a t i v e v i e w p o i n t , the r e s p o n s e s o f the c h i l d r e n

p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program were b o th e n t h u ­

s i a s t i c and e n e r g e t i c . T e a ch e r s and c o u n s e l o r s e n c o u n t e r e d v i r t u a l l y

no m o t i v a t i o n p rob lem s . I n some s i t u a t i o n s , the im p re s s io n was g a ined

t h a t c h i l d r e n were a l m o s t w a i t i n g f o r t h e k ind o f m a t e r i a l t h a t was

p r e s e n t e d t o them.

For any s p e c i a l program t o be e f f e c t i v e in a s c h o o l s i t u a t i o n ,

however, b o th p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s must look upon i t f a v o r a b l y and

w i th some r e s p e c t . Though i t m igh t n o t be e x p e c te d t h a t a d u l t e n t h u ­

s iasm would p a r a l l e l t h a t o f t h e c h i l d , n e v e r t h e l e s s , b o th p r o f e s s i o n a l

and l a y s u p p o r t i s n o rm a l ly needed f o r any p r o j e c t t o become an i n t e ­

g r a l p a r t o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l program. To a s s a y such s u p p o r t , two

b r i e f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d e v e lo p e d , one f o r t h e t e a c h e r s o f th e e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l g roups (Appendix D) and the o t h e r f o r p a r e n t s o f c h i l d r e n

in t h e s e same groups (Appendix E ) .

I n b o th s c h o o l s , a l l t e a c h e r s re sp o n d ed . School A r e c e i v e d

f o r t y - t w o r e p l i e s on th e p a r e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e , r e p r e s e n t i n g app rox ­

im a te l y tw enty p e r c e n t o f the f a m i l i e s i n v o l v e d . P a r e n t s o f School B

72

r e t u r n e d 104 r e p l i e s , r e p r e s e n t i n g f i f t y p e r c e n t o f the f a m i l i e s i n

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s . The r e s p o n s e s were t a l l i e d as b e in g a f f i r m ­

a t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , b u t p r i m a r i l y th e i n f o r m a t i o n from p e r s o n a l com­

ments was summarized on a q u a l i t a t i v e b a s i s to complement o t h e r s t a t i s ­

t i c a l d a t a in th e s tu d y .

The F i r s t N u l l H ypo thes is

The f i r s t n u l l h y p o t h e s i s to be t e s t e d s t a t e s t h a t :

There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in v o c a t i o n a l -

o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n ga ined be tween :

1. E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups a t e a c h g rade l e v e l .

2. E x p e r im e n ta l groups a t the same grade l e v e l u s in g v a r i e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l / c o u n s e l i n g ap p ro a c h e s .

3. E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups from grade l e v e l to g rade l e v e l .

4 . E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l g roups a t t h e same grade l e v e l b u t i n d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s .

Knowledge o f P a r e n t s ' O ccupa t ions

T here was no a t t e m p t made to t e s t , th rough p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s ­

t i c s , the a s s u m p t io n t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a p a r t i c u l a r v o c a t i o n a l

gu idance program would so s e n s i t i z e c h i l d r e n to o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s t h a t

th e y would th e n become more i n t e r e s t e d and c o n s e q u e n t ly know more

ab o u t t h e i r p a r e n t ' s job r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s . As shown in Tab le 3 (page

6 5 ) , however , p e r c e n t a g e g a i n s and t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t r e ­

sponses does r e v e a l some t r e n d s .

I n t r a - g r a d e com p ar i so n s , e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s u s c o n t r o l . T ab le 3

i s r e c a p i t u l a t e d i n a b r id g e d form i n T ab le 8 on t h e f o l l o w i n g page to

73

h i g h l i g h t th e v a r i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s be tween th e e x p e r i m e n t a l and con­

t r o l groups in th e two s c h o o l s .

TABLE 8

KNOWLEDGE OF PARENTS' OCCUPATIONS INTRA-GRADE LEVEL COMPARISONS

EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL

P e r c e n t a g e Gain T o t a l P e r c e n tSchool Grade E - l E-2 E-3 C E - l E-2 E-3 C

A 2 91 76 67 56 100 94 91 854 8 57 39 14 91 92 90 776 28 30 21 8 87 96 91 91

B 2 100 100 100 90 70 63 86 834 41 47 80 68 80 50 87 606 18 24 37 15 67 66 60 65

A look a t School A r e v e a l s t h a t th e t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r ­

r e c t r e s p o n s e s t o p a r e n t o c c u p a t i o n was c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r i n the

second and f o u r t h g r a d e s , r a l a t i v e t o t h e c o n t r o l g roup , b u t t h a t e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g roups were v e ry s i m i l a r a t t h e s i x t h g rade

l e v e l . A l l groups showed an i n c r e a s i n g number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e ,

i n c l u d i n g th e c o n t r o l g ro u p s . The p e r c e n t a g e g a i n v a r i e d from grade

to g rade due to t h e v a r i e d i n f o r m a t i o n s t u d e n t s r e v e a l e d i n i t i a l l y .

At th e b e g i n n in g o f the s t u d y , o l d e r s t u d e n t s were more aware o f the

o c c u p a t i o n s o f b o th p a r e n t s , b u t a t t h e end o f th e y e a r ve ry l i t t l e

d i f f e r e n c e a p p e a r s to e x i s t be tween th e o l d e r and the younger c h i l d ­

r e n .

74

School B ev id e n c e d a mixed p a t t e r n between e x p e r i m e n t a l and

c o n t r o l g ro u p s . At a l l g rade l e v e l s , the c o n t r o l group was as h ig h o r

h i g h e r t h a n a t l e a s t one e x p e r i m e n t a l group i n t h e t o t a l c o r r e c t n e s s

o f r e s p o n s e . C o n s id e ra b l e improvement i n a l l g roups was no ted a t the

second g rade l e v e l , b u t i t would a p p e a r t h a t t h i s i s p ro b a b ly due to

an a r t i f a c t p roduced by th e i n a b i l i t y o f t h e s e second g rade s t u d e n t s

to communicate a d e q u a t e l y i n w r i t i n g a t th e b e g i n n in g o f th e y e a r .

Both e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g roups e v id e n c e an i n c r e a s e d o c c u p a ­

t i o n a l aw areness o v e r the s i x month e x p e r i m e n t a l p e r i o d .

I n t e r - g r o u p com par isons w i t h i n g r a d e , e x p e r i m e n t a l . I n terms

o f t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e , th e e x p e r i m e n t a l groups d i f ­

f e r e d v e ry l i t t l e i n School A.

A ga in , School B r e v e a l e d a mixed p a t t e r n . The p e r c e n t a g e o f

t o t a l c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e was c o n s i s t e n t l y lo w es t i n th e c o u n s e l o r on ly

(E-2) e x p e r i m e n t a l groups a t b o th t h e second and f o u r t h grade l e v e l s .

At t h e s e same two l e v e l s , the c o o p e r a t i v e a r r an g em en t o f bo th t e a c h e r

and c o u n s e l o r (E-3) was c o n s i s t e n t l y b e s t . Only s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s

appea red t o e x i s t between th e t h r e e s i x t h g rade e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s .

I n t e r - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s . The p e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l c o r r e c t r e ­

sponses s u g g e s t s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e between e x p e r i m e n t a l groups from

grade l e v e l to g rade l e v e l in School A. The f o u r t h g rade c o n t r o l

group ev id e n c e d th e l o w e s t t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t h r e e c o n t r o l

c l a s s e s i n t h i s s c h o o l . School B shows h i g h e s t r e s p o n s e s f o r t h e

t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) group a t b o th t h e second and f o u r t h g rade l e ­

v e l s .

75

I n t e r - s c h o o l c o m p a r i s o n s . The mean p e r c e n t a g e g a i n and the

t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s a r e r e c o r d e d f o r th e expe r im en­

t a l groups i n T ab le 9.

TABLE 9

KNOWLEDGE OF PARENTS' OCCUPATIONS INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS

EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

Mean P e r c e n t a g e Gain T o t a l P e rcen t . CornGrade School A School B School A School B

2 78 100 95 73

4 35 55 92 67

6 26 81 91 64

T ab le 10 makes t h e same ty p e o f c o n t r a s t f o r c o n t r o l groups

be tween t h e two s c h o o l s .

TABLE 10

KNOWLEDGE OF PARENTS' OCCUPATIONS INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS

CONTROL GROUPS

Mean P e r c e n t a g e Gain T o t a l Pe rcen t . Corr.Grade School A School B School A School B

2 56 90 85 83

4 14 68 77 60

6 8 15 91 65

I n e v e ry i n s t a n c e , b o th t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups

a t School B showed a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e g a i n from p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t i n g .

76

R e f e r r a l t o Tab le 3 r e v e a l s a l s o , however, t h a t s t u d e n t s in School B

were i n i t i a l l y lower i n knowledge o f p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n s th a n young­

s t e r s i n School A. The r e v e r s e i s t r u e when com par isons a r e made i n

r e l a t i o n t o the t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . The exper im en­

t a l groups i n School A were c l e a r l y more knowledgeab le c o n c e r n in g th e

o c c u p a t i o n o f p a r e n t s th a n th o s e i n School B. While t h e m arg in o f

d i f f e r e n c e was n o t as g r e a t among th e c o n t r o l g ro u p s , School A d id

m a i n t a i n t h e a d v a n t a g e .

L i s t i n g o f Jobs

F o l lo w in g a v a r i a n c e r a t i o t e s t f o r hom ogene i ty , a t - t e s t was

a p p l i e d to t e s t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between g roups i n t h e t a s k

o f l i s t i n g the jobs o r work t h a t p eop le do. The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s de ­

r i v e d from the a s sum pt ion t h a t e xposu re t o a v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l

gu idance program would r e s u l t in g r e a t e r knowledge a b o u t o c c u p a t i o n s ,

and t h a t one way i n which t h i s m igh t be r e f l e c t e d would be i n a s im ple

l i s t i n g o f jo b s w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d o f t im e . T a b l e s 11, 12 and

13 i n d i c a t e the l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e o b t a i n e d , a long w i th t h e mean

s c o r e s on th e number o f j o b s l i s t e d by each c l a s s . T h i s l a t t e r s t a ­

t i s t i c i s needed t o d e t e rm in e th e d i r e c t i o n o f r e s p o n s e where s i g n i f i ­

c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s a r e shown t o e x i s t . S i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s above .10

were c o n s i d e r e d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t enough to r e j e c t the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s .

I n t r a - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s , e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s u s c o n t r o l . I n f o r ­

m a t io n from Table 11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t f o r School A, the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s

t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l

77

groups cou ld be r e j e c t e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g c a s e s :

1 . A l l e x p e r i m e n t a l groups a t th e second g ra d e l e v e l a t ­t a i n e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r number o f j o b s l i s t e d i n r e l a t i o n t o the c o n t r o l group.

2. At g rade l e v e l f o u r , the c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) and the t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) g roups showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n d id t h e c o n t r o l group.

3. At g rade l e v e l s i x , th e c o n t r o l group was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n r e l a t i o n t o b o th t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) and t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) g ro u p s . There was no m e a su ra b le d i f f e r ­ence between c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) c l a s s and th e c o n t r o l g r o u p .

TABLE 11

LISTING OF JOBS SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS INTRA-GRADE COMPARISONS

School A School BGrade Group E-2 E-3 c Mean E-2 E-3 C Mean

2 E - l NS .10 .001 15 .6 .001 .05 NS 5 .1E-2 .10 .001 15.3 .001 .001 2 .1E-3 .05 13 .4 NS 7. 5C 9 .7 7 . 0

4 E - l NS NS NS 14.0 NS NS NS 13.1E-2 NS .05 15.1 NS NS 12 .3E-3 .05 15.2 NS 13 .2C 12 .4 1 1 .4

6 E - l .10 NS .05 17.3 .10 .001 .02 14 .7E-2 .01 NS 19.5 NS NS 11 .3E-3 .01 15.9 NS 10 .3C 19.4 11 .0

NS - Not s i g n i f i c a n t .

For School B, l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e a p p e a r s to e x i s t between e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l g roups and t h e i r c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o n t r o l s . The e x c e p t i o n s

78

t o t h i s s t a t e m e n t a p p e a r as f o l l o w s :

1. The g rade l e v e l two c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) group was s i g n i ­f i c a n t l y lower t h a n th e c o n t r o l group i n t h e number o f j o b s l i s t e d .

2. The t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) group was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n th e c o n t r o l group a t th e s i x t h g rade l e v e l .

I n t e r - g r o u p compar isons w i t h i n g r a d e , e x p e r i m e n t a l . Data r e ­

co rded i n Tab le 11 i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no s i g n i f i ­

c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t be tween e x p e r i m e n t a l groups can be r e j e c t e d in

s e v e r a l c a s e s . I n School A:

1. Both th e t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) and th e c o u n s e l o r on ly (E-2) g roups s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r ( . 1 0 l e v e l ) th a n d i d t h e t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r group (E-3) a t t h e second grade l e v e l .

2. The c o u n s e l o r o n ly group (E-2) a t g rade s i x a t t a i n e d am e a s u r a b ly h i g h e r s c o re and d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e s c o r e s o b t a i n e d by e i t h e r t h e t e a c h e r o n ly (E - l ) o r t h e t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) g ro u p s .

School B once a g a i n p r e s e n t s a c o n t r a s t i n g p i c t u r e :

1. The t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) and t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) g roups were s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n s c o r e s t h a n th e c o u n s e l o r on lygroup (E-2) i n th e second g r a d e .

2. The t e a c h e r o n ly group ( E - l ) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r than e i t h e r t h e c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) o r t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) g ro u p s i n s c o r e s o b t a i n e d a t t h e s i x t h g ra d e l e v e l .

