The traditional use of plants for handicrafts in Southeastern Europe

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Human EcologyAn Interdisciplinary Journal ISSN 0300-7839Volume 39Number 6 Hum Ecol (2011) 39:813-828DOI 10.1007/s10745-011-9432-9

The Traditional Use of Plants forHandicrafts in Southeastern Europe

Anely Nedelcheva, Yunus Dogan,Dragica Obratov-Petkovic & IoanaM. Padure

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The Traditional Use of Plants for Handicraftsin Southeastern Europe

Anely Nedelcheva & Yunus Dogan &

Dragica Obratov-Petkovic & Ioana M. Padure

Published online: 10 December 2011# Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011

Introduction

Traditional handicrafts based on plant materials are compo-nents of folk culture throughout the world. Also known ascraftworks, or simply crafts, these products are designed forparticular purposes, and are hand-made or manufacturedwith the help of simple tools and often incorporate aestheticor ornamental properties. Many of these items have notablecultural and/or religious significance.

Most traditional handicrafts are connected with majorhousehold or community activities, such as food prepara-tion, or are components of apparel, furniture, or houses. Theplants employed in making these handicrafts are usually localand well known, and have historically served as majorresources contributing to people’s comfort and living stand-ards (Lewington and Roddick 1990; Balick and Cox 1996;Thomas et al. 2008). Some recent studies have focused onthe contemporary economic importance of plant-basedhandicrafts (Ahmad and Javed 2007; Motti et al. 2009).

The study region of the Balkans is characterized byabundant folk botanical knowledge. The identification of a

large number of plant species and knowledge of theirmorphological and phenological characteristics and ecolog-ical requirements have been necessary prerequisites fortheir use in the manufacture of objects. Local knowledgeaccumulated over centuries is validated by modern scien-tific research, and many locally utilized materials have beenapplied to new and contemporary production activities,including cooperage and the manufacture of fabrics andropes (Francis et al. 1992; Ribereau-Gayon 1994). Thecontemporary application of traditional knowledge andpractice and their significance as a component of national,regional and world culture underline the importance ofscientific examination and interpretation as an importantstep to their documentation for future generations.

This study focuses on the most common plant-basedtraditional handicrafts in several Balkan countries (Bulgaria,Romania, Serbia and Turkey) in order to document the richdiversity of plants used, the associated folk botanicalknowledge, and contemporary knowledge and use of plantsin study area in relation to available natural plant resourcesand local traditions.1 An earlier study of traditional crafts inseveral Balkan countries (Dogan et al. 2008) highlighted thenecessity for more detailed and extended research on thesubject, which is the aim of the research we present here.

Most currently available information on these topics hasbeen derived from ethnographic and anthropological studies(see Borza 1968; Vakarelski 1977; Stoica et al. 2001).Botanical and ethnobotanical research, although not ascommon, also provide important data on contemporaryplant-based handicrafts (Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968; Ketenoglu et al. 2003; Dogan

1 We have excluded two types of botanical handicrafts from this study:plant-based musical instruments, which have a highly specificcharacter; and broom-making, for which see Nedelcheva et al. 2007and Dogan et al. 2009.

A. NedelchevaFaculty of Biology, Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski”,Sofia, Bulgaria

Y. Dogan (*)Buca Faculty of Education, Dokuz Eylul University,Izmir, Turkeye-mail: [email protected]

D. Obratov-PetkovicFaculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade,Belgrade, Serbia

I. M. PadureDepartment of Botany and Plant Physiology,University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine,Bucharest, Romania

Hum Ecol (2011) 39:813–828DOI 10.1007/s10745-011-9432-9

Author's personal copy

et al. 2004; Leonte et al. 2005; Dogan et al. 2010, 2011;Nedelcheva and Dogan 2011). Although such research hasbeen conducted in all the countries in the study area to varyingdegrees, much of the detailed and systematic data published inrecent years have been from Turkey (Baser 1997; Ertug 2006;Kargıoğlu et al. 2008, 2010). One of the main use categoriesin the Economic Botany Data Collection Standard (Cook1995) is “Materials,” including handicrafts, dyes, construc-tion materials, medicinal substances, etc.

Study Area

The study area of the Balkans extends across southeasternEurope and includes parts of Romania (Rm), Serbia (Se),Bulgaria (Bu) and Turkey (Tu) (Western Anatolia) (Fig. 1).The area has long been known as a crossroads of variouscultures, and while historically connected both geographi-cally and culturally, the region is also markedly heteroge-neous, with different languages and religions (Christianityin Rm, Se and Bu, and Islam in Tu) and diverse culturaltraditions. The retention and use of traditional knowledgelikewise varies across the region.

Floristically, the region is also heterogeneous, withsignificant endemism (Table 1). In terms of vegetation, thestudy area has the highest diversity of all the Europeanbiogeographic regions: Continental, Pannonic, Alpine, Pon-tic and Steppic, Sub-Mediterranean and Mediterranean. Allof the area’s vegetation types host a large number of species.

Ethnobotanical Methods: Data Collection

The study was conducted from 2006 to 2009 to gathercomprehensive and reliable data to determine the relation-

ship between plant species and plant materials, and theiruse in the manufacture of objects (Albuquerque andHanazaki 2009). Data were compiled from literaturesources and existing ethnographic collections, as well asfrom field observations and non-structured interviews withlocal knowledge holders and craftspeople.

