Cultural tourism in India Each era is unique in its distinctive culture. In the same wayIndian art forms have continuously evolved over thousands of years. In ancient India, various art forms like paintings, architecture and sculpture evolved. The history of art in ancient India begins with prehistoric rock paintings. Such rock paintings can be seen in the Bhimbetaka paintings, belonging to the prehistoric age. Thereafter, an advanced townplanning is seen in Harappa and Mohenjodaro, with their centrally planned cities indicating a highly developed architecture. Another remarkable example of sculpture from Harappan civilization comes in the form of the dancing girl from Mohenjodaro.

The use of symbolic forms in India is as old as the Harappan seals. The fire altars of the Vedic period, with their astronomical and mathematical significance also play an important role in the evolution of the later temples. It was followed by a period in the history of Indian art that is important for rock-cut caves and temple architecture. The Buddhists initiated the rock-cut caves, Hindus and Jains started to imitate them at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad and Mahabalipuram. The rock-cut art has continuously evolved, since the first rock cut caves, to suit different purposes, social and religious contexts, and regional differences.

Alongside the art forms like architecture, paintings and sculpture, there have been evolving, changing, transforming, folk and tribal art traditions in India. These art forms are expression of people belonging to different cultural and social groups of India. It is the expression of people whose life is tuned to the rhythms of nature and its laws of cyclic change and whose life is knotted with natural energy. It's been a tradition in India that gods and legends are

transformed into contemporary forms and familiar images. Fairs, festivals and local deities play a vital role in the development of these arts forms.

It is an art where life and creativity are inseparable. The tribal arts have a unique sensitivity, as the tribal people possess an intense awareness very different from the settled and urbanized people. Their minds are supple and intense with myth, legends, snippets from epic, multitudinous gods born outof dream and fantasy. Their art is an expression of their lifeand holds their passion and mystery

Art is an integral part of any civilization and ancient India flourished in this. The artifacts that have been discovered byarchaeologists and historians reveal valuable facts about the lifestyle and mental patterns of that age. During ancient India various art forms developed at great pace. It is evidentfrom the surviving art forms and literature that the ancient Indian art forms have great detailing and unique realistic style of their own.

According to the evidence found, it looks like people in ancient India were great admirers of different art forms. Theyloved fine arts and indulged in dancing, sculpting and painting. A very interesting aspect of ancient art in India isthat it is highly realistic. Though bit crude, the anatomical detailing in their sculptures is worth applauding for. Animal and human figures have been carefully carved and chiselled to get a refined effect and portray the physical details in a very fine way.

The fine artisticsensibilities of the peopleare pretty much evident intheir terracotta and bronzesculptures. From theartifacts another interesting

aspect that has come to light is the fact that musical instruments were used at that point of time. Certain seals andsculptures have inscriptions marked like instrument that lookssomewhat like the harp. The paintings and inscriptions basically reveal the mental patterns of the people.

As time progressed, the cruder forms were refined and a new kind of art form developed. This was the art form of rock-cut caves and temple art. Rock-cut art and architecture was a veryimportant step taken towards the progress of ancient Indian art. The rock-cut architecture was first initiated by the Buddhists and this inspired Hindus and the Jains who built similar structures at sites like Ajanta, Badami, Ellora, Elephanta, etc. The patterns varied according to different regions they were built in. The expression of mental attitudesin the form of ancient art is truly fascinating and helps us analy se the journey travelled from then to now.

Maurya EmpireThe Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive IronAge historical power in ancient India, ruled by the Mauryan dynasty from 321 to 185 BC. Originating from the kingdom of Magadha in the Indo-Gangetic plains (modern Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bengal) in the eastern side of the Indian subcontinent, the empire had its capital city at Pataliputra (modern Patna). The Empire was founded in 322 BC by Chandragupta Maurya, who had overthrown the Nanda Dynasty and rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India taking advantage of the disruptions of local powers in the wake of the withdrawal westward by Alexander the Great's Greek and Persian armies. By 320 BC the empire had fully

occupied Northwestern India, defeating and conqueringthe satraps left by Alexander.

With an area of 5,000,000 sq. kms, it was one of the world's largest empires in its time, and the largest ever in the Indian subcontinent. At its greatest extent, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam. To the west, it conquered beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan, south eastern parts of Iran and much of what is now Afghanistan, including the modern Herat and Kandahar provinces. The Empire was expanded into India's central and southern regions by the emperors Chandragupta and Bindusara, but it excluded a small portion of unexplored tribal and forested regions near Kalinga (modern Orissa), till it was conquered by Ashoka. Its decline began 60 years after Ashoka's rule ended, and it dissolved in 185 BC with the foundation of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.

Under Chandragupta, the Mauryan Empire conquered the trans-Indus region, which was under Macedonian rule. Chandragupta then defeated the invasion led by Seleucus I, a Greek general from Alexander's army. Under Chandragupta and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture and economic activities, all thrived and expanded across India thanks to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance,administration, and security.

After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced half a century of peace and security under Ashoka. Mauryan

India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and expansion of the sciences and of knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka'sembrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of social and political peaceand non-violence across all of India. Ashoka sponsored the spreading of Buddhist ideals into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia and Mediterranean Europe.

The population of the empire has been estimated to beabout 50-60 million making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of the time.

ART AND ARCHITECTURE:

Ashoka’s great innovation was the substitution of stone for wood and brick. He was an artificer of cities and palaces, of stupas and viharas, of rock-cut caves and monolithic pillars. Tadition credits Ashoka with the building of 84000 stupas or viharas. Fa-hien records the tradition that Ashoka opened out the original eight stupas in which were enshrined therelics of the Buddha’s body and distributed them among 84,000 stupas of his own construction. Ashoka may also be taken to be ther builder of the nucleus round which was built up

Mauryan art

The Great Stupa at Sanchi

Mauryan art encompasses the arts produced during the period of the Mauryan Empire (4th to 2nd century BCE), which was the first empire to rule over most ofthe Indian subcontinent. It represented an important transition in Indian art from use of wood to stone. It is also notable for a refinement in pottery.

The stone elephant at Dhauli

According to Niharranjan Ray, the sum total of the Mauryan treasury of art include the remains of the royal palace and the city of Pataliputra, a monolithic rail at Sarnath, the Bodhimandala or the altar resting on four pilars at Bodhgaya, the excavated Chaitya-halls in the Barabar and Nagarjuni hills of Gaya including the Sudama cave bearing the inscription dated the 12th regnal year of Ashoka, thenon-edict bearing and edict bearing pillars, the animal sculptures crowning the pillars with animal and vegetal reliefs decorating the abaci of the capitals and the front half of the representation of an elephant carved out in the round from a live rock at Dhauli.[1]

Coomaraswmy argued that the Mauryan art may be said to exhibit three main phases. The first phase was thecontinuation of the Pre-Mauryan tradition, which is

found in some instances to the representation of the Vedic deities (the most significant examples are the reliefs of Surya and Indra at the Bhaja Caves.) The second phase was the court art of Ashoka, typically found in the monolithic columns on which his edicts are inscribed and the third phase was the beginning of brick and stone architecture, as in the case of the original stupa at Sanchi, the small monolithic rail at Sanchi and the Lomash Rishi cave in the Barabar Caves, with its ornamentated facade, reproducing the forms of wooden structure.

Architecture

Mauryan architecture inthe Barabar Mounts.3rd century B.C.

While the period marked a second transition to use ofbrick and stone, wood was still the material of choice. Kautilya in the Arthashastra advises the use of brick and stone for their durability. Yet he devotes a large section to safeguards to be taken

against conflagrations in wooden buildings indicatingtheir popularity.

Megasthenes mentions that the capital city of Pataliputra was encircled by a massive timber-palisade, pierced by loopholes through which archers could shoot. It had sixty-four gates and 570 towers. According to Strabo, the gilded pillars of the palacewere adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The palace stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds. It was furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs. Excavations carried out by Spooner and Waddell have brought to light remains of huge wooden buildings at Bulandibagh and Kumrahar,both near Patna. The remains of one of the buildings,a 80 pillared hall at Kumrahar are of particular significance. Out of 80 stone columns, that once stood on a wooden platform and supported a wooden roof, Spooner was able to discover the entire lower part of at least one in almost perfect conditions. Itis more or less similar to an Ashokan pillar, smooth,polished and made of grey Chunar sandstone.

Dharmek Stupa at Sarnath

Many stupas like those at Sanchi, Sarnath and probably Amaravati were originally built as brick andmasonry mounds during the reign of Ashoka. Unfortunately they were renovated many times, which leaves us with hardly a lue of the original structures.

SculptureThis period marked an imaginative and impressive stepforward in Indian sculpting. Although some would consider the Pillars of Ashoka as architecture, owingto their free standing nature and elaborately carved animal capitals most of the art historians consider them as the examples of sculpture. Coomaraswamy distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period. Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals.

Popular art is represented by the works of the local sculptors like chauri (whisk)-bearer from Didarganj.

Pillars and their capitals

Single Lion capital at Vaishali

These pillars were carved in two types of stone. Somewere of the spotted red and white sandstone from the region of Mathura, the others of buff-coloured fine grained hard sandstone usually with small black spotsquarried in the Chunar near Varanasi. The uniformity of style in the pillar capitals suggests that they were all sculpted by craftsmen from the same region. It would therefore seem, that stone transported from Mathura and Chunar to the various sites where the pllars have been found and here the stone was cut andcarved by craftsmen. They were given a fine polish characteristic of Mauryan sculpture. These pillars were mainly erected in the Gangetic plains. They wereinscribed with edicts of Ashoka on Dhamma or righteousness. The animal capital is a finely carved life-like representation. Noteworthy are the lion capital of Sarnath, the bull capital of Rampurva and

the lion capital of Laurya Nandangarh. Much speculation has been made about the similarity between these capitals and Achaemenid works.