I n t e r - g r o u p c o m p a r i s o n s . At each g rade l e v e l , groups were com­

p a re d w i t h i n each s ch o o l as i n d i c a t e d i n T a b le 12. R e s u l t s s u g g e s t

t h a t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s which s t a t e s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

e x i s t between e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g roups from grade l e v e l t o

grade l e v e l can be r e j e c t e d i n two s i t u a t i o n s :

1. I n School A, th e s i x t h g rade g roups d id a t t a i n s i g n i f i ­c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n e i t h e r second o r f o u r t h g radeg ro u p s .

79

2. I n School B, b o th f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade g roups were de ­c i d e d l y s u p e r i o r t o second g rade g ro u p s .

TABLE 12

LISTING OF JOBS SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS

School A School BGrades 2 4 6 2 4 6

2 NS .001 .001 .001

4 .001 .001

Mean 13 .5 14.2 17.9 5 . 5 12 .6 12.0

I n t e r - s c h o o l c o m p a r i s o n s . The two s c h o o l s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in

the s tu d y were compared on a g rade l e v e l b a s i s , a s shown in Tab le 13,

t o t e s t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e ­

tween the g rade l e v e l g roups o f t h e s e s c h o o l s .

TABLE 13

LISTING OF JOBS SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS INTER-SCHOOL COMPARISONS

SchoolGrade B-2 B-4 B-6

MeanScores

> 1 N3 .001 13.5

A-4 .05 14.2

A-6 .001 17.9

MeanScores 5 .5 12 .6 12.0 -

80

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s can be r e j e c t e d in each case where g rade

l e v e l s a r e compared be tween School A and School B. I t i s c l e a r from

th e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s shown t h a t each g rade l e v e l i n School A was

s u p e r i o r to School B i n the t o t a l number o f jobs l i s t e d by p u p i l s .

The f a c t t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i s l e s s a t th e f o u r t h g rade l e v e l may be

o f some im por t i n r e l a t i o n t o the t o t a l v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program.

The Second N u l l H y p o th es i s

The second n u l l h y p o t h e s i s to be t e s t e d s t a t e s :

There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n the s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t s ( l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l ch o ic e )

b e tw e e n :

1. E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l groups a t each g rade l e v e l .

2. E x p e r i m e n t a l g roups a t t h e same g rade l e v e l u s in gv a r i e d i n s t r u c t i o n / c o u n s e l i n g a p p ro a c h e s .

3. E x p e r im e n ta l and c o n t r o l groups from grade l e v e l to g rade l e v e l .

4. E x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l groups a t th e same gradel e v e l b u t i n d i f f e r e n t s c h o o l s .

For p u rp o s e s o f c l a r i t y , t h e same o u t l i n e i n t e s t i n g the f o u r

p a r t s o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s w i l l be fo l low ed as in th e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n .

The l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n c o n s t r u c t a s measured by the Oc­

c u p a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t (Appendix C) and th e r e a l i t y o f o c c u ­

p a t i o n a l c h o ic e a s d e t e rm in e d by th e c o u n s e l o r - j u d g e s w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

i n te rms o f i n t r a - g r a d e com par isons ( e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s u s c o n t r o l ) , i n ­

t e r - g r o u p compar isons w i t h i n g rade ( e x p e r i m e n t a l ) , i n t e r - g r a d e compar­

i s o n s , and i n t e r - s c h o o l com par i sons .

81

Level o f O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n

Sco res o b t a i n e d on p o s t - t e s t i n g w i th th e O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a ­

t i o n C h e c k l i s t were compared, f i r s t u s i n g a v a r i a n c e r a t i o t o t e s t f o r

homogenei ty and th e n a p p l y i n g th e a p p r o p r i a t e t - t e s t model (Appendix G).

Tab le 5 (page 68) p r e v i o u s l y summarized the mean v a l u e s and range o f

s c o r e s r e s u l t i n g from th e c h e c k l i s t r e s p o n s e s and p r o v i d e s an i n d i c a ­

t i o n o f t h e d i r e c t i o n o f the s i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e s .

I n t r a - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s , e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s u s c o n t r o l . T ab le 14

r e c o r d s t - t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s o b t a i n e d i n a compar ison o f th e p o s t ­

t e s t s c o r e s o f b o th e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l c l a s s e s i n each s c h o o l .

TABLE 14

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION SIGNIFICANCE LEVELS INTRA-GRADE COMPARISONS

Grade GroupSchool A School B

E-2 E-3 C E-2 E-3 C

4 E - l .20 .20 .20 . 10 .001 .001E-2 .20 .20 .02 .001E-3 .20 .01

6 E - l .20 .20 .01 .20 .20 .20E-2 .20 .20 .20 .02E-3 .20 .20

I n compar ing e x p e r i m e n t a l w i t h c o n t r o l g ro u p s , f i v e s i t u a t i o n s

a t t h r e e g rade l e v e l s p e r m i t t h e r e j e c t i o n o f the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t between the c l a s s e s :

1. I n School A, a t t h e s i x t h grade l e v e l , the c o n t r o l group (C) a t t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s th a n d id th e t e a c h e r o n l y ( E - l ) c l a s s .

82

2. I n School B, t h e c o n t r o l group a t t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s th a n any o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s i n the f o u r t h g r a d e .

3. At the s i x t h g rade l e v e l in School B, t h e c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) g roup a t t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s th a n th e c o n t r o l group .

Thus , w i t h t h e s i n g l e e x c e p t i o n o f the E-2 group i n the s i x t h

grade a t School B, a l l c o n t r o l g roups a t t a i n e d s c o r e s e q u a l to o r

s u p e r i o r t o th o s e o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups in l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n .

Th is f i n d i n g r a i s e s th e s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n c o n c e rn in g c o n t a m in a t io n o f

t h e c o n t r o l sam ples . An a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n car. be found i n the

p o s s i b i l i t y o f an i n v a l i d m e a su r in g d e v i c e .

I n t e r - g r o u p com par isons w i t h i n g r a d e , e x p e r i m e n t a l . Refe rence

to T ab le 14 a l s o p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n f o r i n t e r - g r o u p compar isons and

i n d i c a t e s t h a t i n o n ly t h r e e c a s e s cou ld t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s be r e ­

j e c t e d a t th e .10 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e o r below. A l l t h r e e s i t u a t i o n s

o c c u r r e d i n School B a t the f o u r t h g rade l e v e l .

1. The t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) group a t t a i n e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e ra s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s th a n b o th o f the o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups a t t h i s f o u r t h g rad e l e v e l .

2. The c o u n s e l o r / t e a c h e r (E-3) group a t t a i n e d h i g h e r a s p i r a ­t i o n s c o r e s i n r e l a t i o n to t h e c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) g roup .

I n t e r - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s . The compar isons made be tween g r a d e s

a t each s c h o o l a r e r e c o r d e d i n T ab le 15. Both s c h o o l s show s i g n i f i ­

c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s , b u t i n o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n s .

School A e v i d e n c e s h i g h e r s c o r e s i n the s i x t h grade r e l a t i v e to the

f o u r t h g rade l e v e l , w h i l e f o u r t h g rade p u p i l s in School B a t t a i n e d

the h i g h e r s c o r e s .

83

TABLE 15

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS

Comparison S i g n i f .School Grades t Level

A 4 t o 6 2 .49 .02B 4 t o 6 3 .32 .01

With the above f i n d i n g s , p r e - and p o s t - t e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s were

e s t a b l i s h e d and t - s c o r e s o b t a i n e d to t e s t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

i n th e g rade g roups p r i o r to and a f t e r the v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o ­

gram. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s i s o u t l i n e d i n Tab le 16.

TABLE 16

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS PRE- AND POST-TEST DATA

School Grade 4 6

A 46

t P t P

1 .01 > . 2 01 .74 > . 0 5

B 46

2 . 2 4 > . 0 2.68 > . 1 0

I t w i l l be o b s e rv ed t h a t t h e s i x t h g rade s c o r e s i n School A

a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t ( > . 0 5 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e ) f o l l o w i n g th e

i n t e r v e n t i o n o f th e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program. The d i r e c t i o n o f

t h i s d i f f e r e n c e i s p o s i t i v e , i . e . , toward improvement i n t e s t s c o r e s .

A s i m i l a r i n c r e a s e , though even more p ronounced , deve loped

w i th f o u r t h g rade s t u d e n t s in School B. Such improvement was n o t

84

n o te d among th e s i x t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s i n t h i s s c h o o l , however.

I n t e r - s c h o o l c o m p a r i s o n s . The s t a n d a r d t - t e s t was a l s o a p p l i e d

t o compare g rade g roups in b o th s c h o o l s as shown i n T ab le 17.

TABLE 17LEVEL OF ASPIRATION INTER-SCHOOL

COMPARISONS

SchoolGrade Value B-4 B-6

A-4 t 1 .73P .10

> i t 4 . 0 0P .001

At the f o u r t h g rade l e v e l , School B a t t a i n e d h i g h e r l e v e l o f

a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s t o a m o d e r a t e l y s i g n i f i c a n t ( . 1 0 ) e x t e n t . The r e ­

v e r s e was t r u e a t th e s i x t h g rade l e v e l , w i t h School A a c h i e v i n g a

h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t d e g re e o f h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s .

R e a l i t y o f O c c u p a t i o n a l Choice

4 c h i - s q u a r e (X^) t e c h n i q u e was used t o e v a l u a t e th e s i g n i f i ­

cance o f d i f f e r e n c e s be tween and among th e v a r i o u s g roups i n r e l a t i o n

to the r e a l i s m o f t h e p u p i l ' s o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . T h i s app ro ac h p e r ­

m i t t e d one d e g r e e o f freedom i n a two by two t a b l e . I n making com­

p a r i s o n s be tween g r a d e s b o th p r e - and p o s t - t e s t d a t a were u s e d . A l l

o t h e r com par i sons used o n ly t h e p o s t - t e s t d a t a on r e a l i s m o f o ccu p a ­

t i o n a l c h o i c e .

I n t r a - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s , e x p e r i m e n t a l v e r s u s c o n t r o l . Each

e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s a t e a c h g rade l e v e l was compared w i t h t h e c o n t r o l

85

group a t t h a t g rade l e v e l . The P v a l u e s i n d i c a t i n g s i g n i f i c a n c e l e ­

v e l s a r e r e c o rd e d in T ab le 18 below. R e fe re n ce to T ab le 7 (page 70)

i s n e c e s s a r y t o p e r m i t judgment a s t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f the s i g n i f i c a n t

P v a l u e s d e r i v e d from c h i - s q u a r e s c o r e s .

TABLE 18

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE COMPARISONS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL AND

CONTROL GROUPS

S chool-G rade Schoo l -G radeGroup Value A-2 A-4 A-6 B-2 B-4 B-6

E - l X2 .34 .53 7 .72 .15 .63 2 .08P >.50 >.30 <.01 .70 > . 3 0 < .1 0

E-2 X2 .08 .01 1.90 1.69 .76 .53p >.70 .90 >. 10 >.10 > .30 >. 30

E-3 X2 1.17 .22 7 .07 .45 .02 .38P > .20 >. 50 < .01 .50 >.80 >. 50

I n o n ly fou r c a s e s c o u ld the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f no s i g n i f i ­

can t d i f f e r e n c e s be r e j e c t e d a t the .10 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e o r below:

1. The s i x t h g rade c o n t r o l group was c o n s i s t e n t l y and s i g n i ­f i c a n t l y h i g h e r i n the number o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s than any o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups a t t h e same g rade l e v e l i n School A.

2. The s i x t h g rade t e a c h e r o n l y group ( E - l ) i n School B a t ­t a i n e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r number o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s th a n the c o n t r o l group i n t h a t g ra d e .

I n t e r - g r o u p com par isons w i t h i n g r a d e , e x p e r i m e n t a l . The e f ­

f e c t o f v a r i e d i n s t r u c t i o n a l programs i n v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l g u i d ­

ance i n r e l a t i o n to t h e r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ice w i t h i n g rade i s

r e c o r d e d in Tab le 19.

86

TABLE 19

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE COMPARISONS BETWEEN EXPERIMENTAL GROUPS

Grade Group ValueSchool A

E-2 E-3School B

E-2 E-3

2 E - l X2 .79 2 .65 .74 .09P >.30 > .10 > .3 0 > . 7 0

2

CM1w X2 .61 .34p > .30 > . 3 0

4 E - l X2 .80 .08 .01 1.02p >.30 >.70 > . 9 0 > . 1 0

4 E-2 X2 .34 1.13p > . 50 > .20

6 E - l X2 2.22 .04 4.32 .98p >.10 > .8 0 > .02 V U

io

6 E-2 X2 1.89 1.76P > . 1 0 > . 1 0

At the .10 l e v e l o r l e s s , on ly one e x p e r i m e n t a l group d i f f e r e d

s i g n i f i c a n t l y from any o t h e r . The t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) c l a s s a t the

s i x t h g rade l e v e l i n School B d id a t t a i n a s u b s t a n t i a l l y h i g h e r num­

b e r o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s than the c o u n s e lo r o n ly (E-2) group.

I n t e r - g r a d e c o m p a r i s o n s . C lass c h o i c e s f o r each g rade l e v e l

were grouped t o g e t h e r i n o r d e r to make s t a t i s t i c a l compari sons between

g r a d e s . These a r e r e c o rd e d i n T ab le 20. Once a g a i n , i t i s n e c e s s a r y

to r e f e r t o the t o t a l number o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s i n Tab le 7 t o judge

the " b e t t e r c l a s s r e s p o n s e .

