The Wiley-Blackwell Anthology of African American Literature, Volume 1: 1746-1920 (Wiley-Blackwell,...

Table of Contents (by Chronology)

Editorial Advisory Board xPreface xiIntroduction xviPrinciples of Selection and Editorial Procedures xixAcknowledgments xxiTable of Contents (by Genre) xxiii

Part 1 The Literatures of Africa, Middle Passage, and Slavery: c.1746–1830 1

Introduction 3

Lucy Terry (c.1730–1821) 7

Bars Fight (1746) 8

Briton Hammon (dates unknown) 9

Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man (1760) 10

Phillis Wheatley (c.1753–1784) 15

From Poems on Various Subjects (1773) 17To Maecenas 17To the University of Cambridge, in New England 18On Being Brought from Africa to America 19On the Death of the Rev. Dr. Sewell. 1769 20On the Death of the Rev. Mr. George Whitefield. 1770 21On the Death of a Young Lady of Five Years of Age 22

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On Recollection 23On Imagination 25To the Right Honourable William, Earl of Dartmouth,

His Majesty’s Principal Secretary of State for North-America, &c. 26

To S.M., a Young African Painter, on Seeing His Works 27A Farewell to America to Mrs. S.W. 28

Jupiter Hammon (1711–c.1806) 31

An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatly, Ethiopian Poetess, in Boston, Who Came from Africa at Eight Years of Age, and Soon Became Acquainted with the Gospel of Jesus Christ (1778) 32

John Marrant (1755–1791) 35

A Narrative of the Lord’s Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant, a Black (1785) 36

Olaudah Equiano (1745–1797) 49

Extracts from Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, Written by Himself (1789, 1791) 51Chapter 1. The Author’s Account of His Country,

Their Manners and Customs, &c. 51Chapter 2. The Author’s Birth and Parentage – His Being

Kidnapped with His Sister – Horrors of a Slave Ship 60Chapter 3. The Author Is Carried to Virginia – Arrives in

England – His Wonder at a Fall of Snow 69Chapter 4. A Particular Account of the Celebrated Engagement

between Admiral Boscawen and Monsieur Le Clue 78Chapter 5. Various Interesting Instances of Oppression, Cruelty,

and Extortion 89Chapter 10. Some Account of the Manner of the Author’s

Conversion to the Faith of Jesus Christ 99Chapter 12. Different Transactions of the Author’s Life – Petition

to the Queen – Conclusion 109

David Walker (c.1785–1830) 119

Extracts from Appeal in Four Articles; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (1829) 120Article 1. Our Wretchedness in Consequence of Slavery 120Article 2. Our Wretchedness in Consequence of Ignorance 127

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sPart 2 The Literatures of Slavery and Freedom: c.1830–1865 137

Introduction 139

Omar ibn Said (1770–1864) 143

Autobiography of Omar ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina (1831) 144

Frederick Douglass (1818–1895) 147

Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Written by Himself. (1845) 149

What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July? (1852) 210

William Wells Brown (1814–1884) 221

Narrative of William Wells Brown, an American Slave. Written by Himself. (1847, 1850) 223

The Escape; or, a Leap for Freedom: A Drama in Five Acts (1858) 263

Martin Robison Delany (1812–1885) 299

Extracts from The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States (1852) 300Chapter 1. Condition of Many Classes in Europe

Considered 300Chapter 2. Comparative Condition of the Colored

People of the United States 301Chapter 3. American Colonization 308Chapter 4. Our Elevation in the United States 311Chapter 5. Means of Elevation 313Chapter 6. The United States Our Country 316Chapter 17. Emigration of the Colored People of the

United States 317Chapter 23. A Glance at Ourselves – Conclusion 317

Harriet E. Adams Wilson (1825–1900) 323

Our Nig; or, Sketches from the Life of a Free Black (1859) 324

Harriet Ann Jacobs (1813–1897) 365

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Written by Herself. (1861) 367

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nts Part 3 The Literatures of Reconstruction,

Racial Uplift, and the New Negro: c.1865–1920 491

Introduction 493

Frank J. Webb (1828–1894) 497

Two Wolves and a Lamb (1870) 498

Marvin Hayle (1870) 524

Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins (1859–1930) 548

Peculiar Sam, or the Underground Railroad: A Musical Drama in Four Acts (1879) 550

Charles Waddell Chesnutt (1858–1932) 565

What Is a White Man? (1889) 567

The Marrow of Tradition (1901) 573

Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825–1911) 718

From Sketches of Southern Life (1891) 720Aunt Chloe 720The Deliverance 722Aunt Chloe’s Politics 729Learning to Read 729Church Building 731The Reunion 731

Iola Leroy, or Shadows Uplifted (1892) 733

Anna Julia Cooper (1858–1964) 852

Extract from A Voice from the South (1892) 853Womanhood: A Vital Element in the Regeneration

and Progress of a Race 853

Paul Laurence Dunbar (1872–1906) 867

From Lyrics of Lowly Life (1896) 869The Poet and His Song 869Accountability 870Frederick Douglass 871A Prayer 872Passion and Love 873

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An Ante-Bellum Sermon 873Ode to Ethiopia 876Whittier 877A Banjo Song 877To Louise 879Alice 880After the Quarrel 880Beyond the Years 881The Spellin’-Bee 882A Negro Love Song 884The Colored Soldiers 885Nature and Art 887When De Co’n Pone’s Hot 888The Deserted Plantation 889We Wear the Mask 890Phyllis 891When Malindy Sings 891

Extract from The Heart of Happy Hollow (1904) 893The Lynching of Jube Benson 893

Booker T. Washington (1856–1915) 899

Extract from Up from Slavery (1901) 901Chapter 14. The Atlanta Exposition Address 901

William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868–1963) 909

The Souls of Black Folk (1903) 912

James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938) 1026

The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man (1912, 1927) 1028

Glossary 1102Timeline 1110Name Index 1121Subject Index 1126

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Glossary

Abolitionism: A prospective movement or doctrine, overlapping with antislavery, that indicts the immorality of the slave trade and slavery while proposing arguments that slaves deserve equal rights upon emancipation.