In total, interviews were conducted with local 68 inform-ants (28 men and 40 women: Romania - 11, Serbia - 13,Bulgaria - 24, and Turkey - 20. The interviewees werebetween 25 and 80 years old, with an average age of 53.Informants were divided into two subgroups: practitioners ofthe craft as a livelihood, and owners of the handicrafts objects,art and crafts collectors, residents of villages with preservedtraditional handicrafts, elderly persons. In the first group, ofthose aged between 45 and 80 years who held skills andknowledge, 23% were still practicing traditional crafts,whereas 9% who practiced them in the past no longer didso. Information from interviews with practicing local crafts-men was documented with voucher materials and completedhandicraft objects. We have the highest degree of confidencein these data, and the research presented here documents thiscurrent state of plant-based crafts rather historical practices.

The photographic materials, handicraft artifacts and plantvoucher materials obtained during the study were depositedin the collections of Anely Nedelcheva (AN) and YunusDogan (YD), respectively. Plant nomenclature is accordingto Flora Europaea (Tutin 1964–1980).

Results

We recorded a total of 118 plant species (and one fungalspecies, Fomes fomentarius (L.) J. Kickx f.) being used forhandicraft production, belonging to 37 families and 82genera (Table 2). The highest numbers of species were inthe families Poaceae (13), Rosaceae (11), Salicaceae (8),Fagaceae (6), Oleaceae (6), Pinaceae (6) and Aceraceae (5),Cyperaceae (5) Anacardiaceae (4), Caprifoliaceae (4),Fabaceae (4) and Betulaceae (3), Cucurbitaceae (3),Malvaceae (3), Tiliaceae (3) (Fig. 2). Most are trees(40%), shrubs (25%) or herbs (31%) (Figs. 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7).

Various plant parts are used as materials for handicrafts,including: stems, leaves, branches of trees or shrubs, roots,fruits and seeds. One object may be manufactured fromvarious parts of the same plant or parts from differentplants. Wood from tree trunks is undoubtedly the mostwidely used plant material because of its hardness, firmnessand ornamental properties. The branches of the trees andshrubs are employed mainly for their strength, toughness,flexibility and resistance to wear and tear. Especiallypreferred are the young twigs, or withes, which are knownfor the toughness, flexibility and evenness of their fibroustissue. Leaves, especially from the monocotyledon familiesFig. 1 Geographical location of the study area

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Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, Poaceae, and Typhaceae, withparallel venation and fibres are permeated with largequantities of silicon compounds, which secure flexibility,toughness and durability. These species are not appropriatefor feeding domestic animals, but are gathered andsometimes even cultivated for the sole purpose of manu-facturing objects for the household. The stems of species ofLinaceae, Cannabaceae, Urticaceae, Malvaceae are used asa source of strong fibres. Roots and root systems arecomparatively little used, but are sometimes employed fortheir specific properties (hard combustion, specific fragrance,form, hardness, strength). Fruits are mainly used for foodand as medicinal agents, and have limited application as araw material for handicrafts. A good example of theapplication of the fruits, however, is members of the familyCucurbitaceae. The seeds are used predominantly for theirornamental qualities, including form, size, colour shade, and/or surface embossment.

The established handicrafts documented in this study areclassified according to the materials of which they arecomprised. This classification integrates the mechanicalproperties of plants and plant parts resulting from theirbiological characteristics with their different applications.We separated groups of traditional folk handicrafts basedon: use of wood (trees, shrubs and woody roots); use offibrous vegetative parts of the plants because of theirresistance to bending, wear and tear and strength (plaiting,weaving, twisting); use of plants or vegetative parts becauseof their specific form and strength; use of plants or theirvegetative parts because of their particular ornamentalqualities; and use of plants or their vegetative parts becauseof their specific symbolic significance in religious ritualsand customs.

Using Wood for Production of Objects

Wood has been valued for millennia for construction ofhouses and animal shelters, for crafting miscellaneoushousehold furniture and objects, and for building farmequipment, fencing, wagons and other items, in addition tofuel. Because of its ubiquitous presence, historically it hasbeen a major raw material in the Balkan Peninsula and animportant component of the culture, as is evident from thedepth of knowledge about woody plant species, including

their biological and technological specific characteristics(Vakarelski 1977).

The manufacture of wooden articles, particularly smallhousehold objects used in cooking, food preparation andhousehold activities, such as wooden wine vessels, bowls,spoons, mixing spoons, and chopping boards, as well asdistaffs, spindles, walking sticks, knitting needles, combs,stereotype blocks, shuttles, shoe-pegs, ramrods, and whiphandles, has a very long tradition and is still very common(Rodic 2004; Khan and Khatoon 2007). Over 73 woodyspecies used were documented according to density,strength and flexibility (Table 2). In the manufacture ofsuch objects, especially those that are intended to be incontact with food, the use of poisonous species is avoided,as are plants containing bitter substances.

Fibrous Plants Used for Plaiting, Weaving, and Cordage

One of the most ancient handicrafts is the knitting orweaving of mats and rugs. All plants with vegetative parts(stems, leaves, roots, young shoots and/or twigs) that areflexible, strong and durable are used. Use of raw fibrousmaterials from 71 plant species, mostly in the familiesPoaceae, Cyperaceae, Juncaceae, and Typhaceae, wasdocumented. Woven mats and rugs are used largely forfloor coverings and room dividers, cushions and pillows,and as winter blankets for animals. Many are highlydecorated, with specialized knots and knitting stitches, aswell as patterns coloured with plant dyes.