87

TABLE 20

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE INTER-GRADE COMPARISONS

Grade ValueSchool A School B4 6 4 6

2A

4 .6 5 .07 1.50 1.01P < .0 5 > .7 0 > . 2 0 > . 3 0

4 X2 3.95 4 .95P < . 0 5 < • 0 5

R e j e c t i o n o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s below the .05 l e v e l i s

p o s s i b l e i n t h r e e c a s e s :

1. I n School A, the younger c h i l d r e n i n t h e second grade made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s t h a n d id f o u r t h g rade p u p i l s .

2. I n s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , in t h e same s c h o o l , s i x t h g rade s t u ­d e n t s made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s th a n d id f o u r t h g rade p u p i l s .

3. I n School B, however , i t was th e f o u r t h g rade c l a s s e s which ev idenced s c o r e s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n the s i x t h grade g roups .

I n o r d e r to r e f l e c t p o s s i b l e g a in s ( o r l o s s e s ) i n r e a l i t y o f

c h o i c e d u r i n g th e e x p e r i m e n t a l program o v e r th e s i x month p e r i o d , e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s were grouped by grade u s i n g b o th p r e - and p o s t - t e s t

d a t a . Tab le 21 r e f l e c t s the X^ s c o r e s and P v a l u e s by g rade l e v e l i n

each s c h o o l .

88

TABLE 21

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE PRE- AND POST-TEST

COMPARISONS

Grade Value School A School B

2 X2 14.84 19 .34P < . 0 1 < .01

A X2 2.60 5.54P > . 1 0 < . 0 2

6 X2 2.10 .04P > . 1 0 > .80

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t b e ­

tween p r e - and p o s t - t e s t r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s can be r e j e c t e d in t h r e e

i n s t a n c e s :

1. A t t a in m e n t o f a h i g h e r number o f r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e second g rade l e v e l i n School A.

2. Both th e second and f o u r t h g rade groups i n School B showed s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r g a i n s i n r e a l i t y c h o i c e s fo l l o w i n g th e v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program.

I t s h o u ld be n o te d , however , t h a t f i v e o u t o f the s i x g rade

groups in v o lv e d d id show some g a i n s i n r e a l i t y c h o i c e s from p r e - t e s t ­

ing t o p o s t - t e s t i n g .

I n t e r - s c h o o l c o m p a r i s o n s . Tab le 22 i n d i c a t e s t h e s i g n i f i ­

cance l e v e l s o f the c h i - s q u a r e s c o r e s o b t a i n e d when th e two s c h o o l s

were compared on a g rade by g rade b a s i s . At ev e ry l e v e l , the n u l l hy ­

p o t h e s i s o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between s c h o o l s can be r e j e c t e d .

C h i l d r e n a t School A were a b l e t o make more r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s

89

c o n c e r n in g t h e i r l i f e ' s work th a n t h o s e i n School B. I t s h o u ld be

n o t e d , however , t h a t t h e f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade g roups (T a b le 17) i n

Schoo l B, d i d make s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s from p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t e v a l u a ­

t i o n s .

TABLE 22

REALISM OF PUPIL CHOICE INTER-SCHOOL COMPARISONS

S choo1 Grade Value B-2 B-4 B-6

No. o f R e a l . Choices (A)

A-2 X2P

25.59<•01

53

A-4 X2p

3.30< . 1 0

42

A-6 X2p

35 .78<.01

64

No. o f R ea l . Choices (B)

20 26 15 -

The T h i rd N u l l H y p o th e s i s

The t h i r d n u l l h y p o t h e s i s to be t e s t e d s t a t e s t h a t :

T here i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e be tween th e l e v e l o f a s p i r a ­

t i o n o f t h e s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s and:

1. School l e a r n i n g a b i l i t y .

2. School a c h i e v e m e n t .

The l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n used t o t e s t t h e above

h y p o t h e s i s was o b t a i n e d from p u p i l r e s p o n s e s to p o s t - t e s t i n g w i th th e

90

O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t . School a b i l i t y and ach ievem en t

d a t a were o b t a i n e d from p u p i l pe r fo rm ance on the Ohio Survey T e s t s .

Achievement l e v e l s were d e t e rm in e d by a v e r a g i n g r e a d i n g and mathema­

t i c s s t a n i n e s c o r e s on the O . S . T .

C o r r e l a t i o n s were f i r s t e x t a b l i s h e d between g roups and th e n

t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e by a t - t e s t , u s i n g the formula f o r c o r r e l a t e d

d a t a (Appendix G ) .

School A b i l i t y Versus Leve l o f A s p i r a t i o n

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and t - t e s t s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s b e ­

tween s ch o o l a b i l i t y and l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n a r e i d e n t i ­

f i e d i n Tab le 23. From the i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d , the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s

o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between a b i l i t y and a s p i r a t i o n i n School

A a t b o th g rade l e v e l s i s r e j e c t e d a t th e .01 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . At

t h i s s c h o o l , t h e n s t u d e n t s w i t h h i g h e r a b i l i t y l e v e l s seem to a s p i r e

to h i g h e r l e v e l s o c c u p a t i o n a l l y . Th i s r e l a t i o n s h i p does n o t e x i s t to

a s i g n i f i c a n t e x t e n t f o r p u p i l s i n School B.

TABLE 23

CORRELATIONS AND LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN SCHOOL ABILITY AND

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION

School A School BGrade r t r t

4 .397 .01 - .0 1 2 .10

6 .277 .01 .030 .10

91

School Achievement Versus Level o f A s p i r a t i o n

T ab le 24 o u t l i n e s the com par ison o f ach ievem ent i n r e a d i n g and

m a them a t i s (combined) w i t h l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n a t b o th

f o u r t h and s i x t h g rades i n th e two e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l s .

TABLE 24

CORRELATIONS AND LEVELS OF SIGNIFICANCE BETWEEN ACHIEVEMENT AND

LEVEL OF ASPIRATION

School A School BGrade r t r t

4 .293 .01 .091 .10

6 .415 .01 - .0 1 9 .10

S ince ach ievem en t and s ch o o l a b i l i t y s c o r e s a r e u s u a l l y p o s i ­

t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d , i t i s n o t u n ex p ec ted t h a t t h e same p a t t e r n in

ach ievem en t f o r the two s c h o o l s would emerge t o p a r r a l e l t h a t o f the

s ch o o l a b i l i t y f i n d i n g s . Once a g a i n th e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f no s i g n i ­

f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between ach ievem ent and l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r ­

a t i o n can be r e j e c t e d f o r b o th g rad es i n School A. School B p e r m i t s

r e j e c t i o n a t a lower s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l b u t , i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i t h the

d a t a on s ch o o l a b i l i t y , the q u e s t i o n i s r a i s e d as to what o t h e r f a c t o r s

may be p r e s e n t i n the s i t u a t i o n to b r i n g abou t t h e s e r e s u l t s .

Q u a l i t a t i v e Repor t s

Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w i th an open end f o r comments r e l a t i n g t o the

e x p e r i m e n t a l v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program r e p o r t e d i n t h i s s t u d y were

92

p r e s e n t e d to b o th the t e a c h e r s o f th e e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s and t o the

p a r e n t s o f c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n th e c l a s s e s . The r e s p o n s e s to the

q u e s t i o n s were n o t e v a l u a t e d on a formal s t a t i s t i c a l b a s i s . However,

th e comments evoked do p ro v id e some i n s i g h t i n t o t e a c h e r and p a r e n t

f e e l i n g s and im p r e s s i o n s ab o u t v o c a t i o n a l gu idance in th e e l e m e n t a r y

s c h o o l .

The t e a c h e r q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Appendix D) focused on the voca­

t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program as a p a r t o f th e r e g u l a r s choo l program

and e x p l o re d th e c o u n s e l o r ' s p l a c e i n i t . On th e o t h e r h and , th e p a r ­

e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Appendix E) sough t to g e t th e p a r e n t ' s r e a c t i o n to

how w or thw h i le the v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program was f o r t h e c h i l d r e n

who p a r t i c i p a t e d . S ince t e a c h e r and p a r e n t r e s p o n s e s a r e r e l a t e d d i ­

r e c t l y t o t h e i r s p e c i f i c s c h o o l , t h e r e s p o n s e s a r e d i s c u s s e d on a

s c h o o l b a s i s r a t h e r t h a n on a q u e s t i o n n a i r e b a s i s .

Tea ch e r and P a r e n t R e s p o n s e s , School A

F ive o f the n i n e t e a c h e r s a t School A i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e vo­

c a t i o n a l program was w o r th w h i le f o r t h e i r c l a s s e s . Most o f t h e s e

t e a c h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t such a program would be o f more v a l u e t o j u n i o r

h ig h age c h i l d r e n , however. A m a j o r i t y o f t h e t e a c h e r s a l s o e x p r e s s e d

th e b e l i e f t h a t the program cou ld be i n t e g r a t e d most e f f e c t i v e l y i n t o

c u r r i c u lu m th rough th e s o c i a l s t u d i e s a r e a and i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e coun­

s e l o r cou ld be o f g r e a t h e lp i n such a program. The f o l l o w i n g com­

ments a r e t y p i c a l :

"We had many w o r th w h i le d i s c u s s i o n s from f i l m s t r i p s . As w i th many d i s c u s s i o n s , some l e a r n and g iv e o u t more t h a n o t h e r s . "

"Tha t type o f d i s c u s s i o n i s n a t u r a l l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r

93

s u b j e c t s w i t h o u t t a k i n g a s p e c i a l p e r i o d to d i s c u s s i t . "

" I b e l i e v e i t m igh t have made some more aware o f many voca­t i o n s t h a t th e y were n o t f a m i l i a r w i th b e f o r e . "

"Some stress in s o c i a l s t u d i e s program showing v o c a t i o n s a v a i l ­a b l e a t d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s , c l i m a t e s , e t c . "

" J u n i o r h ig h seems a s e n s i b l e p l a c e t o g e t o n e ' s t e e t h i n t o v o c a t i o n a l g u i d a n c e . "

"Counse lo r cou ld be v e ry h e l p f u l i n f i n d i n g d i f f e r e n t type s o f m a t e r i a l s and p e rh a p s s p e a k e r s . "

Twenty p e r c e n t o f th e f a m i l i e s w i t h c h i l d r e n i n t h e ex p e r im en ­

t a l program a t School A responded to th e p a r e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e . A ma­

j o r i t y o f a f f i r m a t i v e r e a c t i o n s was e l i c i t e d t o a l l q u e s t i o n s , t h u s r e ­

f l e c t i n g th e f e e l i n g t h a t th e program was w o r th w h i le t o t h e c h i l d and

t h a t the c h i l d had become more i n t e r e s t e d i n jo b s and more aware o f

job o p p o r t u n i t i e s . The g e n e r a l comments b e a r o u t th e f a c t t h a t th e s e

were b a s i c a l l y c o l l e g e o r i e n t e d p a r e n t s . Some t y p i c a l r e s p o n s e s were

as f o l l o w s :

"My son was q u i t e s t i m u l a t e d by t h i s p ro g ra m ."

"T h is has shown my d a u g h t e r t h a t th e s c h o o l i s i n t e r e s t e d i n h e r f u t u r e a s an a d u l t . "

"I f e e l t h a t any program t h a t g e t s a c h i l d t o s t a r t t h i n k i n g ab o u t h i s o r h e r f u t u r e i s w o r t h w h i l e . "

"He s t i l l w ants t o be a p e d i a t r i c i a n b u t now he can s p e l l the w o rd . "

" I b e l i e v e t h i s program would be more w o r th w h i le to c h i l d r e n who were n o t r e a r e d in a c o l l e g e - o r i e n t e d home. While we f e e l t h a t t h i s has been a w or thw h i le program to ou r daugh­t e r , i t i s somewhat r u n - o f - t h e - m i l l to h e r . "

94

T e a c h e r and P a r e n t R e s p o n s e s , School B

A l l phases o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program were p r a i s e d by

th e t e a c h e r s in School B. Every e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s t e a c h e r f e l t t h a t

th e program was w or thw h i le and f u r t h e r e x p r e s s e d th e b e l i e f t h a t such

an e f f o r t would be o f v a l u e a t a l l g rade l e v e l s . T e a ch e r s responded

unanimous ly i n the a f f i r m a t i v e t o the q u e s t i o n , "Do you t h i n k a voca­

t i o n a l development program shou ld be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o th e c u r r i c u l u m ? "

The c o u n s e l o r was p e r c e i v e d by t h e s e t e a c h e r s as b e in g a v i t a l f a c t o r

i n the s u c c e s s o f th e program. The f o l l o w i n g t h r e e comments r e f l e c t

t h e g e n e r a l o p i n i o n s o f t h e s e t e a c h e r s :

"This program has h e lp e d to emphas ize the b r o a d e r a r e a s o f s o c i a l l i v i n g . I t h e l p e d th e c h i l d to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d h i s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y to h i s f a m i ly ; f a m i ly r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o the community. I t h e lp e d th e c h i l d t o t h i n k more c r i t ­i c a l l y ab o u t h i m s e l f as a c o n t r i b u t i n g c i t i z e n . "

" A l l o f o u r c h i l d r e n en jo y ed t h i s p ro g ra m ."

