The Skills & Strategies for Success at University

What are lecturers looking for in a tutorial?

Whether you are a new student, you need a bit of help with your studies, or are simply up against an assessment crunchpoint and don’t know where to start,this book provides a toolkit of techniques and tips from the experts to help youfocus your efforts and ensure your success. Covering the entire university experiencefrom Freshers Week to Graduation, this highly practical reference book is both a helpmanual for students and a bridge between Lecturers’ and Students’ expectations ofstudy in Higher Education.

The topic coverage, content, design and structure of the book have all been put togetherfrom material with a proven track record of student success and student-tested to ensure:

• a focus on key issues and rapid solutions,• a clear design so that you can immediately access the information you need,• a common sense, no-nonsense approach with lots of practical checklists and tips,• an avoidance of patronising assumptions and educational jargon.

This essential reference book has been written by experts and tested on students andwill help any Higher Education student to focus their efforts, troubleshoot any problems and thrive in their university studies.

Kathleen McMillanand Jonathan Weyers

TheSMARTER STUDENTSkills and Strategies for Success at University

What is the best way to plan for an assignment or exam?

Where do you concentrate your efforts for maximum impact on your grades?

JJoonnaatthhaann WWeeyyeerrss and KKaatthhlleeeenn MMccMMiillllaann work within the sLearning Enhancement Unit. Both have been teaching for over 25 years and now specialise in supporting academic skills. Their work has involved creating a Universitywebsite for the development of students' transferable skills and developing and runningspecific academic skills courses and Summer School for students with exam resits withgreat success. Kathleen’s expertise lies in supporting academic writing and Jonathan is the coauthor of the Pearson Education Practical Skills’ series. Between them, they cover both the Arts and Sciences.

TThheeSMARTER STU

DENTK

athleen McM

illanand Jonathan W

eyers

ISBN 0-273-69532-0

9 780273 695325

www.pearson-books.com

Cover photograph ©

Getty Im

ages

Kathleen McMillanand Jonathan Weyers

The

SMARTERSTUDENTSkills&Strategies for Success at University

Skills and S

trategies for S

uccess at University

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TheSmarter Student

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The Smarter StudentSkills and Strategies for Success at University

Kathleen McMillan andJonathan Weyers

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Pearson Education Limited

Edinburgh GateHarlowEssex CM20 2JEEngland

and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at:www.pearsoned.co.uk

First published 2006

© Pearson Education Limited 2006

The rights of Kathleen McMillan and Jonathan Weyers to be identified as authors of this work have been asserted by the authors in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP.

ISBN–10 0–273–69532–0ISBN–13 978–0–273–69532–5

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataA catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 110 09 08 07 06

Typeset in 9/12pt ITC Interstate by 35Printed and bound by in Great Britain by Henry Ling Ltd., at the Dorset Press, Dorchester, Dorset

The publisher’s policy is to use paper manufactured from sustainable forests.

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Contents

About the authors viiiPreface ixAcknowledgements xiGuided tour of the book xii

1 Introduction 1

Part WHAT UNIVERSITY INVOLVES 3

2 Preparing for university 53 Starting out 1 54 General expectations 225 What makes university education different 276 Personal transferable skills 33

Part MANAGING YOURSELF 39

7 Personal development planning 4 18 Time management 469 Financial tips 54

10 Campus orientation 6011 Social life at university 64

12 Dealing with stress 7 1

Part A TOOLKIT FOR LEARNING 79

13 Your learning personality 8114 Studying independently 9015 Lectures 9816 Listening skills 10417 Note-taking in lectures 10918 Co-operative learning 1 1 519 Participating in a team 1 20

20 Laboratory sessions and field visits 1 2621 Tutorials 1 3222 Thinking critically 1 3723 The library as a resource 1 4524 Analysing and evaluating information 1 5 125 Effective academic reading 1 5826 Note-making from texts 1 6927 ICT literacy 1 79

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28 E-learning 18629 Number crunching 1 9230 Interpreting and presenting data 20231 Shaping up in maths 2 1 2

Part A TOOLKIT FOR ACADEMIC WRITING 219

32 Tackling writing assignments 22 133 Academic writing format 22834 Planning writing assignments 23235 Citing and listing references 23836 Plagiarism and copyright infringement 25 137 Academic writing style 25538 Sentences and paragraphs 26239 Grammar 26940 Punctuation 2774 1 Spelling 28442 Vocabulary 29043 Reviewing, editing and proof-reading 29944 Presentation of assignments 306

Part A TOOLKIT FOR COURSE ASSESSMENTS 315

45 Assessment at university 3 1 746 Multiple-choice and short-answer questions 32347 Numerical questions 32848 Essay-style assessments 33249 Tutorial assessment 33850 Assessments of practical and laboratory work 34 151 Tackling experimental project work 34552 Report writing 35053 Reviews and dissertations 35754 Poster presentations 36255 Spoken presentations 36856 Exploiting feedback 376

Part A TOOLKIT FOR EXAMS 381

57 Creating a revision timetable 38358 Revision tips 38859 Focusing your revision 39360 Study buddies 39961 Improving your exam performance 40262 Exam strategies 40763 Combating exam nerves 4 1 3

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Part LOOKING TO THE FUTURE 417

64 Planning for a career 4 1 965 Assessing yourself 42566 Your curriculum vitae 43567 Kick-starting your career 440

Appendix: student resources 447References and further reading 45 1Glossary of key terms 452Index 467

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Kathleen McMillan is Academic Adviser, Learning Enhancement Unit, University ofDundee.

Jonathan Weyers is Director, Learning Enhancement Unit, .

This book represents a synthesis based on over 50 years of combined teaching experi-ence. Between us, we’ve taught at all levels – including secondary school, undergraduate,postgraduate and within academic staff development. We’ve supported students in awide range of topics – from biology to dentistry; architecture to orthopaedic surgery; history to social work; information and communication technology to English as a foreignlanguage. We’ve contributed to access and FE/HE transition courses, run various aca-demic skills courses and organised a successful summer school programme for studentswith resit exams. In addition, we have written several texts on practical skills and studytechniques and we have jointly produced websites covering undergraduate and post-graduate transferable skills.

Over the years, we’ve presented hundreds of tutorials and lectures and run many work-shops and practicals. Above all, we’ve spoken to countless students, both individuallyand in focus groups, and have observed at close quarters our own children going throughthe university system. We have read widely and tested many ideas. This book is a distilla-tion of all the best tips and techniques we’ve come across or have developed ourselves.

About the authors

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Welcome to The Smarter Student. We’re delighted that you’ve chosen this book and we’dlike to think it’s because it promises insight into the higher education experience andgives you plenty of useful tips to help you settle into the rhythms of university life andlearning.

University is an exciting phase in your life and a time of anticipation of new experiences,both socially and academically. Very quickly you’ll be faced with sorting out your life asa student, attending your first lectures, getting logged on to the university computer system and using its e-learning tools. There will be a lot of information to gather, filterand make into some sort of sense. All the while you’ll be meeting new people of differ-ent ages and outlooks who are in exactly the same position. All in all, it’s a stimulatingbut demanding time. It all builds on one basic notion and that is that students, regardlessof age or experience, are good at organising themselves and will quickly conform to thestandards that the university community expects. As practising academics we know thatthis is not achieved quite as quickly as everyone – staff, students (and their families) –might wish, partly because there is simply so much to learn how to do.

So, this book is about helping new (and not so new) students gain and develop the skills, attributes and knowledge that universities will require of them. Of course, you willalready have some of these skills – from school, from college, from employment and evenjust from life in general – but this text takes you further. We begin with some tips andinsights about what university involves and then take you through the very first dayswhen you’re coming to terms with your new environment and deciding how you’re goingto organise your life.

Then we move into the kinds of things that you’ll need to be able to do as your coursegets under way. This all comes into the ‘A Toolkit for Learning’ – useful tips on practicalmatters such as taking notes in lectures, using the library, engaging with e-learning andthinking critically. As your course gathers pace, you’ll find that you’re having to tackle allsorts of writing assignments. In the ‘A Toolkit for Academic Writing’ you’ll find valuablesuggestions to guide you from planning to submission, with help along the way on topicssuch as punctuation, spelling and grammar, so that your writing is well developed andmeets academic requirements.

As you work your way through your first term, you’ll find that you encounter all sorts of different kinds of assessment – in lab practicals, in debates, in tests and other written submissions. The ‘A Toolkit for Course Assessments’ gives you some insights asto how these assessments work and how you can gain the best marks possible. Then wecome to the ‘A Toolkit for Exams’, which gives you tried-and-tested tips, from revision technique to coping with exam nerves. Finally, you can peep over the edge of the university world and look to the future by considering career planning and kick-startingyour career.

We had many kinds of students in mind when we decided to write this text and we hopethat it will meet your personal needs – regardless of your experience and background.

Preface

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We’ve tried to remain faithful to the idea that this book is one that you can dip into intime of need. We’ve tried to evolve a layout that makes information easy to find – the‘Guided tour’ on pages xii–xiii illustrates how the design works.

We wish you the best of times at university and hope the tips we have collated will helpyou tackle assignments with confidence and produce better results. Despite all theadvice given here, we acknowledge that there is always an element of luck in any goodperformance, and we hope you get this, when and if required. We’d be delighted to hearyour opinion of the book, any suggestions you have for additions and improvements, andespecially if you feel it has made a positive difference to the way you study and approachuniversity life.

Kathleen McMillan and Jonathan WeyersLearning Enhancement Unit,

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We should like to offer sincere thanks to many people who have influenced us and con-tributed in one way or another to the production of this book.

Countless students over the years have helped us to test our ideas. As we produceddrafts of chapters, the following students made specific comments either as individualsor as members of focus groups: Scott Allardice, Mariam Azhar, Eleanor Dempsey, SandieFerrens, Daniel Harper, Wai Lee, Kara McAuley, Katherine McBay, Leanne Murphy andDavid Wallace. Our PREP resit summer school students also provided valuable feedbackon the revision and exam tips.

We are grateful to the following colleagues and others who collaborated directly or indirectly: Margaret Adamson, Michael Allardice, John Berridge,Richard Campbell, Kate Christie, the late Neil Glen, Anne-Marie Greenhill, Nick Halpin,Jane Illés, Andy Jackson, Allan Jones, Neale Laker, Kirsty Millar, Eric Monaghan, DaveMurie, Julie Naismith, Fiona O’Donnell, Richard Parsons, Neil Paterson, Jane Prior, MairiRobb, Anne Scott, David Walker, Will Whitfield and Hilary-Kay Young. Also, we acknow-ledge those at other universities who have helped frame our thoughts, particularly ourgood friends Rob Reed, Nicki Hedge and Esther Daborn. We are grateful to CatherineBoyle at South Bank University for organising student focus groups and providing veryuseful comments on early drafts.

We owe a special debt to the senior colleagues who encouraged various projects thatcontributed to this book, and who allowed us the freedom to pursue this avenue of schol-arship, especially Robin Adamson, Alan Davidson, Ian Francis, Rod Herbert and DavidSwinfen.

At Pearson Education, we have had excellent advice and support from Pauline Gillet,Simon Lake, Amanda McPartlin, Alex Seabrook and Steve Temblett.

Finally, we should like to say thank you to our long-suffering but nevertheless enthusiasticfamilies: Derek, Keith and Fiona; and Mary, Paul and James, all of whom helped in variouscapacities.

Publisher’s acknowledgements

We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material:

Figure 20.1 The Main EU Hazard Symbols, Joint Research Centre, European Commission,via Enrico Fermi, Ispra 21020 Italy; Figure 30.1 Reprinted from Social Science andMedicine, Vol. 32, No. 10, R.G. Rogers and E. Powell-Griner, Life expectancies of cigarettesmokers and non-smokers in the United States, 1151–9, © 1991, with permission fromElsvier; Figure 42.1 © Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd: The Chambers Dictionary 2003;Figure 42.2 from the Penguin A-Z Thesaurus edited by Rosalind Fergusson and MartinManser (Penguin Books, 2001). Copyright © Penguin Books, 2001.

In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, andwe would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so.

Acknowledgements

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PART

AWHAT UNIVERSITYINVOLVES

2 Preparing for university: what you and your family need to consider

3 Starting out: how to get the most out of Freshers’ Week

4 General expectations: how the university system works and howthis impacts on you

5 What makes university education different: how to get off to a good start

6 Personal transferable skills: how to learn what employers expectfrom university graduates

Guided tour of the book

22 4 GENERAL EXPECTATIONS

The academic community of a university consists not only of the lecturing staff whoteach you, but also administrators, cleaners, janitors, secretaries, technicians, and arange of specialist staff who work behind the scenes. You will interact with many of these people as you study, maintain yourself and socialise. They will provide services foryou but will expect you to do certain things to keep the system running smoothly. It’s in your own best interests to understand their expectations and to try your best to meet them.

Communicating with the institution

The university machinery of administration is not really as complex as it sometimesseems. Your main role is to communicate with it effectively, for example by:

l matriculating (enrolling) on the date and at the time given in your letter ofacceptance;

l accessing your university email account regularly and responding to communications from staff members. Some departments onlycommunicate on coursework and routine mattersby email;

l making a habit of reading notices on faculty,departmental and course noticeboards as well asroutinely checking announcements for coursesthat use the university’s virtual learningenvironment (VLE) (Ch 28);

4 General expectations

How the university system works and how this impacts on you

Universities are large organisations, frequently with long histories and traditions that have evolved over many generations. However, it is notalways so clear to students how to fit in with these traditions and what is expected of them. This chapter outlines some common requirements.

Key terms

CollegeFacultyMatriculationVirtual learning

environment

This chapter covers:

l Communicating with the institutionl Organising yourselfl Learning new skillsl Planning your studiesl Looking after yourself

It makes sense to transfer allyour email to the accountassigned to you at university.This will make it easier foryou to check for messagesfrom staff: much of the on-going course information willbe distributed via email.

Email accounts

Chapter opening pages provide anintroduction to what you can learn,and how the chapter is structured,and an introduction to key termsintroduced in the chapter.

Navigation and setting the sceneThe book is divided into 7 parts,each with a contents list to helpyou navigate around the book.

Additional tips, definitions, examples and illustrations areprovided in ‘Tips’ boxes, allowingyou to gain the essence of a topicas directly as possible.

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Academic aspects

A large portion of this book deals with the skills required for study at university level,many of which will be quite different from those required at school or college. Beforeembarking on your course you may benefit from carrying out a mental ‘audit’ of yourcurrent abilities to allow you to focus on areas where you can gain maximum benefitfrom improvement.

You might start this process by considering the questions below. If you find the finalquestion rather open-ended, a scan through the list of chapters in this book (pages v–vii)will provide a sense of the range of skills you will be expected to have mastered by thetime you graduate. Ch 6 includes further information.

6 2 PREPARING FOR UNIVERSITY

How much do you really know about what studying at university involves?

q a lot q a fair amount q a little q not a lot

What level of experience do you bring to university learning?


How much effort are you prepared to make in order to graduate successfully?


How much support will be necessary from others?


What skills do you think you will need to develop?

Questions to ask yourself about academic study at university

There is much you can do personally to improve your academic skills levels:

l sign up for appropriate skills-related courses and workshops (for example, those forIT skills, effective writing);

l read textbooks, including this one, that provide relevant guidance and advice;

l search for web-based resources that fit your needs;

The answers to these questions should help you define your life and study goals:

n What are your life goals?

n What career path do you have as your aim?

n If you haven’t chosen a career, will going to university help you choose one?

n What subject(s) do you need to study to achieve your career goals?

n What combination of subjects will best keep your options open?

n How might university limit your options?

Coming to university – a reality check


And now . . .

4.1 Get into the habit of using a diary. Use this to keep notes of what youhave to do and when and where, and to plan ahead for large-scaleassignments.

4.2 Plan ahead. Don’t leave it too late to organise vacation work or next year’saccommodation, or others will get there before you. Keep in touch with the careers service and residence services to get advice and see what is onoffer. The careers service should be visited by every student as some pointor other (even for vocational/professional studies, where careers seem wellmapped out). Your careers service may also advertise in-term and vacationvacancies, so a visit may be worthwhile to see what is on offer.

4.3 Find out more about your university’s support services. Research what is offered and where you can seek advice, perhaps via leaflets andwebsites. These services aren’t just for help with crises – for example, they organise voluntary work, and arrange social events and outings. Youmay also gain from services without visiting their offices, for example, via websites.

Practical tips for dealing with the university system

Recognise that going to university is like moving to a new community. A universityhas its own culture and conventions. Although it might seem confusing at first, the information you need is usually available somewhere. A good starting point is the insti-tution’s web pages. From the university’s home page, you can usually find what youwant, using the search facility.

Think for yourself. University is not like school and people generally will not tell you what to do or when (Ch 5). It is up to you to organise your time and to follow thenecessary procedures explained in your course handbook in order to fulfil the courserequirements.

If you have any queries, ask. If you don’t know who to approach, or are in doubt aboutwhat needs to be done and when, then ask the departmental secretary or administrator– who will usually be a mine of information.

Get together. If you feel that you don’t understand course materials, then probablythere are others in the same boat. Ask around and discuss the difficulty with fellow stu-dents. Between you, it may be possible to work out the answer. If this doesn’t work, thenask a lecturer or tutor for help.

Seek support at an early stage. If you find that personal issues are beginning to interfere with your studying, then go to the support service that seems most appro-priate for advice. It is better to seek advice while things are low key than wait until theissues escalate into big problems.

Chapter cross referencing is highlighted in the main text toavoid duplication and guide you tokey material common to several subjects.

Examples and self-assessmentactivities allow you to delve deeperinto particular issues separatelyfrom the main text.

Practical tips sections at the endof each chapter supplement theadvice given in the chapter, andreinforce your understanding.

‘And now…’ sections at the end of each chapter suggest a set of further activities that will allow you to take what you have learnt further in your day-to-day activities.

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The Smarter Student is divided into 67 chapters, each providing you with tips for a spe-cific set of skills. These are arranged in seven parts, covering student life from choicesmade at entry, through to final exams and job-seeking. The aim is to provide bite-sizeddiscussions of each topic that allow you to find and digest relevant material as easily aspossible.

On pages xii–xiii there is a quick guided tour of the layout. At the start of each chapter,there is information about what you can learn and how the content is structured. This isfollowed by a brief introduction to the topics covered, then the core material, dividedinto appropriate sections. Additional tips, definitions, examples and illustrations are pro-vided in tip boxes, so you can gain the essence of the topic as directly as possible from themain text. Some of these points are repeated in different chapters where this is justifiedon grounds of relevance, bearing in mind that the book is likely to be consulted on achapter-by-chapter basis.

The core material in each chapter is as concise and straightforward as possible. It is laidout in numbered lists and bullet points wherever appropriate. Figures and tables areused to provide examples and to delve into ‘deeper’ or more detailed issues separatelyfrom the main text. Blank versions of some tables are included in the Appendix, in caseyou may wish to use these. Copyright on these forms is waived, so you can copy themfor personal use as required.

Many cross-references to other chapters (Ch) have been included to avoid duplication of material and thereby save space. We’ve also included a glossary so you can look upunfamiliar terms used in the text. At the end of each chapter there is a set of practicaltips that supplements the advice mentioned within the text. The text references withinchapters are collated on page 451.

You should treat all these elements as items on a menu from which you can select suitable ideas and approaches. Our advice is to adopt those you feel will fit with yourneeds and personality, but at the same time we would encourage you to experiment. If you are already using some of the tips successfully, then take confidence from the factthat you are probably doing the right thing. If ideas are new, please keep an open mind.Confronted with lack of success, many students simply try harder with a set of failedtechniques, when a complete overhaul of their approach to learning may be required.

Within the ‘And now . . .’ section, a set of further activities is suggested if you wish to takethe content further in your day-to-day activities. Many of these are designed to promotereflection and deeper thinking about the issues covered, whereas others invite you totest out some of the techniques and ideas that have been discussed.

1 Introduction

How to use this book

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PART

AWHAT UNIVERSITYINVOLVES

2 Preparing for university: what you and your family need to consider

3 Starting out: how to get the most out of Freshers’ Week

4 General expectations: how the university system works and howthis impacts on you

5 What makes university education different: how to get off to a good start

6 Personal transferable skills: how to learn what employers expectfrom university graduates

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2 PREPARING FOR UNIVERSITY 5

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Going to university is a life-changing event. It will be an experience that is exhilaratingand mind-expanding, but perhaps a little daunting at first. In this book, we aim to peelaway some of the myths and mysteries of academic study and help you to make the mostof your university years.

Self-orientation and decision-making are themes of this chapter, with the aim of ensur-ing that your start is as positive as possible. This reflective process is one you may wishto return to from time to time as you progress through university, both to assess yourprogress and reset your targets (see also Ch 7). The checklists presented here aredesigned to focus your thoughts, rather than feed you answers; your responses willdepend on your own situation and personality. Like much at university, success in turning these thoughts into action will depend on you, rather than anyone else.

Defining goals and taking up challenges

Your goals at university may vary according to whether you are planning your next moveafter school or college or whether you are returning to study after doing other things.For both types of student, a good question to ask yourself is: ‘Where do I want to be infive years’ time and then in ten years’ time?’

To help you answer these fundamental questions, run through the ‘reality check’ on page6. You may not have answers to all the questions right now, but they will help you to startthinking about deeper issues in your life and how you might tackle the challenges of uni-versity.

Whether you have just left school or college or are returning to study after time awayfrom a learning environment, the challenges of university life remain broadly similar. It’syour responses to them that will possibly be quite different.

2 Preparing for university

What you and your family need to consider

If you want to get off to a flying start at university, there are severalaspects of student life that you should think about beforehand. Thischapter prompts you to reflect on possible changes in your study methods,financial situation, accommodation and personal life.

Key term

Reflect


l Defining goals and taking up challengesl Academic aspectsl Financial mattersl Accommodation choicesl Self-maintenance

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Academic aspects

A large portion of this book deals with the skills required for study at university level,many of which will be quite different from those required at school or college. Beforeembarking on your course you may benefit from carrying out a mental ‘audit’ of yourcurrent abilities to allow you to focus on areas where you can gain maximum benefitfrom improvement.

You might start this process by considering the questions below. If you find the finalquestion rather open-ended, a scan through the list of chapters in this book (pages v–vii)will provide a sense of the range of skills you will be expected to have mastered by thetime you graduate. Ch 6 includes further information.


....

How much do you really know about what studying at university involves?


What level of experience do you bring to university learning?


How much effort are you prepared to make in order to graduate successfully?


How much support will be necessary from others?


What skills do you think you will need to develop?

Questions to ask yourself about academic study at university

There is much you can do personally to improve your academic skills levels:

l sign up for appropriate skills-related courses and workshops (for example, those forIT skills, effective writing);

l read textbooks, including this one, that provide relevant guidance and advice;

l search for web-based resources that fit your needs;

The answers to these questions should help you define your life and study goals:

n What are your life goals?

n What career path do you have as your aim?

n If you haven’t chosen a career, will going to university help you choose one?

n What subject(s) do you need to study to achieve your career goals?

n What combination of subjects will best keep your options open?

n How might university limit your options?

Coming to university – a reality check

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l seek help from tutors and support staff – they will provide an impartial, confidentialand free service;

l absorb and act upon the feedback you receive on assessed work.

Financial matters

For many people, the decision to enter university has important financial implications.No matter what your personal circumstances, it is probably helpful to work out, in broadterms, how much your university education will cost. Figure 2.1 gives some broad cat-egories of expenditure for a typical student and shows what proportion of the total costseach can be expected to take up, and Table 2.1 provides a listing of potential costs to takeinto account, some of which may be unexpected. The questions below will also help youdefine your responses to the financial challenges of university life. Ch 9 covers otherissues that will help you to create a working budget to manage your finances.


A

....

Figure 2.1 Breakdown of the costs of being a student. These proportions areapproximate and assume that the student is living in self-catering accommodation.Depending on location, the total costs may amount to £5000–8000 (2005–6 figures) and in some cities the proportional cost of accommodation may be greater. A student living athome might have reduced accommodation costs, but possibly higher travel spending.

n Have I got a good idea of what my university education will cost me?

n How much will my partner or parents be helping me?

n How much debt am I prepared to take on?

n How will I control my expenditure?

n Will I need to take on part-time work to finance myself?

n Will I need to get a summer job to help finance myself?

n How will I balance the need to work with the need to study?

Questions to ask yourself about financing your university studies

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The university fee system is complex because the fee and loan amounts and terminolo-gies depend on your nationality and where in the UK you are studying (Table 2.2). Preciseamounts of fees and loan arrangements may vary year on year, so only approximate figures are provided. Consult the Universities UK website (www.universitiesuk.ac.uk/paymentbydegrees) for up-to-date and detailed information. In all cases apart from non-EU students, any fees are payable only after graduation, with an earnings threshold


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Examples

l Tuition fees

l Hall feesl Rent/mortgagel Insurancel Utilities (gas, electricity,

phone)

l Foodl Drinkl Entertainmentl Clubs and societies

l Fares or season ticketsl Car maintenance and fuell Parkingl Tollsl Visits home

l Books, stationeryl Equipmentl Lab depositsl Field tripsl Computingl Photocopying and printing

l Mobile phonel Laundryl Toiletriesl Haircutsl Clothingl Presents

l Childminding/babysittingl Holidaysl TV licence

Comments

These vary according to where youcome from and where you arestudying (see Table 2.2)

At the present time, students do nothave to pay council tax. Insurance andutility costs are inclusive in sometypes of accommodation

Even if living in cateredaccommodation, you will incuradditional food costs, e.g. at lunchtimeor evening. Entertainment costs willdepend on what sort of ‘social animal’you intend to be

These are greatly dependent on the distance between youraccommodation and the campussite(s) you need to visit

Equipment costs, lab deposits andcosts of field trips will only apply incertain subjects

These are dependent on lifestyle andhow fashion conscious you may be

A TV licence is required for allpersons in shared accommodationunless it is a group let

Table 2.1 Expected and unexpected costs of being at university. This list is notexhaustive, but is designed to help you anticipate your main categories of expenditure (see also Figure 2.1). Table Z.1 (page 448) is a spreadsheet to help you manage your budget as a student.

Category of expenditure

Fees

Accommodation costs

Living and social costs

Travel costs

Study costs

Personal costs

Other

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A

..

Table 2.2 Fees and loans for full-time UK university students. The following is asummary of the situation for 2006–7.

University fees

Study in England and Northern Ireland (NI). There is a baseline or capped annual fee anduniversities may also charge an additional top-up fee. The total will be several thousand ofpounds per year but you can defer repayment by taking out a government-sponsored loan (see below). These fees may be part-paid for Scottish students, but not for Welsh students.

Study in Scotland. For resident Scots, baseline tuition fees are paid by the Student AwardsAgency for Scotland (SAAS) on application. There is no top-up element. After graduation you will be liable to repay a single ‘graduate endowment’ (currently lower than the combinedyearly tuition fees in England and NI). If you are from England, Wales or NI, you will pay a tuition fee that is less than the equivalent for an English or NI university (medical students pay more).

Study in Wales. Welsh students will pay a deferred baseline tuition fee and no top-up fee. If you are from elsewhere in the UK you will be liable for a top-up fee.

EU students studying anywhere in the UK. You can apply to have your tuition fees paid, butyou may have to pay top-up fees where applicable. The principle is that you will be treated inthe same way as an equivalent locally based student.

Non-EU overseas students. Your tuition fee will depend on the university and course, varyingfrom several thousand pounds per year to tens of thousands of pounds per year. These fees arepayable in the year of study. Consult www.ukcosa.org.uk for further information.

Loans and grants*

Tuition fees loan. In England, Wales and NI this is issued by the Student Loan Company (SLC)directly to your university to cover tuition fees (not means-tested). You have the option ofpaying some or all of the fees early if you wish. This loan is repayable on graduation throughthe tax system once your earnings exceed a threshold. Interest rates on the loan are equivalentto the inflation rate.

Maintenance loan. This is offered by the Student Loan Company (SAAS in Scotland), potentiallyamounting to several thousands of pounds per year. Eligibility for 25 per cent of the maximumloan will be income-assessed. Repayment details are similar to the tuition fees loan.

Maintenance grant. For eligible students from England, Wales and NI, an income-assessed grantis available from your Local Education Authority (LEA). This does not have to be paid back. Theequivalent offered by SAAS in Scotland is the Young Student Bursary. Disabled studentallowances may be available if you qualify.

Bursaries, grants and scholarships. Universities offer various ways of subsidising student fees. These may depend on family circumstances, academic qualifications or sporting prowess.Most universities also have a hardship fund offering discretionary awards depending oncircumstances. The armed services and some companies may sponsor or subsidise studies with conditions related to commissions or employment tie-ins. Details can generally be found on relevant websites.

Authorised bank overdraft. Many banks offer students overdrafts, some interest-free for theperiod of their studies. These will have to be paid back after graduation. Make sure you havepermission to overdraw, since fees for unauthorised overdrafts are costly.

*These loan arrangements may not be suitable for certain groups of students because of ethical orreligious reasons, and these students may wish to make alternative arrangements.

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for repayment. UK students with low household income may have part or all of their feespaid for them. Visit the Department for Education and Skills website (www.dfes.gov.uk/studentsupport/students) for details of the different arrangements that apply to part-time students.

Many institutions have advisory personnel who offer advice and information on moneymatters. Often there is a student hardship fund, which can be used in cases of extremefinancial difficulty. Note that, as a student, you may be entitled to preferential treatment,such as exemptions from payment of taxes such as council tax, cheap travel and con-cession pricing in stores and entertainment venues.

Accommodation choices

Student accommodation is a real concern – you willneed to live somewhere that is relatively comfortable,warm and secure. To help focus your thoughts on thechoices available, Table 2.3 summarises the pros andcons of different types of accommodation. The mainoptions available to you are:

l Living away from home. This can be a big stepfor some, but most students settle in within a fewweeks. You can live in university accommodation,or rent within the private sector. Accommodationin university halls is a safe option and may be guaranteed for first-year students unless theyenter through UCAS ‘clearing’. While the quality of privately rented rooms is morevariable, some universities will have inspected and graded such accommodation. Forrented accommodation, you will have to sign a lease or contract for a fixed period.You may have to pay a deposit, for example, the equivalent of one month’s rent,which will be refundable on departure. Any charges for damages would be deductedfrom this deposit.

l Living in the family home. This provides a familiar environment, but both thestudent and the family members should recognise that it involves changes for thewhole family, whether you are living in the parental home or in your own home witha partner and possibly children.

Whatever your accommodation, you will need time, space and peace to study. Ideally,this zone should be for your sole use, with good facilities, such as a network connectionand storage for your books and files.

Whether you live at home or not, going to university often involves new or altered relationships. The questions on page 12 will help you reflect on the adjustments you andyour friends and family may need to make.

Self-maintenance

Especially if you are leaving the family home for the first prolonged period, being a student can mean quite a large readjustment to your way of life. You will have to takeresponsibility for yourself and live with the decisions you make.


..

Different legislation governsfurnished and unfurnishedaccommodation. You can gainadvice on this and othermatters relating to rentingproperty from Citizens’Advice Bureaux and also fromstudent services in yourinstitution.

Legal aspects ofaccommodation

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A

..

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TSS_C02.qxd 6/27/06 15:46 Page 11

..

‘Self-maintenance’ encompasses a wide range of matters, including feeding yourself,doing your laundry, time management and companionship. Some new skills you mayneed to consider are:

l shopping for yourself;

l learning to cook;

l learning how to use a washing machine;

l remembering to use a washing machine;

l time management;

l meeting deadlines;

l operating on a limited budget.

If you are living with others, there are other issues to resolve together:

l keeping shared accommodation clean;

l sharing chores fairly;

l working out an equitable way of splitting communal living costs;

l avoiding cliques and creating outcasts;

l being considerate when others need to study or work on an assignment.


..

How well do you think you will get on with others (not your family)?

q brilliantly

q it’ll be fine

q I’ve some reservations

q don’t like the idea at all

How well do you think others (not your family) will like living with you?

q I’m easy-going

q I like my own space

q I’m not good in the mornings or late at night – I need my sleep

q I don’t tolerate fools gladly

How do you think your family will adjust to you becoming a university student?

q I think they’ll be very supportive

q I think they’ll understand that I need some space and time to myself

q I think they’ll miss me

What compromises might you need to make if you share accommodation with people:

– in a university residence?

– in a student flat?

If you are a student living at home, what adjustments will need to be made:

– by you?

– by other family members?

Questions to ask yourself about living with others as a student

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Practical tips to help you prepare for university

Prepare mentally for your new independence. Many new students fail to realise that noone will be telling them what to do or when to study – or even what to study. Especiallyin the first months, there’s a risk of drifting aimlessly. You will need to set your own rulesto help you achieve your goals.

Prepare mentally for the new working regime. The change from school, college oremployment or unemployment can involve radical changes to your pattern and level of activity. One option is to act as if you were taking on a nine-to-five job in that you leavehome in the morning and spend your day ‘working’ in lectures, tutorials, practicals or private study until you return in the evening. That way you can make the most of yournon-lecture time during the day. If you have work, social or sporting commitments, theneed to plan your activities is even more important.

Research your loan, grant and bursary entitlements. Check all the literature that hasbeen sent to you and make sure you have sent off all necessary forms in good time. Lookat your university’s website to see whether you qualify for any grants or bursaries.

Work out a draft budget. Using the tables in this chapter and Table Z.1 page on 448, estimate as best you can what your likely costs will be and decide how to match yourexpected income and borrowing to these sums. This may involve making decisions aboutthe amount of debt you are willing to incur by the end of your studies.

Research rented accommodation options thoroughly. Look especially carefully at:

l rental cost;

l room size and study facilities;

l distance from campus and lecture halls;

l whether meals are included;

l whether you might need to share a room;

l whether others of similar background to you will be housed nearby;

l whether you will have an en-suite bathroom or will have to share;

l what charges there are for an Internet connection.

Decide which aspects are important to you and which not, and select accommodationappropriately, recognising that some compromise will almost certainly be necessary.

Visit the university accommodation if you can. This will help you get a feel for theoptions and you may be able to talk to existing students who know about specific features that you may not have thought about.

Read the small print of your accommodation contract. When choosing accommodation,read the contracts very carefully. There may be unpleasant or expensive consequencesif you are not able to deliver what you have signed up to. For example, you may bepenalised if you damage contents or do not clean properly (in the eyes of the landlord).

Act quickly to reserve accommodation. Once you have made up your mind, make con-tact or send back the relevant forms as quickly as possible or you may miss out becauseothers have registered their interest first.

TSS_C02.qxd 6/27/06 15:46 Page 13

Check your inventory. If living in furnished rented accommodation, you should ensurethat you are given (and have checked) an inventory of the equipment and furniture present. On the inventory you should note (date and sign) any broken or damaged itemsso that you are not charged for these when you leave.

Involve your family. Perhaps you can do this by inviting them to accompany you on acampus visit. This will give them the chance to see your new ‘working’ environment andit will help them to understand your university life better.

Plan to personalise your accommodation. This will help you avoid feeling homesick.Rented rooms and flats will feel very strange and impersonal at first, so arrange to bringalong some favourite objects, such as posters, mascots and family photos.


..

And now . . .

2.1 Plan your new regime. If you’ve thought about your goals for your time atuniversity (page 5), think about what sort of study regime will be requiredto achieve them; what new societies and sports clubs you may wish to join;how you intend to balance study, employment and social life; and how youwill keep in contact with your family. Mature students need to plan equallycarefully to achieve a balance between family and study responsibilities.

2.2 Think about all the new skills you might need to acquire. If you areleaving home for the first time, list the things you will need to do foryourself for the first time. These might include laundry, cooking, time-keeping and other ‘self-maintenance’ skills, as well as opening a bankaccount, dealing with a landlord and registering with a doctor. Enlist thehelp of your family and other contacts to help you learn about these thingsbefore entering university.

2.3 Make a list of items you will require at university. If you are leavinghome to go to university, you’ll need a good packing list so you avoidreturning to collect items or having to buy duplicates. Don’t forget:

l clothing for all likely weather conditions;l fancy dress or ball/party gear;l sports equipment;l computers and calculators;l CD player and TV;l musical instruments;l identification and documentation (for example, insurance, details of

bank accounts, passport, driving licence) and a secure filing cabinet;l books;l and stationery.

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3 STARTING OUT 15

..

Most universities hold a Freshers’ Week or a similar event. Its chief purpose is to helpnew students settle in quickly. As well as a series of informative talks, there is usually anenergetic social programme and senior students will be around to help you to find yourfeet. Your university will probably send you an information pack ahead of your arrival.Do read this, because this may be the only time that the information will be given to youand when you arrive at university it will be assumed that you have read and thereforeknow all this stuff.

Essential, important and optional tasks

Every new student needs to do several things during Freshers’ Week:

l Essential tasks. These include administrative responsibilities and you must dothese. You will find dates and times in the paperwork you will receive from theuniversity before the academic year starts.

l Important tasks. These tasks, such as setting up a bank account, may depend onyour personal situation, for example, whether you are new to the area or whetheryou are living locally. Banks will be vying for your custom, so check out all the dealsbefore you make your choice of bank.

l Optional tasks. These will depend on your preferences and goals and might includejoining a particular society.

You can use Table 3.1 as a checklist to ensure you have thought of all the things youmight need to do.

3 Starting out

How to get the most out of freshers’ week

So much goes on during Freshers’ Week that it is easy to forget some of the important things you need to do. This chapter aims to help byproviding a listing of important tasks.

Key terms

DepartmentFacultyFresherMatriculationSchoolStudent associationPrincipalStudents’ unionVice-chancellor


l Essential, important and optional tasks

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16 3 STARTING OUT

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a B

riti

sh c

itiz

en, i

t is

po

ssib

le t

o h

ave

a p

ost

al v

ote

ifyo

u w

ou

ld p

refe

r to

vo

te in

yo

ur

ho

me

con

stit

uen

cy in

an

y U

K-

bas

ed e

lect

ion

.

Table

3.1

Fre

sher

s’ c

hec

klis

t

Ty

pe

of

task

Kn

ow

ing

wh

at t

o

do

, wh

en

an

d h

ow

Ad

min

istr

atio

n a

t in

stit

uti

on

al l

eve

l

Ad

min

istr

atio

n a

t fa

cult

y,

de

par

tme

nta

l, d

ivis

ion

al o

r sc

ho

ol

leve

l

Ad

min

istr

atio

n

at l

oca

l le

vel

(to

wn

or

city

)

TSS_C03.qxd 6/27/06 15:47 Page 16

A

3 STARTING OUT 17

....

Fin

d o

ut

con

tact

nu

mb

ers

and

/or

emai

l ad

dre

sses

fo

r:l

Yo

ur

Ad

vise

r o

f S

tud

ies

lY

ou

r P

erso

nal

Tu

tor

(if

dif

fere

nt

fro

m a

bo

ve)

lY

ou

r su

bje

ct d

epar

tmen

t(s)

lT

he

un

iver

sity

lib

rary

lY

ou

r g

ener

al p

ract

itio

ner

(G

P)

– if

new

lY

ou

r la

nd

lord

(if

ap

pro

pri

ate)

lB

oo

k in

to a

cco

mm

od

atio

nl

Ch

eck

that

wh

at y

ou

are

sig

nin

g f

or

in t

erm

s o

f an

inve

nto

ry o

f eq

uip

men

t is

act

ual

ly t

her

e an

d in

go

od

con

dit

ion

lId

enti

fy a

dd

itio

nal

th

ing

s th

at y

ou

may

wis

h t

o p

urc

has

efo

r yo

ur

com

fort

or

con

ven

ien

cel

If y

ou

are

in p

riva

te a

cco

mm

od

atio

n, a

rran

ge

for

tran

sfer

of

elec

tric

ity,

gas

or

ph

on

e se

rvic

es t

o y

ou

r n

ame

lG

o o

n c

amp

us

tou

rl

Ap

ply

fo

r a

stu

den

t ra

il ca

rd/b

us

or

tram

tra

vel p

erm

itl

Fin

d o

n-c

amp

us

faci

litie

s, e

.g. l

ibra

ry, s

po

rts

hal

l,ch

apla

incy

, par

kin

g z

on

esl

Ap

ply

fo

r/p

urc

has

e a

par

kin

g p

erm

it t

o p

ark

on

cam

pu

s if

this

is p

oss

ible

lA

pp

ly f

or

a se

aso

n t

icke

t fo

r lo

cal p

arki

ng

lG

o o

n c

ity

or

tow

n t

ou

rl

Go

on

su

per

mar

ket

tou

rl

Fin

d o

ut

abo

ut

off

-cam

pu

s fa

cilit

ies,

e.g

. po

st o

ffic

e,la

un

dre

tte

lR

esea

rch

sp

ecia

l stu

den

t d

eals

an

d lo

yalt

y ca

rd o

ffer

sl

Fin

d o

ut

bu

s, t

ram

an

d t

rain

tim

es f

or

you

r jo

urn

ey t

o a

nd

fro

m t

he

un

iver

sity

lFi

nd

ou

t h

ow

lon

g it

will

tak

e yo

u t

o m

ake

the

jou

rney

at

dif

fere

nt

tim

es o

f th

e d

ay a

nd

wee

k

Pu

t al

l th

ese

det

ails

in a

n a

dd

ress

bo

ok

or

per

son

al o

rgan

iser

.C

on

sid

er w

het

her

th

e p

urc

has

e o

f a

mo

bile

ph

on

e, if

yo

u d

o n

ot

alre

ady

hav

e o

ne,

is a

luxu

ry o

r an

ess

enti

al.

Get

tin

g t

o k

no

w y

ou

r fl

atm

ates

is im

po

rtan

t fo

r fu

ture

rela

tio

nsh

ips.

Eve

ryo

ne

has

par

ticu

lar

hab

its

and

pre

fere

nce

s,w

hic

h m

ay o

r m

ay n

ot

be

shar

ed b

y o

ther

s. S

har

ing

acco

mm

od

atio

n is

an

exe

rcis

e in

dev

elo

pin

g ‘p

eop

le s

kills

’. If

yo

uar

e sh

arin

g a

cco

mm

od

atio

n, y

ou

will

nee

d t

o r

each

an

ag

reem

ent

wit

h f

latm

ates

ab

ou

t h

ow

ser

vice

s ar

e to

be

pai

d. B

e aw

are

that

ifyo

ur

nam

e is

on

th

e b

ill, t

hen

yo

u a

re li

able

fo

r an

y ch

arg

eso

uts

tan

din

g a

t th

e en

d o

f a

let.

Fin

din

g y

ou

r w

ay a

rou

nd

a t

igh

t-kn

it c

amp

us

is u

sual

ly q

uit

e ea

sy, b

ut

man

y u

niv

ersi

ties

are

dis

per

sed

wid

ely

and

fin

din

g t

he

chea

pes

t an

d f

aste

st m

eth

od

of

trav

ellin

g t

o y

ou

r ca

mp

us

site

isan

imp

ort

ant

bu

dg

etin

g m

easu

re. T

rave

l pas

ses

pro

vid

e so

me

hel

p a

nd

so

me

un

iver

siti

es r

un

fre

e ‘s

hu

ttle

’ bu

ses

bet

wee

nd

iffe

ren

t ca

mp

use

s. F

or

som

e p

eop

le t

he

on

ly t

rave

l op

tio

n is

by

pri

vate

car

, bu

t to

par

k o

n u

niv

ersi

ty p

rop

erty

yo

u w

ill n

eed

to

pu

rch

ase

a p

erm

it.

Un

iver

siti

es o

r th

eir

stu

den

ts’ u

nio

ns/

asso

ciat

ion

s o

ffer

to

urs

of

the

loca

l are

a. F

or

som

e, t

his

bec

om

es a

pu

b c

raw

l, fo

r o

ther

s it

is

an

exe

rcis

e in

loca

tin

g k

ey la

nd

mar

ks, i

ncl

ud

ing

th

e lo

cal

sup

erm

arke

ts a

nd

bes

t p

lace

s to

bu

y fo

od

.

Co

mm

un

icat

ing

w

ith

th

e u

niv

ers

ity

an

d b

ey

on

d

Acc

om

mo

dat

ion

Ge

ttin

g t

o k

no

w

yo

ur

way

aro

un

d

(on

cam

pu

s)

Ge

ttin

g t

o k

no

w

yo

ur

way

aro

un

d

(off

cam

pu

s)

TSS_C03.qxd 6/27/06 15:47 Page 17

18 3 STARTING OUT

....

Ch

eck

list

of

acti

viti

es

lA

tten

d w

elco

me

fro

m t

he

Vic

e-ch

ance

llor/

Pri

nci

pal

lA

tten

d S

oci

etie

s Fa

yre

lJ

oin

so

ciet

ies

and

clu

bs

lP

urc

has

e an

aca

dem

ic d

iary

lJ

oin

th

e lib

rary

an

d s

ign

up

fo

r a

libra

ry in

du

ctio

n t

ou

rl

Par

tici

pat

e in

a li

bra

ry in

du

ctio

n p

rese

nta

tio

n o

r to

ur

lA

tten

d I

T in

du

ctio

n a

nd

log

in t

o y

ou

r IT

acc

ou

nt

lIf

yo

u a

re u

nsu

re a

bo

ut

you

r IT

ski

lls, s

ign

up

fo

rco

mp

uti

ng

tra

inin

g s

essi

on

s

lR

egis

ter

wit

h a

loca

l GP

pra

ctic

e. R

epre

sen

tati

ves

of

loca

lm

edic

al p

ract

ices

are

oft

en p

rese

nt

at s

om

e o

f th

eFr

esh

ers’

Wee

k ev

ents

an

d y

ou

sh

ou

ld b

e ab

le t

o s

ign

up

wit

h t

hem

at

that

tim

e. N

ote

: stu

den

ts f

rom

so

me

cou

ntr

ies

may

be

req

uir

ed t

o h

ave

a ch

est

X-r

ay o

rco

urs

es o

f in

ject

ion

s. T

his

may

als

o d

epen

d o

n y

ou

rsu

bje

ct o

f st

ud

y.

Co

mm

en

ts

Th

ere

are

usu

ally

tw

o o

ccas

ion

s in

un

der

gra

du

ate

life

wh

en y

ou

will

ass

emb

le a

s a

year

gro

up

co

mp

risi

ng

all

stu

den

ts. T

hes

ela

nd

mar

k o

ccas

ion

s ar

e n

ot

to b

e m

isse

d. T

hey

are

th

e w

elco

me

to t

he

inst

itu

tio

n a

s yo

u s

tep

ou

t in

to u

nch

arte

d t

erri

tory

wit

h a

llth

e h

op

es a

nd

co

nce

rns

that

are

to

be

exp

ecte

d; a

nd

gra

du

atio

nd

ay, w

hic

h m

arks

th

e en

d o

f th

at jo

urn

ey a

nd

th

e fu

lfilm

ent

of

tho

se e

arly

ho

pes

. In

bet

wee

n t

hes

e tw

o d

ates

, yo

u h

ave

the

op

po

rtu

nit

y to

join

so

ciet

ies,

su

ch a

s yo

ur

ow

n s

ub

ject

so

ciet

y,an

d m

any

oth

ers.

Th

ey c

on

trib

ute

to

th

e ri

chn

ess

of

un

iver

sity

soci

al a

nd

cu

ltu

ral l

ife.

Stu

den

ts’ u

nio

ns/

asso

ciat

ion

s u

sual

lyo

rgan

ise

som

e ki

nd

of

‘So

ciet

ies

Fayr

e’ w

her

e yo

u c

an jo

in u

p.

Man

y u

niv

ersi

ties

an

d s

tud

ents

’ un

ion

s o

r as

soci

atio

ns

pu

blis

h a

un

iver

sity

dia

ry t

hat

co

nta

ins

use

ful i

nfo

rmat

ion

ab

ou

t th

atin

stit

uti

on

, su

ch a

s te

rm a

nd

vac

atio

n d

ates

, wh

ere

to g

o f

or

info

rmat

ion

, sp

ort

s fa

cilit

ies

and

mu

ch m

ore

.

Yo

u’ll

nee

d y

ou

r N

atio

nal

Hea

lth

Ser

vice

car

d in

ord

er t

o r

egis

ter

wit

h a

GP

. Yo

u s

ho

uld

be

able

to

get

th

is f

rom

yo

ur

loca

l hea

lth

bo

ard

th

rou

gh

th

e G

P y

ou

see

in y

ou

r h

om

e to

wn

. Yo

u m

ay h

ave

a ch

oic

e o

f p

ract

ices

to

join

– a

sk a

rou

nd

fo

r re

com

men

dat

ion

s. I

fyo

u a

re a

n in

tern

atio

nal

stu

den

t, t

hen

yo

u c

an f

ind

ou

t h

ow

to

go

abo

ut

reg

iste

rin

g w

ith

a d

oct

or

in t

he

UK

by

visi

tin

g a

pra

ctic

e o

fyo

ur

cho

ice;

yo

u a

lso

nee

d t

o k

no

w t

hat

in B

rita

in, i

f yo

u a

re il

l,th

e fi

rst

pla

ce y

ou

nee

d t

o c

on

tact

is y

ou

r d

oct

or’

s su

rger

y;h

osp

ital

s ar

e fo

r em

erg

enci

es o

nly

.

Table

3.1

(co

nt’

d)

Ty

pe

of

task

Pre

par

ing

to

p

arti

cip

ate

in

th

e

life

of

the

un

ive

rsit

y

Ge

ttin

g r

ead

y f

or

lear

nin

g

Lo

oki

ng

aft

er

yo

urs

elf

TSS_C03.qxd 6/27/06 15:47 Page 18

A

3 STARTING OUT 19

....

lG

et p

erso

nal

saf

ety

leaf

lets

lB

uy

a p

erso

nal

ala

rm –

oft

en a

vaila

ble

at

dis

cou

nt

pri

ce in

Stu

den

ts’ U

nio

n/A

sso

ciat

ion

sh

op

sl

Mak

e yo

urs

elf

awar

e o

f fi

re d

rill

reg

ula

tio

ns

in y

ou

rac

com

mo

dat

ion

lM

ake

con

tact

wit

h t

he

dis

abili

ty s

ervi

ce in

yo

ur

inst

itu

tio

nto

mak

e th

em a

war

e th

at y

ou

hav

e ar

rive

dl

Ch

eck

that

fac

iliti

es y

ou

hav

e id

enti

fied

as

bei

ng

nec

essa

ry f

or

you

are

in p

lace

lS

tud

ents

can

ch

oo

se w

het

her

th

ey w

ish

to

dis

clo

se a

con

dit

ion

th

at m

igh

t b

e cl

assi

fied

as

a d

isab

ility

. If

you

hav

e a

seen

or

un

seen

dis

abili

ty, y

ou

will

nee

d t

o a

gre

e to

dis

clo

sure

bef

ore

yo

u c

an a

cces

s th

e ap

pro

pri

ate

un

iver

sity

ser

vice

s re

leva

nt

to y

ou

r d

isab

ility

lR

egis

ter

for

an E

ng

lish

-lan

gu

age

test

if r

equ

ired

lS

ign

up

fo

r a

cou

rse

in E

ng

lish

fo

r A

cad

emic

Pu

rpo

ses

lIf

yo

u a

re a

po

stg

rad

uat

e in

tern

atio

nal

stu

den

t w

ho

use

sE

ng

lish

as

an a

dd

itio

nal

lan

gu

age,

loo

k o

ut

for

cou

rses

to

hel

p y

ou

wit

h d

isse

rtat

ion

or

thes

is w

riti

ng

lFo

r st

ud

ents

fro

m s

om

e co

un

trie

s, t

her

e is

a r

equ

irem

ent

that

yo

u r

egis

ter

wit

h t

he

po

lice.

Th

is is

larg

ely

afo

rmal

ity,

bu

t it

is s

om

eth

ing

th

at y

ou

mu

st d

o. Y

ou

nee

dto

tak

e yo

ur

pas

spo

rt a

nd

stu

den

t m

atri

cula

tio

n c

ard

w

ith

yo

u

Mo

st in

stit

uti

on

s p

rovi

de

info

rmat

ion

an

d a

dvi

ce o

n p

erso

nal

safe

ty, i

ncl

ud

ing

pro

tect

ing

yo

ur

bel

on

gin

gs

as w

ell a

s p

rote

ctin

gyo

urs

elf

and

yo

ur

hea

lth

. Th

ese

are

real

-wo

rld

issu

es a

nd

it is

imp

ort

ant

to b

e aw

are

of

wh

at y

ou

mig

ht

enco

un

ter

in t

he

soci

alsc

ene

on

yo

ur

cam

pu

s. M

any

inst

itu

tio

ns

or

stu

den

ts’ u

nio

ns

sell

per

son

al a

larm

s an

d o

ffer

leaf

lets

on

dru

gs,

sex

ual

ly t

ran

smit

ted

dis

ease

s, d

ate-

rap

e, t

hef

t, a

nd

oth

er is

sues

co

mm

on

ly f

ou

nd

in

th

e co

mm

un

ity

at la

rge.

Co

un

selli

ng

ser

vice

s ex

ist

in a

llu

niv

ersi

ty in

stit

uti

on

s to

su

pp

ort

all

stu

den

ts f

rom

eve

ryb

ackg

rou

nd

, nat

ion

alit

y, g

end

er o

rien

tati

on

an

d c

reed

.C

ou

nse

llin

g is

fre

e an

d c

on

fid

enti

al.

If y

ou

hav

e a

dis

abili

ty, t

hen

yo

u n

eed

to

co

nsi

der

ho

w t

his

m

igh

t im

pac

t o

n y

ou

r lif

e as

a s

tud

ent.

Yo

u w

ill p

rob

ably

hav

ep

rep

ared

fo

r co

min

g t

o u

niv

ersi

ty b

y co

nta

ctin

g t

he

dis

abili

tyse

rvic

e in

yo

ur

inst

itu

tio

n, b

ut

you

sh

ou

ld m

ake

con

tact

ag

ain

.Y

ou

r u

niv

ersi

ty h

as a

leg

al r

esp

on

sib

ility

to

pro

vid

e ad

equ

ate

faci

litie

s, b

ut

can

on

ly d

o s

o if

yo

u d

iscl

ose

rel

evan

t in

form

atio

n.

In s

om

e in

stit

uti

on

s, if

yo

u a

re a

n in

tern

atio

nal

stu

den

t an

dE

ng

lish

is n

ot

you

r fi

rst

lan

gu

age,

th

en y

ou

may

be

ob

liged

to

tak

ea

lan

gu

age

test

as

a m

atte

r o

f ro

uti

ne.

If

it is

co

nsi

der

ed t

hat

yo

un

eed

to

co

nti

nu

e to

dev

elo

p y

ou

r E

ng

lish

lan

gu

age,

th

en c

ou

rses

will

be

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TSS_C03.qxd 6/27/06 15:47 Page 19

20 3 STARTING OUT

....

Practical tips for freshers

Buy a cheap filing system. You’ll get lots of paperwork before you arrive and during the first few weeks of term. There’ll be too much to look at straight away, but some ofthe literature, such as course handbooks, will be very useful later on. The temptation isto shove it all on your desk and read it later, but you’ll probably lose important stuff if you do that. Spend some time sifting through all the papers you receive, put aside what you think you won’t need (you might need it later after all) and store the rest in alogical order.

Don’t spend money on impulse. During Freshers’ Week there will be pressure on you tospend money: to participate in events, join clubs and societies, buy textbooks, and more.Unless you are confident in your interests and needs, save your cash until you are morecertain about things. For example:– Do you really need to join lots of clubs? There will be many demands on your time dur-

ing the term and you can’t be an active member of them all. Select the one(s) likely tobe of main interest to you. You can always join others later.

– Will you really need your own copy of all the books on your reading lists? There will beplenty of copies of each text in the library and if a book is peripheral, you may onlyneed to consult it a few times.

If you are living in university halls, work at getting to know your fellow students.Everyone is in the same boat, so just a little extra effort can make a difference, both foryou and for them:

l Go out of your way to introduce yourself and speak to others.

l Leave your door open so you can greet those going by.

l Propose an evening event, such as a floor party or visit to a local pub.

l Look out for people who look lonely and invite them along to whatever you’re doing.

l If you’re a UK student, help international students particularly – they may be confusedby cultural and language differences, as well as feeling homesick.

l Avoid going home at weekends in the first few weeks, or you may miss out on socialevents and chances to get to know people.

l Find out if people play the same sports as you and set up a match with them.

If you are living at home, try to become involved in university life. The temptation is to stick to old social and study habits, but you can gain a lot by meeting new people,getting involved in societies and clubs and studying in the university environment.

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A

3 STARTING OUT 21

....

And now . . .

3.1 Prioritise your activities for Freshers’ Week. Use the checklist in Table 3.1 to help you decide on a set of activities to accomplish each day.By the end of the week you should have all the main checklist items sorted out.

3.2 Set up a regular time to communicate with home. Your folks will be keento know how you are getting on. If you always do this at a particular timeor on a particular day, this will make sure you keep in touch.

3.3 Set up a list of contacts. If you haven’t already got one, invest in anaddress book or personal organiser, so you can keep details of all yourcontacts in one place. Staff contact details are available on faculty ordepartmental web pages and are also in course handbooks.

TSS_C03.qxd 6/27/06 15:47 Page 21


....

The academic community of a university consists not only of the lecturing staff whoteach you, but also administrators, cleaners, janitors, secretaries, technicians, and arange of specialist staff who work behind the scenes. You will interact with many of these people as you study, maintain yourself and socialise. They will provide services foryou but will expect you to do certain things to keep the system running smoothly. It’s in your own best interests to understand their expectations and to try your best to meet them.

Communicating with the institution

The university machinery of administration is not really as complex as it sometimesseems. Your main role is to communicate with it effectively, for example by:

l matriculating (enrolling) on the date and at the time given in your letter ofacceptance;

l accessing your university email account regularly and responding to communications from staff members. Some departments onlycommunicate on coursework and routine mattersby email;

l making a habit of reading notices on faculty,departmental and course noticeboards as well asroutinely checking announcements for coursesthat use the university’s virtual learningenvironment (VLE) (Ch 28);

4 General expectations

How the university system works and how this impacts on you

Universities are large organisations, frequently with long histories and traditions that have evolved over many generations. However, it is notalways so clear to students how to fit in with these traditions and what is expected of them. This chapter outlines some common requirements.

Key terms

CollegeFacultyMatriculationVirtual learning

environment


l Communicating with the institutionl Organising yourselfl Learning new skillsl Planning your studiesl Looking after yourself

It makes sense to transfer allyour email to the accountassigned to you at university.This will make it easier foryou to check for messagesfrom staff: much of the on-going course information willbe distributed via email.

Email accounts

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4 GENERAL EXPECTATIONS 23

l informing your faculty or course organiser ofabsence through illness and providing medicalcertificates to cover periods of absence beyondthe normal period of self-certification;

l letting the university know as soon as possible if you change address, or change other personaldetails;

l notifying your faculty or course organiser if you find yourself having to cope with exceptionalpersonal circumstances that mean that you will be absent for a period of time, for examplebereavement of a close relative (all such information is confidential);

l responding to written communications as required.

Organising yourself

University is an exciting place with lots of activities beyond those your course offers. You will need to make choices about how you go about enjoying these activities while maintaining the right levels of effort for your course. To do this, you will beexpected to:

l organise your activities and time effectively (Ch 8);

l plan your workload to meet deadlines;

l maintain your employment activities at realisticlevels (no more than 15 hours a week is the usualrecommendation);

l engage with all the university’s codes of practice,for example on plagiarism (Ch 36), IT etiquetteand responsible use of the Internet;

l arrange your social life around your studies;

l maintain a balance between work, study, sociallife and other family responsibilities.

Learning new skills

University learning often requires you to do things in a different way from school, college or work. This means that you have to be receptive to learning new skills. Forexample, you are expected to:

l develop existing skills;

l be willing to learn new ways of studying;

l develop analytical skills;

l learn to think logically and see issues from both sides;

l be willing to challenge your existing perceptions and receive new ideas with an open mind;

..

A

..

To get the most out of yourcourse, map out the thingsyou need to do in relation toyour course programme(s) in a diary, semester/termplanner or electronic diary:

n every day

n every week

n at other times.

Planning ahead

Discuss this in the firstinstance with youradviser/director of studiesor personal tutor. If you actquickly enough, and ifregulations allow, you maybe allowed to changemodules.

What if your expectationsof the course aren’t met?

TSS_C04.qxd 6/27/06 15:48 Page 23

l be prepared to consider information and ideascritically.

You will find more information about transferableskills in Ch 6 and on critical thinking in Ch 22.

Planning your studies

University courses are challenging and the way sub-jects are taught will be different from one area ofstudy to another. Sometimes you will have to attendlectures, other times, tutorials, laboratory sessions or other kinds of practical sessions – and you areexpected both to prepare for these and participatefully. In some disciplines how you do both of thesethings is assessed.

Here are some examples of things you will need to do:

Every day

l Prepare for lectures and other learning activities by doing some backgroundreading. This may include printing out lecture notes or PowerPoint handouts for usein the lecture (Ch 15, Ch 17).

l Attend and take notes as appropriate (Ch 17) in all the scheduled lectures and otherprogrammed activities.

l Obey safety instructions and follow rules and regulations, especially for lab andfieldwork and when using IT facilities.

Every week

l Follow up the lecture or other activities by doing supplementary reading, workedexamples, or reviewing and condensing notes.

l Contribute actively in all forms of teaching and assessment, for example by askingand answering questions.

l Engage fully with teaching materials and other facilities offered online. For example,you should look at your VLE modules several times a week to see announcementsand participate in discussions.

At other times

l Attend class debates, year meetings and formal assessments.

l Attend all meetings with tutors – punctuality is expected.

l Submit work on time.

l Participate in field trip activities, as appropriate to your discipline (remember thatthis is something that you will have to work into your budget).

l Register for examinations at the times given.

l Provide feedback on your course when required to do so, for example online or in class.


....

This is a frequently askedquestion, but the answerdepends on many factors,including your abilities andthe nature of your coursework. Official bodies assumethat, during term time, a full-time student is studying40 hours per week. Thisfigure includes contact time(lectures, tutorials, practicals,etc.) and non-contact time(reading, working onassessments, for example).

How much am I expectedto study?

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4 GENERAL EXPECTATIONS 25

l Speak to your course director, adviser of studies/personal tutor or tutors in the academic advice service (sometimes called learning support centre) if you arehaving difficulty with your course or your learning. Information about these servicesis usually found on your university’s web pages.

Looking after yourself

Universities are not as anonymous as they might seem on the surface and, if you findyourself in difficulties, there is usually someone to whom you can turn for help or advicethat is freely available and confidential (see below). You’ll find information about theseservices from noticeboards, your university’s website and from information leaflets thatwill be displayed in prominent places in university buildings.