Basketry is still a popular handicraft. People use basketson a daily basis, for gathering and transporting vegetablesand fruits, and for drying fruits. Many different shapes andsizes of baskets are produced, varying in capacity andstrength as well as in the component plant materials,depending on their intended application.

Some glass containers, including vessels for alcohol andother liquids, pickles, and compotes, are surrounded bycoverings woven of willow, Salix spp. Because of itsdurability even when moist, Abutilon theophrasti Medik. isused for making fishing-nets and ropes for wells (Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Vakarelski 1977; Dogan et al. 2008; seealso Guvenc et al. 2003 for an analysis of its specificqualities). Until World War I, binding with ropes made fromlocal materials was common, especially those made with

Table 1 Plant species richness and diversity (higher plants) in the study area

Country Area [km2] Species number Families Endemics References

Bulgaria 110,910 3 900 159 12.8% Kozhuharov 1992; Petrova 2005

Romania 238,392 3 700 108 7% Oltean et al. 1994; Mihailescu and Falca 2004

Serbia 88,361 3 115 141 6.86% Gajic 1984; Diklic 1987; Stevanovic and Vasic 1995

Turkey 784,562 8 709 163 32% Baser 1997

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Table 2 List of species used in study area for traditional handicrafts

SpeciesFamily

Part used N Plant based handicrafts

A B C D E Handicrafts products Country Collectionnumber

Collection Reference

Abies alba Mill.Pinaceae

wood I wooden home goods, casksfor brandy

[Bu, Se]* AN 003 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Dogan etal. 2008

Abutilon theophrastiMedik. Malvaceae

stem IV fishing-nets [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Acer campestre L.Aceraceae

wood wood II wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Se]* AN 016 EM2 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004; 2006; Matic 2007

Acer heldreichii Oprh.Aceraceae

wood IV wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Se] EM1 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Matic2007

Acer platanoides L.Aceraceae

wood wood I wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Se]* EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Rodic2004; 2006

Acer pseudoplatanus L.Aceraceae


[Bu, Se]* AN 011 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al., 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Rodic2004; 2006

Acer tataricum L.Aceraceae

wood II wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Se] Ahtarov et al., 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Rodic2004; 2006

Acorus calamus L.Araceae

leaf IV cooperage to fill in theblanks in caskmanufacturing

[Bu] EM1 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Aesculus hippocatsanum L.Hippocastanaceae

wood II hand-made troughs [Bu, Se]* EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004

Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.Betulaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu, Se]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004

Alnus incana Willd.Betulaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Se]* Rodic 2004

Althaea cannabina L.Malvaceae

stem, fiber IV mats, rugs, basketry [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Andropogon gryllus L.Poaceae

root, stem IV brushes, mats, rugs [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Arundo donax L.Poaceae

stem young shoot,stem

stem I basketry (Fig. 4), walkingsticks, beach umbrella,fishing rods

[Bu, Rm, Tu]* AN 012, YD02/08, YD001, YD052-59

EM2, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Borza1968; Ertug 2000; 2006;Dogan et al. 2008;Kargıoğlu et al. 2010

Avena sativa L.Poaceae

aerial part III wall decoration [Bu, Rm]* AN 017, AN018

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968;Ertug 2006

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




Berberis vulgaris L.Berberidaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu, Se] EM1, EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004

Betula pendula RothBetulaceae

wood, bark young shoot,twig, bark

II wooden home goods,basketry

[Bu]* EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Dogan et al.2008

Buxus sempervirens L.Buxaceae

stem,wood

II wooden home goods [Se]* Rodic 2004

Cannabis sativa L.Cannabaceae

stem, fiber II rough textiles, strings, mats,ropes, seats (Fig. 5)

[Bu, Rm, Se,Tu]*

AN 013, YD002, YD043–50, YD34/08

EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968;Vakarelski 1977; Secmen etal. 1986; Vladic-Krstic1997; Ketenoglu et al. 2003,Bjeladinovic-Jergic 2003;Ertug 2006; Dogan et al.2008

Carex spp.Cyperaceae

stem, leaf II mats, rugs, basketry [Bu] EM1, EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Carpinus betulus L.Corylaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Castanea sativa Mill.Fagaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu] EM2 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski1977

Celtis australis L.Ulmaceae

wood wood II wooden home goods, whip’shandles, engravings

[Bu, Se]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Rodic 2004;2006; Matic 2007

Celtis caucasica Willd.Ulmaceae

wood young shoot,twig

II wooden home goods,basketry

[Bu]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Cercis siliquastrum L.Fabaceae

wood III wooden home goods [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.)Mansf. Cucurbitaceae

seed III necklace, earrings, bracelets [Bu, Rm] AN 014 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Borza 1968

Clematis vitalba L.Ranunculaceae

young shoot,twig

II basketry [Bu]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Cornus mas L.Cornaceae


wood twig I wooden home goods,engravings, basketry, ritualtool “survachka” (Fig. 7)

[Bu, Se]* AN 004, AN015, AN23-10

EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski1977; Ivanova 1991; Rodic2004; 2006

Cornus sanguineus L.Cornaceae


wood III wooden home goods,engravings, basketry

[Se] Rodic 2004; 2006

Corylus avellana L.Corylaceae


twig II wooden home goods,basketry, manufacture ofhoops and walking sticks

[Bu, Rm, Se]* AN 018 EM1, EM2,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968;Vakarelski 1977; Parvu1991; Rodic 2004; 2006;Dogan et al. 2008

