PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

This article was downloaded by: [Wageningen UR Library]On: 22 September 2009Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 907218144]Publisher RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House,37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Journal of Vocational Education & TrainingPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t716100716

Towards competence-based VET: dealing with the pitfallsHarm Biemans a; Renate Wesselink a; Judith Gulikers a; Sanne Schaafsma a; Jos Verstegen a; Martin Mulder a

a Education & Competence Studies Group, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, theNetherlands

Online Publication Date: 01 September 2009

To cite this Article Biemans, Harm, Wesselink, Renate, Gulikers, Judith, Schaafsma, Sanne, Verstegen, Jos and Mulder,Martin(2009)'Towards competence-based VET: dealing with the pitfalls',Journal of Vocational Education & Training,61:3,267 — 286

To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/13636820903194682

URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13636820903194682

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial orsystematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply ordistribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contentswill be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug dosesshould be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directlyor indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.

Journal of Vocational Education and TrainingVol. 61, No. 3, September 2009, 267–286

ISSN 1363-6820 print/ISSN 1747-5090 online© 2009 The Vocational Aspect of Education LtdDOI: 10.1080/13636820903194682http://www.informaworld.com

Towards competence-based VET: dealing with the pitfalls

Harm Biemans*, Renate Wesselink, Judith Gulikers, Sanne Schaafsma, Jos Verstegen and Martin Mulder

Education & Competence Studies Group, Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, the NetherlandsTaylor and FrancisRJVE_A_419641.sgm(Received 28 October 2008; final version received 27 July 2009)10.1080/13636820903194682Journal of Vocational Education and Training0729-4360 (print)/1469-8366 (online)Original Article2009Taylor & Francis613000000September 2009HarmBiemansharm.biemans@wur.nl

This article builds on a previous 2004 Journal of Vocational Education andTraining (JVET) contribution by Biemans et al., in which several possible pitfallsin designing and implementing competence-based education (CBE) werediscussed. The present article reports on the results of an extensive researchprogramme on competence development and CBE consisting of four empiricalstudies carried out in schools for secondary and higher vocational education in thelife sciences in the Netherlands in the years 2004 to 2008. Based on the researchfindings, the article examines how the CBE pitfalls have been dealt with in DutchVET. The conclusion can be drawn that the various pitfalls have received attentionduring the design and implementation of CBE, but not all problems have beensolved yet. The article provides clues as to how the various pitfalls might befurther addressed in the future to improve the quality of competence-based VET.

Keywords: competence; competence-based education; vocational education; VET

Introduction

As described in the JVET article ‘Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: Back-ground and pitfalls’ (Biemans et al. 2004), competence-based education (CBE) hasbeen the leading paradigm for educational innovation in the Dutch vocational educa-tion and training (VET) system during the last decade. This trend, which applies toeducational programmes in all content domains, is regulated by governmental policy.The trend towards competence-based learning has a long history in the VET field andis not only visible in the Netherlands, but also in many other countries inside andoutside Europe (see for more details Arguelles and Gonczi 2000; Descy and Tessaring2001; Mulder 2004, 2007; Mulder, Weigel and Collins 2007; Wesselink et al. 2007).Biemans et al. (2004) provided a historical analysis of the development of CBE invarious countries and explored the concept of competence to shed light and reflectcritically on the attractiveness and usefulness of CBE for VET. This resulted in theidentification of seven CBE pitfalls, which are the starting point for the present article(see also the next section and Biemans et al. 2004).

Although the concept of competence dates back to ancient Persian, Greek andRoman times (Mulder et al. in press), interest in CBE and competence-based trainingarose in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of publications on competence-basedorganisational training and competence-based teacher training in the United States of

*Corresponding author. Email: harm.biemans@wur.nl

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

268 H. Biemans et al.

America (see Biemans et al. 2004). The resulting competency models were highlydebated in the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s and were criticised for being disintegrative andreductionist (Boreham 2002; Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005; Hyland 2006;Wesselink, De Jong and Biemans under review). In these more traditional approachesto CBE (e.g. McClelland 1976; Boyatzis 1982), competencies (the elements ofcompetence) were specified in detailed lists of fragmented and assessable behaviouralelements related to job performance. According to Hager (2006), however, competen-cies cannot be specified precisely in the same way as performance outcomes can; andmistakenly equating learning outcomes (performance) and competencies gives thelatter a false objectivity. Moreover, these detailed lists of competencies cannot provideguidelines for curriculum design because of the detailed level of description (Barnett1994); they thus frustrate learning and development more than they support it. In linewith this criticism, Hyland (1994) described the National Vocational Qualifications(NVQs, occupational standards with underlying key roles, units of competence,elements of competence, performance criteria and range indicators), as adopted inEngland and Wales, as fundamentally flawed and inappropriate for current and futureeducation and training needs (Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005). A related pointof critique, especially in the United Kingdom, is that the emphasis on competenceassessment is unbalanced: the use of the competence concept is reduced to assessmentand the ability to successfully demonstrate skills (Mulder, Weigel and Collins 2007).In this regard, Wolf (2001) argued that the search for uniformity and nationalstandards has moved away from a concern with competence and capability.

Taking these criticisms into account, more comprehensive (or multi-dimensionaland holistic) approaches of CBE have been developed to overcome the risks of thedisintegrative approaches discussed above, especially during the last decade and notonly in the Netherlands but also in countries like France, Germany and Austria(Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005; Arguelles and Gonczi 2000). Moreover, CBEhas continued to evolve in countries where the system has been in place for some time(see Biemans et al. 2004). The comprehensive approach in the Netherlands shows aremarkable resemblance to the French approach, where the focus is on individualcompetence, based on the integration of different forms of knowledge, skills andattitudes, as well as social and personal capabilities (Brockmann et al. 2008). Thecomprehensive approaches are still input approaches (Hoffmann 1999), however, incontrast to the detailed competency lists of the approaches described above, their start-ing point consists of integrated constructs of knowledge, skills and attitudes that leadto competent performance. In other words, the emphasis is not on a detailed list ofunderlying characteristics, but on the integration of knowledge, skills and attitudeswhich enable a professional to perform competently (Wesselink, De Jong and Biemansunder review). In this respect, Eraut (2003, 117) defined competence of professionalsas ‘the ability to perform the tasks and roles required to the expected standards’.

One of the key features of comprehensive CBE is that it comprises the develop-ment of competencies, described in competency profiles derived from professionalpractice, in specific contexts (Wesselink, De Jong and Biemans under review):competencies needed in practice to deal with professional core problems should bestarting points for competence development or learning. Moreover, competencies andcontexts should always be seen in coherence - without a context, competencies are toogeneric and have little meaning for the student (Hodkinson and Issitt 1995). In thissense, competence is ‘about framing an overall performance that is appropriate to aparticular context. It is not about following simplistic recipes’ (Hager 1998, 533).

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 269

Although competencies can be common across situations (Gonczi 1994), generic usedoes not necessarily guarantee that competence in one context is readily transferableto another (Eraut 2003).The basic philosophy behind comprehensive CBE is that VETshould enable students to acquire the competencies needed in their future professionsand in society as a whole (cf. Jenewein, Knauth and Zülch 2002). The focus of CBEis on developing individual students’ competencies (being an important prerequisitefor employability, further education and citizenship) and not merely on enabling thestudents to acquire qualifications or diplomas. The individual student takes a centralposition in CBE: he or she should be able to optimally develop his or her own compe-tencies based upon his or her own capabilities and preferences. Thus, CBE impliescreating opportunities for students in meaningful learning environments, in whichthey can develop integrated, performance-oriented capabilities for handling profes-sional core problems in practice. In this regard, the connectivity between learning inschool and learning in the workplace is crucial (Wesselink, De Jong and Biemansunder review). CBE not only involves learning in school but also learning in profes-sional practice settings, made possible together with private and public organisationsand/or enterprises. Ideally, the role of educational institutions can be characterised asorganising tailor-made learning along flexible pathways, taking students’ previouslyacquired competencies into account (Biemans et al. 2004).