It’s expected that, if you need help, then you will take the initiative in asking for it. Thisshould not be about crisis management, but about recognising potential queries, issuesor difficulties before they become problems. Seeking advice at an early stage is not asign of weakness, but a mature decision in problem-solving.

..

A

..

n Academic skills/advice service: providing support for academic writing, learningstrategies, exam techniques and coping with academic issues.

n Advisory service: covering among other things finance, hardship, tenancy issues,leases and other matters relating to day-to-day life.

n Careers service: offering careers advice often along with ‘job shop’ information forfinding part-time work.

n Chaplaincy centre: welcoming people of all faiths and those who do not subscribe toany particular faith. The chaplaincy usually provides a range of facilities and activitiesnot necessarily related to religion.

n Counselling service: supporting students with personal emotional problems such asstress, being homesick or loneliness.

n Health service: providing on-campus health care and advice, including mental healthissues.

n International service: providing cultural activities and care support for internationalstudents.

n Residence service: dealing mainly with university accommodation. May also haveinformation about other property available for rent.

n Sport and well-being centre: for keeping fit, playing sports, meeting people andgenerally unwinding.

Typical services available in most universities

TSS_C04.qxd 6/27/06 15:48 Page 25


..

And now . . .

4.1 Get into the habit of using a diary. Use this to keep notes of what youhave to do and when and where, and to plan ahead for large-scaleassignments.

4.2 Plan ahead. Don’t leave it too late to organise vacation work or next year’saccommodation, or others will get there before you. Keep in touch with the careers service and residence services to get advice and see what is onoffer. The careers service should be visited by every student as some pointor other (even for vocational/professional studies, where careers seem wellmapped out). Your careers service may also advertise in-term and vacationvacancies, so a visit may be worthwhile to see what is on offer.

4.3 Find out more about your university’s support services. Research what is offered and where you can seek advice, perhaps via leaflets andwebsites. These services aren’t just for help with crises – for example, they organise voluntary work, and arrange social events and outings. Youmay also gain from services without visiting their offices, for example, via websites.

Practical tips for dealing with the university system

Recognise that going to university is like moving to a new community. A universityhas its own culture and conventions. Although it might seem confusing at first, the information you need is usually available somewhere. A good starting point is the insti-tution’s web pages. From the university’s home page, you can usually find what youwant, using the search facility.

Think for yourself. University is not like school and people generally will not tell you what to do or when (Ch 5). It is up to you to organise your time and to follow thenecessary procedures explained in your course handbook in order to fulfil the courserequirements.

If you have any queries, ask. If you don’t know who to approach, or are in doubt aboutwhat needs to be done and when, then ask the departmental secretary or administrator– who will usually be a mine of information.

Get together. If you feel that you don’t understand course materials, then probablythere are others in the same boat. Ask around and discuss the difficulty with fellow stu-dents. Between you, it may be possible to work out the answer. If this doesn’t work, thenask a lecturer or tutor for help.

Seek support at an early stage. If you find that personal issues are beginning to interfere with your studying, then go to the support service that seems most appro-priate for advice. It is better to seek advice while things are low key than wait until theissues escalate into big problems.

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A

5 WHAT MAKES UNIVERSITY EDUCATION DIFFERENT 27

..

The differences between university and other educational environments stem largelyfrom the fact that classes tend to be much larger than elsewhere. Lecture classes of250–300 are quite normal, especially at early stages. It may seem like a contradiction tosay that you are alone in a crowd, but it is true in the sense that this means that yourlearning is largely up to you. Although some syllabuses are quite prescriptive, no-one willchase you up to see whether you did the preparation for a lecture, whether you attendeda lecture, whether you are on track to hand in your work on time or monitor you verymuch in any other respect.

Teaching approachesLook now at Table 5.1, which compares a secondaryschool, further education college, university and work-place in a number of key areas. It’s fairly obvious thatthe ‘university’ column has much more detail than theother three and this is because there is so much thatis different in higher education. Realising what makesuniversity education distinctive from the beginning willhelp you adjust to the differences on a day-to-day basis.

You will have made a definite choice to enter univer-sity, but it is important to recognise that the way lecturers teach is generally quite different from theteaching you had at school or college. Within any particular module, it may be that you are taught bymore than one lecturer who may give two or threelectures and then be replaced by the next lecturer onthe list. This, combined with large class sizes and amuch tighter time frame, means that there is lessopportunity in lectures for discussion compared with school or workplace learning.

5 What makes universityeducation different

How to get off to a good start

It is useful to understand how university differs from other places of learning such as schools and further education colleges. By realising at anearly stage that you will be responsible for your learning, you can adaptmore easily to this new learning environment.

Key terms

Reflect


l Teaching approachesl Assessmentl Learning to learn

While most departments do not monitor individualattendance at lectures, thereare exceptions. For example,where a professional bodyhas requirements that needto be met in order to achieveprofessional recognition of your qualification, it isgenerally a condition ofpassing a course that you attend all lectures.Attendances are recorded,sometimes electronically.

University attendancerules

TSS_C05.qxd 6/27/06 15:49 Page 27

....

28 5 WHAT MAKES UNIVERSITY EDUCATION DIFFERENT

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Most lecturers are willing to meet students at a mutu-ally convenient time to discuss coursework. The cru-cial difference is that you are expected to make thefirst move – the assumption at university is that if yousay nothing, you have understood everything. Otheropportunities exist, however. Laboratory sessions andtutorials and offer chances to ask questions and makesure you understand the material (Ch 20, Ch 21).

Assessment

In relation to assessment, there are really significantdifferences. At university, work is submitted by adeadline. Lecturing and other teaching staff do notroutinely preview work that is to be submitted. Thismeans that it is a one-time-only submission. For peo-ple who have come from traditions where it was thenorm to submit a draft for review, sometimes morethan once, this is a dramatic change. The tip, there-fore, is to move from this culture of dependency toone where the support comes from within your peergroup (Ch 18, Ch 60). Reading and commenting oneach other’s work is actually a contribution to learning for all parties. Alternatively, askanother family member to read over work for you. You can find out more about univer-sity assessment in Ch 45.

Learning to learn

Nowadays, learning is considered a lifelong activity,so learning how to learn for yourself is fundamental.Critical to this is developing an ability to think thingsthrough for yourself, that is, not just accepting whattextbooks or even world authorities on a topic tell youis the case.

There are many sides to most issues, and learning tomake judgements of their merit is a key student skill.As you progress with your studies you will find thatyou refine this ability further until it becomes secondnature. This means that, when you enter employmentas a graduate, you will do so with a skill as an inde-pendent thinker that will distinguish you from others.

..

A

At university, marks aregenerally not negotiable.However, in some institutions,students are permitted tochallenge marks. Where this is done under internalmoderation, there is apotential risk of receiving alower mark from the secondmarker and this will be theone that is recorded. If youfeel that the mark you havereceived is not what yourwork deserves, then it isprobably more productive toseek an appointment with themarker to discuss the weakerelements in the work so thatyou can improve your nextsubmission.

Challenging your marks

You are expected to reflecton what you hear and read at university. Lecturers will often argue for different cases or ideas todemonstrate the complexityof a problem. You have todecide what evidence hasmost validity in the light ofthe evidence they havepresented.

Thinking for yourself

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And now . . .

5.1 Think about the teaching on your course. After the first few weeks, taketime to consider how the teaching differs from your previous experiences.Decide how your study methods may have to alter to accommodate thesechanges. You may wish to experiment with new ‘active learning’techniques, such as those suggested in Ch 14 and Ch 58.

5.2 Find out more about the assessment methods being used on your course.These may have been discussed during an introductory lecture, but will alsobe outlined in the module or course handbook(s). Decide what study andrevision methods will be most suitable to adjust to the style of assessment.You will find relevant advice in the chapters in Part E of this book.

5.3 Create a study routine. Try to get into a rhythm of study that fits in withyour other commitments. If you can, try to work out some study strategieswith someone else and sometimes make your studying a social occasion.

Practical tips for adjusting to university teachingapproaches

Start with an open mind and think for yourself. Everyone enters university with skillsand talents, diverse knowledge and experience. However, university is about revisitingold ideas and values as well as exploring new areas and concepts. It is important to cometo this new learning with an open mind where you explore ideas critically – and this mayinvolve challenging your existing views and understanding.

Keep up with the work. The pace of university teaching can take many students by sur-prise. Things will not be repeated, and it will be routinely expected that you understandmaterial covered at an earlier stage. No-one will be monitoring how much studying youare doing and it is easy to let this slip, with consequent effects on later learning and examresults.

Manage your time carefully. This is vital, so you can balance your social life and term-time employment with your studying. There’s more about this in Ch 8.

If in doubt, ask! It is regarded as your job to ensure you have understood all the coursematerial and what you are expected to learn. If anything is unclear, ask your lecturer ortutor – you may need to make an appointment to do this. Many lecturers have consulta-tion times posted on their office doors so you can go along at that time. Otherwise aquick email may be easier for you and for the lecturer.

Be your own person. Decide what you want to get out of your university studies and howhard you will need to work to achieve your goals. Don’t be influenced by the laid-backattitude of some students: if they want to slack, that’s their lookout. Also, don’t be fooledby those who pretend to be doing little, but actually study quite hard behind the scenes.Stick to your personal work ethic, and study at times that suit you.

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A

6 PERSONAL TRANSFERABLE SKILLS 33

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Personal transferable skills

How to learn what employers expect from universitygraduates

What you learn at university is just as much about the skills you’ll use inlater life as it is about the subject you have chosen to study. This chapterprovides an overview of the personal transferable skills that could apply inyour circumstances.

Key terms

EmployabilityGraduatenessTransferable skill


l Key skill areas

6

Employers who recruit graduates expect more from a member of their workforce thansomeone who is simply a chemist, a historian or an engineer, for example. What they arelooking for are graduates who possess a range of skills that can be applied in differentsituations. The jargon term is ‘transferable skills’. There are essentially two types of suchskills: those that are subject-specific and those that are generic. Subject-specific trans-ferable skills are usually taught as part of the learning on degree programmes; generictransferable skills tend to apply across the disciplines.

Key skill areas

Your degree will provide evidence to your futureemployer that you possess a range of specialist skillsand knowledge for the work situation. However, pro-viding evidence of what other transferable skills youpossess can be more problematic – especially if youare unaware of what these skills are. Figure 6.1 showsfive key areas in which transferable skills might bepositioned. The five key skill areas highlighted are:

l personal development skills

l interpersonal skills

l communication skills

l technical skills

l intellectual skills.

You might like to use this table as a reference checklist when compiling your curriculumvitae (CV) or a job application where you are required to outline skills you feel you have

These terms are sometimesused to define skills in theuniversity context:

n core skills

n employability skills

n graduate skills

n hard and soft skills

n personal skills

n personal transferableskills.

Alternative terms

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34 6 PERSONAL TRANSFERABLE SKILLS

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Figure 6.1 Transferable skills. Here is a fairly comprehensive list of what are commonlycalled personal transferable skills. Tick all the boxes where you think you already have somedegree of skill, then underline all those with ticks that you think you could or should developfurther while at university.

Personal development skills

Self-development – ability to:

q adopt an internationaloutlook

q appreciate environmentalissues

q be flexibleq develop self-confidenceq exercise self-disciplineq meet deadlinesq set personal goalsq use creative talentsq work under pressure

Interpersonal skills

Teamwork – ability to:

q conduct meetingsq demonstrate commitmentq display loyaltyq engage with group/teamq form a teamq give instructionsq give/receive feedbackq motivate othersq negotiateq participate in a teamq persuade by sound

argument/evidenceq reach compromisesq speak concisely

Assertiveness – ability to:

q agree/disagreeq approach othersq make polite requestsq stand up for oneselfq take risks

Interactive – ability to:

q participate in communityactivities

q be culturally awareq exercise (self-) disciplineq integrate with othersq develop problem-solving

skillsq take responsibilityq develop self-confidenceq participate in a team

Survival skills – ability to:

q balance work/study/family/friends

q build networks: social andbusiness

q develop cooking skillsq develop home-management

skillsq implement basic first aidq maintain healthy lifestyleq make appointmentsq make own transport

arrangementsq organise accommodationq organise banking/finance

Management/leadership – ability to:

q act as a leaderq manage resourcesq set meeting objectivesq manage time

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A


....

Figure 6.1 (cont’d)

Visual and aural – ability to:

q use design techniquesq construct and present a

PowerPoint presentationq make a poster

presentationq listen to the views of

others

Numerical – ability to:

q handle numericalinformation

q produce numericalreports

q understand numericalterms

q present numerical results

Verbal – ability to:

q speak formally/informallyto a range of people

q converse confidentlyq present case/projectq debate formally and

informallyq contribute to discussion in

meetingsq conduct telephone

interactions andnegotiations

Technical/creative – abilityto:

q appreciate the aestheticq be creativeq drive a vehicleq use work-related

technology

Communication skills

Written – ability to:

q write for academic purposesq work accuratelyq construct a CVq conduct correspondenceq write formal articles/papersq give a poster presentationq write a product evaluation

reportq write a project/technical

reportq take minutes of meetingsq write for specific contexts

Technical skills

Computing skills – ability to:

q manage a databaseq use desktop publishingq use a keyboardq organise file storageq produce graphicsq handle statistical dataq word processq use a spreadsheetq produce graphicsq search the Web

Intellectual skills

Problem-solving – ability to:

q analyseq collect dataq think criticallyq develop learning strategies to

suit personal learning styleq evaluate informationq generate new ideasq organise and planq evolve problem-solving

strategiesq redesign and restructureq researchq understand task organisationq undertake career planningq summarise informationq work on own initiative

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..

developed so far. Once you have reviewed your skills in this way, you should then be ableto compile three lists:

l skills that are reasonably well developed;

l skills that you would like to develop further;

l skills that are not developed at all and that you might consider developing as youprogress.

As a university student your aim will be to do as well as you possibly can, for it is thecombination of subject skills and transferable skills that you will develop on the road tobecoming a graduate that will make you an attractive prospect to a future employer.

The concepts of ‘graduateness’ and ‘employability’ will be explored more fully in Part G.

36 6 PERSONAL TRANSFERABLE SKILLS

..

Practical tips for enhancing your skills

Consult your course handbooks for references to transferable skills. These will prob-ably highlight opportunities for you to gain and develop skills, and will indicate the terminology in favour at your institution and in your discipline.

Identify which extra-curricular activities and experiences could contribute to yourskills. Make sure you add details of these to your CV.

Bear skills in mind when you consider optional elements of your course. For example,don’t just pick a supplementary module just because it is ‘easy’ – choose one that willenhance your skills.

Sign up for workshops and training courses. First-aid courses, IT workshops, short lan-guage courses and training for mentoring are all examples of readily available trainingoptions that you could use to develop your skills.

A charity looking for an engineering graduate to work on a development project to provideclean water in a developing country recruited the candidate who could demonstrate that he had several transferable skills. The charity was looking for someone who couldwork on their own initiative, had good people and negotiation skills for dealing with thebureaucracy on-site and who could evolve solutions while keeping costs low. The studentwho got the post had worked as a sports instructor in a sports activity centre (leadershipand people skills); had a part-time job on the customer service desk of an electricalretailer (negotiation skills); and had lived on a low budget throughout his universitystudies to avoid accumulating a huge loan (problem-solving and budgeting skills).

Case study: transferable skills

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A


....

And now . . .

6.1 Audit your skills. Using Table 6.1 as a framework, decide which of the skillslisted you could say that you already possess and then consider whetheryou could develop them further. How? When? Where?

6.2 Look for subject benchmarking statements. The government QualityAssurance Agency for Higher Education has created benchmarkingstatements that list the skills and knowledge expected in any graduate in a particular discipline. They can be found at www.qaa.ac.uk/students/guides/UnderstandCourses.asp

6.3 Update your CV. It’s always a good idea to keep your CV up to date (Ch 7, Ch 66). It is especially valuable to keep track of the skills you havedeveloped, the stage you are at with them and detail the evidence you canquote to show that you are competent.

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PART

B MANAGING YOURSELF

7 Personal development planning: how to reflect on yourachievements and set yourself future goals

8 Time management: how to balance study, family, work and leisure

9 Financial tips: how to balance your budget

10 Campus orientation: how to identify the key facilities at youruniversity

11 Social life at university: how to create new social networks andsupport existing ones

12 Dealing with stress: how to cope with the pressures of university life

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B

7 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING 41

....

There’s a lot to gain from thinking more deeply about what you are doing at universityand where this might take you in terms of employment and career development. To helpyou with this, you may be asked to take part in personal development planning by your department or faculty. The exact process may go under a different name, but the outcome is usually similar: you will be asked to complete some form of personaldevelopment plan, or PDP. Many professional bodies that validate degrees encouragePDP activities and there is a drive to introduce PDP schemes for most degrees.

Personal development planning

The aims of personal development planning include:

l recording your personal qualities and achievements and monitoring theirdevelopment;

l clarifying your personal and career goals;

l understanding more fully what and how you arelearning;

l taking responsibility for your own development bysetting yourself personal and academic targetsand evaluating progress towards these;

l improving your employability;

l bringing together information for your CV andevidence to support job applications;

l starting the process of continuing professionaldevelopment in your chosen career area.

7 Personal developmentplanning

How to reflect on your achievements and set yourselffuture goals

Personal development planning involves reflecting on your learning,performance and achievements. This process will help you organise yourpersonal, educational and career development.

Key terms

EmployabilityLearning stylePersonal

development planProgress fileTraitTransferable skill


l Personal development planningl Components of progress files

Research suggests thatstudents who carry out PDPactivities perform better intheir academic courses thanthose who don’t. Thesestudents also have bettermotivation, self-awarenessand understanding of‘employability’ and careersoptions.

Benefits of personaldevelopment planning

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The process of personal development planning usu-ally includes the following elements:

l Thinking: about where you stand now, where yourinterests lie, what your strengths and weaknessesare and the improvements you would like toachieve.

l Planning: where you want to go, what skills andknowledge you need to get there and how youmight acquire them.

l Action: setting yourself goals and specific targetsand monitoring your progress towards them.

l Reflecting: reviewing your achievements and deciding on further areas for personal,academic and career development.

This is seen as a continuous cycle of self-review, rather than a one-off event. Your university’s PDP scheme will encourage you to go through the process and provide amechanism for recording your thoughts and progress.

Components of progress files

Your PDP will generally be allied to a progress file. This will consist of all or some of thefollowing components:

l An academic transcript. This is the ongoing record of your learning andachievement as recorded by the university. It would normally include details of themodules you are taking or have taken and themarks or grades you have obtained in them. Itmay also include a breakdown of assessed skillsand other achievements (for example, attending asafety course or field excursion, or participatingin an IT induction session). The style and contentof the transcript will depend on your institutionand the mechanism it uses for recording yourachievements.

l A portfolio. This is a collection of evidence tosupport your PDP and CV. This might be stored on paper or electronically. Depending on yourdiscipline and modules, it might include outcomesof various tasks you have completed, such as:essays; literature surveys; posters; analysis of aproblem or issue; research project reports;designs and artwork; practical reports; fieldworkproject reports; or evidence of the use of IT andsoftware, such as a completed spreadsheet. You can use this evidence as part of the processof reflection on your achievements and goals, and also to show to potential employers todemonstrate your skills and abilities.

42 7 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

..

In the PDP context, this is the process of looking backover past events; analysinghow you have learned anddeveloped as a person andyour feelings about this; andre-evaluating your experienceon the basis of your thoughts.

Definition: reflecting

There will normally be amechanism for doing this(you have the right to see it under the Freedom ofInformation Act 2000). If your transcript seems to be incorrect or incomplete,you should ask for it to becorrected as soon as possible,as it may be copied toemployers at a later date.

Checking your academictranscript

If you are working with apaper-based scheme, it makesgood sense to invest in aportable file system in whichto keep all the materials.

Filing your PDP materials

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l A personal development plan. This involves a reflective analysis of who you are,what you’ve done and what you plan to do. Some universities have created astructured process to assist in this process – for example, a system that allows youto ‘rate’ your abilities and skills in different areas, and see how these have changedand should change in future. The outcome is often a series of short-term targetsthat you agree (with yourself, or in discussion with a tutor) to try to achieve by thetime of your next personal review.

l A career planning component. The aim of thispart, if included, is to encourage you to thinkabout your career options at an early date, and to assist you to decide what qualities andqualifications you may need to achieve your goals.

l A developing curriculum vitae. The abovefeatures of the progress plan all feed into the CVthat you will eventually submit to a potentialemployer. Focusing your thoughts on this endproduct is a good way of assessing the relevanceof your studies and how you can communicateinformation about your skills and personalqualities (in short, what evidence you will be ableto present for this). The components of a CV andoptions for presenting them are covered in Ch 66.

The way in which you will be invited to compile your progress file will depend on yourinstitution and possibly your department or degree. Many professional bodies define thecontent and presentation. Some PDP schemes are paper-based, involving worksheets,files, reports and plans; others are electronic, allowing you to access and work on yourPDP online, by lodging materials in your own dedicated server space.

..

B

..

It’s important to realise thatwhile you may work on a‘generalised’ CV as part ofpersonal developmentplanning, a different, targetedCV should be submitted foreach type of position forwhich you apply. The workyou do on the generalised CVwill allow you to pick andchoose relevant componentsand make appropriate minoradjustments to the wording.

Targeted CV

Practical tips for reflecting on your progress andplanning ahead

Try to answer the following questions. You may wish to record your answers and noteopportunities and targets for each area. Table 7.1 illustrates one potential method fororganising your thoughts.

What are my aspirations and goals? You might want to think in long, middle and shortterm:

l where you would like to be, career-wise, in ten years’ time?

l what sort of degree you will you need to get on the first step on that career ladder?

l what steps can you take within the current year to help towards your degree goals?

What interests and motivations do I have? While some personal interests will alwayshave ‘hobby’ status, other may be ‘occupational interests’, which might drive forwardyour selection of modules, degree subjects and even a career. Like interests, motivatingfactors will be intensely personal, some career-related, others only indirectly related to

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a career. You might have a desire to become rich, to help those less well off than your-self, to teach, to heal, to work with animals, to have a stable and predictable life, to raisea family. It isn’t the easiest thing to identify what these factors are, but if you are ableto, you can use this information to find a more satisfying educational and career path.

What transferable skills am I gaining – both during my academic studies and in myextra-curricular activities? The material in Ch 6 should be useful here, but you will find other information about the skills you are covering in your course handbook and in subject benchmarking statements on the Quality Assurance Agency website(www.qaa.ac.uk/academicinfrastructure/benchmark/default.asp). Opportunities forgaining new skills should be incorporated in your plan – for example, attending a work-shop to learn about a new software package.

What personality traits and personal qualities do I have, and how might these helpme direct my future? Have a look at Ch 65 and carry out the personality audit on page431 (or carry out a similar audit as part of your university’s PDP scheme). How might thequalities you have identified in yourself relate to your potential career paths? Examinewebsites that provide ideas (for example, www.prospects.ac.uk).

What is my learning style? Reflecting on this might help you become a better learner.Have look at Ch 13 to help you decide whether you need to modify your currentapproach.

..

44 7 PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT PLANNING

..

And now . . .

7.1 Discuss the questions in the ‘Practical tips’ section above with a friendor family member. Many of the questions raised are difficult ones toanswer at any stage in your life. Comparing and contrasting your feelingsmight make you more certain about them. Also, someone who knows youwell might be able to comment on your personality and personal qualities.

7.2 Gather and file information for your CV. It’s easy to mislay documents orforget important pieces of information, so it makes sense to create a filewhere you can place paperwork and add notes and evidence. Informationthat might be relevant could include: coursework results, information aboutterm-time and vacation employment, club and society positions, awardsand other certificates. Ch 66 provides a comprehensive list of potential CV material.

7.3 Make an appointment at your careers service. If you are at an early stage in your university studies, you may feel this is unnecessary – but the careers service staff would like to persuade you otherwise. They’ll bepleased to talk over your plans, refine your career objectives and makesuggestions for improving your chances of getting your ideal position.

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..

B

..

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Successful people tend to have the ability to focus on the right tasks at the right time,the capacity to work quickly to meet their targets, and the knack of seeing each jobthrough to a conclusion. In short, they possess good time-management skills. Time man-agement is a skill that can be developed like any other. Here are some simple routinesand tips that can help you improve your organisation, prioritisation and time-keeping.Weigh up the following ideas and try to adopt those most suited to your needs and personality.

As a student, you will need to balance the time you devote to study, family, work andsocial activities. Although you probably have more freedom over these choices thanmany others, making the necessary decisions is still a challenging task. Table 8.1 demon-strates just how easy it is for students’ study time to evaporate.

Diaries, timetables and planners

Organising your activities more carefully is an obvi-ous way to gain more useful time.

Diaries

Use a diary to keep track of your day-to-day schedule(for example, lectures, sports activities) and to notesubmission deadlines for university work.

l Work your way back from key dates, creatingmilestones such as ‘finish library work for essay’or ‘prepare first draft of essay’.

l Refer to the diary frequently to keep yourself on track and to plan out each day andweek. Try to get into the habit of looking at the next day’s activities the night before

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Some universities and manybookshops sell academicdiaries that cover the yearfrom September to August.This format will help you keeptrack of the numbered weeksin each semester or term.

Choosing a diary

8 Time management

How to balance study, family, work and leisure

Managing your time effectively is an important key to a fulfilling universitycareer. This chapter provides ideas for organising your activities and tipsto help you focus on important tasks.

Key terms

PerfectionismPrioritisingWriter’s block


l Diaries, timetables and plannersl Listing and prioritisingl Routines and good work habitsl What to do if you can’t get started on a task or can’t

complete it

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and the next week’s work at the end of the week.If you use a diary with the ‘week-to-view’ type oflayout, you will be able to see ahead each timeyou look at it.

l Number the weeks, so you can sense how time isprogressing over longer periods, such as a termor semester.

Timetables

Create a detailed timetable of work when you have abig task looming (e.g. before exams, or when there isa large report or literature survey to write up). Theuse of revision timetables is covered further in Ch 57,and the same principles apply to other tasks. Youcould:

l break the task down into smaller parts;

l space these out appropriately;

l schedule important work for when you generallyfeel most intellectually active (e.g. mid-morning).

One advantage of a timetable is that you can see theprogress you are making if you cross out or highlight each mini-task as it is completed.

Wall planners

This is another way of charting out your activities,with the advantage, like a timetable, that you can seeeverything in front to you.

Listing and prioritising

At times you may run into problems because youhave a number of different tasks that need to bedone. It is much better to write these tasks down in alist each day, rather than risk forgetting them. Youwill then have a good picture of what needs to bedone and will be better able to prioritise the tasks.

Once you’ve created a list, rank the tasks by number-ing them from 1, 2, 3 and so on, in order from ‘import-ant and urgent’ to ‘neither important nor urgent’ (seeFigure 8.1). Your ‘important’ criteria will depend onmany factors: for example, your own goals, the weightof marks given to each assessment, or how far awaythe submission date is.

Each day, you should try to complete as many of thelisted tasks as you can, starting with number one. Ifyou keep each day’s list achievable, the process of

If you organise your timewell, you will:

n keep on schedule andmeet deadlines;

n complete work with lesspressure and fulfil yourpotential;

n build your confidenceabout your ability to cope;

n avoid overlappingassignments and having tojuggle more than one pieceof work at a time.

Being organised is especiallyimportant for large or long-term tasks because it seemseasier to put things off whendeadlines seem a long way off.

Advantages of beingorganised

This involves distinguishingbetween important andurgent activities.

n Importance implies someassessment of the benefitsof completing a taskagainst the loss if the task is not finished.

n Urgency relates to thelength of time before thetask must be completed.

For example, in normalcircumstances, doing yourlaundry will be neitherterribly important norparticularly urgent, but if you start to run out of cleanunderwear, you may decideotherwise. Hence, prioritiesare not static and need to bereassessed frequently.

Deciding on priorities

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Table 8.1 Some of the ways in which students’ study time evaporates. Do you recogniseany of these types?

Personality type Typical working ways . . . and the problems that may result

The late- Luke likes to work into the small hours. He’s got an essay to write with a nighter deadline tomorrow morning, but just couldn’t get down to doing it earlier

on. It’s 2.00 a.m. and now he’s panicking. Because the library’s shut, he can’tfind a reference to support one of his points; he’s so tired he won’t be able toreview his writing and correct the punctuation and grammatical errors; andhe feels so shattered that he’ll probably sleep in and miss the 9.00 a.m.deadline. Oh well, the essay was only worth 25 per cent – he’ll just have tomake up the lost marks in the exam . . .

The extension- Eleanor always rationalises being late with her assignments. She always has seeker good reasons for being late, and it’s never her fault. This is beginning to

wear rather thin with her tutors. This time her printer packed up just beforesubmission, last time she had tonsillitis and the time before she had to visither granny in hospital. She’s asked for an extension, but will lose 10 per centof the marks for every day her work is late. It’s only a small amount, but asshe’s a borderline pass in this subject, it could make all the difference . . .

The stressed- Shahid has to give a presentation to his tutorial group. Only thing is, he’s out non-starter so intimidated by the thought of standing up in front of them, that he can’t

focus on writing the talk. If only he had his PowerPoint slides and notesready, he’d feel a whole lot more confident about things, but he can’t getgoing because of his nerves. Maybe if he just goes out for a walk, he’ll feelbetter placed to start when he comes back . . . and then, maybe another cupof coffee . . .

The last- Lorna is a last-minute person and she can only get motivated when things minuter get close to the wire. She produces her best work close to deadlines when

the adrenaline is flowing. However, her final-year dissertation is supposed to be a massive 10,000 words, there’s only a week to go and she hasn’t feltnervous enough to get started until now . . .

The know-it-all Ken has it all under control. The lecture notes are all on the web, so there’sreally no need to go to the lectures. He’ll catch up on sleep instead and studyby himself later on. Then he’ll just stroll to the exam looking cool, get stuckin and amaze everyone with his results. Trouble is, the professor gave out asheet changing the learning outcomes at her first lecture, missed out one ofthe topics (which Kim has revised carefully) and told the other students thatthe exam format now involves two compulsory questions . . .

The Pat wants to do really well at uni. She signed up for a vocational degree and perfectionist has plans to land a plum job on graduation to start her climb up the career

tree. Mum and Dad want her to do really well in her assignments and it’s vitalthat the essay that she’s working on starts with a cracking first sentence.Just can’t phrase it right though – she’s tried 15 different ways and crossedthem all out. Time is running out now, and she will have to put off going tothe Globetrotter’s Dance. Well, who needs a social life anyway . . .

The juggler Jeff is a mature student and is working part-time to make ends meet.Although it started as 10 hours a week, it’s now up to 25. He’s juggling hisshifts so he can attend lectures and tutorials, and might be able to do a bit of coursework in the breaks at work, providing the staffroom is empty. Hecan’t get into the library to work on the short-loan material, so he’ll have tomiss that out. And he’s so tired at the end of each day, he just can’t summonthe energy to read the core texts. Doesn’t know how long he can keep thispace up . . .

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striking out each task as it is completed provides afeeling of progress being made, which turns into oneof satisfaction if the list has virtually disappeared bythe evening. Also, you will become less stressed oncehigh-priority tasks are tackled.

Carry over any uncompleted tasks to the next day,add new ones to your list and start again – but try tocomplete yesterday’s unfinished jobs before startingnew ones of similar priority, or they will end up beingdelayed for too long.

Routines and good work habits

Many people find that carrying out specific tasks atspecial periods of the day or times of the week helpsthem get things accomplished on time. You mayalready adopt this approach with routine tasks likedoing your laundry every Tuesday morning or visitinga relative on Sunday afternoons. You may find it helpsto add work-related activities to your list of routines –for example, by making Monday evening a time forlibrary study, working on whatever assignment is nexton your list.

Good working habits can help with time management:

l Do important work when you are at your mostproductive. Most of us can state when we workbest (Figure 8.2). When you have worked this outfor yourself, timetable your activities to suit: aca-demic work when you are ‘most awake’ and rou-tine activities when you are less alert.

l Make the most of small scraps of time. Useotherwise unproductive time, such as whencommuting or before going to sleep, to jot downideas, edit work or make plans. Keep a notebookwith you to write down your thoughts.

l Keep your documents organised. If your papersare well filed, then you won’t waste time lookingfor something required for the next step.

l Make sure you always have a plan. Often, thereason projects don’t go well is because there isno scheme to work to. Laying out a plan for anessay, report or project helps you to clarify thelikely structure behind your efforts. Writing out a fairly detailed plan will save you time in the long run.

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Figure 8.1 The urgent–important approach toprioritising. Place each activitysomewhere on the axes inrelation to its importance andurgency. Do all the activities in sector 1 first, then 2 or 3, and last 4.

Figure 8.2 Are you a morning,afternoon or night person?Rate yourself (marks out of 10)according to when you findyourself most able to workproductively.

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l Extend your working day. If you can deal with early rising, you may find thatsetting your alarm earlier than normal provides a few extra hours to help youachieve a short-term goal.

What to do if you can’t get started on a task or can’t complete it

People agree that one of the hardest parts of time management is getting started on tasks. Putting things off – procrastination – is all too easy, and can involve the following:

l convincing yourself that other low-priority work ismore important or preferable;

l switching frequently among tasks, and not makingmuch progress in any of them;

l talking about your work rather than doing it;

l planning for too long rather than working;

l having difficulty starting a piece of writing (having ‘writer’s block’);

l spending too long on presentational elements (e.g. the cover page or a diagram),rather than the ‘meat’ of the project;

l finding mundane TV programmes fascinating or being easily persuaded to go outsocialising.

If you admit any of these symptoms, you may be subconsciously procrastinating.Becoming more aware of how you might be falling into this trap is the first stage in con-sciously avoiding it.

Delaying completion of a task, in itself a form of procrastination, is another aspect oftime management that many find difficult. It’s a special problem for those afflicted byperfectionism. Good time managers recognise when to finish tasks, even if the task is not in a ‘perfect’ state. At university, doing this can mean that the sum of results frommultiple assignments is better, because your attention is divided more appropriately,rather than focusing on a single task.

Tips for getting started on tasks and completing them on time are provided in Table 8.2.


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This is simply putting off atask for another occasion. As the poet Edward Youngwrote: ‘Procrastination is thethief of time’.

Definition: procrastination

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Table 8.2 Ten tips for getting started on academic tasks and completing them on time

1 Improve your work environment. Your focus and concentration will depend on your workenvironment.l Create a tidy workplace. Although tidying up can be a symptom of procrastination,

in general it is easier to start studying at an empty desk and in an uncluttered room.l Reduce noise. Some like background music, while others don’t – but it’s generally other

people’s noise that really interrupts your train of thought. A solution might be to go to aquiet place like a library.

l Escape. Why not take all you need to a different location where there will be a minimumof interruptions? Your focus will be enhanced if the task you need to do is the only thingyou can do, so take with you only the notes and papers you require.

2 Avoid distractions. If you are easily tempted away from tasks by your friends, you’ll have tolearn to decline their invitations politely. Hang up a ‘do not disturb’ sign, and explain why toyour friends; disappear off to a quiet location without telling anyone where you will be; orswitch off your phone, TV or email program. One strategy might be to say to friends ‘I can’t come just now, but how about having a short break in half an hour?’

3 Work in short bursts while your concentration is at a maximum. After this, give yourself abrief break, perhaps by going for a short walk, and then start back again.

4 Find a way to start. Breaking initial barriers is vital. When writing, this is a very commonproblem because of the perceived need to begin with a ‘high impact’ sentence that readsimpressively. This is unnecessary, and starting with a simple definition or restatement of thequestion or problem is perfectly acceptable. If you lack the motivation to begin work, trythinking briefly about the bigger picture: your degree and career, and how the current taskis a small but essential step to achieving your goals.

5 Focus on the positive. You may be so anxious about the end point of your task that thisaffects your ability to start it. For example, many students are so nervous about exams orspeaking in public that they freeze in their preparation and put the whole thing off. One wayto counter this would be to practise – perhaps through mock exams or rehearsing an oralpresentation with a friend. Focus on positive aspects – things you do know, rather than thoseyou don’t; or the good results you want to tell people about, rather than those that failed toprovide answers.

6 Don’t feel you have to work in a linear fashion. Word-processing software allows you workout of sequence, which can help get you going. So, for a large report, it might help to starton a part that is ‘mechanical’, such as a reference list or results section. Sometimes it’s agood idea to draft the summary, abstract or contents list first, because this will give you aplan to work to.

7 CCuutt uupp llaarrggee ttaasskkss. If you feel overwhelmed by the size of a job and this prevents you fromstarting it, break the task down to manageable, achievable chunks. Then, try to completesomething every day. Maintaining momentum in this way will allow you to whittle away thejob in small pieces.

8 Work alongside others. If you arrange to work alongside others, you can spur each other onwith sympathy, humour and the promise of a drink or coffee after each study period.

9 Ask for help. You may feel that you lack a particular skill to attempt some component of thetask (e.g. maths, spelling, or the ability to use a software program) and that this is holdingyou back. Don’t be afraid to ask for help, rather than suffering in isolation: consult a fellowstudent, lecturer, or skills adviser; or visit one of the many websites that offer assistance.

10 Don’t be a too much of a perfectionist. We all want to do well, but doing your very besttakes time – a commodity that should be carefully rationed so that all tasks are given theirfair share. Perfectionism can prevent or delay you getting started if you feel your initialefforts need to be faultless (see 4 above). Also, achieving fault-free work requiresprogressively more effort, with less return as you get nearer to perfection. The time youneed to spend to attain the highest standards will probably be better used on the next task.

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Practical tips for managing your time

Invest in items to support your time management. Helpful items could include a diary,wall planner, personal digital assistant (PDA), mobile phone with diary facility, and alarmclock – then use them!

Investigate how you really use your time. Time-management experts often ask clientsto write down what they do for every minute of several days and thereby work out wherethe productive time disappears to. If you are unsure exactly what you waste time on, youmight like to keep a detailed record for a short period, using a suitable coding for youractivities. When you have identified the time-wasting aspects of your day, you can thenact to cut these down (or out). Those of a more numerical bent might wish to constructa spreadsheet to do this and work out percentages spent on different activities. Onceyou have completed your timesheet, analyse it to see whether you spend excessiveamounts of time on any one activity or may not have the balance right. As you thinkabout this, remember that universities assume you will be carrying out academic-relatedactivities for roughly 40 hours per week.

Create artificial deadlines. Set yourself a finishing date that is ahead of the formal submission deadline for your assignment. That way you will have the luxury of time "toreview your work, correct errors and improve the quality of presentation.

Build flexibility into your planning. We often end up rushing things because the unexpected has interrupted a timetable that is too tightly scheduled. To avoid this, deliberately introduce empty slots into your plans to allow for these contingencies.

Try to prioritise the items on your ‘to do’ list. If you produce a daily list of tasks, thenspend some time thinking about how you wish to prioritise and order them through theday. You might adopt a numerical system or one using stars, for example.

Ask yourself whether your lifestyle needs radical surgery. You may find that little in this chapter seems relevant because your time is dominated by a single activity. Thismight be socialising, caring for others, outside employment or travelling, for example. Inthese cases, you may need to make fundamental changes to your lifestyle to placegreater emphasis on your studies. In some cases a student counsellor might be able tohelp you decide what needs to be done.

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And now . . .

8.1 Analyse your time-management personality. Read through this chapterand particularly Table 8.1. Can you recognise any character traits that arepreventing you from organising your time effectively? Might any of the‘Practical tips’ help you become better at time management? How couldyou adapt them to your own situation?

8.2 Experiment with listing and prioritising. If you haven’t used this methodbefore, test it out for a week or so. Make a list of all your current and future tasks, assignments, appointments and social events. If they are large, subdivide them into smaller components. Rearrange the list in orderof priority. Take special care to take account of events that depend onother jobs being completed. Now try to complete the different components,ticking them off the list as you go. After your trial period, decide howeffective the method was in organising your activities and helping you to ensure that tasks were done on time.

8.3 Declutter and reorganise your life. If you reckon disorganisation is areason for lack of progress (Table 8.2), make a determined effort to tidythings up. Start with your room and study environment, and if necessaryinvest in files and boxes to help you organise things. Keep out only thatwhich is relevant to current activities and carefully store the rest. Decidehow you can better arrange your affairs to keep on top of routine tasks.Now you should be in a better mental and physical position to get startedon your next assignment.

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Being at university will almost certainly result in a change in your financial status. Muchdepends on your personal circumstances, and in particular the degree of support yourfamily is able to provide; however, being a student will probably restrict your earningpotential and almost certainly increase your expenses. These days, many students expect tocarry a debt following their studies – one that you will probably wish to minimise.

Creating a budget

A budget contains predictions about your income and your expenditure over a definedperiod. The main reasons you should set up a budget are:

l you will have a realistic view of the costs of beinga student, especially in relation to less easilypredicted expenses (Ch 2);

l you will be less likely to overdraw your bankaccount past any agreed limit and will thereforeavoid incurring penalties;

l by forecasting expenditure on essentials, you canhave a better idea of any surplus available forlower priority or luxury items;

l you can reserve sums of money for anticipatedcosts;

l if you predict ahead of time that you will need totake out a loan, you may be better placed toborrow an appropriate amount and negotiate amore advantageous interest rate;

l you can feel more confident that any debt you do incur will be controlled.

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This can be much moreexpensive than at a campus-based or smaller-townuniversity. Additional costs arise mainly fromaccommodation, transport (it is often difficult or veryexpensive to live near thecampus) and food. Forexample, costs in London areestimated to be about 18 percent higher than elsewhere.

Studying and living in a large city

9 Financial tips

How to balance your budget

Many students report that keeping to a budget is one of the hardest partsof student life. This chapter provides information to help you predict likelycosts, advice on keeping costs down and hints on what to do if your budgetisn’t working out.

Key terms

BudgetContingencyLEASAASSLC


l Creating a budgetl Banking and loan optionsl Term-time and vacation workl What to do if your finances seem out of control

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The table in the Appendix on page 448 can be used asthe basis for a budget over weekly, monthly or yearlyperiods. To predict your costs, you should:

l use past expenditure as a guide, adding a suitableamount for inflation;

l use other sources of information, such as Figure2.1, agreed rental contracts and student-focusedfinancial websites;

l use a well-educated guess, perhaps based ondiscussions with other students or family members.

If you feel that budgeting over short periods is inappro-priate for you because your expenditure is irregular, youcould try working to an annual cycle, dividing infrequentbut large outgoings by 12 to give average monthly costs. You can then create a budget foreach month, but should take care to carry over any monthly surplus, rather than spendingit. You can also use standing orders or direct debits to smooth out costs over the year.

Banking and loan options

Setting up a bank account

Many people only start ‘serious’ banking when theybecome students. Even if you already have an account,it may pay to change your bank either for conveni-ence or because of the incentives on offer. Some matters, such as overdraft facilities, are decided atbranch level and you may find it may be useful to beable to talk face-to-face with staff when arrangingsuch facilities.

Banks are keen to attract students as customers,because of their relatively stable careers and futureearning potential. You should therefore shop aroundto find the best bank and the best type of account tosuit your needs. There are several websites (such aswww.support4learning.org.uk) that will allow you tocompare banks and their accounts. Here are some important aspects to consider:

l Convenience and facilities. Is there a branch or cash dispenser (ATM) on campus,or is a good telephone or internet banking facility available? Would you like associ-ated debit or credit cards and/or a cheque book?

l Costs and potential gains. Will your account be free to run? Will you incur largecharges if you accidentally overdraw? Might you gain interest when, howeverbriefly, your account is in credit?

l Overdraft facilities and interest rates. How much will the bank lend you? What willit cost in interest (if anything)? Importantly, when will they expect you to pay yourdebt back?

l Incentives. What will the bank give you to join them?

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If you are familiar with thiskind of program, considerusing a spreadsheet to set upyour budget as on page 448.You will be able to adjust the income and expenditureheadings to suit yourcircumstances. You can alsomonitor your income andoutgoings more easily byupdating with real values.

A spreadsheet could help with budgeting

As well as the well-knownhigh-street banks, manybuilding societies offercurrent accounts with similar facilities. While eitherof these types of enterpriseoffer online banking, thereare also specialist onlinebanks whose charges andinterest rates may be betterthan those subsidising high-street branches.

Types of banks

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To set up an account, you will need to provide evid-ence of your identity and status. Typically, a bank willask to see your birth certificate or passport, evidenceof your address and some indication of your studentstatus, such as an acceptance letter or matriculationcard. They may also require an initial deposit, such asa loan cheque.

Loan options

Table 2.2 (page 9) summarises the most common waysof borrowing money to finance your studies and main-tenance. In most cases, loans will only need to be repaidafter you graduate, and in certain cases only whenyou are earning in excess of a salary threshold. Somegrants, generally awarded to students from less well-off backgrounds, do not have to be repaid.

Ideally, of course, you will be trying to minimise thedebt you carry into your later career – at that time youwill have other priorities for your earnings, such assetting up a home. Two ways in which you can reduceyour debt are by:

l taking on part-time work so you increase yourincome;

l budgeting carefully so that you reduce youroutgoings.

Term-time and vacation workNaturally, universities and their staff expect you to studyhard to earn your degree. In fact, they expect you toput in the equivalent of a 40-hour week. Not all of thisis taken up in ‘contact’ with staff in lectures, tutorialsand practicals, but it is expected that you read, reviseand work on essays and other assessments during theremainder of the time. If you take on term-time paidemployment, this may affect your study effort and itmay reduce time you would otherwise spend socialis-ing or in sport, leisure or rest. Many sources recommendtaking on no more than 15 hours’ paid work per week.

The university vacations will provide you with oppor-tunities for longer, more intensive periods of employ-ment, which can replenish your bank account withoutaffecting your studies. Many of these opportunitieswill involve seasonal occupations, but some of thesefall into the category of ‘internships’, which, while oftenless financially rewarding, may provide vital career-related experience and are worth pursuing.

56 9 FINANCIAL TIPS

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International students mayhave additional bankingneeds, such as the ability totransfer funds from abroad.Banks may ask for additionalidentification and/or depositsbefore they set up an accountfor non-EU nationals.

International students

Remember that it can take up to a week for cheques toclear so that cash is availablein your account.

Cheque clearance times

Remember to include on yourCV any employment you havehad while at university, asthis will indicate that youhave a work ethic, experienceand skills that could bevaluable in a future career.Your term-time employersmay also be willing to providea reference for you (Ch 67).

Term-time and vacationwork and your lateremployability

For most students, the clearpriority should be degree-course work and not term-time employment. Conditionsof your employment (timingand length of shifts, forexample) may tend tointerfere with your studies oreven attendance at lecturesand other parts of yourcourse. You should avoid thisconflict if at all possible.

Getting the work–studybalance right

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University towns and universities themselves provide many opportunities for paid term-time and vacation work and there is usually a contact point at the students’ unionor support services (‘job shop’, or similar) where these are advertised.

What to do if your finances seem out of control

If your budget doesn’t seem to be working out or if you are approaching or in danger of exceeding your authorised overdraft limit, it is vital to talk to someone about yourproblems. You might approach a family member, youruniversity’s student finance specialist (often workingwithin student services), or people at your Students’Union. Your bank adviser may be able to point you inthe direction of additional sources of money (loans)or extend your overdraft facility. Most of these peoplewill be sympathetic to your needs, perhaps surpris-ingly so, as long as you are open and honest withthem.

Whoever you approach, you should try at all times to maintain a good relationship withyour bank and its staff and, in particular, develop or preserve your credit status. This willbe important in later life when you may wish to take on a substantial debt such as a car loan or mortgage. It may be at risk if you exceed debt limits or fail to make expectedpayments.

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Explain what you intend to doand take notes of the namesof the staff to whom youspoke and what was said.

Always respond promptlyto all correspondenceregarding debt

Practical tips for cost-saving and budgeting

Actively control your weekly or monthly expenditure. From your budget calculations(page 448), work out how much you should be taking out of the bank each week – and try to keep to this. Limit your ‘pocket’ money (the cash in your pocket or purse for day-to-day expenses). That way you will not be tempted to buy small treats, the cost of which add up. If you spend more than you planned in a given period, think of it as aloan from yourself and make do with less cash in the following week(s). Bear in mind that expenditure at the beginning of an academic session is always higher, and slowsdown as the year progresses.

Keep track of your account balance. By doing so you can avoid going into the red orexceeding your overdraft limit. In particular, don’t forget to take a note of how much you take out of the ‘hole in the wall’ (ATM) to top up your wallet or purse. Try to pay predictable bills by standing order or direct debit, so that you can have a better idea ofyour outgoings and will not receive a surprise bill – but make sure that you always haveenough in your account to service these payments and remember to cancel them whenyour obligation to make these payments terminates.

Keep money back for known costs and contingencies. When grant and loan moneycomes in, allocate some of this to known recurrent costs, predictable one-off expensesand ‘emergencies’. Use only the remainder for day-to-day expenses.

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Bank smartly. Put loan or other income that comes at the start of term or year into aninterest-bearing account, so you can benefit from this. When borrowing, try to do thisfrom as few sources as possible and at as advantageous an interest rate as possible.However, if you need to borrow, do so in instalments, so you are not tempted to spendany lump sum you receive too quickly. Shop around if necessary and look for specialdeals. Move your debt if necessary. Credit cards differ greatly in interest rate and mayhave good introductory deals. Try not to use store cards as they generally have very highinterest rates unless you pay off the entire balance each month.

Save on insurance costs. It’s always worth shopping around to find the best deal andsome companies have special polices for students. You should also find out whether yourfamily’s insurance policy for contents covers your possessions while away from homeand under what circumstances and with what excesses. Likewise, check on your family’stravel insurance policies. It may be cheaper overall if your family shifts policy to one thatcovers you too.

Shop smartly at the supermarket. If you have to buy food, play the supermarkets attheir own game to save money:

l Find out which supermarket group is the cheapest for the goods normally on yourshopping list.

l Find out the times that perishable goods are taken off the main shelves to be soldcheaply before their sell-by date – and time your shopping trips to suit.

l Check which cheap or own-brand items are acceptable, and buy these, but note thatsome of these may represent a false economy, either because there’s less in thepacket or tin, or because the quality is significantly reduced.

l Be aware of supermarket ploys to encourage impulse buying. When you visit, make ashopping list and stick to it.

l Take advantage of two-for-one offers to stock up – but only if you would normally buythe product.

l Use loyalty schemes and student discounts to your advantage.

l Don’t shop when you are hungry. This sounds daft, but it works, as you won’t betempted as much to stock up.

Gain full benefits from vacation work. If you can get a job during the vacations, youmay wish to try the following:

l Put a proportion of your earnings in an ‘untouchable’ account to cover your expensesfor term-time.

l Take full advantage of ‘perks’ of the job such as free meals or cheap goods.

l Save any tips separately for a treat or special item.

l Ensure you aren’t being taxed at an inappropriate ‘emergency’ rate: contact yourlocal tax office if unsure, quoting your National Insurance (NI) number.

l When relatively flush with cash, do not be tempted to splash out on luxury items youdon’t really need.

58 9 FINANCIAL TIPS

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9 FINANCIAL TIPS 59

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And now . . .

9.1 Check out the best deals in bank accounts. Shop around using the Web,freshers’ literature or by visiting individual bank branches near to yourcampus.

9.2 Set up a budget using the table in the Appendix (page 448) as a guide.Your budget will only be as good as the information that goes into it, so it is important to estimate income and expenses as accurately as possible.However, even if you can only guess at some costs, it is still important totry to create a budget – even if your figures are wrong, identifying thediscrepancies may help you make your next attempt more realistic.

9.3 Review your term-time employment options. If you feel term-time work is necessary to help balance your budget, visit your University’s Job Shop or equivalent (usually associated with the Careers Service) to find asuitable position. Your Students’ Association or Union and local bars,restaurants and shops may also employ students part-time.

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60 10 CAMPUS ORIENTATION

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10 Campus orientation

How to identify the key facilities at your university

Knowing your way around campus is essential if you don’t want to wastetime or miss lectures or meetings, but it isn’t always straightforward.Familiarising yourself with your new environment will be easier if youfollow the tips within this chapter.

Key terms

AlumniCampusMatriculationStudents’ union


l Campus toursl Key buildings and locationsl Town informationl Transport information

The physical area covered by university buildings is usually referred to as a campus.Some universities are in the middle of cities, while others are located at a distance fromcity life. Your university may have a traditional layout with quadrangles and lawns, or itsbuildings may be placed within busy city surroundings. Often, universities are spreadover more than a single campus.

Whatever kind of campus you inhabit, initially you will need to find your way about.Lectures and tutorials often take place in buildings that are widely dispersed and you’llneed to recognise these buildings, learn the shortest routes between locations, and findout where certain key resources are housed. Often buildings are named after famousalumni or researchers who have a connection with the institution. Campus maps usuallyhave a key, with these names in alphabetical order.

Campus tours

You may find that your university’s website has a virtual tour of the campus, which will help you exploreit online before you arrive.

Universities usually run campus tours in the earlydays of Freshers’ Week. These are usually led bysenior students, so you get the chance to ask ques-tions and benefit from their knowledge. Even if youare local, it is unlikely that you will have discoveredthe inner parts of the university campus, so it isworthwhile attending. It’s also a good way to meetpeople and explore in company.

Most universities provide campus maps with theirenrolment documentation;these will also be available atthe central reception facility.Most campuses are wellsignposted but, if you are indoubt, then stop someoneand ask. An A–Z style ofstreet map for the town maybe a useful addition to helpyou find your way around thesurrounding area.

Maps

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10 CAMPUS ORIENTATION 61

After you’ve done the tour, it’s worth going walkabout armed with your maps to ensurethat you know how to get to the places you’ll need to be at and take note of how long it actually takes to move from one place to another – make allowance for extra timeneeded when paths and roads may be busy as people move from class to class. You’ll findout where your lectures and other learning activities are going to take place from thetimetable given out when you matriculate or when you register for a specific course.

Key buildings and locations

Among the important buildings to identify in your firstfew days are:

l where to matriculate and/or register for classes;

l where your lectures will be held;

l where tutorials, practicals and labs will take place;

l where IT facilities can be accessed;

l where to eat and socialise (for example, thestudents’ union);

l where you can study.

The checklist opposite includes these and itemisesadditional buildings and locations that you should beable to find.

Some buildings will be large and navigation skills will be required to find your way around inside. Forexample, the university library is one place where, initially, you may feel rather lost. The librarians will behappy to answer queries about facilities at any pointin the year, but in the early weeks of the academicyear they usually offer special library tours. These arevaluable not only because they show you where booksand other resources are kept, but also because theyshow you how to use the library catalogue to find out what resources are held and how to access them(Ch 23).

Town information

Depending on the size of the local town or city, universities often run bus tours to helpstudents who are not local to become familiar with the local area. This is important if youdo not want to become too campus-oriented with your activities.

Another useful source of local information is the people who work in your institution.They will often live locally and will be able to provide you with information that mightotherwise be difficult to find. For example, they might be able to tell you where would be the best place to buy a set of second-hand pots and pans, or where you can find a shopselling halal food.

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B

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q Buildings where yourlectures will be held

q Buildings where yourtutorials or labs will takeplace

q Campus bank and/or cashdispenser (ATM)

q Faculty building for yourdiscipline

q Faculty (admin.) office

q Finance/cash office

q IT suites

q Main or subject library

q Residences office

q Students’ union orassociation

q Student ‘help desk’

q Support services

q Student Union shop

q Bookshops

q University health centre

Some key buildings andlocations – a checklist

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Speaking with students living at home will also help youfind your way about, since they have local knowledge andwill be able to help people new to the area to find theirbearings.

Transport information

You’ll need to work out how best to travel from your accommodation to the campus. This may be a simple walk or cycle ride, but if you live some distanceaway from the campus it may be necessary to find outabout public transport options. The local Yellow Pageswill have contact details under ‘Bus, coach and tramwayservices’ and ‘Train information’. Associated websitesadvertised alongside may offer online public transporttimetables and route-planning information. Local touristoffices will also have this kind of information, includingplaces to go and things to do within the area. Check outstudent travel offers and discounts.

Where students have to travel between campuses, orbetween a residence and the campus, universities gen-erally provide shuttle buses timed to fit in with lectureschedules. If you will have to undertake such trips regu-larly, then make sure that you know the timetable as wellas the pick-up and drop-off points.

62 10 CAMPUS ORIENTATION

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Practical tips for getting to know your campus anduniversity town

Plan your days ahead. Before you get to know your routine and the tracks you’ll needto make between teaching venues, use your street map and the campus map to work outthe shortest routes in advance.

Always carry your matriculation (ID) card when you are on campus. This is usuallyrequired for access to buildings and facilities, such as the library and students’ union.

Take care over personal safety. Exploring a new town or city is interesting, but it is better to do this in company, particularly at night. Students’ unions often run late-nightbus services so that it should not be necessary to walk alone at night. If you feel a per-sonal alarm would make you feel safer, these are normally sold in campus shops such asthose run by the students’ union.

Maintenance:

q Bank

q Post office

q Medical practice

q Supermarkets

q Chemist

q Phone box

q Launderette

Public facilities:

q Police station

q Public library

Travel:

q Bus station

q Rail station

q Airport links

q Taxi ranks

Entertainment:

q Cinemas and theatres

q Football grounds

q Sports centres

q Swimming pools

q Restaurants

q Clubs and pubs

Some useful locations – a checklist

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10 CAMPUS ORIENTATION 63

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And now . . .

10.1 Attend open days and other opportunities to see around your newcampus. These will help you feel more at home when you eventually move there.

10.2 Ask someone you know who is already a student to show you aroundwhen you arrive. They’ll know all the ins and outs of the campus and beable to offer useful advice.

10.3 During Freshers’ Week, time your journeys. This will allow you to workout, for example, when you’ll need to set your alarm and get up, when you need to leave home, or whether you have time for a snack or coffeebetween venues.

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64 11 SOCIAL LIFE AT UNIVERSITY

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A university is like a city within a city. Its society is populated by people who live locallyas well as those who have come from other parts of the UK and beyond. It is enriched bythe variety of people who live, work and study on the campus. As a member of this cos-mopolitan community, you will begin to build up social and learning networks and willmake many new and long-lasting friendships. However, this will not happen immediately.It takes time to create these contacts and friendship groups and that process will dependespecially on where you live.

Living in halls of residence and other rented accommodation

Many institutions try to offer first-time students the opportunity to live in a hall of resi-dence. Here you will immediately have the potential, within a very short time, to meet a diverse range of new people, and will often live in close contact with students from different backgrounds. Although most accommodation offices try to ‘match’ people in

11 Social life at university

How to create new social networks and support existing ones

For nearly all students, university involves great changes to their socialrelationships. There will be changes to contacts with family, old friends andgroups. New friendships will be formed, but they won’t happen overnight.This chapter shows how new networks and friendships evolve and suggestsways of maintaining existing relationships.

Key terms

Extra-curricularHall of residenceSports unionStudents’

association


l Living in halls of residence and other rented accommodationl Living at homel Making the first movesl Maintaining connections

Often students from other parts of the world come to the UK to study, hoping toexperience British life and develop their skills in English. This can be quite difficult to do if they are routinely housed in the same residences, thus creating an international‘ghetto’. If you are an international student, introduce yourself to home students and askthem questions about language and customs. This gives you a chance to interact withnative speakers and become less reliant on your own national or ethnic group. Joinsocieties and clubs as a means of broadening your circle of friends and experience ofuniversity life.

International students

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11 SOCIAL LIFE AT UNIVERSITY 65

the way they distribute students in residences, this isnot always possible. It may take you some time tolocate someone doing the same course as you, or withthe same social interests, or a group of people withwhom you feel comfortable in terms of personality.

One thing you may share with others is living away fromthe family home, so social events are usually organisedto help new students to feel at home and to encouragepeople to mix. Taking part in these activities will helpyou to feel part of your new community. Queuing formeals, doing your washing in the in-house laundretteor making a cup of tea also provide opportunities formeeting people and striking up conversations.

You may have chosen to live in shared private rentedaccommodation. This has the potential advantage ofintroducing you to the closer friendship group of yourflatmates. On the other hand, it may limit the numberof new people you meet, and to compensate you may need to make extra efforts to takepart in social activities on the campus.

Living at home

In many universities, a considerable number of students live at home. This may be for financial reasons or, in the case of many mature students, because they have an established home within the immediate area. In these cases, it is important to see your university friendships as complementing your home-based social networks. Youruniversity contacts are more likely to relate to the nine-to-five experience of campus life. This means that friendships are more likely to be formed with fellow students youmeet in lectures, tutorials, practicals or labs.

For many home-based students, transport arrange-ments or family responsibilities make it impractical toattend many of the social functions that may takeplace in the evenings or at weekends. However, in theearly weeks, if you can manage to attend one or twoof these events, you will be present at a critical pointin the establishment of potential friendships.

Making the first moves

Even if you are shy, you will recognise that it is import-ant to mix and to work at forming new relationships.We all have different ideas of what makes someone a possible kindred spirit and, if you are a ‘peoplewatcher’, you may find it interesting to look out forthe personality types in Table 11.1. You might evenrecognise yourself!

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Increasingly, mature studentsare forming a larger part ofuniversity communities. If you are a mature student,then it is important that youparticipate in the wider life of your institution so thatyour voice and interests are reflected in universityactivities and policies. Manymature students find itrefreshing to count amongtheir friends students whomay be the same age as theirown children – and this can work in reverse also.

Mature students

Make a point of introducingyourself to the people you sitnext to in lectures. Vary theposition you sit in lectures so that you maximise thenumber of people youencounter – but avoid theback row if you want to havea good view of the board andhear clearly. Sitting nearerthe front ensures that youavoid some of the distractionof noise from others.

Taking the initiative

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Table 11.1 Social stereotypes you may meet at university. Of course, there may beothers, and it is unlikely that everyone you meet will be so well-defined as these characters.

Social stereotype

The butterflies

The lions

The elephants

The worker bees

The moles

The cuckoos

The homing pigeons

Description

Want to be everybody’s friendand flit from one group toanother; seem to know and beknown by everyone.

Usually go around in an exclusivegroup or clique; very difficult toinfiltrate unless you share theirvalue systems or sharedexperience.

Lovely but loud extroverts – youwill hear them before you seethem. They always seem to needto make a noise – processingalong the corridors, talking atfull volume and oblivious to thefact that others are trying towork/sleep/study.

Tend to feel insecure in theirown abilities and try to make upfor this by working extra hard.Others who like to work may just be workaholics.