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




Cotinus coggygria Scop.Anacardiaceae

wood III wooden home goods [Bu, Se]* Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Rodic2004

Crataegus monogyna Jacq.Rosaceae

wood III turnery: handles of tools [Bu, Rm, Se] AN 080 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Borza 1968

Cucurbita pepo L.Cucurbitaceae

fruit seed II vessel for feeding domesticanimals

[Rm]* Coteanu et al. 1998

Cyperus longus L.Cyperaceae

stem III mats [Tu]* Secmen et al. 1986; Ertug2006

Erica arborea L. Ericaceae root, wood root, wood IV manufacture of pipes [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Eriophorum latifolium HoppeCyperaceae

inflorescence(cottonyheads)

inflorescence(cottonyheads)

III paper manufacturing, fiber,substitute or supplement toother fibers to make tissueand fuses, cotton headsused to decorate the folkcostumes

[Bu] AN 076-78 EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Euonymus europaeus L.Celastraceae

wood wood II knitting needles, combs,stereotype blocks, spindles,shuttles

[Bu, Se] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Euonymus verrucosus Scop.Celastraceae

wood II shoe-pegs [Bu] AN 019 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Fagus orientalis LipskyFagaceae

wood I wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Tu] EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Dogan et al.2008

Fagus silvatica L.Fagaceae

wood wood I wooden home goods(Fig. 3), hand-madetroughs, engravings

[Bu, Se]* AN 003/06 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski1977; Rodic 2004; 2006;Matic 2007; Dogan et al.2008

Fomes fomentarius (L.) J.Kickx f. Polyporaceae

tramatissue

IV rustic masks, handbags, caps,wallets, hats

[Rm]* Borza 1968; Parvu 1991

Frangula alnus Mill.Rhamnaceae

wood III wooden home goods, shoe-pegs

[Se]* Vladic-Krstic 1997

Fraxinus excelsior L.Oleaceae


[Bu, Se]* AN 075 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004; 2006; Matic 2007

Fraxinus ornus L.Oleaceae


[Bu, Se] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Fraxunus angustifolia Vahl.Oleaceae

wood II wooden home goods,wooden home goods

[Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Glyceria maxima (Hartm.)Holmb. Poaceae

stem, leaf III mats and rugs [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Hordeum vulgare L.Poaceae

stem, leaf aerial part III straw knitting, walldecoration

[Bu, Rm, Tu]* AN 020-24 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968;

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




Vakarelski 1977; Secmen etal. 1986; Ertug 2006;Dogan et al. 2008

Ilex aquifolium L.Aquifoliaceae

wood III wooden home goods [Bu] EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Imperata cylindrica (L.)Raeusch Poaceae

stem, leaf III basketry, rugs, manufacturingpaper


Juglans nigra L.Juglandaceae

wood I wooden home goods [Se]* Rodic 2004; Matic 2007

Juglans regia L.Juglandaceae

wood I wooden home goods [Bu, Se]* AN 026 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski1977; Rodic 2004; Matic2007

Juncus acutus L.Juncaceae

root stem, leaf II brushes, rugs [Bu, Tu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Ertug 2006

Juncus effusus L.Juncaceae

stem, leaf fiber II rugs, making twine, rope andsacks

Bu, Rm] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Juniperus excelsa Bieb.Cupressaceae

wood III manufacture of chairs andpencils

[Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Lagenaria siceraria (Molina)Standl. Cucurbitaceae

fruit II household containers,utensils and ladles

[Bu]* AN 010, AN027-29

EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Lavatera thuringiaca L.Malvaceae

fiber IV making string and ropes [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Leymus arenarius (L.)Hochst. Poaceae

stem, leaf IV rugs [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Ligustrum vulgare L.Oleaceae


III wooden home goods,basketry

[Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Linum usitatissimum L.Linaceae

fiber I textile, string and ropes [Bu, Rm, Se]* AN 009 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski, 1963; Borza 1968;Vakarelski 1977; Vladic-Krstic 1997; Bjeladinovic-Jergic 2003; Ketenoglu etal. 2003; Dogan et al. 2008

Lonicera xylosteum L.Caprifoliaceae

wood III ramrods, whip’s handles [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Lycopodium annotinum L.Lycopodiaceae

aerial part IV mats, rugs [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Malus dasyphylla Borkh.Rosaceae

wood wood III wooden home goods,engravings

[Se] Rodic 2004; 2006

Malus sylvestris Mill.Rosaceae

wood II wooden home goods,engravings

[Bu, Se] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Rodic 2004;2006

Morus alba L.Moraceae

wood fresh shootpeel, bark

I casks for brandy, furniture,wheel making, string for

[Bu, Se, Tu]* AN 008, AN031, AN

EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




grafting 072, YD040-42

1977; Rodic 2004; 2006;Matic 2007; Ertug 2006;Dogan et al. 2008

Myricaria germanica (L.)Desv. Tamaricaceae

young shoot,twig

III basketry [Se] Dogan et al. 2008

Olea europaea L.Oleaceae


I wooden home goods,basketry

[Tu]* YD 032-38 Ertug 2000; 2006

Paliurus spina-christi Mill.Rhamnaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu] Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960

Peganum harmala L.Zygophyllaceae

seed IV wall decoration [Tu]* YD 053-60 Ozturk and Ozcelik 1991;Ertug 2006; Kargıoğlu et al.2010