Examples of popular art

The work of local sculptors illustrates the popular art of the Mauryan period. This consisted of sculpture which probably was not commissioned by the emperor. The patrons of the popular art were the local governors and the more well-to-do subjects. It is represented by figures such as the female figure of Besnagar, the male figure of Parkham and the whisk-bearer from Didarganj (although its age is debated). Technically they are fashioned with less skill than the pillar capitals. They express a considerable earthiness and physical vitality.

The stone elephant at Dhauli was also probably carvedby local craftsmen and not by the special craftsmen who were responsible for the animal capitals. The image of the elephant emerging from the rock is a most impressive one, and its purpose was probably to draw attention to the inscription nearby.

Terracotta objects of various sizes have been found at Mauryan sites. A continuation of the tradition of making mother-goddesses in clay, which dates back to the prehistoric period is revealed by the discovery of these objects at Mauryan levels during the excavations at Ahicchatra. They are found more commonly from Pataliputra to Taxila. Many have stylized forms and technically they are more accomplished, in that they have a well-defined shape and clear ornamentation. Some appear to have been made from moulds, yet there is little duplication. Terracotas from Taxila consists of primitive idols,

votive reliefs with deities, toys dice, ornaments andbeads. Among the ornaments were round medallions, similar to the bullae worn by Roman boys. Ringstones probably associated with a fertility cult have also been found in some quantity. Terracotta images of folk gods and goddesses which have been found having an earthy charm.

Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd Century BCE

Pottery

Use of the potter’s wheel became universal. The pottery associated with Mauryan period consists of many types of ware. But the most highly developed technique is seen in a special type of pottery known as the Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP), which was the hallmark of Mauryan pottery. The NBP ware is madeof finely levigated alluvial clay, which when seen insection is usually of a grey and sometimes of a red hue. It has a brilliantly burnished dressing of the quality of a glaze which ranges from a jet black to adeep grey or a metallic steel blue. Occasionally small red-brown patches are apparent on the surface. It can be distinguished from other polished or graphite-coated red wares by its peculiar lustre and brilliance. This ware was used largely for dishes andsmall bowls. It is found in abundance in the Ganges

valley. Although NBP was not very rare, it was obviously a more expensive ware than the other varieties, since pot-shreds of NBP were occasionally found riveted with copper pins indicating that even acracked vessel in NBP ware had its value.

Coins

Silver punch marked coin of the Mauryan empire, with symbols of wheel andlephant (3rd century BCE)

The coins issued by the Mauryans are mostly silver and a few copper pieces of metal in various shapes, sizes and weights and which have one or more symbols punched on them. The most common symbols are the elephant, the tree in railing symbol and the mountain. The technique of producing such coins was generally that the metal was cut first and then the device was punched. These symbols are said to have either represented the Royal insignia or the symbol of the local guild that struck the coin. Some coins had Shroff (money changer) marks on them indicating that older coins were often re-issued. The alloy content closely resembles that specified in the Arthashastra. Based on his identification of the symbols on the punch-marked coins with certain Mauryan rulers, Kosambi argued that the Mauryan punch-marked karshapana after Chandragupta has the

same weight as its predecessor, but much more copper,cruder fabric, and such a large variation in weight that the manufacture must have been hasty. This evidence of stress and unsatisfied currency demand isaccompanied by debasement (inflation) plus vanishing of the reverse marks which denoted the ancient trade guilds. This in his opinion indicated that there was a fiscal crisis in the later Mauryan period. However his method of analysis and the chronological identification has been questioned.

PaintingWhile we can be sure of Mauryan proficiency in this field based on the descriptions of Megasthenes, unfortunately no proper representative has been foundto date

Indian Architecture through the Ages

Indus Valley Civilization (3300 BCE-1300BCE) The Indus civilization or the Harappan civilization,which flourished during the Bronze Age i.e. 2500-2000BC is ranked among the four widely known civilizationsof the old world. Extensive excavation work that hasbeen done since Independence has so far identified morethan 100 sites belonging to this civilization. A fewprominent among them are Dholavira (Gujarat),Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal (Gujarat), Sarkotada(Gujarat), Diamabad (Maharashtra), Alamgirpur (U.P.),Bhagwanpura (Haryana), Banawali (Haryana), Kuntasi,Padri (Gujarat) and Mauda (Jammu).

The numerous and objects and buildings unearthed in theSindhu valley constitute the earliest examples of art

and architecture of India. Then follows a long gap, andit is not about 3rd century B.C. that we once more comeacross the vestiges of a flourishing artistic culture.Though the link between the Sindhu valley and Mauryanart is missing, and a complete hiatus separates thetwo, literary evidence leaves no doubt that theactivities of both architects and sculptors continuedduring the intervening period. 

Extensive town planning was the characteristic of thiscivilization, which is evident from the gridironpattern for the layout of cities, some withfortifications and the elaborate

drainage andwater management systems. The houses were built ofbaked bricks, which is rare in contemporarycivilizations at Mesopotamia and Egypt. Bricks of fixedsizes, as well as stone and wood were also used forbuilding. Buildings in the lower area are rather

monotonous, being mainly functional rather thandecorative. But many houses are two storeyed. The mostimposing of the buildings is the Great Bath ofMohenjodaro. It is 54.86 metres long and 32.91 metreswide and with 2.43 metres thick outer walls. The Bathhad galleries and rooms on all sides. Another importantstructure was the Granary complex comprising of blockswith an overall area of 55 x 43 metres. The granarieswere intelligently constructed, with strategic airducts and platforms divided into units.

Though old, this Eastern tradition has also incorporated modern values as India became a modern nation state. As the country became more integrated with the world's economy, traditional Vastu Shastra remains influential in India's architecture during the contemporary era.

A well and drainage system at Lothal.

A bath and toilet excavated in Lothal.

The Indus Valley Civilization was a Bronze Age civilization (3300–1300 B,C.; mature period 2600–1900B.C.) that was located in the north-western region ofthe Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now mainly modern-day Pakistan and northwest India. Flourishing around the Indus River basin, the civilization primarily centred along the Indus and the Punjab region, extending into the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley and the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. Geographically, the civilization was spread over an area of some 1,260,000 km², making it the largest ancient civilization in the world.

The Indus Valley is one of the world's earliest urbancivilizations, along with its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. At its peak, the IndusCivilization may have had a population of well over five million. Inhabitants of the ancient Indus river valley developed new techniques in metallurgy and handicraft (carneol products, seal carving) and

produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The civilization is noted for its cities built of brick, roadside drainage system, and multi-storeyed houses. The baths and toilets system the cities had is acknowledged as one of the most advanced in the ancient world. The grid layout planning of the citieswith roads at exact right angles is a modern system that was implemented in the cities of this particularcivilization. The urban agglomeration and production scale of this particular civilization was unsurpassedat the time and for many future centuries.

The mature phase of this civilization is known as theHarappan Civilization, as the first of its cities to be unearthed was located at Harappa, excavated in the1920s in what was at the time the Punjab province of British India (now in Pakistan). Excavation of Harappan sites has been ongoing since 1920, with important breakthroughs occurring as recently as 1999. To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements havebeen found, mainly in the general region of the Ghaggar-Hakra river and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centres of Harappa, Lothal, Mohenjo-daro (UNESCO World Heritage Site), Dholavira, Kalibanga, and Rakhigarhi.

Post Maha Janapadas period (1500 B.C.—200 A.D.)The earliest of the stupas now extant represents a plain and simple structure consisting of a hemispherical dome (anda), placed on a low circular base and surmounted by a square box (harmika), which isfurther crowned by the parasol or umbrella, the symbol of universal paramountcy. The dome was the principal element of the stupa and was surrounded by a

pradakshinapatha, or passage for circumambulation, occasionally fenced off by a railing or wall. The original form of the stupa may be recognised in the Great Stupa of Sanchi (Bhupal). Originally built of bricks in Ashoka’s time, the Great Stupa was enlargedto nearly twice its size and enveloped in stone, perhaps a century later, when the stone railings and the gateways were also added. The dome shaped stupa was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics.

Grand Anicut dam on river Kaveri (1st-2nd Century A.D.) is one of the oldest water-regulation structures in the world still in use.

Hindu temple architecture, Buddhist architecture, and Indian rock-cut architectureThe Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, was used in India as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. Fortified cities with stūpas, viharas, and temples were constructed during the Maurya empire(c. 321–185 BCE). Wooden architecture was popular androck cut architecture became solidified. Guard rails—consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping—became afeature of safety surrounding a stupa. Temples—built on elliptical, circular, quadrilateral, or apsidal plans—were constructed using brick and timber. The Indian gateway arches, the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century BCE - 11th century CE).

Rock-cut stepwells in India date from 200-400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550-625 CE) and stepped ponds at Bhinmal (850-950 CE) took place. The city of Mohenjo-daro has wells which may be the predecessors of the step well. As many as 700 wells, constructed by 3rd millennium BCE,have been discovered in just one section of the city,leading scholars to believe that 'cylindrical brick

lined wells' were invented by the people of the IndusValley Civilization. Cave temples became prominent throughout western India, incorporating various unique features to give rise to cave architecture in places such as Ajanta and Ellora.

Walled and moated cities with large gates and multi-storied buildings which consistently used arched windows and doors are important features of the architecture during this period.

 THE MAURYAN PERIOD

The Indian emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) established a chain of hospitals throughout the Mauryan empire by 230 BCE. One of the edicts of Ashoka (272—231 BCE) reads: "Everywhere King Piyadasi(Ashoka) erected two kinds of hospitals, hospitals for people and hospitals for animals. Where there were no healing herbs for people and animals, he ordered that they be bought and planted." Buddhist architecture blended with Roman architecture and Hellenestic architecture to give rise to unique blends—such as the Greco-Buddhist school. Indian art and culture has absorbed extraneous impacts by varying degrees, and is much the richer for the exposure. This cross fertilization between differentart streams converging on the subcontinent produced new forms that, while retaining the essence of the past, succeeded in the integrating selected elements of the new influences. A long tradition of art and culture was already established well before the beginning of 20th century in India. Indian painting can be broadly divided into two categories_—MURALS and MINIATURE.