"The c o u n s e l o r has been v e ry b e n e f i c i a l and h e l p f u l . Shewas d e f i n i t e l y needed t o guide u s . "

P a r e n t r e a c t i o n i n School B was e q u a l l y e n t h u s i a s t i c . H a l f o f

the f a m i l i e s o f c h i l d r e n in the e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s e s r e t u r n e d the p a r ­

e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o the s c h o o l , r e f l e c t i n g t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s . While

o v e r n i n e t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f th e r e s p o n s e s to q u e s t i o n s were i n t h e a f ­

f i r m a t i v e , the fo l l o w i n g comments a r e p e rh a p s even more e n l i g h t e n i n g :

" I t h i n k i t has been a w o r th w h i le program beca use i t k e p t my d a u g h t e r i n t e r e s t e d i n s c h o o l . "

"My c h i l d knows now how im p o r t a n t i t i s t o l e a r n a s much as p o s s i b l e i n o r d e r t o g e t a w o r th w h i le j o b . "

"Every c h i l d r e c e i v e d someth ing from t h i s p rogram, a s to t h i n k s e r i o u s a b o u t th e m s e lv es as a p e r s o n . "

" I r e a l l y en joyed t h i s program, and from i t I t h i n k i t has i n s p i r e d grown-ups and c h i l d r e n . "

" I f e e l t h a t V ic k i e has shown more i n t e r e s t i n school and has improved q u i t e a b i t . "

" I t i s to o bad i t h a d n ' t been i n t r o d u c e d y e a r s ago. P e r ­haps i t would have ended many o f t h e d ro p o u ts i n some a r e a s . "

The c o n c l u d in g c h a p t e r o f t h i s r e p o r t d e a l s w i t h a b r i e f sum­

mary o f t h e s t u d y , an e x a m in a t io n o f t h e t e s t i n g i n s t r u m e n t s u s e d ,

p r e s e n t a t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n o f f i n d i n g s , c o n c l u s i o n s , and the i m p l i ­

c a t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h .

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Summary

T h i s was a s t u d y o f an e x p e r i m e n t a l program i n v o c a t i o n a l

g u id a n c e i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l . The m a j o r p u rp o s e o f t h e s tu d y

was t o d e t e r m i n e i f m e a s u r a b l e i n c r e m e n t s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l know ledge ,

v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i s m i n o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e c o u l d be

a c h i e v e d i n p r e - d e t e r m i n e d s i t u a t i o n s i n two d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t a r y

s c h o o l s a t t h r e e g rade l e v e l s .

I n o r d e r t o c a r r y o u t t h i s p u r p o s e , i t was f i r s t n e c e s s a r y to

e s t a b l i s h a f u n c t i o n a l r o l e f o r t h e s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r w hich a s s i g n e d

t o h e r some s p e c i f i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e a r e a o f v o c a t i o n a l g u i d ­

a n c e . Through th e c o o p e r a t i o n o f t h e t e a c h i n g s t a f f , and w i t h adm in ­

i s t r a t i v e s u p p o r t , a f u l l t ime c o u n s e l o r was a s s i g n e d t o e a c h o f two

e x p e r i m e n t a l s c h o o l s . Each had s p e c i f i c d i r e c t i o n s t o d e v o t e a t l e a s t

o n e - h a l f o f h e r t ime t o t h e p l a n n i n g , d e v e lo p m e n t , d i r e c t i o n and p a r ­

t i c i p a t i o n i n a v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program f o r p u p i l s i n th e s e c ­

ond , f o u r t h and s i x t h g r a d e s .

A second s t e p i n t h i s p r o c e s s was t o d e v e lo p a p l a n n e d p r o ­

gram o f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e which would be a p p r o p r i a t e t o th e g rade

l e v e l s c o n s i d e r e d . The l i t e r a t u r e on th e s u b j e c t was r e v i e w e d ,

96

97

r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s were assem bled (Appendix H) and a t e a c h i n g p l a n

was o u t l i n e d p r i o r t o the b e g i n n in g o f the c l a s s ro o m work. The p r o ­

gram was conduc ted on a one hour a week b a s i s i n each c l a s s from O c to ­

b e r t o A p r i l d u r in g the r e g u l a r s ch o o l y e a r . As the program p r o ­

g r e s s e d , r e v i s i o n s were made in t h e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n , m a t e r i a l s were

added and p r o c e d u r e s were r e f i n e d by th e c o u n s e l o r , s u p e r v i s o r y and

c o n s u l t a t i v e s t a f f .

I t shou ld be n o te d a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t th e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a ­

t i o n a l program was n o t conce ived t o b r i n g ab o u t a s p e c i f i c s e t o f

c h i l d d e c i s i o n s f o r c a r e e r s . As w i l l be o b s e rv e d i n t h e u n i t o u t l i n e s ,

an e f f o r t was made t o encourage p u p i l s t o become more aware o f voca­

t i o n a l f i e l d s and o c c u p a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o t h e i r own

l i v e s . S t r e s s was p l a c e d upon d e v e l o p i n g a r e s p e c t f o r a l l l e v e l s o f

work , toward g a i n i n g an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f o n e ' s p e r s o n a l s t r e n g t h s and

l i m i t a t i o n s , and toward a c q u i r i n g s a t i s f a c t i o n i n t h e t a s k o f l e a r n i n g

i t s e l f . A l though c h i l d r e n were asked to make o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e s f o r

t h e p u rp o s e s o f t e s t i n g and d i s c u s s i o n , t h i s was n o t w i th t h e i m p l i c a ­

t i o n t h a t making an e a r l y c h o ic e was i m p o r t a n t . On th e c o n t r a r y , e x ­

p l o r a t i o n o f many c h o i c e s a s a l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e was em phas ized .

The t h i r d s t e p i n t h i s r e s e a r c h was t h e n to e s t a b l i s h some e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l g roups so t h a t th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f v a r i o u s ap p ro a c h e s

m ig h t be e v a l u a t e d . Four groups were d e l i n e a t e d a t e a c h g rade l e v e l :

1. T ea ch e r o n ly ( E - l ) e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup . An o u t l i n e o f th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n was g iv e n t o the t e a c h e r o f t h i s g roup , a lo n g w i t h a l i s t o f r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s a v a i l a b l e . The t e a c h e r was th e n on h e r own a s t o t h e manner i n which she w ished t o i n t r o d u c e t h e program to t h e s t u d e n t s d u r ­ing t h e one hour p e r week o f a l l o t t e d t im e .

2. Counse lo r o n ly (E-2) e x p e r i m e n t a l g roup . I n t h i s g ro u p in g , the c o u n s e l o r worked a l o n e w i t h t h e c l a s s , o r w i t h sm a l l groups and w i t h i n d i v i d u a l p u p i l s o u t ­s i d e th e c l a s s .

3. T e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) e x p e r i m e n t a l group . Both t e a c h e r and c o u n s e l o r worked c o o p e r a t i v e l y w i t h t h i s g roup , f o l l o w ­in g th e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p l a n .

4. C o n t ro l (C) g roup . At each g rade l e v e l , one c l a s s was randomly s e l e c t e d as a c o n t r o l g roup . A l though t e a c h e r s i n t h e s e c l a s s e s were aware o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l program, th e y were f u r n i s h e d n e i t h e r o u t l i n e s n o r m a t e r i a l s .

A f i n a l s t e p to be t a k e n was th e s e l e c t i o n o f i n s t r u m e n t s to

a s s i s t i n making some judgment c o n c e r n in g th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e s . An O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Ap­

p e n d ix B) was deve loped t o a s s e s s b o th knowledge o f o c c u p a t io n s and

th e r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e . An O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n Check­

l i s t (Appendix C) was a l s o assembled t o e v a l u a t e l e v e l s o f occupa­

t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n among th e s t u d e n t p a r t i c i p a n t s . Responses on t h i s

s c a l e were compared w i th s t a n d a r d i z e d m easu re s o f s choo l a b i l i t y and

a c h i e v e m e n t . Both the a s p i r a t i o n c h e c k l i s t and th e i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s ­

t i o n n a i r e were used on a p re -p ro g ram and p o s t - p r o g r a m b a s i s .

An a d d i t i o n a l " L i s t i n g o f J o b s " t a s k was a l s o p r e s e n t e d t o a l l

p u p i l s a t the c o n c l u s i o n o f th e fo rmal a s p e c t s o f the program. This

was d e s ig n e d as an a d d i t i o n a l measure o f t h e knowledge o f o c c u p a t i o n s .

F i n a l l y , a t e a c h e r and a p a r e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e was used (Appendix D, E)

t o o b t a i n some q u a l i t a t i v e r e a c t i o n s to the t o t a l program.

The T e s t i n g I n s t r u m e n t s

The O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r m a t i o n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d a p t e d from

t h e " N o r t h - H a t t " t e c h n iq u e deve loped by th e N a t i o n a l O p in ion Research

99

C en te r (1949) . Th is a d a p t a t i o n was used i n t h i s s tu d y to e v a l u a t e

b o th o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge and the r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e .

The f i r s t two i t em s on t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e a p p ea red to have

been a s a t i s f a c t o r y way o f a s s e s s i n g the c h i l d ' s knowledge o f p a r e n t s '

o c c u p a t i o n s , s i n c e m e a n in g fu l r e s p o n s e s were o b t a i n e d from f o u r t h and

s i x t h g rade c h i l d r e n . I t was n o t a p p r o p r i a t e t o the second grade

c h i l d r e n on ly from the s t a n d p o i n t t h a t th e y were u nab le t o communicate

i n f o r m a t i o n a d e q u a t e l y i n w r i t i n g . When g iv e n t o th e second grade

c h i l d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s , no communica tion problem was e n c o u n t e r e d .

The r e m a in in g t h r e e q u e s t i o n s were c o m p le te ly open -ende d ,

g i v i n g the p u p i l the o p p o r t u n i t y to respond i n any manner he saw f i t .

While t h i s type o f r e s p o n s e i s o f t e n h a rd t o e v a l u a t e , ju d g e s d id no t

have a p p r e c i a b l e d i f f i c u l t y i n the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f what the s t u d e n t

i n t e n d e d t o convey c o n c e rn in g h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e and the r e a s o n

f o r i t . Again , however , i t was n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e n t t h i s t a s k on an

i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s to second g rade s t u d e n t s .

I t would a p p e a r t h a t f u t u r e use o f t h i s t e c h n iq u e f o r o b t a i n ­

ing i n f o r m a t i o n on a group b a s i s sh o u ld be l i m i t e d t o s t u d e n t s a t the

t h i r d g rade l e v e l o r o l d e r . I n d i v i d u a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n w i l l c e r t a i n ­

ly be n e c e s s a r y o t h e r w i s e .

The O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t became an e x t e n s i o n o f

the i n f o r m a t i o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e . T h i s c h e c k l i s t was an a d a p t a t i o n o f

the O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n S c a l e (OAS) deve loped by H a l l e r and M i l l e r

(1961) f o r use w i th a d u l t s u b j e c t s . Th i s i n s t r u m e n t , even w i th th e

a d a p t a t i o n , was d i s c o v e r e d to be c o m p le te ly i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r second

100

grade s t u d e n t s , d e s p i t e th e f a c t t h a t i t was g iven on an i n d i v i d u a l

b a s i s . N e i t h e r th e w r i t i n g n o r t h e r e a d i n g s k i l l s o f t h e s e p u p i l s

were s u f f i c i e n t l y advanced t o p e rm i t a d e q u a te u n d e r s t a n d i n g on th e

p a r t o f th e second g rade c h i l d .

The t a s k p r e s e n t e d to the p u p i l on t h i s c h e c k l i s t was a fo rc e d

ch o ic e one o f t e n d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t io n s f o r each o f s i x q u e s t i o n s .

The r e s p o n s e r e f l e c t e d the s t u d e n t ' s s e l e c t i o n o f an o c c u p a t i o n which

he e i t h e r w ished he cou ld have o r t h e b e s t one which he was r e a l l y s u re

he cou ld g e t . While th e o c c u p a t i o n s l i s t e d were a l l common o n e s , some

knowledge o f job q u a l i f i c a t i o n s and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s would be needed

i n o r d e r t o respond w i t h some degree o f c o n f i d e n c e . The need f o r know­

ledge was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l i m i t a t i o n o f the i n s t r u m e n t in

t h e l i g h t o f p u p i l r e s p o n s e to the o c c u p a t i o n a l d e s i g n a t i o n s .

Co u n se lo r s d i d compla in t h a t the c h e c k l i s t d id n o t make any

p r o v i s i o n f o r female o c c u p a t i o n s . " T e a c h e r ” was t h e o n ly o c c u p a t io n

l i s t e d which migh t have p e r m i t t e d d i r e c t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n on th e p a r t o f

g i r l s , a l t h o u g h " n i g h t c lu b s i n g e r " was o f t e n chosen by g i r l s . N e i ­

t h e r " n u r s e " nor " s e c r e t a r y " were a p a r t o f the c h e c k l i s t . Whether o r

no the c o u n s e l o r s ' c r i t i c i s m i s a v a l i d one i s open t o some q u e s t i o n .

I n te rms o f e v a l u a t i o n o f a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s f o r the immediate p r e s e n t ,

i t m igh t be argued t h a t s o c i e t y has n o t y e t become accustomed to the

r e c e n t f e d e r a l l e g i s l a t i o n m anda t ing e q u a l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r women i n em­

p lo y m en t , and t h e r e f o r e a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s f o r g i r l s would be d i s t o r t e d

i n an unde te rm ined d i r e c t i o n . Yet f o r f u t u r e programming toward d e v e l ­

o p in g an aw areness on the p a r t o f g i r l s o f th e growing freedom o f

101

o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , i t would a p p e a r t o t h i s w r i t e r t h a t sex i d e n t i ­

f i c a t i o n i n a s s e s s i n g l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n shou ld be m in im ized .

D i s c u s s i o n o f F in d in g s

A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y a s r e p o r t e d in Chap­

t e r IV may be c o n s id e r e d i n t h r e e s e p a r a t e c a t e g o r i e s r e l a t i n g t o the

h y p o th e se s t e s t e d . A f o u r t h c a t e g o r y i n v o l v i n g t e a c h e r and p a r e n t r e ­

a c t i o n s w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d s e p a r a t e l y . The t h r e e a r e a s t e s t e d s t a t i s ­

t i c a l l y were a s f o l l o w s : (1) v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge, (2)

s t a t u s o f s e l f - c o n c e p t ( l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o i c e ) , (3) r e l a t i o n s h i p o f l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n to s ch o o l a b i l i t y and

ach iev em en t .