Shy, modest types whofrequently may give animpression of being academicallyweak. However, often they arehighly competent, but they justdon’t project this loudly.

May have swallowed all the hypeabout the great uni social life butmay have played too hard andtoo long. Generally, they do notmake it through the first year ofuniversity.

May live on or off campus but feel the tug of home verystrongly. Consequently, theymay make too few opportunitiesto mix with other students,preferring the security of home.

How you might relate to them socially

If you also are a butterfly, then this is allright. If you’re not, then accept this typeof person for the open, sharing, butshort-term acquaintance they mayprove to be.

If you have an ‘intro’ to the group oflions through an existing member, thenit may be possible to break into it. Thesegroups can start out as apparent opinionformers, but, as other (non-clique)networks are formed, the influencepotential of the lions diminishes.

If you are an elephant, then you willprobably find and go around with otherelephants. If you’re not an elephant,then making friends with an elephantallows you entry to an alternative, butoften larger-than-life, world.

Worker bees may come across asserious-minded, and tend to find theirfriendship groups among similar types.

These are people to watch because theywill have sussed out how the courseworks, what the strategic learning pointsare and how best to succeed. Generally,they don’t say much, but they observe a lot. If you need to know somethingabout the course, they will probablyhave read all the information – and knowwhat it means.

These people may simply have come touniversity because they see it as a riteof passage on to the next phase in theirlives. Their priorities may not be studyingtowards a degree. If you find yourselfmixing with such a group, then youprobably need to take stock of your owngoals and how you aim to achieve them.

These people may find university sodifferent from home and their previouslearning environment that they returnhome at every opportunity or preservetheir home networks to the exclusion of potential university ones.

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On the academic scene

Many friendships emerge by sharing experiences. The most obvious way is by meetingpeople who are in the same classes as you. You will find that you get to know peoplethrough tutorial or lab groups, as well as from striking up casual conversations as youwait outside a class or lecture room. In some lectures, you will be encouraged to workwith people sitting around you and this is an effective way of widening your circle ofacquaintances. One way of ensuring that you get to know people studying the same sub-ject is to volunteer to be a class representative.

On the social scene

Membership of the students’ union or students’ association is automatic in most institutions. This gives you access to all the facilities and activities provided within theunion. These services are managed by a student executive, although some of the commercial activities such as bars, cafés and restaurants are managed by professions.Office-bearers of the union/association are elected bythe student body and the process is conducted under the scrutiny of a returning officer nominated from the staff body. You may feel that you would like toparticipate in this aspect of student life by standing as a year representative.

Joining one of the university’s many clubs or societiesis a way of finding people who share the same interestsas you. The range of possible activities is vast and you will need to decide how many societies you canrealistically afford to join. Being a fully participatingmember will not be possible for more than a few, andmembership fees soon add up. Some subjects havetheir own societies, which may organise their ownsubject-specific events.

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Table 11.1 (cont’d)

Social stereotype Description How you might relate to them socially

The grasshoppers

The hares

These people tend to have developed aset of values and behaviours that maynot equate with success or achievementof full potential. If you wish to succeed,then you can certainly go along with thegrasshoppers but on your own terms –that is, on condition that you keep upwith your academic work and will not beavailable to party every night of the week.

These types will have little time formaking friends although they may need,of necessity, to cultivate a few friendsfrom whom they can borrow notes andgeneral information.

Share characteristics withelephants, lions and butterflies.Hop from party to party andgenerally live it up. Fatigue oftentakes over and they lose sight ofthe primary activity of studying.

These folk are often doing toomany things: for example, byleaping from one part-time job toanother part-time job in order tokeep themselves financiallysolvent.

n Army Cadet Corps

n Bridge Club

n Chemistry Society

n Computer Games Society

n Debating Society

n European Society

n Gay and Lesbians’ Society

n Mature Students’ Society

n Poker Club

n Public-speaking Club

Examples of universitysocieties

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Pubbing, clubbing and partying are all part of student life. You’ll need to strike a balancebetween night-time fun and the need to be bright and attentive in daytime classes. Also, there is a limit to the amount of money you can afford to spend on these socialactivities. Conversely, staying in your room and being abstemious can be limiting also. It is perfectly possible to go out and not spend a lot of money – hard drinking is not a prerequisite for a good social life, but pub or students’ union life may offer the settingthat helps consolidate friendship groupings.

On the sports scene

People often quote the old saying ‘a healthy mind in a healthy body’ in relation to university study. In more modern language this might translate to ‘workhard and play hard’. Joining your sports union orinstitute is a way of keeping fit and making friendswith people who enjoy the same sporting activities as you. It will also help you to perform well in youracademic studies. On campus, there are numerouspossibilities of sporting activities and facilities avail-able at moderate costs. Many institutions offer familymemberships, so that for mature students, for example,this is a way of involving your family in your univer-sity life.


..

n Badminton

n Five-a-side football

n Golf

n Hockey

n Judo

n Karate

n Keep-fit

n Squash

n Swimming

n Tennis

n Water polo

Typical sports activities

Figure 11.1 Your personal networks. Pre-existing networks are denoted in grey, whilepotential new university groupings are shown in colour. These groupings may overlap, but the common feature is you.

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Maintaining connections

Through time, you will become involved in many extra-curricular activities and form a wide range of new friendships. The possible links between these networks and yourexisting ones are illustrated in Figure 11.1.

It’s important not to take old relationships for granted. Your family and pre-existingfriends will miss you and will want to find out how things are going. Especially if you areliving away from home, try to keep in contact and arrange to meet up with your oldfriends from time to time. It might be worth earmarking an evening each week to phonehome, or sending an email update.

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Practical tips for establishing your university social life

If you are living away from home, try not to go back within the first month. This mayseem harsh but you need to make the break. If you go back home too soon, then you maymiss out on a number of induction and social events and this may make you feel isolatedon your return. It takes time to settle into any new setting and it is better to keep in touchby phone, texting or email so that you maintain your home support networks while build-ing new university ones.

If you are living at home, try to arrange things so that you can attend evening socialactivities. Some people feel that living at home isolates them from the social life of theuniversity. This need not be the case. If you can manage to attend some activities thatare of particular interest to you – and there are many early evening events that meanyou don’t have to worry about when the last bus is – you will meet people who sharesomething in common with you.

Take the initiative by introducing yourself to others and engaging them in con-versation. It helps if you can expand on the conversational gambits of: ‘What’s yourname?’ ‘Where are you from?’ and ‘What are you studying?’ By the nth time these questions have been answered, the responses become mechanical rather than informa-tive or interesting. If people live locally, ask them specific questions about their interestsor local knowledge; this usually gets the conversation flow going.

Try not to go around exclusively with the people you know from school or college.Branch out. Meet new people.

Expect to feel lonely or homesick sometimes. Having made radical changes to yourlifestyle, this is only natural, especially at the beginning of your course. It is possible tofeel alone in a crowd, and university might seem to be just such a place. If you do beginto feel that this is the case for you, then speak to someone about how you are feeling.With a little support from your university counselling service, someone from the chap-laincy team or a personal tutor or adviser of studies, or maybe even a student who is inthe year above you, then you can work out some strategies to combat these feelings sothat you begin to feel part of the community.

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And now . . .

11.1 Think about your own social networks following the example given inFigure 11.1. Give some thought to how your pre-existing networks mightchange with the addition of the ‘new’ ones. Think also how these changesmight impact on you.

11.2 Look on your university website for information about societies. If youhave a real passion for an activity that does not seem to be represented,then ask around and see if you can get together enough people interestedin creating a new society. You can do this through your student associationor students’ union.

11.3 Think about signing up for some voluntary work, either through asociety or through outside networks. This can give you an interestbeyond your studies and is another way to make friends. It also allows youthe chance to ‘put something back in’, whether in the university or localcommunity. Although this means committing yourself to some regularresponsibility, this can be motivating and rewarding. It’s also a potentialaddition to your CV.

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12 DEALING WITH STRESS 71

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Being a student exposes you to a number of events that can lead to stress – living awayfrom home, entering new relationships, organising your finances, deadlines and exams,to name just a few. Research shows that students learn better under a certain amountof stress, while too much, or too little, results in a weaker performance. Learning to copewith stress is a skill that will be useful in later life.

Identifying stress

Stress means different things to different people and involves a wide range of emotionsand feelings, so an all-encompassing definition is hard to produce. Stress usually involvessome form of external pressure, resulting in mental or emotional strain or suspense, typified by worrying, fretting and agonising. Most people feel stressed at some point intheir life; equally, it is true that one person’s worrying threat may be another person’sstimulating challenge.

Recognising when you are under stress, or likely to be so, is important because it allowsyou to adopt avoidance strategies. Common physical symptoms associated with stressinclude:

l breathing difficulty l comfort eating

l diarrhoea l dry mouth

l fatigue l feeling of panic

l food cravings l muscle pains

l headaches l nausea

l shaking hand l skin rashes

l sweating l tightness in the chest.

12 Dealing with stress

How to cope with the pressures of university life

Feelings of ‘stress’ represent a way humans have evolved to cope withdifficult situations, by placing the brain and body under a condition of ‘high alert’. Understanding these feelings will help you channel them so you perform better.

Key terms

CounsellingNightlineSamaritansStress


l Identifying stressl What puts students under stressl Responding positively to stress

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Typical behavioural changes are listed opposite.

In general terms, you may feel stressed when:

l outside influences are putting you under pressureto perform;

l too many things are being demanded of you atthe same time;

l you are afraid of the consequences of failure;

l there is a difference between the way things areand the way you would like them to be;

l you have little control over events but caregreatly about the way they might turn out;

l you have been under low-level pressure for a longperiod;

l you run out of time and have a task to do in tooshort a period;

l you fear that you will not achieve to your ownhigh standards.

Stress experts recognise that ill-feeling often resultswhen a number of factors combine to increase anx-iety. They use lists of potentially stressful events with‘ratings’ that allow them to estimate very roughly the total amount of stress someone isunder. One such scale relating to student life is shown in Table 12.1.

72 12 DEALING WITH STRESS

..

Common changes you mayobserve include:

acts of hostilityattitude changesbiting nailschatteringdisplacement activityfeeling of depressionirritabilitylack of concentrationlack of humourloss of appetiteloss of confidenceloss of libidoloss of memoryloss of motivationnot being able to think

clearlypoor drivingsleeplessnesswithdrawal from company.

Behavioural changesduring stress

Likely stress periods within each term are as follows.

First weeks (especially as a fresher):

being homesickdifficulties fitting innew relationshipsencountering new teaching stylesqueries about subjects being studiedfeeling of academic inferiority.

Mid-term:

academic pressure – first assignments due inlack of ‘real’ friendshipsfinancial problemsdifficulty in balancing social life, studies and need to workself-doubt.

End of term:

time-consuming extra-curricular activitieslack of sleep due to studying, family responsibilities, partying or unsocial employment hoursend-of-term examsmore financial problems, e.g. with seasonal presents, travelblues on homecoming if you were living away.

The stress calendar

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B


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What puts students under stress

Feelings of stress may be especially strong at thestart of your university career. You will not be uniqueif any of the following cause you problems from timeto time; on the other hand, you may cope with manyof these aspects of student life without any difficulty.

Your new environment

Common issues include not liking your accommoda-tion; alternating between having too much and too little to do; having noisy neighbours; and feelinguncomfortable with your study facilities.

Domestic duties

If living away from home for the first time, you mayhave to get used to new accommodation, work outhow to travel between your residence and place ofstudy, and learn to cope with new ‘housekeeping’needs, such as shopping, cooking, cleaning and laundry.You will have to rearrange your finances, potentiallyaccommodating large changes in income pattern, andyou may need to balance the requirement to studywith the need to have paid employment.

Relationships

There are likely to be changes in the people you see and relationships in general. Youmay become slightly distant from your family and old friends. Some existing relation-ships may fail to survive the lack of contact, leading to break-up. Other worrying eventsthat occur for some students include illness and death of elderly relatives, and parentalproblems, including divorce.

Personal issues

Your own feelings and health can lead to stress. It’s common to think that other studentsare cleverer than you are. You may also lack confidence that you will perform to the


..

Research indicates thatstudents with friends atuniversity are less likely todrop out. Whether you live athome or have moved to anew environment, makingfresh acquaintances andconverting these into friendstakes energy. Although manyfriendships start off with achance remark or casualinvitation for a coffee, youshouldn’t expect others tomake all the moves: you needto be proactive. One tip is tojoin some of the universityclubs and societies where youwill meet others with likeinterests – always a goodstarting point.

Importance of makingfriends

For some, the stresses of student life are such that they consider dropping out or evenfeel suicidal. Talking about your situation is the best way to counteract these feelings.You can do this anonymously and/or confidentially through:

n The Samaritans (www.samaritans.org.uk)

n Nightline (www.nightline.niss.ac.uk)

n Your university’s medical or counselling services (www.studentcounselling.org).

These sources provide contact telephone numbers and 24/7 online guidance.

What if I feel really, really bad?

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required standard. You may feel lonely because you miss friends and/or family, or becauseyou are concerned that you may not fit in with others. Another difficulty is coping withillness away from home, and its consequences in terms of your studies.

Academic factors

For some, the academic side of university life can be stressful. You may be uncertainwhether you have made the correct choice of degree programme. It is also common to have difficulty in coming to terms with new teaching methods, such as lectures andtutorials, and the lecturing staff may make invalid assumptions about your knowledge orabilities. They may expect you to learn by yourself without the detailed guidance you areused to; and they may expect a high standard of English and reasoning skills. You mayworry that you could embarrass yourself in front of others in your class or group. For some,the sheer volume of work creates problems; others may struggle if they miss classes.

Responding positively to stress

If you feel that any of the above factors or events are stressful to you, or are likely tobecome so, then it is important to respond positively. The practical tips provided belowinclude many suggestions for dealing with stress in an active and constructive manner.It’s also vital that you don’t bottle up your feelings, so you should try to share them withothers, either informally or with professional counsellors.

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B

..

Practical tips for dealing with stress

There are many positive strategies to deal with stress. You may find one or more of thefollowing tips appropriate to your situation and/or personality. They are in no particularorder.

Try not to worry about things over which you have no control. If necessary, recogniseyour personal limitations. Accept life as you find it and try to find positive ways aroundeach problem.

Share your problem. Simply talking about your problems (‘verbalising’) can help youconfront them, put them in perspective or work out a solution, while bottling things upmay make them worse. You might wish to open out your feelings to a friend; or talk to areceptive member of academic staff (who will have seen most problems before); or seeka session with one of your university’s counsellors.

Find out more about your problem. There may be books available about your par-ticular problem, and there will almost certainly be a website somewhere. You may beable to work through a solution yourself.

Participate. If you feel left out or lonely, seek out ways of getting involved and busy.Join a club or society. Ask someone to go along with you, or ask if you can accompanysomeone who is already participating.

Learn to prioritise. If you are stressed because you have too much to do, make out a listand put it in order based on urgency and importance (see Ch 8).

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Put things in perspective. Look around you and see how others are coping. There isalways someone worse off than you are, and some people battle through against amaz-ing odds. If they can manage, why not you?

Try to forget about your problem. Some problems (not all, certainly) simply disappearwith time as events move on or circumstances change. What was a problem on Fridaymorning may have disappeared by Monday morning. Go out to the movies for someescapism, get some sleep and see how you feel in the morning.

Try not to be a perfectionist. Accept a lesser standard if this means your life is morebalanced.

Confront your problem. OK, so you have a tough essay to write for the end of the weekand it is causing you grief. Well, start studying and writing! Or if someone is being a painin the neck, tell them so, explaining why their actions are causing you problems. Runningaway from a problem – perhaps by going back home frequently – means you avoid theissue rather than facing it.

Do something physical. This is great for removing the symptoms of stress. Go for a jogor swim or join a fitness class. This will provide an outlet for all the jangled nerves andhormones that your body has unconsciously prepared in anticipation of a stressful event.

Don’t be afraid to have a good cry. This is a very natural way to relieve stress in somesituations – and this applies to both sexes.

Learn how to meditate. Try out yoga or other methods of relaxation. Some people findthis is a great tool for de-stressing.

Change your working pattern. If you are getting into problems because of skipping lectures, the remedy is obvious. If you can confess to slacking in other ways, thenincrease your work rate. Decide to work longer hours or work the same hours moreeffectively. Cut out activities that are preventing you from achieving your goals.

Try to manage your time better. See Ch 8 for more information.

Recognise that you can’t please everyone. Accept that you may have to act selfishlyor in a focused way. You may find that others are far more accommodating than youthought they would be, if you simply explain and apologise.

Treat yourself. Instead of feeling that you are always doing things you don’t like, or findhard or take ages, give yourself a break and do something you know you will enjoy. Youwill probably find that when you return to your stressful task you are in a much betterframe of mind to conquer it.


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And now . . .

12.1 If you can, make sure you influence things. You may be able to removethe cause of stress. For example, if noisy neighbours are causing you stressin halls, ask for a move to a different room or floor in your residence. Or ifyou are experiencing financial problems, ask the bank for a loan. This mayrequire determination and assertiveness on your part. Putting the blame onothers is tempting, but you may have the solution in your own hands. Forexample, you may think others are being unfriendly, when in fact you areexpecting them to make all the running, rather than being outgoingyourself.

12.2 Use your university’s counselling service. The mere fact that acounselling service exists should tell you something: others have been herebefore. This service will be staffed by professionals, expert in their job. They will make you feel at ease; assist you to work out your own solution;and put you in contact with others who can help. You can rest assured thatthe service will be fully confidential and independent from the academicside of university life.

12.3 Make an appointment to see a doctor or nurse if your problem involvesyour health. In the past, you may have left this sort of thing to yourparents, but now you will need to take on the responsibility. You may needto register with a local practice (ask around to see which doctors have agood reputation) or you could use your university’s health service.

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PART

C A TOOLKIT FOR LEARNING

13 Your learning personality: how to identify and capitalise on yourpreferred learning style

14 Studying independently: how to organise yourself and develop goodstudy habits

15 Lectures: how to learn effectively from this teaching method

16 Listening skills: how to understand what lecturers say and how theysay it

17 Note-taking in lectures: how to refine what you hear into note form

18 Co-operative learning: how to study successfully with others

19 Participating in a team: how to make a contribution to your group

20 Laboratory sessions and field visits: how to gain hands-onexperience and skills

21 Tutorials: how to prepare and participate

22 Thinking critically: how to develop a logical approach to analysisand problem-solving

23 The library as a resource: how to make the best use of the facilities

24 Analysing and evaluating information: how to filter and selectreliable material and discuss it appropriately

25 Effective academic reading: how to read efficiently and withunderstanding

26 Note-making from texts: how to create effective notes for laterreference

27 ICT literacy: how to make the best use of computers and softwarein your learning

28 E-learning: how to make the most of online teaching

29 Number crunching: how to solve problems in arithmetic and algebra

30 Interpreting and presenting data: how to understand and producegraphs, tables and basic statistics

31 Shaping up in maths: how to use basic geometry and trigonometryto solve spatial problems

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13 YOUR LEARNING PERSONALITY 81

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In real-world employment, a growth industry has developed in identifying employees’learning styles. The aim is to help managers identify the best way to approach the train-ing of their employees and to build more effective work teams. In education, the poten-tial of adjusting study technique to produce a better fit with learning styles andpreferences has long been recognised, and this is increasingly being promoted in university teaching.

Why knowing your learning style isimportant

Put simply, the potential exists to use informationabout your learning style to perform better at univer-sity. Recognising your learning style will help you to:

l identify your academic strengths and weaknesses;

l help you study more effectively;

l approach problem-solving more flexibly, especiallywhen working with others.

Your natural learning style has already evolved signi-ficantly by the age of three and, as you go throughyour education, your style is influenced by the behav-iours you learn. Trying to be true to your own learning

13 Your learning personality

How to identify and capitalise on your preferred learning style

As a student, it is worthwhile thinking about how you learn best and how this relates to your personality. This will help you to think moreperceptively about how to tackle particular learning activities. This chapterexplores approaches to determining your preferred learning style.

Key terms

ExistentialistExtrovertIntrovertLearning styleKinestheticMBTIMultiple

Intelligence


l Why knowing your learning style is importantl An introduction to the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory

This is the way an individualtakes in information,processes it, remembers it and expresses it. Somepeople refer to this as alearning preference. Thereare many different ways ofcategorising learning stylesand it is probably true that no one category fits anyperson perfectly. We all have elements of one or more learning styles in ourmake-up.

Definition: learning style

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style may have been difficult in the mass educationsystem of school, where there is little scope to adjustto the predominant teaching methods. Your ability tofavour your personal learning style may have beenplaced ‘on hold’ until you reach university stage, whereyou have more choice over what you learn and howyou learn it.

However, as a student, for some activities you canprobably adopt an approach that is suited to the sub-ject and methods of teaching and assessment. If youknow what your learning preferences are, you will bebetter placed to adopt an approach that is best suitedto your ‘natural’ learning style. To help you do this, wehave created a simple questionnaire to allow you toidentify your preferences within a particular system, theMyers-Briggs Type Inventory (Tables 13.1, 13.2 and 13.3).

An introduction to the Myers-BriggsType Inventory

The Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) has becomea benchmark for identifying personality and learning-style attributes. It has been much used by managers,trainers and human resource specialists to exploreteam-building.

The MBTI is based on a list of 16 categories of person-ality. Look at Table 13. 1 and do the short quiz that willhelp you to decide what your particular personality/learning type is. The 16 categories are derived from alist of four pairs of items. You are asked to opt for oneor the other. If you have difficulty selecting, thenthink about how you liked to do things as a child belowthe age of 10: that preference probably representsyour underlying personality type. Once you have com-pleted this quiz and found your category combinationas a sequence of letters (for example, ENTJ), look atTable 13.2. This will ‘decode’ your style combinationand its characteristics. After you have identified yourattributes from the MBTI, go to Table 13.3, which iden-tifies some of the implications for your learning.

Three further well-known profiling instruments areintroduced in Table 13.4, which provides a snapshot of the approaches used. The tip box above gives references so that you can follow up any that you findinteresting.

82 13 YOUR LEARNING PERSONALITY

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Biggs, J., 1999. Teaching for Quality Learning atUniversity. Buckingham:Society for Research intoHigher Education and OpenUniversity Press.

Fleming, N.D., 2001. Teachingand Learning Styles: VARKStrategies. Christchurch: NeilD. Fleming.

Gardner, H., 1983. Frames ofMind. New York: Basic Books.

Gardner, H., 1993. MultipleIntelligences: The Theory inPractice. New York: BasicBooks.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A.,1982. Manual of LearningStyles. London: Peter Honey.

Honey, P. and Mumford, A.,1995. Using Your LearningStyles. London: Peter Honey.

Myers-Briggs, I., 1995. GiftsDiffering: UnderstandingPersonality Types. Palo-Alto,California: Davies-BlackPublishers.

Additional reading onlearning styles

It has been suggested peopleare either ‘deep’ or ‘surface’learners – for example, goodat theoretical learning forlong-term retention or,alternatively, better at short-term memorising offacts. This idea has beendispelled by researchers, who demonstrated thatpeople tend to use either of these approachesstrategically, depending onthe context in which they aretrying to learn.

Deep and surface learning

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Introversion (I)l Prefer one-to-one communication and

relationships; less comfortable in crowdsl Think ideas through before speaking/actingl Want to understand the worldl Need time to ‘recharge batteries’ regularly

Intuition (N)l Focus on the futurel Seek patterns and relationships between

facts gatheredl Trust instincts and imagination to evolve

new possibilitiesl Improvise solutions based on theoretical

understandingl Not fazed by unclear facts or information;

guess meaning on information available

Feeling (FF)l Reach decisions on basis of personal feelings

and impact on othersl Sensitive to needs of others and act

accordinglyl Seek consensusl Dislike conflict; intense dislike of tension

Table 13.1 Personality/learning self-assessment quiz. This quiz is adapted from the Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI). There are four preference scales, with two choices ineach – select what best describes you and tick the appropriate numbered box beneath eachdouble selection. Note the letters you have selected in the self-assessment grid and use thiscode in Tables 13.2 and 13.3.

Preference scale 1 – how you focus your attention and energy

Extroversion (E)l Like participation and socialisation;

motivated by interaction with othersl Act first and think secondl Energised by outside world and peoplel Impatient of tedious jobs

1 My preference is E I

Preference scale 2 – how you take in information, become aware of others and events

Sensing (S)l Focus on the here and nowl Observe what is going on all around; with

good recall of past eventsl Instinctively use common sense and seek

practical solutions to problemsl Improvise solutions based on past

experiencel Like clear information; dislike unclear facts

2 My preference is S N

Preference scale 3 – how you evaluate information, reach conclusions, make decisions

Thinking (T)l Analyse problem and logical impact of

decisions objectivelyl Strong principles and need a purposel Frankly honest rather than diplomaticl Accept conflict as a norm in dealing with

people

3 My preference is T F

Preference scale 4 – how you select your lifestyle, relate towards the outside world

Judging (J)l Plan in detail in advancel Focus on task, finish and move onl Regulate life by routines, date-settingl Work best keeping ahead of deadlines

4 My preference is J P

Self-assessment:Insert your four preferences in order andthen look at Table 13.2 to find your definition 1 2 3 4

Perceiving (P)l Take things as they come, plan on the jobl Multitask, good in emergencies, flexible and

receptive to new informationl Need flexibility; dislike being boxed in by

arrangementsl Not fazed by time pressure, work best close

to deadlines

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Table 13.2 Personality/learning types (derived from MBTI). Check your personalitycharacteristics from the letter combination that you derived in Table 13.1.

Extrovert types

MBTI type Characteristics

1 ENFJ Friendly, outgoing, sociable and enthusiastic. Decide on basis of personal values.Empathetic but easily hurt; like to maintain stable relationships. Activelyencourage personal growth in others. Attuned to others’ emotions.Keywords: sensitive, innovative, optimistic, adaptable, resourceful

2 ENFP Talkative, outgoing, curious and playful. Come up with new ideas, energise groups,proceed on the basis of patterns they see. May neglect details in planning. Enjoyexperimentation and variety.Keywords: sensitive, innovative, creative, optimistic, adaptable, resourceful

3 ENTJ Friendly, strong-willed, outspoken and logical. See the big picture. Demand muchof selves and others. Natural leaders who organise people and processes towardscompletion. Develop systems to eliminate inefficiency. Less tolerant of peoplewho do not come up to standard.Keywords: decisive, organised, efficient

4 ENTP Friendly, out-going, humorous, flexible and unpredictable. Make decisions onlogical basis. Ingenious problem-solvers. Tend to ignore routine tasks. Like toinitiate change. See obstacles as challenges to overcome. Sparkle in debate. Good at ‘reading’ people.Keywords: logical, analytical, creative, imaginative

5 ESFJ Active, friendly, talkative and energetic. Good at hosting. Can’t handle criticism orconflict. Encourage teamwork to overcome problems. Work hard at detail andmeeting deadlines. Intensely loyal, need to belong. Decide on basis of personalvalues.Keywords: organised, responsible, conventional, realistic, literal

6 ESFP Warm, gregarious, talkative, impulsive and curious. Live life in the fast lane, goodcompany. Like harmony in relationships. Flexible, respond to life as it happens.Like troubleshooting, dealing with problems in fire-fighting mode. Can galvaniseothers into action.Keywords: impulsive, active, sensitive, caring, unpredictable

7 ESTJ Energetic, outspoken, friendly and productive. Get things done. Deal with facts.Assume leadership roles. Bring order, process and completion. Decisions based on logic. Direct, tendency to be blunt to the point of seeming impersonal anduncaring.Keywords: practical, realistic, down-to-earth, traditional, accountable

8 ESTP Active, adventurous, talkative, curious and impulsive. Live for today. Deal withfacts objectively. Brevity in explanations: give recommendation and move on to next problem. Less interested in theories, more in practical action to solveproblem.Keywords: observant, practical, logical, fun-loving

What do the results of these tests mean? First, it is important to recognise that all com-binations have merit: there are no ‘right–wrong’ or ‘best–worst’ types in MBTI or any ofthe other systems you may try.

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Introvert types

MBTI type Characteristics

9 INFJ Independent, thoughtful, warm, reserved and polite. Preference for patterns and possibilities. Creative, bringing originality and flair to work. Personal sense ofpurpose. Like to have identified goals. Work hard at understanding others, helpingthem to develop their potential.Keywords: productive, original, kind, deliberate

10 INFP Reserved, kind, quiet, sensitive and dedicated. Deeply committed to work.Generally flexible except when values are violated, then take up principled stance.Creative contributions but sometimes take on more than seems possible, yet getit done. Hidden warmth for people.Keywords: creative, original, imaginative, flexible

11 INTJ Autonomous, intellectually curious, aloof, imaginative and innovative. Decisionsafter impersonal analysis. Strategist, enjoying putting theories into operation.Reserved but critical of self and others; set high standards of competence for all.Keywords: analytical, logical, organised, definitive

12 INTP Private, quiet, sceptical and curious. Prefer dealing with patterns and possibilities.Decisions based on logic. Interested in new ideas, search for logical explanations.Meet complex problem-solving as intellectual challenge. Enjoy theorising, analysisand understanding for new learning.Keywords: non-conforming, adaptive, unpredictable

13 ISFJ Cautious, gentle, friendly and thoughtful. Make decisions based on personalvalues. Accept considerable responsibility. Interest in people, working for theirinterests. Like stability and dislike conflict. Uncompromising in beliefs held.Keywords: diligent, conscientious, organised, decisive

14 ISFP Kind, humble, empathetic, thoughtful and faithful. Adaptable, interested in people,loyal follower, supportive team member. Like harmony and working in smallgroups. Prefer own space and time parameters.Keywords: adaptable, responsive, curious, realistic

15 ISTJ Conservative, quiet, realistic and practical. Very reliable group member, renownedfor accuracy. Decisions after looking at options. Work towards achieving goals.Like structured routine in daily life. Like to be of service to others.Keywords: precise, honest, matter-of-fact

16 ISTP Logical, pragmatic, quiet, autonomous and aloof. Like seeking new informationand understanding. Detached appraisal, decisions based on logic. Analyseinformation in order to solve organisational problems. Like to be free toimplement solutions.Keywords: realistic, flexible, resourceful, objective, curious

Second, it is important to recognise that the process of reaching a measured conclusionis important. Each of these systems helps you analyse how you learn successfully, whatyour strengths are and how this information can guide you when thinking about how youlearn best. Thinking at this deeper level will almost certainly help you to improve yourstudy methods.

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How you do this will depend on your diagnosed learning style, your subjects and howthey are taught. Some examples might include:

l a person who finds they are ‘ESFP’ in the MBTI might decide to set up a study-buddypartnership as part of their revision effort (Table 13.3; Ch 60);

l someone who is has a pronounced bodily–kinesthetic intelligence or kinestheticlearning style (Table 13.4), might focus their studies on recalling real-life examplesand case studies, or on remembering the details of specific lab or tutorial exercises;

l an individual who has a preference for sensing (Table 13.1), or has a visual learningstyle (Table 13.4), might translate their lecture notes into diagrams and flowchartsrather than lists (Ch 17, Ch 26). They may also find that their learning style impactson their role(s) as team members (Ch 19).


.. ..

Practical tips for capitalising on your identified learning style

Think about what your learning style means for aspects of your studying. How mightit affect the following important processes?

l how you take notes in lectures (Ch 17) and from texts (Ch 26);

l how you revise (Ch 58);

l how you study with others (Ch 60);

l how you express yourself in assessments (Ch 45–Ch 50);

l how you answer in exams (Ch 61).

Look at the big picture. Be aware that your preferred learning style may not be entirelyapplicable in some situations. Think about how you can modify it to meet such circum-stances, perhaps by exploiting a different aspect of your personality.

Watch your lecturers. If students have different learning styles, it follows that this isalso the case for lecturers. Observe the people who teach you and try to identify theirlearning style. This could be helpful in understanding why they present information in particular ways and may allow you to be more accommodating in dealing with the content of their lectures and tutorials.

Talk about learning styles. Discuss learning styles with friends in order to find like-minded colleagues with whom you could work collaboratively in lectures, researchingand learning – especially if you are an extrovert who finds it difficult to cope with study-ing alone.

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el

read

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, wri

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fin

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MB

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rt (

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be

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y d

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by

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ysic

al a

ctiv

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com

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tud

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; stu

dy

as if

pre

par

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ch s

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se –

Ch

s14

, 2

3,

25

, 6

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nsi

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(S)

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st:

lif

mat

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l can

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lb

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licat

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ract

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niq

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hs

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, 2

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inki

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(T)

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be

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cle

arly

def

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com

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m le

ctu

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ou

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– C

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, 2

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, 2

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9

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dg

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com

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uild

fle

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s to

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dat

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nex

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ch

ang

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s12

, 14

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9

TSS_C13.qxd 6/27/06 15:55 Page 87


.. ..

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13

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hre

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o c

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gori

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tyle

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t is

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llect

s d

ata

and

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rks

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a c

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eo

rist

:an

alys

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atio

n t

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en p

lace

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to s

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and

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mat

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exp

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wit

h n

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and

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tiq

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wly

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pro

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e si

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sfa

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ltip

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3, 1

99

3)

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to v

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at a

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war

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f so

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ds

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ab

stra

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seek

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al p

atte

rns

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isu

al–S

pat

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at

pro

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ual

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ctly

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usi

cal:

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, p

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dily

–Kin

est

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tic:

has

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and

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ob

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is p

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ract

, bu

t p

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an b

uild

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for

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um

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y sh

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s n

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’s M

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s

TSS_C13.qxd 6/27/06 15:55 Page 88

C

..


..

And now . . .

13.1 Compare different types of learning styles analysis. Look at Table 13.4,read the material in each column and see which descriptions seem to applymost closely to you. Having considered the type of learner you identifiedyourself to be under the Honey and Mumford classification, Gardner’sMultiple Intelligences or the VARK system, compare this with the identitythat you defined under the MBTI list (Tables 13.1–13.3). In what ways arethey compatible or incompatible?

13.2 Consider ways in which your approach to learning may need to change.Does the preferred style or styles that you have identified in this chaptermatch with how you learned in the more prescriptive environment ofschool, college or other training experience? Think about how you canmove onward in terms of adjusting to the university learning situation.

13.3 Find out more about learning styles. A list of text references is providedon page 82. If you type any of the following keywords into a search engine(for example, Google), then you will be able to access further informationon learning styles:

l Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

l Honey and Mumford’s Learning Styles

l Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (or MBTI)

l Fleming’s VARK (or VARK)

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..

90 14 STUDYING INDEPENDENTLY

..

At university, learning is very much up to you. This means that you have to organiseyourself by planning ahead, prioritising different study activities, and making sure thatyou meet deadlines. You may also need to decide what to learn and how deeply you needto understand it (Ch 22). An audit of what you will need and what needs to be done willhelp you to organise yourself. Examining learning objectives/outcomes (Ch 59) and tak-ing account of assessment feedback (Ch 56) are good ways of assessing whether youare hitting the right level with your work.

Sources of information for yoursubjects

At university, most key information is given in printedformat and students are expected to read this intens-ively in order to map out their own schedule of per-sonal study. The most common places for finding thisinformation include:

l Course handbook:

– gives information about lecture topic, numbersof lectures, names of lecturers;

– gives dates and venues of practicals, lab datesand tutorials;

– gives reading lists for written work, for tutorialor practical work;

14 Studying independently

How to organise yourself and develop good study habits

One of the distinctive traditions of university is that students are expected to set their own learning agenda within the confines of theircourse of study. This chapter covers practical ways for organising yourselffor study, and ways of organising the material you need to support yourlearning, assignments and exam revision.

Key terms

AnnotateChronologicalDisplacement

activityPractical


l Sources of information for your subjectsl Organising your study space and your notesl Developing your skillsl Getting down to the taskl How to study actively

Especially at the beginning of a new academic year,students are oftenbombarded with information,leaflets and gimmicky items.Take some time to siftthrough this to separate the gimmicks from thesubstantive information that may be of use to you in helping you to study. Keepit all in a spare file and thenwhen you do need thatinformation it will be therefor you.

Too much information

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14 STUDYING INDEPENDENTLY 91

– gives some guidance on subject-specific or preferred referencing styles;

– may give some guidance on essay-writing as required in that subject area;

– provides learning objectives/outcomes;

– refers to marking criteria (Ch 59).

l Faculty/school timetable: gives venues and times of classes and exam dates.

l Noticeboards: give important information, including late changes to printedinformation. You should find out where the relevant departmental, school andfaculty notice boards are and consult them regularly.

l Emails: provide updates, reminders and other information. Group emails are rapidly taking over as the preferred means of communication with students. Thus it is essential to keep checking your university email account regularly.

l Virtual learning environment: gives access to much of the above information,online. Course information may be posted on the electronic notice board orannouncement page. Frequent attention to such announcements is vital for keeping up to date with what is happening on your courses.

Organising your study space and your notes

Everyone needs a place to study, and, ideally, thisshould be a location that is exclusively ‘yours’. How-ever, if this is not possible, then investigate facilitiessuch as study rooms in your department or study zonesin your library. Alternatively, some people find thatgoing to a public library or another specialist library onthe campus provides the anonymity that allows themto study uninterrupted. Working in a comfortable temperature with adequate light and ventilation isimportant. Your desk and chair should be complement-ary in height so that you are not sitting in a crouchedposition; conversely, if you are ‘too comfortable’ it iseasy to drop off to sleep – easy chairs or on top ofyour bed are not recommended.

Keeping your work organised is something that somepeople do intuitively, while others need to work hardat it. Each subject you study on your course will generate a lot of paper. Whether youreceive this in hard copy or it is offered to you via websites or your university’s virtuallearning environment, you will have to keep it where you can find it easily and relate the content to other elements of the course. You will generate other material yourself in the form of notes taken in lectures or notes you make yourself as a result of yourresearch and further reading. It is important to record the sources of this information.Table 14.1 gives practical ideas for organising the vast amount of information that youwill gather.

..

C

..

This can vary according toyour mood, the task or what’savailable at the time you are free. Some people arecreatures of habit and like tolay claim to a particular nichein the library; others preferhome study. Whatever suitsyou, your learning style andtemperament is the rightapproach. Don’t worry if itdiffers from approachesadopted by others on yourcourse.

Finding your ‘own’ space

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..


..

Table 14.1 Tips for organising key information arising from your studies

Day-to-day ‘housekeeping’

l Use time when you are at an ‘energy low’ to undertake routine clerical activities by writing upand filing your notes; use your ‘high energy’ time for intensive study.

l Be systematic – date everything as you receive or create it.

l Store your material in an organised way – invest in a series of large ring-binder folders, one per subject, with coloured dividers to section different elements of the course. This will help you to retrieve things quickly. You could arrange the subjects alphabetically orchronologically, for example. This is a matter of personal preference. The important thing for retrieval purposes is to be consistent.

l As soon as you start to use material from any kind of source, always note down all thereference information required to relocate the source should you need it at a later point. This information will also be needed should you wish to cite some of the information from thissource in your text. This means that you should record all the information required for thereference system you may customarily use, for example, the Harvard Method of referencing(Ch 35).

Formulae

l Create a formula sheet (Ch 47) for each of your subjects by listing all the formulae, alongwith a list of what the symbols mean. Keep this in your subject file in a position that can beeasily located.

l Make sure that you have copied formulae down correctly. In particular, make sure that you have used capital (upper case) or small letters (lower case) and also subscript andsuperscript correctly. For example, Vmax = peak of dc voltage, as opposed to vmax = peak of an ac voltage.

l By keeping your formulae sheets in a polythene pocket at the front of your file, you willprevent them from becoming dog-eared. If you have access to a laminator, then laminatingyour formulae sheet allows you to keep a hard-wearing reference readily accessible.

Electronically retrieved or created material

l Create separate folders for each topic within the course you are studying. This will make iteasier for you to locate work.

l Save your material using a file name that will make sense to you even when you try to locateit several months later. It may be useful in some cases to add a date reference to the filename, for example: Dental caries 170406.doc

l Keep a back-up of all work done on a personal computer. This includes saving any electronic work that you have to submit so that you can produce additional copies if required to do so.

l Insert page numbers and the date on which you last worked on the document as a footnote(some packages will alter the date automatically every time you work on a document). Thiswill avoid confusing different versions.

l Explore the software package you are using to find out how to print the file name andcomplete pathway in the footer section of your document.

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Developing your skills

Initially, early on in your undergraduate career, it will help you tremendously if youreview the learning and studying skills you need to develop. These include:

l learning how to use IT facilities (Ch 27);

l being competent with the basics of a word-processing package – Microsoft Word ispossibly the most commonly used package in most university facilities (Ch 27);

l learning how to use subject-specific software (Ch 27);

l keyboard skills (Ch 27);

l knowing the location in your library of books, reference materials and other subject-specific resources (Ch 23);

l being able to use your library efficiently by accessing its electronic catalogue andother electronic resources (Ch 23);

l being able to carry out internet searches for reliable source material at the correctlevel (Ch 23, Ch 27);

l being able to organise, structure and write a competent piece of text appropriate tohigher-level learning in your subject area (Ch 32–Ch 44).

Being able to do these things to some degree of competence will be of enormous valueto you throughout your study years. If you feel that you need further assistance in anyskill mentioned, then go to the relevant service in your university and make enquiriesabout courses or inductions that will help you to develop your skills. You will find infor-mation about how to find support services on the university home page. Look for:

l IT support service: for help with word-processing, software packages or keyboardskills.

l Learning support centre: for help from study advisers.

l Library: for a familiarisation or induction programme. For specific queries there willbe an information desk position where you can get help with your search or query.

Getting down to the task

Think about what you need to do, work out how much time you can allocate to finish-ing the task, decide how you are going to tackle the task and then get on with it. You may find that the first ten minutes is hard going, but then the ideas begin to flow.

Types of studying to be done

Studying is a multifaceted activity and one that differs according to discipline and subject. The first thing you need to consider is what you need to do to learn within yourspecialism. This could include:

l reviewing new material from lectures by annotating or rewriting notes;

l finding and reading related hard-copy material;

l finding material on a virtual learning environment or other web-based source;

l preparing or writing up reports or essays;

l preparing for exams.

..

C

..

TSS_C14.qxd 6/27/06 15:56 Page 93

Asking questions

Although learning is up to you at university, if you do not understand something even after you haveattended the relevant lectures, delved into the recom-mended texts and spoken to others on the course,then go to your department and ask to see someonewho can help you. Departmental secretaries are usu-ally good people to speak to first in order to find outabout availability of academic staff. Otherwise, emailyour lecturer to make an appointment or to pose thequestion directly. Staff like being asked questions andwithin a few minutes may iron out the difficulty foryou. This may also highlight to the staff member thata topic may need to be revisited with the whole class.

How to study actively

It’s all too easy to go through the mechanics of studying by copying out notes or read-ing a chapter from beginning to end. While this could be part of process, it’s importantto think about what you’re doing and why. Table 14.2 lists some typical activities alongwith the questions you should be asking yourself as you do them. Being aware of thesedifferent aspects of studying will prevent you from working ‘on autopilot’ and will helpyou to internalise your reading and writing.

..

Once you work out for yourself the activities that are necessary for learning in your field,then you will be able to assign the time and priority you give to each activity.

Recognise the importance of thinking about the subject material as a vital part of studying (Ch 22). Table 22.1 (on page 138) summarises the different types and ‘levels’ ofthinking that tutors expect you to be doing.


..

Generally, most people tend not to exploit theirvisual memory. If you usehighlighters for headings and sticky place tabs on keysheets in your file, then thiswill help you find things morereadily and also help youremember content because ofthe layout of the page or thepositioning of notes withinyour file.

Using your ‘visual’ brain

This occurs when you find other ways of using your time to avoid getting down to work.Examples include:

n persuading yourself that you can study in the sun (or the pub!);

n washing your car/windows/dog;

n going window-shopping;

n tidying your DVD collection or room.

Planning and overplanning are other kinds of displacement activity. Although planning isessential, there is the risk of overplanning: try to achieve the right balance betweenplanning and productivity.

If the total number of displacement tasks or the time that you allocate to them ispreventing you from making real progress with your studies, then maybe you need tomake hard decisions about time management (Ch 8).

Displacement activity

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Table 14.2 Typical study activities, with questions to ask yourself as you do them

Rewriting notes from lectures (see also Ch 17)

l What are the key ideas?

l Do I need to reorganise these to create a logical sequence that matches my understanding?

l Is this taking up too much of my time? If so, try to take your original notes more neatly. If youthink that rewriting notes helps you to learn, could you synthesise the notes into bulletedlists/flow charts/diagrams rather than lengthy sentences?

Making notes from texts (see also Ch 26)

l How is the information organised?

l How can I identify the key ideas quickly to provide an overview? How can I restructureinformation into concise notes?

l How much detail do I need for:– learning about the topic?– eliciting information for an assignment?– revising for exams?

l What is the best method for framing my notes?

Thinking/reflecting (see also Ch 22)

l What do I think about this topic? It’s important that you don’t just take what someone else tells you as the only approach on the topic. Think critically by questioning your own ideas. Be prepared to redefine your view in the light of new approaches, information or evidence.

l What should I be looking for – information or concepts? If information, how reliable is yoursource and can you cross-check from another resource? If concepts, what evidence is therefor each viewpoint? How good is the evidence? What other evidence might be available?Where will you find this?

l Are any patterns emerging? Look for relationships or themes, such as:– cause and effect (reason and result);– comparisons and similarities, contrasts and differences; – threads of arguments, supporting evidence and counter-arguments;– problem and solution information.

Working through problems and examples (see also Ch 29 and Ch 47)

l Is the answer sensible and are the units correct?

l Have I done what has been asked?

l Is there anything else asked for?

l Have I used the correct formula?

l Have I used all the information given in an appropriate way?

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Practical tips for studying independently

Know your best time to study. You are at your most effective as a student at particu-lar times (Ch 8); exploit this by doing intensive learning activities at these times.

Check out the hours that facilities are open. Find out the library, study centre or com-puting facility opening times. Plan your study periods around those if you prefer studyingin these settings.

Plan ahead. Keep an eye on things you have to do over the following week/month andplan your time to fulfil all the assignments, lab and tutorial work on time (Ch 8).

Develop a personal filing system. Learn to be methodical in the way that you storenotes, handouts and any other printed material within your filing system (Ch 17).

Think about the underlying principles involved in your learning. Keep your focus onthe bigger picture and avoid becoming bogged down in the minutiae.

Take breaks. When working on your own it is essential to take breaks. It is also importantto maintain your social networks, and taking regular short breaks with colleagues helpsyou to maintain perspective on your work.

Work with a buddy. Although studying is something that you need to do primarily onyour own, coming together with another person on your course to compare notes, con-firm understanding of more difficult points and discuss a set assignment can help thelearning of all involved. This contributes to the consolidation of your learning and helpsidentify gaps in your knowledge (Ch 18, Ch 60).

Develop your professional vocabulary. For subject-specific and general language, it will help you to remember words if you write them down along with a simple definition(Ch 42). A small, cheap telephone address book marked off with alphabetical sectionsmakes an instant glossary reference notebook. You can record new words/specialistterms easily in alphabetical order, which makes retrieval easier than if you had recordedthese indiscriminately in a long list.

Reinforce your learning. You will need to be able to use the language of your subjectappropriately and make sure terms are spelled correctly; you need to master key for-mulae so that they become second nature to you. This is a reflection on your commandof your subject. Make a habit of checking through your glossary or formulae lists fre-quently so that you can make a conscious effort to learn how to spell the more difficultwords or lay out formulae accurately.

Tackle tutorial questions. Do all the examples in a set of tutorial questions, even whenyou don’t have to submit them. Check your answers from the answer key, if provided. Ifyou have difficulty in working out a particular solution, then ask one of your lecturers ortutors to give you some guidance – staff will often go to considerable lengths to help withdifficulties. Once you are satisfied that you have the correct answers, file the tutorialsheets alongside the related topic notes.

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And now . . .

14.1 Go through your subject handbook. Note down all the topic areas that will be covered on your course. Use these topics as headings for thedividers for your files so that you have an allocated space for the notesthat will apply to these areas when your receive them or compile them for yourself.

14.2 Visit your subject departments. Find out where the noticeboard for youryear is; visit the department electronically by looking at its home pages to find out if there is any special area that provides routinely updatedinformation for students; visit your virtual learning environment andexplore any sites that have been set up to support your learning in yoursubjects. Familiarising yourself with sources of information at an earlystage in the course will save you a lot of time later when you may be undergreater pressure.

14.3 Review your skills and learning patterns. If you are ‘rusty’ on word-processing or not quite sure of how to search a resource database such as a library catalogue, then make it a priority to upgrade your skills.You can do this by consulting the appropriate facility or service in youruniversity to access an induction or training course. Consult Table 14.2 andconsider whether your approach to study activities is helping you to studyas effectively as you might.

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98 15 LECTURES

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The word ‘lecture’ comes from the Latin word lectura – a reading; it is worth remember-ing that, even in modern times, a lecture begins its life as a piece of text and that somelecturers do, indeed, read their lectures from that text. However, many lecturers adopt aless formal delivery and use their notes simply as a reference rather than as a text theyread aloud.

What is a lecture?

The normal pattern is that a lecture:

l usually lasts for 50–60 minutes;

l is given by a subject specialist;

l provides different perspectives on learningdepending on the topic and discipline – this could be factual information, ideas, analysis,argument, contrasting viewpoints, methods or examples;

l guides you in your study of a topic – this meansthat you may have to do a lot of supplementaryreading on your own, or that you need to workthrough examples, or conduct experiments, to addto your understanding and knowledge;

l may provide introductory or complementary material that is later followed up intutorials, laboratory practicals, fieldwork or site visits;

15 Lectures

How to learn effectively from this teaching method

The lecture is the fundamental component of most campus-baseduniversity teaching. For many students, lectures represent a new way oflearning. You’ll need to decide how to deal with different lecture styles andhow to adapt to a wide range of different approaches to the use of lecturetime in modern higher education.

Key terms

DisciplineMonologuePracticalReferencesVirtual learning

environment


l What is a lecture?l Key facts about lecturesl What you are meant to do in lecturesl Different lecture formatsl Visual aids used in lectures

The timetable of lectures is based on a frameworkorganised at faculty level. Tutorials, practicals,laboratory and fieldwork areall normally timetabled bydepartments. Generally,lecturers have no say aboutwhen the lectures or otherlearning activities take placeas these are usually decidedby a central timetabling uniton the basis of availability ofthe facilities required.

Timing of lectures

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15 LECTURES 99

l may relate to some form of assessment, either in class or in an e-learning formatafter the lecture.

Key facts about lectures

People have differing expectations of where lectures fit into the learning within a par-ticular subject area. Here are some key facts that will help you to understand and adaptto this form of course delivery.

l What you hear in the lecture will not necessarilybe found in textbooks.

l A lecture is not meant to be a comprehensivetreatment of any topic. The aim is generally togive an overview of the key issues or topics and aframework to assist you with further study.

l Lecturers may present views that do notnecessarily represent their own position; theymay simply be exploring different approaches andattitudes within the field.

l Although some lecture notes are made availablethrough virtual learning environments (VLEs),generally these notes will not reflect all that was said in the corresponding lecture.

l Approaches differ between one lecturer andanother, even in the same subject area.

l Style differs from one subject to another andfrom one discipline to another (Ch 16).

l Some lectures are compulsory, for example, invocational subjects, such as law, medicine ornursing. Even if they are not, it is important to attend as listening to your lecturerexplain the topic (Ch 16) lays down the foundation for understanding and recall.

In some disciplines, the programme of lectures is divided into topic areas, with differentlecturers taking responsibility for the delivery of their specialist topic.

What you are meant to do in lectures

Although students do not generally participate in thedelivery of the lecture in terms of interaction with thelecturer, sometimes they are asked to perform somekind of task, perhaps in collaboration with someonesitting beside them. Otherwise, students are expectedto take responsibility for exploiting the informationcovered in the lecture, and, in particular, to take apersonal set of notes (Ch 17). Some important ways inwhich students can contribute before, during and after the lecture are given in Table 15.1.

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In some subjects you mayfind that you have covered atopic at school or college oreven in another subject. It’seasy to think that you canskip those lectures or stoptaking notes. The reality isthat the topic will probably betaught in a different way andfor a different purpose. Thechanges are often subtle, butimportant, so you mustn’tswitch off. The lecturer mayalso take you further thanyour previous studies, so it’swise to revisit the ‘old’ stuffand be ready to absorb thedifferent approach andemphasis.

Been there, seen that,done that

You will need appropriatematerials for the subject:paper, pens, highlighters,calculator, dictionary, asappropriate.

Materials for lecture note-taking

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100 15 LECTURES

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Table

15

.1Id

eas

for

get

tin

g t

he

most

fro

m l

ectu

res

Be

fore

th

e l

ect

ure

Th

is in

form

atio

n is

usu

ally

ava

ilab

le in

th

e co

urs

e h

and

bo

ok

or

on

th

e V

LE

.l

Fin

d o

ut

wh

en a

nd

wh

ere

you

r le

ctu

res

are

– b

e th

ere.

Lec

ture

s p

rovi

de

the

fram

ewo

rk o

f th

e kn

ow

led

ge

bas

e o

f yo

ur

cou

rse.

If

you

mis

s le

ctu

res,

th

en y

ou

r u

nd

erst

and

ing

rap

idly

b

eco

mes

inco

mp

lete

.l

Fin

d o

ut

ho

w c

han

ges

in t

he

tim

etab

le a

re

no

tifi

ed t

o s

tud

ents

, e.g

. via

no

tice

bo

ard

s o

r as

vi

rtu

al le

arn

ing

en

viro

nm

ent

ann

ou

nce

men

ts.

lId

enti

fy t

he

lect

ure

to

pic

an

d p

rep

are

by

do

ing

so

me

bas

ic r

ead

ing

bef

ore

han

d.

lR

evie

w t

he

lear

nin

g o

bje

ctiv

e o

r o

utc

om

es f

or

the

lect

ure

or

top

ic. T

his

will

hel

p y

ou

to

fo

cus

you

r at

ten

tio

n o

n k

ey a

spec

ts.

lN

ote

ho

w m

any

lect

ure

s ar

e al

loca

ted

to

eac

h

top

ic. T

his

can

oft

en b

e im

po

rtan

t w

hen

it

com

es t

o r

evis

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.l

Be

on

tim

e. L

ate

arri

vals

are

dis

rup

tive

an

d

inte

rru

pt

the

lect

ure

r’s

flo

w o

f th

ou

gh

t an

d t

his

w

ill a

ffec

t th

e d

eliv

ery.

Yo

u s

ho

uld

aim

to

be

sitt

ing

in y

ou

r se

at 5

min

ute

s b

efo

re t

he

star

t o

f th

e le

ctu

re.

lS

wit

ch o

ff y

ou

r m

ob

ile p

ho

ne.

lR

eco

rdin

g le

ctu

res

is n

ot

the

no

rm a

nd

yo

u m

ust

se

ek t

he

per

mis

sio

n o

f ea

ch le

ctu

rer

bef

ore

the

lect

ure

if y

ou

wis

h t

o d

o t

his

. So

me

lect

ure

rs

may

ref

use

to

giv

e p

erm

issi

on

fo

r re

aso

ns

of

cop

yrig

ht.

Vis

ual

ly o

r au

rally

imp

aire

d s

tud

ents

ca

n m

ake

spec

ial a

rran

gem

ents

dir

ectl

y w

ith

th

e le

ctu

rer

and

th

e d

isab

ility

su

pp

ort

ser

vice

o

n y

ou

r ca

mp

us.

In t

he

le

ctu

re

lA

lway

s w

rite

th

e n

ame

of

the

lect

ure

r, t

he

sub

ject

and

th

e d

ate

on

yo

ur

lect

ure

no

tes.

Th

is h

elp

s yo

uto

kee

p y

ou

r fi

les

org

anis

ed s

equ

enti

ally

an

d w

illai

d y

ou

r re

visi

on

.l

En

sure

th

at y

ou

kee

p a

wri

tten

rec

ord

of

each

lect

ure

:–

If t

he

lect

ure

r g

ives

han

do

uts

, th

en h

igh

ligh

t,u

nd

erlin

e o

r m

ake

add

itio

nal

no

tes

on

th

eh

and

ou

t as

th

e le

ctu

re p

rog

ress

es. T

his

is c

alle

d‘a

nn

ota

tin

g’.

–If

yo

u a

re n

ot

giv

en h

and

ou

ts, t

hen

ch

oo

se a

no

te-t

akin

g s

tyle

th

at is

ap

pro

pri

ate

to t

he

con

ten

t an

d d

isci

plin

e o

f th

e le

ctu

re. T

ake

the

lect

ure

r’s

styl

e in

to a

cco

un

t as

wel

l (C

h17

).l

Evo

lve

you

r ‘o

wn

’ ab

bre

viat

ion

s fo

r n

ote

-tak

ing

.T

his

co

uld

incl

ud

e so

me

con

trac

tio

n o

f w

ord

s, t

ext-

mes

sag

e la

ng

uag

e o

r st

and

ard

ab

bre

viat

ion

s d

raw

nfr

om

mat

hem

atic

al o

r p

un

ctu

atio

n s

ymb

ols

(C

h17

).l

Lo

ok

at t

he

lect

ure

tem

pla

te in

Ch

16(T

able

16

.2)

and

list

en f

or

the

stat

emen

t at

th

e b

egin

nin

g o

f th

e le

ctu

re t

hat

ou

tlin

es t

he

aim

s an

d t

he

way

th

at t

he

lect

ure

r in

ten

ds

to a

chie

ve t

hes

e an

d

the

‘sig

np

ost

’ wo

rds

that

are

use

d t

o p

rovi

de

atr

ansi

tio

n f

rom

on

e p

has

e to

th

e n

ext

wit

hin

th

ele

ctu

re.

lN

ote

an

y p

arti

cula

r p

oin

ts o

f em

ph

asis

– t

hes

eto

pic

s m

ay c

rop

up

late

r in

ass

essm

ent.

lL

earn

to

ad

apt

you

r n

ote

-tak

ing

sty

le t

o t

he

dif

fere

nt

styl

es o

f d

eliv

ery

you

en

cou

nte

r (C

h17

).l

No

te a

ny

refe

ren

ces

(usu

ally

au

tho

r su

rnam

e an

dd

ate)

th

at c

rop

up

in t

he

lect

ure

.

Aft

er

the

le

ctu

re

lC

lari

fy a

ny

po

ints

yo

u d

idn

’t u

nd

erst

and

. Ask

afe

llow

stu

den

t, c

on

sult

a t

ext

or

web

site

an

d, i

fst

ill in

do

ub

t, s

pea

k to

th

e le

ctu

rer.

lS

oo

n a

fter

th

e le

ctu

re, g

o o

ver

you

r n

ote

s. S

om

ep

eop

le c

om

ple

tely

rew

rite

th

eir

lect

ure

no

tes:

th

eyfe

el r

ewri

tin

g n

ote

s is

a v

alu

able

mea

ns

of

con

solid

atin

g t

he

info

rmat

ion

an

d id

eas.

Ho

wev

er,

oth

ers

reg

ard

th

is a

s a

po

intl

ess

and

tim

e-co

nsu

min

g e

xerc

ise.

Th

eir

view

is t

hat

th

e ti

me

wo

uld

be

bet

ter

spen

t d

oin

g s

up

ple

men

tary

read

ing

on

th

e le

ctu

re c

on

ten

t.l

Follo

w u

p r

efer

ence

s an

d t

hin

k ab

ou

t th

e id

eas

that

wer

e co

vere

d in

th

e le

ctu

re. A

s yo

ur

cou

rse

pro

gre

sses

yo

u s

ho

uld

th

en b

egin

to

th

ink

abo

ut

con

nec

tio

ns

bet

wee

n t

op

ics

and

th

e th

eory

th

atre

late

s to

th

em.

lT

her

e m

ay b

e ad

dit

ion

al m

ater

ial a

nd

co

urs

ewo

rkto

co

mp

lete

aft

er t

he

lect

ure

– m

ake

sure

yo

u d

oth

is a

s it

will

alm

ost

cer

tain

ly b

e re

late

d t

o la

ter

asse

ssm

ent.

lT

ry m

atch

ing

th

e le

ctu

re c

on

ten

t w

ith

th

e le

arn

ing

ob

ject

ives

or

ou

tco

mes

. Th

is h

elp

s yo

u u

nd

erst

and

the

fulle

r co

nte

xt o

f yo

ur

cou

rse;

wh

at y

ou

are

bei

ng

tau

gh

t an

d w

hy;

an

d, s

pec

ific

ally

, wh

ere

any

par

ticu

lar

lect

ure

fit

s in

th

e g

reat

er s

chem

e o

fth

ing

s.l

Get

into

th

e h

abit

of

no

tin

g d

ow

n y

ou

r o

wn

idea

san

d q

ues

tio

ns

in y

ou

r n

ote

s in

a w

ay t

hat

allo

ws

you

to

rem

emb

er t

hat

th

ese

wer

e n

ot

par

t o

f th

ele

ctu

re b

ut

you

r re

acti

on

to

wh

at y

ou

hea

rd. T

hin

kab

ou

t su

ch is

sues

fu

rth

er, a

s th

ese

po

ints

sh

ow

you

r ab

ility

to

th

ink

crit

ical

ly.

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15 LECTURES 101

Different lecture formats

Be prepared to experience different lecture formats –not all will involve listening and note-taking. Whilesome lecturers may consistently follow a particularformat, others may alter their delivery depending onthe topic, the size of the class, or the stage in themodule that has been reached. Some typical formatsare:

l Traditional lecture:

– 50-minute non-stop monologue;

– aims of the lectures are listed;

– the method of approach is explained;

– the content is covered in detail;

– the key points are summarised.

l ‘Split’ lecture:

– 25-minute lecture; then

– 5-minute break, allowing students to catch upwith colleagues on any points that have beenmissed in the first phase of the lecture; then

– 25-minute lecture, giving further coverage bythe lecturer.

l ‘Activity’ lecture:

– 20 minutes (approximately) of content; then

– 10 minutes of in-class activity (possibly workingwith partner(s)); then

– 15 minutes’ general discussion relating to thework with partners; then

– 10 minutes’ summary by the lecturer of key issues arising from the lecture, small group work and plenary: this could consist of clarification of points, identification ofargument and counter-argument and balance of argument.

Visual aids used in lectures

Some lecturers will appear to talk spontaneously with-out prepared notes, but lectures are not off-the-top-of-the-head streams of words. They are the productof planning and research, as well as careful thoughtabout the best way to present the topic.

