THE STUDY OF ENGLISH IN JAPAN - De Gruyter

THE STUDY OF ENGLISH IN JAPAN

OTA AKIRA

INTRODUCTORY

This article consists of two parts: Part I deals with descriptive and historical English linguistics, and Part II with applied English linguistics. Applied English linguistics in this case is limited to linguistics as applied to English language teaching in Japanese schools.

There are two reasons for the inclusion of applied English linguistics in this survey. One reason is the sheer magnitude of the problems concerned, which makes it almost imperative to include them in any reasonable survey of English linguistics in Japan. The other reason is the rather intimate connection in Japan between descriptive English linguistics on the one hand and applied English linguistics, on the other, which sometimes makes it difficult to separate the two neatly. While many of the historical studies are usually not of much pedagogical use, a good number of the studies of present-day English, even when they do not aim at any immediate application to language teaching, often do have some bearing upon the teaching of English, and at the same time, many of the studies which profess to be pedagogical in purpose are often not without interest for students of "pure" linguistics.

Both in Part I and Part II, the chief purpose is to trace the postwar development. Therefore, reference to prewar linguistics (both pure and applied) will be limited to those main features that will provide the necessary background for the understanding of the postwar development.

PART I: DESCRIPTIVE AND HISTORICAL ENGLISH LINGUISTICS

The first two sections, namely, 1.1 "Position of English linguistics in the academic disciplines", and 1.2 "Brief sketch of prewar linguistics", will provide the background necessary for the understanding of the main topic discussed in 1.3 'Postwar linguistics'.

1.1. Position of English linguistics in the academic disciplines

In Japanese universities, courses in English linguistics are offered as part of the curriculum of the English department, which comprises both literature and language.

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The same is usually true with such major modern languages as French and German so that the closest colleagues of linguists, so far as these languages are concerned, are those majoring in literature. However, there is no such organization as a Modern Language Association in which students of different modern languages can exchange their opinions. The national professional organization called "The English Literary Society of Japan", to which most university teachers of English belong, has little or no contact with their German or French counterparts. Neither does it have much contact with the organizations of Japanese linguistics or of general linguistics. There is still less contact between linguistics and other disciplines. Furthermore, in the national organization mentioned above as well as in each university, linguists are far outnumbered by students of literature.

This relatively isolated position of English linguistics in the academic disciplines has had a decisive influence upon its development in Japan. English linguistics in Japan has been most closely tied to English literature and has been largely humanistic in its outlook. The situation has changed a bit after the large-scale influx of American linguistics in the postwar period, but so far it has served only to widen somewhat the perspective of linguists; it has not gone so far as to encourage interdisciplinary studies or to invite the scholars of other fields, such as mathematicians, logicians, psychol-ogists, anthropologists, communications engineers, etc., to the field of linguistics.

1.2. Brief sketch of prewar linguistics1

Despite the danger of oversimplification, it may be said that trends in prewar English linguistics can be represented by three major figures: Daniel Jones in phonetics, Otto Jespersen in general theory and grammar, and Harold E. Palmer in applied linguistics. The positions of Jones and Palmer in their respective fields are almost indisputable. As for general theory, it must be mentioned that the Japanese trans-lation of Ferdinand de Saussure's Cours de linguistique générale had been published as early as 1928 (rev. ed. 1940) and that some of de Saussure's teachings such as the distinction between LANGUE and PAROLE or between synchronic and diachronic studies were relatively well known to Japanese scholars. However, his influence was felt far less than that of Jespersen so far as English linguistics was concerned. The same is true with A. H. Gardiner's The theory of speech and language. As for English grammar, such names as Henry Sweet, C. T. Onions, G. O. Curme, H. Poutsma, E. Kruisinga, etc., will have to be added, but Jespersen stood as the central figure. The person who did most to introduce these scholars, especially Jespersen, to Japan, was Otsuka Takanobu.

1 As has been said, the purpose of this section is to describe only those main currents in prewar linguistics that will have to be mentioned as the background for the following section. A more detailed account of prewar linguistics with greater attention paid to the activities of individual scholars is given by Yamaguchi Hideo in his introductory remarks entitled "A brief retrospect" added to the "Appendix on Japanese publications" in G. Scheurweghs, Analytical bibliography of writings on Modem English morphology and syntax 1877-1960,1 (Louvain, Nauwelaerts, 1963).

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Besides the three major fields mentioned above, of which grammar attracted the greatest attention of Japanese linguists, two minor but significant fields need mention. One is what might be called "universal semantics" as applied to the elucidation of English semantics, developed by Nakajima Fumio under the influence of Anton Marty. The other is "stylistics", started by Yamamoto Tadao under the influence of de Saussure, Charles Bally, and Karl Vossler. Such American linguists as Leonard Bloomfield and Edward Sapir had little or no influence.

Japanese scholarship in the prewar period is epitomized in The Kenkyusha diction-ary of English philology (1940 J).2 Under the general editorship of Ichikawa Sanki, the great patriarch of Japanese linguists, several leading scholars of the day partici-pated in the compilation of this monumental work amounting to more than one thousand closely printed pages. Technical terms, arranged in alphabetical order, are provided with explanations and ample quotations of illustrative examples. The fields covered are general theory, phonetics, grammar, history of English, metrics and rhetoric, with biographies and bibliographies of important scholars. In phonetics, Jones' influence is predominant, though some attention is paid to other British scholars (Sweet, Palmer, etc.) and the Prague phonologists (in regard to such terms as phonological correlation, fascia of correlation, functional burdening, morphonol-ogy, and the definition of the term "phoneme"). In grammar, Jespersen is most amply represented, and next to him, Curme, Poutsma, etc., although in the explanations of the terms "function" and "meaning" Anton Marty's influence is evident. Bloomfield and Sapir are not mentioned except in their biographies. The comment made upon Bloomfield's Language is quite revealing. It says, "The aim of this book is not to present one special doctrine or principle, but to give an unbiased, objective survey of linguistics today. . . Together with Graff's Language and languages it will serve as a very good outline guide to linguistics". The supplement to the Kenkyusha dictionary of English philology (ed. by Ichikawa Sanki, 1954 J) tries to compensate for this unbalance by introducing some ten terms commonly used by American structural linguists (such as allophone, complementary distribution, etc.), but the coverage is far from being adequate. Nevertheless, all in all, The dictionary of English philology has long served its purpose as a very convenient reference guide and is still valuable as such.

1.3. Postwar linguistics

The first two sections, 1.3.1 "Influx of foreign scholarship", and 1.3.2 "The influence of American structural linguistics", discuss the predominant features of postwar English linguistics with little reference to individual contributions. 1.3.3 "Classified bibliography", while serving as an independent bibliographical guide, will substantiate the general picture given in the first two sections.

2 J, E, or JES indicates that the article is written in Japanese, English, or Japanese with English summary, respectively.

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1.3.1. Influx of foreign scholarship

The war period was virtually a vacuum in English studies in Japan. As the war went on, contact with studies abroad began to be severed, foreign publications became more and more difficult to obtain, and finally even the study and teaching of English itself began to be suppressed by the military.

The end of the war put an end to this situation. Released from intellectual isolation, Japanese scholars kept busy, especially in the first ten years or so after the war, catching up with the progress made in the rest of the world during the war period. Three series of publications need special mention as representing such efforts.

The first of these, The English grammar series (ed. by Otsuka Takanobu, Iwasaki Tamihei, and Nakajima Fumio, 1954-55 J), consists of twenty-five volumes of about 120 pages each. Each volume takes up some part or parts of speech, some gram-matical category or categories, or such topics as concord and narration, word order, word formation, pronunciation and spelling, etc. Together they cover the entire field of grammar. Twenty-five scholars were recruited for the writing, each assigned one volume. This was the first major concerted effort made after the war at the systematic treatment of English grammar. The qualities of individual volumes are rather uneven in spite of the editors' effort at coordination, but on the whole the work served at least to fill the gaps created by the war.

The second of the series, the twenty-volume English teachers' series (abbr. ETS), was designed to introduce American structural linguistics and its application to English teaching. It consists of translations with the translators' explanatory notes, together with the reprints, when necessary, of a few selected articles and books by Bloomfield, Sapir, C. C. Fries, E. A. Nida, W. F. Twaddell, G. L. Trager, H. L. Smith, R. A. Hall, etc. It began publication in 1957 and was completed several years later.

The third series, The English philology library (ed. by Otsuka, Iwasaki, and Naka-jima), again consists of translations and digests, but it is more catholic in its selection of the items to be translated. The publication began in 1957, and so far about sixty items (each item ranging from 33 pages to 146 pages) have been published. Only a few American structuralists are represented in this series; the rest are very diverse. They comprise not only British scholarship but also that of various European coun-tries (German, French, Danish, Swedish, Dutch, Swiss, Czech, etc.). Naturally, the orientations, approaches, and subjects vary a great deal. The greater number of the items are translations of short articles originally published in scholarly journals, while a few others are translations of selected portions of books and monographs, and still some others are the digests of the contents of the originals.

The last two series did much to introduce European and American activities to Japanese students. In general, it can be said that the second series {English teachers' series) contributed to familiarizing Japanese students with American structural linguistics and thus to creating a new trend, while the third series {The English philol-


ogy library) contributed to bringing prewar studies up-to-date along more or less traditional lines by filling the gaps created by the war.

Translations not included in these two series are also numerous. To mention only a few, Karl Brunner's Abriß der mittelenglischen Grammatik, Fernand Mosse's Es-quisse d'une histoire de la langue anglaise, Wilhelm Franz's Die Sprache Shakespeares in Vers und Prosa, Ernst Leisi's Der Wortinhalt: Seine Struktur im Deutschen und Englischen, Albert H. Marckwardt's American English, Bloomfield's Language, Sapir's Language, Charles W. Morris' Signs, language, and behavior, etc., have been translated and published, and quite recently, Noam Chomsky's Syntactic structures has been added to the list.

1.3.2. The influence of American (structural) linguistics

Out of this tremendous effort at introducing, assimilating, and evaluating foreign scholarship, something like a new trend has begun to emerge—the influence of American (structural) linguistics. It is true that after the war some scholars placidly resumed their prewar studies, but a good number, especially the younger ones, have begun to pay increasing attention to American linguistics, and this constitutes one major characteristic of postwar English linguistics in Japan. The factors that accel-erated this tendency were a fairly large number of Japanese students who went to study at American universities after the war, and a group of noted American linguists who came to Japan to help improve the teaching of English—Fries, Twaddell, Marckwardt, Einar Haugen, Ernest Haden, and Archibald A. Hill, among the number.