V o c a t i o n a l - O c c u p a t i o n a l Knowledge

The a s s u m p t io n t h a t the e x p e r i e n c e i n a v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a ­

t i o n a l program would r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d knowledge and i n f o r m a t i o n

a b o u t the w or ld o f work was checked by two d i f f e r e n t means and i n ­

v o lv e d bo th th e r e p o r t i n g o f knowledge o f p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n s and

a l i s t i n g o f j o b s . A summary o f th e f i n d i n g s r e p o r t e d i n C hap te r V i s

p r e s e n t e d i n Tab le 25.

Knowledge o f p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n was e v a l u a t e d th ro u g h th e p r o ­

c e s s o f s im ply a s k i n g c h i l d r e n what k ind o f work the p a r e n t d i d . Th is

was done b o t h b e f o r e and a f t e r th e v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program, w i t h

r e s u l t s compared on a p e r c e n ta g e b a s i s . The l i s t i n g o f j o b s t a s k was

accom pl i shed a s a p o s t - t e s t i n g measure and r e q u i r e d on ly t h a t the s t u ­

d e n t l i s t as many k in d s o f work t h a t peop le do w i t h i n a t h r e e minu te

t ime p e r i o d .

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TABLE 25

VOCATIONAL OCCUPATIONAL KNOWLEDGE SUMMARY

Area T e s t e d S t a t i s t i c School A School B

S u b s t a n t i a l g a in s i n 2nd and 4 th in a l l e x p e r i ­

A l l groups g a in e d .

m e n ta l g ro u p s . Most improvement a t 2nd.

6 th c o n t r o l e q u a l to e x ­ E-2 group c o n s i s t e n t l y low es t

Knowledge p e r i m e n t a l g ro u p s . i n 2nd and 4 t h .

o f P a r e n t s ’

O ccupa t ions

A l l groups a t a l l l e v e l s E-3 group c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h ­g a i n e d . e s t in 2nd and 4 t h .

L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e between L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e w i t h i n 6 th

P e r c e n tS t a t i s t i c

g r a d e s . g rade g ro u p s .

Between Schools

G r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e g a i n in a l l g roups in School B.

H igher s c o r e s in t o t a l know­le d g e in School A.

L i s t i n g o f Jobs

t - t e s t

M l E groups h i g h e r th a n C i n 2nd.

C h i g h e r th a n E - l and E-2 in 6 t h .

E - l and E-2 h i g h e r than E-3 i n 2nd.

E-2 h i g h e r th a n E - l and E-3 a t 6 th .

6th h i g h e r th a n 2nd o r 4 t h .

E and C same e x c e p t :E-2 lower t h a n C i n 2nd. E - l h i g h e r th a n C i n 6 th .

E - l and E-3 h i g h e r th a n E-2 i n 2nd.

E - l h i g h e r th a n E-2 and E-3 in 6 th .

4 th and 6 th h i g h e r th a n 2nd

Between Schools

Schoo l A c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h e r a t a l l g rade l e v e l s .

103

School A F i n d i n g s . S u b s t a n t i a l g a i n s i n o c c u p a t i o n a l know­

ledge were made w i th second and f o u r t h g rade e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups in

t h i s s c h o o l . T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e a t t h e second grade l e v e l and

m igh t w e l l have been e x p e c te d i n the l i g h t o f the e n t h u s i a s t i c r e ­

sponse o f t h e c h i l d r e n i n t h e c l a s s ro o m . At t h e s e l e v e l s , t o o , the

c o u n s e l o r o n ly (E-2) and t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3) groups appea red to

have b e n e f i t e d most i n te rm s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge.

The c o n t r o l group a t t h e s i x t h g rade l e v e l was e q u a l to o r

h i g h e r t h a n th e e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups i n b o th m easures o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

knowledge. T h i s i s a t t r i b u t e d i n p a r t t o the s i x t h g rade t e a c h e r ' s

own p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t i n v o c a t i o n s and th e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t she may

have seen h e r c l a s s in c o m p e t i t i o n w i th o t h e r g roups . The o t h e r e v a l ­

u a t i v e d a t a on b o th l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h o ice te n d t o b e a r o u t t h e s e im p r e s s i o n s .

School B F i n d i n g s . The mixed p a t t e r n o f r e s u l t s from School

B makes i n t e r p r e t a t i o n d i f f i c u l t . A l though a l l groups g a ined i n meas­

u r e s o f o c c u p a t i o n a l knowledge , improvement i n th e e x p e r i m e n t a l groups

was o f t e n p a r a l l e l e d by th e c o n t r o l g ro u p s , th u s s u g g e s t i n g e i t h e r

t h a t improvement may have come ab o u t w i t h o u t th e i n t e r v e n t i o n o f the

v o c a t i o n a l p rogram , o r t h a t th e program i t s e l f was d i f f u s e enough to

c o n ta m in a te th e c o n t r o l g roups .

The second grade c l a s s e s , i n c l u d i n g the c o n t r o l g roup , a p ­

p ea re d t o have shown the most g a i n . The t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r (E-3)

groups i n g r a d e s two and f o u r were c o n s i s t e n t l y h i g h , w h i l e th e coun­

s e l o r o n ly (E-2) group was m arked ly low a t t h e s e l e v e l s . T h i s f i n d i n g

104

s u g g e s t s t h a t a second p e r s o n i n t r u d i n g i n t o th e c l a s s s i t u a t i o n a t

t h e s e l e v e l s w i t h o u t t e a c h e r s u p p o r t may work n e g a t i v e l y as f a r as

t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f v o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s c o n c e rn e d . I t shou ld be

n o t e d , however , t h a t t h i s c o n d i t i o n d i d n o t p r e s e n t i t s e l f i n School A.

S choo ls A and B Compared. The p u p i l s in School A a r e c l e a r l y

more know ledgeab le ab o u t p a r e n t s 1 o c c u p a t i o n s and th e v a r i e t y o f j o b s

t h a n a r e t h e p u p i l s from School B. Hoever , t h e i n t e r e s t i n l e a r n i n g

more i s r e f l e c t e d by th e g a i n i n th e knowledge o f p a r e n t s ' o c c u p a t i o n s

i n the l a t t e r s c h o o l . The i n t e r e s t o f p a r e n t s , t o o , has been demon­

s t r a t e d a t School B by t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o P .T .A . programs and s p e c i a l

e v e n t s f o c u s i n g on v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n ce .

Leve l o f V o c a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n

S c o re s o b t a i n e d on t h e O c c u p a t io n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t were

used to e v a l u a t e the c h i l d ' s l e v e l o f v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n , c o n s i d ­

e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y to be one a s p e c t o f the c h i l d ' s p e r s o n a l s e l f - c o n ­

c e p t . S ince t h i s c h e c k l i s t was d i s c o v e r e d to be i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r

second g rade p u p i l s , com par isons r e l a t i n g t o v o c a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n

were c o n f in e d t o the f o u r t h and s i x t h g r a d e s . F i n d i n g s from t h i s meas­

u re i n te rm s o f s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a r e found i n C hap te r IV and

a r e b r i e f l y summarized i n Tab le 26.

School A F i n d i n g s . Only the s i x t h g rade c o n t r o l group in

School A ev id e n c e d any s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n , and

t h i s was i n r e l a t i o n t o the t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) e x p e r i m e n t a l c l a s s .

Though p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t i n g s c o r e s f o r t h e e n t i r e s i x t h g rade showed

s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s , the f a c t t h a t th e c o n t r o l group a l s o g a in e d t e n d s

105

TABLE 26

STATUS OF SELF-CONCEPT SUMMARY

Area T e s t e d S t a t i s t i c School A School B

Leve l o f V o c a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n

t - t e s t

6 th C h i g h e r th a n E - l A l l o t h e r d i f f e r e n c e s ,

w i t h i n g rade no t s i g n i ­f i c a n t .

No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­ence s among E g ro u p s .

6 th grade h i g h e r t h a n 4 th .

P r e - to p o s t - t e s t i n g h i g h e r in 6 th .

C h i g h e r t h a n any E i n 4 t h .

E-2 h i g h e r th a n C i n 6 th .

E - l h i g h e r t h a n E-2 and E -3 , b u t lower th a n C i n 4 t h .

E-3 h i g h e r th a n E-2 bu t lower t h a n C i n 4 t h .

4 t h g rade h i g h e r t h a n 6 th .

P r e - t o p o s t - t e s t i n g h i g h e r i n 4 t h .

Between S choo ls

4 t h i n B s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r t h a n 4 t h i n A

6 th i n A s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n 6 th i n B

R e a l i t yo f

O ccupa t iona lChoice

6 th in C h i g h e r than E ' s . 2nd h i g h e r t h a n 4 t h .6 th h i g h e r t h a n 4 t h .

2nd h i g h e r t h a n 4 t h , p r e - to p o s t - t e s t i n g .

2nd h i g h e r t h a n 6 t h , p r e - to p o s t - t e s t i n g .

E - l h i g h e r t h a n C in 6 th . E - l h i g h e r th a n E-2 i n 6 th . 4 th h i g h e r t h a n 6 t h .

2nd h i g h e r t h a n 6 t h , p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t i n g .

4 th h i g h e r th a n 6 th , p r e - to p o s t - t e s t i n g .

Between Schools

A l l g r a d e s i n A made more r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s .

Grades 4 and 6 d id make g a in s i n r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e

106

t o n e g a t e t h e i m p a c t o f t h e p r o g r a m a s f a r a s a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l i s c o n ­

c e r n e d . Once a g a i n , t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t p u t f o r t h

by t h e c o n t r o l c l a s s t e a c h e r i s r a i s e d .

S c h o o l B F i n d i n g s . A s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s o f t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p

w e r e a l s o h i g h e r t h a n e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s i n t h e f o u r t h g r a d e a t

S c h o o l B, b u t t h e t e a c h e r o n l y ( E - l ) g r o u p was s u p e r i o r t o t h e c o n ­

t r o l a t t h e s i x t h g r a d e l e v e l . The h i e r a r c h y o f s u p e r i o r i t y among e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s i n t h e f o u r t h g r a d e an d t h e h i g h e r p r e - t o p o s t - t e s t

a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t a l g r o u p s i s s u b m e r g e d by t h e f a c t o f

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r c o n t r o l g r o u p s c o r e s a t t h i s l e v e l . H o w e v e r , t h e

f a c t t h a t f o u r t h g r a d e c l a s s e s d i d r e c o r d h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s

t h a n s i x t h g r a d e c l a s s e s l e n d s t h e f u r t h e r s u g g e s t i o n o f c o n t r o l g r o u p

c o n t a m i n a t i o n a t t h e f o u r t h g r a d e l e v e l .

S c h o o l s A an d B C o m p a r e d . From a l o g i c a l s t a n d p o i n t , i t m i g h t

be e x p e c t e d t h a t S c h o o l A , r e p r e s e n t i n g f a m i l i e s o f a h i g h e r s o c i o ­

e c o n o m i c l e v e l , w o u l d o b t a i n h i g h e r l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s t h a n

S c h o o l B. T h i s l o g i c p r o v e s t r u e a t t h e s i x t h g r a d e l e v e l w i t h a h i g h

d e g r e e o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . H o w e v e r , t h e f o u r t h g r a d e i n S c h o o l B demon­

s t r a t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r s c o r e s t h a n t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t i n S c h o o l A.

The i m p r e s s i o n o f t h e c o u n s e l o r s an d t e a c h e r s o f h i g h i n t e r e s t o n t h e

p a r t o f t h e f o u r t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s , p e r h a p s a l s o e n g e n d e r e d i n t h e c o n ­

t r o l g r o u p , may w e l l h a v e a c c o u n t e d f o r t h i s d i f f e r e n c e .

R e a l i s m o f O c c u p a t i o n a l C h o i c e

S c h o o l A F i n d i n g s . A n o t h e r a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t , r e a l i s m o f

o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e , was d e t e r m i n e d i n r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s t i o n , "What

107

do you want to do when you grow up ?" , asked on the O c c u p a t io n a l I n f o r ­

m a t io n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e . P a r a l l e l i n g t h e a s p i r a t i o n r e s p o n s e s , the s i x t h

g rade c o n t r o l group i n School A was once a g a i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r

t h a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t a l groups a t t h i s grade l e v e l . Both second and

s i x t h g rade groups made more r e a l i s t i c c h o ic e s th a n f o u r t h g rade

g ro u p s . Second g rade c h i l d r e n a p p ea red to have ga ined most from p r e -

to p o s t - t e s t i n g t im e , b u t t h i s may have been an a r t i f a c t p roduced by

poor w r i t t e n communicat ion a t th e p r e - t e s t i n g l e v e l .

School B F i n d i n g s . A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n to t h a t o f l e v e l o f a s ­

p i r a t i o n s c o r e s a l s o appea red i n School B. F o u r th g rade g roups were

s u p e r i o r t o the s i x t h g rade ones and made g r e a t e r g a i n s from p r e - to

p o s t - t e s t i n g . C o n t ro l g roups a l s o made concommitant ga in s w i t h e x p e r i ­

m e n ta l c l a s s e s . The c o u n s e l o r on ly (E-2) c l a s s was s u p e r i o r t o bo th

t e a c h e r o n ly ( E - l ) and c o n t r o l groups a t g rade s i x .

Schools A and B Compared. D e s p i t e th e f a v o r a b l e g a i n s in th e

f o u r t h g rade g roups in School B, c h i l d r e n in School A made more r e a l ­

i s t i c c h o ic e s a t the end o f th e program th a n d i d th o s e in School B.