 If the remnants of the Indus culture are excluded, theearliest surviving architectural heritage in India isthat of the Mauryans. The Mauryan period was a greatlandmark in the history of Indian art. Some of themonuments and pillars belonging to this period areconsidered as the finest specimens of Indian art. TheMauryan architecture was embalmed in timber, for rocksand stones were not as freely in use then. The art ofpolishing of wood reached so much perfection during theMauryan period that master craftsmen used to make woodglisten like a mirror. Chandra Gupta Maurya had builtmany buildings, palaces and monuments with wood, mostof which perished with time. In 300 B.C., ChandraguptaMaurya constructed a wooden fort 14.48 km long and2.41km wide, along the Ganges in Bihar. However, only acouple of teak beams have survived from this fort.

 Ashoka was the first Mauryan Emperor who began to"think in stone". The stonework of the Ashokan Period(3rd century B.C.) was of a highly diversified order andcomprised of lofty free-standing pillars, railings ofthe stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures.The use of stone had reached such great perfectionduring this time that even small fragments of stone artwas given a high lustrous polish resembling fineenamel. While most of the shapes and decorative formsemployed were indigenous in origin, some exotic formsshow the influence of Greek, Persian and Egyptiancultures.

 The Ashokan period marked the beginning of theBuddhist School of architecture in India. It witnessedthe construction of many rock-cut caves, pillars, stupasand palaces. A number of cave-shrines belonging to thisperiod have been excavated in the Barabar and Nagarjunihills and Sitamarhi in Bihar. These rock-cutsanctuaries, quarried from large masses of rocks calledgneisses, are simple in plan and are devoid of all

interior decorative carvings. The caves served as theresidences of the monks. There are severalinscriptions, which indicate that these rock-cutsanctuaries were constructed by Emperor Ashoka for themonks of the Ajivika sect, who are more closely relatedto the Jains than to the Buddhists.

 The Ashokan rock-edict at Dhauli, near Bhubaneshwar,is considered to be the earliest rock-cut sculpture inIndia. It has a sculpted elephant on the top, whichsignifies the Emperor's conversion to Buddhism afterhis Kalinga victory. The walls of the halls at Barabarand Nagarjuni hills are still shining like mirrors.The monolithic Ashokan pillars are marvels ofarchitecture and sculpture. These were lofty freestanding monolithic columns erected on sacred sites.Originally there were about thirty pillars but now onlyten are in existence, of which only two with lioncapitals stand in situ in good condition at Kolhua andLaurya Nandangarh respectively. Each pillar was about15.24 metres high and weighed about 50 tonnes and wasmade out of fine sandstone. The pillar consisted ofthree parts-the prop, the shaft and the capitol. Thecapitol consisted of fine polished stone containing oneor more animal figures of bulls and lions in the round.Made of bricks, they carried declarations from the kingregarding Buddhism or any other topic. The pillars didnot stand in isolation and were usually found nearstupas in a spot either unknowingly marked by theBuddha himself or along the royal route to Magadha, thecapital. The Sarnath pillar is one of the finest piecesof sculpture of the Ashokan period. The polish ofAshoka’s pillars is the despair of modern craftsmen.The pillars also exhibit to perfection the art ofdressing, chiselling and shaping stone. The Ashokanpillars also throw light on the contacts India had withPersia and other countries.

The pillar was also a problem of engineering. Itinvolved the handling of monolithic shafts which werehewn out of the quarries of Chunar hills, probablyfashioned there or at the central workshops atPataliputra, and transported to distance of five to sixhundred miles to be located at a place like Meerut.

Two of the Ashkan edicts have also been found atLaghman, near Jalalabad in modern Afghanistan.

 Ashoka was responsible for the construction of severalstupas, which were large halls, capped with domes andbore symbols of the Buddha. The most important ones arelocated at Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi, Amravati andNagarjunakonda. Traditions credit Ashoka with thebuilding of 84,000 stupas or viharas. Ashoka may alsobe taken to be the builder of the nucleus round whichwas built up, at a later stage, the great stupa ofSanchi. The Buddhist shrines or the monasteries werebuilt in somewhat irregular designs following theGandhara style of architecture. Built on the patternsof a fort and defended by a stone wall, the monasteryevolved from the site of an ancient stupa. The principlebuildings were housed within a rectangular courtyardwith a stupa in the south and the monastery in thenorth.

 Ashoka had also built a number of palaces, but most ofthem have perished. Ashoka’s palace near Patna was amasterpiece. Enclosed by a high brick wall, thehighlight of the palace was an immense 76.2 metres highpillared-hall having three storeys. The Chinesetraveller Fahien was so impressed by this palace thathe stated that "it was made by spirits" and that itscarvings are so elegantly executed "which no humanhands of this world could accomplish". Made mostly ofwood, it seems to have been destroyed by fire. Itsexistence was pointed out during the excavations at

Kumrahar, near Patna, where its ashes have been foundpreserved for several thousand years.

Ashoka is also associated with a remarkable feat ofMauryan engineering in the field of irrigation. It wasthe construction of a reservoir called Sudarsana on themountains Raivataka and Urjayat, near Girnar orJunagarh, by artificially damming up their streams. 

THE STUPAS

 Sanchi Stupas: The early stupas were hemispherical inshape with a low base. The hemispherical shapesymbolized the cosmic mountain. The later stupas assumedan increasingly cylindrical form. The early stupas wereknown for their simplicity. Apart from the then ruinsof stupa at Piprahwa (Nepal), the core of stupa No 1 atSanchi can be considered as the oldest of the stupas.Originally built by Ashoka, it was enlarged insubsequent centuries. An inscription by the ivorycarvers of Vidisha on the southern gateway throws lighton the transference of building material fromperishable wood and ivory to the more durable stone.

 Amaravati Stupa: Amaravati stupa, built in 2nd or 1stcentury BC was probably like the one at Sanchi, but inlater centuries it was transformed from a Hinayanashrine to a Mahayana shrine. The diameter of the domeof the stupa at ground level was about 48.76 metres andits height was about 30 metres. Amaravati stupa isdifferent from the Bharhut and Sanchi stupas. It hadfree-standing columns surmounted by lions near thegateways. The dome was covered with sculptured panels.The stupa had an upper circumambulatory path on the drumas at Sanchi. This path had two intricately carvedrailings. The stone is greenish-white limestone of theregion.

 Gandhara stupa: The Gandhara stupa is a furtherdevelopment of stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut. InGandhara stupas the base, dome and the hemisphere domeare sculpted. The region around Peshawar, ancientGandhara, has preserved the remains of quite a largenumber of stupas showing different stages of itsevolution. The stupa tapers upward to form a tower likestructure. The traditional hemispherical form aspresented by the great stupa at Sanchi is clearlrecognised in the small stupa at Chakpat in the Swatvalley and in the great stupa at Manikyala in thePunjab. The stupas of Nagarjunakonda in Krishna valleywere very large. At the base there were brick wallsforming wheel and spokes, whish were filled with earth.The Maha Chaitya of Nagarjunakonda has a base in theform of Swastika, which is a sun symbol.

CHAITYA:

Stupa as the most outstanding and ubiquitious emblem ofthe faith, it became the central object to which theprayer and devotion of the faithful could be directed.Stupas having the character of sacred monuments areknown as chaityas, and the chaitya hall is really ashrine in which the votive chaitya occupied the placeof the altar.

The chaitya hall, in its fully developed form bears acurious resemblance to the Christian church, not onlyin shape but also, to some extent, in use.

 THE SUNGAS, KUSHANS AND SATAVAHANAS

 The Mauryan dynasty crumbled after Ashoka's death in232 B.C. In its wake came the Sungas and Kushans in thenorth and the Satavahanas in the south. The periodbetween 2nd century B.C. and 3rd century A.D. markedthe beginning of the sculptural idiom in Indiansculpture where the elements of physical form were

evolving into a more refined, realistic and expressivestyle. The sculptors strived at mastering their art,especially of the human body, which was carved in highrelief and bore heaviness and vigour. These dynastiesmade advances in art and architecture in areas likestone construction, stone carving, symbolism andbeginning of temple (or chaitya hall) and the monastery (orvihara) constructions.

 Under these dynasties the Ashokan stupas were enlargedand the earlier brick and wood works were replaced withstone-works. For instance, the Sanchi Stupa wasenlarged to nearly twice its size in 150 B.C. andelaborate gateways were added later. The Sungas alsoreconstructed the railings around the Barhut Stupa. TheSungas also built the toranas or the gateways to thestupas. An inscription at the Barhut Stupa indicatesthat the torana was built during the reign of Sungasi.e. 184-72 B.C. These toranas indicate the influence ofHellenistic and other foreign schools in the Sungaarchitecture.

 The Satavahanas constructed a large number of stupas atGoli, Jaggiahpeta, Bhattiprolu, Gantasala,Nagarjunakonda and Amravati. During the Kushan period(1-3 A.D.), the Buddha was represented in human forminstead of symbols. Buddha's image in endless forms andreplicas became the principal element in Buddhistsculpture during the Kushan period. Another feature ofthis period was that the Emperor himself was shown as adivine person. The Kushans were the pioneers of theGandhara School of Art and a large number ofmonasteries; stupas and statues were constructed duringthe reign of Kanishka.

Early Common Era—High Middle Ages (200 A.D.—1200 A.D.)

The temple complex at Khajuraho—adhering to the shikhara temple style architecture—is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Universities—housing thousands of teachers and students—flourished at Nalanda and Valabhi between the 4th-8th centuries. South Indian temple architecture—visible as a distinct tradition during the 7th century CE—is described below:

Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture originated somewhere in sixth century in and around areas of Rajasthan. Māru-Gurjara Architecture shows the deep understanding of structures and refined skills of Rajasthani craftmen of bygone era. Māru-Gurjara

Architecture has two prominent styles Maha-Maru and Maru-Gurjara. According to M. A. Dhaky, Maha-Maru style developed primarily in Marudesa, Sapadalaksa, Surasena and partsof Uparamala whereas Maru-Gurjara originated in Medapata, Gurjaradesa-Arbuda, Gurjaradesa-Anarta and some areas of Gujarat. Scholars such as George Michell, M.A. Dhaky, Michael W. Meister and U.S. Moorti believe that Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture is entirely Western Indian architecture and is quite different from the North Indian Temple architecture. There is a connecting link between Māru-Gurjara Architecture and Hoysala Temple Architecture. In both of these styles architecture is treated sculpturally. The South Indian temple consists essentially of a square-chambered sanctuary topped by a superstructure, tower, or spire and an attached pillared porch or hall (maṇḍapa, or maṇṭapam), enclosed by a peristyle of cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the templeare segmented by pilasters and carry niches housingsculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kūṭina type and consists of an arrangement of gradually receding stories in a pyramidal shape. Each story is delineated by a parapet of miniature shrines, square at the cornersand rectangular with barrel-vault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a dome-shaped cupolaand a crowning pot and strawniy zadnica.