African American literature: Literature written by authors who both identify themselves and are publicly identified as African Americans.

African American Press: Newspapers and periodicals, sometimes with transnational circulations, in which African-descended people played significant roles as publishers, editors, contributors, and/or readers.

African American Studies: An interdisciplinary field of scholarly or intellectual study, instituted at United States colleges and universities beginning in the 1970s, concentrating on the historical, current, or future experiences of African Americans.

Antebellum: The period of nineteenth-century American history before the Civil War.

Antislavery: An ethos, overlapping with abolitionism by the 1830s, opposing the trade and enslavement of Africans and their descendants.

Assimilation: The process by which one group adopts the customs and attitudes of a newfound society.

Authenticity: The empirical or symbolic quality by which a literary text or author is deemed to possess an incontrovertible origin.

Black: Used interchangeably across history with “Negro,” “Afro-American,” and “African American,” a term that entered mainstream usage especially during the rise of the Black Power, Black Aesthetic, and Black Studies Movements in the 1960s and 1970s to describe authentic African American identity.

The Wiley Blackwell Anthology of African American Literature: Volume 1, 1746–1920, First Edition. Edited by Gene Andrew Jarrett.© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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1103

Glossary

Black Aesthetic: Established during the Black Arts Movement, a joint principle of racial politics and art rooted in both an authentic African American heritage and in opposition to myths of Eurocentric heritage.

Black Arts Movement: A connected series of events and activities in the 1960s and 1970s in which African American art and artists largely promoted the Black Aesthetic.

Black Atlantic: A trope referring to the voluntary or involuntary migration of Africans and their African American descendants across the Atlantic Ocean.

Black Church: A historic institution of African American denominational worship, education, community organization, racial uplift, and racial politics.

Black nationalism: A philosophy of group identity and political self-determination based in racial rather than traditionally “national” categories, seeking to unify people of African descent in a collective effort for social, political, and economic rights. Black nationalism has taken the form of “Back-to-Africa” movements and separatism, but also of emphasizing racial pride in a distinct black culture.

Blackness: See Black

Black Power Movement: A series of connected events and activities in the 1960s and 1970s in which African Americans promoted a doctrine of self-determination historically overlapping with, but fundamentally in contrast to, the Civil Rights Movement struggles of the 1950s.

Black Press: See African American Press

Black Studies: See African American Studies

Blues: The musical composition and performance style rooted in southern African American oral tradition, collective consciousness, and traditional African performance style. Characterized by a pentatonic scale, call-and-response pattern, and three-line stanzas with statement, restatement, and conclusion, it describes a worldliness born of loss and experience.

British abolitionism: A movement in late eighteenth-century Britain that sought an end to both enslavement and the Atlantic Slave Trade, originating in the James Somersett case of 1772 and concluding with the Slavery Abolition Act of 1833. British abolitionists included William Wilberforce, Olaudah Equiano, and Thomas Clarkson, and their tactics inspired American abolitionists in the 1830s.

Chicago Renaissance: A period of African American cultural activity in Chicago, Illinois, between the mid-1930s and early 1950s, marked by literary realism, jazz and gospel music, as well as sociological investigation. Comparable to the New Negro Renaissance in its literary and cultural dynamics, the Chicago Renaissance was characterized particularly by racial and social realism.

Civil Rights Act: An act passed by Congress establishing or protecting equal rights under the law in voting, public accommodation, employment, and housing. Various Civil Rights Acts have been passed since 1866, when Congress first extended citizenship to African Americans; the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibiting major forms of discrimination was a primary achievement of the Civil Rights Movement.

Civil Rights Movement: An organized social, cultural, and political movement following World War II that partnered legal challenges to segregation, discrimination,

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1104Glossary

and disfranchisement with grass-roots, non-violent direct action against unequal laws and practices, institutional and local. The Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and early 1960s was unique in its national and international impact, its major campaigns of civil resistance (led by Dr Martin Luther King, Jr), and its tenuous relationship with political liberalism.

Civil War: A war in the United States between the northern Union and the southern Confederacy between 1861 and 1865, fought over economic and legal issues pertaining to slavery. The triumph of the Union over the Confederate secessionists signaled the end of centuries of slavery on North American soil, and initiated the process of Reconstruction.

Cold War: A sustained period of political, economic, and military tension between the Western Bloc (the United States and European NATO allies) and the Eastern Bloc (the Soviet Union and its satellite states) between 1945 and 1991. Cast as the worldwide struggle between communism and democracy, the Cold War proceeded as a series of proxy wars and crises behind which lay the threat of mutually assured nuclear destruction. In the United States, it led to state surveillance of those with leftist sympathies, including Richard Wright, Chester Himes, and singer Paul Robeson.

Colonization: The movement of African Americans to resettle outside of the United States, primarily in Western Africa or the Caribbean, spurred on by the seeming intractability of American racism.

Color line (African Americans): A metaphor signifying a measurement of individual identity and social status according to skin pigmentation, whereby inter- and intra-racial relationships are structured by the derogation of dark skin and African ancestry. In addition to legitimating white/black hierarchies and discri-mination, the color line sometimes operated within African American communities as colorism, which internalized white supremacy to privilege those of lighter skin color.

Conjure tales: Traditional African American stories, myths, and fables originating in southern slave culture characterized by magical or supernatural powers used to subvert relationships of power.

Conversion narrative: A testimony of personal spiritual conviction marked by religious rebirth and individual salvation.