Roe (1957) has n o te d t h a t the o c c u p a t i o n o f the f a t h e r i s th e most

u s a b l e s i n g l e in d e x o f t h e s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f a l l members o f the

f a m i ly . I t would f o l l o w , t h e n , t h a t c h i l d r e n in School A a l r e a d y have

t h e i r " h e a d s t a r t " i n look ing r e a l i s t i c a l l y a t the w or ld o f work.

While i t might be t r u e t h a t some p a r e n t s o f h ig h s o c io -e c o n o m ic s t a t u s

would be o v e r l y a m b i t i o u s f o r t h e i r c h i l d r e n , i t would be e q u a l l y t r u e

t h a t c h i l d r e n from p o o r e r homes migh t n e v e r have had th e o p p o r t u n i t y

to t h i n k much ab o u t t h e i r l i f e ' s work, no r t o have th e example o r

gu ida nce i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n from the home.

The r e a l i s m s c o r e s o b t a i n e d from c o u n s e l o r judgm ents o f p u p i l

c h o i c e s i n t h i s s t u d y seem t o b e a r no d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the G in s ­

b e r g (1951) t h e o r y . Whereas a " p o l ic em an " m igh t be c o n s i d e r e d by

G in sb e rg a s a f a n t a s y c h o i c e f o r a second o r f o u r t h g rade p u p i l ,

j u d g e s in t h i s s t u d y would have c o n s i d e r e d such a c h o ic e as r e a l i s t i c

f o r the c h i l d i f i t ma tched h i s a b i l i t y and ach ievem en t l e v e l s . No

s p e c i f i c h y p o th e s e s were ev o lv e d t o r e l a t e d i r e c t l y to the G in s b e rg

m o d e l .

The r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s o f f o u r t h g rade s t u ­

d e n t s i n School B, coup led w i t h p a r a l l e l g a i n s i n making r e a l i s t i c

c h o i c e s , h i g h l i g h t s th e im p r e s s i o n g a in e d by Henderson (1966) in a

s t u d y o f Negro c h i l d r e n , a g e s t h i r t e e n to e i g h t e e n , i n D e t r o i t , M ic h i ­

gan . He s t a t e s t h a t :

A p e r s o n ' s l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n i s formed i n dynamic s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s . U s u a l l y , th o s e who e x p e r i e n c e s u c c e s s w i l l t r y t o a p p ro x im a te o r improve upon t h e i r p a s t p e r ­fo rm ance , w h i l e th o s e who e x p e r i e n c e f a i l u r e w i l l s t o p t r y i n g , o r lower t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n s .

Th e f o u r t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s i n S c h o o l B a p p a r e n t l y b e g a n t r y i n g !

R e l a t i o n s h i p o f L e v e l o f A s p i r a t i o n t o S c h o o l A b i l i t y a n d A c h i e v e m e n t

When l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s w e r e c o m p a r e d w i t h s c h o o l a b i l ­

i t y a n d a c h i e v e m e n t , a c l e a r - c u t r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d a t b o t h

g r a d e l e v e l s i n b o t h s c h o o l s . S t u d e n t s a t t a i n i n g t h e h i g h e s t a s p i r a ­

t i o n s c o r e s w e r e a l s o t h e o n e s who a c h i e v e d b e s t a n d s c o r e d h i g h e s t on

s c h o o l a b i l i t y t e s t s . T h i s f i n d i n g l e n d s some s u p p o r t t o o n e p o s s i b l e

r e a s o n f o r t h e p a r a l l e l i n a s p i r a t i o n l e v e l s an d r e a l i s m s c o r e s n o t e d

109

above . However, w i t h c o n t r o l g roups im prov ing t o o , d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f

the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e program i n te rm s o f i n ­

c r e a s e d s t a t u s i n s e l f - c o n c e p t i s n o t p o s s i b l e w i t h t h e p r e s e n t d a t a .

T e a c h e r and P a r e n t R e a c t i o n s

The g e n e r a l comments p r o v i d e d by b o th p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s

g ive r e a s o n a b l e s u p p o r t t o t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y o f p r o v i d i n g some t ime

i n th e r e g u l a r s c h o o l program t o focus a t t e n t i o n upon v o c a t i o n s and

the w o r ld o f work.

The r e a c t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s i n School A r e f l e c t the

head s t a r t which s t u d e n t s i n t h i s s c h o o l have e x p e r i e n c e d i n l o o k i n g

a t l i f e work. I n c o n t r a s t , p a r e n t s and t e a c h e r s a l i k e i n School B

e v i d e n c e d a com ple te a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e fo cu s o f th e p rog ram . I t would

a p p e a r t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y th e Negro from th e g h e t t o i s l o o k i n g toward

the s c h o o l to a s s i s t him m a t e r i a l l y in h i s s o c i a l d i lemma. The v o c a ­

t i o n a l g u id a n c e program a p p e a r e d to be one t a n g i b l e s t e p to w ard w iden ­

ing t h e v o c a t i o n a l h o r i z o n s f o r t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e d c h i l d .

Answers to Q u e s t io n s

The e i g h t q u e s t i o n s posed a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s s t u d y and

examined th r o u g h t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s and q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , can now be

b r o u g h t i n t o c l e a r e r f o c u s .

1. Can v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n be communica ted e f ­f e c t i v e l y to e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n ?

V o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n can be communicated t o s t u -

s t u d e n t s s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s t u d i e d . Responses

to t e s t s o f knowledge s u p p o r t t h i s c o n c l u s i o n . The e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f

110

i n f o r m a t i o n d i s s e m i n a t i o n , however, would a p p e a r to depend upon a num­

b e r o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t e a c h e r s u p p o r t , g rade l e v e l , and th e gen ­

e r a l background o f the p u p i l s and t h e i r f a m i l i e s .

2. At what a g e / g r a d e do c h i l d r e n a s s i m i l a t e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u ­p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n b e s t ?

The e v a l u a t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s used i n t h i s s t u d y do n o t p r o v id e a

c l e a r - c u t answer to t h i s q u e s t i o n . The m a jo r f a c t o r in v o lv e d i n the

p i c t u r e a p p e a r s to be the home background o f the s t u d e n t s . T e s t s o f

knowledge r e f l e c t h i g h e r l e v e l s o f a t t a i n m e n t among s t u d e n t s from

homes o f h i g h e r s o c io -ec o n o m ic s t a t u s , b u t g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e g a i n s

o c c u r w i t h s t u d e n t s from the e c o n o m ic a l ly p o o r e r homes. From o b s e r v a ­

t i o n s o f c o u n s e l o r s and s u p e r v i s o r s , as w e l l as e v id e n c e o f s i g n i f i ­

c a n t advances by c o n t r o l g ro u p s , i t would seem t h a t t e a c h e r i n i t i a t i v e

p l a y s an im p o r t a n t p a r t i n t h e manner in which a l l c h i l d r e n a s s i m i l a t e

i n f o r m a t i o n , r e g a r d l e s s o f age o r g r a d e .

3. Does the c h i l d change h i s l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n as he i sexposed t o v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t io n ?

T h i s q u e s t i o n canno t be answered a t a l l f o r second grade pu-

p u p i l s s i n c e th e i n s t r u m e n t f o r m e asu r ing th e l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

a s p i r a t i o n was i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h i s l e v e l . From th e i n f o r m a t i o n c o l ­

l e c t e d from f o u r t h and s i x t h g r a d e s , o n ly one c l a s s , the c o u n s e l o r

on ly group in t h e f o u r t h grade o f th e lower soc io -ec onom ic s t a t u s

s c h o o l , a t t a i n e d h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s c o r e s t h a n the c o n t r o l g roup .

Thus , i n t h i s one s i t u a t i o n , l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n d i d change t o a s i g n i ­

f i c a n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l . C on tam ina t ion o f t h e c o n t r o l groups may be a

p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r l a c k o f any o t h e r c l e a r r e s u l t s .

I l l

4. I s t h e r e a d i f f e r e n c e in th e v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l a s ­p i r a t i o n l e v e l s o f c h i l d r e n from two d i f f e r e n t s o c i o ­economic b ackg rounds , bo th b e f o r e and a f t e r a v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n program?

There a r e c e r t a i n l y d e m o n s t r ab le d i f f e r e n c e s i n the a s p i r a ­

t i o n l e v e l s o f the c h i l d r e n s t u d i e d who come from d i f f e r e n t home b a c k ­

g rounds . The d i r e c t i o n o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e a p p e a r s t o be dependen t

upon grade l e v e l . R e s u l t s from t h i s s tu d y s u g g e s t t h a t f o u r t h grade

s t u d e n t s from d i s a d v a n t a g e d a r e a s a s p i r e h i g h e r t h a n ones from more

e c o n o m ic a l ly adequa te c i r c u m s t a n c e s . Among th e s i x t h g rade g ro u p s ,

however , t h e r e v e r s e i s t r u e .

5. Does th e c h i l d become more r e a l i s t i c in h i s o c c u p a t i o n a l ch o ice i n r e l a t i o n t o h i s l e a r n i n g p o t e n t i a l and a c h i e v e ­ment as he i s exposed to a v o c a t i o n a l gu idance program?

An a f f i r m a t i v e answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n i s p r e s e n t o n ly w i th

th e t e a c h e r on ly c l a s s a t t h e s i x t h g rade l e v e l in School A. While

f i v e o u t o f the e x p e r i m e n t a l groups a t th e f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade l e ­

v e l s d id ev id en ce g a i n s in r e a l i s t i c r e s p o n s e s , t h i s was p a r a l l e l e d

by c o n t r o l group g a i n s . There was the c l e a r i n d i c a t i o n t h a t c h i l d r e n

from th e h i g h e r s o c io -e c o n o m ic backgrounds make more r e a l i s t i c c h o i c e s .

6. I s th e l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n a s p e c t o f s e l f - c o n c e p t depend­e n t upon s c h o o l a b i l i t y a n d / o r ach ievem en t .

R e s u l t s o f com par isons o f l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n

s c o r e s w i th s choo l a b i l i t y and ach ievem en t l e v e l s i n d i c a t e c l e a r l y a

p o s i t i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s p i r a t i o n and a b i l i t y

and a s p i r a t i o n and ach ie v e m e n t .

7. What method o f approach to v o c a t i o n a l gu idance o f el emen­t a r y s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i s b e s t : C la ss g roup , i n d i v i d u a l ( o r sm al l g r o u p ) , o r a co m b in a t io n o f t h e two?

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T h i s q u e s t i o n can n o t be answered from th e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a .

No c o n s i s t e n c y i n p a t t e r n was d i s c o v e r e d . On th e n e g a t i v e s i d e , t h e r e

i s some doub t as t o th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f th e c o u n s e l o r w ork ing a l o n e

w i t h o u t t e a c h e r s u p p o r t a t th e second g ra d e l e v e l .

8. What a r e t e a c h e r and p a r e n t a t t i t u d e s toward th e v o c a ­t i o n a l g u id a n ce theme a s a s i g n i f i c a n t a s p e c t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y g u id a n c e program?

T e a c h e r s i n t h e h i g h e r so c io - e c o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n , a l t h o u g h

a c c e p t a n t and s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e p rogram, d id a p p e a r somewhat s k e p t i c a l

o f i t . The im p r e s s i o n from q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e s p o n s e s s u g g e s t e d t h a t the

v o c a t i o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n m ig h t be p u t to b e t t e r use a t th e j u n i o r h ig h

age l e v e l . O the rs f e l t i t cou ld be i n t e g r a t e d i n t o the c u r r i c u l u m o f

s o c i a l s t u d i e s and r e l i e v e th e c o u n s e l o r o f the d i r e c t v o c a t i o n a l r e ­

s p o n s i b i l i t y .

On th e o t h e r hand , b o th t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s from the economi­

c a l l y d i s a d v a n t a g e d s c h o o l a r e a e x p r e s s e d e n t h u s i a s m and e a g e r s u p p o r t

f o r the v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program and gave encouragem ent f o r the

c o n t i n u a n c e o f such a program i n th e f u t u r e .

C onc lus ions

P r e s e n t a t i o n

P ro c e e d in g from th e above q u e s t i o n s and t h e t e s t i n g o f n u l l

h y p o t h e s e s , the f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s were r e a c h e d :

1. M easurab le i n c r e m e n t s i n v o c a t i o n a l knowledge , l e v e l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n and r e a l i s m o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o ic e can be a t t a i n e d f o l l o w i n g a p la n n e d v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l gu idance program.

2 . The " b e s t " a p p ro a c h t o th e i n s t r u c t i o n and c o u n s e l i n g i n a v o c a t i o n a l - o c c u p a t i o n a l program i s u n d e t e rm in e d from t h i s

113

s tu d y o f s econd , f o u r t h and s i x t h g rade e l e m e n t a ry school c h i l d r e n .

3. Leve l o f o c c u p a t i o n a l a s p i r a t i o n , a s measured by th e Occu­p a t i o n a l A s p i r a t i o n C h e c k l i s t , i s p o s i t i v e l y and s i g n i f i ­c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o bo th s c h o o l a b i l i t y and schoo l a c h i e v e ­ment .

4. T eacher and p a r e n t r e s p o n s e to a v o c a t i o n a l gu idance p r o ­gram a t the e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l l e v e l i s g e n e r a l l y p o s i t i v e and s u p p o r t i v e . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e in e c o n o m ic a l ly d i s a d v a n t a g e d a r e a s .