Because of the integrative perspective on learning processes and competencies thatdirectly reflect professional practice, many stakeholders in the VET field expectcomprehensive CBE to reduce the gap between vocational education and the skillsneeded in the labour market. These stakeholders believe that graduates from compe-tence-based VET will be better able to perform complex jobs in professional practiceand make necessary decisions based on more solid argumentations than graduateswith traditional qualifications. Moreover, the notion of CBE fits very well withinpolicy discourses of employability and lifelong learning (cf. European CommissionEducation and Culture 2008). Competence systems carry with them the promise ofrendering learning processes and outcomes that are measurable and manageable.Finally, the concept of competence can easily be linked to the performance approachof learning and education made popular by ideas on core competencies of organisa-tions (Prahalad and Hamel 1990). The latter reason is another example of theperceived potential of the competence concept to bridge the education-work divide.

Whether CBE will indeed improve the connection between VET and the labourmarket depends, among other things, on the ways in which possible pitfalls aredealt with. In this respect, Hyland (2001) claims that several authors haveexpressed a general and sometimes uncritical commitment to VET reform alongCBE and training lines. As mentioned in the first paragraph of this article, pitfallspotentially threatening CBE realisation (not only in the Dutch context but also inother national contexts – see previous paragraphs) were discussed by Biemans et al.(2004). These pitfalls will be summarised in the following section. Next, the articlereports on the results of an extensive research programme on competence develop-ment and CBE in the Netherlands. These studies examined how CBE, competence-based learning environments and assessments were implemented and perceived inDutch secondary and higher vocational education in the life sciences in the years2004 to 2008. The research findings illustrate how the CBE pitfalls have been dealtwith in the design and implementation of CBE and what problems remain to besolved in the (near) future for successful implementation of CBE (see Discussionsection).

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

270 H. Biemans et al.

Possible CBE pitfalls

Biemans et al. (2004) discussed the following possible CBE pitfalls:

● The concept of competence. Reviewing the international scientific literature oncompetence and competence development, one must conclude that understand-ing of the concepts competence and CBE is diffuse (both in theory and ineducational practice, because of which ‘the apparently simple has becomeprofoundly complicated’ (Norris 1991, 332) and the concepts therefore requireclear definition and conceptualisation (see also Weinert 2001; Van der Sanden,De Bruijn and Mulder 2003; Mansfield 2004). According to Nijhof (2003),competence-based curricula, learning processes and assessment procedures canonly be designed fruitfully if competence is operationalised as unambiguouslyas possible.

● Standardisation. A second pitfall is an over-reliance on standardisation ofcompetencies, whereas the power of CBE lies in its context-embeddedness(Hodkinson and Issitt 1995). Using overly standardised competency frame-works is really missing the point, since every abstraction from actual practicemakes them less applicable and more bureaucratic (Klarus 2003). Moreover, toostrict a use of competence standards (rigid backward mapping from job require-ments to learning trajectories) may lead to conservative training, instead ofpreparing students for innovative developments (cf. Den Boer and Nieuwenhuis2002; James 2002). In this respect, Achtenhagen and Grubb (2001) evenconclude that competence-based training is appropriate for a Taylorist world,but is an inadequate preparation for the highly-skilled workplace, whereflexibility and problem-solving abilities are required.

● School and workplace learning. It appears to be difficult to integrate learning inschool with learning in the workplace (see also Wesselink, De Jong andBiemans, under review), while this is one of the most crucial characteristics ofCBE (Wesselink et al. 2007). According to Klarus (2003), the distinctionbetween these two settings should be reconsidered: trying to ensure some formof continuity throughout the learning pathways of individual students (learningin different places at different times) may be easier than solving the integrationproblem at system level.

● Determining learning activities. Translating competence-oriented goals intoactual learning activities is crucial in the implementation of CBE. Many authorsargue that CBE learning arrangements and pathways should be based onprinciples of social, constructivist learning (cf. Van der Sanden, De Bruijn andMulder 2003; Wesselink et al. 2007). Teachers should work in multi-disciplin-ary teams to plan, design and implement new competence-oriented learningactivities to support both learning in school and learning in the workplace. IfCBE implementation gets stuck at the preparation phase and/or is not put intopractice, true innovation and realisation of the expected benefits will not bepossible.

● Assessment of competencies. According to Wolf (1995, 1), ‘competence-basedassessment is a form of assessment that is derived from the specification of a setof outcomes; that so clearly states both the outcomes – general and specific –that assessors, students and interested third parties can all make reasonablyobjective judgements with respect to student achievement or non-achievementof these outcomes; and that certifies student progress on the basis of

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 271

demonstrated achievement of these outcomes’. Since traditional assessmentmethods are ill-suited to a competence-based curriculum, new instruments haveto be developed that meet criteria for competence-based assessments (see alsoBennett 1993; Birenbaum 2007; Baartman 2008; Kane 2008; Linn, Bakerandand Dunbar 1991; Messick 1994; Van der Vleuten and Schuwirth 2005; Wolf2001). This is a crucial but very difficult task. Assessment of competencies is alabour-intensive and time-consuming exercise, it is hard to objectify and ofteninvolves structured observation rather than classroom examination.

● Changing teacher roles and identity. Within the context of CBE, teachers aresupposed to find a balance between fulfilling their expert role (transferringknowledge) and their coaching role (guiding students’ learning processes)(Wesselink et al. 2007). Students are expected to take more responsibility fortheir own learning, whereas the teacher used to be in charge. This requires adifferent attitude from both parties, which should not be underestimated whileimplementing CBE (Jellema 2003).

● Competence management. To be able to develop CBE to its full potential, struc-tural attention should be paid to competence development of teachers and schoolmanagers. Based on the principle ‘practice what you preach’ and characterisedby an open culture and cooperation, competence management should be asupporting strategy to develop both the school organisation and the individual(Mulder 2000).

CBE in the life sciences in Dutch VET

As mentioned above, the context of the research programme reported on in this articlewas Dutch vocational education in the life sciences. In 2007, more than 70,000students were enrolled in educational programmes delivered by institutions for educa-tion in the life sciences in the Netherlands. These educational programmes concerntraditional agricultural domains (e.g. plant and animal sciences) but also other, some-times relatively new fields (e.g. nutrition, health, nature and the living environment).Educational programmes in the life sciences are offered at all levels of vocational andhigher education: preparatory vocational education, secondary vocational education,higher vocational education, university education and post-graduate (adult) vocationaleducation (see Figure 1).Figure 1. Overview of the formal educational system in the Netherlands.Note: GE = general education, VE = vocational education.The Dutch institutions for education in the life sciences joined forces in 2005 inthe so-called Green Knowledge Co-operative. The design and implementation ofcompetence-based learning was defined as the overarching theme for educationalinnovation at all levels in the years 2006 to 2010 (Green Knowledge Co-operative2006).