Cultural nationalism: A national identity based on shared language, belief, religion, and history rather than ancestry.

Dialect: A linguistic distinction, or vernacular, based on a special assortment of grammar, syntax, and vocabulary marking a specific region, class, or culture for the speaker.

Diaspora (African Diaspora): From the Greek word meaning “dispersion,” it refers to groups of people (involuntarily) scattered far from their ancestral homeland, and was first applied to the Jews exiled after the dissolution of their nation. African Diaspora describes the scattering of people of African descent across the globe, and draws attention to the potential shared historical and cultural experience of these peoples.

Discrimination: The prejudicial treatment of an individual or group based on their membership in a certain category.

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1105

Glossary

Domestic realism: A sentimental literary genre characterized by the heroine’s struggle to balance social demands with personal desires, meant to evoke sympathy from a predominantly female audience during the nineteenth century.

Double consciousness: The notion that African American identity is marked by internal tensions and divisions. The term was coined by W.E.B. Du Bois, who found a “two-ness” within the African American consciousness in terms of conflicts between personal self and racially stereotyped self, “American” identity and “African” identity, and the “American” and “not-American” ways of life enforced by racial segregation.

Dred Scott: An African American slave whose suit for his freedom in 1850 led to a seminal Supreme Court ruling in 1857 that African Americans were not citizens, and that slavery could exist wherever slaves were brought by their owners. Chief Justice Roger B. Taney stated in his majority ruling that African Americans “have no rights that a white man is bound to respect.” The Dred Scott decision overturned the 1820 Missouri Compromise and incited anti- and proslavery passions.

Emancipation: The action of setting free or delivering freedom for a group of people previously held in bondage, granted finally to American slaves with the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865.

Emancipation Proclamation: A federal document signed by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declaring that all slaves in rebelling areas of the Confederacy were free and precipitating the end of chattel slavery in North America. The Proclamation rhetorically positioned the war as a battle over slavery, and also allowed freed African Americans to enlist in segregated units in the Union Army.

Emigration: The movement by African Americans seeking greater cultural, economic, and political autonomy by leaving the United States for another nation.

Ethiopianism: The nineteenth-century idea that located African historical identity and promise of redemption in the ancient civilization of Ethiopia. Ethiopia was invoked rhetorically to connote Africans around the world, and posited as a “cradle of civilization” against racist theories of African inferiority.

Ethnicity: Group identification based on culture – as distinguished by family life, religion, literature, ritual, food, and material culture – that creates a “people.”

Exoticism: In literature, the objectification of a cultural “other” for consumption by the dominant culture.

Federal Art Project: The first federal patronage of the visual arts in the United States, founded in 1935 as part of President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s Works Progress Administration, which employed artists from the public relief rolls and established community art centers and galleries.

Folklore: The legends, stories, and traditions belonging to a defined community.

Harlem Renaissance: See New Negro Renaissance

Hip hop: A subculture that emerged from rap music, graffiti art, and urban unrest in the South Bronx, New York City, during the 1970s amongst African American and Latino youth. Originally characterized by opposition to mainstream culture and social criticism, hip hop underwent a period of commercialization during the 1980s and 1990s and is now a dominant form of pop music around the world.

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1106Glossary

Hoodoo: A form of folk magic that developed among enslaved peoples in the southeastern United States, marked by its incorporation of African and Native American traditions syncretized with Old Testament Christianity. See Conjure tales

Intelligentsia: A class of people distinguished by their accomplishments in intellectual or academic culture, or by their involvement in an artistic or intellectual movement, such as the New Negro Renaissance.

Jazz: A musical tradition, created in late nineteenth-century New Orleans, that combines several musical types: blues, ragtime, brass band, and dance music. Rooted in musical improvisation, jazz rhythm, and hybridity, it has informed African American literary works from the poetry of Langston Hughes to the prose of Toni Morrison.

Jim Crow: A system of laws, ideas, and social norms created after the Civil War to maintain white control over African Americans despite the abolition of slavery. Originally a blackface minstrel show character, Jim Crow came to mean the racial segregation, institutionalized discrimination, and violent oppression of African Americans, legally bookended by the Supreme Court rulings in Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896 upholding the separate-but-equal policy and Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 outlawing it.

Ku Klux Klan: A white secret society founded after the Civil War to restore white supremacy and prevent African American enfranchisement in the former Confederacy by means of terror, political outrage, and murder.

Literacy: The ability to reason, understand, and express rational thought through the written word. Because of Enlightenment assumptions that human reason was essential for the economic, political, and social health of communities and individuals, many African American writers used literacy to challenge their exclusion from racialized definitions of humanity.

Lynching: Acts of public and extra-legal violent punishment, typically carried out by mobs in retaliation for perceived social, political, and racial transgressions. Lynching, in the form of hanging, shooting, or burning at the stake, was used by white civilian mobs to quash African American social mobility, economic success, or political action.

Middle Passage: From the sixteenth to the nineteenth century, the liminal and traumatic journey of about 12 million western and west-central Africans, who were abducted, enslaved, and traded during their transportation from their native continent, across the Atlantic Ocean, and to the New World Americas.

Migration: The movement, displacement, mobility, and dispersal of people of African descent that has characterized their long history in the Americas, including the Middle Passage through the twentieth-century movement from the rural South to the urban North and West in the United States.

Militancy: See Black nationalism

Minstrelsy: An American form of stage entertainment that emerged in the antebellum era, performed by white Americans in blackface makeup and dress, that lampooned African Americans as dim-witted comic buffoons, lazy man-children, or desexualized, overbearing “mammies.” Minstrelsy also refers to the practice of performing a stereotypical blackness for comic relief or monetary gain.