Interest in glossematics and the Firthian school is also new to the postwar period, but their influence is much more limited and can hardly be said to constitute a trend.

The following four lines of postwar development as contrasted with prewar linguistics can be largely attributed to the influence of American structuralism:

(1) The rigorous approach, which insists upon explicit statement of assumptions and procedures and verification in behavioral terms, forms a sharp contrast with the mentalistic approach prevalent in prewar days, which was often highly impression-istic and subjective or metaphysical and notional. Emphasis on "distribution" as criteria meant a radical departure from "semantic" criteria very prevalent before the war. As a result, doubt was cast about the validity of universal notional categories and the like posited by Jespersen and others, or in a more extreme form by Max Deutschbein. The usual objections to the "mechanistic" approach were not rare, but when considered against the background of prewar linguistics in Japan, the change was more salutary than not; at least it served as a good antidote.

(2) The systemic nature of language has been brought into clearer focus in contrast with prewar linguistics, which was more interested in digging up factual details without enough attention paid to the total pattern into which these details will fit. In postwar linguistics such questions as the hierarchical structures in the phonological

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and the grammatical systems, the relation between the two, the relation between phonetics and phonemics or between grammar and semantics, the status of morpho-phonemics, the pros and cons of mixture of levels, etc., have been seriously considered and discussed. Of course, as is well known, there have been disagreements concerning these questions among American linguists themselves and between some American linguists and some European linguists, but through these controversies Japanese linguists have been getting a clearer picture and a deeper understanding of the problems concerned.

(3) Compared with prewar linguistics, which, in spite of Sweet's and Palmer's insistence on the importance of spoken English, was more concerned with written English, in postwar linguistics more attention is paid to spoken English. This naturally means a shift of interest in the fields studied. In prewar days the chief concern of linguistics was grammar, and next to it, semantics and stylistics. As for phonetics, Jones' description, with that of J. S. Kenyon to supplement knowledge about Ameri-can English, was considered sufficient by most scholars, and researches were mainly concerned with digging up phonetic details stated chiefly in physiological terms. It is too much to say that postwar linguistics has tipped the scales from grammar to phonology, but at least it can be said that considerably more attention is being paid to phonological study and that scholars are no longer satisfied with simply digging up factual details. They are now more or less aware of the distinction between phonetics and phonemics, the systemic nature of the phonological component of each language system, and the importance of suprasegmentals and their relevance for grammar. Some are also interested in acoustic phonetics.

(4) Finally, American linguistics has served to widen the vista of Japanese linguists. Instead of considering that literature is the sole companion to linguistics, today many linguists know that there are a host of related disciplines such as anthropology, psychology, mathematical logic, communications engineering and information theory, acoustic phonetics, etc. So far this widening of vista has not borne any tangible fruit, but at least it has served to free linguists from their extreme preoccu-pation with the literary aspect of their subject of study.

In the last few years considerable attention has been paid to transformational-generative grammar, but so far the activities of Japanese linguists in this field have gone little further than understanding and propagating the ideas developed by Chomsky and others, and at most, applying it to fragments of Japanese grammar. Although it is expected to exert considerable influence upon future linguistics in Japan, at present it seems to be too early to assess or predict the amount and nature of its influence. It might be said, however, that transformational-generative grammar will lift the limitations of post-Bloomfieldian taxonomic grammar and revive tradi-tional grammars in a more explicit and formalized way. What has to be warned against in the Japanese climate is the possibility of the unbridled resurrection of traditional grammars without formalization, that is, the temptation to revert to mere semanticism or to an impressionistic approach.


The new trend in postwar linguistics outlined above did not mean the denial of prewar linguistics. There has been little harsh collision and subsequent schism between the upholders of prewar linguistics and the supporters of the new trend. Rather, the two have settled down in "peaceful coexistence". As the historian Arnold Toynbee pointed out, this attitude might be characteristic of the Japanese, who have allowed the old to coexist with the new; for example, the introduction of Buddhism from China and Korea did not mean the annihilation of Shintoism in Japan; the two exist side by side today, and there has even developed a sort of division of labor—many Japanese are married by Shinto priests and buried with Buddhist rituals. Prewar linguistics still continues and is being refined, and there is every now and then a healthy exchange of views between the two groups. At present, the influence of American structuralism is strongest in phonology, less strong in grammar, and still less in other fields. It is stronger in descriptive studies than in historical studies. This general statement concerning the influence of American structuralism will be sub-stantiated in the following section.

1.3.3. Classified bibliography

In this section, under the headings of phonology, grammar, semantics and lexicology, and descriptions of dialects and the languages of individual writers, the more impor-tant contributions will be listed with comments as necessary. They include both the continuation of prewar linguistics and the products of the new trend. Although this section is intended as an independent bibliographical guide, it will also serve to sub-stantiate the general statement given in the preceding section.

1.3.3.1. Phonology

The articles dealing with phonology can be rather clearly divided into (1) descriptive studies and (2) historical studies. The influence of structuralism is much more pre-dominant in the former than in the latter.

(1) Descriptive. Hattori Shiro, Phonemics and orthography (1951 J) gives the earliest review of Twaddell, On defining the phoneme, and G. L. Trager and B. Bloch, "The syllabic phonemes of English" (Language 17:3.223-46 [1941 ]). Ota Akira, Phonemics of American English (1959 J), primarily deals with the phonological system of the dialect of the Northern Middle West, but gives a fairly comprehensive survey of phonology in general and of English phonology in particular. This work is most strongly influenced by such "phonological grammarians" as Bloch, Trager, H. L. Smith, C. F. Hockett, and A. A. Hill, but it discusses nearly all of the important works in the field except those of the generative grammarians. For example, it is critical toward the idea of "overall pattern" adopted by Trager-Smith and explained by Hockett, and favors, theoretically, the view presented by Einar Haugen and Uriel Weinreich. (Part of the discussion was published in English in Ota Akira, "Idiolect, common core, and overall pattern" [1958 E]). In phonotactics, it adopts IC descrip-

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tion, starting with syllables having CVC structure and extending the description to-ward outer layers, numbering the consonants from those nearest to the syllable nuclei to those further away (in accordance with Eli Fischer-J0rgensen's suggestion), and careful distinction is made throughout between "accidental gaps" and "holes in the pattern". Likewise, in regard to the phonotactics of suprasegmentals, it starts with the nucleus of intonation, extending the description toward the more peripheral elements. The book is concluded with an introduction to acoustic phonetics, Roman Jakobson's theory of binary opposition, and L. G. Jones' treatment of General American from the binarist point of view. Yasui Minoru, Consonant patterning in English (1962 E), treats the phonotactics of consonant clusters. This work is char-acterized by the endeavor to explain the "Englishness" exhibited in consonant clusters. Two articles by Hayashi Eiichi, "The immanent structure of English syllables: a glossematic interpretation" (1960 J) and "The immanent structure of Enjghsh con-sonant clusters: from the glossematic point of view" (1961 J), are, as the r subtitles suggest, interesting attempts at the description of English syllable stru tures and consonant clusters from the glossematic point of view. Abe Isamu, A study of English intonation (1958 J), is more traditional in approach, but is characterized by the collection of abundant factual data. To borrow Dwight L. Bolinger's expression, it is more "data-oriented" than "procedure-oriented". Torii Tsuguyoshi, "Structuralism in acoustic phonetics" (1958 E), introduces researches made at Haskins Labora-tories, and his "The comparison of checked vowels and free vowels in sound spectro-grams" (1956 J) tries to find the features that distinguish the two groups of vowels by the analysis of the spectrograms given in Visible speech by Ralph K. Potter, George A. Kopp, and Harriet C. Green. Other articles are Doi Kochi, "The tempo of English speech" (1962 J) [it has become more and more rapid in recent years]; Kaneko Naomichi, "An experimental study on some series of contrastive structural systems for opposed phonemes and their allophones in the English language" (1962 E); Oguri Keizo, "Spelling pronunciation in English" (1961 J); Konishi Tomoshichi, "On shifting accent" (1954 J); and Tomura Minoru, "Jones' Anglicization" (1959 J).

(2) Historical. A certain amount of interest was already shown in historical phonology before and during the war due to the influence of Sweet, Jespersen, H. C. Wyld, R. E. Zachrisson, etc., but the publication of major works by Helge Kokeritz, E. J. Dobson, and Wilhelm Horn and Martin Lehnert, among others, revitalized this interest. No comprehensive survey has yet appeared, and most of the articles are concerned with the transition from Middle English to Early Modern English.

Araki Kazuo, "On early orthoepists" (1961 J), discusses the controversy between Kokeritz on the one hand and Dobson and B. Danielsson on the other as to whether John Hart had the Devonshire dialect. Kusakabe Tokuji, "On the interpretation of the evidence for Shakespeare's pronunciation" (1962 E), says that London English in Shakespeare's days exhibited a good deal of dialect mixture and that each ortho-epist tried to impose a standard more or less to his own liking (most often his own dialect). Kusakabe Tokuji, "Preliminaries to phonemic analysis of the Middle English


a in Shakespeare" (1958 E), distinguishes between phonetic change and phonemic change, reexamines the chronology of the lengthening of the Middle English d, and doubts the validity of the alleged stages of [ae] > [ae:] > [a:] in the process of lengthening. Kurokawa Shifiichi, "On Kokeritz' new theory on the development of the Middle English a before [f, 0, s, r ] " (1958 E), restates the problem from the structural point of view and with the reinforcement of the evidence from American English. Araki Kazuo, "On the development of Modern Standard English [a:]" (1955 JES), criticizes Wyld and advocates Kokeritz and Jespersen. Iizuka Shigeru, "On the development of the Middle English u " (1958 E), claims that Middle English u developed into Modern English [au] after passing through the stage of [ou], a finding which he bases on a study of stenographic and rhyme evidence, al-though in some dialects he agrees that u became [au] or [au] before it became [au]. Other articles are Miura Kannosuke, "Shakespeare's puns in pronunciation" (1962 E); Hayashi Tetsuro, "The shortening of long vowels in Early Modern English, with special reference to ea" (1957 J); Hayashi Tetsuro, "On Ben Jonson's interpretation of diphthongs" (1957 JES). A few articles take up the later stages: Nanba Toshio, "On the enunciation of Burns's poetry" (1961 E); Kikuno Mutsuo, "A study of Dorset sounds found in Hardy's works" (1957 J); and Sawamura Eiichi, "The vowels of the Wessex dialect in the works of Thomas Hardy" (1962 E).