North Indian temples showed increased elevationof the wall and elaborate spire by the 10th century. Richly decorated temples—including thecomplex at Khajuraho—were constructed in Central India. Indian traders brought Indian

architecture to South east Asia through varioustrade routes. Grandeur of construction, beautiful sculptures, delicate carvings, high domes, gopuras and extensive courtyards were the features of temple architecture in India.Examples include the Lingaraj Temple at Bhubaneshwar in Orissa, Sun Temple at Konarka in Orissa, Brihadishwar Temple at Thanjavur in Tamil Nadu

Late Middle Ages (1100 A.D.—1526 A.D.)

Ornate Lintel over Mantapa Entrance, Belur Temple.

Hoysala Architecture and Vijayanagara Architecture

Vijayanagara Architecture of the period (1336 -1565 CE) was a notable building style evolved by the Vijayanagar empire that ruled most of South India from their capital at Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in present-day Karnataka. The architecture of the temples built during the reign of the Vijayanagara empire had elements of political authority. This resulted in the creation of a distinctive imperial style of architecture which featured prominently not only in temples but also in administrative structures across the deccan. The Vijayanagara style is a combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic andserene art of the past.

Hoysala architecture is the distinctive building style developed under the rule of the Hoysala Empire in the region historically knownas Karnata, today's Karnataka, India, between the 11th and the 14th centuries. Large and small temples built during this era remain as examples of the Hoysala architectural style, including the Chennakesava Temple at Belur, theHoysaleswara Temple at Halebidu, and the KesavaTemple at Somanathapura. Other examples of fineHoysala craftmanship are the temples at Belavadi, Amrithapura, and Nuggehalli. Study ofthe Hoysala architectural style has revealed a

negligible Indo-Aryan influence while the impact of Southern Indian style is more distinct. A feature of Hoysala temple architecture is its attention to detail and skilled craftmanship. The temples of Belur and Halebidu are proposed UNESCO world heritage sites. About a 100 Hoysala temples survive today.

Islamic influence and Mughal Era (1526 -1857 A.D.)

In the August 1604 CE the construction of the Harmandir Sahib—the holiest shrine of the Sikh religion—was completed.

Mughal architecture and Indo-Islamic architecture

Qutub Minar of Islamic Architecture in India.Mughal tombs of sandstone and marble show Persian influence. The Red Fort at Agra (1565–74) and the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri (1569–74) are among the architectural achievements of this time—as is the Taj Mahal, built as a tomb for Queen Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan (1628–58). Employing the double dome, therecessed archway, white marble and parks while stressing on symmetry and detail was visible during the reign of Shah Jahan. Quranic verses were described on the walls of the buildings. However, the depiction of any living being—an essential part of the pre-Islamic tradition of India—was forbidden under Islam. The Architecture during the Mughal Period has showna very good blend of Indian style with the Iranian style.

Some scholars hold that cultural contact with Europe under Manuel I of Portugal (reign: October 25, 1495—December 13, 1521) resulted inexchange of architectural influences. Little literary evidence exists to confirm the Indian influence but some scholars have nonetheless suggested a possible relation based on proximity of architectural styles.

Colonial Era (1500 A.D.—1947 A.D.)

The Chepauk Palace at Chennai, once the residence of the Nawab of Arcot

Indo-GothicArchitecture is an emblem of power, designed toendorse the patron. Numerous outsiders invaded India and created architectural styles reflective of their ancestral and adopted homes. The European colonizers created architecture that symbolized their mission of conquest, dedicated to the state or religion.

The British, French, Dutch and the Portuguese were the main powers that colonized India.

British Colonial Era: 1615 to 1947 The British arrival in 1615 overthrew the Mughal empire. Britain reigned India for over

three hundred years and their legacy still remains through building and infrastructure that populate their former colonies.

The major cities colonized during this period were Madras, Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Agra, Bankipore, Karachi, Nagpur, Bhopal and Hyderabad.

St Andrews Kirk, Madras is renowned for its colonial beauty. The building is circular in form and is sided by two rectangular sections, one is the entrance porch. The entrance is lined with twelve colonnades and two British lions and motto of East India Company engraved on them. The interior holds sixteen columns andthe dome is painted blue with decorated with gold stars.

The staple of Madras was Fort St. George, a walled squared building adjacent to the beach. Surrounding the fort was White Town settlement of British and Indian area Black Town later to be called Georgetown. Black Town described in 1855 as “the minor streets, occupied by the natives are numerous, irregular and of various dimensions. Many of them are extremely narrow and ill-ventilated…a hallow square, the rooms opening into a courtyard in the centre." Gardenhouses were originally used as weekend houses for recreational use by the upper class British. Nonetheless, the garden house became

ideal for a full-time dwelling, deserting the fort in the 19th Century.

Calcutta – Madras and Calcutta were similar, bordered by water and division of Indian in thenorth and British in the south. An Englishwomannoted in 1750 “the banks of the river are as one may say absolutely studded with elegant mansions called here as at Madras, garden houses.” Esplanade-row fronts the fort with lined palaces.

Indian villages in these areas consisted of clay and straw houses, later transformed into ametropolis of brick and stone.

The Victoria Memorial in Calcutta, is the most effective symbolism of British Empire, built asa monument in tribute to Queen Victoria’s reign. The plan of the building consists of onelarge central part covered with a larger dome. Colonnades separate the two chambers. Each corner holds a smaller dome and is floored withmarble plinth. The memorial stands on 26 hectares of garden surrounded by reflective pools.

French: ( 1673- 1954)

The French colonized a fishing village (Pondicherry) in Tamil Nadu and transformed it into a flourishing port-town. The town was built on the French grid pattern and features neat sectors and perpendicular streets and

divided into two sectors, French Quarter (VilleBlanche) and the Indian quarter (Ville Noire). French-styled villas were styled with long compounds and stately walls, lined houses with verandas, large French doors and grills. Infrastructure such as banks, police station and Pondicherry International Port still hold the French presence.

To preserve Pondicherry an organization names INTACH was formed. Authorization is needed fromINTACH, to annihilate any original French Architecture.

French expanded their empire by colonizing coastal towns, Yanam in Andhra Pradesh, Karaikal in Tamil Nadu and Mahe in Kerala with a French atmosphere of quiet towns around beaches. French spelling on signage and trafficsigns still remains.

Dutch: ( 1605 – 1825) The Dutch entered India with the only interests of Trade in the early 17th Century. During their 200 years in India, they colonizedSurat, Bharuch, Venrula, Ahmedabad, Malabar Coast, Kochi and Sadras.

Surat – a Dutch factory in 1630’s Bharuch: Trading Post of the Dutch East India Company had a Dutch cemetery. Venrula: a warehouse was built for 3000 Guilders by Leendart Janszoons

and a castle for the protection of the Dutch. Ahmedabad: The Dutch cemetery lies on the bank of Kankaria lake. It holds a mix of Indian and European styled graves, with domed tombs, pyramids, walled and plain grave stones. Malabar Coast Kochi: The Dutch Palace (Mattancherry Palace) – The palace was originally built by the Portuguese, it fell into the hands of the Dutch when the Portugueselost control of Kochi. Dutch cemetery – The cemetery runs parallel to the beach and is the oldest European cemetery in India. It holds 104tombs that visually narrate the Dutch influencein Architecture during the era. The cemetery isguarded by heavy walls and the entrance pillar still carries the original calligraphic inscription “1724” David Hall – which was the residence of the famous Dutch Commander and Governor of Kochi, Adriaan van Reed lot Drakestein was built in 1695. The hall has beenrestored as a cultural centre and art café for young, visual and performing artists. Bastion bungalow – This Dutch styled building near the Fort Kochi beach was built to protect the harbor. Thakur House – the Dutch built this bungalow overlooking the sea as a club. Sadras – 17 kms from the rock cut temples of Mamallapuram is another Dutch settlement. Pullicat – Pullicat lake 55 km north of Madras isa million years old and the second largest lagoon in India. It was the most important trading post of the Dutch. They built two

cemeteries. One was ruined due to negligence and at the entrance is flanked by stone pillars, having 76 tombs. Images of skeletons are carved onto the gravestones, symbolizing life and death.

Portuguese : ( 1498 to 1961) The Portuguese arrived as merchants in 1498 andwere more driven by a Catholic missionary zeal than gaining powers in India. The Portuguese gained a foothold in Goa and ruled for 400 years.

Portuguese dominance in Goa still remains. Their missionary spirit built many magnificent cathedrals, churches, basilicas and seminaries.The Basilica of Bom Jesus (Good Jesus), Old Goa, former capital during the Portugal rule. The three storied Renaissance styled church wasbuilt of plaster and laterite in 1605, it holdsthe body of St.Francis. The interior is built in a Mosaic- Corinthian style and adorned with wood and gold leaf. The walls embrace old painting of saints as the floor is laid with pure white marble. The Portuguese - Catholic houses faced the street with unique large ornamental windows opening onto verendahs. Boldcolours were painted on houses constructing distinct identity, allowing the sailors to recognize their houses from sea. The covered porches and verandas were designed for

socializing contrary to the Hindu styled housing. Front doors were lined with columns, and railings were popular in embellishment.

The interior of Goan-Portuguese houses consisted of elaborate patterns created with tiles imported from Europe and a false ceiling installed of wood. The walls are painted with bright colours contrasting to the earthy coloured furniture.