Miscegenation: The genetic mingling of races through interracial sex and procreation, and the various socio-psychological consequences of this mixture in a country committed to a binary conception of race.

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1107

Glossary

Modernism: A literary and cultural impulse marked by a deliberate break with tradition, fueled in part by the technological and sociological upheavals that accompanied the turn of the twentieth century.

Mulatto: A person with one white and one black parent, or more generally a racially mixed person; the genealogical hybridity undermines racial essentialism by calling that person’s fixed racial identity into question.

Nationalism: See Black nationalism

Naturalism: A literary movement of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that conceived of human character as largely determined by social conditions, environment, and hereditary forces; closely related to realism in its commitment to quotidian and unflinching detail.

Negritude: A movement among African-descended artists and intellectuals in France in the 1930s and 1940s that valorized a common cultural identity of “blackness” and African heritage against the prejudices and history of European colonialism.

Neo-slave narrative: A literary work published after slavery that reconstructs the tropes of the antebellum slave narrative to reanimate the experience and examine the consequences of slavery.

New Negro: A term that gained widespread use after the Civil War’s end with the rise of the New South during Reconstruction, and continued through the middle of the twentieth century, New Negroes were largely middle-class, educated, civically responsible, and politically enfranchised African Americans who embodied racial pride and social advancement, in contrast to the putatively lowly “Old Negro” beholden to slavery and ostracism.

New Negro Renaissance: Also called “Harlem Renaissance,” a period of immense cultural activity in the 1920s that reconceived and promoted African American arts and letters. Although the era arose partly out of the Great Migration of African Americans from the rural South to the urban North and spanned areas across the United States and as far away as Europe, the epicenter of the movement was in Harlem, New York City.

Old Negro: Figures of social and cultural degradation and inferiority, invoked rhetorically in contradistinction to the culturally proud, politically conscious, racially aware generation that left the South and embraced cultural modernism.

One-drop rule: The classification of individuals as “black” or “negro” if they possessed any trace of African ancestry, no matter how minuscule. The one-drop rule was the logical extension of racial essentialism.

Oral tradition: A set of orally transmitted expressions of beliefs, ideas, stories, and sentiments particular to a certain people’s worldview.

Pan-Africanism: The idea that all people of African descent, whether on the African continent or across the diaspora, share a political, cultural, and economic destiny linked to their common history of forced migration, enslavement, colonialism, second-class citizenship, and economic exploitation.

Passing: The act of one’s crossing the metaphorical “color line,” and representing oneself as, or being accepted as, a member of a group opposite from one’s racial origin. While historically motivated by social incentives or threats, passing as a literary trope serves to highlight the constructed nature of race and identity.

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1108Glossary

Postbellum: The period of nineteenth-century US history after the Civil War.

Post-race/Postracial: Pertaining to the notion that, as the Civil Rights Movement recedes from historical view in the early twenty-first century, people have begun to move beyond race as a basis for social preference, discrimination, and prejudice.

Prejudice: Antagonism toward a group or class of people and its members based on irrational or stereotypical belief rather than experience or reality. See Stereotyping

Protest Literature: Writing meant to challenge or condemn not only social, political, cultural, or economic inequities but also the causes or institutions that create them.

Racial essentialism: The belief that human beings are divided into races with essential, inheritable differences.

Racial uplift: The ideology that believes a race can be improved in aesthetic, intellectual, cultural, economic, and political ways, in contrast to historical allegations of that race’s inferiority.

Racism: Accepting the premise of racial essentialism, the belief that some races are innately inferior to others and should be treated accordingly. See Racial essentialism

Radical Reconstruction: See Reconstruction Era

Realism: A literary movement in the United States arising first in the latter half of the nineteenth century that sought to depict reality faithfully and in quotidian detail, in opposition to the fanciful tendencies of romanticism.

Reconstruction Era: The post-Civil War era until 1877, when the Confederate states that had seceded were reorganized and transformed within the federal government, with a special emphasis on the citizenship and enfranchisement of African American former slaves. Unfulfilled political and economic promises overshadow the legal advancement of African American civil rights, leading into an era, in the late nineteenth century, of racial violence and segregation.

Segregation: The separation of African American and European American citizens by law, policy, or social practice in housing, education, and public or private accommodation. While outlawed with the 1964 Civil Rights Act, de facto segregation in public spaces continued after the legal gains of the Civil Rights Movement.

Slave narrative: A nineteenth-century literary form in which formerly enslaved African Americans recounted their journey from enslavement to freedom. The most popular African American literary form of the antebellum era, these narratives employed common motifs, including descriptions of the brutality of enslavement, personal realization of one’s humanity and self-determination, and a dramatic escape to freedom.

Slave trade: The commercial exchange of Africans and their descendants across Europe, Africa, and the Americas between the sixteenth and the nineteenth centuries that resulted in the transportation of over 12 million across the Atlantic world. Between 10 and 20% of Africans died aboard slave ships prior to landing in the Americas. See Middle Passage

Slavery: A system of involuntary labor forced upon millions of Africans and their descendants in the Americas from the early days of colonization until 1865, when the United States formally abolished slavery under the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution.

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1109

Glossary

Stereotyping: In printing, a process of fixing stereotype plates for reprinting, which serves more broadly as a metaphor of the act of associating ideas and characteristics with individuals, groups, circumstances, or actions that may not accurately reflect of reality. Whereas prejudice is an emotional response to one’s belief about a certain type of person, a stereotype is the expectation or belief itself on which prejudice may be predicated.

Uncle Tom: The title character in Harriet Beecher Stowe’s best-selling novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), as an epithet it now connotes excessive and willful African American subservience to figures of white authority.

Underground Railroad: The covert network in which abolitionists, antislavery sympathizers, and even former slaves assisted runaway slaves in their flight from their owners in the South to free territories in the North and Canada.