Phalaris arundinacea L.Poaceae

stem IV mats, rugs, basketry [Bu] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Phaseolus vulgaris L.Fabaceae

seed II necklace, earrings, bracelets [Rm]* Borza 1968; Chirila et al.1999; Leonte et al. 2005

Phragmites australis (Cav.)Trin.ex Steud Poaceae

stem, leaf stem, leaf I basketry, door and beachmats, mats for wall, boater,straw hat, houses of plantmaterial

[Bu, Rm, Se,Tu]*

AN 005, YD064

EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Vakarelski1977; Secmen et al. 1986;Parvu 1991; Rodic 2004;Ertug 2006; Dogan et al.2008; Kargıoğlu et al. 2010

Picea abies (L.)H. Karst. Pinaceae

wood twig I manufacturing of chairs andcasks for brandy, souvenirs

[Bu, Se] AN 007 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004; 2006; Matic 2007;Dogan et al. 2008

Pinus mugoTurra Pinaceae

twig I making the wheels of carts,hoops and sticks

[Bu, Se]* AN 068-70 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Pinus nigra J.F.Arnold Pinaceae

wood I manufacturing of chairs [Bu]* AN 066 EM1, EM2,EM4, EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977

Pinus peuce Grsb.Pinaceae

wood II manufacture of pencils [Bu, Se] EM1 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960

Pinus sylvestris L.Pinaceae


[Bu, Se]* AN 006 EM1, EM2,EM3

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004; 2006; Matic 2007

Pistacia lentiscus L.Anacardiaceae

young shoot,twig

III basketry [Tu]* Ertug 2006

Populus nigra L.Salicaceae


I wooden home goods, crates,basketry

[Bu, Se] EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Rodic2004; 2006

Populus tremula L.Salicaceae


II use with turnery and makingchairs, pencils and

[Bu, Se]* Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




manufacture of matches(low quality), basketry

Prunus avium L. Rosaceae wood wood wood II wooden home goods,engravings, casks

[Bu]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Rodic 2004;2006

Prunus cerasus L. Rosaceae wood wood II wooden home goods,engravings, casks

[Bu, Se] EM5 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Stranski1963; Rodic 2004; 2006

Prunus mahaleb L. Rosaceae wood twig III wooden home goods, cigarholders

[Bu, Se]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Rodic 2004;2006

Prunus padus L. Rosaceae wood III wooden home goods, makingthe wheels of carts andchairs

[Se] Rodic 2004; 2006

Pyrus spp. Rosaceae wood II wooden home goods, casks [Bu]* AN 062-64 EM3, EM4,EM5


Quercus fraineto Ten.Fagaceae

wood I wooden home goods, casks [Bu]* AN 056-60 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5


Quercus petraea (Matt.)Liebl. Fagaceae

wood I wooden home goods, casks [Bu, Se]* EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004; 2006; Matic2007

Quercus robur L. Fagaceae wood I wooden home goods, casks [Bu]* AN 052-53 EM3, EM4,EM5


Rhus coriaria L.Anacardiaceae

wood III use with turnery and makingchairs

[Tu]* Ozturk and Ozcelik 1991;Ertug 2006; Kargıoğlu et al.2010

Rhus typhina L.Anacardiaceae

wood III use with turnery and makingchairs

[Se]* Vladic-Krstic 1997

Robinia pseudacacia L.Fabaceae

wood II wooden home goods [Bu]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Dogan etal. 2008

Salix alba L. Salicaceae young shoot,twig

I basketry [Bu, Rm, Se,Tu]*

AN 043–50,YD 021-30


Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Borza,1968; Vakarelski 1977;Secmen et al. 1986; Doganet al. 2008; Nedelcheva andDogan 2011

Salix eleagnos Scop.Salicaceae

young shoot,twig

I basketry [Bu]* AN 054 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Salix fragilis L. Salicaceae young shoot,twig

I basketry [Bu]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Salix purpurea L. Salicaceae young shoot,twig

I basketry [Rm, Se]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Borza 1968; Dogan et al.

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




2008

Salix rosmarinifolia L.Salicaceae

young shoot,twig

I basketry [Bu, Rm]* Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Salix triandra L. Salicaceae young shoot,twig

I basketry [Se]* Vladic-Krstic 1997

Sambucus nigra L.Caprifoliaceae

root, stem root, stem III small home goods,manufacture of shuttles fortextile, root make pipes andcigar boxes, toys

[Bu, Se]* AN 042 EM1, EM2,EM3, EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Stranski1963; Vakarelski 1977;Nedelcheva and Dogan2011

Scirpus lacustris L.Cyperaceae

stem, leaf IV mats, rugs, kids swim beltsand basketry


Scirpus sylvaticus L.Cyperaceae

stem, leaf IV mats, rugs and basketry [Bu] Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960

Secale cereale L. Poaceae stem, leaf II back pillow, straw knitting [Bu, Rm, Tu]* EM3, EM4 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Stranski 1963; Borza 1968;Secmen et al. 1986; Ertug2000; 2006; Dogan et al.2008

Sorbus aucuparia L.Rosaceae

root, stem III use with turnery and makingchairs walking sticks (fromroots)

[Bu, Se] Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Stranski1963

Sorbus domestica L.Rosaceae

wood III wooden home goods [Se]* Vladic-Krstic 1997

Sorbus torminalis (L.)Crantz Rosaceae

wood III wooden home goods,turnery, obtain charcoal forgunpowder production

[Bu, Se] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers.Poaceae

stem, leaf II mats, rugs, basketry [Bu] AN 038-40 EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Dogan et al. 2008