D i s c u s s i o n

Tha t m easu rab le changes d id o c c u r d u r in g the s i x month i n ­

s t r u c t i o n and c o u n s e l i n g p e r i o d i s c l e a r from a l l measures u sed in

t h e s tu d y . That p o s i t i v e changes were the r e s u l t o f the v o c a t i o n a l

program i s open to q u e s t i o n due a l s o to the s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in

s c o r e s o f c o n t r o l g roups . Three p o s s i b i l i t i e s e x i s t which would se rve

to e x p l a i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n :

1. Con tam ina t ion o c c u r r e d i n the c o n t r o l g roups .

2. Measurement i n s t r u m e n t s were n o t s e n s i t i v e enough to e v a l ­u a t e more s u b t l e changes .

3. The program i t s e l f was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y s t i m u l a t i n g .

I n t h i s i n i t i a l s t u d y , i t i s p ro b a b le t h a t a l l t h r e e o f th e s e

f a c t o r s p l a y e d some r o l e i n m in im iz in g s i g n i f i c a n t g a i n s . F u tu r e r e ­

s e a r c h w i l l need to examine and c o n t r o l th e s e c o n d i t i o n s to a g r e a t e r

e x t e n t .

I t shou ld be emphas ized h e r e a g a i n t h a t the e n t i r e v o c a t i o n a l -

o c c u p a t i o n a l program p l a c e d s t r e s s upon the dev e lo p m en ta l a s p e c t s o f

v o c a t i o n a l aw areness . Every e f f o r t was made t o a v o id t e a c h i n g f o r

th e t e s t i n the e x p e r i m e n t a l g roups . The o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c h i l d r e n to

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to e v a l u a t e and e x p l o r e many c h o i c e s and t o examine many o c c u p a t i o n s

was p u r s u e d th ro u g h o u t th e e n t i r e i n s t r u c t i o n a l p a r t o f th e program.

I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r Research

F u r t h e r s tudy i n t o the p l a c e o f v o c a t i o n a l gu idance i n th e

e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l w i l l r e q u i r e t h a t more s e n s i t i v e e v a l u a t i v e i n s t r u ­

ments be deve loped to measure change . Th i s i s a c o m p l i c a t e d p ro c e d u re

and w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y r e q u i r e c o n t i n u i n g r e f i n e m e n t o f t e s t i n g m a t e r i ­

a l s . I t w i l l need to be r e c o g n i z e d , t o o , t h a t much o f t h e g a i n i n any

v o c a t i o n a l deve lopment program w i l l be e l u s i v e and d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b ­

l i s h q u a n t i t a t i v e l y .

F u tu r e r e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a shou ld a l s o c o n s i d e r the e s t a b ­

l i s h m e n t o f c o n t r o l g ro u p s o u t s i d e the immediate f i e l d s i t u a t i o n .

Such a p r o c e d u r e would be most u s e f u l i n p r e v e n t i n g c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f

c o n t r o l g ro u p s . S i m i l a r l y , i t would a p p e a r a d v i s a b l e f o r c o u n s e l o r

h e l p t o be a v a i l a b l e t o a l l s t a f f members in some p o s i t i v e way i n r e ­

l a t i o n t o th e e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d y . The " t e a c h e r o n ly " g roups in t h i s

s t u d y were somewhat i s o l a t e d , much i n t h e same way a s c o n t r o l group

t e a c h e r s .

F u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s needed to t e s t the v a l i d i t y o f the

" l e v e l o f a s p i r a t i o n " and the " r e a l i t y o f o c c u p a t i o n a l c h o i c e " con­

s t r u c t s in r e f l e c t i n g s e l f - c o n c e p t i n young c h i l d r e n . A " l e v e l o f

v o c a t i o n a l aw areness" may be a more s i g n i f i c a n t i d e a to d e v e l o p . The

p r e s e n t s t u d y n e i t h e r co n f i rm s n o r d e n i e s t h e v a l i d i t y o f a s p i r a t i o n

l e v e l s and r e a l i s m o f c h o ic e a s ad eq u a te f o r th e e l e m e n t a ry age c h i l d .

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E x p l o r a t i o n s i n t o th e " c o u n s e l o r a s a t e c h n i q u e " i s a l s o

needed f o r t h e e l e m e n t a r y c o u n s e l o r r o l e j u s t a s i t c o n t i n u e s to be

a need i n o t h e r a r e a s o f p u p i l s e r v i c e s . T h i s i s a m ons t rous r e s e a r c h

p rob lem , as i t i s w i t h any method o f j u d g i n g th e im pac t o f t h e r a p i s t

p e r s o n a l i t y upon th e outcome o f t h e r a p y . More r e f i n e d t e c h n i q u e s o f

e v a l u a t i o n and a c l e a r e r d e f i n i t i o n o f c o u n s e l o r r o l e and f u n c t i o n

w i l l be needed b e f o r e c o u n s e l o r p e r s o n a l i t y can be examined p r o d u c ­

t i v e l y .

F i n a l l y , i f v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n ce i s t o g a i n b o th s t a t u s and

e f f e c t i v e n e s s i n the e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s w i l l need to

be made tow ard i n c o r p o r a t i n g some o f t h e program a s p e c t s o f v o c a t i o n s

i n t o t h e r e g u l a r i n s t r u c t i o n a l program. As an appendage a lways r e p r e ­

s e n t i n g som eth ing s p e c i a l , v o c a t i o n a l gu idance as an i s o l a t e d program

would soon w i t h e r away.

appendixes

APPENDIX A

UNITS OF STUDY

UNIT I WHAT DO FAMILIES DO?

G enera l O b j e c t i v e : What a r e the j o b s th e f a m i ly does t h a tmake l i f e more p l e a s a n t ?

Second Grade L e v e l :

Q u e s t i o n s :

1. What does Mother do?P r e p a r e a c h a r t s t o r y from c h i l d r e n ' s con­t r i b u t i o n .

2. What does F a t h e r do?C h a r t , p i c t u r e s .

3 . What do I do?O ral r e p o r t s l i s t i n g jobs c h i l d r e n can do. What do b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s do?

4. What do o t h e r workers t h a t come to the home do?(Mailman, milkman, r e p a i r m e n , m e te r r e a d e r s ,

garbage c o l l e c t o r s , e t c . )

F o u r th Grade L e v e l :

1. What c o n t r i b u t i o n to happy f am i ly l i f e do i t s members make?

D i s c u s s i o n , q u e s t i o n s , l i s t s .

2. What i s my f a m i l y ' s work p lan?Each c h i l d may p r e p a r e a s h o r t r e p o r t on h i s f a m i l y ' s work and what he does t o c o n t r i b u t e . P la n s h o u ld answer a b o u t cook ing , c l e a n i n g , r e p a i r s and s k i l l s needed t o per fo rm them.

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117

3. S ince a s o u rc e o f income i s needed to s a t i s f y the w ants and needs o f a f a m i l y , how does my f a m i ly d e r i v e i t s sou rce o f income?L i s t d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t io n s in th e c l a s s .

S i x t h Grade Level

Q u e s t i o n s :

1. Show f i lm s t r i p "Your Family and You" a s a b a s i sf o r d i s c u s s i o n o f the theme "What do fami­l i e s do?"

2. P r e p a r a t i o n o f a good fa m i ly work p l a n t h a t eachc h i l d t h i n k s would be f a i r and e q u i t a b l e w i th a l lo w a n c e s f o r the f am i ly s o u rc e o f i n ­come .

3. E s t a b l i s h m e n t o f aw areness o f t h e wide v a r i e t yo f o c c u p a t i o n s by th e o c c u p a t io n s h e l d by wage e a r n e r s i n the c l a s s .

4. How do d i f f e r e n t jo b s a f f e c t the way i n whichpeop le l i v e ?

UNIT I I THE WIDE WORLD OF JOBS

G ene ra l O b j e c t i v e : To deve lop c o n c e p t s a bou t the wide v a r i e t yand l e v e l s o f j o b s i n o u r community.

Second Grade L e v e l :

Q u e s t i o n s :

1. What d i f f e r e n t jo b s do o u r f a t h e r s and m others have?

2. Can we r e l a t e t h e s e j o b s to how th e y c o n t r i b u t e to t h e good o f the community?

(Choose an o c c u p a t io n t o s tu d y i n d ep th t h a t c o n t r i b u t e s to community l i v i n g )

3. Workers a r e i n t e r d e p e n d e n t .( C h a r t s and books w i th p i c t u r e s i l l u s t r a t i n g

t h i s concep t )

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Q u e s t io n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r e p o r t s on o c c u p a t i o n s a t a l l l e v e I s :

1. I s i t a hard jo b ? Why?2. What a r e the h o u rs you work?3. What t o o l s does i t r e q u i r e ?4. Do you wear a uniform?5. Do you have h e l p ?6. What does the jo b u s u a l l y pay?7. What does the worker do to h e l p o t h e r s ?

F our th Grade L e v e l :

P r o j e c t s :

1. R e l a t e f a t h e r and m o t h e r ' s jo bs to the communityand the c o n t r i b u t i o n they make.O ra l d i s c u s s i o n , p a n e l s , e t c .

2. Study a job a g re e d upon by the c l a s s i n d e p t h .( F i e l d t r i p to p l a c e o f j o b would be h e l p ­

f u l )

3. R e l a t e va lue o f good work h a b i t s in s c h o o l asc o n t r i b u t i n g to f u t u r e g o a l s .

Q u e s t io n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r e p o r t s on o c c u p a t io n s a t a l l l e v e l s :

1. I s i t a hard job? Why?2. What a r e the h o u rs you work?3. What t o o l s does i t r e q u i r e ?4. Do you wear a un iform?5. Do you have h e l p ?6. What does the j o b u s u a l l y pay?7. What does the w orker do to h e lp o t h e r s ?

S i x t h Grade L e v e l :

P r o j e c t s :

1. Use th e f o l l o w i n g f i l m s t r i p s as a b a s i s f o r group d i s c u s s i o n s :

"What i s a job? ""What a r e jo b f a m i l i e s ? " "What good i s s c h o o l? "

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2. P r e p a r e a c h a r t on the m a in i n d u s t r i e s in o u rcommunity. Develop a b u l l e t i n board on how t h e s e i n d u s t r i e s c o n t r i b u t e to com­muni ty w e l f a r e .

L i s t the many d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s t h a t o u r main i n d u s t r i e s depend upon.

Emphasize how e d u c a t i o n c o n t r i b u t e s t o the a b i l ­i t y t o pe r fo rm one o f th e s e o c c u p a t i o n s .

Use r e s o u r c e peop le from i n d u s t r y .

3. A c h a r t s h o u ld be p r e p a re d t o use w i t h the f i l m ­s t r i p s and movies . The c h a r t shou ld g i v e h i n t s t o t h e c h i l d r e n about w ha t to l o o k f o r and l i s t e n to . Examples:

a . What p r o d u c t was inv o lv ed ?b . What were the m anua l s k i l l s needed?c. What was the t r a i n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r th e

jo b ?d. What were the p e r s o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s fo r

t h e job?e . What c o n t r i b u t i o n s do the j o b s make to

t h e community and t o the f am i ly?

Q u e s t io n s a p p r o p r i a t e f o r r e p o r t s on o c c u p a t i o n s a t a l l l e ­v e l s :

1. I s i t a h a rd job? Why?2. What a r e t h e h ou rs you work?3. What t o o l s does i t r e q u i r e ?4. Do you wear a uni form?5. Do you have h e l p ?6. What does t h e jo b u s u a l l y pay?7. What does t h e w orker do to h e l p o t h e r s ?

UNIT I I I THE ACTIVITIES OF PEOPLE IN THEIR JOBS

General O b j e c t i v e : To s t u d y th e school n e ighbo rhood and t h ep eop le in i t i n o r d e r to l e a r n how n e i g h ­borhoods d i f f e r , how goods a r e p roduced , how t h e jo b s o f p e o p l e a f f e c t t h e i r i n ­come, where people l i v e and t h e i r r e l a ­t i o n s h i p s w i th o t h e r people.

Second Grade L e v e l :

Q u e s t i o n s :

1. What i s a ne ighborhood? What keeps a n e i g h b o r ­hood t o g e t h e r ? What j o b s are done in t h e ne ighborhood?

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2. How do d i f f e r e n t ty p e s o f ne ighborhoods meand i f f e r e n c e s i n jobs and ways o f l i v i n g ?

a . Smal l town ne ighborhood .b. B ig c i t y ne ighbo rhoods .c. Suburban n e ighborhoods .d. Farm n e ig h b o rh o o d s .

3. Where a r e th e h o u s e s , s t o r e s and f a c t o r i e s i nthe ne ighborhood?

a . When do peo p le move to new o r b e t t e r hous ing?

b. Why a r e s t o r e s im p o r ta n t ?c. What j o b s a r e t h e r e in s t o r e s u s e d by

p eop le?d. What i s a f a c t o r y ?

A c t i v i t y : Choose a f a c t o r y t h a t i s f a ­m i l i a r t o the c l a s s . Study t h i s i n dep th .

(1) What a r e some t h i n g s t h a t d e c i d e where the f a c t o r y w i l l be b u i l t ?

(2) What j o b s a r e i n t h i s f a c t o r y ?

Do a J ob Tree o f t h i s f a c t o r y and l i s t d i f f e r e n t t y p e s of jobs on the " b r a n c h e s . "

UNIT I I I RELATING ABILITIES, SKILLS AND INTERESTS TO THE JOB

G e n era l O b j e c t i v e : To p ro v id e c h i l d r e n w i th t h e o p p o r t u n i t yt o e x p l o r e the r e l a t i o n s h i p o f a b i l i t i e s , s k i l l s and i n t e r e s t s to v a r i o u s v o c a t i o n a l p u r s u i t s .

F o u r th and S i x t h Grade L e v e l s :

1. Give eac h c h i l d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o make a sum­mary o f h i m s e l f : s k i l l s and p a r t i c u l a rt a l e n t s , a b i l i t i e s , s t r e n g t h s and weak­n e s s e s . Answer the q u e s t i o n s :

a . What would I l i k e to improve in m yse l f?