White supremacy: A belief and practice of racism promoting the superiority of Anglo-Saxon whites over non-whites.

Works Progress Administration (WPA): The largest agency formed under President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s New Deal, the Works Progress Administration (renamed the Works Project Administration in 1939) employed millions of unemployed people on public works projects, including the construction of bridges and roads, and the establishment of arts, drama, and literacy projects across the country. The WPA created eight million jobs in its operation between 1935 and 1943, and helped launch the careers of a number of African American writers and scholars.

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Timeline: 1746 to 1920

1740s–1760s

American Politics, History, Culture

1740s–1780s The Great Awakening in North America spreads ideas of egalitarianism through religious revivals that prepare many colonists for the republican ideals of the American Revolution.

1750 The British mainland American colonies have a population of 1.5 million, of which 300,000 (or nearly 20%) are enslaved people of African descent. Of these British North American slaves, 145,000 live in Virginia and Maryland, primarily working in the tobacco fields.

1754–1763 French and Indian War. At the same time that the American colonies move toward greater economic and political autonomy that will eventually lead to the rise in republicanism, people of African descent face increasing restrictions on their rights. In 1740, Georgia and Carolina attempt to invade Florida in retaliation for the Spanish territory’s policy of emancipation for escaped slaves. In 1760, New Jersey prohibits slave enlistment without the permission of slave masters.

African American Literary History

1746 Lucy Terry writes “Bars Fight” about a Native American attack on Deerfield, Massachusetts. The poem is published in 1850.

1760 Briton Hammon’s The Narrative of the Uncommon Sufferings and Surprizing Deliverance of Briton Hammon, a Negro Man published.

1768 Samson Occom’s A Short Narrative of My Life published.

1770s–1780s


March 5, 1770 Escaped slave Crispus Attucks, of Native American and African descent, is killed in the Boston Massacre.

The Wiley Blackwell Anthology of African American Literature: Volume 1, 1746–1920, First Edition. Edited by Gene Andrew Jarrett.© 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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9201773 Slaves in Massachusetts, including future founder of African American

Freemasonry, Prince Hall, unsuccessfully petition Massachusetts for their freedom. On December 16, the Boston Tea Party occurs, during which angry colonists dump 342 casks of tea into the Boston Harbor after Governor Thomas Hutchinson declares that the British ship Dartmouth must remain until taxes are paid.

1775 Peter Salem, an African American patriot, fights at the battle of Lexington and Concord.

July, 1775 George Washington announces a ban on the enlistment of free blacks and slaves in the colonial army. In a speech before the Virginia Legislature on March 23, slave owner Patrick Henry encourages colonists to bear arms to protect themselves, using the famous words “give me liberty or give me death.”

November 7, 1775 Lord Dunmore issues his proclamation promising freedom to slaves who flee their masters to join the royal forces. In South Carolina alone, nearly 30% of the enslaved population (25,000 men, women, and children) flee, migrate, or die in an attempt to take advantage of the chaos caused by the war.

July 4, 1776 The Second Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence, written by Virginia slaveholder (and future president) Thomas Jefferson.

1776 The Society of Friends in Philadelphia, also known as the Quakers, prohibits members from holding slaves.

1776 Thomas Paine’s Common Sense published.

1777 Prince Hall, founder of the first African Masonic Lodge in the United States, leads a petition to the Massachusetts state legislature protesting against slavery in the Commonwealth.

1780 Pennsylvania begins gradual emancipation, with a law that says all children of African descent born as slaves shall be freed at age 28.

1780–1783 A series of court decisions, initiated by enslaved woman Elizabeth “Mum Bet” Freeman and Framingham slave Quok Walker, lead Massachusetts to interpret slavery as illegal in the state.

October 19, 1781 General Cornwallis signs surrender papers after American and French forces successfully seize York Town on September 28. This concludes the last major battle of the Revolutionary War.

1784 Rhode Island and Connecticut pass gradual emancipation laws.

1785 New York State outlaws slavery.

1785 Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on the State of Virginia published.

September 17, 1787

The Constitution of the United States is approved by the Federal Convention in Philadelphia and it is sent to the states for ratification. Although the Constitution never mentions the word “slavery,” it provides for the continuation of the Atlantic slave trade for 20 years, allows the federal government to use force to put down slave insurrections, creates a federal fugitive slave law, and counts the slave population as “3/5ths” of the total population to calculate southern states’ representation in Congress.

October 1787–May 1788

The Federalist Papers, written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, appear in New York newspapers under the pseudonym, Publius.

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0 January 21, 1789 William Hill Brown’s The Power of Sympathy: or, The Triumph of Nature Founded in Truth published. It is the first published American novel.


1772 The first autobiographical slave narrative, by James Albert Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, is published.

1773 Phillis Wheatley, enslaved to the loyalist Wheatley family in Boston, becomes the first published African American poet when a London publishing company releases Poems on Various Subjects.

1778 Jupiter Hammon’s An Address to Miss Phillis Wheatly published.

1785 John Marrant’s A Narrative of the Lord’s Wonderful Dealings with John Marrant, a Black published.

1789 Olaudah Equiano’s Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African is published in England. It appears in America in 1791.

1790s–1800s


1790 The first United States Census lists the US population at 3,929,214. The African American population is 757, 208, or 19% of the total population; 59,000 African Americans are free, 27,000 of whom live in the North.

1794 Richard Allen, a former slave in Delaware, establishes the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Philadelphia.

1794 Susanna Rowson’s Charlotte Temple appears in the United States. Originally published in London in 1791 as Charlotte: A Tale of Truth, it was the best-selling novel of the nineteenth century prior to Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)

1800 Gabriel’s Conspiracy is uncovered in Virginia. Inspired by the revolt in St Domingue, which led to the founding of the Haitian Republic in 1804, Gabriel and 25 of his followers are executed.