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Most lectures begin with an outline of what will becovered; if you miss this, thenyou could fail to understandthe logic of the lecturestructure and content. Don’tbe late – you may miss thewhole point of the lecture for the sake of a few minutes.Often key ‘housekeeping’announcements occur at the start and you may missthese too. Lecturers usuallysummarise key issues, facts,theories or processes at the end of the lecture andsometimes introduce theirnext lecture in general termsto demonstrate the linkagebetween one phase of theirteaching and the next. Apartfrom being discourteous,leaving early means thatstudents miss this keyguidance and interpretationof the lecture series.

Introductions andsummaries

There may be specialarrangements in place to help you with lectures. Forexample, dyslexic studentsare entitled to ask for largerprint handouts or may bepermitted to record lectures.Ask for information from alecturer or from the disabilitysupport service on yourcampus, or consult thedisability support area onyour university’s website.

If you are dyslexic or haveany disability

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Most lecturers will use some form of visual aids to assist them in their explanations.These may include:

Overhead transparencies

Some lecturers may prefer to write up their overheads as they proceed through the lec-ture. This means that you have to pay particular attention to what is written on the slideand to decode often erratic handwriting. However, if overheads are prepared ahead oftime by the lecturer, they can be particularly useful and some lecturers may be willing toprovide copies in advance or after the lecture.

Slides

In some disciplines there is a strong reliance on visual images that cannot be reproducedreadily except on photographic slides, for example where the lecturer might wish toshow you examples of micro-organisms or fine art. In such instances, it is helpful to notedetails of each slide and a record of the comments that are made by the lecture, both asan aid to recall and in case you have a question afterwards. Many students ‘switch off’when a series of slides is shown, but the examples and conclusions may be extremelyimportant to the topic.

PowerPoint presentations

Many lecturers now structure their presentation around projected slides of this kind.They have the advantage of providing clear images that can be shown statically or in ananimated fashion. However, the downside of PowerPoint is that it can be difficult to notedown all the detail given on the slide before the speaker moves on. Some lecturers willpost the presentation on the appropriate area of your VLE. It’s worth printing presenta-tions out in a format suitable for taking additional notes (Ch 28). Don’t assume thatbecause you have access to the slides, this will provide all that will be covered in the lecture – you still need to attend to note additional points, emphasis and examples andto take part in any interactive component of the presentation.

102 15 LECTURES

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Practical tips for learning effectively from lectures

Approach the lecture experience with a positive, open-minded attitude. For example,you can bring:

l motivation for learning (Ch 13);

l an interest in the subject (Ch 2, Ch 4);

l prior knowledge of the subject (Ch 26);

l understanding of the learning objectives, gained from the course handbook (Ch 59);

l critical thinking skills (Ch 22).

Prepare for the lecture. Particularly in topics you find hard, preparing by printing outand reading any published notes, reading the textbook or trying example questions willgreatly improve what you take home from lectures.

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Attend all lectures. You may be tempted to miss them for a number of reasons, but in most cases the lectures are the foundation of your course. If you miss even one lecture, then it is very easy to continue this practice so that, in the end, you don’t attendany. This is not advisable as it is very hard to catch up with the material later on. Don’tbe lulled into a sense of false security because the material (you think) will be accessiblefrom the VLE. The printed notes are simply outlines – there is no substitute for hearingwhat was actually said.

Listen intelligently. This means recognising the lecturing style of the lecturer, the structure of the lecture and the thought process that is being demonstrated (Ch 16). Thiswill enable you to identify key points and tailor your note-taking strategy to the style,method of delivery and lecture format. Adopting positive body language sends the signal that you are engaged with the lecture topic.

Take account of the importance of visual information. If you are shown something ona photographic slide, a PowerPoint slide, an overhead transparency or on the chalk-/whiteboard, then you should write the important details down. Your lecturer would notpresent it to you visually if this information were not important.

Note down references. Take particular note of any references that are given by the lec-turer. Often only the author will be mentioned and maybe the date of publication. Youwill usually find full details in the course handbook. Make a point of consulting the refer-ences as soon after the lecture as possible. Add any notes you gain from these sourcesto your lecture notes.

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15.1 Find out about course texts. Locate the sections in your course handbookthat relate to the recommended texts or course books. If you familiariseyourselves with these, then when they are mentioned in the lectures, youwill know what they are and possibly where to find them in the library.

15.2 Identify what is meant by critical thinking. Read Ch 22 and Ch 24 to raise your understanding of thinking processes and ways of evaluatinginformation. A feature of university learning is that you don’t blindly acceptwhat you are told simply because the person who told you is an academicor because you read it in a book or on the Internet. You are being trainedto question and enquire, to look at the strengths and weaknesses ofevidence you find for yourself or you have presented to you. When youhave weighed up this evidence, then you can form your own opinion basedon a sound understanding of the issues.

15.3 Practise ‘intelligent listening’. You can do this by watching a discussion or current affairs programme on television or listening to something similaron radio. Listen for the introduction to the topic to be presented, listen forthe key points and note how speakers summarise these at the end of theirinterview or speech. This is a strategy that is used in many fields wherepeople need to get ideas across to others in a short time.

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In the course of your academic career you’ll encounter many lecturers, some good, someless so, some you will like and some you will not. But it is the lecture content that isimportant, and whatever you think about the lecturer or the topic, you will need toengage with the material that is being delivered.

Lecturing styles

You will find some common lecturing approachesgiven in Table 16.1. This table also provides strategiesfor dealing with these delivery styles. These examplesare only a selection of lecture types – each lecturerhas a unique approach. Your challenge is to realisethat you need to adapt your listening strategies and note-taking style to meet the idiosyncrasies of eachlecturer. Listening carefully and developing an abilityto take meaningful notes comes with practice. Thisskill will help you to evaluate and extract what is relevant from each lecture.

The structure and language oflectures

Although lecture styles differ among disciplines andfrom one lecturer to another, it is possible to identifysome common features that apply to most. Table 16.2links these typical structural elements with the char-acteristic language that is associated with them.

16 Listening skills

How to understand what lecturers say and how they say it

Lectures are about passing on information, ideas and arguments. This chapter introduces you to some different lecturing styles; suggestsstrategies for adapting to each of these examples; and provides someexamples of the language frequently used to frame and structure lectures.

Key terms

Signpost word


l Lecturing stylesl The structure and language of lectures

One person’s ideal lecture isanother person’s nightmare.Some people like a measured,systematic delivery, whileothers dislike this intenselyand find a more dynamicdelivery more stimulating.You need to adapt to thedifferent styles youencounter.

Differing preferences

If you have problems withhearing or sight, specialfacilities or equipment will be available to help you in lectures: contact youruniversity’s disability serviceto establish what provisioncan be made to meet yourneeds.

Disability issues

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Potential strategies

Listen for the ‘signpost’ words and phrases in their lecture, that is, when they state howthey are going to deal with the topic, and thenpick these out as the lecture unfolds (seeTable 16.2). Keeping note of the lecturestructure is an aid to revision and a record of your understanding. It is unlikely that thejokes will be retained.

You have to listen carefully for the specificwords used that express meaning rather thanrely on the intonation to highlight changes inthe stages of a lecture, for example, when thelecturer is moving on to another theme.

Don’t ‘switch off’ – take notes! Listen for theindividual points and note these down as thelecture progresses. Gradually, the rationalemay become clearer and you will have thebare bones of the points made at the earlierstage to support the conclusions. Later,imposing your own order on the content ofthe lecture, perhaps by referring to the texts,will often help you to make the material moreeasily remembered.

In this case coping strategies are less easy toevolve. Sitting near the front of the room willat least place you nearer the speaker and thismay assist a little. A more subtle approach isto make eye contact with the lecturer, smileand look interested. This confidence-buildingstrategy may encourage the lecturer to speakmore clearly. Another strategy might be toraise the issue with your class representativewho can draw it to the attention of thedepartment concerned. Otherwise, simplymake an appointment to speak with thelecturer to explain the difficulty – they may be unaware that they cannot be heard beyondthe third row.

The lecturer’s mannerisms can be distracting,but try to rise above these irritations andfollow the flow of information coming yourway. Try to identify whether this idiosyncrasyis a form of ‘code’. For example, does thelecturer use hand, arm or body movements as a means of reinforcing important points?Watching the lecturer as you take notes canbe important to obtaining the most from the lecture.

Table 16.1 Examples of lecturing styles and the strategies that can be used to copewith them

Type of lecturer

The entertainer. This sort of lecturer tells good jokes and can ‘ad lib’ them throughout the lecture. Many people like these lectures, but what you need to do is separate the ideas from the banter. Good lecturers who adopt this style are not really comic ‘turns’, but are usually simply using humour as a vehicle to deliver their ideas by keeping the listeners’ attention.

The drone. This type of lecturer specialises in a monotonous delivery, that is, without any modulation of voice or expression. Material to be covered may be difficult to absorb, even if it is fundamentally interesting.

The rambler. Some lecturers ramble. They appear to stray from the point, get carried away by their own eloquence or simply lose the thread. However, in some instances what seems like a series of disjointed thoughts may be pulled together as underpinning for a tight and logical argument.

The mumbler. Not everyone is a gifted public speaker and lecturers are no exception. Some very gifted and talented people just do not perform well in front of large groups of people. Consequently, they may not project their voices well and the bigger the lecture theatre, the more this becomes a problem.

The fidget. Some people think best when they move around. It may be that, as they deliver the lecture, they move back and forth across the dais or wave their arms like windmills or absent-mindedly fiddle with equipment.

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Type of lecturer

The techno-wizard. Some lecturers thrive on the use of gadgetry and you may find that your lecturers prefer the medium of slides, video, or PowerPoint presentation instead of the traditional oral presentation. Good teachers use the medium that is best suited to their message and sometimes PowerPoint presentations provide greater clarity and precision than the traditional acetate slides. One advantage is that it is possible to provide handouts of the PowerPoint presentation, but these are not always routinely provided for annotation by students.

The egotist. Many of the people who lecture to students are so absorbed in their own ideas that they sometimes ignore the bigger picture. They may have been asked to deliver the lecture series because of their expertise and research background. However, this can result in a rather narrow perspective on a topic and you need to be aware that there may be other viewpoints or approaches to be considered in order to achieve a balanced perspective.

Potential strategies

Getting down the detail of the slides may be difficult and it might be helpful to requestthat the slides are made available on thecourse VLE, if this is used, so that you canlook at the presentation again later and printit out if you feel that it would be useful.PowerPoint presentations might present agood opportunity for some team work. If theslide is packed with information, then agreewith a fellow student that one of you willmake a note of what is said about the slidewhile the other will copy down what is on theslide. In this way, you can share the noteslater, confident that you have the completeinformation that was delivered – both oral and visual.

Listen carefully for references to the work of others. After the lecture, go to the libraryand check out other ‘big names’ in the field by looking at the catalogue for recentpublications on the same topic area. Look at journals for articles by your lecturer andidentify from the reference list other expertsin the field.

Practical tips for better listening

Think about where in the lecture theatre suits you. Sitting near to the front may allowyou to hear better, but it may not be the best spot to see visual aids. Try not to sit nextto others who may distract you. The ‘back row’ ethos may be good for a laugh, but itdoesn’t really help you learn.

Understand the jargon. Your comprehension will be better if you are familiar with thetechnical terms and jargon being used – so a little preparation beforehand may help, forexample by reading the appropriate chapter of the textbook.

Be well organised. Make sure you can devote all your attention to the lecture ratherthan finding pens and paper.

Don’t try to take down all the lecturer’s words as if they were dictation. There maybe spells when this is appropriate, and the lecturer should make this obvious. Otherwise,listen to the main points of what is being said and recast this in words that you under-stand (Ch 17).

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Characteristic language

‘In today’s lecture I’ll be considering . . .’

‘I’m going to look at a number of aspects of . . .’

‘I’ll begin by . . . and then I’ll go on to . . . andI’ll end by . . .’

‘I’m going to start by defining . . .’

‘Let’s look at some examples of . . .’

‘The first stage is . . .’

‘To begin with . . . then . . .’

‘At the centre is . . .’

‘This viewpoint is supported by . . .’

‘This means that . . .’

‘It can be seen from this evidence that . . . ;‘This evidence suggests that . . .’

The opposing viewpoint is that . . .’; ‘Thiscontradicts the view that . . .’

‘It can be noted that there is some variancewith . . .’

‘Thus, it can be seen that . . .’

‘The critical factors are . . .’

‘It is essential that . . .’

‘Let me put that in another way . . .’

‘Passing on to the next theme in mydiscussion . . .’

‘To summarise the key aspects I’ve covered,let’s remind ourselves of . . .’; ‘The “take-homemessages” are . . .’

Table 16.2 Structural elements of lectures and their characteristic ‘signpost’ language.This is not a comprehensive list of elements of a lecture; nor will all of the elements appearin every lecture. These speech samples are typical examples your lecturers might use. Onceyou have developed the capability to listen for such phrases, you can use this information tocreate better notes (Ch 17). For example, you can hear when a list is being initiated; when adefinition requires to be taken down exactly as spoken; or when emphasis is being given toan important point.

Lecture element

At the beginning of the lecture

Introduction – outlining the topic to be covered

Aims – defining what the aim of the lecture is

Lecture format

In the body of the lecture

Providing a definition

Giving examples

Describing:

l processes

l events

l position

Presenting a theory or argument:

l stating the key points in support

l explaining the perspective of each point

l justifying the evidence supporting these points

l presenting a counter-argument

l justifying the evidence supporting these points

Drawing logical connections

Identifying main issues

Stressing importance

Repeating a point for clarification or emphasis

Moving on to a new theme

At the end of the lecture

Concluding – drawing together the lecture’s key messages

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16.1 Analyse lecturing styles. Thinking about your own experiences as astudent, decide whether you have any lecturers who match any of thetypes described in Table 16.1.

16.2 Arrive at a strategy for getting the most from each lecturer’s deliverystyle. Consider how you cope with each lecturer and compare thestrategies you have used with those suggested in Table 16.1. Should you adjust your approach?

16.3 Apply your strategy. If, as yet, you have not tried the particular strategygiven in Table 16.1, then try to apply it in the next lecture with thatlecturer/type. If you can, ask a friend to follow the same strategy and thenmeet after the lecture to compare notes and to evaluate the effectivenessof the strategy.

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Lectures should be seen as a guide to a topic rather than the definitive or final word ona subject (Ch 15). The university lecture provides essential information delivered in aparticular sequence for a particular course. In many subjects, the lecture is an introduc-tion to the topic rather than a comprehensive analysis. For some subjects, lectures areoften compulsory. This may be dictated by professional associations that validate manyprofessional qualifications and is not simply a university regulation.

Your role in lectures

Since lectures do not provide you with a full understanding of the subject, and certainlynot the total requirement for exam revision, they assume some input on your part. Forexample, this may involve writing up the notes in a style that is more comprehensive.Alternatively, you may use the original lecture notesas the basis for note-making from texts cited from thereading list. In many subjects, this process is assumedas part of the learning process.

You will attend many lectures in a week, maybe severalin a day. It makes sense to keep some record of whatyou have seen and heard. It is important to considerwhat your purpose is when you take notes, since thiswill affect your strategy. For example, this may be:

l to keep a record of what was said for futurereference and exam revision;

l to note key points to allow you to do follow-upreading on the topics in your own time;

17 Note-taking in lectures

How to refine what you hear into note form

The aim of lectures, regardless of discipline, is to present a topic for study in ways that introduce key points and develop understandingthrough explanation, provision of examples or citation of references forfurther reading. This chapter outlines approaches to attending lectures,and taking notes from what you hear and see during the lecture.

Key terms

AnnotateLearning

personalityVerbatim


l Your role in lecturesl Approaches to note-taking

In each lecture:

n note the date;

n note the lecturer’s name;

n note the lecture topic ortitle;

n number pages 1, 2, 3 . . . ;

n note down the aims of thelecture as outlined at thebeginning of the lecture.

Routine lecture notehousekeeping

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l to provide a record of a constructed argument, a sequence of ideas or a process;

l to derive a proof or formulae.

Approaches to note-taking

How you lay out notes in lectures will depend on:

l your ability to listen for specific information and the thread of an argument,discussion or sequence of a process (Ch 16);

l the neatness of your handwriting;

l your particular learning personality or style (Ch 13);

l the styles of delivery you encounter in lectures (Ch 16);

l the subject you are studying and its conventions;

l specific lecturer content.

Notes made as a result of reading provide you with the chance to design a layout thatreflects your learning style and understanding (Ch 26). This is less possible in a lecturebecause you are following someone else’s train of thought without having the chance toreflect on this too much. As a result, the design of your lecture notes has to be spontan-eous and is less under your control. However, as you become a more experienced note-maker and note-taker, you will become more attuned to ways in which the format of thelecture can be adapted to particular types of note-taking design.

Table 17.1 outlines four different lecture delivery modes that are commonly used andmakes suggestions as to how you might extract key information for your notes.

Following the designs provided as note-making strategies in Ch 26, Figure 17.1 illustratesthe format of the notes and suggests ways in which these different strategies can beused to suit different lecture note-taking needs.

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n Listen for and note the key ideas – avoid trying to write down every word (verbatimnotes). It’s impossible – you’ll miss out on understanding ideas, explanations andexamples.

n Develop a note-taking style that will provide you with notes that will be meaningful insix days’, weeks’ or months’ time.

n Cultivate your own ‘code’, for example:

– underlining or highlighting points emphasised by the lecturer;

– asterisks (*) for points or new words to look up later;

– BLOCK CAPITALS for sub-headings or keywords;

– special abbreviations for your subject that are in general use or that you create for yourself;

– a symbol (e.g. #) that indicates your thought or response to a point made by thelecturer.

Tips for good note-taking

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Scenario 2

Lecture supportedwith printed handouts

If handouts areavailable before or atthe lecture:l Use highlighters to

mark key points.l Use a contrasting

colour, e.g. red or green, toannotate notes with additionalinformation,examples orexplanations givenin the lecture. Thiswill make it easierto distinguish fromthe printed text.

l Make additions asdescribed inscenario 1.

If handouts areavailable after thelecture, use your ownnotes taken in thelecture to expand thelecture notes.

Warning: Notes fromlectures, whetherborrowed from acolleague or madeavailable by thelecturer, are not a substitute forattending the lecture.Lecturers expand oncertain points or addexamples to clarifyunderstanding. Theymay also deviate fromthe notes and expandpoints outside thenotes.

Scenario 3

Lecture deliveredusing overheadtransparencies

Follow scenario 1 butin addition:l Copy points shown

on overheads as theskeleton for yourown expandednotes.

l For this kind ofpresentation it issometimes helpfulto work with afriend where oneperson copies theslide and the othernotes what is saidwhen the lecturer‘talks to the slide’.After the lecturemerge the notes to create a morecomprehensiverecord of what wasactually covered inthe lecture.

Scenario 4

Lecture deliveredusing PowerPointsoftware

Use of this softwareprovides a slick andprofessionalpresentation thatpermits good imagesof the detail ofgraphs or diagrams,and the lecturer canbuild these up stageby stage. However,this can often createan amount of detailthat is very difficultto note downcompletely in thelecture. If this is thecase for you, then tryto follow the steps forscenario 1 and ask forthe PowerPoint slidesto be made availablefor downloadingbefore or after thelecture. This has costimplications but notethat there are optionsto print out slides ashandouts of two,three, four, six ornine slides to a pageusing grayscale orblack and whiterather than colour(Ch 28).

Table 17.1 Note-taking scenarios. Each lecture is unique and the strategies adopted by the lecturers will vary from individual to individual, topic to topic and according to disciplineconventions. You will need to adapt your note-taking style to the mode of presentation, the style of the individual lecturer and the content. Four possible scenarios that you mightencounter are shown in this table.

Scenario 1

‘Straight’ lecture: delivered without handouts or special visual aids

Listen for:l Aims of lecture or

outline of structure of lecture.

l References to authors, dates of publication. This is the usual way of citing sources in a lecture. You need to then consult the reading list for details of title, chapter or page references.

l Key personalities, dates or events relating to specific aspects of the topic.

l Discourse markers – the signpost words (Ch 16, Ch 33) that indicate stages and shifts of emphasis within the lecture.

l Structuring of an argument and the supporting evidence; stages of a process; sequence of events.

l Repetition of points or oral emphasis using exaggerated stress or intonation.

l Summarising of points at mid- and end-points in the lecture.

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Figure 17.1 Note-taking strategies. Four models of note-taking with rationale.

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Practical tips for attending lectures and taking notes

Before the lecture. Try to read some fundamental background information on the topic.This could be the introduction to that topic in a basic recommended textbook or from agood encyclopaedia. Beware of internet sources, because these can be unreliable interms of accuracy and truth.

Obtaining supporting material. Some lecturers make use of virtual learning environ-ments available in many universities to provide lecture notes, handouts, overhead transparency or PowerPoint slides before or after the lecture. Downloading this kind ofmaterial when it is made available may assist you to make more comprehensive notes.Note that the provision of this material remains at the discretion of the lecturer. If youhave a hearing impairment, are dyslexic or have another visible or invisible disability, youmay be able to request that lecture notes or handouts are made available to you beforelectures. You should consult the disability support service in your institution with regardto any special needs you may have.

In the lecture. Choose a seat that allows you to see the whiteboard, projection screenor television monitor easily. Avoid sitting near the door, the back of the room (most com-monly inhabited by the chatterers and latecomers) or underneath the air-conditioningvents. If you have a disability, then you can ask for special arrangements to be made toenable you to access a lecture theatre or room without difficulty and also, if necessary,to ensure that a particular seat is reserved for you.

Paper size. A4 is the standard paper size for handouts and printers and so it makessense to be consistent by using A4 paper and file size for your own notes. It is probablymore economical to use narrow-lined paper with a margin, as this allows you to optimisethe use of paper. Some subjects might require blank rather than lined paper to allow fordiagrams and mathematical calculations. Otherwise, your own handwriting style and ability to write neatly at speed will dictate your choice. If you are neat by nature, thenlined or unlined paper is probably immaterial (you can get more text on unlined paper!);if you are generally untidy in your writing, then the lines will discipline your note-taking.Small reporter-style notebooks are not recommended, because the volume of notes thatyou will generate will fill one of those pads in a very short time.

Storing your notes. Decide on a strategy for filing your notes that is systematic andfoolproof. Foolscap or A4 files with two holes are the most readily available and there-fore cheaper. You may prefer to keep separate thinner files for each subject, or to use a single lever arch-file for a subject and use colour-coded section dividers to separatetopics within the subject area. Get into the habit of filing notes immediately after the lecture so that they don’t sink to the bottom of a rucksack or sports bag.

Adapting your style. There is no single way to take notes that will suit all styles, con-tent or circumstances. You will need to adapt your style to suit individual delivery stylesas well as content.

‘Writing up’ lecture notes after the lecture. Views differ on this. You need to ask your-self a difficult question – what do you gain from this exercise? Some people feel that thisis an essential aspect of the learning process, is an aid to understanding and aids theirrecall. Others start off doing this but quickly find that there is simply not enough time to

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revisit lecture notes in order to remodel them to make them neater, more legible or moremeaningful. If writing up lecture notes is just to make your notes look neat, colourful orsimply pretty, then you need to consider whether the time might not be better spentdoing some follow-up reading using your ‘raw’ lecture notes as a guide and possibleskeleton for notes you make from sources (see Ch 26).


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17.1 Check out the dates, times and locations of your lectures. Enter detailsfor each subject for the term and note this information in your diary or on your wall planner. Make sure you know exactly where the lectures willtake place, because these may alter from week to week, topic to topic orlecturer to lecturer. If the location is unfamiliar, go to find it so that youknow where to go on the day.

17.2 Check out availability of handout notes, overhead transparency orPowerPoint slides. Some lecturers will make these available before thelecture as handouts or as online files. If this is not the practice, then youmight consider asking as a group for this to be considered as an aid tolearning.

17.3 Develop your note-taking skills. As with all skills, that of note-taking willnot be acquired overnight. You will need to work at it and, if you are able todo so, you can do this by practising taking notes from one of the principalnews broadcasts on radio or television. If you do this over a week or so,this will give you the chance to experiment with different layouts. If youlisten to a broadcast at 6.00 p.m., for example, then you can check yournotes against a similar broadcast at a later hour in the same evening.

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Learning in a group has advantages – people learn in a different way by listening andinteracting, compared with listening passively in a lecture. Groups work because of thedifferent personalities and learning styles represented in them. If everyone in the groupwere the same, it is likely that the group would be rather dull; each person brings some-thing unique and this adds to its effectiveness. It is the interaction of diverse personal-ities and learning types that creates a ‘group dynamic’, with members feeding off eachother’s ideas, working more intensively and, at times, competing with each other.

Formal (staff-selected) groups

Studying formally as a group normally means that you are participating in a learningactivity that has been initiated by an academic staff member. This could be a formal tutorial,lab activity or practical facilitated by a tutor, or it may take the form of a group projectthat is conducted independently of the staff member. In all these situations, it is likelythat you will have had little choice in the composition of the group. For effective learn-ing to take place, however, you will have to adopt the basic practices described in thischapter.

18 Co-operative learning

How to study successfully with others

University education involves learning for yourself, but this doesn’t meanthat you have to do it alone. Support networks can help. Your fellowstudents are a learning resource for you, and you for them. By studyingtogether in groups formally and informally you can develop mutuallysupportive ‘buddy networks’ with others on your course.

Key terms

FacilitateGroup dynamicPeerStudy buddy


l Formal (staff-selected) groupsl Informal (student-selected) groups

Here are some ground rules for working effectively as a group, whether in a formal orinformal setting:

n Learn to listen as well as speak.

n Respect the views of others and understand that criticism of your views is not apersonal slight.

n Prevent anyone from dominating the discussion or activity.

n Ensure that everyone is given space to give their views.

Groupwork pointers

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Staff-led groups

l Ensure that you are prepared adequately for the group activity.

l Participate in the discussion and do not leave one or two people to do all the talking.

l Have the confidence to express your views, even if these seem to be at variancewith those of others.

l Be prepared to defend your views or suggestions with reasoned argumentsupported by well-considered evidence.

l Use the group-learning experience as an opportunity to explore issues or ideas ingreater depth with an expert to guide you.

l Recognise that a tutor may act as ‘devil’s advocate’ to push you into exploringalternative scenarios, options or strategies.

l Take notes in these meetings, as these will complement your lecture notes andadditional reading.

Unsupervised student groups

l Work out and agree some ground rules, such as setting goals, responsibilities anddeadlines.

l Ensure that the work allocation is evenly distributed across the group.

l Create a positive learning environment by addressing the task in hand and ensuringthat people do not feel constrained in presenting their ideas.

l Engage in analytical thinking to tackle the task in hand.

l Encourage everyone to contribute ideas.

l Encourage exploration of ideas, their implications and also counter-arguments.

l If you don’t understand something, then ask others in the group if they can explainit to you.

l If more than one meeting is required, ensure that the assigned contributions arecompleted for presentation at the next meeting.

l If you have real difficulties within your group, then approach the staff member whoset up the activity to discuss these with the whole group.

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This learning context:

n Allows people to learn from each other

n Encourages a positive-thinking approach to the task

n Broadens the horizons of thinking

n Breaks down barriers

n Supports weaker students and develops the mentoring abilities of stronger students

n Allows all members to be less inhibited in expressing ideas or opinions or offeringsolutions

Advantages of unsupervised group learning

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Informal (student-selected) groups

Studying informally as a group is more likely to have come about because a self-selectedgroup of students has decided to tackle a particular issue or topic independently of staffinput. Groups that students set up spontaneously are less likely to need to agree groundrules and a method of working, because the very creation of the group is evidence of aless formal social arrangement. Some tips for working in this way include:

l Allocate a specific time and location to tackle the issue that you have decided toaddress.

l Ensure that the location is appropriate – for example, in the open discourse area ofthe library rather than in the union bar where other distractions could interfere withthe purpose of the group.

l Agree targets and work towards fulfilling these within a certain time span.

l Recognise that not all the things you wish to tackle can be solved in this way andthat it is sometimes appropriate to seek help from a staff member.

l Accept that people work at different speeds and so try to accommodate this in howthe group breaks down the tasks it wishes to fulfil.

l If the group works well, try to maintain the co-operative spirit by sharing resources,debating lecture issues, and exploring new techniques or approaches that youencounter in your learning.

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Here are some possibilities to consider. In each case, explain what you are trying to setup and ask if anyone would be interested in participating:

n Speak to your lab partners or fellow members of formal groups.

n Speak to people before or after lectures, or as you walk between lecture theatres.

n Place a message on a discussion board on your virtual learning environment.

n Email fellow class members.

n Ask your class rep or the lecturer to make an announcement (‘anyone interestedmeet after the lecture . . .’).

n Table 18.1 is a case study that shows how this approach can work.

How can you set up your own study group?

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118 18 CO-OPERATIVE LEARNING

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Table 18.1 Case study: Gary’s informal study group

The problem and a solution

Gary is a former FE student who came to university from a local college.

He is finding it really difficult to grasp some aspects of the new topic being covered in lectures.He has done this subject before at college, but it was taught in a completely different way. Garyis a direct-entry student, which means that he has gone straight into second year at university.He thinks he’s possibly missed out on something that everyone else has covered in first year.After a bit of soul-searching, he plucks up the courage to ask a couple of other students, whomhe knows only by sight, if they are also finding the topic difficult. Their response indicates thatthey too are finding it difficult, but less so than Gary, so he suggests that they meet up after thelecture to try a couple of tutorial questions together.

By pooling their knowledge, these three are able to work through the new topic and method oftackling it. The others are able to explain the missing bit of Gary’s knowledge and he is able toexplain from his college learning some aspects the others don’t quite understand. As a result, thelearning they gained from working with others on the problem areas was probably much deeperthan if they had each studied alone. The three decide to meet up again when it is time to revisefor the end-of-module exam.

Take-home message

Students giving the explanation of a concept to a colleague reinforce their own understanding,while students receiving the explanation are often better able to understand the explanationgiven by a friend than when it was covered in a lecture or tutorial by a member of staff.

Practical tips for studying in groups – in both formal and informal settings

Effort in; benefit out. What you gain from working in a group will reflect the effort thatyou and your colleagues put into the activity.

Believe in yourself and your ideas. Your ideas are as valid as anyone else’s; do not beput off by the person who sounds extremely eloquent and well read – sometimes thereis little substance behind what they say.

Treat group working as a positive learning experience. Use the group experience asan opportunity to explore your own ideas, and learn from those of others.

Know when to ask for help. If the group cannot work something out, then seek helpfrom a member of staff. This will help your lecturer to know when some aspect of theactivity or a point of knowledge needs further explanation. This is valuable to the lec-turer as an indicator that some part of the teaching process may need to be modified foryour own class or for classes in subsequent years.

Learn more about how groups and teams work. Look also at Ch 19 and Ch 60.

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C


C

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And now . . .

18.1 Become an observer of human interaction within learning groups. In the next group work activity in which you participate, watch to see just howa group dynamic can be affected by the levels of participation within thegroup. If things don’t seem to be working, suggest that the group stops the activity and discusses what could be done to make the process moreeffective. Although you may think that this would be outrageous, whatyou’ll probably find is that people would much rather work in a group that was operating effectively than be trying to meet the targets set in adysfunctional group.

18.2 Expand your understanding. There are several publications on groupbehaviour. Possibly one of the more readable authors in this area isDesmond Morris whose book Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language (2002) gives some interesting insights about how people interact in different situations, including in groups. Thiscomplements information on Belbin’s nine team roles explained in Table 19.1 on page 122.

18.3 Reflect on a group activity in which you have been involved. This need not be a university activity. Think first of all about what the targettask was. Then think about how well the group worked to achieve thetarget. What were the strengths? What were the weaknesses? Finally, thinkabout what you would do differently if you had to perform the target taskagain. If possible, discuss your thoughts with others who participated inthis group. This analysis will help you to work more effectively in othergroups because you will be more aware of what works and what doesn’twork; it will, for example, help you to know what sorts of things to avoid in similar situations in the future.

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There are many situations at university where you will be expected to act as a memberof a team – sometimes in the academic context and sometimes in a sporting or social situation. The academic focus is usually on assessed group exercises, but the principlesare applicable in other areas, such as club membership or employment. Generally, yourteam will be expected to work together to produce some outcome such as a poster orreport. Your actions within the team may be assessed by your tutors and in some casesby your fellow group members (peers).

You may already have built up teamwork skills without realising it. Perhaps you haveplayed team games, been a member of a fund-raising group, organised a social event orbeen employed as part of a team. This experience will help greatly as you learn moreabout your character as a team worker and develop the necessary skills even further.

Team roles

Research suggests that there are many distinct teampersonalities and that each of us has a ‘natural’ teamrole. During group work at university you can discoverwhich role suits you best. Thinking about your groupactivities will help you develop as a team member.What you find out about yourself may even influenceyour eventual choice of career and job.

A part of the tension in being a team member is thatyou, or a fellow member, may be asked to play a dif-ferent role from the one that is natural. This can leadto problems as you try to adapt to the requirementsof the role, or when someone else tries to assume adifferent role from the one they have been assigned.Also, when you work in a small team, you may be asked to play multiple roles or to switchbetween roles at different times as the project progresses.

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120 19 PARTICIPATING IN A TEAM

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19 Participating in a team

How to make a contribution to your group

Working within a team is a rewarding way to learn and it can reflectworkplace practice. This chapter introduces the theory of team roles and discusses some essential teamwork skills.

Key terms

DelegateMilestoneTeam role


l Team rolesl Essential teamwork skillsl Making sure that your team works well together

n Preparing a group poster(Ch 54).

n Writing a joint report (Ch 52).

n Some types of problem-based learning (Ch 45).

n Practical and project work(Ch 20, Ch 50, Ch 51).

n Running a society orsports club.

Examples of teamwork atuniversity

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19 PARTICIPATING IN A TEAM 121

Table 19.1, which is based on the work of MeredithBelbin, gives a breakdown of main team roles and thepersonality features associated with them (Belbin,2006). His analysis recognises that there are both‘good’ character traits and ‘allowable weaknesses’ foreach role. This notion is valuable, because it elimi-nates the feeling that any one role is superior. Forexample, you may have the impression that ‘teamleader’ is the star role in any group, and perhaps oneto which you might want to aspire. However, leadertypes are generally poor at coming up with ideas andcan be weak at putting them into practice (Table 19.1);these are functions vital to the success of the groupand they may well be your strength.

To help decide which role might suit you, thinkwhether you would describe yourself as action-oriented, people-oriented, or as a thinker.Belbin classified the nine roles in this way and, by narrowing the options, this may helpyou to decide which fits you best:

l Those who prefer action should be a shaper, implementer or a completer–finisher(types B, F or G in Table 19.1).

l Those who are people-orientated should be a co-ordinator, a resource investigatoror a team worker (types A, E or H in Table 19.1).

l Those who are thinkers should be an innovator, a monitor–evaluator or a specialist(types C, D or I in Table 19.1).

Essential teamwork skills

Communication

The success of any team depends on its ability to communicate. The larger the group,the more important this becomes, as shown in Figure 19.1. Group members need tounderstand what is expected of them by the team andby the teaching staff who have set the task. Timeframes have to be defined, as do team roles, arrange-ments for meetings and the interchange of informa-tion or files. Face-to-face meetings are usuallyimportant at some early stage; thereafter, email,mobile phones and discussion boards are useful waysof keeping in touch. Agreeing and setting up thesecommunication channels should be one of the firstthings your group does, for example, by exchanging email addresses.

Time management

There will always be a deadline for your team’s work and this implies that planning willbe required to meet your goal (Ch 8). You may find it difficult to arrange mutually suit-able meeting times if the group members have diverse timetables and responsibilities, so

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You may feel that theanalysis of roles in Table 19.1is too complex and detailedfor your needs. A simplifiedgrouping of roles, using therole numbering of that table,could be:

n Leader: A + B

n Creative person: C + E

n Organiser: F + G

n Worker: H + I

n Critic: D

Simplified team roles

If you like to be ‘in control’ of your work, then giving over tasks to others can be stressful. In teamwork, you should accept that others may take a differentapproach from you and allowthem to learn from theirmistakes.

Delegation

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intermediate targets (milestones) and diary dates should be set as early as possible. Thisis an important responsibility of the co-ordinator or shaper.

Compromise

Give and take is essential to team function at manylevels. One concession you may need to make is in theteam role(s) you adopt, as discussed above: this mayrequire self-awareness and flexibility on your part. Inaddition, you may not have chosen your team and youmay not even like some of its members – but to succeedas a group you will have to get along together. Thismay require diplomacy and tact. Team membershiprequires everyone to be able to give and receive criti-cism constructively and not as personal disapproval. If you are a perfectionist, you may need to accept thatsome aspects of the group’s activities may be belowyour normal standards – but this may be essential toensure that the team as a whole fulfils its remit.

Focus and commitment

Teamwork exercises are often demanding in time and effort; everyone needs to showcommitment and a high work rate if the highest standards are to be achieved. Yourgroup must keep its collective eye on its goals and targets, to ensure that it meets these,otherwise the overall mark may suffer. Facilitating this is one of the leader’s duties.

Making sure that your team works well together

Issues can often be anticipated and defused before they become problems. Difficultiesare best treated by discussing them as soon as they become apparent, either within theteam or with the staff supervising the task.

l Try to ensure that team members have sufficient time collectively to complete thetask. If this is not possible, then you may need to consider how you modify the taskor the method you have agreed upon. This may result in an outcome less ambitious,but still of a high standard.

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At different times your teamwill need someone to co-ordinate the task; someone to come up with bright,inventive ideas; someone tokeep everyone else on target;someone who can find usefulfacts; someone who is goodat design; someone who can organise materials; and someone to act as aspokesperson. If the rightperson does each of thesetasks, the overall output fromthe team will be improved.

Finding the right personfor the job

Figure 19.1 Team interactions. As the number of people in a group increases, so does thecomplexity of potential contacts between them. With three people, the number of one-to-one relationships possible is three; with four people it is six and with five it is ten. The largeryour group, the more important communication becomes.

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l If some members do not feel sufficiently motivated, then the group as a whole may lack drive. One of the leader’s roles is to stimulate the group. If this is yourresponsibility, explain the relevance of the task and the rewards for doing it well.

l Where possible, try to ensure that people are assigned roles that best fit with theirpersonality. Otherwise, they may feel uncomfortable.

l Sometimes, personalities clash when it is felt that someone is not pulling theirweight, or when someone acts as an outsider (or is treated as one). Early discussionis essential and a ‘team worker’ may need to act as mediator.


..

Practical tips for being a successful team member

Behaviour:

l Be considerate by respecting the different abilities and contributions of others.

l Be positive, and praise others’ inputs whenever you can.

l If you feel you need to be critical, try to do this without arousing hostility.

l Don’t form cliques within teams.

l Remember that if someone has flaws in some areas, they may be compensated for inother areas (and perhaps at a later time).

l From time to time, reflect on your contribution and your role-playing.

Communication:

l Make sure you talk to other team members and try to encourage them to talk to you.

l Distribute phone numbers and email addresses and be prompt with replies to messages.

l Talk through all problems as soon as possible.

l Understand that other team members may be shy or nervous.

l Contribute if your team has to ‘defend’ your work.

l Learn to listen to others and recognise that views that differ from your own may havevalue. Don’t monopolise discussions or impose your views.

Effort:

l Try to ‘do your bit’ and don’t be a lazy team member.

l Produce work of the highest quality you can.

l If you feel your contribution is overloading you or is disproportionate to the contri-bution of others, then call the group together, explain the problem and explore somesolutions with the whole team participating.

l Tailor your collective effort to the reward on offer, remembering that good marks inassessed coursework can make it easier to gain a pass or good grade overall.

l Keep the final objective of your exercise in mind at all times.

Assessment and evaluation:

l Make sure you know how you will be assessed, and use this information to the team’sadvantage.

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l Be scrupulously fair in your assessment of colleagues, if this is required.

l Don’t award peer-assessment marks from loyalty if they are not deserved.

l After the event, think about what you learned from it – not only about the subject, butabout your own behaviour and teamwork in general.

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And now . . .

19.1 Reflect on your last teamwork activity. What were your majorcontributions to the overall team activity? Looking at Table 19.1, what roleor roles did you adopt? How did the team perform as a whole? How mightyou use this experience to modify your approach to your next teamexercise?

19.2 Focus on communication channels. For your next teamwork activity,especially if the group is relatively large, place special emphasis oncommunication and meetings.

19.3 Establish your ‘ideal’ teamwork role. Categorise yourself as action-oriented, people-oriented or a thinker (see page 121), then decide which ofBelbin’s categories best fit you (Table 19.1). It may be helpful to ask a friendor past teamwork colleague what they think, although be prepared for adifferent answer from the one you were expecting!

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126 20 LABORATORY SESSIONS AND FIELD VISITS

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In many scientific subjects, more than a third of the course time may be allocated to lab-oratory sessions and/or field visits. This proportion will also be reflected in the marksgiven for related in-course assessments and formal practical exams, so you should treatthese practical elements just as seriously as lectures and tutorials.

Practical work is given emphasis because it:

l allows you to see and interact with real examplesof organisms, specimens, artefacts, processes andreactions;

l helps you to develop new skills in areas such asobservation, measurement, manipulation and dataanalysis;

l lets you gain an appreciation of ‘scientificmethod’, perhaps by imitating originalexperiments carried out in your field;

l demonstrates equipment and gives you ‘hands-on’experience of using it;

l allows you to explore field locations relevant toyour studies;

l gives you practice in writing up your work informats that you may later use to report projectwork and theses at a higher level.

In many cases, practical sessions are carried out in pairs or as part of a small group, sothere is a chance to learn from your fellow students and to work as a team (Ch 19).

20 Laboratory sessions andfield visits

How to gain hands-on experience and skills

Many courses, especially in the sciences, include laboratory sessions and field visits. These practicals provide valuable opportunities to observespecimens, carry out standard procedures and refine a range of valuableskills. You can gain a lot from these parts of the curriculum if youapproach them correctly.

Key terms

COSHHScientific method


l Preparing for practical sessionsl Appropriate conduct in the lab and fieldl Carrying out instructions and noting results

n Observation

n Handling samples andorganisms

n Using equipment

n Designing experiments

n Working safely

n Recording and measuring

n Creating tables and graphs

n Data analysis

n Reporting in written andspoken forms

n Teamwork

Examples of skills coveredin practicals and field visits

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20 LABORATORY SESSIONS AND FIELD VISITS 127

Preparing for practical sessions

If you want to gain the most from your practicals, good preparation is essential. Oftenlab sessions and field visits are tightly scheduled and you may be expected to be ‘up andrunning’ almost from the start. Practicals may also involve new concepts and terms andif you don’t understand these, you may not gain much from your efforts. In preparation,you should:

l read through the schedule beforehand, making sure you understand the terminology– try to gain an overall impression of what you will be expected to do, and why;

l consult textbooks or websites if you don’t understand any of the underlying theory;

l make sure you have the appropriate equipment ready to take to the practical;

l ensure you arrive at the lab or assembly point in good time.

Appropriate conduct in the lab and field

Any rules associated with lab or fieldwork will haveyour safety as their primary concern, so you must payattention to them. You may be asked to work withtoxic chemicals, dangerous instruments or in haz-ardous environments, so care is essential. At an initialmeeting of your class, you will be introduced to basicsafety measures and legislation, told about the firedrill and shown relevant hazard symbols (Figure 20.1).

In the lab, you will be asked to wear a lab coat – whichshould always be buttoned up – and, if you have longhair, asked to tie it back. Eye protection goggles maybe necessary for some procedures, and those whonormally wear contact lenses may be subject to spe-cial rules because vapours of corrosive laboratorychemicals may be trapped between the lens and thecornea of the eye. You should never eat or smoke ina lab. You should also keep your bench space tidy andquickly dispose of specimens or sharps as instructed.

Where hazardous materials or procedures are involved, you will be told about the COSHHrisk assessment (see tip box above) and you have a duty to read this carefully.

When working with chemicals or live organisms like bacteria, take appropriate precautions:

l be aware of possible modes of ingestion, including inhalation by nose or mouth,ingestion by mouth, absorbtion through exposed skill, inoculation through skin;

l take special care with procedures such as pipetting or transferring samples betweenvessels;

l note where eye washes and emergency showers are located in your lab andunderstand the appropriate procedures when you come into contact with chemicals;

l know what to do if you spill any chemicals;

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CThis stands for ‘Control ofSubstances Hazardous toHealth’ – a UK regulation thatcame into force in 1999. Itlays out the legal frameworkfor risk assessment wheneverhazardous chemicals, agentsor procedures are used.Normally the person incharge of your lab or fieldvisit (an academic or seniorlab technician) will carry out a COSHH assessment,which should be displayedprominently and/orcommunicated to you.

Definition: COSHH

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l make sure you know what type of fire extinguisher or fire blanket to use for thereagents being used, and where these are located;

l always wash your hands thoroughly after each lab session.

For field visits, you will be advised about appropriate clothing. You should take specialcare to use appropriate footwear and be prepared for a change of weather conditions. Ifin a group, you should stay close to the main body of people; otherwise, try always towork with a partner, rather than alone. Any fieldwork group should:

l take a first aid kit;

l leave full details of where they are going and when they expect to return;

l consult a weather forecast before they leave, and if working on the seashore findout about the state of the tides.

Carrying out instructions and noting results

Lab and field visit schedules usually contain the following components:

l Theory, background and aims. This contains information essential to yourunderstanding of the practical, interpretation of instructions and approach to anyassessed components, so do not be tempted to skip this and move directly to theinstructions.

l Instructions. The language used here is generally very precise and should befollowed to the letter or number. Success will often depend on, for example, theprecision with which you measure out reagents, or the exact timing or temperatureyou use. When reading the schedule beforehand, you may wish to highlight keypoints in the instructions so you can follow them better during the session, or layout tables ready to record your data. Before you start, the person in charge of thelab may tell you about any late changes that have had to be made – it is thereforeimportant to arrive in good time and to listen carefully while this is done, makingappropriate notes.

l Results section. This part provides space for you to record observations, data andcomments. Increasingly, a ‘workbook’ style of lab schedule is provided, with spacesand prompts for drawings, results and conclusions, but this is not always the case,and, especially in later years, you will be expected to organise your own notes.

Figure 20.1 Some of the main EU hazard symbols

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Being able to record accurately what you see and meas-ure is a vital skill in the sciences, and will be practisedand tested throughout your university career. The fol-lowing are key tips for recording your observations:

l Don’t rely on your memory – write downeverything.

l Never write on scraps of paper (you’ll lose them) –use a proper lab book.

l Always date each page and provide full details ofthe specimen or experiment.

l If recording data, develop the skill of writing thisinformation clearly – for example, ones andsevens are easily confused and you may wish toadopt the practice of crossing the latter (i.e. 7).

l If you are recording numbers, use an appropriatenumber of significant figures (Ch 29) to takeaccount of the precision (or, perhaps morestrictly, the lack of precision) of your method.

l If drawing diagrams, make sure these have adescriptive title and are well labelled.

l In the field, be prepared for bad weather – buy aspecial wet-weather notebook or take a clearplastic bag to enclose your notebook, and use apencil as this will write on damp paper.

l Write down any final answers or results in theform specified – you may lose marks otherwise.

l Draw any graphs or tables according to thenormal scientific conventions (Ch 33).

You may be asked to submit a selection of completed workbook schedules for marking.In some cases, you will be required to hand in lab reports. Table 20.1 details the key com-ponents of a typical lab report and outlines what’s expected for each part. Further adviceon practical assessments and oral exams is provided in Ch 50.

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This is worth paying attentionto as there are specificconventions that should beadopted. In the ‘Introduction’and ‘Materials and methods’,the past tense, passive voiceand third person (see Ch 52for definitions) are generallyused (for example, ‘Sturrockand Dodds (1984) were thefirst to show . . .’ and ‘the datawere recorded at 5-minuteintervals’). However, presenttense might be used whendescribing figures and tables(for example, ‘Table 3 showsthe relationship between . . .’).Read research reports in yoursubject area to gain a feel forthe style usually adopted.

The language of practicalreports

If you are asked to use aspecific format or templatefor writing up lab or fieldsessions, make sure you dothis, or you may lose marks(and the sympathy of yourmarker!).

Defined report formats

Practical tips for getting the most from laboratorysessions and field visits

Focus on the aims and ‘learning outcomes’ of the session. When reading schedulesbeforehand, or listening to your lecturer introducing a procedure, make sure you under-stand what the purpose and likely ‘take-home message’ of the session is going to be. Thiswill help you work much more effectively during the practical.

Use lab assistants and demonstrators fully. These people are generally paid to helpyou, so make the most of them. Often, they may be recent graduates, and sympatheticto any problems you may be facing. If in doubt, ask – it could save you lots of time and

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Table 20.1 Typical components of a lab or field report. This is the standard format usedfor scientific reports: for write-ups of single experiments or a laboratory practical, normallyonly the parts marked * would be included. Always adopt the precise format specified inyour course handbook.

Section or part Expected content

Title page* A descriptive title that indicates what was done and sometimesdescribes the ‘headline’ finding. Also the full names of the author or authors, the module title or code and the date.

Abstract A brief summary of the aims of the experiment or series ofobservations; the main outcomes (in words) and conclusions. Thisshould allow someone to understand your main findings and what you think they mean.

Abbreviations A list of any abbreviations for technical terms used within the text (for example, ‘DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid’). These are also given within the text at the first point of use, for example ‘. . .deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)’.

Introduction* An outline of the background to the experiment, the aims of the experiment and brief discussion of the techniques to be used.Your goal is to orientate the reader and explain what you have doneand why.

Materials and methods* A description of what was done. You should provide sufficient detailto allow a competent person to repeat the work.

Results* A description of the experiments carried out and the results obtained, usually presented in either tabular or graphic form (neverboth for the same data). You should point out meaningful aspects ofthe data, which need not be presented in the same order in which thework was done.

Discussion A commentary on the results and an outline of the main conclusions. (or conclusions)* This could include any or all of the following:

l comments on the methods used;l mention of sources of errors;l conclusions from any statistical analysis;l comparison with other findings or the ‘ideal’ result;l what the result means;l how you might improve the experiment;l where you would go from here, given more time and resources.Sometimes you might combine the results and discussions sectionsto allow a narrative to develop – to explain, for example, why oneresult led to the next experiment or approach. Bear in mind that alarge proportion of marks may be given for your original thoughts inthis section.

Acknowledgements A list of people who helped you.

References An alphabetical list of sources cited in the text, following one of thestandard formats (Ch 35).

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help you gain marks. Be prepared to ask questions yourself rather than wait to be asked– but don’t expect the demonstrator to give you the answers directly. They will be underinstruction to make you do most of the thinking, but will be happy to help you along the way.

Learn how to draw up informal tables and figures quickly. Rough tables will help youto record your results neatly and quickly, while ‘instant’ graphs will give you an earlyvisual indication of how the experiment is proceeding. Your tables should include a column describing what is being measured or the number or timing of the measurements,and include sufficient ‘cells’ in the rows for each replicate or repeated measurement youwill make. When constructing graphs, you will need to assess the largest and smallest figures you are likely to obtain, so you can determine what the limits of the graph axesshould be. For all tables and figures, no matter how quickly drawn up, remember to statethe measured quantity and the units of measurement.

Take plentiful notes and provide detailed labels. Note down anything that might beuseful at a later date – and be prepared to use most of your senses, with caution: notecolours, sounds and feel, but only taste and smell when specifically instructed. Label anydiagrams fully and add a time and date. As well as stating what a component is, add rel-evant detail such as colour and texture. All diagrams should include a scale.

Use ‘dead’ time effectively. During lab experiments, there may be delays between partsof your work as reactions develop, or gaps if you are ahead of the rest of the class. Usethis time to look ahead in the schedule to see what you will be doing next, to createtables or graphs ready for recording your results, or jot down ideas for your conclusions.

Write up your practical work when it is fresh in your mind. You may be tired after a lengthy lab session, but if you delay for too long you may forget useful details.

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And now . . .

20.1 Make up a checklist of items to take to your practicals. This will dependon your subject. Refer to the list before you leave for each session toensure you don’t forget anything.

20.2 Rehearse safety scenarios. Taking into account the safety informationprovided in your lab handbook, lab notices and lecturers’ announcements,imagine what you would do in different situations, such as if there were a fire, if a fellow student swallowed a toxic chemical, or if someone cutthemselves. This will make you more aware of the dangers of the lab or field environment and might help you react faster if needed.

20.3 Find out how your practical or fieldwork will be assessed. Thisassessment may be through reports or a special practical exam. Try to track down past papers or model answers, if these are available. Knowingthe format and question style ahead of time will help you get the mostfrom the sessions.

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132 21 TUTORIALS

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The tutorial system is one that is historically embedded in university education. Its func-tion is to involve students actively in the learning process by meeting in small groups inorder to address a set topic or problem.

Most tutorials will involve between five to twelve stu-dents, although there are some universities wheretutorials are conducted on a one-to-one basis. Thetutor’s role is to facilitate discussion or, for problem-solving tutorials, to assist students encountering dif-ficulties. In addition, they may be required to make anassessment of your participation and performance.

It is worth thinking a little more strategically aboutwhat you can learn from tutorials beyond the subject-based agenda on which your group will work. Forexample, a tutorial is a kind of meeting and throughyour participation you will be expected to developinterpersonal skills that will transfer to meetings inother professional contexts once you graduate.

Tutorial types

There are essentially two types of university tutorial. One kind is common in subjectsrelated to arts, social sciences, law and social work, for example. In this kind of tutorial apreset topic is considered in a discussion format. The second type of tutorial is morecommon in scientific and engineering disciplines, and is conducted alongside the lectureand practical programme. Here, students discuss answers to a series of problems or calculations under the guidance of a tutor. This approach is also found in numerical subjects such as accountancy.

21 Tutorials

How to prepare and participate

Tutorials are a method of gathering a small group of students together inorder to discuss a topic or tackle problems related to a particular aspect oftheir course. This chapter outlines approaches to the conduct of tutorialsthat you may encounter in your field of studies at university.

Key terms

Devil’s advocateGambitMonologueTutorTutorial


l Tutorial typesl Preparation for tutorialsl Participating in tutorialsl Strategies for dialogue in tutorials

It is unlikely that the peoplewho deliver your lectures willconduct your tutorials. Somemay be freelance tutors whoare brought in for the solepurpose of taking tutorials;others may be postgraduatestudents who are studying in your department (this may be an element of theirpostgraduate training).

Who are the tutors?

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21 TUTORIALS 133

Regardless of your discipline, your role in these tutor-ial situations requires preparation and participation.

Preparation for tutorials

Your tutorials will be held at regular intervals over aterm or semester. You will normally be allocated to atutorial group by the course director or administrator,and details of dates, times and venues for these meet-ings will be provided in your course handbook, on thedepartmental noticeboard or posted on your univer-sity’s virtual learning environment. Tutorial topics andproblems will be given to you under the arrangementsthat prevail in your department. For example, some-times this information is provided in handout form,sometimes it is included in the course handbook.

Before each tutorial, depending on the subject youare studying, you will be expected to have done some preparation.

l For tutorials in practical or numerical subjects, you should have:

– tackled the full set problems or done the prescribed reading;

– where required, submitted answers on time;

– thought about difficulties that you may have found with the tutorial problems orabout possible issues that might arise in the discussion;

– reflected on how this topic or set of problemsfits into the wider course structure and learningprocess.

l For discussion-style tutorials in non-scientificsubjects, you should have:

– done the required reading;

– identified and analysed the topic or theme;

– reflected on the key issues that arise;

– considered the topic from different angles, forexample, arguments for and against a particularset of ideas or proposals.

Ch 49 outlines how your tutorial performance maybe assessed.

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This is not really the function of a tutorial in most subjects. In fact, your tutor may haveno first-hand knowledge of your lecture course and will not be in a position to undertakediscussion of any queries you might have. If you do have questions about the lectures,then it is advisable to seek an appointment with the lecturer either via email or with thedepartmental secretary.

Can I ask my tutor to explain things I wasn’t sure about in the lecture?

Particularly for tutorials that involve working throughexamples or problems, it maybe helpful to prepare for thetutorial with others. If youwork together on problemsthat have been tricky, thenyou might find a solutiontogether. If not, then askingas a group for help from thetutor will ensure that yourproblems are addressed andmay guide the meeting tocover key issues for yourlearning.

Preparing for tutorials

There are occasions whenyou might have a meetingwith a lecturer on an informalbasis to go over a particularpiece of work or to ask for an explanation of a pointcovered in lectures that you have had difficultyunderstanding. This type of meeting is conducted moreas a conversation than as atutorial in the more usualsense discussed in thischapter.

Informal meetings

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Participating in tutorials

There can be a time lapse between one tutorial and the next, and it may be that you don’tmeet your fellow tutees except in that tutorial situation. Some people may not feel ascomfortable about participating in problem-solving or debating issues with relativestrangers as they would among friends. This may be because they feel unsure of the situation as well as feeling unsure of the learning that they are experiencing. No two students are the same and it is the richness represented within a student group that canmake a tutorial a stimulating experience. How you participate in tutorials will very muchdepend on what kind of a student you are and what type of tutorial you are attending.

Strategies for dialogue in tutorials

Most communication is a two-way process, where one person speaks and the other listens. In tutorials, the situation is much the same except that there are more listeners,all with views of their own and all with something to say, if given the opportunity. Youwill need to develop some skills in interpersonal communication to ensure that you have the chance to be both a speaker and a listener. Table 21.1 introduces some tutorial‘characters’ and suggests ways in which you can interact with them by using appropriateconversational gambits that are part of the turn-taking in group dialogue.

134 21 TUTORIALS

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Practical tips for participating in tutorials and meetings

Some general pointers for problem-solving tutorials:

Think about the underlying principles involved in the exercises. Consider how theexamples fit into the wider scheme of things, especially your lectures.

Make sure that you have done the full set of examples beforehand. Identify those thathave caused difficulty or raised questions in your mind so that you can discuss thesepoints with the tutor.

Don’t feel that your question is stupid. The chances are that there will be others in thegroup who will be having the same difficulty.

Get your question in early on in the session. Make sure you ask your question beforepeople who may not have done the preparatory work divert the tutor’s attention withtrivial or irrelevant questions.

Some useful general pointers for tutorials based on discussion:

Make sure that you do contribute. It is better to say something that you have an opinion about rather than be asked a direct question by the tutor about something whereyou have very little knowledge to support an opinion.

Make your points clearly and objectively. While you may hold strong views on a topic,you will be expected to explain these on the basis of supporting evidence and argument,not on emotion.

Don’t take criticism of your ideas personally. This is an objective academic exerciseand the tutorial would be dull and possibly pointless if everyone agreed.

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21 TUTORIALS 135

....

Table

21.

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Be aware that your ideas are as valid as anyone else’s. This means that you can con-tribute effectively to the discussion.

Learn to listen as well as to speak. The convention in tutorials is that everyone hasspace to speak and be heard. Although you may not agree with the views of others, atleast listen to what they have to say and consider their argument for its merits as wellas its flaws.

Don’t assume that your tutor is expressing a personal view when they present apoint. Tutors may be taking the role of ‘devil’s advocate’ simply to stimulate discussion.

136 21 TUTORIALS

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And now . . .

21.1 Check out the dates, times and locations of your tutorials. Enter detailsfor each subject for the term and note this information in your diary or onyour wall planner. Make sure you know exactly where the tutorials will takeplace and, if the location is unfamiliar, make a point of finding it so that youknow where to go on the day.

21.2 Create a work plan that includes doing the preparatory reading orexamples for your tutorial meetings. This will almost certainly have a bigeffect on your performance (Ch 49).

21.3 Identify tutorial ‘characters’. Read through Table 21.1 and see if any of the tutorial personalities outlined there are present in your group(s). Thinkabout how these characters interacted in previous tutorials. Might some ofthe gambits noted in Table 21.1 have assisted in creating a more balanceddiscussion? What kind of a character are you? Would it be helpful to yourlearning, and that of others, if you modified your behaviour in tutorials? Inthe next tutorial, do a little observation of your own about how people usebody and oral language to make their points and to ensure that they havetheir say. Note any particular strategies that you think you could adapt oradopt to help you participate fully in tutorials in general.

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22 THINKING CRITICALLY 137

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How can you apply theory and technique to help you think better? Many specialistsbelieve that critical thinking is a skill that you can develop through practice – and thisassumption lies behind much university teaching. Your experience of the educationalsystem probably tells you that your marks depend increasingly on the analysis of factsand the ability to arrive at an opinion and support it with relevant information, ratherthan the simple recall of fact. If you understand the underlying processes a little better, this should help you meet your tutors’ expectations. Also, adopting a methodicalapproach can be useful when you are unsure how to tackle a new task.

Thinking about thinking

Benjamin Bloom, a noted educational psychologist,and colleagues, identified six different steps involvedin learning and thinking within education:

l knowledge

l comprehension

l application

l analysis

l synthesis

l evaluation.

Bloom et al. showed that students naturally progressed through this scale of thought-processing during their studies (Table 22.1). Looking at this table, you may recognise thatyour school work mainly focused on knowledge, comprehension and application, while

22 Thinking critically

How to develop a logical approach to analysis and problem-solving

The ability to think critically is probably the most transferable of the skillsyou will develop at university – and your future employers will expect youto be able use it to tackle professional challenges. This chapter introducesconcepts, methods and fallacies to watch out for when trying to improveyour analytical capabilities.

Key terms

BiasCritical thinkingFallacyPropagandaValue judgement


l Thinking about thinkingl Using method to prompt and organise your thoughtsl Recognising fallacies and biased presentations

People often interpret thewords ‘critical’ and ‘criticism’to mean being negative aboutan issue. For university work,the alternative meaning of‘making a careful judgementafter balanced considerationof all aspects of a topic’ is theone you should adopt.

Definition: critical

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138 22 THINKING CRITICALLY

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Typical questioninstructions

l Definel Describel Identify

l Contrastl Discussl Interpret

l Demonstratel Calculatel Illustrate

l Analysel Explainl Compare

l Composel Createl Integrate

l Recommendl Supportl Draw a conclusion

Table 22.1 Bloom et al.’s classification of thinking processes

Thinking processes (in ascending order of difficulty)

Knowledge. If you know a fact, you have it at your disposal and can recall or recognise it. This does not mean you necessarily understand it at a higher level.

Comprehension. To comprehend a fact means that you understand what it means.

Application. To apply a fact means that you can put it to use.

Analysis. To analyse information means that you are able to breakit down into parts and show how these components fit together.

Synthesis. To synthesise, you need to be able to extract relevant facts from a body of knowledge and use these to address an issue in a novel way or create something new.