On the whole, in historical phonology, the influence of structuralism is not yet prominent, but Araki Kazuo, "Methodological reconsideration in historical phonol-ogy" (1964 J) shows such influence. Matsunami Tamotsu, Studies in the history of English (1964 J), is a collection of ten articles, the first two of which treat sound changes and show the strong influence of Henry M. Hoenigswald and Winfred P. Lehmann. Kuwahara Teruo, "A new attempt at the reinterpretation of English phonology with special reference to vowels" (1964 J), is an attempt at a reinterpreta-tion in terms of the Trager-Smith system.

1.3.3.2. Grammar3

The division into descriptive and historical studies is not very useful in this section, since a good many of the articles treat both diachronic and synchronic aspects. Instead, this section is divided into "general" and "particular". The former includes articles that are primarily concerned with general theory or methodology or that deal with an entire grammar, while the latter includes articles that treat some particular parts of speech, grammatical categories, sentence elements, and the like.

(1) General. Mori Masatoshi Gensen, Studies in English syntax (1961 E), consists mostly of articles originally published in the Bulletin of the Institute for Research in Language Teaching (abbr. IRLTBulletin) in the last ten years or so. The volume shows

3 The summaries of the contents of some of the articles cited here are given by Yamaguchi Hideo in his "Appendix on Japanese publications" in Scheurweghs, Analytical bibliography, cited in foot-note 1. The articles taken up by him are limited to those that are written in English.

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the continuation of prewar grammatical treatises kept almost intact; the author al-most invai'iably argues in Jespersen's footsteps, whether to support or criticize him. Otsuka Takanobu, ed., Sanseido,s dictionary of English grammar (1959 J), is more limited in scope than the prewar Kenkyusha dictionary of English philology mentioned in 1.2. It primarily deals with syntax and morphology, and its interest in phonology, lexicology, rhetoric, etc., is peripheral. It is interesting to note, however, that, while it tries to preserve and bring up-to-date the kind of English linguistics prevalent in prewar days, it also contains a heavier dosage of American structuralism, thus showing the postwar tendency. Yasui Minoru, Studies in English philology (1960 J), shows the same tendency. In this collection of thirty-seven articles (twenty-seven of which discuss various topics in grammar) published in various Japanese journals between 1950 and 1957, the author shows the transition from the more orthodox standpoint of prewar linguistics to that of American structuralism as the result of his exposure to the latter during the period. Ishibashi Kotaro, Theory of English grammar (1964 J), tries to combine American structuralism with the theory of gram-mar and semantics the author was familiar with in prewar days, which includes not only that of Jespersen, but also that of Gardiner, de Saussure, Karl Biihler, Theodor Kalepky, Ogden-Richards, etc. Though not influenced by generative grammar yet, the book gives a comprehensive, well balanced, and somewhat eclectic treatment of the subject.

While the three books mentioned above represent a combination of American structuralism and prewar grammar, the following items represent structuralism pure and simple. Isami Yasuo, "The theoretical basis of Leonard Bloomfield" (1958 J), tries to clarify the basic assumptions and principles of Bloomfield's methodology. Ogasawara Rinju, "Structural status of traditional grammatical categories in English" (1958 E), reexamines the traditional grammatical categories from the Bloomfieldian point of view. Ukaji Masatomo, "Syntax" (1958 J), takes up various problems concerning IC analysis such as criteria for cutting, multiple constituents, discontinu-ous constituents, etc. Kusakabe Tokuji, "What is modification?" (1961 J), discusses the problem of head and attribute in relation to objects and complements of verbs, such verb phrases as can go, may be going, etc.

Articles dealing with generative grammar are still not many. Inoue Kazuko, "Descriptive grammar and MIT grammar" (1963 J), compares generative grammar with Bloomfieldian taxonomic grammar and points out some problems left for generative grammar to solve. Kuwahara Teruo, "What is 'grammaticality'?" (1963 J), advocates "degrees of grammaticalness". Hasegawa Kinsuke, "Rules of 'double object' construction" (1962 J), is an interesting attempt at applying the transformati-onal approach. Other articles treating generative grammar are Ukaji Masatomo, "On generative grammar" (1963 J); Isami Yasuo, "Recent trends in American linguistics: criticism of Bloomfield's theories" (1964 J).

The influence of European linguistics can be regarded basically as the continuation of prewar linguistics. New to postwar Japan is appraisal of glossematics and the


Firthian school. Otsuka Yuriko, "The London school of linguistics" (1959 J), in-troduces the latter, while Ota Akira, "On commutation" (1958 JES), raises three questions concerning this fundamental notion of glossematics—whether content analysis on the basis of content figurae is possible or not, whether by "commutation test" is meant actual operational procedures to be applied to a hitherto unanalyzed text or a sort of final control on the analysis arrived at by some sort of more or less traditional method, and in what sense "form" can be really independent of "sub-stance".

Nakajima Fumio, System of English grammar (1961 J), is unique in that it is basically an extension and elaboration of the author's system developed under the influence of A. Marty in prewar days and applied to the explication of English grammar. It starts with the tripartite classification of psychic phenomena (VORSTEL-

LUNG, URTEIL, and GEMUTSTATIGKEIT), and distinguishes between outer speech form and inner speech form, the former related to phonetic form and the latter to meaning, and between AUTOSEMANTISCH and SYNSEMANTISCH.

The investigation of usage occupied and still occupies considerable concern on the part of grammarians. Two articles by Konishi Tomoshichi, "Classification and general tendency of usage" (1961 J) and "Doctrines of correct usage" (1962 J), deal with general problems concerning usage. The former is concerned with the classifi-cation of levels of usage and their mutual relationship, and the process of linguistic innovation and decay; while the latter claims that correct usage should be decided not merely on the basis of investigation of actual usage (of educated speakers) but also from a teleological standpoint (such as economy and efficiency of expression).

Very few articles are concerned with general problems of historical grammar. Miyabe Kikuo, "A note on the historical point of view in studying English" (1962 JES), discusses the relation between synchronic and diachronic studies and emphasizes the importance of the intermediate transitional stage where the old and the new coexist.

(2) Particular. Very few books and articles have appeared on morphology and word formation. Kobayashi Eichi, The verb forms of the South English Legendary (1964 E), is an exhaustive study of the verb forms that appear in the 4,000 lines of MS Harley 2277 of the South English Legendary, which was written about 1300 in the South-western dialect. The author first establishes the phonemic system for the dialect on the basis of etymologically clear nouns and adjectives. This enables him to distinguish the normal phonemic reflexes from analogical deviations from the norm. Then he takes up strong verbs, weak verbs, and verbs of minor groups in that order, in each case presenting normal patterns first and then discussing separately every individual verb that shows divergences from the norm or for any other reason is of special interest. Kobayashi's work is a solid and valuable contribution to the study of Middle English grammar. Ueno Kagetomi, "Word formation" (1959 J), treats the subject along the traditional lines of Jespersen, H. Koziol, and others, while Ikeya Akira, "A description of English derivational suffixes" (1961 J), and Kojima Yoshiro,

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"Vowel change in English verbs and nouns" (1963 E), adopt American structuralism and are purely synchronic.

Articles on syntax are diverse in topics and approaches, but several centers of interest can be detected, such as relative pronouns, tenses of verbs, verbals, etc.

The first group concerns nouns and pronouns. Ikeya Akira, "The subdivision of nouns in English" (1961 E), compares the subclassification of nouns proposed by Jespersen, Sweet, Bloomfield, and M. Z. Norman (American Speech 33:2 [part 1 ] 83-9 [1958]), and on the whole advocates Norman's classification while suggesting some revision. Kunihiro Tetsuya, "The sememes of number in English" (1964 JES), says that if we assume the "sememe" of the singular form as "numberless", various phenomena will be explained better than if we assume it as "one-ness". Sato Kazuo, "On some disputed points of proper nouns" (1961 JES), tries to distinguish common nouns from proper nouns on semantic grounds. Yasuhara Motosuke, "Articles and proper names: a new classification of usage" (1955 E), describes the use or non-use of definite and indefinite articles with proper names.

Egawa Taiichiro, "The definition of a pronoun" (1961 J), is an attempt at the syntactical, morphological, and semantic definition of pronouns in relation to nouns and adjectives. Hirooka Hideo, "Is the present dialectal 'en,'un,'«the lineal descend-ant of hine in Old English? (with special reference to Ancrene Riwle)" (1954 J), concludes that the forms named are not descendants of hine in Old English, but corrupted forms of him in unstressed positions. Araki Kazuo, "Pronoun or con-junction?—relative that, as, but, than" (1958 E), favors the view that while that should be regarded as a relative pronoun, as, but, and than should be regarded as conjunctions. Both Mori Yoshinobu and Yamakawa Kikuo, "I t is I that am to blame: diachronic and synchronic" (1957 J), and Matsunami Tamotsu, "A historical consideration of the disjunctive formula: It is I that am to blame" (1961 E), are agreed in regarding this construction as the fusion of more than one construction and attempt at historical, logical, and psychological explanations. Kusakabe Tokuji, "Some pre-systematic observations on relative and adverbial transformations" (1962 J), is an informal treatment of the subject from the transformational standpoint. Miyabe Kikuo, "A note on the relative pronouns in Early Middle English" (1959 E), traces the vicissitudes of pe and pat by examining The Peterborough Chronicle, the first two homilies of The Old English Homilies, Poema Morale, and Ancrene Riwle. Murata Yuzaburo, "Contact clauses in Chaucer" (1961 J), finds many contact clauses in Chaucer's works except those that are under the strong influence of Latin. Araki Kazuo, "Syntax of Shakespeare's English, with special reference to the relative pronouns who and which" (1955 J), says, among other things, that the use of who and which instead of that in Shakespeare seems to be partly influenced by metric considerations. Mitsui Takayuki, "Relative pronouns in Shakespeare's colloquial English" (1958 E), is a statistical survey of relative pronouns in Shakespeare and other Elizabethan writers in comparison with those in present-day English presented by Randolph Quirk in "Relative clauses in educated spoken English" {English


Studies 38:3.97-109 [1957]). Watari Hajime, "Grammatical notes on the language of Defoe: on some relative pronouns in Robinson Crusoe" (1958 J), and ObaKiyoshi, "A statistical study of relative clauses in The Apple Tree" (1950 E), treat the later development of relative pronouns. Thus it is evident that in the first group relative pronouns have attracted the greatest attention.