The walls were made of out mud or laterite stone and coloured with vegetable and natural dyes. Gateposts and compound walls were craved with great detail.

Indian Architecture continued to flourish as they took influence from the colonies. Indian Architecture further shaped as they combined the colonial influences with traditional Architecture.

Republic of India (1947 A.D.—Present)In recent times there has been a movement of population from rural areas to urban centres ofindustry, leading to price rise in property in various cities of India. Urban housing in Indiabalances space constrictions and is aimed to serve the working class. Indian government has accepted World Trade Organisation’s General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS), enabling

foreign architects to practice in India, and thereby adding to the plurality of Indian building traditions. Growing awareness of ecology has influenced architecture in India during modern times.

A significant feature of India's architecture is the courtyard. Klaus-Peter Gast (2007) elaborates on the significance of courtyards inIndia

The courtyards also take up an old Indian architectural motif whereby the courtyard provides light and air for the rooms directlyin this hot climate, and people are able to spend time outside or inside according to thetime of day. The courtyard is also the classical symbol of something shared a place where people meet, spend time with each otherand live together. This aspect is emphasised in the courtyard for the general public, which is placed immediately inside the entrance and constructed in the form of a Kund, a large area of stone steps. Here people spend their waiting time together almost as if in a state of communal meditation. A waiting area that would be completely inconceivable in Western culture functions as a “think tank” here, with the ambience of waiting stimulating communal reflection.

Climate responsive architecture has long been afeature of India's architecture but has been losing its significance as of late. Indian architecture reflects its various socio-cultural sensibilities which vary from region to region. Certain areas are traditionally heldto be belonging to women. Villages in India have features such as courtyards, loggias, terraces and balconies. Calico, chintz, and palampore—of Indian origin—highlight the assimilation of Indian textiles in global interior design. Roshandans, which are skylights-cum-ventilators, are a common featurein Indian homes, especially in North India.

THE SCHOOLS OF ART

 The Gandhara School of Art (50 B.C. to 500 A.D.): TheGadhara region extending from Punjab to the borders ofAfghanistan was an important centre of MahayanaBuddhism up to the 5th century A.D. The region becamefamous throughout the world since a new school ofIndian sculpture known as the Gandhara School developedduring that period. Owing to its strategic location theGandhara School imbibed all kinds of foreign influenceslike Persian, Greek, Roman, Saka and Kushan. The originof Gandhara art can be traced to the Greek rulers ofBactria and Northwest India. But it was during thereign of Kanishka that the art received greatpatronage.

 The Gandhara School of Art is also known as theGraeco-Buddhist School of Art since Greek techniques ofArt were applied to Buddhist subjects. The mostimportant contribution of the Gandhara School of Artwas the evolution of beautiful images of the Buddha and

Bodhisattavas, which were executed in black stone andmodelled on identical characters of Graeco-Romanpantheon. Hence it is said, "the Gandhara artist hadthe hand of a Greek but the heart of an Indian." Themost characteristic trait of Gandhara sculpture is thedepiction of Lord Buddha in the standing or seatedpositions. The seated Buddha is always shown cross-legged in the traditional Indian way. Another typicalfeature of the Gandhara Art is the rich carving,elaborate ornamentation and complex symbolism. The bestspecimens of Gandhara art are from Jaulian andDharmarajika stupa at Taxila and from Hadda nearJalalabad in modern Afghanistan. The tallest rock-cutstatue of Lord Buddha is also located at Bamiyan inmodern Afghanistan and dates back to 3-4 century AD.The anarchist talibans vandalised the imposing statuewhich now is under process of restoration andrenovation.

 The Mathura School of Art: The Mathura School of artflourished at the holy city of Mathura, especiallybetween 1-3 A.D. It established the tradition oftransforming Buddhist symbols into human form. Buddha’sfirst image can be traced to Kanishka’s reign (about 78A.D.). The earliest sculptures of Buddha were madekeeping the

yaksha prototype in mind. They were depicted as stronglybuilt with the right hand raised in protection and theleft hand on the waist. The figures produced by thisschool of art do not have moustaches and beards as inthe Gandhara Art. These figures can be seen in the

museum of Mathura. The standing Buddha figuresresembles the yaksha figures and indicates the Kushaninfluence. The seated figures are in the padmasanaposture. The Mathura School not only producedbeautiful images of the Buddha but also of the JainTirthankaras and gods and goddesses of the Hindupantheon. Many scholars believe that the Mathura Schoolof Art, although of indigenous origin, was greatlyinfluenced by the Gandhara School of Art. The Guptasadopted the Mathura School of Art and furtherimprovised and perfected it.

 The Amravati School of Art: This school of artdeveloped at Amravati, on the banks of the Krishna inAndhra Pradesh.

It is the site for the largest Buddhist stupa of SouthIndia. Its construction began in 200 B.C. and was

completed in 200 A.D. The diameter of the stupa at thebase was 51 metres. The height of the dome was 31metres and its outer railing was 5 metres wide. Thestupendous stupa could not withstand the ravages of timeand its ruins are preserved in the London Museum. 

Art and Architecture of India during Medieval Period

The coming of the Turks inaugurated a new era in the history of Indian architecture. They brought with them architectural ideas developed in Persia, Arabia and Central Asia. They came into contact with the traditions that had already been developed in India. The interaction of these two traditions resulted in a new synthesis of architectural styles. During the Mughal period, the flowering of this synthesis took place and some of the greatest monuments of India were built.

Main features of the Islamic architecture:

The distinctive features of the Islamic architecture are seenin the standardized architecture of the mosque and themausoleum. The mosque consisted of a large, rectangular opencourtyard surrounded by arcades on all four sides. The mehrabwhich faces Mecca indicates the direction to the prayer. Thecall to worship was made from a tall tower or minaret. Therewere many minarets in some mosques.

The arch in the gateway and other places was anothercharacteristic feature. The dome was another prominent featureof the mosque and the mausoleum. The ancient Indian buildingswere decorated with beautiful carving and sculpture while theMuslim buildings were marked by simplicity and lack of aadornment. The two styles were gradually synthesized into anew and unique style.

Architecture under the Sultanate:

The Turkish rulers utilized the services of the localdesigners and craftsmen who were among the most skilful in the

world. The new fusion that started to take place avoided theextreme simplicity of the Islamic architecture and the lavishdecoration of the earlier Indian architecture. The Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and the Qutb Minar are the most renownedmonuments of India. Ala-ud-din Khalji enlarged the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque and built the Alai Darwaza. Decorative elementwas introduced to beautify the building.

The buildings of the Tughlaq period were significant from thepoint of view of the development of architecture. They werenot beautiful but massive and very impressive. The regionalkingdoms in Bengal, Jaunpur, Gujarat, Malwa and Kashmirdeveloped their own distinctive styles of architecture.

The Mughal Architecture:

The process of synthesis was completed under the Mughals.Babur and Humayun erected a number of buildings with the helpof Persian architects but those were not very impressive.

The Mughal architecture began in the reign of Akbar. The firstimportant building of Akbar's reign is Humayun's tomb atDelhi. The two significant features of the Mughal architectureare the large gateways and the placements of the building inthe midst of a large park are evident here. Akbar also builtforts at Agra and Lahore. The crowning achievement of thereign of Akbar was the building of his new capital at FatehpurSikri. The buildings at Fatehpur Sikri have been built in avariety of styles. The arch of the Buland Darwaza is about 41metres high and is perhaps the most imposing gateway in theworld. The tomb of Salim Chishti is built in white marble. Thepalace of Jodha Bai was built in the style of ancient Indianarchitecture.

During the reign of Jahangir, the mausoleum of Akbar wasconstructed at Sikandara which was inspired by the Buddhistviharas. After a long time, the minar became architecturallysignificant here. Shah Jahan was the greatest of the Mughalbuilders. His reign marks the highest development of Mughal

architecture. Some of the finest monuments of our country werebuilt during his time. The list of Shah Jahan's buildings isvery large. The most magnificent of Shah Jahan's buildings isthe Taj Mahal built in memory of his wife, Mumtaz Mahal. Theonly notable buildings of the reign of Aurangzeb are theBadshahi mosque at Lahore and the Moti Masjid at Delhi. Thenew style of architecture had a significant influence on theconstruction of Hindu temples and the secular buildings of theRajputs during this period.

The Rajput Rulers had a keen sense of beauty in Art and Architecturewhich is seen in the artistic excellence of their temples, forts andpalaces. The Indo-Aryan style of architecture developed in North India and Upper Deccan and the Dravidian style in South India duringthe Rajput period. Both sculpture and architecture attained a high degree of excellence.The Rathas of Mahabalipuram or Mamallapuram, the Kailash temple at Ellora and the sculpture of Elephanta belonging to the early Rajput period (600 AD to 900 AD)