As mentioned in the Introduction section, education in the life sciences is no excep-tion in the Dutch educational landscape as far as the implementation of competence-based learning is concerned. The main goal of this educational innovation can bedescribed as preparing students to become professionals who can contribute to inno-vation in the life sciences sector in a more effective way. There are already manypromising initiatives at all educational levels in which competence-based learningenvironments are being developed, implemented and evaluated. In some cases, thisconcerns local initiatives, while, in other cases, cooperation exists at a regional or evennational level. At the level of secondary vocational education, mostly collaborativeactivities have been developed because these schools are obliged by the government

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

272 H. Biemans et al.

to have competence-based curricula in place by 2010 based on nationally approvedcompetency (or qualification) profiles. Examples of national cooperation in educa-tional innovation are the related projects ‘The Green Standard’ and ‘The Green LAB’(Learning Activity Bank, Aeresgroel 2008), aimed at designing and implementingcompetence-based assessments, learning activities and learning environments.Because of these national initiatives and obligations, this article mainly focuses onsecondary vocational education. Several interesting local initiatives of higher voca-tional education institutions were included in the research as well.

Research programme

Related to the innovation agenda set by the Green Knowledge Co-operative, theEducation and Competence Studies Group of Wageningen University carried out aneducational research programme entitled ‘Competence development in the domain ofthe life sciences’. This programme focused on several aspects of the design, imple-mentation and evaluation of CBE in vocational education in the life sciences in theNetherlands:

● Theoretical principles underlying the design of comprehensive CBE (Study 1).● Students’, teachers’ and workplace training supervisors’ perceptions of and

experiences with CBE (Study 2).● Design, quality and experiences of/with competence-based assessments

(Study 3).● Inspiring learning environments within the context of CBE (Study 4).

In the following subsections, the four studies will be described in brief and the mostimportant findings will be reported. In the final section, these findings will bediscussed in relation to the previously mentioned CBE pitfalls.

Study 1: theoretical principles underlying the design of comprehensive CBE

Following Mulder (2001), a working definition of competence was used by Biemanset al. (2004, 530):

Figure 1. Overview of the formal educational system in the Netherlands.Note: GE = general education, VE = vocational education.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 273

‘Competence’ is the capability of a person (or an organisation) to reach specificachievements. Personal competencies comprise integrated performance-orientedcapabilities, which consist of clusters of knowledge structures and also cognitive,interactive, affective and where necessary psychomotor capabilities and attitudes andvalues, which are required for carrying out tasks, solving problems and more gener-ally, effectively functioning in a certain profession, organisation, position or ‘role’.

This definition was based on an extensive literature study and earlier empiricalresearch on basic skills and curriculum decision-making (Mulder 1992). However, itdoes not directly define comprehensive CBE. In other words, how would we know itif we saw it?

Therefore, our first study was carried out to define the underlying principles ofcomprehensive CBE and, thus, to identify the ‘what’ (content of the curriculum) and‘how’ (instruction) of comprehensive CBE. The aim of this study was to develop avalidated conceptual framework that describes the crucial characteristics of CBE (theCBE principles) and the development of these characteristics ‘from traditional voca-tional education to CBE’. Fifteen leading Dutch educational researchers in the domainof CBE from eight different research institutes participated in this study. The studyconsisted of three rounds (see also Wesselink et al. 2007). The first round was a focusgroup session, during which the preliminary set of 10 CBE principles as defined byMulder (2004) was discussed; the results were processed in the first version of theconceptual framework. Then two Delphi study rounds took place. Participants wereasked to indicate to what extent they agreed with the changed principles, underlyingvariables and phases and to provide comments and suggestions for improvement.Based on the participants’ responses the conceptual framework was revised. TheDelphi study was finished when the overall score for each principle was satisfactoryand participants had no further proposals for improvement.

The resulting conceptual framework consisted of eight principles underlyingcomprehensive CBE (Wesselink et al. 2007):

(1) The competencies that are the basis for the study programme are defined.(2) Professional core problems are the organising unit for (re)designing the curric-

ulum (learning and assessment).(3) Competence development of students is assessed before, during and after the

learning process.(4) Learning activities take place in various authentic situations.(5) In learning and assessment processes, knowledge, skills and attitudes are

integrated.(6) Self-responsibility and (self-)reflection of students are stimulated.(7) Teachers, both in school and practice, balance their roles as coaches and

experts.(8) A basis is established for a lifelong learning attitude among students.

Each principle was made more concrete through describing four phases of realisationof CBE (not, starting to be, partially and completely competence-based) leading to aframework of eight by four cells, the so-called ‘Matrix for competence-based voca-tional education’. For example, CBE phase four for principle eight was described as:in learning trajectories competencies related to learning and (labour) identity develop-ment are integrated, and reflection on the future careers of students takes place. Thecontent of the four cells belonging to a certain principle was defined by the extent to

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

274 H. Biemans et al.

which the particular underlying variables, in this case ‘(labour) identity development’,‘development of learning competencies’ and ‘focus on future career’, were present orabsent (see for more details Wesselink et al. 2007). Thus, the criteria by which aneducational programme might move from one cell to another were defined bypresence or absence of the particular underlying variables.

The content of the cells of the matrix was validated by the educational expertsmentioned above. In other words, the matrix comprises a validated conceptualframework for competence-based VET integrating both the curriculum and instruc-tional aspects of comprehensive CBE that can be applied at all levels of vocationaleducation, not only in the Netherlands but also in other countries that have adoptedthe policy to implement comprehensive CBE (see Introduction section). At thispoint, it should be noted that it is the combination of principles that defines compre-hensive CBE. As such, many of the principles (referring to rather general teachingand learning approaches) are not unique to comprehensive CBE (e.g. principle sixon stimulating self-responsibility and (self-)reflection), but the combination ofprinciples is.

The matrix can be used by teacher teams to determine the extent to which the prin-ciples have been realised in their educational programmes: with the help of the matrix,teachers can reflect on their educational programme, position their programme in thematrix and define and prioritise educational innovation goals for the future (see formore details Wesselink et al. in press). A current study is aimed at determining whichfactors promote and impede the extent to which comprehensive CBE has been realisedin secondary vocational education programmes.

Study 2: stakeholders’ perceptions of and experiences with CBE

The implementation of CBE in schools for vocational education does not automati-cally imply that educational quality will improve or that education will be betteraligned with the perceptions of relevant stakeholders (e.g. teachers, students andworkplace training supervisors). Moreover, the perceptions and experiences of variousstakeholders regarding competence-based learning environments may differ consider-ably. Important groups of stakeholders of the implementation of CBE who are directlyinvolved in students’ learning processes are students, teachers and workplace trainingsupervisors. How do these groups experience CBE? What are their perceptions ofCBE? And are they being motivated by CBE?

A study was conducted on these stakeholders’ experiences with and perceptions ofCBE. As part of this study, students and teachers from various educationalprogrammes of five schools for secondary and higher vocational education in the lifesciences, which are known for their competence-based way of providing education,filled out a questionnaire to examine which CBE aspects as specified in the matrix forCBE (principles with underlying variables; see Study 1) they experienced to bepresent in educational practice and to what extent they found these aspects motivating.As mentioned above, many of these principles are not unique to comprehensive CBE,but the combination of principles is. Only when the average scores on the extent ofrealisation of (nearly) all principles are relatively high can a particular educationalprogramme be characterised as comprehensive CBE. Moreover, groups of students,teachers and workplace training supervisors were interviewed to gain deeper insightinto their experiences of the CBE trajectories they participated in and to find indica-tions for further improvement of these trajectories.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 275

Both teachers and students recognised the aspects of CBE in their educationalprogrammes to various degrees: the educational programmes cannot be typified asfully comprehensive CBE, but the various principles underlying CBE have beenrealised to divergent degrees in the eyes of the stakeholders. Especially the connectionbetween core problems in the corresponding professions on the one hand and thecurriculum on the other hand (principle two) was considered to be strong. Moreover,the respondents were positive about the extent to which CBE aspects were motivatingfor students. In this respect, however, teachers were significantly more positive thanthe students themselves (cf. Biemans et al. 1999; Roelofs and Terwel 1999).