The next group concerns verbs. Ota Akira, Tense and aspect of present-day American English (1963 E), takes up the simple, perfect, progressive, and perfect progressive (both present and past) forms of verbs, and examines the bearing of contextual factors (such as types of clause, time and frequency indicators, the subject of the sentence, style, etc.) on the choice of one of these forms in preference to the other ones. The author tries to define the essential meaning(s) of each form, and considers the interaction between the lexical meanings of individual verbs and the essential meaning(s) of each form. The corpus analyzed for the purpose of obtaining numerical data consists of an unrehearsed ten-hour conversation, ten television play scripts, and thirty thousand words of formal writing selected from ten different pieces. Yamakawa Kikuo, The development and characteristics of verbals in English (1963 J), is a diachronic-synchronic study. On the one hand, it tries to trace the development of infinitives, gerunds, and participles, and their various uses, and on the other, it pays special attention to their stylistic, expressive values. Most of the materials examined are literary works. The author's approach is characterized by a careful examination of the text analyzed, though sometimes it is a little too much imbued with impressionistic interpretation. Chapter 3 of the book, entitled "The two con-structions : 'accusative and participle' and 'genitive and gerund'", was originally written in English and published in 1957.

As for the rest of the articles relating to verbs, I shall just list the titles in order to show the range of interest. Ota Yoshiko, "Some notes on the (be + present participle in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries" (1957 J); Isami Yasuo, "A descriptive study of '¿>e + present participle form' in American English" (1956 E); Harada Shigeo, "The be going to + infinitive form in Shakespeare" (1958 E); Ozawa Junsaku, "A practical consideration on the sequence of the past and the past perfect tenses" (1961 E); Hirooka Hideo, " / says and similar forms in English dialects" (1958 E); Maejima Giichiro, "Musings on the English passive" (1956 E); Soranishi Tetsuro, "Voice in current English" (1958 E); Matsunami Tamotsu, "The origin of the auxiliary do" (1958 J); Irie Keitaro, "The auxiliary do in John Dryden's plays" (1962 E); Ono Satoshi, "A study of the anomalous use of the auxiliary must: an intro-duction" (1958 E); Ono Shigeru, "Some notes on the auxiliary motan" (1958 E); Nakao Toshio, "The distribution of the [plural] forms of the verb be in Piers the Plowman''' (1961 J); Miyata Takeshi, "Inflected infinitive appearing in Beowulf'' (1955 JES); Fujiwara Hiroshi, "On the infinitive in the interlinear gloss of Aelfric's Colloquy'''' (1963 E); Miyabe Kikuo, "Some notes on the perfect infinitive in Early Middle English" (1956 E); Watanabe Toichi, "A group of adjectival infinitives" (1960 J); Matsunami Tamotsu, "On the Old English participles" (1958 E); Egawa

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Taiichiro, "Gerund and infinitive as object of a verb" (1960 JES); Isshiki Masako, "On the difference between 'To see is to believe' and 'Seeing is believing'" (1956 E); Inoue Ryoji,"On the expression of start-ing vs. start to" (1959 E); Soranishi Tetsuro, "Aspect in the present participle" (1960 J); Niwa Yoshinobu, "Notes on the ge-prefixed to the past participle in the Saxon Chronicle" (1958 JES); Niwa Yoshinobu, "On the transitivizing function of the verb-prefix ge- in the Saxon Chronicle (Parker MS)" (1959 JES); Niwa Yoshinobu, "Notes on the compound verbs in St. Juliana (c. 1230)" (1963 J); Konishi Tomoshichi, "The growth of the verb-adverb combina-tion in English: a brief sketch" (1958 E); Maejima Giichiro, "Some notes on English medio-reflexive verbs" (1958 E); Maejima Giichiro, "Some notes on the English reflexive verbs of Latin-Romance origin" (1959 E); and Wakatabe Hiroya, "An investigation of verbs of reporting in novels" (1961 J). In this group problems con-cerning tense and verbals have attracted the greatest attention.

Articles dealing with other parts of speech are not many in number. Konishi Tomoshichi, "A study on the local and temporal senses of the preposition at, in, and on" (1957 J), tries to discover the essential meaning(s) of each of the three prep-ositions that underlie their various uses. Watanabe Toichi, "Also and too in a negative sentence" (1958 E), explains the reasons for the apparent exceptions to the rule that also and too are replaced by either in negative sentences.

Finally, there is a group of articles dealing with sentence elements and sentence or clause types. Ukaji Masatomo, "Inverted condition from Shakespeare to G. Greene" (1958 E), is a historical investigation of the inverted condition (that is, clauses indicat-ing condition by means of inversion). Ukaji Masatomo, "The 'inverted' condition in American English" (1961 J), is the same kind of investigation undertaken in regard to American English from the beginning of the nineteenth century up until now. Gunshi Toshio, "What is negatived in English negative sentences?—a general tend-ency" (1960 JES), criticizes Jespersen's special negation vs. nexal negation, and tries to reformulate the problem by introducing "the order of negative priority". Egawa Taiichiro, "The cognate object" (1958 E), discusses the problem from structural and semantic points of view. Other articles are Soranishi Tetsuro, "Complement and adverb" (1964 J), and Kanekiyo Tetsuya, "The conjunction-headed phrases" (1961E).

1.3.3.3. Semantics and lexicology

There is no particular trend or predominant tendency in this area, and with the ex-ception of metalinguistics and the glossematic approach, all are basically a continua-tion and refinement of prewar linguistics.

Yamaguchi Hideo, Essays towards English semantics (1961 E), is a very erudite work consisting of two parts. Part 1 deals with general theory and Part 2 with various concrete problems. The book covers not only what is usually understood by semantics but also stylistics and literary criticism. The author draws upon the thinking of many scholars, but his basic standpoint seems to be closest to that of Stephen Ull-


mann. Although the book suffers somewhat from looseness of organization, it presents much material of interest to students of semantics and literary criticism. Mori Yoshinobu, A study of English semantics (1962 J), is a unique and interesting attempt. Armed with the kind of semantics developed by Nakajima mentioned above and the paraphernalia of symbolic logic, the author tackles the semantic analysis of various English constructions and expressions. He states his basic perspective in "Logically or psychologically?" (1963 E), according to which psychology is the go-between that will unite logic and grammar. His major work mentioned above does not seem to have fully succeeded in proving the validity of this dictum, but still it presents inter-esting and penetrating interpretations of individual cases, one example of which can be seen in his earlier article written in English: "On expression of quantity, with special reference to the abstract noun" (1955 E).

In addition to the two major works mentioned above, there are several articles that need mention. Nakajima Fumio, "Semantic analysis of ' i s ' " (1955 J), deals with the polysemy of 'is'. Hayashi Eiichi, "Form of meaning: a prelude" (1962, 1964 J), emphasizes the importance of a formal treatment of meaning and criticizes some American structuralists from the glossematic point of view. Ikegami Yoshihiko, "On defining the association of words: an introduction to a structural study of the obsolescence of words" (1960, 1961 E), presents an ambitious and elaborate scheme, but what can be done on the basis of this scheme is largely yet to be seen. Yasui Minoru, "Outline of metalinguistics" (1954 J), introduces H. L. Smith's An Outline of metalinguistic analysis. Gunshi Toshio, "A metalinguistic study of color-words" (1958 E), is an interesting study. It analyzes a collection of color words taken from Sears and Roebuck's catalogue, traces their historical development, and points out some general tendencies observable in it. Inui Ryoichi, "Ironical expressions in English" (1954 J), gives a collection of vocabulary items whose ironical use has become almost hackneyed.

1.3.3.4. Descriptions of dialects and the languages of individual writers

Most of the articles mentioned in this section are concerned with the delineation of some characteristics or features of some particular writers or dialects. Some of them go further and discuss the literary effect that these linguistic peculiarities pro-duce, and thus border upon literary criticism. Nearly all can be regarded as following what was already found in prewar linguistics.

Taniguchi Jiro, A grammatical analysis of artistic representation of Irish English with a brief discussion of sounds and spelling (1956 E), describes mainly the grammati-cal peculiarities of Irish English. Materials are collected chiefly from plays and novels by such writers as O'Casey, Synge, Lady Gregory, O'Flaherty, etc., but inquiries are made of a group of informants on some disputable points. The author makes a difficult attempt at classifying deviations from Standard English observed in his data into (1) indigenous growth, (2) survivals of older English, and (3) those common to the uneducated speech in the United States or England. The book offers a collection

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of rich material. Especially interesting is the section treating sentence structures, which discusses such peculiarities as the 'and + subject + predicate without verb' con-struction, 'it is . . . that . . . ' construction, anacoluthon, repetition and redundancy, etc. Onoue Masatsugu, Studies in American English (1953 J), again discusses some characteristics of American English such as the conciseness with which it is spoken. He also pays attention to the influence of Anglo-Irish upon American English. Very interesting is a study by Wakatabe Hiroya, 'An investigation into the language of American primary school readers' (1958 E), in which he examines fifteen American primary school readers and points out the following four prominent features: the frequent use of sound symbolism, verb-adverb combinations, the "'light verb' + object" construction (as in have a look), and emphatic repetition. The argument is well substantiated and convincing.

Masui Michio, A study of Chaucer (1962 J), consists of three parts: Part I traces the development of the poet's genius in each of his works (especially in Troilus and Criseyde), Part 2 deals with linguistic problems (such as syntax, prosody, style), and Part 3 gives a comprehensive survey of Chaucer scholarship. In spite of the inclusion of Part 2, the work as a whole is more in the nature of literary criticism than of linguistics. At any rate, this is the most comprehensive study of Chaucer in Japan. Masui Michio, Structure of Chaucer's rime words (1964 E), is a very painstaking and exhaustive study. It is not a phonological study, but a grammatical, lexical, stylistic, semantic, and literary study of Chaucer's rime words. Especially interesting is the investigation on how the requirements of rime operated on the choice of particular vocabulary items and of grammatical structures, and the consideration: to what extent the English language of Chaucer's day was amenable to the exigencies of meter and rime. The book is provided with a list of rime words in the Canterbury Tales and Troilus and Criseyde. Yamamoto Tadao, Growth and system of the language of Dickens (1950 E), is the outcome of long and laborious work. Believing that the study of the use of language by individual writers is indispensable for the understanding of the history and structure of the language of any nation, the author gives, in Part 1, a sort of biographical record of Dickens' English. It describes from what sources— nursery, family life, school life, legal experiences, stage, sports and games, ships and voyages, literature, etc.—Dickens acquired various expressions, and how and with what effect they are used in his works. Part 2 treats idioms and idiomatic expressions used by Dickens with special attention paid to their systematization. The work was conceived as a preliminary to a Dickens lexicon, which unfortunately has not come out. Yamamoto Tadao et al., Dickens' style (1960 J), and Higashida Chiaki, Stylistics: the styles of modern English writers [with special reference to Jane Austen and Char-lotte Bronte] (1959 J), are primarily interested in the literary effects produced by the language, and more properly belong to literary criticism than to linguistics, although the line between the two is rather hard to draw.