Spartium junceum L.Fabaceae

stem, fiber II making rope, twine and bags,paper

[Tu]* YD 018-20 Secmen et al. 1986; Ertug2000; 2006

Syringa vulgaris L. Oleaceae wood wood II small wooden home goods,shoe-pegs

[Bu, Se]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004

Tilia cordata MillerTiliaceae


I wooden home goods, bowlsfor water (milk), basketry,fibers, ropes

[Bu, Se]* EM1, EM2,EM3, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004; Matic 2007

Tilia platyphyllos Scop.Tiliaceae


I wooden home goods,basketry, fibers, ropes

[Bu, Se]* EM1, EM4,EM5

Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004

Tilia tomentosa Moench.Tiliaceae

wood, bark youngshoots,twig, bark

wood I wooden home goods,engravings, basketry,fibers, ropes

[Bu, Se]* EM3, EM4,EM5

Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Rodic2004; 2006; Matic 2007

Triticum aestivum L. Poaceae stem, leaf aerial part II straw knitting, wall [Bu, Rm, Tu]* AN 02-07 EM1, EM2, Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;

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Table 2 (continued)

SpeciesFamily




decoration (Fig. 6) EM3, EM4,EM5

Vakarelski 1977; Borza1968

Typha angustifolia L.Typhaceae

stem, leaf stem, leaf I casks for brandy, backpillow, door and beachmats

[Rm, Se, Tu]* YD 007-13 Borza 1968; Secmen et al.1986; Parvu 1991; Aliyeva1999; Ertug 2006; Dogan etal. 2008

Typha latifolia L. Typhaceae stem, leaf stem, leaf I casks for brandy, backpillow, basketry

[Bu, Se]* AN 037 EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Vakarelski 1977; Aliyeva1999; Dogan et al. 2008

Ulmus minor Mill.Ulmaceae

wood II manufacturing of chairs,basketry

[Bu]* EM1 Stojanov and Kitanov 1960

Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae stem, fiber II textile fibers, nettle fiber assubstitute for cotton,fishing net, paper

[Bu, Rm, Se]* AN 036 EM1 EM2 Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Stranski1963; Borza 1968;Vakarelski 1977; Chirila etal. 1999; Dogan et al. 2008

Viburnum lantana L.Caprifoliaceae


III wooden home goods, makinghoops and walking sticks,basketry

[Bu, Se] Stojanov and Kitanov 1960;Rodic 2004

Viburnum opulus L.Caprifoliaceae


wood III wooden home goods,ramrods, basketry


Vitex agnus-castus L.Verbenaceae

young shoot,twig

II basketry, beach umbrella [Tu]* YD 010-17 Secmen et al. 1986; Ertug2006; Dogan 1994; Doganet al. 2011

Zea mays L. Poaceae stem, leaf caryopsis,corn silk,spathe

I mats, rugs, basketry, toys,souvenirs, home decoration

[Bu, Rm, Se,Tu]*

AN 032–35,YD 004-6


Ahtarov et al. 1939; Stojanovand Kitanov 1960; Stranski1963; Borza 1968;Vakarelski 1977; Secmen etal. 1986; Parvu 1991; Ertug2006

A) Making use of wood material (trees, shrubs and grown stiff plant parts (root systems) for production of objects; B) Making use of vegetative parts of the plants because of their resistance tobending, wear and tear and strength. (plaiting, weaving, twisting); C) Making use of plants or their vegetative parts because of their specific form and strength; D) Making use of plants or theirvegetative parts because of their ornamental qualities; E) Making use of plants or their vegetative parts because of their specific symbolic significance in religious rituals and customs.

N: number of reports in each plant based handicraft group - Group I (high number of records), Group II (middle number of records), Group III (less number of records) and Group IV (low numberof records).

Collection sources: EM1 - National Ethnographic Museum’s collections, Ethnographic Institute with Museum - Sofia; EM2 - Architectural ethnographic complex “Etar”- Gabrovo; EM3 -Ethnographic exhibition, Municipality museum - Burgas; EM4 - Ethnographic Museum - Varna; EM5 - Ethnographic museum-complex - Koprivshtitsa; Interviewed informants []*

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fibres from lime bark (Tilia spp.) and willow osier (Salixpurpurea L.), harvested in the spring (Vakarelski 1977).

Until the end of the nineteenth century, hemp (Cannabissativa L.) held a central place among the plant fibres, whilein the mountain regions flax (Linum usitatissimum L.)predominated. Traditional costumes, often with complexembroidery, were made from both hemp and flax(Vakarelski 1977; Vladic-Krstic 1997; Ketenoglu et al.2003; Dogan et al. 2008). Cotton (Gossypium sp.) wasintroduced to the Balkan Peninsula comparatively late inthe fourteenth century, and it was not until even later that

people started actually to make use of it (Vakarelski 1977).Like flax, nettle (Urtica dioica L.) fibre (Borza 1968) isused to produce rough materials such as sacking (Chirilaet al. 1999; Dogan et al. 2008).

Plants or their Parts Used Because of their Specific Form

Seventeen plants were documented as being used because oftheir specific form and strength. The fruit of the bottle gourd orcalabash Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. is still widelyused for various kinds of household containers, utensils andladles. In Romania, thoroughly dried pumpkins (Cucurbitapepo L.) are also used as vessels for feeding domesticanimals (Coteanu et al. 1998). Non-bitter types of thesecucurbits are used to store water and milk (Vakarelski 1977).