1803 The Louisiana Purchase doubles the size of the United States. New Orleans, founded by the French Mississippi Company in 1718, will become a center of southern African American culture.

1809 Washington Irving’s A History of New York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty, by Diedrich Knickerbocker published.


1798 Narrative of the Life of Venture Smith is published by a white schoolteacher in Connecticut. A native of Guinea, West Africa, Smith (1729–1805) was enslaved at the age of eight and spent much of his adult life in New York and Connecticut. After purchasing his own freedom in the 1760s, by 1775 he earned enough money to free his entire family.

1810s–1820s


1810 The 1810 US Census lists the population at 7,239,881. African Americans are 1,377,808, or 19% of the population; 186,446, or 13.5% of this population, are free.

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9201817 The American Colonization Society is founded by Reverend Robert Finley to

help free African Americans emigrate to Africa. Although some prominent African Americans, including whaling entrepreneur Paul Cuffe and sail-maker James Forten, had supported colonization since the 1780s, many African Americans rejected the idea.

1820 The 1820 US Census lists the American population at 9,638,543. African Americans number 1,771,656, or 18% of the population; 233,634, or 13.2% of all African Americans, are free.

1822 Demark Vesey’s conspiracy is uncovered in Charleston, South Carolina.

March 16, 1827 John Brown Russwurm, a graduate of Bowdoin College, and Samuel Cornish publish the first African American newspaper in the United States, Freedom’s Journal.


1826 James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the Mohicans published.

1829 David Walker’s An Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World published.

1829 George Moses Horton’s The Hope of Liberty published.

1830s


1830 The 1830 US Census lists the population at 12,860,702. African Americans number 2,328,642, or 18% of the population; 319,599, or 13.7% of all African Americans, are free.

1830 Congress passes the Indian Removal Act, which allows President Andrew Jackson to relocate eastern Indians west of the Mississippi River.

September 1830 Philadelphia hosts the first meeting of the American Society of Free Persons of Colour, which eventually became the National Negro Convention. The organization of over 100 beneficial societies founded by free African Americans sought access to education, employment, and economic relief for communities from Philadelphia to Cleveland.

January 1, 1831 William Lloyd Garrison publishes the first issue of The Liberator in Boston, the most influential abolitionist newspaper of the era.

August 1831 Nat Turner leads a slave rebellion in Virginia in which over 55 whites are killed.

1835 Catharine Maria Sedgwick’s “A Reminiscence of Federalism” published in Tales and Sketches.

1836 Ralph Waldo Emerson’s essay “Nature” is published anonymously.

1836 Transcendentalists meet informally in Boston and Concord.

1838–1839 “Trail of Tears” forces thousands of Cherokees from their homeland in the Southeast to Indian Territory.


1831 Omar ibn Said’s Autobiography of Omar ibn Said, Slave in North Carolina published.

1831 Maria Stewart’s Religion and the Pure Principles of Morality, the Sure Foundation on Which We Build published.

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0 1833 Richard Allen’s The Life, Experience, and Gospel Labors of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen published.

1837 Victor Séjour Marcou et Ferrand’s “The Mulatto” is published in France. It is the earliest known work of fiction by an African American.

1840s


1840 The 1840 US Census lists the population at 17,063, 353. African Americans number 2,873,648, or 17% of the population; 386,293, or 13.4% of all African Americans, are free.

1843 Henry Highland Garnet gives “An Address to the Slaves of the united States” at the National Negro Convention in Buffalo, New York.

1844 Samuel Morse invents the telegraph.

1845 Edgar Allan Poe’s The Raven published.

1847 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s Evangeline published.

1848 The Seneca Falls Convention inaugurates the campaign for women’s rights.

1849 In Roberts v. Massachusetts, the state Supreme Court rules that separation of students based on race in Boston’s public schools is constitutional provided that the facilities for both races are equal. Although Boston’s public schools are legally desegregated in 1855, the legal concept in the Roberts case will form a precedent for the “separate-but-equal” ruling in the 1896 Federal Supreme Court’s Plessy v. Ferguson case.


1845 Frederick Douglass’s Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave. Written by Himself. published.

1849 William Wells Brown’s Narrative of William Wells Brown, an American Slave. Written by Himself. published.

1850s


1850 The 1850 US Census lists the population at 23,191,876. African Americans number 3,638,808, or 16% of the population; 434,495, or 11.9% of all African Americans, are free.

1850 The Fugitive Slave Law, part of the Compromise of 1850, allows federal judges to oversee African Americans accused of being fugitive slaves in the North, which jeopardizes the lives of every African American living outside of the enslaved South. As a result, many African American communities are radicalized as they defend themselves from kidnapping by white slave catchers.

1850 Nathaniel Hawthorne’s The Scarlett Letter published.

1851 Herman Melville’s Moby Dick published.

1851 Sojourner Truth gives speech “Ain’t I A Woman?” at the Women’s Rights Conference in Akron, Ohio.

1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin published. The novel was serialized, beginning in 1851, in the antislavery The National Era.

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9201854 Henry David Thoreau’s Walden; or, Life in the Woods published.

1855 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s “The Song of Hiawatha” published.

1855 Walt Whitman’s Leaves of Grass (1st edition) published.

1857 The Atlantic Monthly is founded.

1857 Harper’s Weekly (1857–1916) is founded.

1857 The Supreme Court rules in Dred Scott v. Sandford that people of African descent are not citizens, and that they have “no rights that a white man is bound to respect.”


1852 Martin Robison Delany’s The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States published.

1852 Frederick Douglass’s essay “What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July?” published.

1853 Solomon Northup’s Twelve Years a Slave published.

1853 William Wells Brown’s Clotel; or, The President’s Daughter published. It is the first published novel by an African American.