The remaining articles are here listed (with brief explanations as necessary) to show the range of interest: Nakao Toshio, "Alliteration patterns in Sir Gawain and


the Green Knight" (1961 E); Kuriyagawa Fumio, "The language of Malory's Tale of Arthur and Lucius'" (1958 J), compares the Winchester MS by Vinaver with Caxton's edition and points out some dialectal features, which are carefully avoided by Caxton; Yamamoto Tadao, "On collocated words in Shakespeare's plays" (1958 E); Mina-gawa Saburo, "Some historical and linguistic views of Richard Cock's diary'' (1954 E), describes some features of grammar and writing observable in the diary of Cock, who stayed in Japan at the beginning of the seventeenth century; Ito Hiroyuki, "The language of The Spectator, chiefly concerning the aspect of double meaning" (1962 E); Kawai Michio, "Some notes on the antiquated language in The Vicar of Wake-field" (1958 E); Fukuda Tsutomu, "Charles Lamb the stylist: his love of puns and antitheses" (1958 E); Ito Kiyoshi, "Similarity of words in Hawthorne" (1958 E); Yoshida Hiróshige, "A note on Stephen Crane's use of colloquial and slangy words and idioms" (1961 E); Yoshida Hiroshige, "Gender of animation in J. Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath" (1956 E); Akai Yasumitsu, "A study of the Negro English in W.Faulkner's works" (1961 E); and Hayakawa Hiroshi, "Negation in William Faulkner" (1958 E).

PART II: APPLIED ENGLISH LINGUISTICS4

In Part II, the first two sections, 2.1 and 2.2, outline the educational organization, point out difficulties confronting English teaching, and describe the efforts made by various organizations and institutions to overcome these difficulties. These two sections provide the background for 2.3, which takes up applied English linguistics.

2.1. The teaching of English in Japanese schools

Soon after the Second World War, the educational system of Japan was completely reorganized. In the old system, six years of primary school, which was compulsory, was followed by four to five years of middle school, which in turn was followed by three years of higher school, followed by three years of university education. From the middle school up, boys and girls went to separate schools. About twenty per cent of the primary school graduates went to middle schools, and for those who could not go to middle schools there was a two-year higher primary school. In addi-tion, there were middle-grade and higher-grade commercial and technical schools.

4 Though a little outdated, a very useful survey of various problems concerning English teaching in Japan is given in Addresses and papers at specialists' conference September 3-7, 1956 (abbr. Ad-dresses) (1957 E), which includes Ichikawa Sanki, "Problems of teaching English in Japan"; Taka-hashi Genji, "Present situation of English teaching in the upper and the lower secondary schools: the standard of achievement to be required in the university entrance examination"; Kuroda Ta-kashi, "English teaching methods and materials"; Roy Wenger, "Audio-visual aids for teaching English in Japan"; Shimizu Mamoru, "Leading opinions on English teaching with chief emphasis on the practical side"; and Iwasaki Tamihei, "Training in universities of prospective teachers of English".

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Primary school teachers were trained at middle-grade (later elevated to higher-grade) normal schools found in each prefecture, and middle school teachers were trained at two or three higher normal schools as well as in various other universities. English was taught from the first year of middle school up through the university.

Under the new system, six years of primary school are followed by three years of lower secondary school. These nine years are compulsory. This is followed by the three-year upper secondary school, which in turn is followed by four years of univer-sity or two years of junior college education. The whole system is coeducational, though there are a few women's colleges and universities. Prewar normal and higher normal schools have become (part of) four-year universities, and both primary and secondary school teachers are trained at these universities as well as in the old-system universities. More than seventy per cent of the lower secondary school graduates go on to upper secondary schools, and about twenty per cent of the upper secondary school graduates advance to universities and colleges.

English is taught from the first year of the lower secondary school up through the university. In secondary schools, English is an elective, but the majority of the students want to learn it; especially in urban areas, nearly every student elects English. In the lower secondary school, three to five hours a week are devoted to English. In the upper secondary school, nine credits (one credit means thirty-five periods a year, one period consisting of fifty minutes of class work) are required for the A-course and fifteen credits for the B-course. In the university, the minimum re-quirement for English as part of general education is eight credits, most universities requiring more than eight. In addition, some second foreign language (usually French or German) is required, the minimum requirement for which is four credits. Needless to say, those who major in English have to take many more credits, and those who wish to become English teachers have to take fourteen credits or more (including three credits in practice teaching) in professional courses (such as educa-tional psychology, methods of teaching English) in the universities they attend.

There are various problems and difficulties confronting English teaching in Japa-nese schools, such as the uneven quality and motivation of students, lack of continuity between the lower and the upper secondary schools, and between the upper secondary school and the university, overcrowded classes, inadequate teachers' salaries, the apparent conflict between the humanistic-cultural values of English teaching and its practical utility, traditional Japanese hesitancy toward straightforward expressiveness, an inordinate fear of making mistakes and thus losing face, etc., but the following four problems need special mention.

One is the acute shortage of well-qualified teachers, especially on the lower second-ary school level. This is due to the sudden enormous increase in the number of lower secondary school students caused by the reorganization of the educational system mentioned above. There are more than thirty thousand English teachers in the lower secondary schools, but only about thirty to forty per cent of them have majored in English in their university days; the rest have majored in some other subject and


have been recruited to teach English as a sort of side-job. The in-service training of these poorly-qualified teachers is an urgent task.

The second is the problem of the entrance examinations to the universities, which are given by the individual universities and are decisive in the selection of candidates. Since there is a huge concentration of applications to universities with well-established reputations, the entrance examinations to these élite institutions are extremely difficult. As it is technically difficult to administer the testing of oral ability on a large scale within a short period of time, most universities have been satisfied with the testing of reading and writing ability, which in turn has set the course for teaching methods in the upper secondary school and thus has vitiated English teaching at that level.

The third is the quality of English teaching on the university level, which is often too literary and not practical. Since most university teachers are interested in litera-ture, and since the selection of textbooks and the teaching methods are usually at the discretion of individual teachers, most teachers select some literary works and limit their teaching to the translation and interpretation of these texts. It is quite natural that the average university graduate who has received such training has a very poor command of spoken English, although he can translate a written text fairly accurately and very slowly.

The case is not very different with students majoring in English who wish to be-come English teachers, so far as their practical command of English is concerned. Although there are several universities where considerable emphasis is laid not only upon practice in spoken English, but also upon such subjects as phonetics, linguistics, etc., their number is far too small. The training of future English teachers constitutes the fourth problem.

Any one of these problems is far too big for applied linguistics alone to cope with, but they are the background against which to consider and evaluate applied linguistics.

2.2. Activities of various organizations and institutions

Various institutions and organizations are very active in trying to overcome the many difficulties mentioned above. The following are the most important of them.

In 1960 the Ministry of Education set up a central committee for improving the teaching of English, and on the recommendation of the committee has launched a large-scale in-service training program.

The Exchange Program of the United States Educational Commission in Japan (Fulbright Commission) and its predecessor, the GARIOA exchange program, have sent more than 500 linguists, scholars of English literature, and English teachers to the United States. These teachers, trained at such universities as Michigan, Texas, Georgetown, San Francisco State, Cornell, etc., are already contributing a great deal to the improvement of English teaching in Japan. The Fulbright Program has also

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invited more than 150 English teachers, linguists (including Robert Lado), and scholars of English literature from the United States. In addition it has held many seminars for the in-service training of secondary school English teachers.

The British Council has also sent one or two Japanese teachers of English to some British universities every year, and has held seminars for the in-service training of English teachers.

ELEC (previously called The English Language Exploratory Committee, now called The English Language Education Council) was organized by leaders in the field of English teaching as well as in various other fields. With financial aid from the funds of CECA and ADC and private Japanese sources, it has invited Fries, Twaddell, Haugen, Haden, Hill, and other noted linguists from the United States, and A. S. Hornby from the United Kingdom. With the cooperation of these scholars, it has compiled and published a set of lower secondary school textbooks, a series of collections of articles on English teaching called ELEC Publications, and a few other books including Fries' Foundations for English teaching (1961 E). It has also conducted summer seminars for secondary school teachers for the last eight years. Through 1964 more than 3,700 teachers had attended these summer seminars. ELEC also has a permanent institute, where the in-service training of English teachers is continuously being conducted.

The National Federation of English Teachers' Associations (Zenkoku Eigo-kyoiku Kenkyu-dantai Rengokai) is an organization of secondary school English teachers. It consists of about eighty local organizations, and its total membership is said to be 60,000. Besides various local activities, it holds an annual national convention attended by more than 1,000 secondary school teachers.

The time-honored Institute for Research in Language Teaching (Gogaku-kyoiku Kenkyujo), which was previously called The Institute for Research in English Teach-ing and was headed by Harold E. Palmer, is still active, publishing its bulletin, books, dictionaries, etc. It also holds an annual national convention attended by about 1,000 teachers.

In 1959 ACTT (The Advisory Committee on the Training of Teachers of Foreign Languages) was organized with a view to strengthening the teacher training programs in a limited number of leading universities. With financial aid from the Ford Foun-dation and cooperation and financial aid from the Fulbright Commission, the Com-mittee has selected and sent thirty university professors in charge of teacher training programs to the University of Michigan. Also it has invited Albert H. Marckwardt, Edward M. Anthony, and Ernest N. McCarus so that they can give advice and guidance to each participating university. ACTT has also extended some financial aid for strengthening language laboratory facilities in these universities.

In 1958 a Modern Language Institute (Gaikokugo-kyoiku Kenkyujo) was estab-lished at the Tokyo University of Education with the support of UNESCO and the Ministry of Education. The primary purpose of this institute is to conduct basic researches on the various problems of foreign language (especially English) teaching


in Japan. At present, the institute is engaged in the experimental teaching of English on the primary school level.