KailashTemple, Ellora

 The temple architecture of Orissa, Khajuraho, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and the Pallava, Chola and Hoysala temples in the South belong to the later Rajput period. (900 A.D. to 1200 A.D.)The significant feature of the North Indian (Indo-Aryan) style of temple architecture are the “Vimana” or sanctuary, the “Garbha Griha” or the small dark cell where the main idol is placed, the Shikhara - a ribbed curvilinear spire over the Garbha Griha, the Amalaka or round stone on the Shikhara surmounted by a golden Kalasa. Every temple had a Sabha mandap which was used by devotees for group meditation, religious discourses etc., Examples of this type are the Vishwanath and the Khandariya Mahadeva Temples, the Khajuraho temples, the Surya Temple at Konarka, the Lingaraj temple at Bhubaneshwar, the Jagannath Temple in Puri and the Tejpala Templeat Mt. Abu.The Khajuraho Temple at Bundelkhand (the present Chatarpur district of Madhya Pradesh) were constructed by the Chandela ruler of Jejabhukti between 950 A.D. and 1050 A.D. About twenty five temples in all, these belong to the Shaiva, Vaishnava , and Jain sects. Beautifully sculptured, there is no difference in architectural style in the different temples to distinguish one religion from the other.The Kandriya Mahadeva temple and the temple of Vishwanath belong to the Shaiva group, the Chaturbhuja temple to the Vaihnava group and the Parswanath temple to the Jain group.The Khajuraho temples are built of pink buff-coloured and light yellow fine grained sand-stone. Architectural beauty reaches its highest peak in these temples. The temples are compact and are erected on a high platform terrace. The temples have an entrance porch, a mandap or hall, a vestibule and the Garbha-Griha or sanctorum. The larger temples have space around the Garbha-Griha forpurpose of pradakshin. (Or circumambulation), with a projecting balcony window on either aide and at the back giving it the shape ofa cross with two long arms. The balcony windows which have a canopy of overhanging eaves are the most attractive features of the Khajuraho temples. The temple has an Adhishtana or base which has

beautiful mouldings. These hold the platform terrace. The space between them is taken up by very gracefu11y carved alternate projections and recessives. The central part of the temple or Janegha are the roofs of the several inner compartments rising gradually, one higher than the other - the one over the Garbha-Grihabeing the highest. The graded peaks being so arranged that they looklike a mountain range. The structure over the entrance porch and mandapa are pyramidal in shape but the Shikhara over the sanctum is tall and curvilinear. Entrance to the temple is through the entranceporch which has a Makara Torana flanked by crocodiles. The torana has minute figures carved on it. The doorways, pillars and ceilings are all profusely carved with floral and geometrical designs. The bracket figures of Apsaras, bhutas and ganas are masterpieces of sculpture.The Vishwanatha Temple was built by the Chandela king , Dhanga in 1002 A.D. and has all the features of the Khajuraho temple. It enshrines a Shiva Linga.

 

Vishwanatha Temple, Khajuraho

 The Khandariya Mahadeva Temple also enshrining a linga is thelargest monument of Khajuraho.  It is 30.5 m in length andheight and 20 m in width.  It was built between 1017 AD. –

1029 AD. in the reign of Vidyadhara Chandela.  Though similarto the Vishwanath temple in plan, it is a magnificent piece of

architectural skill with a series of graded and ascendingshikharas – 84 in all; it presents a picture of architectural

excellence.  Its lofty basement has sculptured friezes ofelephants, horses, hunters, dancers, musicians etc.  Theerotic figures on its outer walls show the influence of

Tantrism.  The interior design of this temple is like that ofany other Khajuraho temple though it is larger and more

lavishly sculptured.   

Khandariya Mahadev & Jagadambi Temple, Khajuraho

The Parswanatha temple built in 950-70 AD dedicated to the first Jain Tirthankara is the finest and largest of Jain temples in Khajuraho. It is rectangular and has axial projections in the front and back. The entrance porch has a highly ornamental   ceiling embellished with floral and chain patterns. The sanctum, a vestibuleand mahamandapa are other features of the temple and contain figuresof Jinas. A particular feature of this temple is that Vaishnava themes are more dominant in the sculptures such as those of Rama, Sita, Hanuman and Parasurama. Beautiful figures of Sura-Sundaris in various poses adorn the walls. The sikhara of the temple has three rows of scu1ptural bands on the outer facade. Architecture reached a high degree of artistic excellence in the 11th and 12th century AD. during the rule of the Chalukyas as seen in their Jain temples at Girnar and Palitana in Gujarat.

Palitana, the city of temples, lies at the base of the Shatrunjaya Hill and near the Shatrunjaya river and is about 600 metres above sea level. One of the sacred hills of the Jains, there are more than eight hundred Jain shrines on it. The temples built of marble and stone are marvels of architecture. The most important of these is the temple of Shri Rushabha Dev, the first Tirthankara of the Jains. Anotherfamous temple is the Chaumukh or four faced temple dedicated to Adinath built in the 16th, century. The temple has four entrances. The main entrance leads to the assembly hall. The storey above has balconied windows. Jain scriptures engraved on marble slabs adorn the temple walls. A flight of steps leads to these temples. This conglomeration of temples looks like a setting of ivory miniatures.The 11th century Jain temples at Mount Abu in Rajasthan built by the ministers of the Solanki rulers show the heights of perfection reached the artists of that time.

 

Dilwara Jain Temple, Mount Abu, Rajasthan

 The Dilwara Jain Temples, famous for architectural beauty,were built about 1088 AD during the reign of Vimalasah.

Constructed in white marble, these temples were built to a setplan on a high platform, a cell enshrining a deity surroundedby a walled courtyard. Around the courtyard are other shrineswith images of Jain tirthankaras. The two temples here of noteare the Vimalavasahi temple dedicated to Adinatha, the Jain

tirthankara and the Tejpala temple with its intricatelyornamental ceiling and white marble halls displaying delicate

architecture. The circular design with spokes of finelysculptured figures on pedestals at the bases of which are

other figures in a sitting posture add to the grandeur of theceiling.

Mughal architecture

Taj Mahal at Agra, the epitome of Mughal Architecture

Mughal architecture, an amalgam of Islamic, Persian, Turkish and Indian architecture, is the distinctive style developed by the Mughals in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries in what is now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. It is symmetrical and decorative in style.

The Mughal dynasty was established after the victory of Babur at Panipat in 1526 (the Battle of Panipat) .During his five-year reign, Babur took considerable interest in erecting buildings, though few have survived. The influence of Mughal Architecture lives on in Afghan, Pakistani and Indian architecture today, but yes a few like chaar bagh or four gardens still exists.

 

AkbarAkbari Architecture

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi built during the reign of Akbar.

The emperor Akbar (1556–1605) built largely, and the style developed vigorously during his reign. As in the Gujarat and other styles, there is a combination of Muslim and Hindu features in his works. Akbar constructed the royal city of Fatehpur Sikri, located26 miles (42 km) west of Agra, in the late 16th century. The numerous structures at Fatehpur Sikri best illustrate the style of his works - the southern

gateway of the mosque, which is known as Buland Darwaza, is the largest of its kind in India. The Mughals also built tombs, which include the tomb of Akbar's father Humayun, and the Tomb of Akbar the Great at Sikandra, near Agra.

Tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula, Agra

JahangirUnder Jahangir (1605–1627) the Hindu features vanished from the style; his great mosque at Lahore is in the Persian style, covered with enameled tiles.At Agra, the tomb of Itmad-ud-Daula, which was completed in 1628, was built entirely of white marbleand covered in pietra dura mosaic. Jahangir also

built the Shalimar Gardens and its accompanying pavilions on the shore of Dal Lake in Kashmir. He also built a monument to his pet deer, Hiran Minar inSheikhupura, Pakistan and due to his great love for his wife, after his death she went on to build his mausoleum in Lahore.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mughal_silk.jpg

Architectural Panel-Late 17th Century MhalDynasty

Architectural Panel, Mhal dynasty, late 17th century,India. This panel either hung in the doorway of a palace or lined a nobleman’s tent.

Shah Jahan

Jama Masjid, Delhi

The force and originality of the style gave wayunder Shah Jahan (1627–1658) to a delicate elegance and refinement of detail, illustrated in the palaces erected in his reign at Agra andDelhi. Some examples include the Taj Mahal at

Agra and the tomb of Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Jahan. The Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque) in the Agra Fort and The Jama Masjid at Delhi are imposing buildings, and their position and architecture have been carefully considered so as to produce a pleasing effect and feeling of spacious elegance and well-balanced proportion of parts. Jahan also built the Tomb of Jahangirand sections of the Lahore Fort that include the Moti Masjid, Sheesh Mahal, and Naulakha pavilion which are all enclosed in the fort. Healso built a mosque named after himself in Thatta called Shahjahan Mosque. Another mosque was built during his tenure in Lahore called Wazir Khan Mosque, by Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari who was the court physician to the emperor.

Taj Mahal

The Taj Mahal, the "teardrop on the cheek of eternity" (Rabindranath Tagore), was completed in 1648 by the emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal. Its longest plane of symmetry runs through the entire complex exceptfor the sarcophagus of Shah Jahan, which is placed off centre in the crypt room below the main floor. This symmetry extended to the building of an entire mirror mosque in red sandstone, to complement the Mecca-facing mosque place to the west of the main structure.

The Taj Mahal (1630–1648) in Agra, India and the Shalimar Garden (1641–1642) in Lahore, Pakistan, are two sites which are on the world heritage list of UNESCO. The Taj is considered to be one of the most beautiful monuments of the world and was included in the New Seven Wonders of the World list.

Aurangzeb and later Mughal architecture

A view of a pavilion in Shalimar Garden, Lahore, Pakistan

In Aurangzeb's reign (1658–1707) squared stone and marble was replaced by brick or rubble with stucco ornament. Srirangapatna and Lucknow have examples of later Indo-Muslim architecture. He made additions to the Lahore Fort and also built one of the thirteen gates which was later named after him (Alamgir). Aurangzeb also built the Badshahi Mosque which was constructed in 1674 under the supervision of Fida'i Koka. This mosque is adjacent to the Lahore Fort and is the last in the series of congregational mosques in red sandstone and is closely modelled on the one Shah Jahan built at Shahjahanabad. The red sandstone of the walls contrasts with the white marble of the domes and the subtle intarsia decoration.

Additional monuments from this period are associated with women from Aurangzeb's imperial family. The construction of the elegant Zinat al-Masjid in Daryaganij was overseen by Aurangzeb's second daughter Zinat al-Nisa. Aurangzeb's sister Roshan-Aradied in 1671. The tomb of Roshanara Begum and the garden surrounding it were neglected for a long time and are now in an advanced state of decay. Bibi Ka Maqbara was a mausoleum built by Prince Azam Shah, son of Emperor Aurangzeb, in the late 17th century asa loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The Alamgiri Gate, built in 1673 A.D., is the main entrance to the Lahore Fort inpresent day Lahore. It was constructed to face west towards the Badshahi Mosque in the days of the MughalEmperor Aurangzeb.

Another construction of Mughal era is the Lalbagh Fort (also known as "Fort Aurangabad"), a Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh, whose

construction started in 1678 during the reign of Aurangzeb.