Fig. 5 A seat produced from hemp fibre (Cannabis sativa) [YD 34/08]

Fig. 4 Small basket from Arundo donax [YD 02/08]

Fig. 3 Wooden water or milk container produced by Fagus sylvatica[AN 003/06]

Fig. 2 Systematic structure of plants used in traditional handicrafts instudy area (based on species list)

824 Hum Ecol (2011) 39:813–828


Houses of plant material such as common reed(Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.) and someother species from the family Poaceae are constructedeven today. Traditional construction is a combination ofreeds, water and cement (Rodic 2004; Kargıoğlu et al.2010). These reed houses are very comfortable, becausethey remain cool inside during the summer, yet retainwarmth in winter. They are especially common in centralSerbia.

Some woods are used specifically for their heatresistance. For example, tobacco-pipes are manufacturedfrom the wood and rhizomes of tree heath (Erica arboreaL.), as well as from Euonymus europaeus L., Syringavulgaris L. and Viburnum opulus L. The wood of Prunusmahaleb L., which has rather pleasant coumarin fragrance,is used to make cigarette-holders (from young twigs withunpeeled bark); Prunus avium L. can be used as analternative (Stojanov and Kitanov 1960). Natural charcoalsticks for drawing are made from the wood of filbert(Corylus avellana L.) and buckthorn (Frangula alnus Mill.)(Parvu 1991; Dogan et al. 2008).

Of particular interest is the use of tinder polypore(Fomes fomentarius), the only fungus documented in thestudy. Boiling the trama tissue of this fungus produces asoft material which is used to manufacture objects such asrustic masks, handbags, caps, wallets, hats (Borza 1968;Parvu 1991). This application of tinder polypore is veryspecific to Romania, despite the fact that the species iswidespread throughout the region, although sacred icons ontinder polypore, painted with oil-paints, are found in someregions of the study area (Borza 1968).

Plants or their Vegetative Parts with Special OrnamentalQualities

Like the fibrous plants mentioned above, maize (Zea maysL.) husks and leaves are used for knitting and manufactur-ing various crafts (Borza 1968; Parvu 1991). The caryopsisand corn silk are also used to manufacture rustic dolls(Păpuşă) for girls. The leafless dolichoblasts or twigs ofNorway spruce (Picea abies (L.) H. Karst.) are used tomake ornamental objects because of their distinctiveembossed surface (due to needle scars). Seeds of Peganumharmala L. (Ozturk and Ozcelik 1991; Ertug 2006) andstalks of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) (Kargıoğlu et al.2010), oats (Avena sativa L.) and barley (Hordeum vulgareL.) are used to make knick-knacks, and decorative charmsand wall hangings (Vakarelski 1977; Ertug 2006). Phaseo-lus vulgaris L. and Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Mansf. seedsare used for jewelry (necklaces, earrings, bracelets) (Borza1968), to produce different colours (Chirila et al. 1999),and also to make of rustic dolls or masks (Leonte et al.2005).

Plants or Vegetative Parts Used for their SymbolicSignificance in Religious Rituals and Customs

Some traditional handicrafts of the Balkans are closelyrelated to ancient customs and rituals, such as the“Survachka” or “Survaknitsa” ceremony, when twigs orsmall branches of cornel or dogwood (Cornus mas L.)(Fig. 7) decorated with strings of popcorn, dried fruit andFig. 7 “Survachka” decorated cornel twigs (Cornus mas) [AN 23–10]

Fig. 6 Wall decoration from wheat straw (Triticum sp.) [AN 02–07]

Hum Ecol (2011) 39:813–828 825


bread rings symbolize wishes for fertility and prosperity(Vakarelski 1977; Ivanova 1991). Although cornel is wellknown and used for handicrafts throughout the study area,its ritual use is confined to Bulgaria where the ceremony isstill practiced.

In some regions mats have particular ritual uses. Forexample, in Izmir, on the Aegean coast of Turkey (as wellas in Azerbaijan) (Aliyeva 1999), mats of Typha are usedfor carrying and burying the dead, and are woven especiallyfor this purpose. This tradition, however, is not known inother parts of Anatolia (Ertug 2000).

Discussion

In this study, a total of approximately 600 uses of plants inhandicrafts in the Balkan region were recorded; of these,144 (24%) are from collections (EM), 361 are fromliterature sources (60.2%), and 68 from interviews(11.3%). According to the relative number of reports perspecies, the plants were divided into four groups: Group I(with a high number of records), Group II (intermediatenumber), Group III (lower number) and Group IV (minimalnumber) (Table 3). Most often cited are plants which arewidespread in the study area, are well known to localpeople, and which have easily identifiable botanicalcharacteristics (e.g., Abies alba, Acer spp., Fagus spp.,Juglans spp., Olea europaea L., Pinus spp., Linumusitatissimum). They are mostly used to make woodenhousehold products, casks [A] and basketry [B]. Most ofthese objects are still being made and used today. Thiscategory also includes invasive species that are increasinglybeing used for traditional crafts as well as more contempo-rary articles (e.g., Arundo donax, is used to make beachumbrellas, and Phragmites australis is used for basketry,straw hats, roofing, and door, beach and wall mats)(Kargıoğlu et al. 2010).