In 1963 an Educational Test Research Institute (Noryoku Kaihatsu Kenkyujo) was established with the support of the Ministry of Education to improve the entrance ex-aminations to the universities,which comprise not only English but also all other subjects.

These efforts directed toward the training of teachers, the improvement of teaching materials and entrance examinations, and the development of research are expected to improve considerably the teaching of English in Japan. What is necessary now is to coordinate various activities and efforts so as to eliminate unnecessary duplication and rivalry.

2.3. Applied English linguistics 2.3.1. Brief sketch of prewar applied linguistics

In prewar days Harold E. Palmer was the central figure so far as applied English linguistics was concerned. Staying in Japan from 1922 until 1936, he devoted his most fruitful years to English teaching in Japan, and did much to improve it. Through his books, including the well-known A grammar of spoken English (1924, 2nd rev. ed. 1939), A new classification of English tones (1933), and English through actions (1925, 1955), as well as numerous articles on the methods of foreign language teaching, he taught Japanese teachers the distinction between code and speech (similar to de Saussure's distinction between LANGUE and PAROLE), the importance of spoken English, the basic nature of language learning, which is the formation of skills or habits, the five speech-learning habits (consisting of auditory observation, oral re-production, catenizing, semanticizing, and "operation" or composition by analogy), and the utilization of substitution and conversion (a crude form of transformation) techniques for drill-work in "operation". Thus in many ways he can be regarded as a precursor of the postwar trends to be described below. Unfortunately, his influence was limited to a small group of sophisticated scholars and a few model schools partly because of the unpreparedness at that time of the Japanese teachers in general, and partly because of the extraordinary situation created by the war soon after. Despite Palmer's efforts, the majority of teachers still stuck to the traditional grammar-translation method, some of them paying lip service to the newly introduced oral direct method, some defiantly, and some out of sheer laziness.

A. S. Hornby, a close associate of Palmer, also did much to elevate English teaching in prewar days. One of his chief works, Syntactic and idiomatic English dictionary (written with the collaboration of E. V. Gatenby and H.Wakefield; now revised under the new title The advanced learner's dictionary of current English [1963]), is still an indispensable tool for Japanese students with its indication of countable and uncountable nouns and verb patterns.

The activities of Palmer and the Institute for Research in Language Teaching, with which he was closely connected, are best described in The dictionary of English teaching (J) compiled by the Institute and published in 1962.

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2.3.2. Postwar development: the influence of American applied linguistics

As in the case of pure English linguistics, the war period was virtually a vacuum, and the end of the war brought about the large-scale influx of applied linguistics developed in the United States. Again, as in the case of pure linguistics, in the first ten years or so after the war, people were busy translating, assimilating, and evaluating the relevant works produced in other countries during the blank period. Taishukan's English teachers' series mentioned in Part I contained, in addition to the items mentioned there, the translations of a series of textbooks prepared by the English Language Institute of the University of Michigan and of Structural notes and corpus prepared by the Committee on the Language Program of the American Council of Learned Societies. Also included in the series are the translations of Fries, American linguistics and the teaching of English; H. L. Smith, Linguistic science and the teaching of English; and R. Lado, Linguistics across cultures. Not included in the series but very influential was the translation of Fries, Teaching and learning English as a foreign language (1957). Books and articles introducing activities abroad are far too numer-ous to be listed here; suffice it to mention the following three items as representing such efforts: Ogawa Yoshio, ed., Sanseidd's dictionary of English language teaching (1964 J), together with The dictionary of English teaching mentioned above and The Kerikyusha cyclopaedia of English to be mentioned again below, contains a great deal of information on recent developments abroad, especially in the United States.

The following developments in the postwar period can be attributed to the in-fluence of American applied linguistics, although a number of other factors worked conjointly.

2.3.2.1. Emphasis on spoken English

The importance of spoken English had already been recognized in prewar days through the teaching of Palmer and his colleagues, but as was said in the previous section, his influence was not far-reaching. In the postwar period it is recognized by nearly every teacher, and what is more important, by a good many influential lay-men—scholars, technicians, businessmen, diplomats, etc., who now have an incom-parably greater opportunity of coming into direct contact with foreigners. It is true that the aim of English teaching in Japan is two-fold: a practical command of both spoken and written English and the humanistic-cultural aim including an under-standing of the cultural and social backgrounds of English speaking nations, but the most noticeable postwar tendency as compared with that of prewar days is the recognition of the necessity of a practical command of spoken English. Although the demands of society thus have a great deal to do with this far-reaching change, it cannot be denied that the introduction of American applied linguistics has also had something to do with it.

This meant more attention paid to the teaching of pronunciation. In prewar days Daniel Jones' system of notation reigned supreme so far as the teaching of pronunci-


ation was concerned. The introduction of American linguistics necessitated a re-consideration of the adequacy of Jones' system, though it is still the most widely used in textbooks and dictionaries so far as segmentals are concerned. As for the suprasegmentals, K. L. Pike's or the Trager-Smith system is being more and more widely used so as to replace Jones' system.

One practical problem that arose in connection with the introduction of other systems of notation than that of Jones and the increasing necessity of teaching Amer-ican English pronunciation is a need for some kind of uniform notational system that can take care of both British and American English. Nakajima Fumio, "A notational system for British and American sounds" (1963 J), and Hayashi Eiichi, "A notational system for British and American sounds" (1963 J), discuss this problem.

Another problem is the contrastive study of English and Japanese sounds, but this will be taken up in the next section.

2.3.2.2. Contrastive studies of English and Japanese

Torii Tsuguyoshi, "The development of a method of foreign language teaching based upon structuralism" (1961 J), distinguishes two ways of thinking in American applied linguistics: one attaches importance to mimicry-memorization and the other to a contrastive study of the target language and the mother tongue as the basis for the preparation of teaching and testing materials. According to him, the former can be traced back to Bloomfield and the latter to Sapir. Whether his observation is right or not, a good many American linguists hold that contrastive studies are very important and useful for preparing good teaching and testing materials as well as for developing effective teaching techniques, and there is now considerable interest in such contrastive studies in Japan. Nakajima Fumio, "Comparison of English and Japanese" (1957 E), gives a brief outline of the problems involved.

Since English and Japanese are so widely different, immediately utilizable results are not forthcoming, but so far as the comparison of the phonological systems is concerned, a good deal of work has been done, although it has to be added that much remains to be done concerning suprasegmentals. Makino Tsutomu, "On phonological comparison" (1962 E), discusses general methodology. The following articles give more or less detailed accounts of segmental phonemes: Toyoda Minoru, "Toward a comparative phonetics of Japanese and English" (1957 E); Komoto Sutesaburo, "Applied English phonology: phonemic and subphonemic replacement ofEnglish sounds by the Japanese speaker" (1962 E); F. Giet, "The typical difficul-ties of a Japanese student in pronouncing foreign sounds and how to overcome them" (1961 E); and Isshiki Masako, "A comparative analysis of the English and the Japanese consonant phonemes" (1957 E). The following articles are not pedagogical, but can be cited in this connection: Miyauchi Tamako, "The pitch-accent in Japa-nese and English" (1951 JES); Abe Isamu, "Intonational patterns of English and Japanese" (1955 E); and Kunihiro Tetsuya, "On writing foreign words: a contrastive study ofEnglish and Japanese" (1963 J).

668 OTA AKIRA

Contrastive study of grammatical systems is much more difficult, and so far the only systematic study is Everett Kleinjans, A descriptive-comparative study predicting interference for Japanese in learning English noun-head modification patterns (1959 E original with J translation). Even apart from the results obtained, which are valuable, the book contains interesting methodological remarks such as the one about the measurement of degrees of difficulty for Japanese students of English. More limited in scope are E. Kleinjans, "A comparison of Japanese and English object structures" (1957-58 E), and Mito Yuichi, "Some contrastive features of English and Japanese" (1961 E). Koizumi Tamotsu, "Comparison of numerals in English and Japanese" (1963 J), presents a systematic treatment within its limited scope. There is also Kato Motoo, "Comparison of English and Japanese structures" (1963 J). In a series of articles entitled "Comparison of English and Japanese expressions" (1960 J), Kita Shiro takes up a variety of points in English grammar such as the definite article, pronoun, the comparative and superlative degrees, present perfect, negation, etc., and compares them with their Japanese equivalents. Similarly, in a series of articles entitled "Comparison of English and Japanese grammars" (1958 J), Umegaki Minoru compares tenses and aspects of English and Japanese. Though both are rather anecdotal, they contain some interesting observations concerning individual cases.

Systematic comparison of lexicons and cultures is still more difficult, and so far almost nothing has been done in this field. But the importance of understanding the socio-cultural background of the language (what Fries calls "contextual orientation") is widely recognized, and teachers of English would agree, to cite one familiar ex-ample, that knowledge of the use of first names in American society (especially in the Middle West), which is very different from what is customary in Japanese society, is almost indispensable even in the initial stage of English teaching. Though little or no systematic comparison has been made, Japanese teachers have been aware of the importance of the socio-cultural background, and have been interested in what they have called the study of "realia". There are several books on this subject, but just one example will suffice. Fukuhara Rintaro, ed., The Kenkyusha cyclopaedia of English (1961 J), contains, among other things, much information on the realia behind both British and American English. More than half of this 1167-page book is devoted to these realia.

2.3.2.3. Innovations in teaching methods

The understanding of the systemic nature of language mentioned in 1.3.2.(2) has led to some innovations in teaching methods such as the presentation of linguistic units in contrast with other units rather than in isolation. Fries, Foundations for English teaching, mentioned in 2.2, best exemplifies this principle. The teachers have also begun to realize the limitations to be found in rote recitation of textbook materi-als and to understand the importance of variation or substitution and selection as two indispensable procedures in the learning process. In this connection, what is


called "structure drill" or "pattern practice" has been introduced in addition to the more traditional question-and-answer technique and is rapidly becoming part and parcel of teaching procedures in the secondary schools.

2.3.2.4. The development of audio aids, language laboratories, and programed in-struction

One of the most remarkable features in recent years is the development of audio aids. Tapes, disks, and the like are very useful in giving authentic models and develop-ing drills especially in schools where good native speakers or good Japanese teachers are not readily available. Fortunately, Japan can produce good tape recorders at reasonable cost. Already more than fifty universities and a few secondary schools have language laboratories with twenty to two hundred booths each, and nearly all secondary schools have at least one or two tape recorders. Nearly all the language laboratories in Japan are used as aids to ordinary classroom teaching and not as a substitute for it, and nearly all belong to what is called "classroom type", not "library type". The problem in this case is the programing of teaching materials and the integration of these lessons in the overall teaching program. In this connection pro-gramed instruction as developed in the United States has attracted some attention, but so far no satisfactory program based upon solid experimentation has been developed.