Mughal gardens

Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens. Significant use of rectilinear layouts is made within the walled enclosures. Some of the typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens. The famous gardens are the Char Bagh gardens at Taj Mahal

Culture of India

Bharanatyam, one of eight designated classical dance forms of India.

The culture of India refers to the religions beliefs,customs, traditions, languages, ceremonies, arts,

values and the way of life in India and its people. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture, food, and customs differ from place to place within the country. Its culture often labelled as an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures is spread all over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old. Several elements of India's diverse culture, such as Indian religions, yoga, and Indian cuisine, have had a profound impact across the world.

Religions and spirituality

Close-up of a statue depicting Maitreya at the Thikse Monastery in Ladakh, India. Dharmic religions, such as Hinduism and Buddhism, are indigenous to India. Religion in India

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectively known as Indian religions. Indian religions, also known as Dharmic religions are a major form of world religions along with Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism arethe world's third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly as many as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with some of the most deeply religious societies and cultures. Religion still plays a central and definitive role inthe life of many of its people.

According to a 2002 census of India, the religion of 80% of the people is Hinduism. Islam is practiced by around 13% of all Indians. The country had over 23 million Christians, over 19 million Sikhs, about 8 million Buddhists and about 4 million Jains.

Sikhism, Jainism and especially Buddhism are influential not only in India but across the world. Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and the Bahá'íFaith are also influential but their numbers are smaller. Atheism and agnostics also have visible influence in India, along with a self-ascribed tolerance to other people.

The Hindu religion has many schools, each with their own unique views. For example, according to Yogavasistha, a spiritual text of the Advaita school of Hindu religion, the values of the liberated (Hindi: जजजजजजजजजजज), self-actualized human being,may be summarized as follows: "Pleasures do not delight him; pains do not distress. Although engaged in worldly actions, he has no attachment to any

object. He is busy outwardly, yet calm inwardly. He feels free from restrictions of scriptures, customs, age, caste or creed. He is happy, but his happiness does not depend on anything else. He does not feel needy, proud, agitated, troubled, depressed or elated. He is full of compassion and forgiveness evento those who mean him harm. He does the right thing, regardless of the pressures. He is patient, perseverant, and without any impurity in his heart. He is free of delusions; he does not crave for anything. His sense of freedom comes from his spirit of inquiry. The fruits of his inquiry are his strength, intellect, efficiency and punctuality. He keeps company of wise and enlightened persons. He is content."

There is significant historical discourse in India onthe notion, relevance, and the existence and non-existence of God. Dharmakirti, for example, in 7th century wrote in Pramanavarttikam: जजज जजजजजजजजजज जजजज जजजज जजजजजजजजज जजजजजज जजजजजजजजज जजजजजजजजजजजजज|जजजजजजजजजज जजजजजजजज जजजज जजजजजजजजजजजजजजजज जजजज जजजजजजज जजजजजज||Believing that the Veda are standard (holy or divine), believing in a Creator for the world,Bathing in holy waters for gaining punya, having pride (vanity) about one's job function,Performing penance to absolve sins,Are the five symptoms of having lost one's sanity.

Perceptions of Indian culture

India's diversity has inspired many writers to pen their perceptions of the country's culture. These writings paint a complex and often conflicting picture of the culture of India.

According to industry consultant Eugene M. Makar, forexample, traditional Indian culture is defined by a relatively strict social hierarchy. He also mentions that from an early age, children are reminded of their roles and places in society. This is reinforced, Makar notes, by the way many believe godsand spirits have an integral and functional role in determining their life. Several differences such as religion divide the culture. However, a far more powerful division is the traditional Hindu bifurcation into non-polluting and polluting occupations. Strict social taboos have governed thesegroups for thousands of years, claims Makar. In recent years, particularly in cities, some of these lines have blurred and sometimes even disappeared. Hewrites important family relations extend as far as gotra, the mainly patrilinear lineage or clan assigned to a Hindu at birth. In rural areas & sometimes in urban areas as well, it is common that three or four generations of the family live under the same roof. The patriarch often resolves family issues.

Others have a different perception of Indian culture.According to an interview with C.K. Prahalad by Des Dearlove, author of many best selling business books,modern India is a country of very diverse cultures with many languages, religions and traditions. Children begin by coping and learning to accept and assimilate in this diversity. Prahalad - who was born

in India and grew up there - claimed, in the interview, that Indians, like everyone else in the world, want to be treated as unique, as individuals, want to express themselves and seek innovation. In another report, Nancy Lockwood of Society for Human Resource Management, the world's largest human resources association with members in 140 countries, writes that in the past two decades or so, social change in India is in dramatic contrast to the expectations from traditional Indian culture. These changes have led to Indian families giving education opportunities to girls, accepting women working outside home, pursuing a career, and opening the possibility for women to attain managerial roles in corporate India. Lockwood claims that change is slow,yet the scale of cultural change can be sensed from the fact that of India's 397 million workers, 124 million are now women. The issues in India with womenempowerment are similar to those elsewhere in the world.

According to Amartya Sen, the India born Nobel Laureate in Economics, the culture of modern India isa complex blend of its historical traditions, influences from the effects of colonialism over centuries and current Western culture - both collaterally and dialectically. Sen observes that external images of India in the West often tend to emphasize the difference - real or imagined - betweenIndia and the West. There is a considerable inclination in the Western countries to distance and highlight the differences in Indian culture from the

mainstream of Western traditions, rather than discover and show similarities. Western writers and media usually miss, in important ways, crucial aspects of Indian culture and traditions. The deep-seated heterogeneity of Indian traditions, in different parts of India, is neglected in these homogenized descriptions of India. The perceptions ofIndian culture, by those who weren't born and raised in India, tend to be one of at least three categories, writes Sen:

Exoticist approach: it concentrates on the wonderous aspects of the culture of India. The focus of this approach of understanding Indian culture is to present the different, the strange and as Hegel put it, "a country that has existed for millennia in the imaginations of the Europeans."

Magisterial approach: it assumes a sense of superiority and guardianhood necessary to deal with India, a country that James Mill's imperialist history thought of as grotesquely primitive culture. While great many British observers did not agree with such views of India,and some non-British ones did, it is an approach that contributes to some confusion about the culture of India.

Curatorial approach: it attempts to observe, classify and record the diversity of Indian culture in different parts of India. The curatorsdo not look only for the strange, are not weighedby political priorities, and tend to be freer from stereotypes. The curatorial approach, nevertheless, have an inclination to see Indian

culture as more special and extraordinarily interesting than it actually may be.

The curatorial approach, one inspired by systematic curiosity for the cultural diversity of India within India, is mostly absent.

Susan Bayly, in her book, observes that there is considerable dispute in India and orientalist scholars on perceived Indian culture. She acknowledges that many dispute claims of pervasiveness of caste and strict social hierarchy inmodern India. Bayly notes that much of the Indian subcontinent was populated by people for whom the formal distinctions of caste and strict social hierarchies were of only limited importance in their lifestyles.

According to Rosser, an American sociologist, Americans of South Asian origins feel the Western perception of the culture of India has numerous stereotypes. Rosser notes that the discourse in much of the United States about the culture of India is rarely devoted to independent India. People quickly make sweeping and flawed metaphysical assumptions about its religion and culture, but are far more circumspect when evaluating civil society and political culture in modern India. It is as if the value of South Asia resides only in its ancient contributions to human knowledge whereas its patheticattempts to modernize or develop are to be winked at and patronized. Rosser conducted numerous interviews and summarized the comments. The study reports a stark contrast between Western perceptions of the culture of India, versus the direct experience of theinterviewed people. For example:

"The presentation of South Asians is a standard pedagogic approach which runs quickly from the "Cradle of Civilization"—contrasting the Indus Valleywith Egypt and Mesopotamia—on past the Aryans, who were somehow our ancestors— to the poverty stricken, superstitious, polytheistic, caste ridden Hindu way of life. . . and then somehow magically culminates with a eulogy of Mahatma Gandhi. A typical textbook trope presents the standard Ancient India Meets the Age of Expansion Approach with a colour photo of the Taj Mahal. There may be a side bar on ahimsa or a chart of connecting circles graphically explaining samsara and reincarnation, or illustrations of the four stages of life or the Four Noble Truths. Amid the dearth of real information there may be found an entire page dedicated to a deity such as Indra or Varuna, who admittedly are rather obscure vis-à-vis the beliefs of most modern Hindus."

Festivals

With India's cultural diversity, the country has morefestivals than there are days in a year. With little lamps and lot of care, Karthigai festival celebrates

the bond between sisters and brothers in south India.In other parts of India, Bhaiya-Dhuj and Raakhi is celebrated. Sisters wish their brothers happiness andfeed them sweets, while brothers give gifts and promise to protect their sisters.

Radha and gopikas celebrating Holi, known as the "festival of colors".

A Tug of War at Pushkar Fair in Rajasthan.

Festivals in India

India, being a multi-cultural and multi-religious society, celebrates holidays and festivals of variousreligions. The four national holidays in India, the Independence Day, the Republic Day, the Gandhi Jayanti, and May Day are celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm across India. In addition, many Indian states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. Popular religious festivals include the Hindu festivals of Navratri, Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Durga puja, Holi, Ugadi, Rakshabandhan, and Dussehra. Several harvest

festivals such as Sankranthi, Pongal, Raja sankaranti swinging festival, and Onam, "Nuakhai" are also fairly popular.

Certain festivals in India are celebrated by multiplereligions. Notable examples include Diwali, which is celebrated by Hindus, Sikhs and Jains, and Buddh Purnima, celebrated by Buddhists. Sikh Festivals, suchas Guru Nanak Jayanti, Baisakhi are celebrated with full fanfare by Sikhs and Hindu. Adding colours to the culture of India, the Dree Festival is one of the tribal festivals of India celebrated by the Apatanis of the Ziro valley of Arunachal Pradesh, which is theeasternmost state of India.

Islam in India is the second largest religion with over 135 million Muslims-(followers of Islam), The Islamic festivals which are observed and are declaredpublic holiday in India are; Eid ul Fitr, Eid ul Adha-(Bakr Eid), Milad un Nabi, Muharram and Shab-e-Barat. Some of the Indian states have declared regional holiday's for the particular regional popular festivals; such as Arba'een, Jumu'ah-tul-Widaand Shab-e-Qadar.