1853 J.M. Whitfield’s America and Other Poems published.

1854 Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s Poems on Miscellaneous Subjects published.

1855 Frederick Douglass’s My Bondage and My Freedom published.

1857 Frank J. Webb’s The Garies and Their Friends is published in England.

1858 William Wells Brown’s The Escape; or, a Leap for Freedom: A Drama in Five Acts published.

1859 Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s “The Two Offers” is the first short story published by an African American woman when it appears in the weekly Christian Recorder.

1859 Harriet E. Adams Wilson’s Our Nig; or, Sketches from the Life of a Free Black published.

1859 Martin Robinson Delany’s Blake; or The Huts of America published.

1860s

US Politics, History, Culture

1860 The 1860 US Census lists the population at 31,191,876. African Americans number 4,441,830, or 14.2% of the population; 488,070, or 11% of all African Americans, are free.

April 12, 1861 Confederate forces attack Fort Sumter in South Carolina, signaling the start of the Civil War. Over 200,000 African Americans fight for the Union Army.

January 1, 1863 Lincoln signs the Emancipation Proclamation, freeing slaves in the rebelling areas of the South. Although the Proclamation signals the death of over 250 years of slavery on North American soil, it is not until the Thirteenth Amendment is ratified, in December 1865, that slavery is abolished in the United States.

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0 December 18, 1865 Congress passes the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, outlawing slavery in the United States. Congress also establishes the Bureau of Freedman and Abandoned Lands to assist freed people in the economic transition from slavery to freedom.

1865 Union General William T. Sherman issues his “Field Order 15,” which provides acres of abandoned land to freed people in South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida.

1865 The Freedman’s Savings and Trust Company, also known as the Freedman’s Bank, is established in New York City. By 1866, it moves to Washington, DC.

November 6, 1865 Mark Twain’s “The Celebrated Jumping Frog of Calaveras County” is published in the New York Saturday Press.

1866 Legislatures in the former Confederacy pass “Black Codes” that curtail African American freedom. That same year, the white terrorist organization, the Ku Klux Klan, is established in Pulaski, Tennessee.

1867 Five African American colleges are founded, primarily through northern philanthropists and former abolitionists. They include Howard University, Morgan State College, Talladega College, St Augustine’s College, and Johnson C. Smith College.

July 28, 1868 The Fourteenth Amendment is ratified, establishing due process and equal protection under the law. Because the amendment places civil rights under the federal rather than the state government, it overturns the 1857 Dred Scott decision, which denied African Americans citizenship even if they had previously been granted citizenship by the state.


1861 Harriet Ann Jacobs’s Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl. Written by Herself. published.

1861 Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s “The Two Offers” is the first short story published by an African American woman.

1865 Julia C. Collins’s The Curse of Caste is serialized in the Christian Recorder.

1868 Elizabeth Keckley’s Behind the Scenes; or, Thirty Years a Slave, and Four Years in the White House published.

1870s–1880s

US Politics, History, Culture

1870 The 1870 Census lists the population at 38,558,371. African Americans number 4,880,009, or 12.7% of the total population.

March 30, 1870 The Fifteenth Amendment is ratified, granting the right to vote to all male citizens regardless of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude.”

1874 Collapse of the Freedman’s Bank.

February 6, 1877 The Compromise of 1877 between the Democratic and Republican Parties leads to the Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes in exchange for withdrawal of federal troops from the South. In addition to signaling the beginning of federal investment in southern industry, the compromise effectively ends federal protection for African Americans in the former Confederacy and leads to the long nadir in African American political, cultural, and economic history.

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9201878 Thomas Edison forms the Edison Electric Light Company in New York City.

1879 Thousands of African Americans, resisting racial violence, segregation, and economic exploitation, flee Texas, Louisiana, and Tennessee for the West in what businessmen like Benjamin “Pap” Singleton call the Exoduster movement.

1880 The 1880 Census lists the American population at 49,371,340. African Americans number 6,580,793, or 13.1% of the total population.

1880 Henry Ossian Flipper is the first African American to graduate from West Point.

1880 George Washington Cable’s The Grandissimes: A Story of Creole Life published.

1880 Joel Chandler Harris’s Uncle Remus: His Songs and His Sayings published.

July 4, 1881 Booker T. Washington, protégé of Hampton Institute founder and Civil War veteran Samuel Chapman Armstrong, establishes the Tuskegee Institute.

1881 Tennessee becomes the first state to pass segregation legislation when the legislature approves a measure segregating railroad passengers by race.

1882 George Washington Williams’ History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880. It is the first comprehensive and objective general history of African Americans published in the United States.

1883 Mark Twain’s Life on the Mississippi published.

October 15, 1883 In the famous Civil Rights Cases before the Federal Supreme Court, the 1875 Civil Rights Act is ruled unconstitutional. Another federal law guaranteeing civil rights will not be passed until 1957.

1884 Helen Hunt Jackson’s Ramona published.

1885 Mark Twain’s The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn published.

1885 William Dean Howells’s The Rise of Silas Lapham published.

October 28, 1886 The Statue of Liberty is dedicated in New York Harbor.

1888 Edward Bellamy’s Looking Backward published.


1870 Frank J. Webb’s Two Wolves and a Lamb and Marvin Hayle published.

1879 Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins’s Peculiar Sam, or the Underground Railroad: A Musical Drama in Four Acts published.

1881 Frederick Douglass’s Life and Times of Frederick Douglass published.

1890s

US History, Politics, Culture


December 29, 1890

The Wounded Knee Massacre at which 200 Sioux are killed by Federal soldiers in South Dakota.

1891 First International Copyright Law.

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0 1893 Stephen Crane’s Maggie: A Girl of the Streets published.