Evaluation. If you evaluate information, you arrive at a judgementbased on its importance relative to the topic being addressed.

your university tutors tend to expect more in terms ofanalysis, synthesis and evaluation. These expecta-tions are sometimes closely linked to the instructionwords used in assessments, and Table 22.1 provides afew examples. However, take care when interpretingthese, as processes and tasks may mean differentthings in different subjects. For example, while‘description’ might imply a lower-level activity in thesciences, it might involve high-level skills in subjectslike architecture.

When you analyse the instructions used in writingassignments (Ch 32, especially 32.2) and other formsof assessment (Ch 46–Ch 55), you should take intoaccount what type of thinking process the examinerhas asked you to carry out, and try your best to reachthe required level. To help you understand what mightbe required, Table 22.2 gives examples of thoughtprocesses you might experience in a range of areas of study.

Using method to prompt and organise your thoughts

Suppose you recognise that critical thinking is required to solve a particular problem.This could be an essay question set by one of your tutors, an issue arising from problem-based learning, or even a domestic matter such as what type of car to buy or where best

Examples of university workinvolving high-level thinkingskills include:

n essay-writing in the artsand social sciences

n problem-based learning inmedicine and nursing

n engineering problemsbased on real-lifemachines and buildings

n scenarios in law

n project-based practicalwork in the sciences.

Contexts for thinkingcritically

TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 138

C

..


..

Law

Yo

u m

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and

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um

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tory

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litic

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as a

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tern

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his

kn

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led

ge

to e

xpla

inth

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t an

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fu

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licat

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TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 139

to rent a flat. The pointers below help you to arrive ata logical answer. You should regard this as a menurather than a recipe – think about the different stagesand how they might be useful for the specific issueunder consideration and your own style of work.Adopt or reject them as you see fit, or, according toyour needs, chop and change their order.

l Decide exactly what the problem is. Animportant preliminary task is to make sure youhave identified this properly. Write down adescription of the problem or issue – if this is notalready provided for you – taking care to be veryprecise with your wording. If a specific questionhas been given as part of the exercise, thenanalyse its phrasing carefully, to make sure you understand all possible meanings(Ch 32). If you are working in a group, then ideally all members should agree on thegroup’s interpretation.

l Organise your approach to the problem. You might start with a ‘brainstorm’ toidentify potential solutions or viewpoints. This can be a solo or group activity andtypically might consist of three phases:

– Open thinking. Consider the issue or question from all possible angles or positionsand write down everything you come up with. Don’t worry at this stage about therelevance or importance of your ideas. You may wish to use a ‘spider diagram’ or‘mind map’ to lay out your thoughts (Ch 17).

– Organisation. Next, you should try to arrange your ideas into categories or sub-headings, or group them as supporting or opposing a viewpoint. A new diagram,table or grid may be useful to make things clear.

– Analysis. Now you need to decide about the relevance of the grouped points tothe original problem. Reject trivial or irrelevant ideas and rank or prioritise thosethat seem relevant.

l Get background information and check yourcomprehension of the facts. It’s quite likely thatyou will need to gather relevant information and ideas – to support your thoughts, provideexamples or suggest a range of interpretations or approaches. You also need to ensure you fullyunderstand the information you have gathered.This could be as simple as using dictionaries andtechnical works to find out the precise meaning ofkey words; it might involve discussing your ideaswith your peers or a tutor; or you could read arange of texts to see how others interpret yourtopic.

l Check relevance. Now consider the information you have gathered, your thoughtsand how these might apply to your question. You may need to re-analyse thequestion. You will then need to marshal the evidence you have collected – for


.. ..

You may doubt this, and weall recognise that a solutionto a problem often comes tous when we aren’t even tryingto think about it. However,technique can sometimeshelp you clarify the issues,organise the evidence andarrive at a balanced answer.This should help inspiration to follow.

Can a methodical approachinspire you creatively?

Consult the followingchapters for furtherinformation and practical tips:

n library and web-searchskills: Ch 23, Ch 27

n collecting information thatwill allow you to cite thesource: Ch 35

n avoiding plagiarism: Ch 36.

Sharpening your research skills

TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 140

..


example: for or against a proposition; supportingor opposing an argument or theory. You may findit useful to prepare a table or grid to organise theinformation – this will also help you balance yourthoughts. Be ruthless in rejecting irrelevant orinconsequential material.

l Think through your argument, and how you can support it. Having considered relevantinformation and positions, you should arrive at a personal viewpoint, and then construct yourdiscussion or conclusion around this. Whenwriting about your conclusion, you must take care to avoid value judgements or other kinds of expression of opinion that are not supported by evidence or sources. This is one reason whyfrequent citation and referencing is demanded inacademic work.

l Get cracking on your answer. Once you havedecided on what you want to say, writing it upshould be much easier.

Recognising fallacies and biasedpresentations

As you consider arguments and discussions on aca-demic subjects, you will notice that various linguisticdevices are used to promote particular points of view.Identifying these is a valuable aspect of critical think-ing, allowing you to rise above the argument itself andthink about the way in which it is being conducted.

There are many different types of logical fallacies,and Table 22.3 lists only a few common examples.Once tuned in to this way of thinking, you shouldobserve that faulty logic and debating tricks are fre-quently used in areas such as advertising and politics.Analysing the methods being used can be a usefulway of practising your critical skills.

One way of avoiding bias in your own work is con-sciously to try to balance your discussion. Avoid ‘absolutes’ – be careful with words thatimply that there are no exceptions, for example, always, never, all and every. Thesewords can only be used if you are absolutely sure of facts that imply 100 per cent certainty.

..

C

These are statements thatreflect the views and valuesof the speaker or writerrather than the objectivereality of what is beingassessed or considered. For example, if the person is sympathetic to a causethey may refer to those who support it as members of a ‘pressure group’; if theydisagree with the cause, then its members become‘activists’; similarly,‘conservationists’ versus‘tree-huggers’; ‘freedomfighters’ versus ‘insurgents’.Value judgements often imply some sense of beingpejorative (negative). Forexample: ‘Teenagers areunreliable, unpredictable and unable to acceptresponsibility for theiractions’.

Value judgements

n Fallacy: a fault in logic orthinking that means thatan argument is incorrect.

n Bias: information thatemphasises just oneviewpoint or position.

n Propaganda: false orincomplete informationthat supports a (usually)extreme political or moralview.

Definitions

TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 141


.. ..

De

scri

pti

on

An

att

ack

is m

ade

on

th

e ch

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ter

of

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per

son

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ttin

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ard

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her

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arti

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th

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edia

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olit

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gu

men

t is

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itse

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of

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ate

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se o

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tive

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me

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22

.3C

om

mon

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ple

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iloso

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men

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at a

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llacy

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s o

n t

he

core

issu

e

TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 142

C

..


..

Practical tips for thinking critically

Focus on the task in hand. It is very easy to become distracted when reading around asubject, or when discussing problems with others. Take care not to waste too much timeon preliminaries and start relevant action as quickly as possible.

Write down your thoughts. The act of writing your thoughts is important as this forcesyou to clarify them. Also, since ideas are often fleeting, it makes sense to ensure youhave a permanent record. Reviewing what you have written makes you more critical andcan lead you on to new ideas.

Try to be analytical, not descriptive. By looking at Table 22.1, you will appreciate why analysis is regarded as a higher-level skill than description. Many students losemarks because they simply quote facts or statements, without explaining their import-ance and context, that is, without showing their understanding of what the quote meansor implies.

When quoting evidence, use appropriate citations. This is important as it shows youhave read relevant source material and helps you avoid plagiarism (Ch 36). The con-ventions for citation vary among subjects (Ch 35), so consult course handbooks or other information and make sure you follow the instructions carefully, or you may losemarks.

Draw on the ideas and opinions of your peers and tutors. Discussions with others canbe very fruitful, revealing a range of interpretations that you might not have thoughtabout yourself. You may find it useful to bounce ideas off others. Tutors can provide useful guidance once you have done some reading, and are usually pleased to be askedfor help.

Keep an open mind. Although you may start with preconceived ideas about a topic, youshould try to be receptive to the ideas of others. You may find that your initial thoughtsbecome altered by what you are reading and discussing. If there is not enough evidenceto support any conclusion, be prepared to suspend judgement.

Look beneath the surface. Decide whether sources are dealing with facts or opinions;examine any assumptions made, including your own; think about the motivation of writers.Rather than restating and describing your sources, focus on what they mean by whatthey write.

Avoid common pitfalls of shallow thinking. Try not to:

l rush to conclusions

l generalise

l oversimplify

l personalise

l use fallacious arguments

l think in terms of stereotypes

l make value judgements.

TSS_C22.qxd 6/27/06 16:01 Page 143

Keep asking yourself questions. A good way to think more deeply is to ask questions,even after you feel a matter is resolved or you understand it well. All critical thinking isthe result of asking questions.

Balance your arguments. If asked to arrive at a position on a subject, you should try todo this in an even-handed way, by considering all possible viewpoints and by presentingyour conclusion with supporting evidence.


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And now . . .

22.1 Practise seeing both sides of an argument. Choose a topic, perhaps oneon which you have strong views (for example, a political matter, such asstate support for private schooling; or an ethical one, such as the need forvivisection or abortion). Write down the supporting arguments for bothsides of the issue, focusing on your least-favoured option. This will help you see both sides of a debate as a matter of course.

22.2 Analyse the instruction words in past exam papers. Note which types of instruction words are commonly used. First check that you understandwhat is expected in relation to each word (Ch 32), then, taking intoaccount the subject and the way in which it has been taught, what level ofthinking you are expected to demonstrate in your exam answers. If you arein doubt, ask a subject tutor to explain.

22.3 Look into the murky world of fallacies and biased arguments. There are some very good websites that provide lists of different types of thesewith examples. Investigate these by using ‘fallacy’ or ‘logical fallacies’ in a search engine. Not only are the results quite entertaining at times, butyou will find the knowledge obtained improves your analytical and debating skills.

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23 THE LIBRARY AS A RESOURCE 145

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The library is a key resource for any student. A modern university library is much morethan a collection of books and journals – it co-ordinates an electronic gateway to a mas-sive amount of online information. Accessing these resources requires library skills thatare essential for your studies.

First steps for new students

l Find the university library and activate yourmembership. This usually cannot be done untilyou have matriculated.

l Find out when library tours that are offered tonew students take place. Register for one ofthese, since this will enable you to familiariseyourself with the layout and facilities available.

l Obtain leaflets or library maps to which you can refer later when you explore the library on your own.

The range of facilities and resources

Most university libraries offer the following facilities:

l quiet study areas

l groupwork areas where discussion is allowed

l photocopiers and printers

23 The library as a resource

How to make the best use of the facilities

At university you will find that you will be expected not only to seek outthe books on your reading list, but also to source additional material foryourself. Learning more about your university library and how to access its resources is a priority. This chapter offers some suggestions andstrategies for using your library effectively.

Key terms

CopyrightDewey decimal

systemebraryLibrary of Congress

system


l First steps for new studentsl The range of facilities and resourcesl What you need to know as a borrowerl Regulations and codes of conductl Key library skills

When you join your universitylibrary, a record is establishedin your name. Most librariesuse an electronic system thatallows you to check yourrecord of books out on loanat any time.

Your library record

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l computing terminals, and possibly a wirelessnetwork

l online catalogue access

l support from expert staff, both in person and viathe library website.

Apart from books, most UK university libraries willalso hold the following:

l selected daily and weekly newspapers

l periodicals and academic journals

l reference materials

l slides (e.g. for art or life sciences)

l video and DVD resources.

Table 23.1 indicates the type of content you canexpect from these resources. The precise holdingswill depend on factors such as the degrees taught,any teaching specialisms, the research interests ofstaff and past bequests of collections. Each library isunique and, in this respect, will hold particular archivematerial that is not available elsewhere.

E-resources

Many current items are now available online in each of the categories listed in Table 23.1.For example, libraries take out subscriptions to e-book repositories, e-journals, e-news-papers and online dictionaries and encyclopaedias. Your institution will have its ownmethod of giving access to these resources, probablyvia the library electronic desktop. A password may berequired (see below).

The main advantage of this method of accessinginformation is that it is available 24 hours per dayfrom any computer connected to the internet. Insome cases, more than one person can access the e-book at any one time. Some e-book facilities, such asebrary, offer additional facilities, such as searching,note-making facilities and linked online dictionariesfor checking the meanings of words.

Electronic databases make it easier to access infor-mation from public bodies, and much of that kind of information is also now more readily availableonline. For example, statistical population details are available through the National Statistics website(www.statistics.gov.uk), while papers and publica-tions produced by the Houses of Parliament can alsobe accessed electronically (www.parliament.uk).

146 23 THE LIBRARY AS A RESOURCE

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Sometimes reading lists are lengthy and therecommended textbooks are expensive. It’s worthpurchasing your own copy of books that you need torefer to frequently and thatrelate strongly to the lecturecontent and coursework. In other cases, it’s worthchecking what the libraryholds, although you mayencounter access problems ifeveryone else in the class islooking for the same thing atthe same time. In this case,use the catalogue to findalternatives – there areusually other options.

Deciding whether to buy textbooks

Many university librariesshare resources with those of neighbouring institutionsand all are linked to theBritish Library, the nationallibrary of the UK. Thisreceives a copy of everypublication produced in theUK and Ireland, and itsmassive collection of over 150 million items increases by 3 million items every year.Some university libraries aredesignated as EuropeanDocumentation Centres(http://europa.eu.int/comm/relays/edc_en.htm). Thesecentres hold key documentsof the European Union.

Shared library resources

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What you need to know as a borrower

You should find out the answers to the following questions regarding book borrowing.

l How many books can you borrow at any one time? This depends on your statusas a borrower: staff and postgraduate students can usually borrow more books thanundergraduate members.

l What is the maximum loan period? This will depend on the type of resource youwish to borrow. For example, some books that are heavily in demand because theyare prescribed texts may be put on a short-loan system within the library. The basicidea is that readers are limited to a shorter borrowing time for these books. Thisperiod may be as short as a few hours, or perhaps a few days. Standard loans areusually for several weeks.

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Examples

Prescribed texts

General textbooks

Supplementary texts

Standard dictionaries

Bilingual dictionaries

Subject-specific dictionaries

General encyclopaedias

Discipline-specificencyclopaedias

Biographical material

Yearbooks

Atlases

Directories

Daily or weekly newspapers

Discipline- or subject-specificpublications produced threeor four times per year

Nature; New Scientist; TheEconomist

Indication of content

Provide clear linkage with the coursecontent

Give an overview of the subject

Discuss subject in greater depth

Provide spelling, pronunciation andmeaning

Provide translation of words andexpressions in two languages

Define key specialist terms

Provide a quick overview of a new topic

Focus on in-depth coverage of specifictopics

Sources of information on key figuresboth contemporary and in the past

Provide up-to-date information onorganisations

Provide geographical information

Provide up-to-date access toinformation on organisations

Provide coverage of contemporaryissues

Provide recent ideas, reports andcomment on current research issues

Provide coverage of emerging themeswithin broad fields, such as their titlessuggest

Table 23.1 Some of the types of content that can be obtained from library resources.These may be available as hard copy or online.

Type of resource

Books

Reference books

Newspapers

Periodicals and academic journals

Popular periodicals

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l What are the fines if you keep a book after thedue date? Fines usually apply to all borrowers,whether they are staff or students. The fine willbe dictated by the status of the book that isoverdue. Short-loan books have higher fines;standard loans are lower. While a few pence maynot seem much on a standard loan, if you have 10 books all overdue for two weeks, you can belooking at a double-figure in pounds.

l How can you renew the loan? Most librariesaccept telephone renewals, but increasinglyonline facilities enable you to renew books fromwherever you access the university home page.

Regulations and codes of conduct

All libraries have these; they generally serve to pro-tect the resources and respect the needs of otherlibrary users. You will be alerted to these rules bynotices, leaflets and websites. In particular, you haveimportant legal responsibilities under copyright law,which sets out limits on the amount you can photo-copy (Ch 36).

Key library skills

These are the basic skills you will need to master:

l How to use the electronic catalogue. Mostsystems offer a function where you can search byauthor, by title, or by subject, although there maybe more alternatives on the system you will use.

l How to find a book or periodical. When youidentify the book that you want from thecatalogue, then you need to be able to find whereit is shelved in the library. This means that youneed to take a note of two things: the location(the book might be shelved in another site library,for example) and the class number (not the ISBNnumber, which is irrelevant). The cataloguenumber may comprise a sequence of lettersand/or numbers depending on the system used in your library. This number corresponds to thenumber on the spine of the book – universitiesgenerally use one of two systems (see tip box onpage 149). Books are shelved sequentially according to these numbers in stackslabelled to assist you to find what you want. If you have difficulty in locating aparticular book, then library staff can help.


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To protect their valuableassets, most universitiesoperate a system ofelectronic ‘book tagging’ to ensure that resourcescannot be withdrawn without being logged out to a particular user. This meansthat all books need to be ‘de-activated’ before you cantake them out of the library.

Electronic book tagging

If your library operates a cardsystem for photocopying,write your name and acontact number on your card,in case you absent-mindedlyleave it on a machine.

Always identify yourphotocopy cards

It is useful to remember that there are often severalways to spell surnames, forexample Brown/Browne orNichol/Nicol/Nicoll. To find a book by an author’s namethat you may only have heardmentioned in a lecture, youmay have to try variousoptions in order to find theone you want. Check with the book list in your coursehandbook, as this may givedetails, including catalogueinformation.

Catalogue searches

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l How to borrow a book or journal from another library. Sometimes books are notavailable in your own library and you may wish to request a loan from another UKlibrary. There will be a particular librarian responsible for inter-library loans who willarrange this. However, there are cost implications in this process. Usually, the costis borne by the borrower.

l How to access your university library’s e-resources. This is normally done via the library’s website. Some resources are open-access, but others will require apassword. The Athens username and password scheme allows publishers to verifythat your library has subscribed to an e-resource and that you have access rights.You’ll normally need to log on to a university network computer to obtain an Athensaccount, but once you have received the username and password information, youcan log in from any internet-connected computer.

Of course, finding information within the library and associated online facilities is onlythe first step in using it for your studies. The next stage is to evaluate it (Ch 24) and useit appropriately in your academic writing (Ch 32, Ch 33), note-making and revision (Ch 26, Ch 58). In these contexts, citing sources of information correctly (Ch 35) isimportant, to avoid plagiarism (Ch 36).

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The system your library uses will be explained in leaflets or during the library tour. The two main possibilities are:

n The Dewey decimal system: each book is given a numerical code. For example,editions of Hamlet by William Shakespeare are filed under 822.33.

n The Library of Congress system: each book is given an alphanumeric code. Forexample, editions of Hamlet by William Shakespeare are filed under PR2807.

Additional numbers and letters may be used to define editions and variants on a subjectarea. Each system may be interpreted slightly differently in different libraries.

Library cataloguing systems

Practical tips for making the most of library resources

Go on a library tour. Be prepared to ask questions if you are shown things that you don’t understand or that seem strange to you. University libraries are unlike public lib-raries in many ways and have much more to offer. This is a chance to learn about theseopportunities. If tours are not available, then see if a virtual tour can be made from youruniversity library’s website.

Take advantage of reciprocal arrangements. Some university libraries have agree-ments with other similar libraries in the area, including national libraries. This enablesyou to use and sometimes, depending on the agreement, to borrow books from partnerlibraries.

Find and join the local public library. This may hold some texts that would be relevantto your course and will not be so heavily in demand as those in the university library.

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And now . . .

23.1 Spend some time becoming thoroughly acquainted with the electroniclibrary resources. Look, in particular, at any subject-specific resourcesthat are provided on the catalogue system or via the library website.

23.2 Explore the shelves covering your subject area. Identify this area fromthe library catalogue and the information on shelving aisles. ‘Browsing’ thebooks and catalogues may reveal interesting resources you might not findby other searching methods.

23.3 Find out about alternative library facilities. In some cases, there may besatellite libraries on different campuses or in different buildings. Some ofthese may be departmental libraries, containing specialist resources. Thesecan contain duplicate holdings of books in the main library. Importantly,you may find they represent convenient or preferable study areas. Even ifthey do not cover your subject area, you may find that their atmosphere ismore suited to your mood, learning style or personality.

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24 ANALYSING AND EVALUATING INFORMATION 151

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Whatever subject you are studying at university, the ability to evaluate information andideas is essential. This is a multifaceted skill that will differ according to the task in hand.Your analysis may centre on the accuracy or truth of the information itself, the reliabil-ity or potential bias of the source of the information, or the value of information in rela-tion to some argument or case. You may also come across contradictory sources ofevidence or conflicting arguments based on the same information. You will need toassess their relative merits. To do any or all of thesetasks, you will need to understand more about the ori-gin and nature of information.

The origin of information and ideas

Essentially, facts and ideas originate from someone’sresearch or scholarship. These can be descriptions,concepts, interpretations or numerical data. At somepoint, information or ideas must be communicated orpublished, otherwise no one else would know aboutthem. Information and ideas usually appear first in theprimary literature and may be modified later in thesecondary literature (Table 24.1). Understanding thisprocess is important when analysing and evaluatinginformation and when deciding how to cite evidence orreferences in the text of your own assignments (Ch 35).

24 Analysing and evaluatinginformation

How to filter and select reliable material and discuss itappropriately

Since so much information is available nowadays, through many differentmedia, the evaluation of evidence, data and opinions has become a core skill.This chapter will help you understand the origin of information and ideas,the reliability of sources, and differences between fact, opinion and truth.

Key terms

CitationConjectureObjectivityPremise/premissPrimary sourceProvenanceSecondary sourceSubjectivityValue judgement


l The origin of information and ideasl Assessing sources of ‘facts’l Facts, opinions and truthl Backing up your own opinion or conclusion

In ‘scientific’ subjects you willneed to interpret and checkthe reliability of data. This isessential for setting up andtesting meaningful hypotheses,and therefore at the core ofthe scientific approach.

In ‘non-scientific’ subjects,ideas and concepts areimportant, and you may needto carry out an objectiveanalysis of information andarguments so that you canconstruct your own position,backed up with evidence.

The nature of evaluation

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Assessing sources of ‘facts’

Not all ‘facts’ are true. What you read could be mis-quoted, misrepresented, erroneous or based on afaulty premise. This is particularly true of web-basedinformation because it is less likely to be refereed oredited. Logically, the closer you can get to the prim-ary source, the more consistent the information islikely to be with the original. Clearly, a lot depends on who wrote the source and under what patronage(who paid them?). Hence, another important way ofassessing sources is to investigate the ownership and‘provenance’ of the work (from whom and where itoriginated, and why).

l Authorship. Can you identify who wrote the piece? If it is signed or there is a ‘by-line’ showing who wrote it, you might be able to judge the quality of what you arereading. This may be a simple decision, if you know or can assume the author is anauthority in the area; otherwise a little research (for example, by putting the nameinto a search engine) might help.

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l The primary literature in your subject may be published in theform of papers (articles) in journals.

l The primary literature is usually refereed by experts in theauthors’ academic peer group, who check the accuracy andoriginality of the work and report their opinions back to thejournal editors. This system helps to maintain reliability, but it is not perfect.

l Books (and, more rarely, articles in magazines andnewspapers) can also be primary sources, but this depends on the nature of the information published rather than themedium. These sources are not formally refereed, althoughthey may be read by editors and lawyers to check for errorsand unsubstantiated or libellous allegations.

l It is the act of recycling that makes the source secondary,rather than the medium. Reviews are examples of secondarysources in the academic world, and textbooks and magazinearticles are often of this type.

l As people adopt, modify, translate and develop informationand ideas, alterations are likely to occur, whether intentionalor unintentional. Most authors of secondary sources do notdeliberately set out to change the meaning of the primarysource, but they may unwittingly do so. Others mayconsciously or unconsciously exert bias in their reporting by quoting evidence only on one side of a debate.

l Modifications while creating a secondary source could involveadding valuable new ideas and content, or correcting errors.

Table 24.1 Characteristics and examples of primary and secondary sources ofinformation

Primary sources: those in which ideas and data are first communicated.

Secondary sources:those that quote, adapt, interpret, translate, develop or otherwise use information drawn from primary sources.

Always try to read and citethe primary source if you can.Do not rely on a secondarysource to do this for you, as you may find the authoruses information selectivelyto support their case, orinterprets it in a different way than you might.

Who should you quote?

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Of course, just because Professor X thinkssomething, this does not make it true. However, if you know that their opinion is backed by yearsof research and experience, then you might takeit a little more seriously than the thoughts of an unknown web author. If no author is cited, this may mean that no one is willing to takeresponsibility for the content. Could there be a reason for this?

l Provenance. Is the author’s place of workmentioned? This might tell you whether there islikely to have been an academic study behind thefacts or opinions given. If the author works for apublic body, there may be publication rules tofollow and they may even have to submit their work to a publications committeebefore it is disseminated. They are certainly more likely to get into trouble if theyinclude scurrilous or incorrect material. Another question to ask is whether acompany or political faction may have a vested interest behind the content.

Table 24.2 is a checklist for assessing the reliability of information you may read.

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This information is easy to find in most publishedacademic sources, and mayeven be presented just belowthe title for convenience. Inthe case of the Web, it maynot be so easy to find whatyou want. However, oftenrelevant clues can beobtained from the header,body and footer information.

Determining authorshipand provenance

Table 24.2 A checklist for assessing the reliability of information. These questions arebased on commonly adopted criteria; the more ‘yes’ answers you can give, the moretrustworthy you can assume your source to be.

Assessing authorship and the nature of the source

q Can you identify the author’s name?

q Can you determine what relevant qualifications they hold?

q Can you say who employs the author?

q Do you know who paid for the work to be done?

q Is this a primary source rather than a secondary one?

q Has the source been refereed or edited?

q Is the content original or derived?

q Does the source cite relevant literature?

q Have you checked a range of sources?

Evaluating the information and its analysis

q Is the source cited by others?

q Is the date of the source likely to be importantregarding the accuracy of the information? Forexample, is it contemporary to events, or is itwritten with the benefit of hindsight?

q Have you focused on the substance of theinformation presented rather than itspackaging?

q Is the information fact or opinion?

q Have you checked for any logical fallacies in thearguments?

q Does the language used indicate anything aboutthe status of the information?

q Have possible errors associated with anynumbers been taken into account?

q Have the data been analysed using appropriatestatistics?

q If there are graphs, are they constructed fairly?

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Facts, opinions and truth

When dealing with a large reading list and a widediversity of viewpoints, you can easily become con-fused and lose sight of the differences between fact,opinion and truth. Becoming aware of this issue isfundamental to study in many subjects, particularly inthe arts, social sciences and law.

In many fields, for example in arts and social sciences,there is often no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ answer, simply arange of stances or viewpoints. It is therefore pos-sible that your answer may differ significantly fromthe viewpoints of your fellow students and possiblyalso that of your tutor. You will probably be givencredit for constructing your own argument with evid-ence to substantiate your position, rather than simplyfollowing a ‘line’ expounded in lectures or a standardtext. Even if your tutor disagrees personally with yourconclusions, they will mark your work according tothe way you have presented it.

However, in some subjects, such as History, Politicsand Economics, it is very easy to stray into opinion-ated and biased conclusions. Sometimes these mightbe referred to as ‘value judgements’ (Ch 37). If yourwork includes these unsubstantiated viewpoints, youmay be marked down.

Truth is a concept that can be problematic, because it involves a host of philosoph-ical concepts, which may be confusing. In debate, something is only true when all sidesof the argument accept it. If a particular line of argument can be shown to lack credibility or to be in some way unacceptable, this will add weight to the counter-argument.

Concepts of truth and fact involve the notions of objectivity and subjectivity:

l objective means based on a balanced consideration of the facts;

l subjective means based on one person’s opinion.

Most academics aim for a detached, objective piece of writing. Nevertheless, it is import-ant to state your own opinion at some point in the work, particularly if some of the evidence might point to a contrary view. The key is to produce valid reasons for holdingyour opinion.

Backing up your own opinion or conclusion

Your grade will probably depend on how convincing your argument is and how well youuse supporting evidence to support your position. Evidence comes in many forms: fromstatistical/numeric sources, from quotations, or from observation. You should assess allpotential evidence for relevance and value, and you must make sure you cite the source


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The world record for the 100-metre sprint in athleticswas 9.79 seconds at 30September 1999. This is afact. The record may changeover time, but this statementwill still be true. Some claimthat many world records arecreated by athletes who havetaken drugs to enhance theirperformance. This is anopinion. There is evidence to back up this position, butrecent controversies havehighlighted the problem ofproof in these cases. Claimsabout drug misuse are opento conjecture, claim andcounter-claim, not all ofwhich can be true. Your task might be to identify thedifference between fact andopinion and write with thatknowledge. Do not avoid thecontroversy, but be clearabout the facts, the truth andyour opinion of the evidence.

Example: fact and opinion

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of the information in your own writing, otherwise the evidence may be invalidated by themarker and you may be accused of plagiarism (Ch 35, Ch 36).

Above all, you should try to produce a balanced conclusion. This is one where you areopen about counter-arguments and counter-evidence that does not, at least on the faceof it, support your case. You must explain what others think or might think, then explainwhy you have arrived at the conclusion you personally have made.

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Practical tips for evaluating information

Make cross-referencing checks. This means looking at more than one source and comparing what is said in each. The sources should be as independent as possible (forexample, do not compare an original source with one that is directly based on it). If youfind the sources agree, you may become more certain of your position. If two sourcesdiffer, you may need to decide which viewpoint is better.

Consider the age of the source. ‘Old’ does not necessarily mean ‘wrong’, but ideas andfacts may have altered between then and now. Can you trace changes through time inthe sources available to you? What key events, works or changes in methods have forcedany changes in the conclusions?

Look at the extent and quality of citations provided by the author. This applies par-ticularly to articles in academic journals, where positions are usually supported by cita-tions of others’ work. These citations may indicate that a certain amount of research hasbeen carried out beforehand, and that the ideas or results are based on genuine scholar-ship. If you doubt the quality of the work, these references might be worth looking at. Howup to date are they? Do they cite independent work, or is the author exclusively quotinghim/herself or the work of one particular researcher?

Assess substance over presentation. Just because information is presented well, forinstance in a glossy magazine or particularly well-constructed website, this does not nec-essarily tell you much about the quality of its content. Try to look beyond the surface.

Analyse the language used. Words and their use can be very revealing. Have subjectiveor objective sentence structures been employed? The former might indicate a personalopinion rather than an objective conclusion. Are there any telltale signs of propaganda?Bias might be indicated by absolute terms, such as ‘everyone knows . . .’; ‘I can guaran-tee that . . .’; or a seemingly unbalanced consideration of the evidence. How carefully hasthe author considered the topic? A less studious approach might be indicated by exag-geration, ambiguity, or the use of journalese and slang. Always remember, however, thatcontent should be judged above presentation.

Try to maintain a healthy, detached scepticism. However reliable a source of a pieceof information seems to be, it is probably a good idea to retain a degree of scepticismabout the facts or ideas involved and to question the logic of arguments. Even informa-tion from primary sources may not be perfect – different approaches can give differentoutcomes, for reasons not necessarily understood at the time of writing. Also, try not toidentify too strongly with a viewpoint, so you can be detached when assessing its meritsand failings.

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Try to distinguish fact from opinion. To what extent has the author supported a givenviewpoint? Have relevant facts been quoted, via literature citations or the author’s ownresearches? Are numerical data used to substantiate the points used? Are these reliableand can you verify the information, for example, by looking at a source that was cited?Might the author have a hidden reason for putting forward biased evidence to support apersonal opinion?

Spot fallacious arguments and logical flaws. Concentrate on analysing the methodbeing used to put the points over, rather than the facts themselves. Perhaps you can seeone of the common fallacies in arguments that indicate a flaw in logic (Ch 22).

Look closely at any data and graphs that are presented and the way they have beenanalysed. If the information you are looking at is numerical in form, have the errors ofany data been taken into consideration, and, where appropriate, quantified? If so, doesthis help you arrive at a conclusion about how genuine the differences are betweenimportant values? Have the appropriate statistical methods been used to analyse thedata? Are the underlying hypotheses the right ones? Have the results of any tests beeninterpreted correctly in arriving at the conclusion? Look closely at any graphs. Thesemay have been constructed in such a way as to emphasise a particular viewpoint, forexample, by careful selection of axis starting points (Ch 30).

Don’t be blinded by statistics. Leaving aside the issue that statistical methods don’tactually deal with proof, only probability, it is generally possible to analyse and presentdata in such a way that they support one chosen argument or hypothesis rather thananother (‘you can prove anything with statistics’). To deal with these matters, you willneed at least a basic understanding of the ‘statistical approach’ and of the techniques incommon use (Ch 30).

Look at who else has cited the author’s work, and how. In many scientific subjects youcan use the Science Citation Index to find out how often an article or author has beencited and by whom. You may then be able to consult these sources to see how othershave viewed the original findings. Works that review the same area of study, publishedafter your source, may also provide useful comments.


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24.1 Use the checklist in Table 24.2 to assess a source about which you areuncertain. If you are unable to establish its reliability, you should researchfurther around the topic.

24.2 Analyse the nature of your sources. Each time you are provided with areading list for a tutorial, assessment exercise or for background reading,decide whether the sources on it should be considered as primary orsecondary, and why (see Table 24.1). If secondary, do they quote any of the primary sources? Try to get a copy of one of the primary sources, ifavailable, and see if this reveals anything to you about the nature ofknowledge, how it arises and how it is modified during translation.

24.3 Find out about how articles in your subject area are published. Next time you are looking at a journal in the primary literature, look out for the‘information for authors’ section. This appears every three months or so in current (unbound) volumes, or on specific web pages for e-journals. This will provide valuable insights and background information about the submission, refereeing and editing process for contributions to theprimary literature.

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158 25 EFFECTIVE ACADEMIC READING

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Much of the material you will read as part of your studies will be books and chapters writ-ten following traditional academic style, and may appear, at first glance, to be heavygoing. However, by taking advantage of the way printed academic resources are organ-ised and understanding how text within them is structured, you should find it easier toread the pages of print in a way that will help you gain an understanding of the contentwhile saving you time.

Surveying your text’s overall organisation

A text may be suggested by tutors; alternatively,when expanding your lecture notes or revising, youmay come across a resource in the library that looksas if it might be relevant. In either case, carry out apreliminary survey to familiarise yourself with what itcontains. You can use elements of the structure toanswer key questions about the content, as follows:

l Title and author(s). Does this text look as thoughit is going to be useful to your current task? Are theauthors well-known authorities in the subject area?

l Publisher’s ‘blurb’. Does this indicate that thecoverage suits your needs?

l Publication details. What is the date ofpublication? Will this book provide you with up-to-date coverage?

25 Effective academic reading

How to read efficiently and with understanding

Whatever your discipline, you will find that you are required to do a lot of reading as a university student. This chapter explains how to developthe speed-reading skills that will help you to deal more effectively withacademic text.

Key terms

BlurbFinger tracingGistTerminator

paragraphTopic paragraphTopic sentence


l Surveying your text’s overall organisationl How to examine the structure of the writing itselfl Speed-reading techniques

This chapter is concernedmainly with reading andcomprehension as a preludeto note-taking (Ch 26). While it is possible to read and takenotes at the same time, this isnot always the most effectiveform of studying, as yournotes may end up simply as a rewrite of the source text.Notes framed after you havescanned the whole text will bebetter if you have a cleareridea of their context andcontent.

Reading and note-taking

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l Contents listing. Does this indicate that the book covers the key topic areas youneed? Do the chapter titles suggest the coverage is detailed enough?

l Index. Is this comprehensive and will it help you find what you want, quickly? Froma quick look, can you see references to material you want?

l General impression. Does the text look easy to read? Is the text easy to navigatevia sub-headings? Is any visual material clear and explained well?

The answers to these questions will help you to decide whether to investigate further:whether you need to look at the whole book, or just selected parts; or whether the bookis of limited value at the present time.

How to examine the structure of the writing itself

Well-structured academic texts usually follow a stand-ard pattern with an introduction, main body and con-clusion in each element. Sometimes the introductionmay comprise several paragraphs; sometimes it maybe only one paragraph. Similarly, the conclusion maybe several paragraphs or only one. Figure 25.1 showsa layout for a piece of text with five paragraphs, com-prising an introduction and conclusion with threeintervening paragraphs of varying length.

Within the structure of the text, each paragraph willbe introduced by a topic sentence stating the contentof the paragraph. Each paragraph performs a func-tion. For example, some may describe, others mayprovide examples, while others may examine points infavour of a particular viewpoint and others points against that viewpoint. For more aboutparagraph types, see Table 38.3 on page 266.

The function of these paragraphs, and the sentences within them, is usually signalled byuse of ‘signpost words’, which guide the reader through the logical structure of the text.For example, the word ‘however’ indicates that some contrast is about to be made with

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It is always a good idea to decide this before you start reading any piece of text.

n If you are looking for a specific point of information, then this can often be donequickly, using the index or chapter titles as a guide.

n If you wish to expand your lecture notes using a textbook, then you might read in adifferent way, which might result in note-taking (Ch 26).

n If your aim is to appreciate the author’s style or the aesthetics of a piece of writing,perhaps in a work of fiction, then you may read more slowly and reread key parts.

Sometimes, different methods may be required, for example, in English literature, ‘close reading’ techniques. These specialised methods will probably be taught as part of your studies.

What is your reading goal?

The points in the main textabout the organisation ofprinted material and thestructure of text areimportant for you as a readeror decoder of text, and theyalso come into play when youbecome an academic authorand have to put your ownideas clearly – they help yourreader (often ‘the marker’) todecode your written text.

Reader as author

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a point immediately before; ‘therefore’ or ‘thus’ signal that a result or effect is about tobe explained. Use of signpost words is shown in Table 38.2, and a breakdown of textstructure is given in Table 25.1, pages 162–3.

You can use this knowledge of the structure of writing to establish the substance of apiece of text by:

l Reading the topic and terminator paragraphs, or even just their topic sentences, togain a quick overview of that element.

l Scanning through the text for key words relatedto your interest. This scanning may indicateparticular paragraphs worthy of detailed reading.Sometimes headings and sub-headings may beused, which will facilitate a search of this kind.

l Looking for signpost words to indicate how thetext and its underlying ‘argument’ is organised.

Speed-reading techniques

Before describing techniques for improving readingspeed, it is useful to understand how fast readers‘operate’. Instead of reading each word as a separateunit, these readers use what is called peripheral vision(what you see, while staring ahead, at the furthestextreme to the right and the left). This means that theyabsorb clusters of words in one ‘flash’ or ‘fixation’ on


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Figure 25.1 Sample textual layout. You can visualise the structure of any piece of readingmaterial in a similar fashion.

The basic techniques weredeveloped in the 1950s byEvelyn Wood, an Americaneducator. She set upinstitutes to teach students to develop an ability to readhundreds of words perminute. Those who havestudied her method includebusinessmen and politicians,who have to learn to readlengthy papers quickly butwith understanding. USPresidents Jimmy Carter andJohn F. Kennedy were bothregarded as famous speed-reading practitioners.

Origin of speed-reading

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the text, as shown in Figure 25.2(a). In this example, four fixations are required to readthat single line of text.

A reader who does this is reading more efficiently than the reader who reads word byword (Figure 25.2(b)). This reader makes 12 fixations along the line, which means thattheir reading efficiency is low. Research has also indicated that people who read slowlyin this way are less likely to absorb information quickly enough for the brain to compre-hend. Therefore, reading slowly can actually hinder comprehension rather than assist it.

As a practised reader, you will probably have developed these fast-reading skills to somedegree. They can be improved using techniques like the ‘eye gymnastics’ exercise inFigure 25.3. Other things you can do include ‘finger tracing’, where you run your fingerbelow the line of text being read to follow your eyes’ path across a page, starting andstopping a word or two from either side. This is said to increase your eye speed, keepyour mind focused on the words being read and prevent you from skipping back to previous sentences or jumping forward to text that follows. Some people find it helpfulto use a bookmark placed horizontally along the line they are reading, because it makesa useful guide that prevents the eye jumping ahead of the text they are reading.

Figure 25.2 Eye movements when reading. (a) Reader who makes eye fixations onclusters of words. (b) Reader who reads every word one by one.

As well as trying methods to read faster, you should be aware of circumstances thatmight slow you down. These include:

n distractions such as background noise of television, music or chatter (see Table 8.2on page 51);

n sub-vocalisation (sounding out each word as it is read aloud);

n reading word by word;

n over-tiredness;

n poor eyesight – if you think your eyes are not 20:20, then it might be worth going foran eye test; your eyes are too important to neglect and a pair of reading glasses maymake a huge difference to your studying comfort;

n poor lighting – if you can, read using a lamp that can shine directly on to the text;reading in poor light causes eye strain and this, in turn, limits concentration and thelength of reading episodes.

Things that can reduce your reading speed

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Table 25.1 Sample reading text, showing reading ‘signposts’. This text might representthe introduction to a textbook on modern communications in electrical engineering,journalism, marketing or psychology. The light shaded areas indicate the topic sentences;darker shading indicates the signpost words. You can also use this text of 744 words toassess your speed of reading (see Table 25.2).

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Try the following method:

n Select a reading passage of about two pages in length (you could use the sample textin Table 25.1). Note your starting and finishing time and calculate your reading speedusing Method B in Table 25.2.

n Take a break of 40–60 minutes.

n Return to the text and run a finger along the line of text much faster than you couldpossibly read it.

n Repeat, but more slowly, so that you can just read it (‘finger tracing’). Again, noteyour starting and finishing times, and work out your reading speed. You should findthat your reading speed has increased from the first reading.

n Carry out this exercise at the same time of day over a week, using texts of similarlength and complexity.

Increasing your reading speed using finger tracing

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Figure 25.3 ‘Eye gymnastics’ exercise. Try to read the following text quite quickly. Readfrom left to right in the normal way. The aim of the activity is to train your eyes to makemore use of your peripheral vision when you are reading. In this way, you will learn to makefewer fixations on the text by forcing your eyes to focus on the centre of a group of words,which are printed in naturally occurring clusters – usually on the basis of grammatical orlogical framing. It may be that you experience some discomfort behind your eyes, whichindicates that they are adjusting to this less familiar pattern. If this is the case, you shouldkeep practising using this text as a means of developing the speed of your eye movements.

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The average reading speed is said to be 265 words per minute (wpm). Reading speed for university students may be slightly lower, as aspects like difficulty of the text, unfamiliarity with the terminology used and the complexity of the concepts being discussed in the text have the potential to slow down reading. However, as you becomemore familiar with the subject and the issues being covered in your course and, thus,with your supplementary reading, then your reading speed will increase.

You can assess your normal reading speed using either method described in Table 25.2.The text of Table 25.1 is a suitable piece of writing whose word length is already known,should you wish to try method B. If your reading speed seems slow, then you can workon improving it by using a similar level and length of text at the same time each day. Go through the reading speed process and, gradually, you should see your averagecreeping up.

There are many other strategies you can develop to read and absorb content quickly.These include:

l Skimming. Pick out a specific piece of information by quickly letting your eye rundown a list or over a page looking for a key word or phrase, as when seeking a par-ticular name or address in a phone book.

l Scanning. Let your eye run quickly over a chapter, for example before you commityourself to study-read the whole text. This will help you to gain an overview of thechapter before you start.

l Picking out the topic sentences. As seen above and in Figure 25.1 and Table 25.1,by reading the topic sentences you will be able to flesh out your overview of thetext content. This will aid your understanding before you study-read the whole text.

l Identifying the signpost words. As noted above, these help guide you as the readerthrough the logical process that the author has mapped out for you.

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Table 25.2 How to calculate your reading speed. These two examples show the principlesof how to do this calculation.

Method A (specified reading time)

a Select a chapter from a textbook (this is better than a newspaper or journal because theseare often printed in columns)

b Calculate the average number of words per line,e.g. 50 words counted over 5 lines = 10 words per line

c Count the number of lines per page = 41 total linesd Multiply (b × c) = 10 × 41 = 410 words per pagee Read for a specific time (to the nearest minute or half-minute)

without stopping = 4 minutes’ readingf Number of pages read in 4 minutes = 2.5 pages readg Multiply (d × f) = 410 × 2.5 = 1025 total words readh Divide (g ÷ e) = 1025 ÷ 4 = 256 words per minute

Method B (specified text length)

a Find a piece of text of known or estimated word length (see method A) = 744 words

b Note the time taken to read this in seconds = 170 secondsc Convert the seconds to a decimal fraction of minutes = 170 ÷ 60 = 2.8 minutesd Divide (a ÷ c) = 744 ÷ 2.8 = 266 words per minute

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l Recognising clusters of grammatically allied words. Subliminally, you will begrouping words in clusters according to their natural alliances. This will help you toread by making fewer fixations and this will improve your reading speed. You canimprove your speed at doing this by using the eye-gymnastics exercise describedearlier.

l Taking cues from punctuation. As you read, you will gain some understanding byinterpreting the text using the cues of full stops and commas, for example to helpyou gain understanding of what you are reading. The importance of punctuation tocomprehension is vital (Ch 40).

To be effective, reading quickly must be matched by a good level of comprehension.Conversely, reading too slowly can mean that comprehension is hampered. Clearly, youneed to incorporate tests of your understanding to check that you have understood themain points of the text. One method of reading that incorporates this is called the SQ3Rmethod – survey, question, read, recall and review (Table 25.3). This is also a helpfulstrategy for exam revision as it incorporates the development of memory and learningskills simultaneously. Another test of assimilation is note-taking. This is covered in thefollowing chapter, Ch 26.


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Table 25.3 Reading for remembering: the SQ3R method. The point of this method is thatthe reader has to engage in processing the material in the text and is not simply reading on‘autopilot’ where very little is being retained.

Survey stage

l Read the first paragraph (topic paragraph) and last paragraph (terminator paragraph) of achapter or page of notes

l Read the intervening paragraph topic sentencesl Focus on the headings and sub-headings, if presentl Study the graphs and diagrams for key features

Question stage

l What do you know already about this topic?l What is the author likely to tell you?l What specifically do you need to find out?

Read stage

l Read the entire section quickly to get the gist of the piece of writing; finger-tracing techniques may be helpful at this point

l Go back to the question stage and revisit your initial answersl Look especially for keywords, key statements, signpost wordsl Do not stop to look up unknown words – go for completion

Recall stage

l Turn the book or your notes over and try to recall as much as possiblel Make key pattern headings/notes/diagrams/flow charts (Ch 26)l Turn over the book againl Check over for accuracy of recall; suggested recall periods – every 20 minutes

Review stage

l After a break, try to recall the main points

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Practical tips for reading effectively and withunderstanding

Be selective and understand your purpose. Think about why you are reading. Look at the material you have already collected relating to the subject or topic you aim tostudy. For example, this should include lecture notes, which ought to remind you of theway a topic was presented, the thrust of an argument or a procedure. Are you readingto obtain a general overview or is it to identify additional specific information? Use atechnique and material that suits your needs.

Adjust your reading speed according to the type of text you have to read. Amarginally interesting article in a newspaper will probably require less intensive readingthan a key chapter in an academic book.

Grasp the general message before dealing with difficult parts. Not all texts are ‘readerfriendly’. If you find a section of text difficult to understand, then skip over that bit; toiling over it will not increase your understanding. Continue with your reading and whenyou come to a natural break in the text, for example, the end of a chapter or section, thengo back to the ‘sticky’ bit and reread it. Usually, second time round, it will make moresense because you have an overview of the context. Similarly, don’t stop every time youcome across a new word. Read on and try to get the gist of the meaning from the rest of the text. When you have finished, look the word up in a dictionary and add to your personal glossary (Ch 42).

Take regular breaks. Reading continuously over a long period of time is counterpro-ductive. Concentration is at a peak after 20 minutes, but wanes after 40 minutes. Takeregular breaks, making sure that your breaks do not become longer than your studystints!

Follow up references within your text. When you are reading, you need to be consciousof the citations to other authors that might be given in the text; not all will be relevantto your reading purpose, but it is worth quickly noting the ones that look most interest-ing as you come across them. You’ll usually find the full publication details in the references at the end of the chapter/article or at the end of the book. This will give yousufficient information to supplement your reading once you have finished reading the‘parent’ text.

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And now . . .

25.1 Monitor your reading speed. Choose a suitable text and calculate yourspeed using either method A or B in Table 25.2. If you feel your speed isrelatively slow, then try out some of the methods suggested in the speed-reading section of this chapter. After a period of using these methods, anddeciding which suit you, check your speed to see if you have improved.

25.2 Practise surveying a text using a book from your reading list. Ratherthan simply opening your reading resource at the prescribed pages, spendfive or ten minutes surveying the whole book. Think about how the authorhas organised the content and why. Keep this in mind when reading thetext, and reflect on whether this has improved your comprehension andassimilation of the content.

25.3 Become more familiar with the visual reading cues embedded withintexts. As shown within this chapter, conventions of grammar, punctuationand spelling are useful in providing clues to meaning for the reader (see Table 25.1, for example). If you would like to look into these topicsfurther, then see Ch 39, Ch 40 and Ch 41.

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Most courses provide a reading list of recommended resources. Depending on your subject, these include textbooks, journal articles and web-based materials. Sometimesyou will be given specific references; at other times you will have to find the relevantmaterial in the text for yourself. The techniques described in Ch 25 will help you identifythe most relevant parts of the text quickly and provide basic information for your note-making.

You will develop note-making skills as you progress in your studies. It takes time andexperimentation to achieve a method that suits you. This will need to fit with your learn-ing style (Ch 13), the time that you can allocate to the task and be appropriate for thematerial and the subject area you are tackling. This chapter suggests a range of methods youcan choose from in order to abstract and write downthe key points from your sources.

Why are you taking notes?

Students usually make notes for assignment writingand/or revision. Therefore, some texts will simply be‘dip in and out’, while some will require intensive read-ing. You need to decide what your purpose is in mak-ing the notes. For example, it may be to:

l frame an overview of the subject;

l record a sequence or process;

l enable you to analyse a problem;

26 Note-making from texts

How to create effective notes for later reference

Keeping a record of the content of your reading is essential when you are astudent. There is simply too much information to remember and retain. Thischapter outlines practical ways in which you can keep a record of what youread in appropriate note form so that it is meaningful to you at a later date.

Key terms

AnnotateCitationCitingLandscape

orientationMnemonicPortrait orientation


l Why are you taking notes?l What do you need to record?l How are you going to lay out your notes?

Sometimes notes may bebetter suited to being laid out on paper in the landscaperather than the portraitposition. This clearly suitsmethods such as mind maps(Figure 26.5). Similarly, youcan take advantage of thelandscape format whenmaking matrix (grid) notes(Figure 26.6) by creatingcolumns across the page.

Note-making formats

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l extract the logic of an argument;

l compare different viewpoints;

l borrow quotes (with suitable citation – see Ch 35);

l add your own commentary on the text, perhaps by linking key points with what hasbeen discussed in a lecture or tutorial.

This will influence the style, detail and depth of your notes.

What do you need to record?

One of the pitfalls of making notes is that people often start off with a blank sheet, penin hand, and then begin to note ‘important’ points as they read. Within a short time, theyare rewriting the book. To avoid this, the trick is to:

l identify your purpose;

l scan the section to be read;

l establish the writer’s purpose, for example:

– a narrative of events or process

– a statement of facts

– an explanation of reasoning or presentation of a logical argument

– an analysis of an issue, problem or situation

– a critique of an argument;

l work out their ‘take’ on the subject, and how this relates to your purpose;

l decide on the most appropriate note-making style and layout for the task.

170 26 NOTE-MAKING FROM TEXTS

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It will save time if you develop good practice in making your notes.

n On all notes record the full details of source, that is:

– author surname and initials

– title in full with chapter and pages

– date of publication

– publisher and place of publication.

You will need this information to enable you to cite the source of information if youdecide to use any of this information in your own writing (Ch 35).

n It’s a good idea to add the date(s) you made the notes.

n Your notes have to be as meaningful in six days’, weeks’ or months’ time. Personalisethem by using:

– underlining – bullet points

– highlighting – mnemonics

– colour coding – distinctive layout

– numbered lists – boxes for important points.

Essentials of note-making

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How are you going to lay out your notes?

There are several strategies that you might consider using. Figures 26.1–26.7 illustratesome examples (see also Ch 17). Not all will be relevant to your subject, but some will.Some techniques may not seem directly suitable, but, with a little adaptation, they maywork for you. Table 26.1 compares the advantages and disadvantages of each method.

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Table 26.1 A comparison of the different methods of note-making from texts(illustrated in Figures 26.1–26.7)

Note type

Keyword notes

Linear notes

Time lines

Flow-chart notes

Concept maps/mind maps

Matrix notes/grid notes

Herringbone maps

Figure

26.1

26.2

26.3

26.4

26.5

26.6

26.7

Advantage

Good as a layout for easy accessto information

Numbered sequence – good forclassifying ideas

Act as memory aid for a sequenceof events; stages in a process

Allow clear path through complexoptions

Good for recording information ona single page

Good layout for recordingdifferent viewpoints, approaches,applications

Good for laying out opposingsides of an argument

Disadvantage

Dependent on systematicstructure in text

Restrictive format, difficultto backtrack to insert newinformation

Limited information possible

Take up space; may beunwieldy

Can become messy; can bedifficult to follow; not suitedto all learning styles

Space limitations on contentor amount of information

Space limitations on contentor amount of information

Topic: DEPOPULATION OF THE COUNTRYSIDE Source: Ormiston, J., 2002. Rural Idylls.Glasgow: Country Press.

Problem: Population falling in rural areasTraditional communities disintegrateIncomer settlement – dormitory villages

Reasons: Mechanisation of farmingCreation of farming combinesBigger farms, fewer employedDecline of traditional farming & related activities

Effects: Families dispersed – fewer childrenClosure of shops, post offices, schools, surgeriesTransport links less viable

Solutions: Housing subsidies to encourage families to remainDiversify economic activity, e.g. tourism/action holidaysStimulate rural economy – farm shops, farmers’ marketsDiversify from traditional crops – seek new markets

Figure 26.1 Example of keyword notes

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Topic: OBESITY IN CHILDREN Source: Skinner, J., 2001. Diet and Obesity. Edinburgh: Castle Publishing.

1. Lifestyle1.1 Television, computer-games generation1.2 Unsupervised leisure time – sedentary

2. Diet2.1 Constant ‘grazing’ – junk food2.2 Additives/processed foods2.3 Lack of adequate fresh food, including

fruit + vegetables3. Exercise

3.1 Sport by spectating rather than participating

3.2 Decline in team sports in schools3.3 Children over-protected from

‘free play’ outdoors

(a)

Topic: GENERAL FEATURES OF ORGANIC MATERIALS Source: Barker, J., 2001. Chemistry for University. Manchester: Midland Publishing.

1. Solid state – mole crystal – powder, poly. Thin films2. Unique physical properties – exploit for high-tech applications3. Advantages

3.1 Versatile properties – reg. by organic chemistry3.2 Readily accessible – via organic synthesis3.3 Low cost – cheap raw materials3.4 Tractable – fusable, soluble: easy to fab.

4. Disadvantage4.1 Relatively fragile

5. Important types5.1 Conducting CT salts5.2 Conducting poly

(b)

Topic: OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS Source: Scott, D.I., 19??. Operational Amplifiers. Coventry: Circuit Publishers.

1. Usually an integrated circuit; can be discrete2. Uses all technologies: bipolar; FET; MOS; BI-FET3. Effectively a highly stable differential amplifier4. Advantages

4.1 High voltage gain – typ. 100,0004.2 High input impedance – typ. 1MΩ – can be much higher, FET, MOS4.3 Low output impedance – typ. 600Ω4.4 Low drift, BI-FET best4.5 Wide voltage supply range

5. Disadvantages5.1 Relatively narrow bandwidth – GBP typ. 1MHz (but operates to DC)5.2 Very unstable in discrete versions – requires matched transistors

6. Common types6.1 T41 – most common6.2 LM 380 – common AF AMP6.3 TDA 2030 – common power amp. – 20W in to 4Ω

(c)

Figure 26.2 Examples of linear notes. These are drawn from three diverse disciplineswhere topics lend themselves to hierarchical approaches.

4. Family4.1 Parents overeat; children likewise4.2 Instant food4.3 Food as an incentive + reward

5. Schools5.1 School meals spurned in favour of

snack bar/chip shop5.2 Health–eating programmes as part of

curriculum6. Health service

6.1 Less emphasis on prevention6.2 Limited health education of parents

and children

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Figure 26.4 Example of flow-chart notes. These are particularly useful for describingcomplex processes in visual form.

Figure 26.3 Example of time-line notes. This design is good for showing a sequence ofevents, in this case, the development of European organisations.

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Figure 26.7 Example of a herringbone map. This design is good for showing, as in thiscase, two sides to an argument. May be particularly appealing to visual learners (see Figure 13.4 on page 88).

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Practical tips for making personalised notes

Notes are resources, so never throw them away. The time you spend making notes isan investment. Your notes make good revision material and by the time the exam comesaround what you perhaps only partially understood will become crystal clear when youreturn to these earlier notes.

Use white space. Don’t cram as much information as you can on to a sheet; leave whitespace around lists or other important items of information. By using the ‘visual’ part ofyour brain, you will recall information more easily. This additional space can be used ifyou wish to add further detail later.

Make your notes memorable. It’s important to make sure that your notes are visuallystriking. However, spending lots of time making them look pretty will not necessarily pay dividends. Again, try to achieve a balance – visually memorable enough to triggeryour recall but not so elaborate that they become a meaningless work of art without substance.

Develop your own ‘shorthand’. Some subjects have their own abbreviations, for example MI (myocardial infarction) or WTO (World Trade Organisation) and, of course,there are standard abbreviations – e.g., i.e., etc. However, you will also develop your ownabbreviations and symbols drawn from your own experience, for example maths sym-bols, text messaging or words from other languages. As long as these are memorableand meaningful to you, then they can be useful tools in making and taking notes (Ch 17).

Save time using a photocopy. Sometimes you may find that the extent of notes yourequire is minimal, or that a particular book or other resource is in high demand and hasbeen placed on short loan in the library. It may be convenient to photocopy the relevantpages, which can then be highlighted and annotated. Remember that there are photo-copying restrictions imposed on readers due to copyright law (Ch 36) – details will beposted prominently in your library. However, note also that as a learning technique this type of activity is essentially passive, and, if your note-making is meant as an aid torevision or for memorising, one of the more active methods described in this chapter orin Ch 58 may be better.

Take care when using material straight from the text. It is important that, if youdecide to use an excerpt from a text as a direct quotation, you record the page numberon which that particular piece of text appeared in the book or article you are citing. Youshould then insert the author, date of publication and page number alongside the quotation. More information on citing sources is given in Ch 35 and Ch 36.

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26.1 Find out about abbreviations. Find a general dictionary that gives acomprehensive list of abbreviations and identify ones that you might use;find a subject-specific dictionary and identify whether it provides lists ofspecialist abbreviations. This will mean that you’ll know where to look if you come across an abbreviation that is unfamiliar to you.

26.2 Compare notes with a friend. Everyone has a different method of note-making that they have personalised to suit their own style. Compare yournote-making style with that of a classmate – preferably on the same pieceof text. Discuss what you have recorded and why – this may bring out somedifferences in reasoning, understanding and logic.

26.3 Try something new. You may feel that you already have a fairly reasonablenote-making strategy in place, but as time goes on you may find that it isnot quite as suitable for the type of reading you are now required to do. If this turns out to be the case, then try out some of the alternative stylesdemonstrated in this chapter to see if these are better suited to your studytasks.

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Most employers will expect graduate job applicants to possess advanced skills in information and com-munications technology (ICT). This is often reflectedin the tasks set by academic staff in university, whereICT will routinely be used as a means to an end – forexample, in word-processing an essay or report; or in using a spreadsheet to produce a graph for a labreport.

Many students will feel that their ICT skills are satis-factory, but most people who work with computersagree that no matter how much you know, there isalways something new to learn. This chapter offersgeneral tips for using the applications commonlyavailable at university level. You will find other useful advice on electronic information retrieval in Ch 23 and on e-learning in Ch 28. Online assessment(computer-aided assessment) is covered briefly in Ch 46.

Using networked facilities

As a signed-up university student you will gain accessto many computing facilities free of charge. You willbe issued with a username and asked to select a

27 ICT literacy

How to make the best use of computers and software inyour learning

Information and communications technology (ICT) is a vital element ofmodern university education. Software tools are invaluable aids for manyaspects of your work, and some specialist programs may be essential. Thischapter focuses on effective use of ICT in a university context and makessuggestions for developing your ICT skills.

Key terms

Back-upBrowserNetworkSearch engineURLWildcard


l Using networked facilitiesl Useful skills with ‘office’-type softwarel File managementl Using browsers and search enginesl Email and discussion-board etiquette

It is likely that you will haveaccess to:

n banks of computers and/orwireless connection zones

n ‘office’-type programs,centrally licensed

n certain specific programs,such as those for imagemanipulation andstatistical analysis

n the internet

n email

n networked printing

n CD/DVD burning hardware

n an ICT helpdesk

There will probably be acharge for printing and youwill need to supply your ownconsumables, such as blankCDs.

Typical network and IT-suite facilities

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private password (see opposite). When you log on,your screen will probably show a student ‘desktop’with icons for a range of ‘office’-type software andother facilities, such as email and a browser. You willalso be allocated space on a networked drive onwhich to store your files. It’s worth spending sometime becoming familiar with what’s on offer and if thesoftware differs from what you are used to, getting toknow the special features of these new programs.

Most universities have a set of conveniently locatedIT suites and you are likely to find wireless facilities inthe library study areas and some social venues. If youcan set it up, broadband access to the Internet at youraccommodation will be valuable, as so much courseinformation is now available online and you will prob-ably wish to work late at night to finish coursework.There may be a charge for connecting, however, andyou may need technical help.

There will probably be an ICT induction session, whereyou are introduced to the specific facilities availableto you, the university’s code of conduct and whereyou can find help. Regulations regarding the use of network facilities have been createdto protect you, your fellow students and the university, and should be respected. Academic-ally, the most important will be those concerning plagiarism and copyright (Ch 36).

Useful skills with ‘office’-typesoftware

The three core ‘office’-type programs deal with word-processing, spreadsheets and delivering presenta-tions. Table 27.1 summarises useful applications ofword-processing and spreadsheets in universitycoursework. Use of presentation software is coveredin Ch 55. Databases are included in many softwaresuites, but are more specialised and generally harderto learn to use (but see the spreadsheet section ofTable 27.1 if you only need basic database functions).