Apparently, CBE should be regarded as a new educational paradigm, both forstudents and for teachers and workplace training supervisors: the interviews showedthat it takes time for them to define new ways of learning and working within thecontext of CBE and they have to learn how to deal with the underlying CBE principlesin educational practice. In fact, the implementation of CBE has consequences for allaspects of teaching and learning processes in educational practice: it implies a rede-sign of the existing curriculum. Theoretical subjects like mathematics and physics nolonger take a central position in the curriculum: professional core problems are theorganising units for redesigning the curriculum. This study showed that students werepositive about this trend: they preferred a strong connection between professionalpractice and the curriculum. Nevertheless, students indicated that they would like tohave more lessons in which teachers present relevant, applicable and useful contentknowledge that will support them in performing workplace training assignments andassessments. Regarding the role of their teachers, students indicated that they expectedto receive more support while doing their assignments: teachers should not rely toomuch on their students’ independent learning but also provide answers to theirquestions (principles six and seven).

Teachers, on the other hand, mentioned that they have not (yet) developed a suit-able set of assignments to be carried out by students within the context of CBE. Inmany cases, these assignments are directly derived from the traditional learning mate-rials meant for direct instruction. According to the teachers, CBE materials shouldinclude structured assignments that allow in-depth and independent processing,together with reference books that are being used in professional practice.

The workplace training supervisors expressed appreciation for the fact that thecurriculum is now more aligned with professional practice than before. In the eyes ofthe workplace training supervisors, it is beneficial for the students that agreements arebeing made between schools and (training) companies as to which learning activitiesshould be done in the company, which learning activities in school and which learningactivities in alternative settings (like simulation environments).

Study 3: design, quality and experiences of/with competence-based assessments

Where the previous study focussed on the educational part of CBE, this study zoomsin on the assessment side of the coin, as this specific part is one of the pitfalls in thedevelopment and implementation of CBE (Biemans et al. 2004). At all levels of voca-tional education, teachers and policy makers are struggling with the design and imple-mentation of innovative summative competence-based assessments aimed at judgingwhether or not a student is competent in dealing with core professional problemsaccording to the standards expected of a starting professional (specified in the nation-ally approved competency profiles). In 15 schools for secondary and higher vocational

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

276 H. Biemans et al.

education, the summative competence-based assessment (CBA) procedures werestudied through document analysis, questionnaires, (group) interviews and observa-tions. The aim of this analysis was to identify typical characteristics of the CBAsdeveloped in vocational education in the life sciences and salient differences in thesummative assessment practices of secondary and higher vocational education. Inaddition, the study aimed at studying the perceptions of students, teachers, assessorsand employers of these CBAs, using 12 criteria for evaluating CBA quality (Baartmanet al. 2006). In this respect, the study is directly related to research in the fieldstressing the need for new quality criteria for CBAs and examining the perceptions ofrelevant stakeholders of these criteria (cf. Bennett 1993; Birenbaum 2007; Baartman2008; Kane 2008; Linn, Bakerand and Dunbar 1991; Messick 1994; Van der Vleutenand Schuwirth 2005; Wolf 2001).

Many of the studied schools aim at making the assessments more authentic bytrying to ensure that professional practice is strongly represented in the summativeCBAs (Gulikers et al. 2008). In all of the schools, the summative CBAs requirestudents to demonstrate that they are competent in dealing with a particular critical jobsituation (CJS). A CJS is a description of a realistic and contextualised professionalsituation that involves performing a complex combination of job tasks and dealingwith professional dilemmas. The ultimate goal behaviour, required core job tasks,professional dilemmas, relevant competencies and their specific results defined asobservable performance indicators are described for all CJSs. These are all directlyderived from the particular nationally approved competency profile. This defines whatthe CBA aims to assess (see Table 1 for an example; see Gulikers, Biemans andMulder (in press) for an elaborate description of the summative CBA practices insecondary vocational education).

With respect to how the CJS is assessed, differences between schools were found.All schools use a mix of methods to assess students’ competence in dealing with theCJS, but different methods are used. In secondary vocational education, the summa-tive CBA always included an observation of the student performing the CJS in a realprofessional practice situation (i.e. the work placement context), followed by anassessment interview (i.e. called criterion-based interview) in which the student has toexplain the actions and decisions taken while performing the CJS. In higher vocationaleducation the summative CBA was based on students’ reflections, argumentations andjustifications for relevant performances and products, while their actual performanceof the CJS in professional practice is not observed by an assessor. Moreover, the roleand involvement of employers was found to differ. In secondary vocational education,employers tend to participate in assessment procedures as assessors, in addition to ateacher assessor, while employers do not play an active role in the development or useof the assessments in higher vocational education. These assessments are conductedby only one assessor, namely a teacher. In this respect, students in higher vocationaleducation were less satisfied with their CBAs. They argued that appropriate assess-ments of professional competence should incorporate actual observation of the studentperforming the CJS in real professional practice or should at least incorporate thejudgement of employers who have seen the student performing the CJS.

In schools for secondary vocational education, all stakeholders expressed the needfor a clearer division of roles and responsibilities between students, teachers andemployers in the assessment. At the moment, employers are not familiar with theirassessor roles and students are not always well aware of what is expected of them,certainly in the assessment interview. On the other hand, employers have faith in this

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 277

new way of assessing. They applaud the fact that, compared to the traditional, mostlyknowledge- or routine-skills oriented tests previously adopted by schools, the attitudeaspects of competence are taken into account to a much higher extent in the CBAs(e.g. taking initiative, willingness to learn, being a sociable co-worker). Employersconsider these attitudes to be crucial in professional practice and they are now wellarticulated in the CJSs that are the starting points of all CBAs. Employers also supportthe idea of being an assessor, but they prefer to do this together with an experiencedassessor from the school to guarantee a higher-quality assessment.

Students often experience insufficient alignment of their school assignments, theirworkplace training tasks and the CBAs. Also in this respect, differences betweensecondary and higher vocational education are found. Secondary vocational educationstudents experience a strong connection between assessment and workplace trainingbecause the CJSs in the assessments are competence-based and were experienced asdirectly related to their practical work, but the connection between the assessmentsand the school assignments is considered to be weak. In many cases, school instruc-tion and assignments are not competence-based, but characterised by isolated disci-plinary topics and separate instruction for theoretical knowledge and skill training.Moreover, students complain that they are not well prepared for the questions beingasked in the concluding assessment interview. Students expect more traditional theoryquestions like ‘what nutrients are present in daily food for cows?’ instead of morereflective questions like ‘why did you decide to change the food you give the cows?’

Table 1. Example of a summative CBA format for animal care specialist.

Goal The animal care specialist at a dairy farm takes care of, feeds and milks the cows and takes care of their living environment in such a waythat the animals stay in good condition and the working environmentsuch that the people involved are at ease. The animal care specialistalso facilitates the reproduction and breeding processes of theanimals in such a way the production of planned and healthyoffspring is guaranteed.