June 1895 William Edward Burghardt Du Bois becomes the first African American to receive a PhD from Harvard University.

September 18, 1895

Booker T. Washington, principal of the Tuskegee Normal Institute, delivers his Atlanta Exposition Speech before the Cotton States International Exposition in Atlanta.

May 18, 1896 In Plessy v. Ferguson, the United States Supreme Court upholds the doctrine of “separate but equal”, which will legalize segregationist policy across the country until the 1950s.

March 5, 1897 African American intellectuals, led by Reverend Alexander Crummell, found the American Negro Academy in Washington, DC, to challenge racial inequality, segregation, and racial violence through intellectual engagement and study.

February 15, 1898 The sinking of the Battleship Maine in Havana Harbor, Cuba leads to 260 deaths. Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt sends the Pacific Fleet to the Philippines 10 days later, and by April the US is at war with Spain.

1898 Henry James’s The Turn of the Screw published.

1899 Kate Chopin’s The Awakening published.

1899 Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper published.

1899–1902 The Philippine Insurrection ends with US occupation of the Philippines. Many writers (including Mark Twain and William Dean Howells) oppose American imperialism.


1891 Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s Sketches of Southern Life published.

1892 Frances Ellen Watkins Harper’s Iola Leroy, or Shadows Uplifted published.

1892 Anna Julia Cooper’s A Voice from the South published.

1893 Paul Laurence Dunbar’s Oak and Ivy published.

1895 Alice Moore Dunbar Nelson’s Violets and Other Tales published.

1895 Ida B. Wells-Barnett’s A Red Record published.

1896 Paul Laurence Dunbar’s Lyrics of Lowly Life published.

1899 Charles Waddell Chesnutt’s The Conjure Woman and The Wife of His Youth and Other Stories of the Color Line and his essay “What is a White Man?” published.

1899 Alice Dunbar-Nelson’s The Goodness of St. Rocque and Other Stories published.

1900s–1910s

US History, Politics, Culture


1900 Theodore Dreiser’s Sister Carrie published.

1901 Frank Norris’s The Octopus published.

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920September 14,

1901President William McKinley dies of wounds sustained after Leon Czogloz shot him at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. Vice-President Theodore Roosevelt is sworn in as president.

October 16, 1901 President Roosevelt invites Booker T. Washington to dinner at the White House.

1902 Henry James’s The Wings of the Dove published.

1902 Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle published.

July 11–13, 1905 The Niagara Movement, led by W.E.B. Du Bois, William Monroe Trotter, and J. Max Barber, is founded to challenge the conservative accommodationism of Booker T. Washington, and to fight for racial equality.

1905 Edith Wharton’s The House of Mirth published.

1906 Death of Paul Laurence Dunbar.

October, 1908 Henry Ford introduces the Model T.

February 12, 1909 The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is founded to enforce the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution through legal action. Although the organization is initially led by white Progressives (including Boston attorney Moorfield Storey and William Lloyd Garrison’s grandson, Oswald Garrison Villard), African Americans like Ida B. Wells and William Monroe Trotter are present at the initial meeting. W.E.B. Du Bois is the only African American to head a committee in the new organization.

1910 The 1910 Census lists the American population at 92,228,496. African Americans number 9,827,763, or 10.7% of the total population.

April, 1910 The National Urban League is founded in New York City to assist southern migrants to the North.

1910 The NAACP’s official newspaper, The Crisis, begins publication, with W.E.B. Du Bois as editor.

1911 Founding of The Masses.

1912 Founding of Poetry Magazine.

1913 Robert Frost’s A Boy’s Will published.

1914 Carl Sandburg’s Chicago published.

1915 D.W. Griffith’s film The Birth of A Nation is released.

April 2, 1917 After running for re-election under his pledge to keep America out of war, President Woodrow Wilson asks Congress to declare war on Germany. The US enters the war on April 16. During the conflict, approximately 300,000 African Americans will serve in the US military.

November 5, 1917 The Supreme Court rules in Buchanan v. Warley that a Louisville, Kentucky law compelling racial segregation in residential zoning is unconstitutional.

1917 Pulitzer Prizes are established.

1918 O. Henry Awards are established.

1919 Sherwood Anderson’s Winesburg, Ohio published.

February 19–21, 1918

The First Pan-African Congress, led by W.E.B. Du Bois, met in Paris, with delegates from the West Indies, Africa, and America.

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0 July 13–October 1, 1918

Over 25 race riots, leaving 100 dead and 1,000 wounded, erupt across the country. The violence in cities from Washington, DC, to Chicago leads James Weldon Johnson to coin the term “Red Summer” to describe the racial turmoil in cities across the country.


1900 Charles Waddell Chesnutt’s The House Behind the Cedars published.

1900 Pauline Elizabeth Hopkins’s Contending Forces published.

1901 Charles Waddell Chesnutt’s The Marrow of Tradition published.

1901 Booker T. Washington’s Up from Slavery published.

1903 W.E.B. Du Bois’s The Souls of Black Folk published.

1904 William Stanley Braithwaite’s Lyrics of Life and Love published.

1905 Sutton E. Griggs’s The Hindered Hand; or, The Reign of the Repressionist published.

1908 William Stanley Braithwaite’s The House of Falling Leaves with Other Poems published.

1912 James Weldon Johnson’s The Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man published.

1912 Claude McKay’s Songs of Jamaica and Constab Ballads published.

1913 Fenton Johnson’s A Little Dreaming published.

1916 Performed in Washington, DC, Angela Weld Grimke’s Rachel is the first play written, produced, and performed by African Americans in the twentieth century.

1920 W.E.B. Du Bois’s Darkwater: Voices from Within the Veil published.

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The Wiley-Blackwell Anthology of African American Literature, Volume 1: 1746-1920 (Wiley-Blackwell,...

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