File management

You only need to lose or accidentally delete an important file once to realise that file management is an important skill. A power cut or accidental keystroke can lead to a program shutting down or part ofa file being corrupted or lost. The solution is obvious:back up your files frequently. This should involve sav-ing frequently, either manually or using an auto-save

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You should follow theseguidelines:

n Never share yourpassword or write it downin an obvious way.

n Use different passwordson different systems.

n Change your passwordregularly.

n Mix letters and numbers tocreate nonsense words.

n Try to make eachpassword memorable.

n Be aware that others could be watching yourkeystrokes.

n Never leave a computerlogged on in an openenvironment.

Password security

Specialist training willgenerally be given bydepartments if you arerequired to use advancedfeatures of spreadsheets,database or statisticalsoftware as an integral partof your coursework.

Learning to use newsoftware

This is generally a good idea,as the files will probably beautomatically backed up on adaily basis. If you happen tolose or corrupt a file, contactthe ICT helpdesk staff.

Storing files on networkdrives

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function, and keeping copies of your files in more than one location. Take special carewhen using data sticks or CDs to carry files between computers, as these could be lost. In case this happens, make sure you can identify your own storage medium, andensure that others can find return details. You may wish to password-protect some ofyour files.

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Spreadsheet skills

If your coursework involves numbers or graphsin any form, then a spreadsheet can be avaluable time-saving resource. Key elementsinclude:l Arithmetic and maths calculations.

Error-free addition and multiplication, and the capability to use complex formulaeto calculate results. Of course, formulaeneed to be set up correctly to get the rightanswers, so always test them with a dummyset of data for which you know the expectedanswer.

l Repeated calculations. Excellent when youneed to repeat a calculation from differentstarting values. Just set up a formula andenter fresh values to obtain instant results.

l Formatted calculations. For example,financial statements, financial analysis andprojections in accountancy.

l Graphs. Probably the most valuablespreadsheet application. Takes tabular input and uses it to create a range of graphtypes to suit your needs. Useful for tryingout different graph styles without having to redraw. It’s worth learning how tomanipulate aspects like axis presentationand background, as automatic settings tendto be set up for ‘business’ use. Integrated‘office’ suites allow export of graphs to aword-processed document.

l Elementary database functions.Spreadsheets can be used to carry outsimple database functions (for example, youcan sort number and text columns). You canalso use alphanumeric and logical functionsto ‘interrogate’ bodies of text/numberinformation.

l Statistics. Many statistical needs are catered for, including calculation ofdescriptive and hypothesis-testing statistics.These functions save a lot of calculationtime, but you need to know some statisticaltheory to use them most effectively.

Table 27.1 Key word-processing and spreadsheet skills for university coursework.How many of these do you feel competent about?

Word-processing skills

You will be expected to use word processors to write and edit written coursework. Key elements include:l Word count and page numbering. Many

submissions will be to defined length and these functions will help you keep track of your progress.

l Spellchecker. Helpful for a quick check of glaring errors, but is not a substitute for a careful read through at draft stage, as words you can easily mistype like ‘form’ and ‘from’ will not be highlighted (Ch 43). Also, the default spellcheckers may suggest Americanised spellings (like Americanized, for example), which may not be suitable.

l Thesaurus. Great for adding variety to yourvocabulary and finding a word that is at the tip of your tongue (Ch 42).

l Grammar checker. Helps spot basic errors, like sentences without verbs, but do not rely on its advice as it can be faulty; moreover, you will frequently wish to reject some of its valid suggestions as these may not be tuned to academic or technical styles of writing.

l Print preview. Valuable for seeing how your work will look on the printed page and can help you to save on print costs.

l Copy and paste. Useful for moving blocks of text around your document at review stages (Ch 43) – but use with extreme caution for copying and pasting text or images from electronic sources because of plagiarism and copyright issues (Ch 35, Ch 36).

l Tables. Apart from the obvious, useful for laying out your work in columns and grids. You may wish to alter borders if set automatically.

l Drawing facilities. Useful for creating simple diagrams.

l Footnotes. Handy for some styles of citation and referencing (Ch 35).

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As you progress, you will collect a large number of files and will need to be able to track these down when required. The start of each term is a good time to organise orreorganise your file folders and sub-folders. For example, you may wish to set a folderup for each subject you are taking and for other activities that might generate files.Naming your files appropriately is important, too. File names should indicate contents,date and draft version (where appropriate). This is highly useful when trying to trackdown information later.

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Using browsers and search engines

A browser is your window into the Internet and WorldWide Web (WWW). By entering the URL, or address, ofany website, you can access billions of web pagesthroughout the world. Browsers use HTTP, a protocolfor transfer of webpage data, and interpret code inHTML, the universal web-page-constructing language.

Internet Explorer, Netscape and Mozilla Forefox areexamples of browsers. Their most important featuresare the address bar, where you enter the URL, and thefavourites menu, where you can index sites you visitfrequently. Most browsers will automatically be set toyour university’s home page, and from this you will beable to access many key facilities, such as the virtuallearning environment (VLE) (Ch 28).

A search engine is a tool for accessing information on the Internet. These are the equi-valent of website indexes. Several types are available (see tip box above), each using asubtly different search mechanism – so you will get different results depending on whichone you choose. Meta-search engines employ several search engines to come up with aresult. Tips for using search engines effectively are presented in Table 27.2.

Most universities take a relatively relaxed view on the use of university computing facil-ities to do such things as booking travel tickets or purchasing items online. They will,

Search engines:

Google: www.google.com

Yahoo: www.yahoo.com

Ask Jeeves: www.ask.co.uk

Meta-search engines:

Dogpile: www.dogpile.com

Vivisimo: http://vivisimo.com

Kartoo: www.kartoo.com

Examples of searchengines

n Take extreme caution when opening files attached to emails from unknown sources – they may contain viruses.

n Never give away any information about bank accounts, even if the request appears tocome from your bank – this will be a scam, as your bank will never requestinformation in this way.

n Do not circulate ‘round-robin’ or chain-letter emails – they can clog up the system.

n Take care with food and drink next to computers – spilled drinks can short-circuitelectrical components and food can make keyboards dirty, for example.

n At home, make sure you have installed appropriate firewall and virus detectionsoftware (university networks are protected centrally).

Basic computer safety

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however, expect you to give up your terminal if another student needs to use it to carryout academic work. Activities involving gaming and gambling, unauthorised businesstransactions, downloading copyright files (such as music files), transmitting viruses andaccessing porn, racist and other dubious material are completely forbidden. Note thatthe ICT department will be able to track such activities and you may be held accountablefor them, with, in some cases, severe penalties, including expulsion from your course andeven legal action.

Of course, finding information is not the same as deciding whether it is relevant or usingit to answer questions, construct viewpoints, summarise situations and carry out otheracademic activities. Arguably, the ability to evaluate information is the most importantskill you will develop while at university – see Ch 24.

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Home page: the entry page for any large website, often with links to key areas.

HTML: hypertext markup language – the coding language used to create pages on theWorld Wide Web.

HTTP: hypertext transfer protocol (why most web addresses begin with http://).

Hypertext: text that when clicked on moves the browser to a new web page.

Surfing: using a search engine to look for web sources (implies you may not have aparticular website in mind).

URL: the uniform resource locator, or address, of a website or other type of resource onthe Internet, for example: http://www.prospects.ac.uk

Web page: strictly, any content at a specific URL.

Definitions: key web concepts

Email and discussion-board etiquette

The main routes of online communication are email and discussion boards. These allowyou to communicate with tutors and classmates, giving each person the choice of whenand where they contribute. Web-based email software allows you to check messagesfrom any networked computer, while discussion boards are most likely to be operatedwithin a VLE (Ch 28). ‘Synchronous’ discussions are sometimes arranged, where particip-ants must log in at the same time to take part in a live discussion.

l Check your university email account and discussion boards frequently (preferablydaily). You may receive important messages from tutors in this way (for instance,changes to lecture locations).

l Bear in mind that without the normal conversational body language and voice tone, e-messages can seem abrupt and may be misconstrued. Always read through a message after you have written it with this in mind, before sending. If in doubt,leave it for 30 minutes or so, perhaps using the ‘send later’ function, and thenreconsider.

l Avoid ‘spectating’ during e-discussions. Contribute positively if you can. Even ifsomeone has already said something you would have liked to have said, agreeingwith them may help to continue the e-conversation.

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Comment

Spend a little time thinking through what you really wantto achieve: this may influence your choice of search terms(key words)

Take care with spelling and try to choose combinations ofwords that will narrow down the search

This will result in the exact phrase (that is, words in theorder specified and with same letter case)

Some common misspellings may be identifiedautomatically by the search engine, which will prompt youto confirm your spelling or select an alternative. Someterms are spelled differently in the USA and Europe

Some search engines will prioritise results by case match

All possible options for * will be searched for – this mayexpand rather than narrow a search, but can help if youare unsure of an exact term, or do not wish to excludecertain results

For example, if you know a phone number or productreference number, it may help narrow things down

For example, you can choose only sites from the UK or tosearch solely for images

This is advanced searching. If you add ‘and’ (‘&’ will worktoo), between two phrases this will only produce resultswith both phrases present. If you use OR it will select siteswith either phrase, while ‘not’ will exclude the phrase

These have the same effect as ‘and’ and ‘not’ as describedabove

If you enter ‘near’ between two words or phrases, this willprioritise results according to how close the words are

This will present you with several options to help younarrow the search

To find where a word you searched for is located on alarge web page, use Control + F, enter the word or phrase,and click on search

You may find that another search engine, or a meta-search engine (page 182) produces different and possiblymore useful results

Table 27.2 Tips for effective web searching. There is so much information on the Web that finding exactly what you want can be difficult. The hints here will help you narrow down a search when this is required. They use formats acceptable for the Google search engine.

Tip

Plan your search before starting

Select specific key words

Search for key phrases using inverted commas (‘xxxx’)

If a search is unsuccessful, double-check your spelling

Use capital letters with proper names

Use * to indicate a wildcard partof a word or phrase

Try using numbers rather than words, or adding numbers as part of a search

Restrict your search using search-engine options

Use logical (sometimes called Boolean) operators

Use + or – between words

Search for proximity of terms in the website

Use the search engine’s ‘Advanced search’ feature

Find the word(s) you searched forin a web page

Try a different search engine

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27.1 Take some time to explore your university’s website. This will allow you to see what resources are available and how they are organised. Youshould bookmark key pages, such as the VLE, library website, departmentalor faculty websites, society and club sites.

27.2 Set up a (better) system of folders for organising your files andfavourites. As suggested in the main text above, this will repay the effort asthe number of files you create expands. You can also rearrange favouriteswithin the folder in your browser. This will allow you to move quickly betweenURLs to access your favourite search engines, news providers, and so on.

27.3 Update your ICT literacy skills in your CV. As you accumulate new ICTskills, add these to your CV, providing examples of where you have usedprograms as part of your coursework and extra-curricular activities.

Practical tips for improving your ICT literacy

Enrol on a course or workshop. If you do feel you need to update your skills or expandthe range of software you feel competent to use, you may be able to enrol on an ICTmodule to improve your skills or attend special workshops. Enquire at the ICT helpdeskor reception to find out what is available.

If you’re new to computing, don’t be frightened to experiment. Computers can’t breakbecause of things you do at the keyboard. If you get in a tangle, you can always switchoff/shut down and start again afresh.

Learn the fundamentals, then improve. You don’t have to learn all parts of a programat once. Pick up the basics, then develop your skills further, perhaps using the tips here.

Use the ‘Help’ facility to expand your knowledge about a program. If you don’t knowhow to do something, then a query here may provide the answer.

Invest in a simple manual. The standard manuals for software can be rather technical– a wide range of manuals is published that use simpler terms and that make few assump-tions about your knowledge (for example, Word for Dummies).

Watch how your friends use programs and swap tips. This can result in exchanges of really useful suggestions. For example, some people like keyboard shortcuts (such as ‘Control + C’, ‘Control + V’ for copy and paste functions), while others prefer menuoptions.

Explore menu options. If you have the time, it can be worth going over every menuoption in a program to see what it does.

Don’t suffer in silence. Contact helpdesk staff. They will probably have come acrossyour problem before and can offer an advanced set of skills, for example to unscramblecorrupted files.

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Blended learning: a mix of e-learning and traditional teaching methods.

Computer-aided assessment (CAA): tests and exams delivered (and marked) usingsoftware. If delivered via the Web, also known as online assessment (OA).

Computer-based learning (CBL) or computer-aided learning (CAL): software-driveninteractive learning activity.

Portal: a web-based gateway to various useful web services, from your learningenvironment to online news.

Definitions: e-learning terminology

E-learning is a term used to cover a range of online methods of delivering materials andresources for learning. Most universities use a web-based virtual learning environ-ment (VLE), such as Blackboard or WebCT, which provides you with an integrated routeto these facilities from a single login. Systems for computer-aided assessment (alsoknown as online assessment) may be provided in addition. You may be given onlineaccess to all these facilities via a portal, which you may be able to customise.

Online teaching may be mixed with traditional on-campus teaching – so-called ‘blendedlearning’. Alternatively, and especially if you are a distance learner, you may find thatnearly all of your course material is delivered online. Whatever the blend, you will needto adapt to the specific challenges of the web-based component.

28 E-learning

How to make the most of online teaching

E-learning systems offer you many useful facilities and the capacity toaccess course materials at a time and place of your choosing. This chapterdiscusses how to adapt your study methods to learn more effectively fromonline course components.

Key terms

E-learningOnlineVirtual learning

environment(VLE)


l Effective e-learningl The range of e-learning facilities and how to use theml Online assessment

Effective e-learning

There are four basic requirements if you are to make the most of your e-learning opportunities:

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l You must have access to the Web through a reasonably speedy link.

l You will require basic IT skills to navigate websites and manipulate files.

l You will need to make frequent visits to your portal or VLE.

l You should participate actively.

Access

Your university will provide a range of on-campus computing facilities and will specifyminimum requirements for online access from homeor other accommodation, probably at broadband datatransfer rates (512 kilobits per second or greater).Local authorities also provide free or low-cost faci-lities in libraries and study centres.

Skills

E-learning systems generally require only basic competence in computer use. If you are a computernovice, then it is essential that you learn how to usethese facilities, as so much of your future work willrequire this – and most universities offer some formof IT induction and training. Even if you feel fully con-versant with computing from experience at schooland home, these sessions will inform you about thespecial features of your local network and systems.

Visiting and participating in your VLE modules

You should visit each VLE module or portal on a daily basis if you can. If you fail to do this, you may miss out on announcements, messages, new work deadlines, ongoing discussions and fresh materials. Where opportunities are given, you should participate inonline discussions, self-assessments and the like: these will have been designed by yourtutors to add to your knowledge, experience and skills.

The range of e-learning facilities and how to use them

It’s worth setting aside some study time early in the term to investigate all the differentVLE features that have been activated by staff – you will then know how to use these toyour advantage later on. Components offered within a typical VLE module include:

l Course information. This may include the syllabus, timetable, learning outcomesand details about the teaching and administrative staff – it may take the place of thetraditional course handbook. Aspects of using these elements are covered in Ch 59.

l Announcements. Information from the course administrator(s) may appear on theopening page of the VLE or portal, which is a good reason for checking thisfrequently. They may alert you to late timetable or location changes, forthcomingcoursework deadlines, and events such as departmental seminars.

l Lecture notes. Such notes may include files from PowerPoint presentations. Iflecturers use the VLE to let you access summary notes or slides from their lectures

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These include basic skills with:

n keyboard and mouse

n file management

n word-processing andprinting

n use of a web browser

n web searching

Depending on your subject,you may also requireknowledge of programs suchas spreadsheets, databasesand computer languages.

Minimum IT competencesfor e-learning

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in advance, then printing these out with space foryour own extra notes will allow you extra time tofollow the emphasis and take-home messagesduring the lecture, rather than simply transcribingwhat is covered (Ch 16, Ch 17).

l Links to websites and e-books. These provideyou with supplementary information. Lecturersmay help you by moderating or commenting onthese website resources. You can use their criticalremarks to improve your own skills for evaluatinginformation (Ch 24).

l Tailored resources. These will support your learning and will include multimediapresentations, quizzes and interactive software.These can be extremely valuable as a substitutefor a practical or other hands-on experience. Mostwill have self-contained instructions for their use,or this information will be given in the coursehandbook.

l Learning tools. Tools such as an onlinedictionary/thesaurus, online study guide or linksto the library catalogue can be valuable when youare working on assignments, so it is worth theinvestment of time to learn what they contain and how to use them.

l Discussion boards and chatrooms (bothsynchronous and asynchronous). These are usedto allow you to exchange comments and queries, and can be a useful way to sense how far ahead or behind you are with your learning. They arealso used to facilitate groupwork, providing aforum for the team to exchange ideas and files.Don’t be hesitant to start a new thread or torespond to someone else’s query or comment.The system only works well if everyone takespart. However, when participating in onlinediscussions, make sure you respect others’ viewsand are polite about your peers and lecturers.

l Links to support services. These may rangefrom the students’ association to the careersservice. This may be a faster and moreconvenient method of accessing information and contacts than the university website.

l Email facilities. You may have your own account or links to the university’s specialist email software. This can be a very convenient

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If you use the three-slides-per-page handout format(accessible from the ‘File >Print > Print What > Handouts> Slides per page > 3 > OK’options) you can obtain aprintout that looks like thefollowing, with space for yournotes beside each slide.

Taking notes fromPowerPoint presentations

Synchronous discussion:occurs in real time and maytake the form of an onlinetutorial when it is moderatedby a tutor.

Asynchronous discussion:allows you to post queries orcomments to which otherscan reply when convenient.

Thread: a sequence ofpostings on a specific topic,allowing you to accessrelevant discussions moreeasily.

Definitions: discussion-board terminology

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part of the VLE because many tasks you will carryout online may be facilitated by using email – e.g.asking questions of lecturers, making contact with your peers in the class.

l A digital ‘dropbox’. This is a convenient way ofsubmitting files containing coursework online.Follow the instructions carefully to ensure yourwork is delivered safely.

l Gradebooks. These allow you to see the marksthat have been recorded for your coursework andfinal assessments. For obvious reasons, you willhave read-only access.

l Mechanisms for providing feedback onteaching. If feedback questionnaires arepresented on the VLE, this gives you a chance to provide considered comments in your owntime, and in privacy. The VLE may also provide information about class representatives and ameans of contacting them (for example, by emailor discussion board).

Online assessment

Online assessment is increasingly used at university,especially for large classes in early years. The differ-ent sorts of questions commonly on offer are outlinedin Ch 46 and Ch 47. If you have the chance to testthe program being used beforehand, do so, as this willmake it easier to sit real high-stakes assessments,which are generally carried out under exam condi-tions within IT suites using identical software. In anycase, you will probably find that formative online testsare a good way to learn, especially if they are ‘openbook’ and you are allowed to look at notes and textsas you answer.

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Your VLE or portal mayinclude a personal calendar.This may be configurable toyour own needs, although you may prefer to use yourown handheld device or atraditional paper-based diary.It is probably best to keeponly one source of diaryinformation unless you can be sure of interchanging ortransferring the informationregularly.

Use VLE-based schedulingfacilities with care

Formative assessment:usually a ‘low stakes’ test –mainly used to train you in the types and depth ofquestions normally asked andto give you feedback on yourperformance at the requiredstandard.

Summative assessment:counts a reasonably largeamount to your final moduleor degree grade and may bereferred to as a ‘high stakes’test.

Definitions: assessmentterminology

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Practical tips for effective learning online

Take time at the start of each module to explore the online resources. Although somefeatures may not be activated immediately, it will be valuable to know the scope of theresource at your disposal and to consider this in relation to your assessment tasks.

Get into a daily routine for visiting your VLE and carrying out the work. There may be a convenient time at the start of the day or between lectures for you to look atemails and announcements. If you get into the habit of doing this on a daily basis, youwon’t miss important new information. Allocate some specific times to study online –your course outcomes may require a significant and ongoing input.

Organise your online learning resources. You could do this by grouping them withinfolders using the bookmark facility on your browser. This will keep the browser interfaceuncluttered and help you access the resources quickly, without having to remember orenter URLs.

Check on the status of your home computer facility. Your access to online facilitiesfrom home will be greatly dependent on such factors as the speed of your internet con-nection, computer memory and what plug-ins you have installed. Each institution willpublish a set of ‘minimum standards’ that they assume you will have, and instructions fordownloading and enabling software.

Bear in mind that your tutors may be monitoring your activities. Although they maynot contribute, lecturers may be able to see what you have written on discussion boardsetc. They may also be able to use the number of times you have visited the VLE as anindicator of your participation in the course (although generally speaking if they aregoing to do this, they should tell you beforehand).

Save on ink costs. When printing out lecture notes based on PowerPoint presentationsor similar, you may wish to select ‘Pure Black and White’ from the ‘Color/Grayscale’options on the ‘Print’ menu, or you are liable to use up a lot of coloured ink printing theslide backgrounds.

When working online, keep aware of the risks of plagiarism and copyright infringe-ment. Although it is technically easy to cut and paste material into your own documentsand essays, this is regarded as cheating and may be illegal (Ch 36). You should not contemplate plagiarism for moral reasons, but if tempted, you should also realise thatlecturers nowadays have a range of sophisticated packages for detecting it, and thepenalties for being caught are severe.

Remember to keep using ‘traditional’ sources of information. When a large proportionor all your teaching is provided online, it is important not to overlook conventionalsources such as books and research journals. Increasingly, even these are availableonline, and many can be evaluated and reserved online, before visiting your library.

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28 E-LEARNING 191

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And now . . .

28.1 Organise your e-learning activities. Carry out the following three simplesteps to enhance your online learning:

l Bookmark your learning resources on your browser and spend sometime thinking about how best to organise your web favourites withinappropriately named folders.

l Decide when in each day you will visit your VLE, and try to get into aroutine of carrying this out.

l Allocate some time for fully exploring the resources on each onlinemodule at your disposal.

28.2 Research online learning-support websites. Take time to use a searchengine to find websites that could be useful in your studies, such as your university library website, textbook-support websites, writing andstudy skills websites, sites related to specific course topics, and sitesrecommended by your tutors. Bookmark these and collate them in a folder.

28.3 Think about your approach to learning with online resources.When using blended e-learning and fully online (e.g. distance-learning)approaches, lecturers may make assumptions about the ways you are using the material. Make sure you appreciate what is expected of you. Also, check that you are using the material actively, rather than trying toabsorb it passively (see Ch 58 for relevant tips).

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192 29 NUMBER CRUNCHING

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Many university subjects include elements that require skills of numeracy, especially inthe later stages of study. Examples include biology, economics, geography and psycho-logy. If you’ve forgotten school maths or lack the required knowledge and technique, youmay find these parts of your courses challenging. Dip into this chapter if you need torefresh your knowledge and skills.

Numbers and symbols

Numbers and symbols are the essence of maths. Hav-ing a good understanding of the following terms willhelp you work through problems confidently:

l Constants. These are unchanging values such asgravitational acceleration (g) or pi (π ). These areoften given in tables, but in some cases you willneed to memorise them. In the ‘straight line’equation y = mx + c, m and c, the quantitiesdescribing the slope and y-intercept are examplesof constants. Their values stay constant in anyone instance, but change for different lines.

l Variables. These are mathematical quantities thatcan take different values. For example, if x and y

29 Number crunching

How to solve problems in arithmetic and algebra

This chapter reviews common concepts and methods that will help youanswer straightforward numerical questions from your coursework. Themathematical techniques covered are relatively uncomplicated, but youmay not have used them since your schooldays.

Key terms

DenominatorDigitEngineering

notationNumeratorReciprocalRoundingScientific notationSignificant figureSI system


l Numbers and symbolsl Manipulating equationsl Dealing with large and small numbersl Fractions, percentages and ratiosl Calculator skillsl Presenting numbers: significant figures and rounding

The one certain way ofmaking sure you understandand can carry out themathematical parts of yourcourses is to practise. Thiswill raise your confidence andreveal any misunderstandings,which you can then raise witha tutor. Once you get overthe initial barriers, you mayfind that your overall marksimprove greatly.

Getting to grips withmaths

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change according to a mathematical relationship between them, such as y = mx + c,then x and y would be described as variables.

l Units and prefixes. Constants and variables can be dimensionless, but most haveunits, such as metres (m), m s−2 (‘metres per second squared’), or kg. The SystèmeInternational d’Unités, or SI, provides agreed standard units and is widely adopted in the sciences. Prefixes are often used to denote very large and small numbers(Table 29.1); alternatively scientific or engineering notation may be used (see below and Table 29.2).

Table 29.1 SI prefixes. Note that after the first row, small number prefixes have the ending‘o’, while large number prefixes have the ending ‘a’.

Small numbers Large numbers

Value Prefix Symbol Value Prefix Symbol

10−3 milli m 103 kilo k10−6 micro m 106 mega M10−9 nano n 109 giga G10−12 pico p 1012 tera T10−15 femto f 1015 peta P10−18 atto a 1018 exa E10−21 zepto z 1021 zeta Z10−24 yocto y 1024 yotta Y

Whole numbers: 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .

Natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4 . . .

Integers: −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3 . . .

Real numbers: integers and anything in between, e.g. 1.54, π, e4.

Prime numbers: natural numbers divisible only by themselves and 1.

Rational numbers: p/q, where p is integer and q is natural and they have no commonfactor.

Irrational numbers: real numbers with no exact value, such as π. If the final digit isrepeated, it is often shown thus: 4/3 = 1.3

•or 1.3r.

Definitions: sets of numbers

Some basic points to remember:

n subtracting a number from itself gives zero

n multiplying a number by zero gives zero

n multiplying a number by 1 gives the number itself

n dividing a number or expression by itself gives 1

n dividing a number or expression by zero gives infinity and is mathematicallymeaningless.

Zeros and unity

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l Operators. These are the mathematical codes for carrying out operations withvariables and constants. From day-to-day usage, you will be familiar with the basicones, such as add (+), subtract (−), multiply (× or .) or divide (÷ or /), as well asequals (=), approximately equals (≈) and does not equal (≠). Note that a sign for ‘multiply’ isfrequently omitted, so a term like mx means ‘m multiplied by x’. You should also know thefollowing: greater than (>), less than (<), greaterthan or equal to (≥) and less than or equal to (≤).However, you may wish to refamiliarise yourselfwith other functions such as logs and powers ifthese are relevant to your studies (see below). In complex expressions, and particularly whenthere are mixed operations, the order in which you carry out operations is important (see Table 29.3).

The order in which you carryout operations is important.The mnemonic BODMAS(brackets, powers of, division,multiplication, addition,subtraction) describes theorder you should use, workingleft to right.

Basics of maths relevantto manipulation ofequations

Examples

y × y = ‘y squared’ = y2

or ‘y to the power 2’

8/8 = 80 = 11/y = y −1, 1/z8 = z−8

x −5 = x ÷ x ÷ x ÷ x ÷ x

(2.0 × 10−3) + (3.0 × 10−3) = 5.0 × 10−3

759 × 105 + 605 × 105

= 1364 × 105

= 136.4 × 106

(7.3 × 104) + (6.0 × 103)= (7.3 × 104) + (0.6 × 104)= 7.9 × 104

(8 × 105) × (3 × 104) = 24 × 109

note that:xm × xn = xm+n

andxm/xn = xm−n

134.5 = 1.345 × 102 (count is two digits)0.0029 = 2.9 × 10−3 (count is three digits)

15039829 = 15,039,829= 15.04 × 106 to four significant figures0.000392 = 0.000,392= 392 × 10−6

Rather than writing 0.1256 × 106,write 1.256 × 105 (scientific notation) or 125.6 × 103 (engineering notation)

Table 29.2 Exponents and scientific notation: tips and examples

Tips

If you multiply a number by itself, this gives a positive power

Dividing a number by itself gives that number to the power 0 and is equal to 1. Continuing to divide by the number gives a negative power

When adding numbers expressed as powers of 10, if the exponents are the same, you can add the numerical parts, but keep the exponent the same. You may wish to change the exponent thereafter if the addition of the numerical part results in a large or small number

If adding numbers with different exponents, first express them to the same power before adding the numerical parts

Add the exponents when multiplying, but multiply the numerical parts

When using scientific notation to express large numbers, count digits up or down from the decimal point to work out what the exponent should be

To work out engineering notation more easily, group digits in threes from the decimal point, using commas

When you are expressing numbers in either scientific or engineering notation, try to express the numeric part as a number between 0 and 1000

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Manipulating equations

Numbers and symbols, usually letters, may be linked together in equations (formulae) or functions, such that one expression is said to equal another (or zero). The formula y= mx + c is an example of an equation. These generalised expressions of the relationshipbetween different quantities, or terms, are useful in modelling, estimation and predic-tion, and this branch of mathematics is called algebra.

You will frequently need to rearrange equations. For example, if you wish to find a particular variable or constant in a formula, you may wish to express it in terms of other variables and constants, whose values you already know. This key mathematicalskill usually involves carrying out an operation on both sides of the equation so that aparticular term ‘disappears’ from one side and reappears on the other. You may need tosimplify some of the terms before doing this or express them in a different mathemat-ical way (see Table 29.3).

Examples

(ab) + c ≠ a(b + c)(3 × 5) + 6 ≠ 3 × (5 + 6) because15 + 6 ≠ 3 × 11

If x = y − z, thenx + z = y − z + z,so x + z = y, and by rearranging,y = x + z

If x =yz, theny = x/z (divide both sides by z and rearrange)

If x =y/z, theny = xz (multiply both sides by z and rearrange)

If a = bc, thenb = a1/c

If a = bc, thenlog a = c log b, andc = log a/log b = log(a − b)

ab + ac = a(b+c) and ab − ac = a(b−c)

(ab)c = a(bc)

ab + ac = a(b + c)so if you wish to find the value of a iny = ax + azy = a(x + z)a = y/(x + z)

If xy2 − xz = 5 − p, find x.First, combine the terms in x, so x(y2 − z) = 5 − p.Now divide both sides by (y2 − z), sox = (5 − p)/(y2 − z)

Table 29.3 Manipulating numbers and equations: tips and examples

Tips

When working out results, carry out a bracketed calculation first, or you may obtain an incorrect result

You can remove an ‘isolated’ constant or variable by adding it to or subtracting it from both sides. If you change the side, you change the sign

You can remove a multiplying constant or variable by dividing both sides by it

Remove a dividing constant or variable by multiplying both sides by it

Remove a power from one side by multiplying both sides by the reciprocal power or by taking logs

You can combine powers and powers of powers

It can be useful to combine expressions or express them in different ways before doing any of the above. Use parentheses ( . . . ) to ‘isolate’ parts of formulae and calculations

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Dealing with large and small numbers

Many calculations involve large and/or small num-bers, which can be unwieldy to write down. Exponentsand logarithms are useful ways of expressing these in brief.

Exponents

In a term like xn, n is known as an exponent and denotes that a number has been multiplied by itself n times, or is raised to the power n. In this type ofexpression, n may also be called the index.

Numbers are often expressed as powers of 10, such as 2.172 × 105 (= 217,200). This is called scientific notation and it makes arithmetic with large or smallnumbers much easier. Engineering notation is similarbut uses powers of 10 in groups of three, such as 103 or 10−9, corresponding to the SI prefixes (seeTables 29.1 and 29.3).

Logarithms (‘logs’)

A log to the base 10 is the power of 10 that would give that number. Thus, log (100) = 2, because 102 =10 × 10 = 100. Natural logs (symbol ln) are powers of e (≈ 2.178), which is used because it is mathematicallyconvenient in some situations.

Logs can be useful because:

log (a) × log (b) = log (a + b)

log (a) ÷ log (b) = log (a − b)

log (an) = n log (a)

An antilog is 10x, where x is the log value. You can convert a log value into a simple numerical value byworking out its antilog. The equivalent for natural logs is ex. These values are best obtained using a calculator.

Presenting numbers: significantfigures and rounding

Sometimes when you carry out a calculation, andespecially when using a calculator, the answer mayappear with a large number of digits, for example,12.326024221867.

This is best explained withexamples:

2000 = 2 × 103

(= 2 × 10 × 10 × 10)

0.0003 = 3 × 10−4

(= 3 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10 ÷ 10).

Using powers of 10 toexpress very large orsmall numbers

These symbols (see Table29.1) effectively makeengineering notation neater.Use them in combination witha unit to indicate very largeor small numbers. Forexample:

5 kHz = 5000 Hz

15 mm = 0.000015 m.

Pay special attention to case, because, for example, 1.5 pg ≠ 1.5 Pg.

Using SI prefixes

Logs were exceptionallyvaluable tools when evencomplex calculations weredone ‘by hand’; old-fashionedmechanical calculators suchas slide rules were based onthem. Nowadays, digitalcalculators make mostcalculations straightforward.However, logs are still foundin some formulae (forexample, the degree ofacidity, or pH, is calculated as pH = −log [H+], where [H+]is the molar hydrogen ionconcentration), and it is therefore important to understand theirmathematical origin.

Use of logs

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Deciding on how many digits or significant figures (s.f.) to quote in your answer is import-ant. If you do not include these in intermediate steps, your final result may be incorrectto a surprising degree; on the other hand, if you include too many in your final result, thismay imply a false degree of accuracy. For example, it is incorrect to refer to a temperat-ure of 15.34 °C if your thermometer can only be read to the nearest half degree at best.

In calculations you will often be asked to express your answer to a certain number of significant figures (s.f. for short). The number of significant figures can be worked out by counting the number of digits from the left. The first non-zero digit in a number is the first significant figure. 12.326024221867 has 14 significant figures and would beexpressed as 12.326 to five s.f. and 12.33 to four s.f. (see also Table 29.4).

The process of deciding what the last digit is when you do this is called rounding. Inessence, you take into account the digits to the right of the last significant digit, and ifthey are greater than 0.5, then you round up to the next number, and if they are lessthen 0.5, then you round down. What you do if the remainder is exactly 0.5 depends: toavoid bias, the usual rule is to round down if the preceding digit is even and up if it is odd.Thus, to three significant figures, 15.65 would be expressed as 15.6, while 15.75 would berounded to 15.8. See the tip box below regarding if zeros are present.

Easier to carry out is the instruction to ‘express youranswer to n decimal places’, although this may alsoinvolve rounding. Hence, if a calculator gives ananswer as 60.466023 and you are asked to supply ananswer to two decimal places, you should write 60.47(see Table 29.4).

Fractions, percentages and ratios

A fraction is simply one number divided by another. Itdoes not have to be between zero and one. A commonfraction involves two integer numbers (for example,3/4), while in a decimal fraction the denominator isalways a factor of 10, such as 3/10. Decimal fractionsare often expressed using the decimal point (for ex-ample 0.34 = 34/100).

Significant figures (s.f.) get a little complicated if there are zeros present.

n Counting from the left, the first non-zero digit in a number is the first significantfigure. Hence, 0.00012 has two s.f.

n The final zero even in a whole number is not regarded as a significant figure, becauseit only shows the order of magnitude of the number. Thus, 141.35 is written as 140 totwo s.f.

n Zeros included after the decimal point do imply accuracy of measurement and shouldbe regarded as significant figures. Thus 12.30 has four s.f.

See Table 29.4 for further examples.

What about zeros in rounded numbers?

The upper number (or thefirst number) is called thenumerator and the lowernumber (or the secondnumber) is called thedenominator. When thenumerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction represents a numberbetween 0 and 1. When thenumerator is bigger than the denominator, the fractionrepresents a number greaterthan 1.

Terminology of fractions

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Where numerators and denominators can both bedivided by a common factor, it is normal practice toexpress the fraction with the lowest values possible.Thus, 9/24 = 3/8.

A percentage value is a fraction expressed as a num-ber of hundredths. This is used because it is easy tocomprehend. To calculate a common fraction as apercentage using a calculator, divide the numeratorby the denominator and multiply the answer by 100.Thus, 3/4 = 0.75 = 75 per cent = 75%. To convert a per-centage into a decimal fraction, move the decimalpoint two places to the right.

Examples

94.8263 has six s.f.

0.0000465 has three s.f.

0.00044304 has five s.f.

2300 has two s.f.

10.10 cm has four s.f.

56.78478 to two decimal places is 56.7856.78478 to three decimal places is56.785

12.232 − 9.2 = 3.0 (not 3.032)176 × 1.573 = 276 (not 276.848)converting 1456 m to km, this is 1.456 km,not 1 or 1.5 km

The area in cm2 of a rectangular piece of carpet where the sides have beenmeasured to the nearest mm as 1286 ×1237 would be 15,908 cm2, not 129 × 124cm = 15,996 cm2

The length of the piece of string measuredby a ruler was 134 mm

Converting millimetres to inches using thefactor 0.03937, the length of the piece ofstring is given as 5.28 inches to three s.f.(not 5.27558 as found with a calculator)

Table 29.4 Significant figures and rounding: tips and examples

Tips

For numbers with no leading zeros, the number of significant figures is equal to the number of digits

With leading zeros, the significant figures start after the last leading zero

‘Internal’ zeros count as significant figures

Trailing zeros are not regarded as significant figures in whole numbers

Trailing zeros can be significant if they come after the decimal point, as they imply a certain accuracy of measurement

The number of decimal places is the number of digits after the decimal points. Round up or down as appropriate

When calculating with several values, the one with the least number of significant figures should be used to define the number of s.f. used in the answer (an exception is when using mathematical constants, which are assumed to have an infinite number of significant figures)

Always round after you have done a calculation, not before

If asked to work out an answer, but without guidance on the number of significant figures to use, consider the accuracy of your original measurements. Round up or down to the nearest whole number of your finest measurement division

You should memorise thefollowing common fractionsin terms of decimals (where r indicates a repeating digit):

1/2 = 0.501/4 = 0.25

1/3 = 0.33r1/5 = 0.201/8 = 0.1251/10 = 0.10

Common decimal fractions

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A percentage does not need to be a whole number (for example 65.34 per cent is valid),nor does it always need to be less than 100 (as in ‘Jane earns 143 per cent of what Johndoes’), except where you are expressing a fraction of a limited total (you cannot assertthat ‘126 per cent of dogs prefer Bonzo dog food’).

A ratio expresses two or more numbers or proportions in relation to each other. Thenorm is to divide the larger by the smaller (or divide the others by the smallest). If youhad 6 red, 12 blue and 36 orange discs, the ratio of red:blue:orange would be 1:2:6 (notethe colon (:) as notation; you would say this as ‘red to blue to orange’). Ratios can involvereal numbers, such as 1.43:1.

Tips for manipulating fractions mathematically are provided in Table 29.5.

Calculator skills

In many subjects, you are permitted to make use of a calculator freely, even duringexams. It is important to know how to carry out the basic functions of your model whenunder time pressure. Incorrect use of calculator functions is a major source of errors inanswers to numerical questions.

Examples

3/4 + 1/2 = (3/4 + 2/4) = 5/4 = 11/4 = 1.25(multiply both sides of the secondfraction by 2 to obtain them bothexpressed as fourths)3/8 + 2/3 + 7/9

= 27/72 + 48/72 + 56/72

= 131/72

3/4 × 5/2 = 15/8

3/4 ÷ 1/2 = 3/2

Alternatively, 3/4 ÷ 1/2

= 3/4 × 2/1

= 6/4

= 3/2

Express 12 out of 76 as a percentage:12/76 × 100 = 16% (15.78947 rounded up)

75% of 320 = 0.75 × 320 = 240

0.05% is 5 in 10000 or 5/10000

If there are 34 girls in a class of 56, theratio of girls to boys is 34/(56−34):1= 1.5:1 (rounded to one decimal place)

Table 29.5 Fractions, proportions and ratios: tips and examples

Tips

When adding fractions, you need to ensure that the denominators are the same. To do this, multiply both sides of one of the fractions by a number that will allow this, then add the numerator values. In complex examples, you may need to multiply both sides of the fractions by different numbers. This number will generally be the number you need to multiply the denominator by to obtain a common value (the ‘lowest common denominator’)

When multiplying fractions, multiply both the numerators and denominators

Likewise, when dividing, divide both the numerators and denominators. Another way to do this sort of calculation is to turn the ‘divided by’ fraction round and multiply

To work out one number as a percentage of another, simply divide the two and multiply by 100

To find a percentage of a number, express the percentage as a decimal fraction and multiply the number by this

Don’t get confused by percentages less than one

It may be convenient to express ratios as decimal numbers in relation to unity

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Consult the instructions for your calculator, or if you have lost these or are not allowedto take these into an exam, always test out any assumptions you make about the way itworks by entering values for which you know the answer.


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Practical tips for solving problems in arithmetic and algebra

Practise, practise and practise. If you feel that mathematics is a weak spot for you,then this is really the way to conquer it. Maths skills are easily forgotten and need to beused frequently to be maintained.

Get to know your calculator. Aspects you should consider include:

l What kind of notation your calculator uses (standard or reverse-Polish notation; most use standard) and what this means, in particular about how you do nested calculations;

l how the memory works;

l how to enter a constant and use it in several calculations;

l how to enter exponents;

l how to express one number as a percentage of another.

When working with formulae, express all values in terms of base units. Nearly all scientific and engineering formulae are expressed in terms of SI base units (i.e. metres,seconds, grams), so if you are given a length as 10 mm, do not enter 10 into a formula,enter 10 × 10−3, expressing the length in metres.

Check the units and scale of your answers. First, make sure that you convert anyanswer into the units requested in the question, and with the appropriate number of significant figures, either as specified or as seems sensible to you. Second, make surethat your answer is not absurdly high or low. Areas and volumes are particularly difficultto visualise. Try to relate these to ‘real life’ if you can – for example, imagine what thevalue you obtain might look like in relation to something you are familiar with, like astamp, piece of paper, glass of beer, and so on.

If you are unsure about the algebra using symbols, insert real numbers. The firstexample in Table 29.3 provides an illustration of how this might work in practice.

Show intermediate calculations and express your answers neatly. If you work throughthe problem step by step in your answer, you can be given part marks even if you get asimple numerical calculation wrong. Show your answer by repeating what you have beenasked to show and its value (including the number of significant figures, where relevant)and underlining it using a ruler, thus:

The total mass of the patient’s brain is 1.34 kg (to three significant figures).

In exams, take a moment to think through the problem. Don’t jump to conclusions:read through the whole question, noting which formulae might apply and why. Make sureyou know what you are aiming for in terms of an answer, and note aspects such as thenumber of significant figures required. Ch 47 provides further tips for approachingnumerical questions in exams.

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And now . . .

29.1 Research which mathematical skills you will be expected to use in yourcoursework and exams. You can find this out from course handbooks, listsof learning objectives and past papers, or by asking a tutor. Make a list ofthese, and note the ones you feel competent in, and those you don’t.

29.2 Learn, revise and practise key mathematical skills. From the list youproduced in point 29.1 above, pick out the aspects you feel least confidentabout and make a determined effort to tackle them. You should look firstat the main principles and techniques in each topic, and then move on tothe types of problems that are common in your subject. Next, you will needto find a source of sample problems. This could be a basic maths text, a setof problems provided by your tutor or past exam papers.

29.3 Make up your own problems and answer them. This is a very good test ofyour level of understanding. Your ability should develop to the stage whereyou can construct your own problems and provide the correct answers forthem. This activity could provide the basis for work with a ‘study buddy’,where you each provide the other with problems and discuss how to tackle them (Ch 60).

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There are many ways of presenting data sets and the methods chosen can affect youranalysis or favour certain interpretations. A healthily critical approach is thereforeessential when you are examining graphs, tables and statistics. Equally, when creatingthese items to condense and display your own information, your primary aim shouldalways be to do this in a manner that is simple to understand and unbiased.

How to ‘read’ a graph

The following elements are present in most graphsand charts (collectively known as ‘figures’). Use themto work out what a specific graph means, referring tothe example shown in Figure 30.1.

l The figure title and its caption. These should appear below the graph. Read them first to determine the overall context and gaininformation about what the graph shows. If thecaption is detailed, you may need to revisit it laterto aid your interpretation.

l The type of graph. With experience, you will come to recognise the basic chart types

30 Interpreting and presenting data

How to understand and produce graphs, tables and basic statistics

You’ll come across data in many forms during your studies. You may berequired to understand and explain graphs, tables and statistics, or beexpected to generate them from raw information. The emphasis in thischapter is on data interpretation, but the principles of constructing graphsand presenting tables are also covered.

Key terms

Descriptivestatistics

DispersionError barsExtrapolationHypothesis testingInterpolationLegendLocationQualitativeQuantitative


l How to ‘read’ a graphl How graphs can misleadl Creating graphsl Creating tablesl Important descriptive statisticsl Concepts of hypothesis-testing statistics

Some common forms areillustrated throughout thischapter, but a quick way offinding out about differentoptions is to explore theforms available in aspreadsheet program likeMicrosoft Excel. Look at the‘Insert > Chart > StandardTypes’ menu, which illustratessub-types and provides briefdescriptions. This is also agood way of exploring waysof presenting your own data.

Graph types

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(Figure 30.2) and others common in yourdiscipline. This will help you to orientate yourself.For example, a pie chart is usually used to showproportions of a total.

l The axes. Many forms of chart represent therelationship between two variables, called x and yfor convenience. These are often presentedbetween a pair of axes at right angles, with thehorizontal x-axis often relating to the ‘controlled’variable (for example, concentration or time) andthe vertical y-axis often relating to the ‘measured’variable (for example, income, weight (mass), or

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n Consider the context by reading the title, legend and main text.

n Recognise the type of graph.

n Examine what the axes show.

n Inspect the scale of the axes.

n Study the symbols and plotted curves.

n Evaluate what any error bars or statistics mean.

Checklist for interpreting a graph

Figure 30.1 The basic components of a graph

The following plurals areoften misused ormisunderstood:

Axis = singular

Axes = plural

Datum = singular

Data = plural (hence, the‘data are presented in Figure 14’).

Plural terms

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response). More than one measured variable maybe plotted on the same graph, either using thesame x-axis, or a second one (see Figure 30.2(b)).Some types of graph don’t follow this pattern andif you are unfamiliar with the form being used, youmay need to investigate further.

l The axis scale and units. An axis label shouldstate what the axis means and the units beingused. Each axis should show clearly the range ofvalues it covers through a series of cross-marks(‘tics’) with associated numbers to indicate thescale. To interpret these, you’ll also need to knowthe units. Some axes do not start from zero, orincorporate a break in the scale; others may benon-linear (for example, a logarithmic axis issometimes used to cover particularly wide rangesof numbers). Pay attention in these cases, becausethis could mean that the graph exaggerates oremphasises differences between values (seeFigures 30.3(a) and (b)).

l The symbols and plotted curves. These help you identify the different data sets being shownand the relationship between the points in eachset. A legend or key may be included to make this clearer. Your interpretation may focus ondifferences in the relationships and, inevitably, on the plotted curves (also known as ‘trend lines’). However, it is important to realise that the curves are usually hypothetical interpolationsbetween measured values or, worse, extrapolationsbeyond them; and, because they may involveassumptions about trends in the data, they shouldbe examined with care. Symbols may also includeinformation about variability in the data collected(for example, error bars), which provide usefulclues about the reliability of data and assumedtrends.

How graphs can mislead

You can learn a lot about data presentation by reviewing misleading graphs and learning why theymight lead to incorrect interpretations. A selection of examples is shown in Figure 30.3. You should try to avoid confusing your audience by using these forms of misrepresentation when constructing yourown figures.


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Figure 30.2 Common forms of graph. These are in additionto the standard plotted curveshown in Figure 30.1. (a) Piechart, showing proportions of atotal. (b) Histogram, showingamounts in different categories.(c) Frequency polygon, showingdistribution of counted dataacross a continuous range.

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(a) Use of non-zero axis. In the chart on the left, it looks as if the differences betweenmales and females are large; however, when the y-axis is zeroed, as on the right, thedifferences are much less noticeable.

(b) Use of different y-axes for different curves. In the chart on the left it looks as if sales ofproduct A are catching up with those of product B; however, when the same axis is used forboth curves, then it can be seen that product B vastly outsells product A.

(c) Use of a two- or three-dimensional object to represent a linear scale. In the chart onthe left, the barrel retains its shape in relation to the y-axis scale, so it makes it look as ifcountry M produces much more toxic waste than country K. On the right, a truly linearrepresentation is shown.

Figure 30.3 Three common examples of misleading graphs

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Creating graphs

What follows is naturally a generalisation, but this sequence will suit many circumstances.

1 Think carefully about what you want to plot and why, then choose anappropriate type of graph. Recognising the type of data you want to present isessential for this, and reviewing the common options shown in Figures 30.1 and 30.2may help. If you are choosing a plotted curve, then you must decide which variablewill appear on the x-axis and which on the y-axis. If you have selected an unfamiliarform of graph, you may wish to sketch out how this will appear for your data set. A spreadsheet (Ch 27) can be a valuable tool when working through this phase.

2 Consider the range and units for the axes, where appropriate. What are the upper and lower limits of your data? Should you start each axis at zero, and if not, will this act to distort the presentation (see Figure 30.3(a))? Will your axes be linear? Will they be in the same units as your measurements, or might you wishto work out ratios, percentages or other transformations (see Ch 29 and below)before graphing the data? Once you have settled on these aspects, you can writethe descriptive label for the axis, which should first state what is presented andthen, usually in parentheses ( ) or after a solidus (/), the units used. Other forms of graph, such as a pie chart, may require adescriptive label for each segment, or you mayprefer to use a legend or key.

3 Choose elements of presentation. For example, if you are using a pie chart, selectcolours or shading for the segments. If your graph has axes, decide how frequently you wishthe tics to appear: too many and the axis willseem crowded, too few and it becomes less easy to work out the approximate values of datapoints. Decide which symbols will be used forwhich data sets, and if presenting several graphsin sequence, try to be consistent on this. Do youwish to add error bars to show how variable thedata were?

4 Write the figure caption. Your aim should be toensure that the figure is ‘self-contained’ and thatits essence can be understood without referenceto detail normally given elsewhere, such as thematerial and methods section of a scientificreport (Ch 52). Items to include here are:

Interpolation: an assumed trend or relationship between available data points.

Extrapolation: an assumed trend or relationship before or after (below or above)available data points. Extrapolation is risky because the assumption may be made that a trend will continue when there may be little evidence that this will happen.

Definitions: graphing

If you are drawing a graph,you will need to take specialcare when adding a curve,because any trend line youadd indicates that you haveassumed an underlyingrelationship between thevariables (see page 204). If the points carry no (rare)or very little error, then youmay be justified in drawing astraight line or curve betweeneach point. If, however, thepoints do carry error, thenthe curve should take an‘average’ line between them. Since most plottedrelationships are complex,then this probably should bea smooth curve rather than astraight line.

Joining up the dots?

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l the figure number;

l the figure title;

l what the symbols and error bars mean (a legend or key within the figure may ormay not be acceptable – check);

l if appropriate, how the plotted curve was chosen;

l any brief details about the data (for example, differences in the treatments) thatwill help your reader understand the figure better without having to refer toanother section.

Creating tables

A good table presents data in a compact, readily assimilated format. In general, youshould not include the same data in a chart and a table. You might decide to use a tablerather than a chart if:

l graphic presentation is not suitable for some orall of the data (for instance, when some arequalitative);

l there are too many data sets or variables toinclude in a chart;

l your audience might be interested in the precisevalues of some of your data;

l you wish to place large amounts of your data onrecord, for instance within an appendix to areport.

Think about and draw a rough design for your table before constructing a final version.Key elements include:

l The title and caption. Your table must have these as a guide to the content, justlike a figure. Note that the numbering scheme for tables is independent from that of graphs. Titles and captions should always appear above the table.

l Appropriate arrangement and headings. Each vertical column should display aparticular type of data, and the descriptive headings should reflect these contents,giving the units where data are quantitative. Each row might show differentinstances of these types of data. Rows and columns should be arranged in a way that helps the reader to compare them if this is desirable.

l Rulings. The default in word-processing programs such as Microsoft Word is to add boxed lines to tables; however, the modern style is to minimise these, oftenrestricting their use to horizontal lines only.

l Data values. These should be presented to an appropriate number of significantfigures. An indication of errors, if included, should be given in parentheses, and theheading should make it clear what statistic is being quoted.

l Footnotes. These can be used to explain abbreviations or give details of specificcases.

Figure 30.4 illustrates some important components of a well-designed table.

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CQualitative data: data that are descriptive and non-numerical, such ascolour, place of manufacture,or name.

Quantitative data: data thatcan be expressed in numbers,such as length, height orprice.

Definitions: data

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Important descriptive statistics

Descriptive statistics are used to simplify a complexdata set, to summarise the distribution of data withinthe data set and to provide estimates of values of thepopulation frequency distribution. Two aspects thatare often quoted are:

l a measure of location – this is an estimate of the‘centre’ of the frequency distribution;

l a measure of dispersion – this is an estimate ofthe spread of data within the frequencydistribution.

Different measures of location and dispersion are outlined in Table 30.1 and many of these values can be obtained simply, using a spreadsheet or statisticalprogram. More complex descriptive statistics such asstandard error (describing the precision of a mean),or quantifying the shape of frequency distributions,are outside the scope of this book and a specialist textshould be consulted.


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Figure 30.4 The basic components of a table. Note that shading is included here toemphasise the heading and data sections and would not usually be present.

This is a description of thefrequency of occurrence ofvalues of a variable. You maybe interested in the actualdistribution in the sample youhave taken, and you mightuse a frequency polygon(Figure 30.2(c)) to representthis. You might also beinterested in the underlyingpopulation frequencydistribution. This is oftentheoretical in nature and asmooth curve representing amodel function might be usedto represent it.

Definition: frequencydistribution

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Concepts of hypothesis-testing statistics

Hypothesis testing in a statistical context is used to compare the properties of a data setwith other samples or to compare the data set with some theory about it.

Error and variability exist in all data sets (see tip box, below), which means that it impos-sible to be 100 per cent certain about differences between sets. Are the differences‘genuine’ and due to a true dissimilarity between the samples, perhaps because of atreatment you have administered to one of them, or are the differences you observe justthe result of random errors? Hypothesis testing works by trying to put a probability onthese alternatives.

The norm is to set up a ‘null hypothesis’ (NH) thatsays that the samples are the same or that they con-form to some theoretical description. By making cer-tain assumptions about the data, calculating ahypothesis-testing statistic, and looking up tables ofprobability (or calculating), you can find the probabil-ity P of the NH being true. The lower P, the less likelyyou are to accept it in favour of the hypothesis thatthe differences were ‘real’ and due to your treatmentor a genuine difference between the samples. Con-ventionally, if P < 0.05, then the NH is rejected.

Hypothesis-testing statistics differ in their assump-tions about the data and what they set out to test.Some common ones and their uses are:

l tt-test: for comparing two means;

l χχ22 (Chi squared) test: for comparing observed against expected values;

l analysis of variance (ANOVA): for comparing several means.

Precise details can be found in specialist texts.


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The following are reasons why the values and hence the descriptive statistics of samplesof data may vary.

n Sampling error, due to the selection of a small number of individuals from a larger,variable population.

n Measurement error, due to the method of measurement of the variable.

n Rounding error, due to an attempt to use an appropriate number of significantfigures, but often compounded in calculations.

n Human error, due to inaccurate writing or copying of data, mixing up of samples, andso on.

n Error from unknown sources, or unappreciated effects of sampling.

Sources of random error and variability

The former make theassumption that the data are distributed according to a particular mathematicalfunction, usually the so-called‘Normal’ function; the lattermake no assumptions of thiskind, but are less powerful in distinguishing betweensamples that differ marginally.

Parametric and non-parametric statistical tests

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Practical tips for producing graphs, tables and basicstatistics

Learn how to manipulate spreadsheet chart output. If you are using a spreadsheet to compose your graph, it is important not to accept the default values without makinga conscious decision to do so. Altering these attributes of charts is usually possible,although it may require some advanced knowledge of the program. Things you mightwish to change include scale (often automatically selected), background, gridlines, symbols and lines.

Learn the table functions in your word processor. You should know how to create atable, add and delete columns and rows, manipulate the width of columns and rows, addand remove borders to the table ‘cells’, merge and split cells and sort data within tables.This will help you produce more presentable and user-friendly tables.

Research further on statistics. Statistics can be a little daunting, but like maths it is asubject in which you can greatly improve if you apply yourself. If you lack confidence in your statistical abilities, you may wish to enrol on a supplementary module or buyadditional texts to help you improve. This is another aspect of maths where practicemakes perfect.

And now . . .

30.1 Examine critically the graphs produced by others. You will see, forexample, how graphs in newspapers are often presented in a way thatsupports the journalist’s viewpoint, while presentations in academic articlestend to be less prone to bias because of the peer-review process. In allcases, you should think about why a particular graph format is shown,whether it is an aid to your understanding and how it might be improved,as this will help your own technique.

30.2 Look at the chart options within Microsoft Excel. Knowing your wayround this program, or similar spreadsheet available to you, and finding out what it offers will help you to choose the most appropriate chart andpresentation for your purposes. It will also be useful to learn how to movecharts from the spreadsheet to the word-processing software within your‘office’ suite.

30.3 Find out how tables are normally presented in your discipline. This mayvary, for example in the use of cell borders and lines, and you will probablybe expected to adopt the style evident in text and journal articles in yourarea. If in doubt over a specific example, ask a tutor.

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212 31 SHAPING UP IN MATHS

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Being able to calculate angles, volumes and other features of shapes is a valuable skill in many subjects, from engineering to biology. This is not a maths textbook, however,and space does not allow a detailed treatment with examples and problems. Instead, weaim to introduce basic terminology and some relatively simple methods. If your subjectrequires more complicated maths, including differentiation and integration, you will needto seek help from specialist texts, or attend supplementary tutorials or modules.

Calculating areas and volumes of common shapes

Modelling exercises and problems frequently require you to quantify features of two-and three-dimensional shapes, such as their areas, perimeters and volumes. For stand-ard shapes, these can generally be worked out using simple formulae, and it may beassumed by your tutors that you have memorised some of these from school work. If thisisn’t the case, Table 31.1 provides some reminders of commonly encountered examples.

Working out angles

An angle occurs between two straight lines meeting at a vertex (Figure 31.1). If one ofthese lines is free to move, then it can sweep round in a circle. Each full circle, working

31 Shaping up in maths

How to use basic geometry and trigonometry to solvespatial problems

Many numerical problems involve geometry and trigonometry. Theprinciples involved in working out areas, volumes, angles and gradients are often relatively simple, but easy to forget. This chapter reviews theessential mathematical techniques you can apply to such problems andexplains some of the terminology involved.

Key terms

AsymptoteCosineEquilateralHypotenuseInterceptIsoscelesParallelogramRhombusSineTangentTrigonometryVertex


l Calculating areas and volumes of common shapesl Working out anglesl Functions: slopes, intercepts, limits and asymptotes

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31 SHAPING UP IN MATHS 213

anticlockwise, by convention, is defined as 360degrees – written as 360°. Another definition of angleis the radian (rad), such that there are 2π rad in eachfull circle.

A frequent challenge in geometry is to work out an unknown angle or side length in a triangular orfour-sided shape. Some problems only require basicgeometry to solve (Figure 31.2), while others requiretrigonometry and involve the use of sines, cosinesand tangents (Figure 31.3). These mathematical func-tions have many applications, including in telecommunications, navigation, surveyingand description of wave forms, where advanced trigonometric techniques are required.

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Pi is the ratio of thecircumference of a circle to its diameter. It is anirrational number (Ch 29) with the following value to 20 significant figures:3.1415926535897932384.

About π

Table 31.1 Formulae for calculating the perimeter, areas and volumes of objects

Key: x, y, z = sides; a, b, c = axes; r = radius, h = height, or perpendicular height; p = perimeter of base; b = area of base.

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Functions: slopes, intercepts, limitsand asymptotes

A function describes a relationship where values ofone variable determine the values of another. Thisrelationship can generally be described in the form ofa formula, or equation, such as:

e = mc2,

y = cos(x + z), or

a = 5xy2/(x2 + y4).

Many such functions can be represented graphically inx, y coordinate systems.

Generalised features of functions are illustrated inFigure 31.4. These include:

l the slope of the curve at any point (the tangent);

l the points where the function crosses the x and y-axes, if it does;

l the intercept between two functions, if there isone;

l where a function has maximum or minimumvalues, if relevant;

l the limit value for a function (asymptote), if it has one;

l the area under a function curve, usually betweenspecified limits.

Given a function, numerical values for these featurescan be worked out using advanced algebra and cal-culus. There are widespread applications for this sortof analysis: examples include the study of motion, opticsand electromagnetism.

The straight-line equation y = mx + c is one functionthat is frequently encountered. This has widespread uses, for example, in calibrationcurves, and when describing many relationships in biology, economics and physics. Thisequation has the following key features.

l The value of m describes the slope of the line. Higher positive m values result in asteeper line, and lower values give a shallower one, while negative values give adecreasing, or negative, slope (Figure 31.5).

l The value of c defines the y-axis intercept (this is where x = 0, so y = c). A zero value means the line passes through the intercept of the x and y-axes and positive and negative values shift the whole line up or down respectively (Figure 31.5).

l The x-axis intercept is given by −c/m.


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Figure 31.1 The terminology of angles. Angles are oftendenoted by Greek letters (forexample α, β, γ, θ, φ, ϕ). Theycan be greater than 360°,continuing to sweep round thevertex in an anticlockwisedirection; and negative,sweeping in a clockwisedirection.

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Figure 31.2 Simple shapes and angle calculations. At their easiest, problems may requirethe knowledge that the inside angles of a triangle always add up to 180°. Hence, if two ofthe angles are known, then the third can be calculated by subtracting their sum from 180.Similarly, the angles in a four-sided shape (quadrilateral) add up to 360°, so if three areknown, the fourth can be calculated. Symmetrical shapes simplify these problems, becausethey have equal angles at opposite sides.

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If there is a scatter in the points around a line, you canobtain ‘best estimates’ of m and c using linear regres-sion analysis. This will also provide you with a value r,the correlation coefficient, which quantifies the relat-ive scatter, or how well the line fits the points. Thecloser this parameter is to 1 (or −1 for negative slopes),the less the scatter. The statistic r can be used to testwhether the slope of the line differs from zero; this willindicate whether the relationship between x and y isstatistically significant.

Sometimes transformations are used to create astraight-line relationship between variables. A math-ematical operation is carried out on the x values (andsometimes also the y values), so that a curved rela-tionship becomes linear. This is done in some types ofenzyme analysis, for example, where the reciprocals ofx and y may be plotted against each other. However, if you employ linear regression on the transformed val-ues, this is unlikely to be valid because concomitantchanges in the error structure invalidate the assump-tions of linear regression analysis.


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Figure 31.3 Basictrigonometry: calculating side lengths and angles fortriangles. Pythagoras’ theorem: c2 = a2 + b2

Sin θ = a/c (opposite overhypoteruse)Cos θ = b/c (adjacent overhypotenuse)Tan θ = a/b (opposite overadjacent)If required, rearrange theseequations to find an unknownvalue if two out of the threevariables are known.