Core tasks - Feed animals- Take care of animals- Milk animals- Take care of environments of animals and people involved- Facilitate reproduction and breeding processes

Dilemmas faced in professional practice

- Quality versus efficiency- Animal welfare- Safety versus business results

Competencies - Decision-making and initiating activities- Collaborating and consulting- Acting ethically- Formulating and reporting- Using professional expertise- Applying relevant materials and means- Planning and organising- Producing quality- Following instructions and procedures- Dealing with pressure and setbacks

Performance indicator (example)

Feeds safely, efficiently and according to procedures held at the farm(addressing core task ‘feeding animals’ and competency ‘followinginstructions and procedures’)

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

278 H. Biemans et al.

or ‘what would you have done if one of the cows wouldn’t eat for three days?’. Inschools for higher vocational education, it is the other way round: students cannotrelate their assessment tasks to their workplace training, while they do perceive anobvious connection between assessments and school-based instruction and assign-ments. The alignment of school learning, workplace learning and assessment requirescareful consideration, as this is a precondition for effective competence-basedassessment (Gulikers et al. 2008).

An overarching problem that seemed to hamper the quality and effective imple-mentation of the assessments was the different interpretations that various teachers,students and/or involved employers could have of the same assessment as well as theineffective communication resulting from these different interpretations. The CBAsare relatively new in all schools and different stakeholders have different expectationsand different understandings of how these new CBAs should be conducted. Evenwithin one teacher team, different teachers were found to have very different ideasabout how the assessment was to be conducted (e.g. different assessors askedcompletely different types of questions in the assessment interview) (Gulikers,Baartman and Biemans in press). Students complained about mixed messages theyreceived from teachers, and employers in secondary vocational education were unsureabout their role as assessors. A conclusion of this study is that in the phase of imple-menting new CBAs, teachers should be stimulated to explicate a shared understandingof the CBA, as this might be a precondition for high-quality CBA (see Gulikers,Baartman and Biemans, in press). Moreover, actively involving all stakeholders (i.e.,not only teachers, but also students and employers) in the evaluation of new CBAs canpositively influence the development and improvement of the CBAs. Two reasonswere found for this: (1) students and employers had their own views on the quality ofCBAs and were able to come up with ideas for improvement that differed from thoseof the teachers and (2) the positive and constructive feedback of employers andstudents had a motivating effect on the teachers, who were struggling with developingand implementing these new CBAs.

Study 4: inspiring learning environments within the context of CBE

Implementing comprehensive CBE requires changing the students’ learning environ-ments: competence-based learning environments should incorporate CBE principles(see for more details Study 1). To help schools choose and develop appropriatecompetence-based learning environments, a specific set of so-called ‘inspiring’(competence-based) learning environments was examined in the fourth study. Thisstudy focused on the extent to which these learning environments truly inspiredstudents or, in other words, fostered their competence development and motivation.Moreover, the study examined whether the concept of inspiring learning environmentshelped teachers to implement CBE.

The inspiring learning environments concerned the domain of entrepreneurship inthe life sciences sector. The 12 prototypical inspiring learning environments for entre-preneurs (e.g. clinic, laboratory, expedition, studio) (Kupper et al. 2003) were used asthe starting point for this study. These learning environments were typified by aspecific set of corresponding learning activities and characteristics (e.g. degree ofauthenticity, student- or teacher-guided). With this set in mind, four innovativecompetence-based courses on entrepreneurship in schools for secondary and highervocational education that were argued to build on the concept of inspiring learning

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 279

environments were selected, monitored and evaluated. For each case, the design of theparticular learning environment was examined by analysing relevant documents andcourse materials and questioning teachers. Students’ learning activities were observedusing a standardised observation model to be able to describe the learning environ-ments as they were realised in educational practice in terms of relevant characteristics.Students’ entrepreneurial competencies were assessed by the students themselves,their peer students and their coach (triangulation) through a digital competence scan(based on the entrepreneurial competence clusters described by Man, Lau and Chan2002) at the beginning and at the end of the particular learning trajectory. A question-naire and group interview were used to examine whether the learning environmentswere motivating and inspiring for the students and why (or why not).

An important assumption within the context of CBE is that students are to a largeextent responsible for their own learning process (principle six). In other words, learn-ing environments should offer students inspiration to become actively engaged in theirown learning process. Our study showed, however, that students prefer learning envi-ronments mainly characterised by external regulation (by teachers, coaches, etc.) atthe beginning of their learning trajectories. During these learning trajectories theirpreferences move in the direction of more open learning environments characterisedby regulation by the students themselves. Thus, during their educational programmethe students’ needs for autonomy and responsibility appear to increase and theybecome more capable to learn independently. This finding should be taken intoaccount while selecting and/or designing learning environments for students (one ofour findings was that teachers tend to select or design competence-based learningenvironments characterised by a relatively high degree of self-regulation).

As part of this project, a digital tool was developed to support teachers in choosingfrom the 12 inspiring learning environments mentioned above. For the selection ofappropriate learning environments, this tool takes several variables into account, suchas student level, number of students, goal of the course, etc. Teachers need to specifythese data while using the tool, which will provide them with advice about which char-acteristics of inspiring learning environments are suitable in their case. An advantageof this tool appeared to be that it provides a common language for teachers in thisselection and design process: it enables teachers to reflect on their learning environ-ments and to think of alternatives while using the same conceptual framework. Apartfrom a careful selection or design process, clear communication between teachers andstudents about goals and procedures of the intended learning activities within thelearning environments is of vital importance. Finally, students should be supported bytheir teachers while performing these learning activities (principle seven). Under theseconditions, competence-based learning environments can be truly inspiring.

Discussion

In the first part of this article possible CBE pitfalls were mentioned (see for moredetails Biemans et al. 2004). Next, the article reported on the results of an extensiveresearch programme on competence development and CBE consisting of four empir-ical studies carried out in schools for secondary and higher vocational education in thelife sciences in the Netherlands. Based on the research findings, this section willreflect on how the CBE pitfalls have been dealt with in the years 2004 to 2008 duringthe design and implementation of CBE in Dutch VET in the life sciences and whatshould be done in the (near) future. The results of our research programme shed light

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

280 H. Biemans et al.

on several of these issues. Given the similarities between the Netherlands and othercountries with respect to the implementation of comprehensive CBE (see Introductionsection), these conclusions and recommendations are, in our opinion, also relevant toother national contexts, where they can also help foster successful introduction andfurther implementation of comprehensive CBE (see also Arguelles and Gonczi 2000;Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005).

First of all, regarding the level of conceptual consensus, our research revealed thatvarious stakeholders indeed have different perceptions of competence and CBE:students, teachers and workplace training supervisors appear to perceive and experi-ence competence-based education and assessment and the consequences for learningenvironments and assessment procedures in different ways (Studies 2 and 3). Compa-rable differences in perceptions of various stakeholders of CBA were reported byBirenbaum (2007) and Kane (2008). Different perceptions also exist both within andbetween educational institutions, which may decrease the trustworthiness of theconcept (Mulder 2000). In other words, there is only partial consensus in educationalpractice on the meaning of these concepts (cf. Van der Sanden, De Bruijn and Mulder2003). This pitfall, however, has been recognised in educational practice: there is anincreasing sense of urgency with regard to achieving greater conceptual consensus.Both at national and at local, institutional level discussions have been organised toachieve this goal. In this respect, the ‘Matrix for competence-based vocationaleducation’ (Wesselink et al. 2007; see Study 1) as a validated conceptual frameworkfor comprehensive CBE proved to be useful to discuss and reduce differences inperceptions and was adopted as a frame of reference by several educational institu-tions in the field. The matrix enables teacher teams to determine their current positionwith respect to comprehensive CBE implementation in their educational programmesas well as future goals with respect to the design of competence-based curricula,learning processes and assessment procedures (see also Wesselink et al. in press).Moreover, Gulikers, Baartman and Biemans (in press) showed that explicitly creatinga shared interpretation of CBA practices within a school can positively affect thedevelopment and implementation of CBA.