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b. How would I go a bou t a c h i e v i n g t h i s improve­ment?

c. I s i t im p o r t a n t t h a t I d e m o n s t r a t e my s k i l l s an d a b i l i t i e s ? I f s o , how s h o u ld I go about t h i s ?

d. I s i t a lw ays im p o r t a n t t o do w e l l on t e s t s ? Why?

e. Should I s e t some g o a l s f o r m y s e l f ? (Avoidthe i m p r e s s i o n t h a t v o c a t i o n a l g o a l s should be s e t now, b u t encourage c h i l d r e n to t h i n k abou t t h e s e . Some i n t e r m e d i a t e s u c c e s s goa ls i n s c h o o l cou ld be e xp lo re d with t h e ide a t h a t t h e s e a r e s t e p s toward major l i f e g o a l s . )

2 . P r e s e n t o c c u p a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n m a t e r i a l s from v a r i o u s s o u r c e s :

a. I n d u s t r y and b u s i n e s s .b. I d e a s f rom r e s o u r c e p e r s o n s .c. SEA O c c u p a t io n a l B r i e f s .d. P i c t u r e s o f work and w o rk e r s .

3 . Cons ide r v o c a t i o n s i n b road a r e a s o f i n t e r e s t and s k i l l .

a. Working w i t h i d e a s .b. Working w i th t h i n g s .c. Working w i t h p e o p le and a n i m a l s .d. Working o u td o o r s and i n d o o r s .e . Working i n one p l a c e o r many p l a c e s .f . S e l l i n g a n d / o r s e r v i n g .g. C r e a t i n g , p roduc ing and r e p r o d u c i n g .

4 . How i s a v o c a t i o n a l c h o ice made? (Use SVE f i l m ­s t r i p "What i s a jo b ? " )

a. I s money im por tan t?b. Respec t o f o t h e r s ?c. Boss o r worker?d. C o n t r i b u t i o n to s o c i e t y ?e . H e lp ing o t h e r s ?f . What w i l l be a v a i l a b l e i n the f u t u r e ?g. What w i l l be needed i n the f u t u r e ?h. E th n ic group c o n s i d e r a t i o n s ?

5. D i s c u s s l e i s u r e , r e c r e a t i o n , h o b b i e s , a v o c a t i o n s .

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APPENDIX B

OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION QUESTIONNAIRE

Name:_________________________________________________________

S choo l : Grade:

B i r t h d a y : Age Now:

1.

Boy G i r l ( C i r c l e )

What k in d o f work does your f a t h e r do?

2. What k in d o f work does your m o the r do?

3. What do you want t o do when you grow up?

A. Why do you t h i n k you want t o do t h i s ?

5. I f you could n o t do t h i s , wat e l s e would you want to do?

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APPENDIX C

OCCUPATIONAL ASPIRATION CHECKLIST

1. P u t an X i n f r o n t o f th e ONE job l i s t e d be low which you would choose i f you were f r e e t o choose any o f them you wished when you a r e grown up .

1. E l e c t r i c i a n 6. C a r p e n t e r

2. S t o r e manager 7. M i n i s t e r

3. Supreme Court J u s t i c e 8. F i l l i n g s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t

4. N ig h t watchman 9. F a c t o ry owner

5. Mus i c i a n 10. B a rbe r

2. P u t an X i n f r o n t o f th e ONE job l i s t e d be low which you t h i n k wouldbe the BEST ONE you a r e REALLY SURE you can g e t when you grow up.

11. Newspaper r e p o r t e r _____ 16. A ccoun tan t

12. Owner o f a farm 17. Warehouse worker

13. Shoe s h i n e r 18. A r c h i t e c t

______14. P h y s i c i a n 19. C le r k i n a s t o r e

______15. Mail c a r r i e r 20. M echanica l e n g i n e e r

3. P u t an X i n f r o n t o f th e ONE jo b l i s t e d be low which you wouldchoose i f you were f r e e t o choose any o f them you wished whenyou a r e grown u p .

21. Labor un ion o f f i c i a l _____ 26. T r a i n c o n d u c to r

22. Salesman 27. Chemist

23. C o l l eg e p r o f e s s o r 28. T a x i d r i v e r

24. J a n i t o r 29. Lawyer

25. Army c a p t a i n 30. R e s t a u r a n t cook

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Put an X i n f r o n t o f the ONE jo b l i s t e d below which you t h i n k would be the BEST ONE you a r e REALLY SURE you can g e t when you grow up.

31. U n d e r ta k e r

32. R a i l r o a d e n g i n e e r

33. C lo th e s p r e s s e r

34. Mayor o f a l a r g e c i t y

35. Plumber

36. T ea ch e r

37. N ig h t c l u b s i n g e r

38. Banker

39 . Army s e r g e a n t

40. A r t i s t

5. Pu t an X i n f r o n t o f th e ONE jo b l i s t e d below which you would choose i f you were f r e e to choose any o f them you w ished when you a r e grown up.

41. M a c h in i s t

42. W el fa re w orker

43. S c i e n t i s t

44. Soda f o u n t a i n c l e r k

45. C o r p o r a t i o n d i r e c t o r

46 . Policeman

47. D e n t i s t

48 . Coal m iner

49 . Truck d r i v e r

50. W r i t e r o f books

6. P u t an X i n f r o n t o f th e ONE jo b l i s t e d below which you t h i n k would be the BEST ONE you a r e REALLY SURE you can g e t when you grow up.

51. P layground d i r e c t o r

52. Radio announcer

5 3 . 'G a rb ag e c o l l e c t o r

54. Ambassador

55. Auto mechanic

56. B u i l d i n g c o n t r a c t o r

57. Farm w orker

58. S e n a t o r

59. Lumberjack

60. A i r l i n e p i l o t

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APPENDIX D

TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

During t h e s c h o o l y e a r , t h e s econd , f o u r t h and s i x t h g rades i n yo u r s c h o o l have been a p a r t o f a n e x p e r i m e n t a l p rogram i n v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e . As you know, c l a s s e s h a v e been r e c e i v i n g v a r y in g d e g r e e s o f a s s i s t a n c e from th e s c h o o l c o u n s e l o r . We a r e a n x i o u s f o r y o u r a p ­p r a i s a l o f t h i s program and r e q u e s t t h a t you r e p l y t o the f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s . Any a d d i t i o n a l comments s h ou ld be p l a c e d on th e back o f t h i s p a p e r and r e t u r n e d t o the c o u n s e l o r a s soon a s p o s s i b l e . Thank you.

W i l l i am H. Goff D i r e c t o r , P u p i l P e r s o n n e l

1. Do you t h i n k t h i s h a s been a w o r th w h i l e program f o r y o u r Yesc l a s s ? No

Comments:

2 . Would you f e e l t h a t t h i s p rogram would be more a p - Yesp r o p r i a t e a t a n o t h e r grade l e v e l ? No

Comments:

3. Do you t h i n k t h a t a v o c a t i o n a l development p rogram s h o u ld Yesbe i n t e g r a t e d i n t o t h e c u r r i c u lu m ? No

Comments:

4. I f s o , do you f e e l t h a t the c o u n s e l o r should s e r v e as Yesa r e s o u r c e p e r son t o t h i s program? No

Comments:

126

APPENDIX E

PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE

During th e s c h o o l y e a r , the second g o u r t h and s i x t h g r a d e s a t B e l l e Haven and J a c k s o n S choo ls have been a p a r t o f an e x p e r i m e n t a l program i n v o c a t i o n a l g u id a n c e . C la s s e s have been r e c e i v i n g v a r y i n g d e g r e e s o f a s s i s t a n c e from th e s ch o o l c o u n s e l o r . We a r e a n x io u s f o r y ou r i m p r e s s i o n o f t h i s program and r e q u e s t t h a t you com ple te and r e ­t u r n t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o th e s c h o o l tomorrow. Thank you.

W i l l i a m H. Gof f D i r e c t o r , P u p i l P e r s o n n e l

1. Do you t h i n k t h i s h a s been a worthwhile program Yesf o r y o u r c h i l d ? No

Comments:

2. As a r e s u l t o f t h i s p rogram, do you f e e l t h a t Yesy o u r c h i l d has become more i n t e r e s t e d i n jo b s ? No

Comments:

3. Has t h i s program h e l p e d your c h i l d t o become Yesmore aware o f job o p p o r t u n i t i e s ? No

Comments:

127

APPENDIX F

PRESTIGE SCORES OF OCCUPATIONAL ASPIRATION CHECKLIST

9 S co re s 4 S c o re s

Supreme Cour t J u s t i c e S t o r e ManagerP h y s i c i a n Newspaper R e p o r t e rC o l l e g e P r o f e s s o r SalesmanMayor o f a Large C i ty U n d e r t a k e rS c i e n t i s t W e l fa re WorkerAmbassador P layg round D i r e c t o r

8 S co re s 3 S co re s

M i n i s t e r C a r p e n t e rA r c h i t e c t Mail C a r r i e rChemist T r a i n ConductorBanker PlumberD e n t i s t Po l icem anS e n a t o r Auto Mechanic

7 S c o re s 2 S co re s

F a c t o r y Owner B a rb e rM echan ica l E n g i n e e r C le rk i n a S t o r eLawyer R e s t a u r a n t CookA r t i s t Army S e r g e a n tW r i t e r o f Books Truck D r i v e rA i r l i n e P i l o t Lumber jack

6 S c o re s 1 S co re s

M us ic ia n F i l l i n g S t a t i o n A t t e n d a n tA c co u n ta n t Warehouse WorkerArmy C a p ta in Tax i D r i v e rT e a c h e r N ig h t Club S i n g e rC o r p o r a t i o n D i r e c t o r Coal MinerB u i l d i n g C o n t r a c t o r Farm Worker

5 S c o re s 0 S co re s

E l e c t r i c i a n N igh t WatchmanOwner o f a Farm Shoe S h i n e rLabor Union O f f i c i a l J a n i t o rR a i l r o a d E n g i n e e r C lo t h e s P r e s s e rM a c h i n i s t Soda F o u n t a i n C le rkRadio Announcer Garbage C o l l e c t o r

128

APPENDIX G

STATISTICAL MODELS FOR TESTING MEAN DIFFERENCES IN POPULATIONS *

S e p a r a t e v a r i a n c e model f o r Pooled v a r i a n c e model f o ru n c o r r e l a t e d d a t a : u n c o r r e l a t e d d a t a :

C o r r e l a t e d d a t a m o d e l :

t - _______________ * 1 .. - - * 2.

Symbol code:

t = v a l u e by which th e s t a t i s ­t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f mean d i f f e r e n c e s w i l l be judged .

= mean o f group 1.

X2 = mean o f group 2.

r = p r o d u c t moment c o r r e l a t i o n

s? = v a r i a n c e o f group 1,

s “ = v a r i a n c e o f group 2.

= th e sum o f the squa red d e v i a t i o n s from the mean.

1.2’ 2

£x

Guide l i n e s :

When n^ w i t h d e g re e s

When n^ w i t h d e g re e s

■ n 2 and sjr = o f freedom e q u a l

^ n 2 and = o f freedom e q u a l

s^ : Use poo ledto n^ + 0 2 - 2 .

s£ : Use pooledt o n^ + n 2 - 2.

v a r i a n c e formula

v a r i a n c e formula

*W. Popham. E d u c a t i o n a l S t a t i s t i c s . New York: H arpe r and Row, 1967

129

2 2When n^ = ^ and f : Use poo led v a r i a n c e formula o rs e p a r a t e v a r i a n c e fo rm ula w i t h d e g re e s o f freedom i n each i n ­s t a n c e e q u a l t o n j - 1 o r ^ - 1.

2 2When n^ 4 ^ and Sj # S2 : Use s e p a r a t e v a r i a n c e formulaw i th t a b l e d t va lue f o r a g ive n l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e d e t e rm in e d by a v e r a g i n g t v a l u e s f o r (a) d e g re e s o f freedom e q u a l to n j - 1 and (b) d e g r e e s o f freedom eq u a l to n 2 - 1.

130

APPENDIX H

SPECIAL AIDS AND MATERIALS

S c ie n ce R esea rc h A s s o c i a t e s :

1. Widening O c c u p a t io n a l Hor izons K i t ( F i l m s t r i p s , J u n i o r

Guidance S e r i e s B o o k le t s , O c c u p a t io n a l B r i e f s ) .

2. Our Working World - 2nd l e v e l ( T e x t s , Workbooks, T eacher

Resource Book and R e c o r d s ) .

3. What I Like To Do - C h i l d r e n ' s I n t e r e s t I n v e n t o r y .

4. Guidance K i t f o r E lementa ry T e a ch e r s and C o u n s e l o r s .

5. P r o f e s s i o n a l Guidance S e r i e s ( 6 b o o k l e t s ) .

S t a n l e y Bowman, I n c .

1. F i l m s t r i p s : " B u i ld in g Work H a b i t s . "

2. Community H e lp e r Study P r i n t s .

E y e g a te , I n c . :

1. F i l m s t r i p s : " L i t t l e Things Tha t C oun t . "

SVE I n c . :

1. F i l m s t r i p s : "Learn ing to Live T o g e t h e r " , P a r t s I and I I .

U.S. Depar tm ent o f Labor :

1. D i c t i o n a r y o f O ccu p a t io n a l T i t l e s , Volumes I and I I , T h i rd

E d i t i o n , 1965.

2. T r a i n i n g Manual f o r the D i c t i o n a r y o f O c c u p a t io n a l T i t l e s ,

T h i r d E d i t i o n , P a r t s A and B, 1965.

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