Figure 31.4 Some features of functions

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Figure 31.5 Examples of straight-line relationships. Line A represents the equation y = x(that is, in y = mx + c, m = 1 and c = 0). Line B, y = x + 1, shows how a change in y-interceptcan be brought about through a change in c (here, m = 1 and c = 1). Line C, y = 0.5x, showshow a change in slope can be brought about by a change in m (here, m = 0.5 and c = 0). Line D, y = −2x − 0.5, shows a negative slope and intercept (here m = −2 and c = −0.5).

Practical tips for solving spatial problems

Translate your problem from ‘ordinary’ language into mathematical language. Alloc-ate symbols for each dimension and note relationships between dimensions given in theproblem.

Try to work out which formula applies. If you do not instantly recognise which equa-tion applies to the problem you have been given, think through the values and dimensions you have been given and work out which of these appear in the ‘candidate’formulae you are considering.

State your assumptions. If modelling using a ‘perfect’ shape or object, you should state the assumptions you are making (for example, ‘the organelle was assumed to be spherical . . .’). While discussing your result, you may also wish to state why theseassumptions might not be accurate in practice.

Use figures and graphs to ‘visualise’ a problem. This may make it easier to understand,although it isn’t a suitable approach in all cases.

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31.1 Create a list of formulae that apply in your subject. These might bethose that have been covered in lectures, or ones that appear frequently in the problems you are given. During revision, test whether you knowthese, and what conditions or assumptions may apply to their use. This is probably a good idea even if you will be given a sheet of formulae to use in exams.

31.2 Make a glossary of the mathematical terms you will be expected tounderstand and use. If you are confused about some of the terms in use,this can help clarify them in your mind and would allow you to ask someoneto test you on your knowledge, using the glossary.

31.3 Research aspects of maths in which you are not confident. There are

many websites that explain the principles of maths, some of them interactive.

While some of these are meant for school pupils, they may be valuable to visit

to refresh your understanding of a key area, especially if this would otherwise

limit your progress.

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PART

DA TOOLKIT FOR ACADEMIC WRITING

32 Tackling writing assignments: how to get started

33 Academic writing format: how to organise your writing within astandard framework

34 Planning writing assignments: how to respond to the task

35 Citing and listing references: how to refer appropriately to the workof others

36 Plagiarism and copyright infringement: how to avoid being accusedof ‘stealing’ the ideas and work of others

37 Academic writing style: how to adopt the appropriate languageconventions

38 Sentences and paragraphs: how to shape your text

39 Grammar: how to avoid some common errors

40 Punctuation: how to use punctuation marks appropriately

41 Spelling: how to spell competently

42 Vocabulary: how to improve your use of academic terms andlanguage

43 Reviewing, editing and proof-reading: how to make sure yourwriting is concise and correct

44 Presentation of assignments: how to follow the appropriateacademic conventions

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32 TACKLING WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 221

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Written university assignments take different forms. Examples include essays, reports,project dossiers, short-answer mini-essays, case studies or dissertations. The purpose isto give you an opportunity to demonstrate several things:

l your knowledge and understanding of a topic;

l your ability to research a specific aspect of the topic set in the assignment;

l your ability to organise supporting information and evidence in a structured piece ofacademic writing.

Especially for a longer piece of writing, or one that will count towards a module or degreemark, it is worth planning your work carefully and ensuring that you approach the taskin a focused manner.

Realistic time planning

Consult the course handbook for the submission date.Work out how long you have between the startingpoint and due date, and then work out how much ofthat time you can devote to completion of the work.Remember to take into account things you may needto do for other subjects, your need to attend lectures,tutorials or practicals, and any part-time work com-mitments (see also Ch 8).

Next, divide the available time into convenient working periods and decide how much time you wish to allocate to each aspect of the task. Map these time allowances on to available time.

32 Tackling writing assignments

How to get started

Assignments at university challenge you to write in different forms. Thischapter looks at the fundamental stages in preparing to respond to anyassignment. It takes you through a step-by-step process to help you planthe structure of your submission.

Key terms

AnalyseArgueDescribeRestrictionTopic


l Realistic time planningl Recognising the elements of the taskl Exploring the topicl Finding the material and selecting what’s relevantl Adopting an analytical approach

Time spent deconstructingthe task and planning yourresponse will enable you tosave time in the long run and,as with most jobs, the qualityof the preparation will bereflected in the quality of theend product. It is well worththe time ensuring that youbreak down the question intoits different elements.

Value of planning

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Good planning ensures that you can realistically complete the work before the sub-mission date. It also allows you to balance the time spent on different components,devote sufficient time to aspects such as editing and proof-reading (Ch 43) and avoidpenalties that might be imposed because of late submission.

Recognising the elements of the task

Once you have thought about the amount of time youcan allocate to the work, the next phase of analysingan assignment requires you to break the task downinto its component parts by asking yourself the fol-lowing questions:

l What’s the instruction? Many assignments are not in the form of questions but framed asinstructions introduced by an instruction word. It is important to interpret these instructionwords properly.

l What’s the topic? This will clarify the context ofthe discussion you will need to construct.

l What’s the aspect of the topic? This will helpyou define a more specific focus within the widercontext.

l What restriction is imposed on the topic? This will limit the scope of your discussion.

The example in the tip box shows you how this analysis might look for a sample question. You may already do this sort of thing subconsciously, but there is value in marking theseelements out on paper. First, it helps you to recognise the scope and limitations of thework you have been asked to complete. Second, it means that you can avoid producinga piece of work that waffles or strays from the point. Once you have gone through thisfairly quick process, you will be able to work on planning your writing (Ch 34) and onadopting a suitable framework for your assignment (Ch 33).

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Assignment task:assess the importance of post-operative care in the rehabilitation oforthopaedic patients.

Instruction: assess.

Topic: post-operative care.

Aspect: importance.

Restriction 1: rehabilitation.

Restriction 2: orthopaedicpatients.

Example assignment

Table 32.1 Subdivisions of a large writing task and their estimated timing

Aspect of task Time required When I plan to do this

Analysing the task

Doing preliminary reading

Planning the response to the task

Doing supplementary reading

Writing the first draft

Reviewing the first draft

Editing/proof-reading the final copy

Printing/writing out the final copy

Time margin for the unexpected

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Generally, instruction words fall into four categories,although this grouping may vary according to thecontext of the question. The list opposite definesthese types. In broad terms, this suggests a hierarchyof approaches to tackling assignments that will dic-tate how you need to organise the information in yourassignment (Ch 33).

Table 32.2 shows a range of typical instruction words,with definitions for each one. You should make sureyou know what’s expected of you when any of theseinstructions are used, not only in terms of these defi-nitions, but also in relation to the thinking processesexpected (see Ch 22 and especially Table 22.1). How-ever, always remember to take the whole questioninto account when deciding this.

Exploring the topic

Go back to the task and identify the topic, its aspect(s)and restriction(s). This is important because studentsoften misread the task and, although they may submita good piece of work, their response may miss thefocus of the assignment.

Next, create a brainstorm ‘map’ of the topic by writingdown as many related aspects as you can in a free-flowing diagram (see Figure 26.5). Revisit the instruc-tion word and consider how this applies to your initialresponse to the task. This may seem to be a strangeapproach, but these immediate thoughts are principally your own ‘take’ on the topic, per-haps influenced by lectures, but before you have become weighed down by any readingmaterial. The most important aspect is that you are beginning to exercise your criticalthinking skills (Ch 22), by analysing for yourself what you think is important about thissubject.

Finding the material and selecting what’s relevant

As a preliminary to tackling the prescribed reading list you may find it useful to obtainsome general background information about the topic. Typical additional sources areshown in the tip box at the top of page 225.

Reading the literature that supports a subject is a routine part of student activity.Generally, reading lists are extensive to give some choice; they often list basic texts andthen sources that go into greater depth. It is not usually expected that you read every-thing on these lists. In some subjects, you may only be expected to look at one or tworecommended texts. In some other subjects, book lists are lengthy and the volume ofreading may seem daunting, but the task will be more manageable if you approach it systematically.

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One way of categorisinginstruction words is bylooking at what they ask you to do:

Do: create something, drawup a plan, calculate.

Describe: how somethingappears, happens or works.

Analyse: look at all sides ofan issue.

Argue: look at all sides of anissue and provide supportingevidence for your position.

Instruction wordcategories

To create an effectivebrainstorm ‘map’, use a singlesheet of A4 in the landscapeposition. This gives morespace for lateral thinking andcreativity. It also leaves morespace for additions to bemade at later stages.

Brainstorming techniques

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Table 32.2 Instruction words for assignments and exams. These words are the productof research into the frequency of use of the most common instruction words in universityexaminations. The definitions below are suggestions. You must take the whole question intoaccount when answering. See also Table 22.1.

Instruction word Definition – what you are expected to do

Account [give an] Describe

Account for Give reasons for

Analyse Give an organised answer looking at all aspects

Apply Put a theory into operation

Assess Decide on value/importance

Brief account [give a] Describe in a concise way

Comment on Give your opinion

Compare [with] Discuss similarities; draw conclusions on common areas

Compile Make up (a list/plan/outline)

Consider Describe/give your views on subject

Contrast Discuss differences/draw own view

Criticise Point out weak/strong points, i.e. balanced answer

Define Give the meaning of a term, concisely

Demonstrate Show by example/evidence

Describe Narrative on process/appearance/operation/sequence . . .

Devise Make up

Discuss Give own thoughts and support your opinion or conclusion

Evaluate Decide on merit of situation/argument

Exemplify Show by giving examples

Expand Give more information

Explain Give reason for – say why

Explain how Describe how something works

Identify Pinpoint/list

Illustrate Give examples

Indicate Point out, but not in great detail

Justify Support the argument for . . .

List Make an organised list, e.g. events

Outline Describe basic factors – limited information

Plan Think how to organise something

Report Make an account on process, event

Review Write report – give facts and views on facts

Show Demonstrate with supporting evidence

Specify Give details of something

State Give a clear account of . . .

Summarise Briefly give an account

Trace Provide brief chronology of events/process

Work out Find a solution, e.g. as in a maths problem

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Unless specific chapters or pages are cited, students sometimes think that they need toread the whole book. This is usually not the case. Use the contents page and the index inpartnership to identify which sections are relevant to your topic (Ch 25). Some authorsoften put key pages in bold type in the index and this will help you to focus your readingrather than cover every reference. At this stage also, preliminary encyclopaedia readingwill help you to identify sections in a book resource that are more relevant to the pre-sent task.

Begin by doing the necessary reading and note-making (Ch 23–Ch 26). This has to befocused and you need to be reading with discrimination. As you move from basic textsto more specialist books or journal articles that give more detailed analysis, your under-standing of the topic will deepen. This may mean, for example that you begin to build upa more informed picture of events, implications of a procedure or the possible solutionsto a problem. What are you looking for? This could be, for instance, facts, examples,information to support a particular viewpoint, or counter-arguments to provide balanceto your analysis of the topic. As you become more familiar with the issues, the easier itwill be to think critically (Ch 22) about what you are reading and consequently buildingyour response to the task you have been set. Continue to add to your initial brainstorm.

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Handouts/PowerPoint slides: should outline key issues and ideas, pose problems andprovide solutions related to your topic.

Lecture notes: easy to locate if you’ve noted lecturer, topic and date.

General or subject encyclopaedias: provide a thumb-nail sketch of useful backgroundinformation; give key points to direct your reading in more detailed texts. Electronicversions may be available through your university library (Ch 23).

ebrary: readily accessible, and reliable in its validity.

E-journals: often contemporary material that is reliable in its provenance.

Library resources: the electronic catalogue will enable you to locate many resources inaddition to those listed above. However, you may also find things serendipitously bybrowsing in the relevant zone of shelving in the library, where it is possible to find booksand journals that may not necessarily come up from the search headings you haveselected when consulting the catalogue.

Sources of information

Sometimes it is difficult to identify the important from the unimportant, the relevantfrom the irrelevant. A well-tried strategy, for many subjects, is to ask yourself thequestions that trainee journalists are advised to use:

n Who? Who is involved in relation to this topic, for example, people/organisations?

n What? What are the problems/issues involved?

n When? What is the time-frame to be considered?

n Where? Where did it occur?

n Why? What reasons are relevant to this issue/topic?

n How? How has this situation been reached?

The reporter’s questions

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Adopting an analytical approach

Knowing what information to put aside and what to retain requires a more disciplinedappraisal than the more wide-ranging approach you will have followed in your initialreading. Certain questions may help you to focus on what is important to your topic. Forexample:

l Who are the key actors in a sequence of events?

l What are the necessary criteria that explain particular situations?

l What explanations support a particular view?

l What patterns can be identified, for example short-, medium- and long-term factors?

From your reading and note-making you will begin tofind that different authors make similar or contra-dictory points. As you begin to identify the differentschools of thought or approaches to an issue, youshould begin to cross-reference your notes so thatyou can begin to group authors who subscribe to thesame or similar viewpoints.

University work needs more than simple reproductionof facts. You need to be able to construct an argument(Ch 33, Ch 34) and to support this with evidence.This means that you need to draw on the literaturethat you have read in order to support your position. In some instances, dependent onthe topic and discipline, it may be appropriate to present differing viewpoints and evalu-ate arguments one over the others, and, if appropriate, address counter-arguments tothese. What is important is to present a tight, well-argued case for the view you finallypresent as the one you favour.

Once you have evolved your own response to the task you have been set, you then need to place this within a framework that presents your response in a way that is wellstructured. Writing that follows a sequence of sound logic and argument will improveyour potential for gaining better marks. This next stage in structuring your text is cov-ered in Ch 33.


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It is important not to rely tooheavily on quoting from thetext. First, if this is overdone,then it is plagiarism (Ch 36,Ch 37); second, it fails to giveevidence that you understandthe significance of the pointbeing made.

Direct quotation

Practical tips for getting started on a writing assignment

Selecting material. In the early years of university study many students follow the samepractices as they used at school, often with too much reliance on handouts and notesfrom a single core textbook. At university you will be expected to read more widely byidentifying source material beyond titles given as a basic starting point. It is worthwhileexploring your library on foot to browse in the areas related to your studies, where you may find a whole range of material that potentially expands your reading and understanding.

Conserving material. In the process of marshalling information for a writing task youwill probably obtain some material that proves to be irrelevant to the current writingtask. It is well worth keeping this in your filing system because this topic may come up

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again at a later date in a subtle way. In exam revision, this personal cache of informationcould be useful in revitalising your knowledge and understanding of this topic.

Spending time reading. This is a vital part of the writing process, but recognise the dangers of prolonging the reading phase beyond your scheduled deadline. This is anavoidance strategy that is quite common. Students may delay getting down to planningthe structure and moving on to the writing phase because they are uncomfortable withwriting. Facing up to these next phases and getting on with them is usually much lessformidable once you get started, so it’s best to stick to your time plan for this assignmentand move on to the next phase in the planned sequence.

Keeping records of reading. It is exasperating to know that you have read somethingsomewhere but cannot find it again. It is good to develop the habit of noting page num-ber, chapter, title, author, publisher and place of publication on notes you make. Thismakes citation and referencing much easier and less time-consuming.

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32.1 Practise categorising instruction words. Go to Table 32.2 and mark out all those instruction words that would invite a response asking you to dosomething practical, those requiring you simply to describe, those thatinvite you to analyse and those that are directing you to construct anargument.

32.2 Examine some of the assignment titles that you will have to completein a selected subject. Taking the whole question or instruction intoaccount, identify what type of approach is needed – doing somethingpractical, describing, analysing or arguing. You may find that within thesame question/task you will have to do some describing in order to analyseor argue. The trick is not to devote too much time to the descriptiveelement at the expense of analysis/argument (Ch 33, Ch 34). You couldalso do this activity with past exam papers.

32.3 Try creating the wording for a task in a selected subject for yourself.Think about the clarity of the question. Is it ambiguous? Is it unclear?Identify your topic, aspect and restriction(s). Turning the student–examinerroles around can sometimes be a helpful way of developing understanding.This could be an excellent preparation for exams because it helps withanticipating possible questions and reflecting on how you would answerthem. This broadens the range of possible questions you could feelcomfortable tackling in exams (Ch 59, Ch 61, Ch 62).

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228 33 ACADEMIC WRITING FORMAT

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This chapter describes the essential format of any piece of academic writing, namely,introduction–main body–conclusion. It is on this basic framework that different types ofacademic assignment are constructed, and these are examined in detail in Ch 34.

Standard format

The basic structure follows the convention of movingfrom the general (the introduction) through to thespecific (the main body) and back to the general (theconclusion).

Introduction

This should consist of three components:

l a brief explanation of the context of the topic;

l an outline of the topic as you understand it;

l an explanation of how you plan to address thetopic in this particular text – in effect, a statementof intent.

This introductory section can be quite long as it maytake several sentences to lay out these three dimen-sions. It’s important to do this with some thoughtbecause this indicates to your reader where youexpect to take them in the statement of intent. Theintroduction also lays down the parameters that youhave set yourself for this piece of text. For example, your topic may be multifaceted andthe word limit imposed on the total piece of text will not allow you to give a comprehen-sive coverage of all aspects. It is better to acknowledge the extensive nature of the topic

33 Academic writing format

How to organise your writing within a standard framework

Regardless of the type of writing assignment you have to complete, thestructure will follow a basic format. This chapter describes this design andexplores some of the features that need to be included as you map youroutline plan on to this structure.

Key terms

CitationExemplify


l Standard formatl Taking word limits into account

This is the first contact thatyour reader makes with youas the author of the text. This means that it has to bewell organised and clear.However, to achieve this it is important to see thisintroductory section as ‘workin progress’ because, untilyou complete the entire text,you cannot really introducethe whole work accurately.Indeed, some people prefer tostart writing the main body,move on to the conclusion,and then write theintroduction.

The importance of theintroduction

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33 ACADEMIC WRITING FORMAT 229

and note that you are going to limit your discussion to only some of these aspects – usually those you con-sider to be most important. You need to explain thereasons for this decision at this stage.

Main body

This section lays out your work based on theapproach you decide to adopt in organising the con-tent (Ch 34). You will have explained the approach inthe introduction and this will mean that you shouldhave mapped out your route for explaining yourpoints. In this section, you may need to generalise,describe, define or exemplify as part of your ana-lysis. Here it’s important to keep this part of the writ-ing as brief, yet as clear, as possible. The constructionof your paragraphs will be dictated by what you aretrying to do at any particular point. Different types ofparagraph structures are outlined in Table 38.3.

Conclusion

This summarises the whole piece of work. You shouldreview the entire text in three elements:

l a restatement of the question and what you feelare the important features of the topic;

l a summary of the specific evidence that you havepresented in support of your views;

l a statement of your overall viewpoint on thetopic.

What mainly distinguishes the conclusion from theintroduction is language. In the introduction, yourexplanation should be given clearly, avoiding jargonor technical words as far as possible. In the conclu-sion, you will be writing about the detail of the con-tent and, therefore, the terminology you use is morelikely to contain technical or more sophisticated lan-guage because you will have introduced this in themain body. You should avoid introducing new ideas inthe conclusion that have not already been discussedin the earlier part of the writing.

Taking word limits into account

Word limits are imposed, not to relieve tutors of marking, but to train you to be concisein your writing and to analyse the topic carefully to decide what to keep in and what toleave out.

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In some disciplines, andespecially in report writing,sub-headings are acceptable.In others they are not.However, it’s helpful tomaintain the focus of yourwriting if you use sub-headings in your draft. This helps to prevent youdigressing into unrelatedareas or presenting anapparently rambling paper. If you then ‘translate’ yoursub-heading into a topicsentence (Ch 38), this willprovide a link with theprevious paragraph or anintroduction to the nexttheme.

Sub-headings

As you become immersed inthe writing process you willbecome very familiar with thematerial and conclusions youhave drawn along the way. Bythe time you come to writethe conclusion to the wholework, this in-depth awarenessmay become diluted. To avoidthis, it is a good idea, at theend of each section you write,to note down what main ideasyou had considered and whatyour view is about these. Ifyou note these down on aseparate piece of paper, then this will provide thesubstance for your finalconclusion.

Mini-conclusions

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It’s important to note that falling short of the wordlimit is just as bad as overrunning the maximum.Some students keep a running total of words theyhave used and as soon as they reach the minimumword limit, they stop abruptly. This is not a goodapproach because it is more likely to leave a raggedand poorly considered piece of text that comes to anunexpected halt rather than one that is well-planned,relevant and concisely written.

It’s usually better to plan and write your first draftkeeping only a casual eye on word count at this stage.When you come to editing that draft you can pruneand reshape your writing so that it becomes a tighter piece of prose that falls within themaximum–minimum word limits imposed by the regulations.

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Most word processors include a word-count feature.Microsoft Word has, inaddition, a useful ‘floating’toolbar that allows you tocheck running totals as youwrite or edit. You can accessboth features in this programfrom ‘Tools > Word Count (> Show Toolbar)’.

Counting words

Practical tips for organising your writing within astandard framework

Keep the right proportions in your response. Make sure that the three elements withinyour writing framework are well balanced in extent. The main body should be the mostsubstantial piece of the writing, whereas the introduction and conclusion should occupymuch less space. A common problem for many students is that they devote too muchtime to outlining the context in the introduction and leave themselves with too little timeand space to get to the core of the essay.

Pay adequate attention to the conclusion. By the time that you come to write the con-clusion, this is often done at some speed because there may be other demands on yourtime, or the initial interest in the subject has palled, or you may simply be tired. Thus,conclusions often don’t get the attention they deserve. Do reserve some time to giveyour conclusion a critical appraisal, and even consider writing this section before finish-ing the perhaps more ‘mechanical’ earlier parts. Alternatively, as suggested above, youcould ‘write it as you go’ by keeping detailed notes of key points separately, which youcan use to frame your conclusion once you have written the main body.

Review the introduction. Once you have completed your draft, go back to the introduc-tion and make sure that you have actually done what you set out to do when defining theparameters of your work and in your statement of intent. The act of writing your textmay have stimulated new thoughts and your initial intentions may have altered in theprocess of writing.

Think about appendices. Sometimes the length of your text may be seriously beyondthe word limit. This means that some drastic ‘surgery’ is required. One strategy might beto remove some parts of the text and, while remaining within the word limit, reduce theinformation contained to bullet-point lists. The detail can then be placed in an appendixor appendices (plural of appendix), making appropriate cross-references in the main text. Clearly, this is a strategy that has to be used sparingly, but it can be useful in somesituations.

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Think about citations. In many disciplines you will be expected to include reference torecognised authorities within the field you are studying. In law, this could be cases; in thearts and humanities, it could be work by a renowned academic. This does not mean thatyou need to quote substantial pieces of text; you can summarise the idea in your ownwords and then follow the rules about citation that are given in Ch 35. All this needs tobe taken into consideration in planning and drafting your writing.

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33.1 Compare textual patterns. Go back to a basic textbook and identify theproportion of space allocated to introducing the entire book and how muchis reserved for the conclusion. This should be instructive in framing yourown writing.

33.2 Track the pattern of your writing. Go back to an existing piece of your own writing and try to identify that you have the basic elements and sub-elements of the standard writing format in place. Are theintroduction, main body and conclusion identifiable? Does the introductioncontain the elements of context, specific focus and statement of intent?For the conclusion, is your position laid out clearly and with supportingrationale?

33.3 Practise converting sub-headings into topic sentences. Take a piece of your own writing or a section from a textbook where sub-headings have been used. Try to create a topic sentence (Ch 38) that could replacethat sub-heading. Decide which is more effective – the topic sentence orthe original sub-heading. Consider why this is the case. Again, this shouldbe instructive in shaping the style you adopt in your own writing.

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232 34 PLANNING WRITING ASSIGNMENTS

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The basic framework of an essay was described in Ch 33. The next step is to think aboutthe particular assignment that you have to tackle and how you might organise yourresponse to the task. This chapter outlines the key steps in the process of planning awriting assignment.

People and their thought processes are different and so individual approaches to plan-ning an outline response to an assignment will vary. For some people, this can be a highlydetailed process, for others, it may be a minimal exercise. Too much detail in a plan canbe restricting, while too little can fail to provide enough direction. Therefore, a reason-ably detailed plan should give some guidance while leaving you the flexibility to alter thefiner elements as you write.

Identifying the key themes in your text

Planning your writing means that you need to return to your ‘first thoughts’ brainstorm(Ch 32), which should have been developed further as you have added key points fromyour reading and thinking. Consider whether any themes or recurrent issues are evident.It might be useful to ‘colour code’ all the items that are related, using a different colourhighlighter for each category or theme. Then, you need to reconsider the instruction of theset task to help you construct your plan, that is, on the basis of description, analysis orargument (Ch 32).

34 Planning writingassignments

How to respond to the task

Once you have assembled the information for your assignment, you will be able to think about how you are going to respond to the set writingtask. This chapter outlines some of the different options that you mayneed to consider when structuring the content of your response into anoutline plan.

Key terms

BrainstormChronologicalHierarchical


l Identifying the key themes in your textl Adopting a structural modell Expanding your outline

While, for some subjects, description would be a lower-order writing activity, for othersthis would be considered to be a higher-order skill (see Ch 21 and especially Table 22.1).Often written assignments require some initial description of context or process tooutline the background to the topic. This is then followed by in-depth consideration of the topic, using more analytical or critical approaches.

Lower- or higher-order thinking?

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34 PLANNING WRITING ASSIGNMENTS 233

Adopting a structural model

Brainstorming and analysing the instruction should give you some indication of how youcan construct the content of your paper as a logical discussion by considering how itwould fit into one of several classic structural models or approaches (Table 34.1).

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Table 34.1 The seven most common structural models for written assignments

1 Chronological Description of a process or sequence

2 Hierarchical Classification of objects or ideas

3 Common denominator Identifying a common characteristic or theme

4 Phased Identifying short-/medium-/long-term aspects

5 Analytical Examining an issue in depth (situation – problem – solution – evaluation – recommendation)

6 Thematic Commenting on a theme in each aspect

7 Comparative/contrastive Comparing and contrasting (often within a theme or themes)

By adopting one of these models, it should be possible to map out the content of youranswer in a way that provides a logical and coherent response to the task you have beenset. Note that sometimes it may be necessary to incorporate one of these models withinanother. For example, within the common denominator approach it may be necessary toinclude some chronological dimension to the discussion.

Examples of each of these seven approaches are given below.

Chronological

An example of the chronological approach would be describing a developmental process,such as outlining the historical development of the European Union. This kind of writingis most likely to be entirely descriptive.

Hierarchical

An example of this approach could be to discuss transport by subdividing your text into land, sea and air modes of travel. Each of these could be further divided into commercial, military and personal modes of transport. These categories could be furthersubdivided on the basis of how they are powered. Such classifications are, to someextent, subjective, but the approach provides a means of describing each category ateach level in a way that allows some contrast. This approach is particularly useful in scientific disciplines. The rationale also is sympathetic to the approach of starting frombroad generalisation to the more specific.

Common denominator

An example of this approach might be used in answer to the following assignment:‘Account for the levels of high infant mortality in developing countries’. This suggests acommon denominator of deficiency or lack. This topic could therefore be approachedunder the headings:

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l Lack of primary health care

l Lack of health education

l Lack of literacy.

Phased

An example of adopting a sequential approach to a topic might be in answer to a taskthat instructs: ‘Discuss the impact of water shortage on flora and fauna along riverbanks’.

l Short-term factors might be that drying out of the river bed occurs and annualplants fail to thrive.

l Medium term factors might include damage to oxygenating plant life and reductionin wildlife numbers.

l Long-term factors might include the effect on the water table and falling numbersof certain amphibious species.

Note that topics amenable to this treatment do not always prompt this sort of responsedirectly by asking for ‘results’ or consequences of an event; you could decide to use it inanswer to a question such as ‘Explain why water shortage has deleterious effects onriperian life.’

Analytical

This conventional approach might be used to approach complex issues. An example ofan assignment that you could tackle in this way might be: ‘Evaluate potential solutionsto the problem of identity theft’. You could perhaps adopt the following plan:

l Define identity theft, and perhaps give an example.

l Explain why identity theft is difficult to control.

l Outline legal and practical solutions to identity theft.

l Weigh up the advantages and disadvantages of each.

l State which solution(s) you would favour and why.


..

This is particularly helpful in the construction of essays, reports, projects and casestudies. It is also useful whenever you feel that you cannot identify themes or trends.This approach helps you to ‘deconstruct’ or ‘unpack’ the topic and involves fiveelements, as follows:

n Situation: describe the context and brief history.

n Problem: describe or define the problem.

n Solution: describe and explain the possible solution(s).

n Evaluation: identify the positive and negative features for each solution by givingevidence/reasons to support your viewpoint.

n Recommendation: identify the best option in your opinion, giving the basis of yourreasoning for this. This element is optional, as it may not always be a requirement ofyour task.

Taking the analytical approach

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Thematic

This approach is similar to the phased approach, but in this case themes are the identi-fying characteristics. Precise details would depend on the nature of the question, butpossible examples could be:

l social, economic or political factors;

l age, income and health considerations;

l gas, electricity, oil, water and wind power.

Comparative/contrastive

This is a derivative of the themed approach. Forexample, consider a task that instructs: ‘Discuss thearguments for and against the introduction of car-free city centres’. You might approach this by creat-ing a ‘grid’ as in Table 34.2, which notes positive andnegative aspects for the major stakeholders.

There are two potential methods of constructing textin this comparative/contrastive approach:

l Method 1. Introduce the topic, then follow ColumnA in a vertical fashion, then similarly followColumn B and conclude by making a concludingstatement about the merits and demerits of oneover the other. In relation to the grid, this wouldresult in the structure: introductory statement,then A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 + A5, then B1 + B2 + B3 +B4 + B5, followed by concluding statement.

l Method 2. Introduce the topic and than discuss the perspective of pedestrians from first the positive and then the negative aspects; now do the same for theviewpoints of the other stakeholders in sequence. This would result in the structure:introductory statement, then A1 + B1; A2 + B2; A3 + B3; A4 + B4; A5 + B5, followedby concluding statement.

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Each method of structuringthe points has advantagesand disadvantages, accordingto the content and thecontext of the assignment.For example, in an exam itmight be risky to embark onmethod 1 in case you run outof time and never reach thediscussion of column B. In thisinstance, method 2 wouldenable a balanced answer.

Comparative/contrastivestructures

Table 34.2 Model grid for planning comparison-type answers

1

2

3

4

5

Stakeholders

Pedestrians

Drivers

Commercialenterprises

Local authority

Police

Column A

Positive aspects

Greater safety, clean

Less stress; park and ridefacilities

Quicker access for deliveries

Reduces emissions

Easier to police

Column B

Negative aspects

Lengthy walk, poor parking

High parking fees; expensivepublic transport

Loss of trade to more accessibleout-of–town shopping centres

Cost of park and ride

Reliance on foot patrols

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Expanding your outline

Once you have decided what kind of approach is required to cover your written assignment, then you can map this on to the main body of your essay plan and frame anintroduction and conclusion that will ‘top and tail’ the essay. In this way, you can createthe outline plan based on the introduction–main body–conclusion model that providesthe framework for academic writing (Ch 33) in the English-speaking world.


..

Practical tips for planning the outline of your written text

Return to the outline plan. When you have completed your first draft it is a good ideato go back to your outline plan and check that you have not forgotten any points. Youcan also make sure that the links between sections that you noted in the plan have beenachieved in the text.

Achieve balance in your response. Especially in the early years of university study,there is a tendency to adhere to the methods that had succeeded at school or college.This means that written work is often descriptive rather than analytical (see Ch 22 forexplanation). Ensure that the description you give is sufficient for the task, but if theinstruction requires you to analyse or argue, then make sure this is the main focus ofyour response.

Explain your approach. Although the models outlined in this chapter are fairly standardapproaches to tackling academic issues, it is still necessary to identify for your readerwhich approach you intend to adopt in the piece of text. Your reader should learn at anearly point in your writing of the route you intend to follow. In most cases this would bein your introduction. This is dealt with more fully in Ch 38.

Find the ‘right’ answer. In subjects with a mathematical content, for example, there areclearly correct/incorrect answers, but in many other disciplines this is not the case. Inthese latter instances, you need to present your answer with supporting evidence. It isthe merit of your appraisal that will most strongly influence your mark. It is essential torecognise that it is the structure of your argument, supported by relevant evidence, thatis of importance and not, as some students think, a matter of reproducing the perceivedviewpoint of those who lecture to you.

Not all tasks are based on instructions; some do ask questions. For instance, they mayinclude words such as ‘How . . . ?’, ‘Why . . . ?’ and expressions such as ‘To what extent . . . ?’In these cases, you will need to think about what these mean within the do–describe–analyse–argue instruction hierarchy. One way to do this is to reword the question.

For example, consider the question: ‘To what extent has the disposal of sewageeffluence in rivers contributed to depletion of fish stocks over the last decade?’

This might be reworded as: ‘Outline the relationship between the disposal of sewageeffluence in rivers and the depletion of fish stocks over the last decade’.

This would suggest using a phased approach to organising the content of the answer to the question.

Responding to question words

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And now . . .

34.1 Compare textual patterns. Look at a chapter in a basic textbook andanalyse the structural approach the author has taken. Identify theproportion of space allocated to ‘scene-setting’ using description, and to the analysis/argument/evaluation components of the text.

34.2 Identify response types. Look at some of the essay titles or reportassignments you have been set. Try to identify which of the approachesgiven in this chapter might best ‘fit’ each task.

34.3 Convert questions into instructions. Look again at some of the tasks you have been set for coursework or, alternatively, look at some past exampapers to find those that have been framed as questions. Try convertingthem into ‘instruction’ tasks and decide which type they fit into in thedo–describe–analyse–argue classification (Ch 32).

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238 35 CITING AND LISTING REFERENCES

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When you write any kind of academic paper – an essay, a report, a dissertation or a thesis – you are expected to give the sources of information and ideas you have drawnfrom your in-depth reading on the subject. This means that you have to give your readersufficient information to be able to locate your source. This is done in the body of thetext at the point where you refer to (cite) the source, and then give full details of it eitherin a footnote, endnote or separate reference list at the end of the paper.

The preferred referencing method for your discipline will be stipulated in your coursehandbook, or may be recommended by your lecturer or supervisor. However, you mustbe able to recognise the alternative styles in order to interpret the information given. Ifyou are unable to obtain style guide information, then seek the help of a librarian. Yourlibrary website may also provide useful links.

35 Citing and listing references

How to refer appropriately to the work of others

The convention in academic writing at all levels is that you must supportyour discussion of a topic by referring to the relevant literature. There areseveral methods in use and which one you will be required to adopt willdepend on the conventions within your discipline. This chapter outlinesfour of the more common styles showing you how to reference your sourcein text and how to list these in your reference list or bibliography.

Key terms

BibliographyCitationEllipsisIbid.IndentationOp. cit.Reference listSuperscript


l Why you need to cite your sourcesl Using information within your textl How to cite the work in the textl Different reference methods

Bibliography: a listing at the end of your work of all books, journals, web and onlinematerials that you have consulted as preparation for your paper. Note that you do notneed to have referred to all these sources directly in your text.

Reference list: all the books, journals, web and online materials you have referred to inyour paper. This list is usually at the end of the work.

Definitions: listings

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35 CITING AND LISTING REFERENCES 239

Why you need to cite your sources

Academic convention requires you to give this information in order to:

l acknowledge the use of other people’s work – you must demonstrate clearly whereyou have borrowed text or ideas from others; even if you cite an author’s work inorder to disagree with it, you have made use of their intellectual property and youmust show that you recognise this (there is more discussion on intellectual propertyand plagiarism in Ch 36);

l help your readers understand how your argument/discussion was assembled andwhat influenced your thinking – this will help them form opinions about your work;

l help your reader/marker evaluate the extent of your reading. This may help them toassess your work and to advise you on further or more relevant reading;

l provide your readers with sufficient information to enable them to consult thesource materials for themselves, if they wish;

l ensure that you do not lose marks by failing toprovide a reference list.

Using information within your text

Essentially there are two means by which you can intro-duce the work of others into your text – by quotingexact words from a source, or by citation, which involvessummarising the idea in your own words. In bothinstances you need to indicate the source material bymeans of the chosen style of citation (Table 35.1).

Quotation in the text

There are two possibilities (see also Ch 44). If thequotation is a short quotation, then the exact wordsare placed within single inverted commas within thesentence (e.g. xxxx ‘zzzz zz zzzz zz zzzz’ xxx). If youare using a longer quotation, usually 30 words ormore, then no inverted commas are used. The statusof the text as a quotation is indicated by the use ofindentation where several lines quoted from anothersource are indented within your own text and in single-line spacing. If you deliberately miss out somewords from the original, then the ‘gap’ is representedby three dots. This is called ellipsis. For example:

xxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxx xxxx xxx xx xxxxxxxxx xxxx xxxxxxxx xx xx xxxx xxxxxx:

. . . zzzz Z ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZ ZZZ ZZZZZZZ ZZZZ ZZ Z ZZ ZZZZ

Z ZZZZ ZZ Z ZZZZZZ ZZZZZZZZZ.(source)

xxxxxxx xxxx xxx xxxx xx xx xx xxxxxxxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxx xxxxx xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx.

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The three dots used tosubstitute for words thathave been omitted from aquotation are often used atthe beginning of a quote as in the example opposite, orwhere some information thatis irrelevant to your point hasbeen omitted for brevity.Obviously, you should notomit words that change thesense of the quotation. For example, omitting theword ‘not’ in the followingquotation would entirelychange its sense: ‘Theadoption of the Euro as thecommon currency of the EUis not universally acceptable’.

Definition: ellipsis

The convention of BritishEnglish is to use singleinverted commas to cover thewhole quotation and doubleinverted commas (quotationmarks) for the quotationwithin the quotation. Forexample, ‘xxxxxx “zzzz” xxx’.The convention in AmericanEnglish is the opposite.

Quoting within a quote

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Footnotes and endnotes

In some disciplines, footnotes and endnotes, generallyusing superscript numbers, lead readers to the sourceinformation. However, in other disciplines, footnotesand endnotes are used simply to provide additionalinformation, commentary or point of discussion aboutthe content of the text. Footnotes generally appear atthe bottom of the page where the link appears; end-notes are recorded in number order at the end of thebody of the work.

How to cite the work in the textThere are essentially two ways in which to do this: the information-prominent and author-prominentmethods. These depend on the style of referencingyou have elected to follow. Four commonly used stylesare laid out in Tables 35.2–35.5. The broad principlesare outlined below.

l Information-prominent method. Here thestatement is regarded as being generallyaccepted within the field of study. For example:

Children express an interest in books and picturesfrom an early age (Murphy, 1995).

l Author-prominent method. Here the author and date of publication form part of the constructionof the sentence. This formulation can be usedwith appropriate reporting words (see tip boxabove) to reflect a viewpoint. For example:

Murphy (1995) claimed that children as young assix months are able to follow a simple storysequence.

Different reference methodsReference methods evolve as technology and prefer-ences alter. Publishers of journals have been particu-larly influential in dictating styles that should be adoptedin their publications. This has had the result that, evenin the most commonly used styles, there have beenmodifications to create variants of the original format.The following tables illustrate common methods:

l Harvard (Table 35.2)

l Modern Languages Association (Table 35.3)

l Vancouver (Table 35.4)

l Chicago (Table 35.5).

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D

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There is a considerable rangeof verbs that can be used toreport the views of others.Here are some examples:

allege

assert

claim

consider

contend

declare

explain

judge

state

surmise

warn.

Note that some of thesewords are ‘stronger’ thanothers and you need toconsider carefully which youuse so that they reflect yourview of the reported work.

Reporting words

These can be used to fit your reference list to any of several conventions.However, it is worthreflecting on whether it isgood use of your time tolearn how to use a relativelycomplex package and key in the data to ‘feed’ thepackage, when you couldachieve a similar end resultwith common-sense use of a list typed straight into aword-processed table, which can then be sortedalphabetically (usuallysufficient for undergraduateneeds).

Software referencingpackages

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How to lay out the reference list or bibliography

Brandt, K-H., 2001. Working the system [online].Available from: http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm [accessed 1.4.01].

Ferry Times, 1999. Where the money moves.Ferry Times, 12 April, p. 24.

Hobart, K. and Lyon, A., 2002. Socio-economicdivisions: the cultural impact. London: Thames Press.

Johannes, B., 2000. Functional economics. In M. Edouard ed., The naked economy. Cologne:Rhein Verlag, 2000, pp. 120–30.

Kay, W., 2004. The power of Europe. Dover:Kentish Press.

Morrison, F., Drake, C., Brunswick, M. andMackenzie, V., 2001. Europe of the nations.Edinburgh: Lothian Press.

Roche, P., 1993. European economic integration.London: Amazon Press.

Saunders, C., ed., 1996. The economics of reality.Dublin: Shamrock Press.

Scott, R., 2004. Informal integration: the case ofthe non-monitored economy. Journal ofEuropean Integration Studies, 3 (2), pp. 81–9.

Table 35.2(a) Outline of the Harvard method for citing references. This referencingsystem has the advantage of being simpler, quicker and possibly more readily adjustablethan other systems. It is used internationally in a wide range of fields and provides authorand date information in the text. Note that there are various interpretations of the method.This one generally follows BS5605:1990.

How to cite the reference in the text

The cause of European integration has been further hampered by the conflict between competing interests in a range of economic activities (Roche, 1993). However, Hobart and Lyon (2002) have argued that this is a symptom of a wider disharmony which has its roots in socio-economic divisions arising from differing cultural attitudes towards the concept of the market economy. Morrison et al. (2001) have identified ‘black market’ economic activity in post-reunification Germany as one which exemplified this most markedly. Scott (2004) suggests that the black economy which existed prior to reunification operated on strong market economy principles. However, Main (2003 cited in Kay, 2004) has supported the view that black market economies are not culture dependent. Statistics presented by Johannes (2000) suggest that, in the UK, as many as 23 per cent of the population are engaged at any one time in the black economy. European-wide statistics indicate that figures for participation in the black economy may be as high as 30 per cent (Brandt, 2001).

Quotations in the text

The movement of money within the so-called black economy is regarded by Finance Ministers inEurope as ‘a success story they could emulate’ (Ferry Times, 12.4.99).

According to Saunders (1996, p. 82) ‘black economies build businesses’.

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Basic format: author surname | author initial | date | title |place of publication | publisher

Roche, P., 1993. European economic integration. London:Amazon Press.

Hobart, K. and Lyon, A., 2002. Socio-economic divisions: thecultural impact. London: Thames Press.

Morrison, F., Drake, C., Brunswick, M. and Mackenzie, V., 2001.Europe of the nations. Edinburgh: Lothian Press.

Saunders, C., ed., 1996. The economics of reality. Dublin:Shamrock Press.

Johannes, B., 2000. Functional economics. In M. Edouard ed.,The naked economy. Cologne: Rhein Verlag, 2000, 120–30.

Kay, W., 2004. The power of Europe. Dover: Kentish Press.

Scott, R., 2004. Informal integration: the case of the non-monitored economy. Journal of European Integration Studies,3 (2), 81–9.

Ferry Times, 1999. Where the money moves. Ferry Times, 12April, p. 24.

Brandt, K-H. 2001. Working the system [online]. Available from:http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm [accessed 1.4.01].

Ross, F., 2000. Coping with dementia. Geriatric Medicine[online], 5 (14). Available from:http://germed.ac.ic/archive00000555/[accessed 11.01.04].

Table 35.2(b) How to list different types of source following the Harvard method

Type of source material

Book by one author

Book by two authors

Book with more than three authors

Book under editorship

Chapter in a book

Secondary referencing – where the original text is not available and the reference relates to a citation in a text that you have read, refer to the latter

Journal article

Newspaper article

Internet references including e-books

Internet references: e-journals

Notes:l In this version of the Harvard method only the first word of a title is capitalised. With the exception of

proper nouns, other words are in lower case. Each entry is separated by a double line space.l If you need to cite two (or more) pieces of work published within the same year by the same author,

then the convention is to refer to these texts as 2005a, 2005b and so on.l In some interpretations of this method the first line of every entry is indented five character spaces

from the left margin. However, this can create an untidy page where it is difficult to identify theauthor quickly.

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..

How to lay out the reference list or bibliography

Brandt, K-H. ‘Working the System.’ 31 December 2000. 1 April 2001.<http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm>

Hobart, K. and A. Lyon, Socio-economicDivisions: the cultural impact. London:Thames Press, 2002.

Johannes, B. ‘Functional Economics.’ TheNaked Economy. M. Edouard. Cologne:Rhein Verlag, 2000: 120–30.

Kay, W. The Power of Europe. Dover:Kentish Press, 2004.

Morrison, F., et al. Europe of the Nations.Edinburgh: Lothian Press, 2001.

Roche, P. European EconomicIntegration. London: Amazon Press,1993.

Saunders, C. ed. The Economics ofReality. Dublin: Shamrock Press, 1996.

Scott, R. ‘Informal Integration: the caseof the non-monitored economy.’Journal of European IntegrationStudies 2 (2004): 81–9.

‘Where the money moves.’ Ferry Times12 April 1999: 24.

Table 35.3(a) Outline of the Modern Languages Association (MLA) method for citingreferences. This is claimed to be one of the ‘big three’ referencing systems used in the USA.It provides author and page information in the text, but no date is included within the text,only the page number(s).


The cause of European integration has been further hampered by the conflict between competing interests in a range of economic activities (Roche 180). However, Hobart and Lyon have argued that this is a symptom of a wider disharmony which has its roots in socio-economic divisions arising from differing cultural attitudes towards the concept of the market economy (101). Morrison et al. have identified ‘black market’ economic activity in post-reunification Germany as one which exemplified this most markedly (99–101). Scott suggests that the black economy which existed prior to reunification operated on strong market economy principles (83). However, Main has supported the view that black market economies are not culture dependent (cited in Kay 74). Statistics presented by Johannes suggest that, in the UK, as many as 23 per cent of the population are engaged at any one time as part of the black economy (121). European-wide statistics indicate that figures for participation in the black economy may be as high as 30 per cent (Brandt 12).


The movement of money within the so-called black economy is regarded by Finance Ministers inEurope as ‘a success story they could emulate’ (Ferry Times 24).

Some commentators appear to give approval to non-conventional economic activity: ‘blackeconomies build businesses’ (Saunders 82).

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....

Basic format: author surname | author initial | title |place of publication | publisher | date |

Roche, P. European Economic Integration. London:Amazon Press, 1993.

Hobart, K. and Lyon, A. Socio-economic Divisions: thecultural impact. London: Thames Press, 2002.

Morrison, F. et al. Europe of the Nations. Edinburgh:Lothian Press, 2001.

Saunders, C. (ed.) The Economics of Reality. Dublin:Shamrock Press, 1996.

Johannes, B. ‘Functional Economics.’ The NakedEconomy. M. Edouard. Cologne: Rhein Press, 2000:120–30.

Kay, W. The Power of Europe. Dover: Kentish Press,2004.

Scott, R. ‘Informal Integration: the case of the non-monitored economy.’ Journal of EuropeanIntegration Studies 2 (2004): 81–9.

‘Where the money moves.’ Ferry Times 12 April 1999: 24.

Brandt, K-H. ‘Working the System.’ 31 December 2000.1 April 2001. <http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm>

Table 35.3(b) How to list different types of source following the Modern LanguagesAssociation (MLA) method


Book by one author

Book by two authors



Chapter in a book

Secondary referencing – where the original text is not available and the reference relates to a citation in a text that you have read. This is the secondary source and is the one that you should cite in your reference list

Journal article

Newspaper article

Internet reference

Notes:l Successive lines for the same entry are indented by five character spaces.l If two (or more) pieces of work published within the same year by the same author are cited, then

refer to these texts as 1999a, 1999b and so on.

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How to lay out the reference list orbibliography

1 Roche P. European Economic Integration.London: Amazon Press; 1993.

2 Hobart K. and Lyon A. Socio-economicDivisions: the cultural impact. London:Thames Press; 2002.

3 Morrison F., Drake C., Brunswick M. andMackenzie V. Europe of the Nations.Edinburgh: Lothian Press; 2001.

4 Scott R. Informal Integration: the case of the non-monitored economy. Journalof European Integration Studies. 2004; 2, 81–9.

5 Kay W. The Power of Europe. Dover:Kentish Press; 2004.

6 Johannes B. Functional Economics. In Edouard M. The Naked Economy.Cologne: Rhein Verlag; 2000; pp. 120–30.

7 Brandt K-H. Working the System. 2000[cited 1 April 2001]. Available from:http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm.

8 Where the money moves. Ferry Times. 12 April 1999; 24.

9 Saunders C. editor. The Economics ofReality. Dublin, Shamrock Press; 1996.

Table 35.4(a) Outline of the Vancouver method (numeric style) for citing references.This system is widely used in Medicine and the Life Sciences, for example. In the text,numbers are positioned in brackets, that is, like this (1). These numbers relate tocorresponding numbered references in the reference list. This style has the advantage ofnot interrupting the text with citation information. However, this means that the readercannot readily identify the source without referring to the reference list. The Vancouverstyle resembles in some ways the style adopted by the Institute of Electrical and ElectronicEngineers (IEEE).


The cause of European integration has been further hampered by the conflict between competing interests in a range of economic activities (1). However, Hobart and Lyon (2) have argued that this is a symptom of a wider disharmony which has its roots in socio-economic divisions arising from differing cultural attitudes towards the concept of the market economy. Morrison et al. (3) have identified ‘black market’ economic activity in post-reunification Germany as one which exemplified this most markedly. Scott (4) suggests that the black economy which existed prior to reunification operated on strong market economy principles. However, Kay (5) has supported the view of Main that black market economies are not culture dependent. Statistics presented by Johannes (6) suggest that, in the UK, as many as 23 per cent of the population are engaged at any one time as part of the black economy. European-wide statistics indicate that figures for participation in the black economy may be as high as 30 per cent (7).


The movement of money within the so-called black economy is regarded by Finance Ministers inEurope as ‘a success story they could emulate’ (8).

According to Saunders, ‘black economies build businesses’ (9).

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Basic format: author surname | author initial | title | place ofpublication | publisher | date

Roche P. European Economic Integration. London: Amazon Press;1993.

Hobart K. and Lyon A. Socio-economic Divisions: the cultural impact.London: Thames Press; 2002.

Morrison F., Drake C., Brunswick M. and Mackenzie V. Europe of theNations. Edinburgh: Lothian Press; 2001.

Saunders C. editor. The Economics of Reality. Dublin: ShamrockPress; 1996.

Johannes B. Functional Economics. In Edouard, M. The NakedEconomy. Cologne: Rhein Verlag; 2000; pp. 120–30.

Kay W. The Power of Europe. Dover: Kentish Press; 2004.

Scott R. Informal Integration: the case of the non-monitoredeconomy. Journal of European Integration Studies. 2004; 2, 81–9.

Where the money moves. Ferry Times. 12 April 1999; 24.

Brandt K-H. Working the System. 2000 [cited 1 April 2001]. Availablefrom: http://www.hvn.ac.uk/econ/trickco.htm.

Table 35.4(b) How to list different types of source following the Vancouver method


Book by one author

Book by two authors



Chapter in a book

Secondary referencing – where the original text is not available and the reference relates to a citation in a text that you have read. This is the secondary source, which is the one you cite

Journal article

Newspaper article

Internet reference

Notes:l If two (or more) pieces of work published within the same year by the same author are cited, refer to

these texts as 1999a, 1999b and so on.l In some interpretations of this style, superscript numbers8 are used instead of the full-size number in

brackets (8) shown in the example in Table 35.4(a).l In this system, titles are not italicised.

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..

Table

35

.5(a

)O

utl

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of

the

Ch

icago m

eth

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scie

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TSS_C35.qxd 6/27/06 16:17 Page 248

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TSS_C35.qxd 6/27/06 16:17 Page 249


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And now . . .

35.1 Identify the recommended referencing style for your subjects. Thesemay differ from one subject to another; one tutor to another. Go throughyour module handbooks and see what has been stated and how thedifferent subjects differ. If no explicit information is given, then analyse theway that the list of books on your reading lists have been printed. If youcompare this with the examples in Tables 35.2–35.5, then you may be ableto identify the method by name.

35.2 Look at textbooks or journal articles in your subject area to identifywhat referencing method is the norm. If you are studying subjects such as English or Law, you will find that there are particular referencingsystems that apply to these fields. You may find that in other fields somemodifications have been made to one of the methods outlined in this book.Discuss these modifications with a tutor in your department if you areunsure about which interpretation of a method you should follow.

35.3 Look at textbooks or journal articles in your subject area to identifywhat method is appropriate for quotations. Identify whether makingdirect quotations is common. In many academic areas, quotation fromsources would be rare, and you need to be aware of this.

Practical tips for citing and listing references

Record the bibliographical detail routinely. However you copy your notes – electronic-ally, by photocopy or by writing – ensure that you record all the necessary bibliographicalinformation, or you will waste time later on backtracking to find it.

Compile your reference list as you go along. Keep a list of the works you have read.Simply create a table within your software package and type in the details immediatelyyou cite the source in the text. Doing this from time to time as you write saves you having to embark on a marathon of typing at the completion of the task.

Don’t mix referencing systems. Whichever one you use, make sure you follow its conventions to the letter, including all punctuation details. When no guidance is given,consult Table 35.1 to evaluate the possibilities.

Source quotations. If you note down a quotation speculatively for later use, then makesure that you write down full reference details alongside it. Never rely on your memoryfor referencing. Check everything and write it all down.

Check the detail. Allow plenty of time for final checking.

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36 PLAGIARISM AND COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT 251

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Plagiarism and copyright are two related topics that are extremely important academic-ally and legally, but which are often misunderstood by students. They have become more significant in recent years due to technological advances such as digital scanners,photocopiers and electronic file exchange, which make it simple to ‘cut and paste’ andcopy materials. This means it is easier to commit an offence unknowingly. You need to be fully aware of the issues involved so you can acknowledge intellectual propertyappropriately and avoid losing marks or being involved in further disciplinary action.

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism can be defined as: ‘the unacknowledgeduse of another’s work as if it were one’s own’(, 2000).

Alongside other forms of academic dishonesty, univer-sities regard intentional plagiarism as a very seriousoffence. The regulations normally prescribe a rangeof penalties depending on the severity of the case,from a simple reduction in marks, to the ultimatesanctions of exclusion from the university or refusal toaward a degree. You will find the exact penalties foryour institution specified in departmental or schoolhandbooks.

Plagiarism is thus something to be avoided, and it isassumed that no one would deliberately set out tocheat in this way. The problem is that it is easy to

36 Plagiarism and copyrightinfringement

How to avoid being accused of ‘stealing’ the ideas andwork of others

Many students have only a vague understanding of plagiarism andcopyright issues. However, failing to take account of them means you mayrisk serious disciplinary action.

Key terms

CopyrightParaphrasePlagiarismSynonymVerbatim


l What is plagiarism?l What is copyright infringement?

Copying an essay or otherpiece of work by a fellowstudent (past or present) ischeating. The punishment isoften an assessment mark of zero for both parties, andfurther disciplinary measuresmay be taken. If you letsomeone copy your work, you are regarded as just as culpable as the ‘real’ cheat – so consider the risk toyour academic future if youmisguidedly allow someone to copy your work.

Punishments for copying

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plagiarise unwittingly. Regarding such ‘unintentionalplagiarism’, you should note the following:

l The concept of ‘work’ in the definition ofplagiarism given above includes ideas, writing orinventions, and not simply words.

l The notion of ‘use’ in the definition does not onlymean ‘word for word’ (an exact copy) but also ‘insubstance’ (a paraphrase of the notions involved).

l Use of another’s work is acceptable, if youacknowledge the source.

The first two of these aspects give an indication of thepotential dangers for students, but the third providesa remedy. To avoid the risk of unintentional plagiarism,adopt the following advice: if you think a particular author has said something particularlywell, then quote them directly and provide a reference to the relevant article or bookbeside the quote (Ch 35).

Note that the convention in academic writing is to use inverted commas (and sometimesitalics) to signify clearly that a quotation is being made. The reference or citation is gen-erally given in one of several standard forms that are discussed in Table 35.1.

What is copyright infringement?

Copyright law ‘gives the creators of certain kinds ofmaterial rights to control ways their material can beused’ (The Patent Office, 2005). Copyright infringe-ment is regarded as equivalent to stealing, and legalrights are sometimes jealously guarded by companieswith the resources to prosecute.

In the UK, authors have literary copyright over theirmaterial for their life, and their estate has copyrightfor a further 70 years. Publishers have typographicalcopyright for 25 years. This is why the copyright symbol © is usually accompanied by a date and theowner’s name.

You will be at risk of breaking the law if you copy (for example, photocopy, digitally scan or print out)material to which someone else owns the copyright,unless you have their express permission, or unlessthe amount you copy falls within the limits acceptedfor ‘fair dealing’.

‘Educational copying’, for non-commercial privatestudy or research, is sometimes allowed by publishers(they will state this on the material, and may allowmultiple copies to be made). Otherwise, for single

252 36 PLAGIARISM AND COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT

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The practice of cutting(copying) and pastingelectronically (for example,taking material fromwebsites) and using this in an essay without citing it, is regarded as plagiarism and will be punished ifdetected. Tutors now havesophisticated electronicmeans of identifying wherethis has occurred.

Cutting and pasting

The © symbol indicates thatsomeone is drawing yourattention to the fact thatsomething is copyright.However, even if © does not appear, the material may still be copyright.

Use of the copyright logo

This means what it says: the limits discussed hereapply to that use and not tocommercial or other uses,such as photocopying anamusing article for yourfriends. Copying of softwareand music CDs (including‘sharing’ of MP3 files) isusually illegal, although youare usually permitted to makea personal back-up copy of atrack or CD you already own.

Private study or research

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36 PLAGIARISM AND COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT 253

copies for private study or research, you should only copy what would fall under the ‘fairdealing’ provision, for which there is no precise definition in law.

Established practice suggests that you should copy no more than 5 per cent of the workinvolved, or:

l one chapter of a book;

l one article per volume of an academic journal;

l 20 per cent (to a maximum of 20 pages) of ashort book;

l one poem or short story (maximum of 10 pages)from an anthology;

l one separate illustration or map up to A4 size (note:illustrations that are parts of articles and chaptersmay be included in the allowances noted above);

l short excerpts of musical works – not whole worksor movements (note: copying of any kind of publicperformance is not allowed without permission).

These limits apply to single copies – you can’t takemultiple copies of any of the above items, nor pass ona single copy for multiple copying to someone else,who may be in ignorance of the source or of specificor general copyright issues.

In legal terms, it doesn’t matter whether you paid for thesource or not: copyright is infringed when the whole ora substantial part is copied without permission – and‘substantial’ here can mean a qualitatively significantsection even if this is a small part of the whole.

The same rules apply to printing or copying material onthe Web unless the author gives explicit (i.e. written)clearance. This applies to copying images as well astext from the Internet, although a number of sites do offer copyright-free images. A statement on theauthor’s position on copying may appear on the homepage or a page linked directly from it.

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D

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Some copying for academicpurposes may be licensed by the Copyright LicensingAgency (CLA) on behalf ofauthors. Other electronicallydistributed material may belicensed through the HERON(Higher Education ResourcesOn-Demand) scheme. In thesecases you may be able tocopy or print out more thanthe amounts listed opposite,including multiple copies.Your university may also ‘buy in’ to licensing schemes,such as those offered by theNLA (Newspaper LicensingAgency) and the PerformingRights Society. As these canrefer to very specific sources,consult your library’s staff ifin doubt.

Approved copyrightexceptions

Note that the material in this chapter is a summary,and much may depend onindividual circumstances.

Complexity of copyright law

Practical tips for avoiding plagiarism

Avoid copying material by electronic means. You may only do this if you are preparedto quote the source. If you use the material in your work, and fail to add an appropriatecitation, this would be regarded as cheating.

When making notes, always write down your sources. You may risk plagiarising if youcannot recall or find the source of a piece of text. Avoid this by getting into the habit of making a careful note of the source on the same piece of paper that you used to

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summarise or copy it out. Always use quote marks (‘. . .’) when taking such notes ver-batim from texts and other materials, to indicate that what you have written down is adirect copy of the words used, as you may forget this at a later time. You do not need toquote directly in the final version of your work, but if you paraphrase you should still citethe source.

Try not to paraphrase another person’s work too closely. Taking key phrases andrearranging them, or merely substituting some words with synonyms is still regarded asplagiarism.

Follow the academic custom of quoting sources. You should do this even if you preferto use your own wording rather than a direct copy of the original. The reference to thesource signifies that you are making that statement on the basis of the ideas reportedthere. If you are unclear about the different methods of mentioning sources and con-structing a reference list, consult Ch 35.

Avoid overuse of quotations. Plagiarism still occurs if a considerable percentage ofyour assignment is comprised of quotations. In general, quotations should be used sparingly.

Double-check on your ‘original’ ideas. If you have what you think is a novel idea, do not simply accept that your brainwave is unique. It’s common for people to forget theoriginal source of an idea, which may resurface in their mind after many years and perhaps in a different context – this may have happened to you. Think carefully aboutpossible sources that you may have forgotten about; ask others (such as your tutor orsupervisor) whether they have come across the idea before; and consult relevant texts,encyclopaedias or the Web.

254 36 PLAGIARISM AND COPYRIGHT INFRINGEMENT

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And now . . .

36.1 Double-check your department’s (or university’s) plagiarism policy.This should spell out the precise situations in which you might break rules.It may also give useful information on the department’s preferred methodsfor citing sources.

36.2 Next time you are in the library, read the documentation aboutphotocopying often displayed beside the photocopiers. This will providedetailed information about current legislation and any local exceptions.

36.3 Modify your note-taking technique. Put any direct transcriptions inquotes and add full details of the source whenever you take notes from atextbook or paper source.

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37 ACADEMIC WRITING STYLE 255

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At university, you will be assessed in a number of ways, but this assessment will most commonly involve producing a piece of written work. This assignment could takeseveral forms, such as an essay, a report, a project portfolio, a case study or a disserta-tion (Ch 32, Ch 45). One thing that is common to all these types of writing is that theyneed to follow academic style. While it is possible to identify differences between ‘scient-ific’ and ‘humanities’ styles in the finer detail, this chapter covers the common featuresof all types of academic writing.

What is academic style?