The second pitfall concerns the issue of over-reliance on standardisation, whichmay result in too much insensitivity to context and in conservative training (see alsoHodkinson and Issitt 1995; Wolf 1995, 2001). Especially for secondary vocationaleducation, competency profiles have been formulated at the national level (for highervocational education mainly at school level). The same holds true for the correspond-ing summative assessments (developed in the national project The Green Standard –see Study 3). In terms of the first two principles of the ‘Matrix for competence-basedvocational education’ (Wesselink et al. 2007), both the competencies that are the basisfor the various study programmes and the professional core problems that are used asthe organising unit for (re)designing learning and summative assessment have beendefined at the national level. Although the whole point of these nationally approvedcompetency profiles is their exchange value in the labour market, it is important forschools to stay tuned to the specific labour contexts their students are confronted within their local work placement settings and future jobs (without being too sensitive tocontext, which leads to credibility problems) (see Study 2). This requires finding abalance between national standards and local flexibility. Even though institutions forsecondary vocational education are expected to use these competency profiles andcore problems, they still are allowed (and even stimulated to take advantage of) certaindegrees of freedom in taking the necessary context-embeddedness of CBE into

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 281

account (cf. Klarus 2003): they are responsible for the design of their own flexible andauthentic arrangements for learning and assessment that not only fit with nationalstandards but are also (to some extent) sensitive to local labour market needs anddemands and context-specific aspects. While designing these flexible pathways forstudents, educational institutions should also take recent and future developments,innovations and dilemmas in professional practice into account, encourage theirstudents to reflect on these issues and be proactive to avoid rigid backward mappingand conservative training (cf. Den Boer and Nieuwenhuis 2002; James 2002). In thisrespect, national standards should be updated on a regular basis as well. Our researchshowed that both according to teachers and to workplace training supervisors repre-senting professional practice, the educational programmes are now more aligned withpresent and future professional practice than before, although there is still room forimprovement (see Studies 2 and 3).

This is also the case for the integration of school and workplace learning, the thirdpitfall (see also Wesselink, De Jong and Biemans, under review). Recent studies onactual learning in the workplace have revealed many concerns about the relationbetween vocational education and professional practice. Several scholars stated thatspending a portion of learning time in the workplace does not automatically denoteeducational enrichment (Hardy and Parent 2003; Eraut 2004; Griffiths and Guile2003). It appears to be difficult to integrate learning in school with learning in theworkplace (cf. Klarus 2003). Nevertheless, our findings revealed that it is necessaryfor successful CBE implementation that agreements are made between schools and(training) companies as to which learning activities should take place in the company,which in school and which in alternative settings like practical simulation learningenvironments (see Study 2). Moreover, learning activities performed by individualstudents in different places at different times should be aligned with each other (e.g.reflection in school on training tasks done in professional practice). In addition,students often appeared to experience insufficient connectivity between their schoolassignments, workplace training tasks and competence-based assessments (see alsoGriffiths and Guile 2003; Tynjälä 2009; see Study 3). In other words, in many cases,continuity throughout their learning pathways is lacking. Intensive communicationbetween all stakeholders involved is necessary to tackle this problem. In addition, anew mix of formal and informal learning, guided learning and self-directed experien-tial learning might be needed: students should be made aware of their competenciesand ways of learning, but this requires different approaches in the workplace than inschool settings (Griffiths and Guile 2003; Onstenk 2003; Simons, Van der Linden andDuffy 2000).

In comprehensive CBE, students are expected to develop their own competenciesthrough learning activities taking place in different authentic situations (e.g.Wesselink et al. 2007). This implies that effective ways of competence-based learningthat integrate relevant knowledge, skills and attitudes should be planned, designed andimplemented (cf. Delamare Le Deist and Winterton 2005). If CBE implementationgets stuck at the preparation phase and/or does not get carried into the execution phaseof actual learning arrangements, true innovation will not take place (fourth pitfall).Our studies showed that Dutch institutions for vocational education in the life scienceshave made considerable efforts to design, develop and implement new competence-based learning activities and assessments based on the critical job situations (seeStudy 3 for more information) in order to support and connect learning and assessmentin school and in the workplace (Collin and Tynjälä 2003). This process is either

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

282 H. Biemans et al.

organised at the national level (in secondary vocational education the projects TheGreen Standard and The Green LAB aimed at designing competence-basedassessments and learning activities and assignments in multi-disciplinary teams) or atschool level (in higher vocational education). This process has not been completedyet: teachers mentioned that they have not (yet) developed a suitable set of assign-ments to be carried out by students within the context of CBE. In many cases, theseassignments are directly derived from the traditional learning materials meant fordirect instruction (see Study 2). Thus, in the coming years, further development ofsuitable competence-based learning activities that truly inspire students and enablethem to study in a more responsible and reflective way remains an issue of highpriority (cf. Von Glasersfeld 1995; see Study 4). But this is not enough: teachersshould be supported in implementing the new learning activities in their own educa-tional practice (see Studies 2, 3 and 4).

Developing and implementing appropriate competence-based assessments takes acrucial position in the implementation of CBE: new instruments have to be developedthat meet quality criteria for competence-based assessments (see also Bennett 1993;Birenbaum 2007; Baartman 2008; Kane 2008; Linn, Bakerand and Dunbar 1991;Messick 1994; Van der Vleuten and Schuwirth 2005; Wolf 2001). This is a difficulttask (and the fifth pitfall). Again, the dilemma between national standards for assess-ment and local flexibility is pressing (cf. Nieuwenhuis et al. 2001). Our third studyindeed illustrated the struggle of schools and teacher teams in developing competence-based assessments, but showed at the same time that important steps have been taken:many promising new competence-based assessments have been developed and imple-mented that consist of a combination of assessment methods (e.g. observation and acriterion-based interview) (see also Gulikers, Biemans and Mulder, in press).However, different schools interpret national standards and ideas on summativeassessments differently and, moreover, differences exist within and between schoolsfor secondary and higher vocational education. Study 3 showed that teachers shouldbe stimulated to explicate their assessments in order to create shared understandingand unambiguous communication with other parties (Gulikers, Baartman andBiemans, in press). Although new quality criteria have been taken into account, usingthese quality criteria when developing and evaluating competence-based assessmentsrequires explicit attention and support, and the quality of the assessments remains asignificant point of concern. The third study showed that students and employers canprovide useful input for the improvement of competence-based assessments. In thisregard, all stakeholders expressed the need for a clearer division of roles and respon-sibilities between students, teachers and employers in the assessments.

This leads us to the sixth pitfall, the changing roles and identity of teachers (prin-ciples six and seven of Study 1). The extent to which the roles of teachers (and ofworkplace supervisors and students!) change can easily be overlooked when CBE isimplemented: the changing roles in the new paradigm require a totally different atti-tude from these parties (cf. Jellema 2003). Teachers and supervisors both in schooland in practice should balance their roles as coaches and experts, and self-responsibil-ity and (self-)reflection of the students should be stimulated to establish a sound basisfor lifelong learning (cf. Attwell 1997; Wesselink et al. 2007) (principles six, sevenand eight of Study 1). In this regard, our fourth study showed that, during their educa-tional programme, the students’ need for autonomy and self-responsibility appears toincrease as they become more capable of learning independently. Especially at thebeginning of their educational programmes, students need a high degree of external

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 283

support and guidance. Apparently, it is difficult for many teachers to adopt their newcoaching role: according to their students, teachers should not rely too much on theirstudents’ independent learning at an early stage and support them in their learningprocess until they are competent enough themselves. Thus, not only students shoulddevelop their competencies; teachers (and workplace training supervisors) need todevelop their teaching competencies to fit with competence-based curricula and to beable to fulfil their new roles (cf. Attwell 1997). As mentioned by Biemans et al.(2004), this challenge is all too easily forgotten by policy-makers when talking aboutimplementing CBE. However, after several years in which the focus has been on thedesign of competence-based learning activities and assessments, the complexity ofthis issue has been recognised in Dutch VET in the life sciences (and abroad): anational programme aimed at developing teacher competencies in their owneducational settings in relation to their changing roles is now being developed andimplemented under supervision of the Green Knowledge Co-operative.