In this respect, the experimental teaching now being conducted by the Modern Language Institute of the Tokyo University of Education (mentioned in 2.2) is inter-esting and significant. The aim of this experiment is to investigate how much well-prepared taped lessons can replace live teachers. The experiment is so designed as to insure maximally that the only difference that counts between the experimental and the control classes is the use of taped materials as against live teachers. Also, the Language Laboratory Association organized in 1961 with a membership of 700 is vigorously engaged in the improvement of mechanical aids and the programs in which they are used.

Good programs are also needed by radio and television English programs, of which there are more than twenty for various grades on the nation-wide channels alone.

2.3.2.5. The question of correct usage and the improvement of school grammars

As was said in 1.2, grammar attracted the greatest attention of Japanese linguists in prewar days, and a considerable portion of grammatical study was devoted to digging up factual details, especially those factual details that go counter to or that cannot be covered by the rules laid down in traditional school grammars, so that al-ready in prewar days Japanese teachers were rather well aware of discrepancies between the rules of school grammar and actual usage. This interest in the investiga-tion of usage still continues, reinforced by the investigations of Fries, Sterling A. Leonard, A. H. Marckwardt and Fred Walcott, Robert C. Pooley, and a host of

670 OTA AKIRA

others, all of whose works were introduced chiefly in the postwar period. One of the features that attracted the readers of The English teachers' magazine (abbr. ETM) is a column called "Question box", which is similar to "The question box" of English Language Teaching (published by the British Council) or "Points of Modern English syntax" in English Studies (a Dutch journal). This column was very well received, and out of it was born Question box series (1960-63 J), a compilation of the articles originally contributed to this column, a good many of which deal with problems of usage. Similar in nature is Miyata Koichi, English grammar for teachers (1961 J).

The compilation of a good school grammar is also an urgent task. Needless to say, it must be based upon actual current usage, not upon the out-of-date rules handed down from the past. In addition, it must take into consideration various recent developments in linguistics—due attention to phonology, the distinction between productive and receptive control, contrastive studies of English and Japanese, the inclusion of some rules or categories that are not mentioned in the present school grammars but will be useful in teaching, such as determiners, two-word verbs, the noun patterns and adjective patterns described in A. S. Hornby's A guide to patterns and usage in English (Oxford University Press, 1954), and the reexamination of the system itself. In a series of articles entitled "School grammars for English in Japan" (1961-62 J), Otsuka Takanobu deals with some aspects of the total problem. E. Kleinjans, "Presentation grammar" (1960 E), considers general principles for deciding the sequence of presentation, and discusses, as an example, in what order various relative constructions are to be presented to Japanese students. He says that "contact clauses" should be first presented.

SUMMARY

To summarize, it can be said that one major characteristic of postwar English lin-guistics is the influence of structural linguistics introduced from the United States.

In pure linguistics, the strongest impact of structuralism is observed in phonology. Structuralism has also penetrated into grammar (especially its theory), but it has had very little influence upon semantics, lexicology, or stylistics. Both in phonology and grammar, the influence of structuralism is much stronger in descriptive studies than in historical studies. At the same time, prewar types of study are still being continued and elaborated, especially in those areas which are little influenced by structuralism, such as the study of usage, semantics, and stylistics. Recently, considerable attention has been paid to transformational-generative grammar, but the effort of Japanese linguists in this case has gone little further than understanding and propagating the ideas developed by Chomsky and others.

In applied linguistics, the "oral approach" or "audio-lingual approach" introduced from the United States in the postwar period has had strong influence. It has contrib-uted to the improvement of the teaching of spoken language. Also it has stimulated


innovations in teaching methods, contrastive studies of English and Japanese, re-examination of traditional school grammars, and the development of audio aids in language teaching. Of course, other factors worked conjointly to bring about these results, such as the efforts of H. E. Palmer and A. S. Hornby in prewar days, the increasing demand of the society for spoken English, the easy availability of tape recorders, etc., but the contributions made by applied linguistics developed in the United States are undeniable.

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Minagawa Saburo -if Jl| H "Some historical and linguistic views of Richard Cock's diary", Iwasaki kyoju kanreki-kinen Eigo Eibei-bungaku ronshu 211-30 (1954) E.

Mito Yuichi H if —, "Some contrastive features of English and Japanese", Language Learning 11:1-2.71-6 (1961) E.

Mitsui Takayuki H # ¡tj IjSt, "Relative pronouns in Shakespeare's colloquial English", SEGL 335-49 (1958) E.

Miura Kannosuke H l l i ' f r , "Shakespeare's puns in pronunciation", SS 10.353-78 (1962) E.

Miyabe Kikuo «P ® , "Some notes on the perfect infinitive in Early Middle English", Anglica 2:4.13-9 (1956) E.

, "A note on the relative pronouns in Early Middle English", Anglica 4:1. 56-69 (1959) E.

, "Rekishi-teki na tachiba ni tsuite" F X [A note on the historical point of view], Anglica 4:5.126-37 (1962) JES.

Miyata Koichi § B3 # —Kyodan no Eibunpo Wi ffi © 3C i i [English grammar for teachers] pp. xxii, 597 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1961) J.

Miyata Takeshi § ffl K ¡S, "Beowulf ni mieru inflected infinitive" Beowulf I- M K £ inflected infinitive [Inflected infinitive appearing in Beowulf], SEL 32:1.33-50 (1955) JES.

MiyauchiTamako ^ 1*3 5 ^."NihongotoEigonotakasanoakusento" H fc W; i ife in © 5 © 7- ^ -fe ^ h (The pitch-accent in Japanese and English], SS 7.35-44 (1951) JES.

Mori Masatoshi Gensen ^ iEi& (¿f ffe), Studies in English syntax pp. iv, 196 (Tokyo, Kaitakusha, 1960) E.

Mori Yoshinobu ^ f l nf M, "On expression of quantity, with special reference to the abstract noun", SEL 32:1.21-32 (1955) E.

Mori Yoshinobu and Yamakawa Kikuo, "It is I that am to blame: diachronic and synchronic", EG 1:6.8-13 (1957) J.

Mori Yoshinobu, Eigo imi-ron-kefikyu ^ | p M Ht W i/E [A study of English semantics] pp. viii, 242 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1962) J.

, "Logically or psychologically?", SEL English number, 83-105 (1963) E. MurataYuzaburo # ffl J§ H "Chaucer ni okeru contact clause ni tsuite" Chaucer

is If h contact clause i - O (/> t [Contact clauses in Chaucer], Ishibashi Kotaro sensei kanreki-kinen ronbunshu 179-84 (1961) J.

678 OTA AKIRA

Nakajima Fumio ty $) "Is no tagi-sei" Is © J i i t '14 [Semantic analysis of 'is'], Anglica 2:2.1-14 (1955) J.

, "Comparison of English and Japanese", Addresses 47-58 (1957) E. , Eibunpo no taikei X i i © ^ [System of English grammar] pp. x, 251

(Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1961) J. , "Eibei-on no onso hyoki" ;>tv If © llr 12 [Anotational system for

British and American sounds], RG 109:10.577-9 (1963) J. Nakao Toshio ty "Piers the Plowman ni okeru ¿e-doshi no bunpu" Piers the

Plowman t1- ¿a If h be Wi IrI © fr ^ [The distribution of the forms of the verb be in Piers the Plowman], Ishibashi Kotaro sensei kanreki-kinen ronbunshu 187-91 (1961) J.

, "Alliteration patterns in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight", SDAL 1.58-66 (1961) E.

Nanba Toshio iff; M Jz, "On the enunciation of Burns's poetry", SS 9.241-8 (1961) E.

Niwa Yoshinobu fir H fit, "Saxon Chronicle ni arawareru kako-bunshi no settoji ni tsuite" Saxon Chronicle H ij[ n 6 iii i # Inl © B0 K O </> -i [Notes on the ge- prefixed to the past participle in the Saxon Chronicle], SEL 34:2.271-86 (1958) JES.

• , "Saxon Chronicle (Parker MS) ni arawareru verb-prefix ge- no tadoshi-ka ni tsuite" Saxon Chronicle (Parker MS) \Z ft 6 verb-prefix ge- © Wj P] it K -O (/> X [On the transitivizing function of the verb-prefix ge- in the Saxon Chronicle], SEL 35:2.245-65 (1959) JES.

, "St. Juliana (c. 1230) ni arawareru fukugo-doshi no tokushitsu ni tsuite" St. Juliana (c. 1230) K ft. Z> & & W) M <D W K ^ X [Notes on compound verbs in St. Juliana (c. 1230)], Anglica 5:2.75-98 (1963) J.

Oba Kiyoshi ^c iH in, "A statistical study of relative clauses in The Apple Tree", RG New essays number, 39-41 (1950) E.

Ogasawara Rinju /J-» M # tat, "Structural status of traditional grammatical categories in English", SEGL 13-32 (1958) E.

Ogawa Yoshio 4- Jl| ^ J?, ed., Eigo-kyojuho jitefi Wr tfc t$ J l [Sanseido's dictionary of English language teaching] pp. xvii, 765 (Tokyo, Sanseido, 1964) J.

Oguri Keizo /h ISI W H , "Eigo ni okeru tsuzuriji-hatsuon" ^ i f K if If h M & % [Spelling pronunciation in English], SS 9.219-32 (1961) J.

Ono Satoshi /J> f f jH, "A study of the anomalous use of the auxiliary must: an intro-duction", SEGL 145-57 (1958) E.

Ono Shigeru /h Sf M, "Some notes on the auxiliary motan", Anglica 3:3.64-80 (1958) E.

Onoue Masatsugu H _k Amerika goho no kenkyu T s V %n © W [Studies in American English] pp. v, 195 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1953) J.

Ota Akira ffl "Commutation ni tsuite" Commutation II O (p X [On com-mutation], SEL 34:2.181-97 (1958) JES.


, "Idiolect, common core, and overall pattern", SEGL 41-7 (1958) E. , Beigo onsorcm f§- ï f ^ fêf [Phonemics of American English] pp. xiv, 283

(Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1959) J. , Tense and aspect of present-day American English, pp. viii, 135 (Tokyo,

Kenkyusha, 1963) E. Ota Yoshiko B3 ÎL "13 seiki 14 seiki ni okeru be -f- present participle ni

tsuite no ichi-kôsatsu" 13 14 iH: \Z Vf h be + present participle \Z -O ^ CD — [Some notes on the 'be -f- present participle' in the 13th and 14th centuries], Anglica 3:1.1-27 (1957) J.