In Groups II and III are species with more limiteddistribution in the study area, which consequently tend tobe used differently in different regions. Crafts using theseplants (including making furniture, walking sticks, pipesand cigar boxes) are still practiced today to varying degrees

in different locales. Group IV, least used species, includesplants with very limited distribution or specific habitats(e.g., Erica arborea, Lycopodium annotinum L.) and hencearticles made from these species are usually very restrictedregionally and associated with specific cultural traditions (e.g., Fomes fomentarius and Peganum harmala). Someplants (e.g., Abutilon theophrasti and Lavatera thurin-giaca L.) were used in the past for objects that have now losttheir significance because of the advent of new technologiesand new materials (e.g., fishing-nets, strings and ropes).Lastly, the species of Poaceae and Cyperaceae families, whichare difficult for people to precisely identify botanically, havebeen identified for this research through analysis of manufac-tured objects.

This study reveals that a significant proportion oftraditional handicrafts utilizing plant materials to produceobjects connected to daily household life and occupationsare still used in the region. The manufacture of objects ofhigher quality and with ornamental or symbolic value leadsto the use of new plant materials, mostly wild plantswidespread in the region that are easily accessible and cost-effective to gather. Thus, the characteristics of handicraftsreflect local vegetation, species structure and diversity, aswell as the diversity of local traditional cultures.

Over various periods in history some communities beganto cultivate economically valuable species. As noted above,most of the species documented in this study are commonand widespread in the study area (Table 3). The plants fromthe Poaceae, Linaceae, Cannabaceae and Urticaceae fami-lies were cultivated for their fruits and textile fibers ratherthan for handicraft production. Nowadays, however, incertain limited rural localities some of these plants arecultivated for domestic handicrafts.

In recent years there has been a tendency to replaceindigenous materials with cheaper, non-native substitutessuch as bamboo. There is also a growing trend ofmarketing as traditional national souvenirs handicraftsmanufactured in foreign countries, notably China. Thesetwo recent phenomena are real and imminent threats tothe region’s cultural heritage of plant use. On the otherhand, there is a growing interest throughout the regionin the manufacture of traditional products using natural,

Table 3 Groups of species according to the number of reports for each species and number of reports in each plant based handicraft group

Group n % Cit N [total] N [A] N [B] N [C] N [D] N [E]

I >15 >10 35 22 18 5 9 1

II 9–14 3–5.6 40 31 15 6 9 -

III 4–8 1–2.8 29 19 11 4 5 -

IV 1–3 <0.8 14 2 9 3 1 -

n - number of reports per each species for plant group categorisation; % Cit - percent of citations for plant group categorisation; N - number ofreports in each plant based handicraft group

826 Hum Ecol (2011) 39:813–828


locally available materials. This modern philosophy, inwhich craft products are regarded as “organic” and“eco-” or “bio-friendly,” has great significance forpotential future preservation and renewal of traditionalknowledge associated with these crafts.

In the study area most of traditional handicrafts areproduced by women (Ertug 2000). Traditional craftstypically practiced by men are cooperage and rope-making. Some traditional handicrafts, such as coopering,basket-making, broom-making and weaving, have had,until now, limited economic significance. Others, notablythe production of hand-made clothes, however, havesignificant economic implications, and some very importantdesigners have created fashion centers in central andsoutheastern Serbia which produce a sort of nationalfashion brand which is well known internationally. Thelocal rural population, mainly women, are able to profitfrom this local economic production, even travelling abroadto promote their products, and thereby are increasing theirstandard of living. Other handicrafts, however, such asshepherd poker-work, distaff and spindle making, matting,basketry, belt and hat production, as well as decorativework, have become disappeared from most parts of thestudy area and are now found only in some small villages.At the same time, in some settlements or among certainethnic groups (e.g., Romanians or gypsies), handicrafts arepreserved, such as home goods without high decorativevalue but produced by traditional techniques, e.g., basketry,and making tobacco-pipes and walking sticks. In addition,contemporary interest in the production of ritual handi-crafts, such as those for “surovaknitsa,” is considerable,undoubtedly due to the general regional trend of revival oftraditions, old customs and rituals.

In the study area, knowledge and production of manytraditional handicrafts are still passed on from generation togeneration. Today, in response to the need to protecttraditional manual techniques of workmanship and artistrythat have been largely replaced by modern productiontechniques, many regional institutions support the educa-tion of younger people in traditional skills. Ethnographicmuseums and special handicraft schools organize work-shops and performances related to the implementation oftraditional skills. Monasteries have also schools for tradi-tional engraving and painting where the monks teach theskills for engraving different types of wood, including thestructure and special characteristics of the material, withappropriate tools and techniques, as well as traditionaldesigns and composition.

This research was designed to gather and analyze data onthe extent of local ethnobotanical knowledge in the studyarea of the Balkans. Our findings confirm that this regionhas a great potential for both scientific and tourism interestsin biocultural diversity, and provide abundant data for

informing modern production activities and technologies,both with reference to raw materials and the processingtechnologies. Documentation based on careful, systematicand thorough methods of contemporary scientific researchwill be available to future generations. The knowledge,practices, and skills embodied in these products are not only ofregional significance; they will become part of the world’sstore of knowledge and our common human heritage.

Acknowledgements The authors wish to express their sincerethanks to Prof. Dr. Nancy J. Turner (School of Environmental Studies,University of Victoria, Victoria, Canada) for her support in checkingthe English language of the manuscript and for her constructivecomments. Thanks are also due to the all study participants, inespecially those who were interviewed for the key informant study, fortheir time and who shared their knowledge and experience.

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The traditional use of plants for handicrafts in Southeastern Europe

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