Thus, competence development of teachers is one of the essential aspects ofcompetence management in schools (Attwell 1997). Competence management,however, can only be successful within an open-school culture characterised byprofessional cooperation and led by school managers who ‘practice what they preach’(seventh pitfall). Although competence management was not explicitly addressed inour research programme, several comments were made in this respect by teachers andother stakeholders, especially during the interviews held in the various studies. Forexample, in Study 3, several teachers mentioned that the implementation of compe-tence-based education and assessment has not been sufficiently facilitated by themanagement of their schools. Moreover, in their opinion, CBE design and implemen-tation has major consequences for time investment of teachers: to be able to deal withthis issue, plans should be formulated at the management level. This is also the casefor developing and implementing teacher competency profiles and elaborating conse-quences for human resource management in schools. In this way, competencemanagement can be a supporting strategy to develop both the school organisation andthe individual, instead of only an ordinary management tool. If these conditions arenot met, competence management will be a failure (see also Mulder 2000).

Overall, based on the results of our research programme, the conclusion can bedrawn that the various pitfalls discussed by Biemans et al. (2004) have received atten-tion during the design and implementation of CBE in Dutch secondary and highervocational education in the life sciences (although not all pitfalls have been addressedto the same extent). However, not all problems have been solved yet. Our researchprogramme and the discussion above provide clues on how the various pitfalls mightbe further addressed in the (near) future to foster the design and implementation ofcomprehensive competence-based Dutch VET.

ReferencesAchtenhagen, F., and N.W. Grubb. 2001. Vocational and occupational education: Pedagogical

complexity, institutional diversity. In Handbook of research on teaching, ed. V.Richardson, 604–39. Washington: AERA.

Arguelles, A., and A. Gonczi, eds. 2000. Competency based education and training: A worldperspective. Balderas, Mexico: Editorial Limusa S.A. de C.V. Grupo Noriega Editores.

Attwell, G. 1997. New roles for vocational education and training teachers and trainers inEurope: A new framework for their education. Journal of European Industrial Training21, no. 6–7: 256–65.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

284 H. Biemans et al.

Baartman, L.K.J. 2008. ‘Assessing the assessment’. Development and use of quality criteriafor competence assessment programmes. PhD diss., Utrecht University, the Netherlands.

Baartman, L.K.J., T.J. Bastiaens, P.A. Kirschner, and C.P.M. Van der Vleuten. 2006. Thewheel of competency assessment: Presenting quality criteria for competency assessmentprogrammes. Studies in Educational Evaluation 32: 153–70.

Barnett, R. 1994. The limits of competence: Knowledge, higher education and society.Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

Bennett, Y. 1993. The validity and reliability of assessments and self-assessments of work-based learning. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 18, no. 2: 83–94.

Biemans, H., C.T. Jongmans, F.P.C.M. De Jong, and Th.C.M. Bergen. 1999. Perceptions ofteachers’ instructional behaviour in secondary agricultural education. Journal ofAgricultural Education and Extension 5, no. 4: 231–8.

Biemans, H., L. Nieuwenhuis, R. Poell, M. Mulder, and R. Wesselink. 2004. Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: Background and pitfalls. Journal of Vocational Educationand Training 56, no. 4: 523–38.

Birenbaum, M. 2007. Evaluating the assessment: Sources of evidence for quality assurance.Studies in Educational Evaluation 33: 29–49.

Boreham, N. 2002. Work process knowledge, curriculum control and the work-based route tovocational qualifications. British Journal of Educational Studies 50, no. 2: 225–37.

Boyatzis, R.E. 1982. The competent manager: A model for effective performance. New York:Wiley.

Brockmann, M., L. Clarke, P. Méhout, and C. Winch. 2008. Competence-based vocationaleducation and training (VET): The cases of England and France in a European perspec-tive. Vocations and Learning 1: 227–44.

Collin, K., and P. Tynjälä. 2003. Integrating theory and practice? Employees’ and students’experiences of learning at work. Journal of Workplace Learning 15, no. 7–8: 338–44.

Delamare Le Deist, F., and J. Winterton. 2005. What is competence? Human ResourceDevelopment International 8, no. 1: 27–46.

Den Boer, P., and A.F.M. Nieuwenhuis. 2002. Wendbaar beroepsonderwijs: Lessen uit groenonderwijs. Wageningen, the Netherlands: Stoas.

Descy, P., and M. Tessaring. 2001. Training and learning for competence. Second report onvocational training research in Europe: Executive summary. Luxembourg: Office forOfficial Publications of the European Communities.

Eraut, M. 2003. National vocational qualifications in England – Description and analysis of analternative qualification system. In Zertifizierung non-formell und informell erworbenerberuflicher Kompetenzen, ed. G.A. Straka, 117–26. Münster, Germany: Waxmann.

Eraut, M. 2004. Transfer of knowledge between education and workplace settings. In Workplacelearning in context, ed. H. Rainbird, A. Fuller and A. Munro, 201–21. London: Routledge.

European Commission Education and Culture. 2008. The European qualifications frameworkfor lifelong learning (EQF). Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the Euro-pean Communities.

Gonczi, A. 1994. Developing a competent workforce. Adelaide, Australia: National Centre forVocational Education Research.

Green Knowledge Co-operative. 2006. Kennis voor kwaliteit van leven: Meerjarenplan2006–2010. Ede, the Netherlands: Green Knowledge Co-operative.

Griffiths, T., and D. Guile. 2003. A connective model of learning: The implications for workprocess knowledge. European Educational Research Journal 2, no. 1: 56–73.

Gulikers, J.T.M., L.K.J. Baartman, and H. Biemans. (in press). Facilitating evaluations ofinnovative, competence-based assessments: Creating understanding and involvingmultiple stakeholders. Evaluation and Program Planning.

Gulikers, J.T.M., H. Biemans, and M. Mulder. (in press). Developer, teacher, student andemployer evaluations of competence-based assessment quality. Studies in EducationalEvaluation.

Gulikers, J.T.M., L. Kester, P.A. Kirschner, and Th.J. Bastiaens. 2008. The effect of practicalexperience on perceptions of assessment authenticity, study approach and learningoutcome. Learning and Instruction 18: 172–86.

Hager, P. 1998. Recognition of informal learning: Challenges and issues. Journal ofVocational Education and Training 50, no. 4: 521–35.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

Journal of Vocational Education and Training 285

Hager, P. 2006. Some conceptual questions about the Tuning Project. Prospero 12, no. 1:31–8.

Hardy, M., and C. Parent. 2003. School-workplace collaboration, an uneasy partnership:Experiences from two alternation programs in Quebec. In Integrating school andworkplace learning in Canada: Principles and practices of alternation education andtraining, ed. H.G. Schuetze and R. Sweet, 135–55. Montreal, Canada: McGill-QueensUniversity Press.

Hodkinson, P., and M. Issitt. 1995. The challenge of competence: Professionalism throughvocational education and training. London: Cassell.

Hoffmann, T. 1999. The meanings of competency. Journal of European Industrial Training23, no. 6: 275–85.

Hyland, T. 1994. Competence, education and NVQs: Dissenting perspectives. London:Cassell Education.