Otsuka Takanobu MiSî M, Nakajima Fumio, and Iwasaki Tamihei, éd., Eibunpô shiriizu f i y — [ T h e English grammar series] 25 vols. (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1954-55) J. (Now combined in three volumes with an additional volume for general index).

Otsuka Takanobu, Iwasaki Tamihei, and Nakajima Fumio, ed., Eigogaku raiburarii JfeWt^ 7 A y' y V — [The English philology library] 60 items so far (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1957- ) J.

Otsuka Takanobu, ed., Shin Eibunpô jiten iff 3C H [Sanseido's dictionary of English grammar] pp. xxvi, 1101 (Tokyo, Sanseidô, 1959) J.

Otsuka Takanobu, "Nihon no kyôka Eibunpô" H £ © %k # 3C & [School grammars for English in Japan], RG 107:1.5-6, 2.71-2, 3.139-40, 4.190-1, 5.238-9, 6.294-5, 7.354-5, 8.418-9, 9.674-6, 10.736-7, 11.803-4, 12.865-6 (1961); 108:2.66-7, 3.126-7, 5.258, 6.321-2 (1962) J.

Otsuka Yuriko i z W ^ "Rondon gakuha no gengogaku" ^ V ^ J^ M 0 f t I f ^ [The London school of linguistics], EG 3:4.6-10 (1959) J.

Ozawa Junsaku /]•> W ift "A practical consideration on the sequence of the past and the past perfect tenses", Ishibashi Kôtarô sefisei kanreki-kineri ronbunshu 105-15 (1961) E.

PS J Bulletin = Onsei-gakkai kaihô It* ^ ^ # # fg. [The bulletin of the Phonetic Society of Japan] (1926- ), three issues a year, mostly J.

H. E. Palmer, A new classification of English tones, pp. 48 (Tokyo, Kaitakusha, 1933) E. H. E. Palmer and F. G. Blandford, A grammar of spoken English: on a strictly

phonetic basis pp. xxxviii, 298 (Cambridge, W. Heffer and Sons, 1st ed., 1924; 2nd revised ed., 1939) E.

H. E. Palmer, and Dorothée Palmer, English through actions, pp. iv, 300 (Tokyo, Kaitakusha, 1925, 1955) E.

RG = Eigo-seinen ^ no pf ^Y- [The rising generation] (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1898- ) monthly, mostly J.

SDAL = Studies in descriptive and applied linguistics : Bulletin of the summer institute in linguistics held by International Christian University (Tokyo). Vol. 1 (1961), Vol. 2 (1963).

SEGL = Studies in English grammar and linguistics: a miscellany in honour of Taka-nobu Otsuka, pp. viii, 419 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1958) E.

680 OTA AKIRA

SEL = Eibungaku-kenkyu ¿P W £E [Studies in English literature] Tokyo, Nihon Eibun-gakkai B ^ ^ i f [The English Literary Society of Japan], (1919- ) three issues a year, J and E.

SS — Onseino kenkyu Ht ^ © W 5E [Study of sounds], Tokyo, Nihon onsei-gakkai B "h" Wt ^ Hf [The Phonetic Society of Japan], irregular (ten volumes so far), J and E.

Saito Shizuka kyoju kanreki-kinen ronbunshu 'M [Essays in language and literature in honour of Professor Shizuka Saito on his sixtieth birthday] pp. vi, 360 (Fukui University, 1959) J and E.

Sato Kazuo S — 5*;, "Koyu-meishi no shomondai" 13 W PJ © fg ffl I I [On some disputed points of proper nouns], Anglica 4:3.14-32 (1961) JES.

Sawamura Eiichi # t i ^ —, "The vowels of the Wessex dialect in the works of Thomas Hardy", SS 10.379-402 (1962) E.

Shimizu Mamoru 7K f i , "Leading opinions on English teaching in Japan with chief emphasis on the practical side", Addresses 113-29 (1957) E.

Soranishi Tetsuro ^ M 1S "Genzai-bunshi no aspect" ih ih Ib) © aspect [Aspect in the present participle], RG 106:3.130-1 (1960) J.

, "Voice in current English", Anglica 3:3.127-42 (1958) E. , "Complement to adverb" Complement i adverb [Complement and adverb],

RG 110:6.424-5 (1964) J. Takahashi Genji i% ^ W> "Present situation of English teaching in the upper

and the lower secondary schools: the standard of achievement to be required in the university entrance examination", Addresses 26-46 (1957) E.

Takahashi Gehji hakase kanreki-kinen Eigo Eibungaku rofishu: gerigo to bungaku ¡Si ^ [Language and

literature: a miscellany offered to Dr. Takahashi Genji on his sixtieth birthday] (Tokyo, Shinozaki Shorin, 1960) J and E.

Taniguchi Jiro • A grammatical analysis of artistic representation of Irish English with a brief discussion of sounds and spelling, pp. xii, 292 (Tokyo, Shino-zaki Shorin, 1956) E.

Tomura Minoru # U , "Jones no Anglicization" Jones © Anglicization [Jones' Anglicization], EG 2:12.26-9 (1959); 3:1.37-40, 2.29-32 (1959) J.

Torii Tsuguyoshi jif, "Sound spectrograph ni arawareta Eigo no yokushi-boin to jiyu-boin no hikaku" Sound spectrograph M Hii f t ^ W © ffl ih -ft H" I {=! & # iir © .tb Ix [The comparison of checked vowels and free vowels in sound spectrograms], PS J Bulletin 91.7-11 (1956) J.

, "Structuralism in acoustic phonetics", SEGL 49-62 (1958) J. , "Kozo-shugi ni tatsu gaikokugo kyojuho no hattatsu" IS i s zk HI K ^L O

iri $Jt f i ® if! [The development of a method of foreign language teaching based upon structuralism], Ishibashi Kotaro sensei kanreki-kinen ron-bunshu 207-14 (1961) J.


Toyoda Minoru ü tH U , "Toward a comparative phonetics of Japanese and English", Addresses 145-69 (1957) E.

Ueno Kagetomi f f JFK, "Go-keisei" WrM [Word formation], Eibunpö shiriizu (ed. by Ötsuka, Iwasaki, and Nakajima), 3.2855-954 (1959) J.

Ukaji Masatomo ^ M ;tu IE JK, "Inverted condition from Shakespeare to G. Greene", SEGL 159-70 (1958) E.

, "Tögo-ron" Mi f t [Syntax], ETM 7:7.370-1, 8.411-3 (1958) J. , "Amerika Eigo ni okeru'inverted' condition" T J* 'J fi g'g- \Z is If h

"inverted" condition [The 'inverted' condition in American English], Ishibashi Kötarö sehsei kanreki-kinen ronbunshü 153-65 (1961) J.

, "Bun o tsukuru bunpo no kangaekata" % % fö h £ Ü © # K i i [On generative grammar], ETM 12:1.20-2, 2.5-7 (1963) J.

Umegaki Minoru I l f , "Nichiei bunpö hikaku" H 3C i i Jrb ® [Comparison of English and Japanese grammars], EG 2:1.26-9, 5.29-32, 6.32-5 (1958) J.

Wakatabe Hiroya B3 ts? n3c, "An investigation into the language of American primary school readers", SEGL 395-408 (1958) E.

, "Shösetsu-chü no dentatsu-doshi ni kansuru chosa" © {r 5Ü inj I- 1 f Z> IM [An investigation of verbs of reporting in novels], Ishibashi Kötarö sensei kanreki-kinen ronbunshü 131-41 (1961) J.

Watanabe Töichi M 3Ä M ~, "Also and too in a negative sentence", SEGL 171-4 (1958) E.

, "Keiyöshi-teki futeishi no ichi-gun" M & fft ^ % ¡ft © — [A group of adjectival infinitives], ETM 9:6.374-7, 7.433-5 (1960) J.

Watari Hajime B "fH, "Defoe no goho—Robinson Crusoe ni arawareta jakkan no relative pronouns ni tsuite" Defoe © Wr i i—Robinson Crusoe iE t l fi ^ ^p © relative pronouns M O t/1 ~C [Grammatical notes on the language of Defoe: on some relative pronouns in Robinson Crusoe], Anglica 3:4.29-50 (1958) J.

Roy Wenger, "Audio-visual aids for teaching English in Japan", Addresses 102-12 (1957).

Yamaguchi Hideo ill • ^ ife, Essays towards English semantics, pp. vii, 479 (Tokyo, Shinozaki Shorin, 1961) E.

Yamakawa Kikuo ill J'l "The two constructions: 'accusative and parti-ciple' and 'genitive and gerund'", The Annals of the Hitotsubashi Academy 8:1.44-100 (1957) E.

, Eigo ni okeru jundöshi no hattatsu to tokushitsu to is If h 2(1 Wj IrJ © I t 5Ü i # ® [The development and characteristics of verbals in English] pp. x, 334 (Tokyo, Shöhakusha, 1963) J.

Yamamoto Tadao ÜJ £g, Growth and system of the language of Dickens: an introduction to a Dickens lexicon, pp. 508 (Osaka, The English Philological Society of Kansai University, 1950) E.

, "On collocated words in Shakespeare's plays", Anglica 3:3.17-29 (1958) E.

682 ÒTA AKIRA

Yamamoto Tadao et al., Dickens no bufitai Dickens © {fc [Dickens' style] pp. v, 278 (Tòkyo, Nafiundo, 1960) J.

Yasuhara Motosuke 5c ® sis I®, "Articles and proper names : a new classification of the usage", SEL 31:2.232-49 (1955) E.

Yasui Minoru # "Metalinguistics no koso" Metalinguistics © M [Out-line of metalinguistics]', SEL 29-30:2.273-80 (1954) J.

, Eigogaku-kenkyu go ^ W [Studies in English philology] pp. ix, 340 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1960) J.

, Consonant patterning in English, pp. v, 124 (Tokyo, Kenkyusha, 1962) E. Yoshida Hiroshige fJ E9 31, Hi, "Gender of animation in J. Steinbeck's The Grapes

of Wrath", Anglica 2:4.109-22 (1956) E. , "A note on Stephen Crane's use of colloquial and slangy words and idioms",

Anglica 4:3.59-71 (1961) E.

Received in January, 1965

THE STUDY OF ENGLISH IN JAPAN - De Gruyter

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