Christianity is India's third largest religion. With over 23 million Christians, of which 17 million are Roman Catholics, India is home to many Christian festivals. The country celebrates Christmas and Good Friday as public holidays.

Regional fairs are also common and festive in India. For example, Pushkar fair is one of the world's

largest camel markets and Sonepur mela is the largest

livestock fair in Asia.

Animals

Cows Depicted in the Decorated Goppuram of the Kapaleeshwarar Temple in Chennai.

Wildlife of India, Animal husbandry in India, and Cattle in religion

The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. Common name for wilderness in India is Jungle which was adopted by the British colonialists to the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the Jataka tales.

In Hinduism, the cow is regarded as a symbol of ahimsa(non-violence), mother goddess and bringer of good fortune and wealth. For this reason, cows are reveredin Hindu culture and feeding a cow is seen as an act of worship.

As of January 2012, cow remains a divisive topic in India. Several states of India have passed laws to protect cows, while many states have no restrictions on the production and consumption of beef. Some groups oppose the butchering of cows, while other Indian groups are vehement that what kind of meat oneeats ought to be a matter of personal choice in a democracy. Madhya Pradesh enacted a law in January 2012, namely the Gau-Vansh Vadh Pratishedh (Sanshodhan) Act, which makes cow slaughter a seriousoffence. Gujarat, a western state of India, has the Animal Preservation Act, enacted in October 2011 thatprohibits killing of cows along with buying, selling and transport of beef. In contrast, Orissa and AndhraPradesh allow butchering of cattle with a fit-for-slaughter certificate. In the states of West Bengal and Kerala, consumption of beef is not deemed an offence. Contrary to stereotypes, a sizeable number of Hindus eat beef, and many argue that their scriptures, such as vedic texts, do not prohibit its consumption. In southern Kerala, for instance, beef accounts for nearly half of all meat consumed by all communities, including Hindus. Sociologists theorize that the widespread consumption of cow meat in India is because it is a far cheaper source of animal protein for the poor than lamb or chicken, which

retail at double the price. For these reasons, India's beef consumption post-independence in 1947 has witnessed a much faster growth than any other kind of meat; currently, India is one of the five largest producer and consumer of cattle livestock meat in the world. While states such as Madhya Pradesh are passing local laws to prevent cruelty to cows, other Indians are arguing "If the real objective is to prevent cruelty to animals, then why single out the cow when hundreds of other animals are

maltreated?"

CuisineThe Indian cuisine is diverse, ranging from very spicy to very mild, varying with seasons in each region. These reflect the local agriculture, regional climate, culinary innovations and cultural diversity.

Indian thali (platter) with Naan bread, Daal, Raita, Shahi paneer, and Salad.

Kheer is a traditional Indian sweet dish.

Nimmatnaa-i Nasiruddin-Shahi (Book of Recipes),written about 1500 AD, documents the fine art of making Kheer, a milk based dessert of India:Select the cows carefully; to get quality milk,pay attention to what the cows eat; feed them sugar canes; use this milk to make the best Kheer.

"I travel to India at least three to four times a year. It’s always inspirational. There is so much to learn from India because each and every state is a country by itself and each has its own cuisine. Thereare lots of things to learn about the different cuisines - it just amazes me. I keep my mind open andlike to explore different places and pick up different influences as I go along. I don’t actually think that there is a single state in India that I haven’t visited. Indian food is a cosmopolitan

cuisine that has so many ingredients. I don’t think any cuisine in the world has got so many influences the way that Indian food has. It is a very rich cuisine and is very varied. Every region in the worldhas its own sense of how Indian food should be perceived. "

Food is integral part of every human culture. Chang notes that the importance of food in understanding human culture lies in its infinite variability - a variability that is not essential for species survival. For survival needs, people everywhere couldeat the same and some simple food. But human cultures, over the ages, experiment, innovate and develop sophisticated cuisines. Cuisines become more than a source of nutrients; they reflect human knowledge, culture, art and expression of love.

Indian food is as diverse as India. Indian cuisines use numerous ingredients, deploy a wide range of foodpreparation styles, cooking techniques and culinary presentation. From salads to sauces, from vegetarian to meat, from spices to sensuous, from breads to desserts, Indian cuisine is invariably complex. Harold McGee, a favourite of many Michelin starred chefs, writes "for sheer inventiveness with milk itself as the primary ingredient, no country on earthcan match India."[

Some Indian desserts from hundreds of varieties.

In certain parts of India, these are called mithai orsweets. Sugar and desserts have a long history in India: by about 500 BC, people in India had developedthe technology to produce sugar crystals. In the local language, these crystals were called khanda

(जजजज), which is the source of the word candy.

According to Sanjeev Kapoor, a member of Singapore Airlines’ International Culinary Panel, Indian food has long been an expression of world cuisine. Kapoor claims, "if you looked back in India's history and study the food that our ancestors ate, you will notice how much attention was paid to the planning and cooking of a meal. Great thought was given to thetexture and taste of each dish.” One such historical record is Mānasollāsa, (Sanskrit: मममममममममम, The Delight of Mind), written in the 12th century. The

book describes the need to change cuisine and food with seasons, various methods of cooking, the best blend of flavours, the feel of various foods, planning and style of dining amongst other things.

India is known for its love for food and spices. Indian cuisine varies from region to region, reflecting the local produce, cultural diversity, andvaried demographics of the country. Generally, Indiancuisine can be split into five categories - northern,southern, eastern, western, and north-eastern. The diversity of Indian cuisine is characterized by differing use of many spices and herbs, a wide assortment of recipes and cooking techniques. Though a significant portion of Indian food is vegetarian, many traditional Indian dishes also include chicken, goat, lamb, fish, and other meats. Fish-based cuisines are common in eastern states of India, particularly West Bengal. Despite this diversity, some unifying threads emerge.Varied uses of spices are an integral part of certainfood preparations, and are used to enhance the flavorof a dish and create unique flavors and aromas. Cuisine across India has also been influenced by various cultural groups that entered India throughouthistory, such as the Persians, Mughals, and European colonists.

Indian cuisine is one of the most popular cuisines across the globe. In most Indian restaurants outside India, the menu does not do justice to the enormous variety of Indian cuisine available - the most commoncuisine served on the menu would be Punjabi cuisine (chicken tikka masala is a very popular dish in the United Kingdom). There do exist some restaurants serving cuisines from other regions of India,

although these are few and far between. Historically,Indian spices and herbs were one of the most sought after trade commodities. The spice trade between India and Europe led to the rise and dominance of Arab traders to such an extent that European explorers, such as Vasco da Gama and Christopher Columbus, set out to find new trade routes with Indialeading to the Age of Discovery. The popularity of curry, which originated in India, across Asia has often led to the dish being labelled as the "pan-Asian" dish.

Regional Indian cuisine continues to evolve. A fusionof East Asian and Western cooking methods with traditional cuisines, along with regional adaptationsof fast food are prominent in major Indian cities.

Clothing

Punjabi woman dressed traditionally for 'Teej' festival.

Illustration of different styles of Sari & clothing worn by women in India.

Traditional clothing in India greatly varies across different parts of the country and is influenced by local culture, geography, climate and rural/urban settings. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men. Stitched clothes are also popular such as churidar or salwar-kameez for women, with dupatta (long scarf) thrown over shoulder completing the outfit. Salwar is often loose fitting, while churidar is a tighter cut. For men, stitched versions include kurta-pyjama and European-style trousers and shirts for men. In urban centres, people can often be seen in jeans, trousers, shirts, suits, kurta and variety of other fashions.

In public and religious places, Indian dress etiquette discourages exposure of skin and wearing transparent or tight clothes. Most Indian clothes aremade from cotton which is ideal for the region's hot weather. Since India's weather is mostly hot and rainy, majority of Indians wear sandals.

Indian women perfect their sense of charm and fashionwith make up and ornaments. Bindi, mehendi, earrings,bangles and other jewellery are common. On special occasions, such as marriage ceremonies and festivals,women may wear cheerful colours with various ornaments made of gold, silver or other regional stones and gems.

Bindi is often an essential part of a Hindu woman's make up. Worn on their forehead, some consider the bindi as an auspicious mark. Traditionally, the red bindi was worn only by married Hindu women, and colored bindi was worn by single women, but now all colors and glitter has become a part of women's fashion. Some women wear sindoor - a traditional red

or orange-red colour powder (vermilion) in the parting of their hair (locally called as mang). Sindoor is the traditional mark of a married woman for Hindus. Single Hindu women do not wear sindoor; neither do over 100 million Indian women from religions other than Hindu and agnostics/atheists whomay be married.

India's clothing styles have continuously evolved over the course of the country's history. Ancient Vedic texts mention clothes made from barks and leaves (known as phataka). The 11th century BC Rig-veda mentions dyed and embroidered garments (known as paridhan and pesas respectively) and thus highlights the development of sophisticated garment manufacturing techniques during the Vedic age. In 5thcentury BC, Greek historian Herodotus describes the richness of the quality of Indian cotton clothes. By 2nd century AD, muslins manufactured in southern India were imported by the Roman Empire and silk cloth was one of the major exports of ancient India along with Indian spices. Stitched clothing in India was developed before 10th century AD and was further popularized in 15th century by Muslim empires in India. Draped clothing styles remained popular with India's Hindu population while the Muslims increasingly adopted tailored garments.

During the British Raj, India's large clothing and handicrafts industry was left paralyzed so as to makeplace for British industrial cloth. Consequently, Indian independence movement leader Mahatma Gandhi successfully advocated for what he termed as khadi clothing — light colored hand-woven clothes — so as to decrease reliance of the Indian people on British industrial goods. The 1980s was marked by a widespread modification to Indian clothing fashions

which was characterized by a large-scale growth of fashion schools in India, increasing involvement of women in the fashion industry and changing Indian attitudes towards multiculturalism. These developments played a pivotal role in the fusion of Indian and Western clothing styles.