Hyland, T. 2001. Book review of Competency based education and training: A worldperspective by A. Arguelles and A. Gonczi eds. 2000. Journal of Vocational Educationand Training 53, no. 3: 487–90.

Hyland, T. 2006. Swimming against the tide: Reductionist behaviourism in the harmonisationof European higher education systems. Prospero 12: 24–30.

James, P. 2002. Discourses and practices of competence-based training: Implications forworker and practitioner identities. International Journal of Lifelong Learning 21, no. 4:269–391.

Jellema, K. 2003. Competentiegericht leren binnen een AOC. In Compentiegerichtberoepsonderwijs. Gediplomeerd, maar ook bekwaam?, ed. M. Mulder, R. Wesselink,H. Biemans, L. Nieuwenhuis and R. Poell, 167–75. Houten, the Netherlands: WoltersNoordhoff.

Jenewein, K., P. Knauth, and G. Zülch. 2002. Kompetenzentwicklung in Unternehmensprozessen.Aachen, Germany: Shaker.

Kane, M.T. 2008. Terminology, emphasis, and utility in validity. Educational Researcher 37,no. 2: 76–82.

Klarus, R. 2003. Werkplekleren en leerresultaten. In Compentiegericht beroepsonderwijs.Gediplomeerd, maar ook bekwaam?, ed. M. Mulder, R. Wesselink, H. Biemans, L.Nieuwenhuis and R. Poell, 247–71. Houten, the Netherlands: Wolters Noordhoff.

Kupper, H.A.E., Th. Lans, M. Mulder, and H.J.A. Biemans. 2003. Inspirerende leeromgev-ingen voor ondernemers. Den Haag, the Netherlands: InnovatieNetwerk Groene Ruimte enAgrocluster/Stichting Innovatie Glastuinbouw.

Linn, R.L., E.L. Bakerand, and S.B. Dunbar. 1991. Complex, performance-based assessment:Expectations and validation criteria. Educational Researcher 20, no. 8: 15–21.

Man, T.W.Y., T. Lau, and K.F. Chan. 2002. The competitiveness of small and mediumenterprises: A conceptualization with focus on entrepreneurial competences. Journal ofBusiness Venturing 17: 123–42.

Mansfield, B. 2004. Competence in transition. Journal of European Industrial Training 28,no. 2,3,4: 296–309.

McClelland, D. 1976. A guide to job competency assessment. Boston, MA: McBer.Messick, S. 1994. The interplay of evidence and consequences in the validation of

performance assessments. Educational Researcher 23, no. 2: 13–23.Mulder, M. 1992. The curriculum conference: Evaluation of a tool for curriculum content

justification. PhD dissertation, University of Twente, the Netherlands.Mulder, M. 2000. Competentieontwikkeling in bedrijf en onderwijs. Wageningen, the

Netherlands: Wageningen University.Mulder, M. 2001. Competentieontwikkeling in organisaties. Perspectieven en praktijk.

Den Haag: Elsevier Bedrijfsinformatie.Mulder, M. 2004. Education, competence and performance: On training and development in

the agri-food complex. Wageningen, the Netherlands: Wageningen University.Mulder, M. 2007. Competence: The essence and use of the concept in ICVT. European

Journal of Vocational Training 40: 5–21.Mulder, M., J. Gulikers, H. Biemans, and R. Wesselink. (in press). The new competence

concept in higher education: Error or enrichment? Journal of European IndustrialTraining 33, no. 8–9.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009

286 H. Biemans et al.

Mulder, M., T. Weigel, and K. Collins, 2007. The concept of competence in the developmentof vocational education and training in selected EU member states. A critical analysis.Journal of Vocational Education and Training 59, no. 1: 67–88.

Nieuwenhuis, L.F.M., H. van Berkel, M. Jellema, and R. Mulder. 2001. Kwaliteit getoetst inde BVE. Kwaliteit en niveau van aanbod en examinering in het beroepsonderwijs en devolwassenen educatie. Zoetermeer, the Netherlands: Stuurgroep Evaluatie WEB/OC&W.

Nijhof, W.J. 2003. Naar competentiegericht beroeps-onderwijs? In Compentiegericht beroep-sonderwijs. Gediplomeerd, maar ook bekwaam?, ed. M. Mulder, R. Wesselink, H. Biemans,L. Nieuwenhuis and R. Poell, 65–76. Houten, the Netherlands: Wolters Noordhoff.

Norris, N. 1991. The trouble with competence. Cambridge Journal of Education 21, no. 3:1–11.

Onstenk, J.H.A.M. 2003. Leren en beroepsgerichte didactiek: Onderzoek naar het hart vanhet beroepsonderwijs. In Compentiegericht beroepsonderwijs. Gediplomeerd, maarook bekwaam?, ed. M. Mulder, R. Wesselink, H. Biemans, L. Nieuwenhuis and R. Poell,91–7. Houten, the Netherlands: Wolters Noordhoff.

Prahalad, C.K., and G. Hamel. 1990. The core competence of the corporation. HarvardBusiness Review 68, May–June, no. 3: 79–91.

Roelofs, E.C. and J. Terwel. 1999. Constructivism and authentic pedagogy: State of the artand recent developments in the Dutch national curriculum in secondary education.Journal of Curriculum Studies 31, no. 2: 201–27.

Simons, P.R.J., J. Van der Linden, and T. Duffy. 2000. New learning: Three ways to learn ina new balance. In New learning, ed. P.R.J. Simons, J. Van der Linden, and T. Duffy, 1–20. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers.

Tynjälä, P. 2009. Connectivity and transformation in work-related learning – Theoreticalfoundations. In Towards integration of work and learning, ed. M.L. Stenström and P.Tynjälä, 11–38. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer Science + Business Media B.V.

Van der Sanden, J.M.M., E. De Bruijn, and R.H. Mulder. 2003. Ontwikkelingen in hetonderzoek op het terrein van het beroepsonderwijs. In Compentiegericht beroepsonder-wijs. Gediplomeerd, maar ook bekwaam?, ed. M. Mulder, R. Wesselink, H. Biemans,L. Nieuwenhuis and R. Poell, 79–90. Houten, the Netherlands: Wolters Noordhoff.

Van der Vleuten, C.P.M., and L.W.T. Schuwirth. 2005. Assessing professional competence:From methods to programmes. Medical Education 39: 309–17.

Von Glasersfeld, E. 1995. A constructivist approach to teaching. In Constructivism in educa-tion, ed. L.P. Steffe and J. Gale, 3–16. New Jersey, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Weinert, F.E. 2001. Concept of competence: A conceptual clarification. In Defining andselecting key competencies, ed. D.S. Rychen and L.H. Salganik, 45–66. Göttingen,Germany: Hogrefe.

Wesselink, R., H. Biemans, M. Mulder, and E.R. Van den Elsen. 2007. Competence-basedVET as seen by Dutch researchers. European Journal of Vocational Training 40, no. 1:38–51.

Wesselink, R., C. De Jong, and H. Biemans. (under review). Aspects of competence-basededucation as footholds for the connectivity between learning in school and in theworkplace. Vocations and Learning.

Wesselink, R., A. Dekker-Groen, H. Biemans, and M. Mulder. (in press). Using an instrumentto analyse competence-based study programmes: Experiences of teachers in Dutch voca-tional education and training. Journal of Curriculum Studies.

Wolf, A. 1995. Competence-based assessment (assessing assessment). Buckingham, UK:Open University Press.

Wolf, A. 2001. Competence-based assessment. In Competence in the Learning Society, ed. J.Raven and J. Stephenson, 453–66. New York: Peter Lang.

Downloaded By: [Wageningen UR Library] At: 11:18 22 September 2009