Academic style involves the use of precise and objective language to express ideas. It must be grammatically correct, and is more formal than the style used in novels, newspapers, informal correspondence and everyday conversation. This should mean

37 Academic writing style

How to adopt the appropriate language conventions

Writing for academic purposes is a vital skill, yet the stylistic codes youneed to follow are rarely comprehensively defined. This chapter will helpyou understand what it means to write in an academic style and outlinessome forms of language to avoid.

Key words

AcronymColloquialIdiomNounPhrasal verbPronounRegisterRhetorical questionVerb


l What is academic style?l Being objectivel Appropriate use of tensel Use of appropriate vocabularyl Transforming non-academic to academic language

Academic writing in the UK nearly always adopts BE. The differences are most evident inspelling; for example, ‘colour’ (BE) and ‘color’ (AE). However, there are also differencesin vocabulary, so that in AE people talk of ‘pants’ for ‘trousers’; and in language use, sothat in AE someone might write ‘we have gotten results’, rather than ‘we have obtainedresults’. In some disciplines, there is an attempt at standardisation, for example, inchemistry the spelling of ‘sulphur’ (BE) has become ‘sulfur’ (AE) as the internationalstandard.

British English (BE) versus American English (AE)

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that the language is clear and simple. It does not imply that it is complex, pompous anddry. Above all, academic style is objective, using language techniques that maintain animpersonal tone and a vocabulary that is more succinct, rather than involving personal,colloquial, or idiomatic expressions.

Being objective

When writing academically, it is important that your personal involvement with your topicdoes not overshadow the importance of what you are commenting on or reporting. Themain way of demonstrating this lack of bias is by using impersonal language. This means:

l Avoiding personal pronouns – try not to use the following words:

I/me/one

you (singular and plural)

we/us.

l Using the passive rather than active voice – try to write about the action and notabout the actor (the person who performed the action – see below).

You can use other strategies to maintain an impersonal style in your writing. For generalstatements, you could use a structure such as ‘it is . . .’, ‘there is . . .’ or ‘there are . . .’ tointroduce sentences. For more specific points relating to statements you have alreadymade, you could use the structures ‘this is . . .’ or ‘these are . . .’; ‘that is . . .’ or ‘those are. . .’ with appropriate tense changes according to the context. Don’t forget that when youuse words like ‘it’, ‘this’, ‘these’, ‘that’ or ‘those’, thereshould be no ambiguity over the word or phrase towhich they refer.

Another way in which you can maintain objectivity bywriting impersonally is to change the verb in the sen-tence to a noun and then reframe the sentence in aless personal way. You can see how this works in theexample alongside.

This kind of text-juggling will become second natureas you tackle more and more assignments.

256 37 ACADEMIC WRITING STYLE

..

Transformation into nounexpression:

We applied pressure to thewound to stem bleeding(verb in bold).

The application of pressurestemmed bleeding (noun inbold).

Example

This is best explained from examples:

n Pressure was applied to the wound to stem bleeding (passive).

n We applied pressure to the wound to stem bleeding (active).

Some would argue that the second example is clearer, but their opponents wouldcounter-argue that the use of ‘we’ takes attention away from the action.

You may find that the grammar checkers in some word-processing packages suggestthat passive expressions should be changed to active. However, if you follow thisguidance, you will find yourself having to use a personal pronoun, which is inconsistentwith impersonal academic style. If in doubt, ask your tutors for their preference.

Passive and active voice

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Appropriate use of tense

The past tense is used in academic writing to describe or comment on things that havealready happened. However, there are times when the present tense is appropriate. Forexample, in a report (Ch 52) you might write ‘Figure 5 shows . . .’, rather than ‘Figure 5showed . . .’, when describing your results. A material and methods section, on the otherhand, will always be in the past tense, because it describes what you did.

In colloquial English, there is often a tendency to misuse tenses. This can creep into academic assignments, especially where the author is narrating a sequence of events.For example:

Napoleon orders his troops to advance on Moscow. The severe winter closes in onthem and they come back a ragbag of an army. (Present tense in bold.)

Instead of:

Napoleon ordered his troops to advance on Moscow. The severe winter closed in onthem and they came back a ragbag of an army. (Simple past tense in bold.)

While the first of these examples might work with the soundtrack of a documentary onNapoleon’s Russian campaign, it is too colloquial for academic written formats.

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There has been a growing movement in recent times that advocates the use of ‘plainEnglish’, and it has been very successful in persuading government departments and large commercial organisations to simplify written material for public reference.This has been achieved by introducing a less formal style of language that uses simpler,more active sentences structures, and a simpler range of vocabulary avoiding jargon.This is an admirable development. However, academic writing style needs to be precise,professional and unambiguous, and the strategies of ‘plain English’ campaigners may notbe entirely appropriate to the style expected of you as an academic author. For thesame reasons, some of the suggestions offered by software packages may beinappropriate to your subject and academic conventions.

Plain English

Use of appropriate vocabulary

Good academic writers think carefully about their choice of words. The ‘plain English’movement (see above) recommends that words of Latin origin should be replaced bytheir Anglo-Saxon, or spoken, alternatives. However, this does not always contribute tothe style and precision appropriate to academic authorship. For example, compare:

If we turn down the volume, then there will be no feedback.

and

If we turn down the offer from the World Bank, then interest rates will rise.

Both sentences make sense, but they use the two-word verb ‘turn down’ in differentsenses. These verbs are properly called phrasal verbs and they often have more than asingle meaning. Furthermore, they are also used more in speech than in formal writing.Therefore, it would be better to write:

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If we reduce the volume, then there will be no feedback.

and

If we reject the offer from the World Bank, theninterest rates will rise.

By using ‘reduce’ and ‘reject’ the respective mean-ings are clear, concise and unambiguous. If you arerestricted to a word limit on your work, using the one-word verb has additional obvious advantages.Table 39.2 on page 273 gives you the chance toexplore some further two-word verbs and their one-word equivalents. Ch 42 explores other areas ofvocabulary usage and development.

Transforming non-academic to academic language

Thinking about the style of your writing should be a feature of any review you make ofdrafts of your written work (Ch 43) Table 37.1 gives a specific example of text conversionfrom informal to formal style. Table 37.2 provides several pointers to help you achieve amore academic style.


..

The Council of Europerecommends that, wherepossible, gender-specificlanguage is avoided. Thus:‘S/he will provide specimensfor her/his exam’. This israther clumsy, but, bytransforming the sentenceinto the plural, this is avoided:‘They will provide specimensfor their exams’.

Alternatively, if appropriate,‘you/your’ could be used.

Non-sexist language

‘Corrected’ text (academic style)

In the United Kingdom, legislation has been afactor in the decline of the role of the monarchyin the period since the Great War. Nevertheless,the monarchy has survived and, thus, themonarch continues to exercise the right toadvise, encourage and warn the Prime Minister.

Corrected points

l Specific wording (country specified: in theUnited Kingdom)

l Impersonal language (legislation has)

l Appropriate signpost word (nevertheless)

l Generic, yet well-defined term (legislation)

l Singular abstract term (monarchy)

l Repeated subject (monarchy) andreconstructed sentence

l More formal style (continues to exercise)

Table 37.1 Example of converting a piece of ‘non-academic’ writing into academic style.Note that the conversion results in a slightly longer piece of text (47 versus 37 words): thisemphasises the point that while you should aim for concise writing (Ch 32), precise wordingmay be more important.

Original text (non-academic style)

In this country, we have changed the law so that the King or Queen is less powerful since the Great War. But he or she can still advise, encourage or warn the Prime Minister if they want.

Points needing correction

l Non-specific wording (this country)

l Personal pronoun (we)

l Weak grammar (but is a connecting word and should not be used to start a sentence).

l Word with several meanings (law)

l Duplication of nouns (king or queen)

l Inconsistent and potentially misleading pronoun use (he or she, they)

l Informal style (can still)

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D


....

Table 37.2 Fundamentals of academic writing. These elements of academic writing arelaid out in alphabetical order. Being aware of these and training yourself to follow them willhelp you to develop as an academic author and will ensure that you don’t lose marks bymaking some basic errors of usage or expression.

Abbreviations and acronyms

It is acceptable to use abbreviations in academic writing to express units, for example, SI units.Otherwise, abbreviations are generally reserved for note-taking. Thus, avoid: e.g. (for example),i.e. (that is), viz. (namely) in formal work.

Acronyms are a kind of abbreviation formed by taking the initial letters of a name of anorganisation, a procedure or an apparatus, and then using these letters instead of writing outthe title in full. Thus, World Health Organisation becomes WHO. The academic convention is thatthe first time that you use a title with an acronym alternative, then you should write it in fullwith the acronym in brackets immediately after the full title. Thereafter, within that documentyou can use the acronym. For example:

The European Free Trade Association (EFTA) has close links with the European Community (EC).Both EFTA and the EC require new members to have membership of the Council of Europe as aprerequisite for admission to their organisations.

In some forms of academic writing, for example formal reports, you may be expected to includea list of abbreviations in addition to these first-time-of-use explanations.

‘Absolute’ terms

In academic writing, it is important to be cautious about using absolute terms such as:

always and never; most and all; least and none.

This does not prevent you from using these words; it simply means that they should be usedwith caution, that is, when you are absolutely certain of your ground (see page 141).

Clichés

Living languages change and develop over time. This means that some expressions come intosuch frequent usage that they lose their meaning; indeed, they can often be replaced with amuch less long-winded expression. For example:

First and foremost (first); last but not least (finally); at this point in time (now).

This procedure is the gold standard of hip replacement methods. (This procedure is the besthip replacement method.)

In the second example, ‘gold standard’ is completely inappropriate; correctly used, it shouldrefer to monetary units, but it has been misused by being introduced into other contexts.

Colloquial language

This term encompasses informal language that is common in speech. Colloquialisms andidiomatic language should not be used in academic writing. This example shows how colloquiallanguage involving cliché and idiom has been misused:

Not to beat about the bush, increasing income tax did the Chancellor no good at the end ofthe day and he was ditched at the next Cabinet reshuffle. (Increasing income tax did not helpthe Chancellor and he was replaced at the next Cabinet reshuffle.) s

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‘Hedging’ language

For academic purposes, it is often impossible to state categorically that something is or is notthe case. There are verbs that allow you to ‘hedge your bets’ by not coming down on one sideor another of an argument, or which allow you to present a variety of different scenarioswithout committing yourself to any single position.

seems that looks as if suggests that appears that.

This involves using a language construction that leaves the reader with the sense that theevidence presented is simply supporting a hypothetical, or imaginary, case. To emphasise thissense of ‘hedging’, the use of a special kind of verb is introduced. These modal verbs are:

can/cannot could/could not may/may not might/might not.

These can be used with a variety of other verbs to increase the sense of tentativeness. Forexample:

These results suggest that there has been a decline in herring stocks in the North Sea.

Even more tentatively, this could be:

These results could suggest that there has been a decline in herring stocks in the North Sea.

Jargon and specialist terms

Most subjects make use of language in a way that is exclusive to that discipline. It is important,therefore, to explain terms that a general reader might not understand. It is always goodpractice to define specialist terms or ‘regular’ words that are being used in a very specific way.

Rhetorical questions

Some writers use direct rhetorical questions as a stylistic vehicle to introduce the topicaddressed by the question. This is a good strategy if you are making a speech and it can havesome power in academic writing, although it should be used sparingly. Example:

How do plants survive in dry weather? becomes

It is important to understand how plants survive in dry weather. (Note: no question markneeded.)

Split infinitives

The most commonly quoted split infinitive comes from the TV series Star Trek where CaptainJames T. Kirk states that the aim of the Star Ship Enterprise is ‘to boldly go where no man hasgone before’. This means that an adverb (boldly) has split the infinitive (to go). It should read as‘to go boldly’. Many traditionalists consider that the split infinitive is poor English, althoughmodern usage increasingly ignores the rule. Nevertheless, it is probably better to avoid the split infinitive in academic writing, which tends to be particularly traditional.

Value judgements

These are defined as statements in which the author or speaker is imposing their views orvalues on to the reader. For example, a writer who states that ‘Louis XIV was a rabid nationalist’without giving supporting evidence for this statement is not making an objective comment in a professional manner. Rewording this statement to: ‘Louis XIV was regarded as a rabidnationalist. This is evident in the nature of his foreign policy where he . . .’ offers the readersome evidence that explains the claim.

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And now . . .

37.1 Take steps to improve your grammar. Correct English is essential inacademic writing. Ch 39 presents points about grammar that may apply to your work. Look at Table 39.1 in order to understand the grammaticalterms first, and then look at the contrasting samples of student writing inTable 39.2. Highlight points that you do not know at present and resolve touse this information in your written work. You may be able to find errorsthat your lecturers have identified in feedback on your work. Next, consulta grammar book (see Practical tip on page 276) to find out more about therelevant grammar point. You can consolidate your understanding by doingthe exercises provided in such books.

37.2 Ask a friend to work with you on your grammar. Swap a piece of writingand check over your friend’s grammar and ask them to do the same foryours. When you have done this, compare the points you have found. Tryto explain what you think is wrong. Together, you may be able to clarifysome aspects that you were unaware were problematic. Afterwards, look atCh 39 and follow the suggestion in point 37.1 above.

37.3 Learn from published academic writing in your discipline. Look at atextbook or journal article – especially in the area that discusses results orevidence or recommendations. Try to find examples of the use of ‘hedging’language (Table 37.1) and note what else authors do with language in orderto ensure that they avoid making absolute judgements.

Practical tips for ensuring that you write in an academic style

Think about your audience. Your readers should direct the style you adopt for any writing you do. For example, if you were writing to your bank manager asking for a loan,you would not use text-messaging or informal language. For academic writing, youshould take into account that your reader(s) will probably be marking your work and, inaddition to knowledge and content, they will be looking for evidence of awareness andcorrect use of specialist terms and structures.

Avoid contractions. In spoken English, shortened forms such as, don’t, can’t, isn’t, it’s,I’d and we’ll are used all the time. However, in academic written English, they should notbe used. Texting contractions are also inappropriate.

Avoid personal pronouns. Experiment with other language structures so that you avoidthe personal pronouns, I/me/one, you and we/us, and their possessive forms, my, yourand our.

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262 38 SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS

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Knowing how sentences and paragraphs are structured and how you can produce good,clear sentences for yourself will help a great deal in shaping a piece of academic text,whether it is for an essay, a report, a dissertation or another kind of assignment. It’simportant to recognise that academic writing does not mean constructing long andinvolved sentences full of impressive-sounding ‘big’ words. Sometimes short sentenceshave more impact because they are brief and simple. If there is a rule to remember here,it is write to express, not to impress.

There are many excellent grammar books available togive detailed explanations and exercises on themechanics of academic writing. In this chapter we aimto give only some of the basic information on sen-tence and paragraph construction. Experience indi-cates that students want to know why what they havewritten is wrong and so, by providing a little back-ground understanding and some models that showsome typical problems, we hope to help you to bemore sentence- and paragraph-aware when you writeand review your own writing.

What is a sentence?

A sentence must have a verb, that is, a ‘doing’ word (Ch 39). Each of the following is a sentence (verb in bold):

38 Sentences and paragraphs

How to shape your text

When is a sentence not a sentence? What makes a paragraph? These arequestions that often arise for students as academic authors. Sentencescan sometimes be too short, too long, or poorly structured – and the samecan be said of paragraphs. If you are not sure why any of this is the case,then this chapter explains what makes a good sentence and a paragraphthat is well proportioned.

Key terms

ClauseSubjectSubordinate clauseVerb

This chaper covers:

l What is a sentence?l What is a paragraph?

Reading a sentence aloud canbe a useful way of decidingwhether a sentence you havewritten is correct. Your earswill perhaps make more(non)sense out of it than your eyes.

Writers’ tip

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38 SENTENCES AND PARAGRAPHS 263

Help!

Students work in the holidays.

Universities provide tuition in a wide range of subjects.

What follows is a basic outline of different sentence types.

Simple sentences

These have at least a subject (the person or thing doing the action) and a verb, some-times followed by a phrase of other information. Together these make sense as a unit.For example:

Criminal Law differs from Civil Law.

Plants require sunlight and water.

Divalent ions carry two charges.

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..

Hanging participles do not make sentences:

Bringing the debate to an end.

Having been at war for 100 years.

Gum trees being susceptible to termite infestation.

The bold words introduce hanging participles. They do contain verbs, but these are onlyin participle form (‘−ing’ words, see Table 39.2 and Figure 42.2) and not fully formedverbs such as ‘differs’, ‘require’ and ‘carry’ in the correctly formed sentences above. Theuse of hanging participles is a common mistake in student essays. Here is a correctversion of a sentence that uses a participle phrase. In this case, the participle phraseneeds to relate to the subject of the main clause (both shown in bold):

The countries of Europe, having been at war for 100 years, were financially exhausted.

‘Hanging participles’

Compound sentences

These are two simple sentences joined by and or but. There will be two verbs in this com-bined sentence. For example:

Scots Law and English Law are fundamentally different, but there are some areas inwhich they are similar.

Complex sentences

These sentences consist of a main clause with additional subordinate clauses. A clauseis a unit of meaning built round a verb. There are two categories of clause: principal(sometimes called independent or main clause, which is like a simple sentence) and sub-ordinate clauses. The subordinate clause contains a verb, but would not make sense if itwere to stand alone. It does the work of an adjective, adverb or noun. For example:

Gait analysis gives insights into the walking difficulties that are experienced bypeople with cerebral palsy.

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Social work legislation protects the rights of the elderly when they are no longerable to cope independently.

Although Britain is regarded as a democracy, it has no written constitution that canbe cited as the basis of Constitutional Law.

Complex sentences can be quite long and can contain more than one subordinate clause.Varying the length of your sentences enlivens your text and helps to keep your reader’sinterest. Shorter sentences containing a single idea generally have a stronger impactthan longer complex sentences. If you want to balance two ideas, then compound sen-tences are best.

What is a paragraph?

A paragraph is a unit of text usually comprising sev-eral sentences. It has a topic that is outlined in thefirst sentence; the topic is developed further withinthe paragraph; and the paragraph concludes with asentence that terminates that topic or, possibly, actsas a link to the topic of the following paragraph.

Paragraph structure

The building blocks of paragraphs are sentences, eachperforming a particular role: as detailed in Table 38.1,and seen in action within the example shown in Fig-ure 38.1. This example is a very straightforward listingparagraph; Table 38.2 gives examples of signpost, orlinking, words that you can use to join the componentsentences within a paragraphs so that your text flowssmoothly.


..

Table 38.1 Some types of sentences that are used to make up a paragraph

Type of sentence Role in the paragraph

Topic introducer sentence Introduces the overall topic of the text (generally in the very firstparagraph)

Topic sentence Introduces a paragraph by identifying the topic of that paragraph(see also Ch 24)

Developer sentence Expands the topic by giving additional information

Modulator sentence Acts as linking sentence and is often introduced by a signpostword moving to another aspect of the topic within the sameparagraph

Terminator sentence Concludes the discussion of a topic within a paragraph, but canalso be used as a transition sentence where it provides a link tothe topic of the next paragraph

Newspaper journalism andlayout favours paragraphs of single sentences. Theseare not good models foracademic writing. Similarly,adopting a flowery orpompous style is notappropriate to academicwriting. There is a happybalance between these two extremes.

Models for academicwriting: what to avoid

This can follow a ‘blocked’style or an indented style.Examples of layout are givenin Ch 44.

The layout of paragraphs

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Table 38.2 Signpost words in text. This table provides examples of words and phrasesthat can be used to improve the flow of your writing.

Type of link intended Examples of signpost words

Addition additionally; furthermore; in addition; moreover

Cause/reason as a result of; because (mid-sentence)

Comparison compared with; in the same way; in comparison with; likewise

Condition if; on condition that; providing that; unless

Contrast although; by contrast; conversely; despite; however; nevertheless; yet

Effect/result as a result; hence; therefore; thus

Exemplification for example; for instance; particularly; such as; thus

Reformulation in other words; rather; to paraphrase

Summary finally; hence; in all; in conclusion; in short; in summary

Time sequence after; at first; at last; before; eventually; subsequently

Transition as far as . . . is concerned; as for; to turn to

Figure 38.1 How sentences make up a paragraph. Part of a text on Anthropology,showing how different types of sentences are used to construct a paragraph.

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..

Table

38

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If the building blocks of paragraphs are sentences, then paragraphs themselves are thebuilding blocks of text. Each paragraph performs a particular role in the structure of text.This means that the examples of paragraph formats shown in Table 38.3 can be used toconstruct extended written text. The example in Figure 38.2 shows how paragraphs flowwithin a piece of text.

Deductive and inductive paragraph models

These are alternative methods of laying out an argument:

l Deductive model: the writer moves from the key point and follows it withsupporting information or evidence.

l Inductive model: the writer presents the supporting information and concludes withthe key point.

You might choose one or other of these methods to suit your context and content ofyour topic.

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Figure 38.2 How paragraphs make up a piece of text. Part of an essay on town planning,showing how different paragraphs have been used to construct a flowing piece of text. Notehow the bold signpost words (Table 38.2) have been used.

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And now . . .

38.1 Take tips from the professionals. Select a short section from a textbook.Analyse a couple of paragraphs, looking, in particular, for the introducers,developers, modulators (and signpost words) and transition/terminatorsentences. Now select text from a piece of your own writing and do thesame thing. How balanced is the paragraph structure? Have you overusedor underused signpost words?

38.2 Assess your own writing for clarity of meaning. Continuing with your own text, check for hanging participles. Have you used simple or compoundsentences too often? Are your complex sentences perhaps too complex?Are there too many subordinate clauses? Could some overlong sentencesbe modified to become simple or compound sentences?

38.3 Look at Ch 40 on punctuation. There are tips on how to use commas, colons and semicolons in extended writing. These punctuation marks areimportant in breaking up ideas in text into paragraphs and sentences. With this information beside you, look critically at your own writing. Try to spot places where it might be helpful to your reader if you modified the punctuation to make your sentences and paragraphs clearer andunambiguous.

Practical tips for creating good sentences and paragraphs

How long is a sentence? This is a ‘how long is a piece of string?’ type of question. A sentence can be long or short. There are two tests for good sentence structure. First,simply read it out aloud. Your ear will hear inconsistencies of logic or grammar. Second,if you feel a need to take a breath in mid-sentence, then a comma is probably needed, oreven a full stop followed by a new sentence.

Vary sentence length. A sentence ‘mix’ of short and long sentences is probably morereader-friendly than lines and lines of unbroken text. As a rule of thumb, if a sentenceruns into three or four lines of typescript, then consider restructuring it in some way orbreaking it up into two smaller sentences.

How long is a paragraph? The length of a paragraph depends on the content, but generally extra-long paragraphs will have some topic shift within them. If you find thatyour paragraph seems disproportionately long, then, again, read it aloud and listen for a‘natural’ break point. This is probably a good place to start a new paragraph.

Use signpost words. These words are used to assist your reader by moving themthrough the logic of your text, for example in modulator sentences. Some words aremost frequently used at the beginning of sentences: for example, however, moreover,furthermore, nevertheless. These are followed by a comma.

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39 GRAMMAR 269

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Grammar is the series of rules that governs the use of any language. It is a vast field and,although intuitively people know many of the ‘rules’ of grammar when speaking, it isoften less easy to apply them in writing. This chapter cannot give you a complete set ofrules, but gives you enough information so that you will be able to find what you need ina specialist grammar book or in a standard dictionary.

Why grammar is important

Grammar is important to you as a student because it is an integral and expected component of academic writing (Ch 37). Good grammar is essential, because without ityour writing may be nonsensical, illogical or ambiguous. In the course of your universitystudies you will come across many aspects of language where you need to know exactlyhow the appropriate grammar rule needs to be applied.

39 Grammar

How to avoid some common errors

Many people, not just students, often state that they don’t know muchabout the grammar of English – but what exactly do they mean? Spelling?Sentence structure? Parts of speech? Tense? Word order? The list seemsto be endless. This chapter takes a quick look at some common mistakesand tries to give you enough in the way of grammatical terms to allow youto understand the guidance on electronic grammar checkers or in thefeedback you receive on your assignments.

Key terms

ClausePrepositionTautologyTense


l Why grammar is importantl Common grammatical errorsl How to use grammar checkers to best advantage

Grammar has its own particular terminology. This is used as a shorthand reference toallow discussion of more complex ideas. It’s rather like the way that knowing the namesof the main parts of a car engine helps you to understand the explanation of themechanic who’s fixing your car. The most common grammar terms are given in a verysimplified form in Table 39.2. If you can become familiar with some of the basic terms,then this may help you to understand comments written on your assignments. This willalso help you when looking up the relevant section in a good grammar book, when youthink this might be useful.

Grammatical terms

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270 39 GRAMMAR

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In the past, there have been two approaches to teaching grammar. The traditionalapproach teaches the ‘technical’ terms, for example, ‘clause’, ‘preposition’ and ‘tense’, sothat these can be used to explain the mechanics of language; the other, modern,approach encourages people to write freely and then provides them feedback with cor-rect models. For the purposes of this book, we shall use elements of both techniquesbecause we believe that some people do want to know the ‘proper grammar’, but, at thesame time, they may learn best by seeing models of how this works in practice. So, we’llshow you some of the more common grammatical errors and explain these as simply aspossible, using the grammatical terms only where absolutely necessary.

If you are eager for more information, then you may find it helpful to look at Ch 37 on academic style, Ch 40 on punctuation, Ch 41 on spelling and Ch 42 on vocabulary.These elements are all interdependent in the production of good style, structure andgrammar in academic writing.

Common grammatical errors

There are many common errors that occur in academic writing. Table 39.1 demonstrateshow grammatical errors in a weak style of writing can be corrected to produce a moreacademic form of writing. In order to understand comments or corrections on your written work, it may be helpful to be able to identify some grammar terms. Table 39.2defines and explains some of the terms you may come across. Table 39.3 gives someexamples of errors and their corrections. Highlighting those that could be helpful to you in your writing will help you to create a personal checklist so you can avoid mistakesin future.

How to use grammar checkers to best advantage

Some software packages provide a grammar-checking facility. Although this can provideyou with some helpful tips, it is important to recognise that it is not infallible. As an arti-ficial intelligence device, it cannot always fully respond to more sophisticated grammat-ical logic. For example, in the following sentence, the words ‘a lot of’ were underlined asgrammatically incorrect by an electronic grammar checker:

You get a lot of help for projects from the tutors.

The suggested adjustment was to reform the sentence as:

You get many help for projects from the tutors.

This is obviously grammatically incorrect. In another example using the passive voice:

The limitation of feedback from teaching staff was noted by other students to be frustrating.

was ‘corrected’ to:

Other students to be frustrating noted the limitation of feedback from teaching staff.

This clearly makes nonsense of the original text and meaning. The message is clear: you should not blindly accept all changes recommended by the grammar checker.

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39 GRAMMAR 271

....

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Dom

esti

c an

d fo

reig

n po

licy

in t

his

peri

od c

anno

t ea

sily

be

sep

arat

ed. I

n fo

reig

n po

licy,

11N

apol

eon’

s pr

imar

yac

hiev

emen

t was

the

Peac

e of

Lun

évill

e (1

801)

with

Aus

tria

and

subs

eque

nt T

reat

y of

Am

iens

with

Bri

tain

in 1

802.

The

sign

ific

ance

of

this

ach

ieve

men

t was

that

it g

ave

both

Fra

nce

and

Nap

oleo

n, a

nd t

heir

ant

agon

ists

,13an

inte

rval

14in

whi

ch to

col

lect

the

ir15

reso

urce

s an

d re

orga

nise

them

selv

esfo

r fu

rthe

r ho

stili

ties.

Thi

s in

itial

acc

ord16

enab

led

Nap

oleo

nto

sur

vey17

the

dom

estic

sta

te o

f Fr

ance

aft

er a

dec

ade

ofal

mos

t con

tinuo

us f

ight

ing18

prec

eded

by

a m

ajor

inte

rnal

polit

ical

rev

olut

ion.

He

appl

ied

the

sam

e m

etho

ds t

o th

eaf

fair

s of

sta

te a

s he

did

to

the

tact

ics

of t

he b

attl

efie

ld;19

in b

oth20

he h

ad to

take

into

con

side

ratio

n th

e ou

tlook

and

dem

ands

of

the

Fren

ch p

eopl

e as

a w

hole

.21T

his

appr

oach

he

took

bec

ause

22‘I

act

onl

y on

the

imag

inat

ion

of th

e na

tion.

Whe

n th

is m

eans

fai

ls m

e, I

sha

ll be

red

uced

to n

othi

ng a

ndan

othe

r w

ill s

ucce

ed m

e’ (

Gra

nt a

nd T

empe

rley

, 195

2).23

Table

39

.1C

om

pari

son

of

wea

k an

d s

tron

g a

cadem

ic w

riti

ng.

Th

is t

ext

is p

art

of

an a

nsw

er t

o t

he

qu

esti

on

: ‘D

id N

apo

leo

n a

chie

ve m

ost

fo

rFr

ance

at

ho

me

or

abro

ad?

’ Th

e o

rig

inal

an

swer

, wri

tten

in a

sty

le t

hat

is e

ssen

tial

ly n

on

-aca

dem

ic, i

s in

th

e le

ft c

olu

mn

. Th

e m

idd

le c

olu

mn

po

ints

ou

t so

me

gra

mm

atic

al w

eakn

esse

s in

th

e u

se o

f la

ng

uag

e, a

nd

th

e ri

gh

t-h

and

co

lum

n p

rovi

des

on

e p

oss

ible

exa

mp

le o

f h

ow

th

e sa

me

text

co

uld

be

wri

tten

in a

mo

re a

cad

emic

sty

le.

No

n-a

cad

em

ic s

tyle

(b

old

tex

t in

dic

ates

err

or)

Nap

olio

n1ca

me

up t

rum

ps2

in b

oth

Fren

ch d

omes

tic

and

fore

ign

polic

ies

that

wer

e m

any

and

varie

d.3

How

you

hav

e to

thin

k ab

out4

the

valu

e of

the

se a

chie

vem

ents

is t

he m

illio

ndo

llar

ques

tion

,5wh

ile h

is d

omes

tic

refo

rms

surv

ived

afte

rhi

s co

llaps

e,6

mos

t of

the

aff

ects

7of

his

fore

ign

polic

yne

cess

arily

per

ishe

d wi

th h

is im

peria

l pow

er. I

n ad

diti

on t

oth

is,8

the

valu

e of

his

ach

ieve

men

ts h

as t

o be

con

side

red

in t

he li

ght

of w

heth

er t

hey

were

ach

ieve

men

ts fo

r Fr

ance

or

ach

ieve

men

ts in

con

solid

atin

g hi

s ow

n po

siti

on a

ndpo

pula

rity.

In t

his

essa

y I w

ill t

alk

abou

t9hi

s fo

reig

n an

ddo

mes

tic

polic

ys.10

In fo

reig

n po

licy,

Nap

oleo

n’s

prim

ary

achi

evem

ent

was

the

Peac

e of

Lun

éville

(18

01)

wit

h A

ustr

ia a

nd s

ubse

quen

t Tr

eaty

of A

mie

ns w

ith

Brit

ain

in 18

02.

Thi

s ac

hiev

emen

t wa

ssi

gnifi

cant

’cos

12it

gav

e bo

th F

ranc

e an

d Na

pole

on, n

ot t

om

enti

on13

thei

r an

tago

nist

s, a

bre

athi

ng s

pace

14in

whi

ch

to c

olle

ct t

here

15re

sour

ces

and

reor

gani

se t

hem

selve

s fo

rfu

rthe

r ho

stilit

ies.

Thi

s in

itia

l bar

gain

16en

able

d Na

pole

on t

oha

ve a

look

at17

the

dom

esti

c st

ate

of F

ranc

e af

ter

a de

cade

of a

lmos

t co

ntin

uous

inte

rnat

iona

l squ

abbl

ing18

follo

wing

a

maj

or in

tern

al p

olit

ical

rev

olut

ion.

App

lyin

g th

e sa

me

met

hods

to

the

affa

irs o

f sta

te a

s he

did

to

the

tact

ics

of t

he b

attl

efie

ld.19

In b

oth

two20

ways

he

had

to t

ake

into

cons

ider

atio

n th

e ou

tloo

k an

d de

man

ds o

f the

Fre

nch

peop

leas

a h

ole.

21Th

is a

ppro

ach

he t

ook

on t

he g

roun

ds t

hat22

‘Iac

t on

ly o

n th

e im

agin

atio

n of

the

nat

ion.

Whe

n th

is m

eans

fails

me,

I sh

all b

e re

duce

d to

not

hing

and

ano

ther

will

succ

eed

me.

’23

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272 39 GRAMMAR

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Definition/model

Describes nouns or gerunds.

Adds information as to how somethingis done.

There are only three in English: a, an,the. There are particular rules aboutusing these and you will find these rulesin a grammar book.

Part of sentence containing a verb. Ifthe verb and the words relating to it canstand alone, then they comprise themain clause. If the words cannot standalone, then the verb and the words thatgo with it form a subordinate clause.

Used to explain a future possiblesituation; note the comma after thecondition.

Word that joins two clauses in asentence where the ideas are connectedor equally balanced.

There are four in English: this, these,that, those (see Table 39.3).

The noun or pronoun that is affected bythe verb.

Explaining things that have not yethappened. There are two forms:will/shall, going to.

The gerund acts as a noun and isformed with the part of the verb calledthe present participle: . . . –ing.

The person or thing that benefits fromthe action of a verb.

Sometimes called the simple or rootform of the verb. This form is usuallylisted in dictionaries, but without ‘to’.

Term used to refer to things or people.There are different types: e.g. abstract(non-visible), concrete (visible) andproper nouns (names of people, placesorganisations, rivers, mountain ranges).

Used to describe things objectively, thatis, placing the emphasis of the sentenceon the action rather than the actor.Although some electronic grammarcheckers imply that the passive iswrong, it is perfectly correct. Often usedin academic writing (Ch 37).

Example

A red book; an innovative project.

The student read quickly.

A shot in the dark.An empty house.The Highway Code.

Cats eat mice which are vermin.Main clause Subordinate clause

If I had the time, I would go out.Condition Consequence

The book was on loan and thestudent had to reserve it.

This house supports the abolitionof smoking in public.

Foxes kill sheep. Foxes eat them.

I shall work until I am 65.They will come early.He is going to work harder.

Speaking is easier than writingfor most people.

Tutors give (to) students writtenwork.They give (to) them essays.

To work.

Abstract noun: thought.Concrete nouns: chair, table.Proper nouns: Caesar, Rome, thePost Office, the Rhine, the Andes(always begin with capitals).

Essays are written by students.Action Actor

Table 39.2 Grammar toolkit: definitions to help you seek more information

Grammar term

Adjective

Adverb

Articles

Clause

Conditional

Conjunction

Demonstrative

Direct object

Future tense

Gerund

Indirect object

Infinitive

Noun

Passive voice

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39 GRAMMAR 273

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Grammar term

Past participle

Present participle

Phrasal verb

Possessive

Preposition

Pronoun

Relative pronoun

Sentence

Subject

Tense

Verb

Definition/model

This is usually formed by adding –ed tothe verb stem. However, in English thereare many irregular verbs (see ‘tense’,below). You will find lists of these verbsin many dictionaries.

This is formed by adding –ing to thesimple verb form. It is used to formcontinuous verb tenses.

These are two- or three-word verbsmade up of a verb plus a particle(similar to a preposition). These verbsare generally regarded as being lessformal in tone than single-word verbs.

Word indicating ownership: my, mine,your, yours, his, her, its, our, ours, their,theirs.

Word used as a link relating verbs tonouns, pronouns and noun phrases.Sometimes these are followed by anarticle, sometimes not: at, by, in, for,from, of, on, over, through, under, with.

Word used instead of nouns: I, me, you,he, him, she, her, it, we, us, they, them.Also words such as: each, everyone.

Words that link adjective (describing)clauses to the noun about which theygive more information: that, which, who,whose, whom.

A grouping of words, one of which mustbe a verb, that can stand togetherindependently and make sense.

The person or thing that performs theaction in a sentence.

In English, to show past, present andfuture tense shifts, the verb changes.This often involves adding a word toshow this. Some verbs behaveirregularly from the standard rules. Hereare three basic tenses; more can befound in a grammar book or languagelearner’s dictionary.

The action or ‘doing’ word in a sentence.It changes form to indicate shifts in time(see tense).

Example

Worked. However, there are manyirregular verbs: e.g. bent, drunk;eaten, seen; thought; understood.

The sun is setting.We were watching the yachts.

Set down (deposit).Pick up (collect).Write down (note).Look out for (observe).

My house and his are worth thesame.Mine is larger but his has moreland.

Put money in the bank for a rainy day or save it for summerholidays in the sun.

I have given it to him.

This is the house that Jack built.Jack, who owns it, lives there.Jack, whose wife sings, is a baker.Jack, to whom we sold the flour,used it.

The people elect their leaders in ademocracy.

Caesar invaded Britain.Caterpillars eat leaves.

Simplepast Present Future

I studied study shall studyYou studied study will studyS/he studied studies will studyWe studied study shall studyYou studied study will studyThey studied study will study

I work, I am working, I will work, Iworked, I was working, I haveworked, I had worked.

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274 39 GRAMMAR

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Incorrect example (7) and correction (3)

Comparing two things:7 The debit was more bigger than the credit.3 The debit was greater than the credit.Comparing three or more things:7 China has the most greatest population in the world.3 China has the greatest population in the world.Countable and non-countable:7 There were less cases of meningitis last year.3 There were fewer cases of meningitis last year. (Countable)7 There was fewer snow last year.3 There was less snow last year. (Non-countable)

7 Toys, which are dangerous, should not be given to children.(Inference: all toys are dangerous – not what the author means)3 Toys which are dangerous should not be given to children.(Inference: only safe toys should be given to children – what theauthor means)

7 . . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This increases in rush-hour.

3 . . . impact of diesel use on air quality. This impact increasesin rush-hour.

7 As it’s aim, the book describes the whole problem.3 As its aim, the book describes the whole problem.

(Possession)7 Its not a viable answer to the problem.3 It’s not a viable answer to the problem (It is . . . )7 Its not had a good review.3 It’s not had a good review. (It has . . . )

7 Because the sample was too small, the results were invalid.3 Since the sample was too small, the results were invalid.

(‘Because’ is a conjunction and is used to join two ideas.)7 But the UN failed to act. And the member states did nothing.3 The country was attacked, but the UN failed to act and the

member states did nothing.(‘But’ and ‘and’ are conjunctions that join two separate ideas.)

7 They have not had no results from their experiments.3 They have not had any results from their experiments.7 The government had not done nothing to alleviate poverty.3 The government had done nothing to alleviate poverty.

7 The team had went to present their findings at theconference.

3 The team had gone to present their findings at theconference.

Table 39.3 Twelve common grammar errors

Error

1 ComparingSometimes there isconfusion with when to use a word ending in –er or –estrather than using ‘more’ or‘most’.For grammar book entries,look for Comparatives andSuperlatives.

2 DescribingCommas can be vital tomeaning – misuse can causefundamental changes tomeaning.For grammar book entry,look for Relative clauses.

3 EncapsulatingUsing one word to representa previous word or idea.For grammar book entry,look for Demonstrativepronoun.

4 Its/it’sThese two are oftenconfused.For grammar book entry,look for Possessives (its)and Apostrophes (it’s).

5 JoiningWords such as ‘because’,‘but’ and ‘and’ join twoclauses; they never beginsentences.For grammar book entry,look for Conjunctions.

6 Double negativeTwo negatives mean apositive. Sometimes using adouble negative can causeconfusion.For grammar book entry,look for Double negatives.

7 Past participlesThese are sometimesmisused, especially when the verbs are irregular.For grammar book entry,look for Past participles.

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39 GRAMMAR 275

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Error

8 PrepositionsThese should not come atthe end of a sentence.For grammar book entry,look for Prepositions.

9 PronounsThese are used to replacenouns. The singularpronouns often causeconfusion because they need to agree with the verb.For grammar book entry,look for Pronouns.

10 SpecifyingWords that are used toidentify specific singular and plural items must match.For grammar book entry,look for Demonstratives.

11 Subject–verb agreementOften singular subjects arematched with plural verbsand vice versa.For grammar book entry,look for Subject–verbagreement.

12 There/their/they’reThese simply need to beremembered.For grammar book entry,look for Words that areoften confused.

Incorrect example (7) and correction (3)

7 These figures are the ones you will work with.3 These figures are the ones with which you will work.

Singular pronouns: anybody, anyone, anything, each, either,everybody, everyone, everything, neither, nobody, no one,nothing, somebody, someone, something – all take a singularverb.7 Each of the new measures are to be introduced separately.3 Each of the new measures is to be introduced separately.Reflexive pronouns:7 Although disappointed, they only have theirselves to blame.3 Although disappointed, they only have themselves to blame.

3 This kind of mistake is common.3 These kinds of mistakes are less common.3 That result is acceptable.3 Those results are not acceptable.

7 The Principal, together with the Chancellor, were present.3 The Principal, together with the Chancellor, was present.7 It is the result of these overtures and influences that help to

mould personal identity.3 It is the result of these overtures and influences that helps to

mould personal identity.

7 They finished there work before noon.3 They finished their work before noon.7 We have six places at the conference. We’ll go their.3 We have six places at the conference. We’ll go there.7 Researchers are skilled but there not highly paid.3 Researchers are skilled but they’re not highly paid.

If you have had an error pointed out to you, but don’t understand it fully, then ask theperson who made the correction to explain to you what is wrong. If you are unable to dothis or are unsure, then check out some of the resources given below. You can do a lit-tle bit of detective work first by looking at your error in conjunction with the grammardefinition list in Table 39.1. Once you have an idea of what the problem might be, thenyou could consult one of the many good grammar books available by looking for the keygrammatical term in the index or contents. For example, you could have a look atLongman’s Advanced Learners’ Grammar by Mark Foley and Diane Hall, which has veryuseful diagnostic tests to help you identify difficulties. The book gives clear explanationsof each grammar point with exercises for practice and an answer key. Another source is The New Fowler’s Modern English Usage. More modern, user-friendly sources includethe BBC English Dictionary or the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, both ofwhich give words, meanings and examples of correct usage.

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276 39 GRAMMAR

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And now . . .

39.1 Set up a section in a notebook for keeping a note of errors that havearisen in your writing. Note the error, its correction and also a referenceto a source where you were able to find some information on the particulargrammar point.

39.2 Get into the habit of consulting reference works when required. Thegrammar of most languages can be complex, but if you approach it on a‘need-to-know’ basis, then you could make a point of learning those thingsthat are most relevant to your need. For example, some people find itdifficult to work out when to use a particular tense, so they could look upthat section in a grammar book and find out what they need. Other peoplemight have difficulty with working out how the passive operates; again,they could look up that section in a grammar book to find out more.

39.3 Try to learn more grammar with the help of others. It’s said that somepeople have a greater aptitude for understanding language – it’s a kind of code, after all, and if no one has ever given you the key then it is notsurprising if you cannot ‘break the code’. If this is the case for you, andsomeone has made a comment about your written grammar, then askfriends if they know what is wrong with the word, sentence or paragraph.They may have some more knowledge of the grammar codes and be able to help by explaining to you what is wrong.

Practical tips for understanding grammar

Identify and understand your errors. Markers of your assignments often indicateerrors on written work, sometimes simply by underlining, sometimes by restructuring orinserting a correction. It is well worth spending some time looking over your markedwork to understand different points that the marker has identified – some will be relatedto subject matter, some to grammar and some to punctuation. If you can isolate the latter two types, noting the errors and how these have been corrected, then you are wellon the way to avoiding them in the future. This could make a real difference to you inyour marks on future assignments.

Make your own checklist. Once you have identified an error that you have made, then make a note of it (you could keep a glossary notebook and isolate a few pages forgrammar points). It’s a good idea to write down the error, its correction and, if you can,a quick note of what is wrong and why.

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40 PUNCTUATION 277

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Consider how people speak – they use gestures, intonation and pauses to indicateemphasis, astonishment, suspense and a whole range of other emotions and ideas.Punctuation helps to send these signals by splitting up or joining ideas – for example, byusing the full-stop (.), exclamation mark (!), question mark (?), comma (,), colon (:), andsemicolon (;).

Similarly, other signals are used to inform the reader of ideas that may not be those ofthe writer – for example, quotation marks (“. . .”) to indicate what someone else said orwrote; or apostrophes (’) to explain the idea of ownership (for example, ‘the student’sbursary’).

Why punctuation is important

Punctuation is essential and has evolved as an aid to the reader to help convey meaning,emphasis and style. It is a recognised code and learning how to use that code contributesto your skill as a writer.

If you look back at a piece of your own work, you will probably be more aware of yourown punctuation ‘style’. This will probably involve using particular sentence structuresrepeatedly and favouring certain punctuation marks over others. If you want to add vari-ety to your writing, you can do this by consciously trying to use a variety of forms ofpunctuation, and thereby changing the structure of some of your sentences. Simplifiedrules for punctuation marks are provided in Table 40.1.

Sometimes punctuation is essential in order to convey the meaning intended, otherwisea sentence can be ambiguous – that is, have more than one meaning. For example:

40 Punctuation

How to use punctuation marks appropriately

Punctuation is an important ‘code’ that helps the reader understand your message. If you misuse it, ignore it or abuse it, you will not betransmitting your ideas clearly and, indeed, may confuse your reader. Thischapter lays out some of the principles of standard punctuation and givesyou some tips on how to avoid punctuation errors.

Key terms

AmbiguousCapital letterGenreInverted commasParenthesisProper noun


l Why punctuation is importantl Punctuation guidelines

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278 40 PUNCTUATION

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Mark

. . .’

[ . . . ]( . . . )ABCetc.

:

. . . ,

−. . .!

.

−

italics

?

‘. . .’“. . .”

;

How the mark is used

l For possession: e.g. Napoleon’s armies (singular owner); students’essays (plural owner)

l For contraction: e.g. Don’t cry; I’m hungry; it’s latel But note: As its central theme, the book considered wind power

(no apostrophe required at its – possessive of ‘it’)

l Square brackets [ . . . ]: for adding words within a quotel Round brackets ( . . . ): to isolate explanatory information

l Starts sentences, proper nouns, seasons, rivers, mountain ranges,places, Acts of Parliament, titles, organisations

l Leads from one clause to another: e.g. from introduction to mainpoint, from statement to example, from cause to effect

l Introduces lists (examples throughout this table)l Introduces a ‘long quote’ (Ch 35)

l Separates items in a list of three or more: e.g. tea, beer, juice and winel Separates part of a sentence: e.g. He came home, ate and fell asleepl Separates additional information within a sentence (often called a

comma splice): e.g. Rugby, in the main, is a contact sportl Marks adverbs: e.g. Certainly, the results have been positive

l Marks an aside/addition: e.g. Murder – regardless of reason – is a crime

l Marks words omitted from a quotation: e.g. ‘taxes . . . mean price rises’

l Shows shock, horror (rarely used in academic writing): e.g. Help!

l Marks the end of a sentence: e.g. This is the end.l Marks an abbreviation where the last letter of the abbreviation is not

the last letter of the complete word: e.g. Prof. etc., i.e., m.p.h., p.a.

l Joins a single letter to an existing word: e.g. x-rayl Separates prefixes: e.g. post-modernl Prevents repetition of certain letters: e.g. semi-independentl Joins a prefix to a proper noun: e.g. pro-Britishl Creates a noun from a phrasal verb: e.g. show-offl Joins numbers and fractions: e.g. twenty-three; three-quarters

l Differentiates text to show quotations, titles of publications incitations, species, works of art, foreign words: e.g. déjà vu; et al.

l Ends sentences that ask a direct question: e.g. Who am I?

l ‘Single quotation marks’ mark exact words spoken/printed in a textl “Double quotation marks” place a quotation within a quotation

(British English)l Note that in some word-processing packages it is possible to choose

between ‘smart quotes’ (“. . .”) and ‘straight quotes’ (“. . .”)

l Separates two or more clauses of equal importance: e.g. They wonthe battle; the other side won the war

l Separates listed items, especially when description uses several words

Table 40.1 Simplified rules of punctuation

Punctuation

Apostrophe

Brackets (parenthesis)

Capital letter

Colon

Comma

Dash

Ellipsis

Exclamation mark

Full stop

Hyphen

Italics

Question mark

Quotation marks (inverted commas)

Semicolon

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40 PUNCTUATION 279

1 The inspector said the teacher is a fool.

2 ‘The inspector’, said the teacher, ‘is a fool’.

3 The inspector said, ‘The teacher is a fool’.

These three sentences show that punctuation makesa critical difference to meaning. The first one reportswhat the inspector said; the second is what theteacher actually said about the inspector being a fool;the third is what the inspector actually said about theteacher being a fool.

Where punctuation is omitted entirely, then it is difficultto identify separate points. For example:

The character of james bond created by ian flemingportrayed a fastliving but urbane spy whose cool-ness was apparently imperturbable he became a real screen hero.

Without punctuation, this text becomes simply a string of words rather than a meaningfulset of statements. (The correct version is on page 283.)

Punctuation guidelines

In some respects, the way that punctuation rules are applied depends on the conventionsof different genres, that is, the categories of writing. In fiction, for example, the rules arefollowed less rigidly, and sometimes do not follow the rules exactly as they would in anon-fiction book, such as an academic text.

..

D

..

Although not strictlypunctuation, this can greatlyaffect layout and readabilityof text. Paragraphs can bealigned in two ways: fullyjustified and indented. Ch 43 and Ch 44 give moredetail on this.

Paragraph alignment

Two punctuation marks that are commonly overused in academic writing areparentheses and exclamation marks.

n Parentheses are sometimes a symptom of ‘lazy’ writing (or a feeling that you need toadd more detail than you probably require). If you feel you have a tendency to useparentheses excessively, you can often replace these marks with commas.

n It is rare that an exclamation mark is appropriate in academic writing! (This can be seen in the example of the previous sentence, where the exclamation mark isunnecessary.) If you find you use exclamation marks a lot, these can often be simplyreplaced with a full stop with no great loss of effect.

Overuse of certain punctuation marks

For your purposes as a student, it is important that you follow the punctuation codes correctly as this will reflect on how others judge the quality of your work. In some disciplines, marks may be deducted for punctuation errors. Table 40.2 gives examples ofthe more common errors.

TSS_C40.qxd 6/27/06 16:21 Page 279

..

280 40 PUNCTUATION

..

Err

or

Th

e P

rin

cip

als’

Co

mm

itte

e w

illm

eet

at n

oo

n t

od

ay.

Th

e w

om

en

s’te

am b

eat

the

men

s’ t

eam

by

15 p

oin

ts a

nd

th

ech

ildre

ns’

team

bea

t th

em b

oth

.T

he

bo

y’s

team

wo

n t

he

pri

ze.

Its

no

t a

go

od

tim

e to

sel

l ap

rop

erty

. Its

bee

n u

p f

or

sale

fo

r ag

es. W

ell

nee

d t

o lo

wer

th

e p

rice

.

Th

e to

mat

oe

s’co

st 6

0 p

ence

aki

lo.

Th

e C

har

ter

incl

ud

es h

um

anri

gh

ts in

it’s

term

s.

the

firs

t d

ay o

f th

e te

rm is

tom

orr

ow

.

Th

e p

rim

e m

inis

ter

is t

he

firs

tlo

rdo

f th

e tr

eas

ury

.T

he

no

rth

atl

anti

c tr

eat

yo

rgan

isat

ion

is a

reg

ion

alo

rgan

isat

ion

.P

earl

s fo

un

d in

th

e ri

ver

tay

are

of

con

sid

erab

le v

alu

e.

Co

rre

ctio

n

Pri

nci

pal

’s

wo

men

’sm

en’s

child

ren

’sb

oys

’

It’s

=it

isIt

’s =

it h

asW

e’ll

=w

e sh

all

tom

ato

es

its

Th

e

Pri

me

Min

iste

r; F

irst

Lo

rdo

f th

e T

reas

ury

No

rth

Atl

anti

c T

reat

yO

rgan

isat

ion

Riv

er T

ay

Exp

lan

atio

n

Th

ere

is o

nly

on

e P

rin

cip

al, t

her

efo

re t

he

apo

stro

ph

e g

oes

imm

edia

tely

aft

er t

he

wo

rd ‘P

rin

cip

al’.

Th

en a

dd

th

e s

to m

ake

itco

rrec

tly

po

sses

sive

.

Th

e w

ord

s ‘w

om

en’,

‘men

’ an

d ‘c

hild

ren

’ are

plu

ral w

ord

s. T

om

ake

them

po

sses

sive

, ju

st a

dd

an

ap

ost

rop

he

afte

r th

e p

lura

lw

ord

an

d a

dd

‘s’.

Th

e w

ord

‘bo

ys’ i

s a

plu

ral a

nd

is a

reg

ula

rly

form

ed p

lura

l, th

us,

th

e ap

ost

rop

he

com

es a

fter

th

e ‘s

’.

‘It’s

’ is

a co

ntr

acte

d f

orm

of

the

wo

rds

‘it is

’ or

‘it h

as’.

In t

his

case

, th

e se

nte

nce

mea

ns:

‘It

is n

ot

a g

oo

d t

ime

to s

ell a

pro

per

ty’.

Th

e w

ord

‘to

mat

oes

’ is

a p

lura

l. N

o a

po

stro

ph

e is

nee

ded

to

mak

ew

ord

s p

lura

l.

No

ap

ost

rop

he

nee

ded

to

sh

ow

po

sses

sio

n.

Th

e fi

rst

lett

er o

f th

e fi

rst

wo

rd o

f a

sen

ten

ce in

En

glis

h a

lway

sn

eed

s a

cap

ital

lett

er.

Pro

per

no

un

s fo

r ro

les,

nam

es o

f o

rgan

isat

ion

s, r

iver

s, m

ou

nta

ins,

loch

s, la

kes

and

pla

ce n

ames

. Th

ese

all r

equ

ire

a ca

pit

al f

or

all

par

ts o

f th

e n

ame.

Table

40

.2C

om

mon

pu

nct

uati

on

err

ors

an

d t

hei

r co

rrec

tion

s. T

he

follo

win

g c

om

mo

n e

rro

rs w

ith

th

eir

corr

ecti

on

s sh

ou

ld h

elp

yo

u t

o f

ind

an

answ

er t

o m

ost

pu

nct

uat

ion

dile

mm

as.

Pu

nct

uat

ion

mar

k

1.1

Ap

ost

rop

he

s:

sin

gu

lar

1.2

Ap

ost

rop

he

s:

plu

ral

1.3

Ap

ost

rop

he

s:

con

trac

tio

ns

1.4

Ap

ost

rop

he

s:

no

t n

ee

de

d

1.5

Ap

ost

rop

he

s:

no

t n

ee

de

d

2.1

Cap

ital

le

tte

rs:

sen

ten

ces

2.2

Cap

ital

le

tte

rs:

pro

pe

r n

ame

s

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D

40 PUNCTUATION 281

....

A n

um

ber

of

asp

ects

will

be

cove

red

, in

clu

din

gl

En

erg

y co

nse

rvat

ion

lP

ollu

tio

n li

mit

atio

nl

Co

st c

on

tro

l

Th

e l

ead

er

of

the

gro

up

Dr

Jo

anJ

on

es

was

no

t av

aila

ble

fo

rco

mm

ent.

Th

ere

are

seve

ral m

emb

er-s

tate

sth

at d

o n

ot

sup

po

rt t

his

vie

w.

Th

ey a

re B

rita

in F

ran

ceG

erm

any

Po

rtu

gal

an

d G

ree

ce.

Ho

we

ver

we

hav

e n

o e

vid

ence

to

sup

po

rt t

his

sta

tem

ent.

Alt

ho

ug

h w

e h

ave

had

sig

nif

ican

t ra

infa

ll th

e re

serv

oir

sar

e lo

w.

To

de

mo

nst

rate

co

mp

ete

nce

itis

imp

ort

ant

to b

e ab

le t

o f

ace

chal

len

ges

.

Th

ere

is a

def

icit

in t

he

bu

dg

et..

. ...

bro

ug

ht

on

by

mis

man

agem

ent

at t

he

hig

hes

tle

vel.

...i

ncl

ud

ing

:l

ener

gy

con

serv

atio

n;

lp

ollu

tio

n li

mit

atio

n;

lco

st c

on

tro

l.

Th

e le

ader

of

the

gro

up

, D

r J

oan

Jo

nes

, was

no

tav

aila

ble

fo

r co

mm

ent.

Th

ere

are

seve

ral m

emb

er-

stat

es t

hat

do

no

t su

pp

ort

this

vie

w. T

hey

are

Bri

tain

,Fr

ance

, Ger

man

y, P

ort

ug

al,

and

Gre

ece.

Ho

wev

er, w

e h

ave

no

evid

ence

to

su

pp

ort

th

isst

atem

ent.

Alt

ho

ug

h w

e h

ave

had

sig

nif

ican

t ra

infa

ll, t

he

rese

rvo

irs

are

low

.

To

dem

on

stra

teco

mp

eten

ce, i

t is

imp

ort

ant

to b

e ab

le t

ofa

ce c

hal

len

ges

.

Th

ere

is a

def

icit

in t

he

bu

dg

et..

.bro

ug

ht

on

by

mis

man

agem

ent

at t

he

hig

hes

t le

vel.

A c

olo

n t

o in

tro

du

ce t

he

list.

Eac

h it

em, e

xcep

t th

e la

st o

ne,

sho

uld

be

fin

ish

ed w

ith

a s

emic

olo

n. N

o c

apit

al is

nec

essa

ry a

tea

ch b

ulle

t if

th

e lis

t fo

llow

s fr

om

an

inco

mp

lete

sen

ten

cein

tro

du

cin

g t

he

list.

Th

is is

a c

om

mo

n e

rro

r. T

he

nam

e o

f th

e p

erso

n g

ives

mo

rein

form

atio

n a

bo

ut

the

lead

er; t

hu

s, t

he

per

son

’s n

ame

nee

ds

to b

ein

sert

ed w

ith

co

mm

as b

efo

re a

nd

aft

er.

Str

ictl

y sp

eaki

ng

, wh

en m

akin

g a

list

su

ch a

s in

th

e ex

amp

le, a

com

ma

sho

uld

co

me

bef

ore

‘an

d’.

Th

is is

cal

led

th

e ‘O

xfo

rdco

mm

a’ a

nd

its

use

has

cau

sed

mu

ch d

ebat

e. H

ow

ever

,in

crea

sin

gly

, th

e co

mm

a is

bei

ng

om

itte

d b

efo

re t

he

wo

rd ‘a

nd

’ in

lists

su

ch a

s th

is o

ne.

Th

e ‘s

ign

po

stin

g’ w

ord

s o

ften

use

d a

t th

e b

egin

nin

g o

f se

nte

nce

sar

e fo

llow

ed b

y a

com

ma.

So

me

of

the

mo

re c

om

mo

n o

f th

ese

wo

rds

are:

ho

wev

er, t

her

efo

re, t

hu

s, h

ence

, nev

erth

eles

s,m

ore

ove

r, in

ad

dit

ion

.

Wh

en a

sen

ten

ce b

egin

s w

ith

‘alt

ho

ug

h’,

then

th

e se

nte

nce

has

two

par

ts. T

he

par

t th

at g

ives

th

e id

ea o

f co

nce

ssio

n in

th

isse

nte

nce

is ‘A

lth

ou

gh

we

hav

e h

ad s

ign

ific

ant

rain

fall’

. Th

e se

con

dp

art

giv

es u

s th

e im

pac

t o

f th

at c

on

cess

ion

, in

th

is c

ase,

th

at ‘t

he

rese

rvo

irs

are

low

’. A

co

mm

a is

use

d t

o d

ivid

e th

ese

par

ts.

An

oth

er w

ay t

o w

rite

th

is s

ente

nce

wo

uld

be:

‘It

is im

po

rtan

t to

be

able

to

fac

e ch

alle

ng

es t

o d

emo

nst

rate

co

mp

eten

ce’.

By

pu

ttin

gth

e p

hra

se ‘t

o d

emo

nst

rate

co

mp

eten

ce’ a

t th

e b

egin

nin

g o

f th

ese

nte

nce

, it

pla

ces

emp

has

is o

n t

he

idea

of

com

pet

ence

an

d, i

no

rder

to

mak

e th

at w

ord

-ord

er d

isti

nct

ion

, a c

om

ma

is n

eed

ed.

Elli

psi

s m

arks

alw

ays

con

sist

of

thre

e d

ots

, no

mo

re.

3C

olo

n

4.1

Co

mm

as

4.2

Co

mm

as

4.3

Co

mm

as

4.4

Co

mm

as

4.5

Co

mm

as

5E

llip

sis

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..

Sentences

These begin with capital letters and finish with eithera full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark(Ch 38). In a sentence that ends with a quote, the fullstop comes after the final quote mark ‘like this’. If,however, the quotation looks as though it is probablya complete sentence, or if more than one sentence isquoted, then the full stop precedes the final quote mark.Similarly, a complete sentence within parentheses hasthe full stop inside the final bracket, as in this sentence.)

‘Open’ and ‘closed’ punctuation

‘Open’ in this context means using minimal punc-tuation. While this has gained some acceptance in letter-writing, it is not universally accepted within the academic world.

l Example of open punctuation:

Dr Douglas M Kay the world famous projectiledesigner outlined his research at the conferencein St Albans for staff of the Ministry of Defence(MOD) and the Foreign Office (FO).

l Example of closed punctuation:

Dr. Douglas M. Kay, the world-famous projectiledesigner, outlined his research at the conferencein St. Albans for staff of the Ministry of Defence(M.O.D.) and the Foreign Office (F.O.).

Note that full stops are not generally used if the lastletter of a contraction is also the last letter of the fullword (Mr, Dr) or in abbreviations such as TV, BBC,USA, VCR, or in acronyms such as NATO, UNICEF,scuba, and so on.

You may come across both these styles of punctu-ation in your reading. This arises from transatlantic differences in punctuation styles. However, since academic writing is often complex in its structure, generally, the academic world would favour the more traditional ‘closed’punctuation style.

If in doubt about whether or not to include punctuation, the guiding principle should bewhether the addition of a punctuation symbol adds to the clarity.

Lists

These can be compiled using a variety of bullet-point or numerical styles. You should usenumbered lists when there is an inherent priority, hierarchy or sequence. Where the listis introduced by the beginning of a sentence, you should introduce the list with a colon(:). The follow-on words in the list should begin with lower-case letters and each item,except the last one, should be finished with a semicolon. By some conventions, ‘and’ is

282 40 PUNCTUATION

..

Minimal punctuation:

The causes of migrationinclude:

l drought

l famine

l disease.

Famine relief agencies:

1 UN

2 OXFAM

3 Save the Children.

The list as a sentence:

Population decreasesbecause:

l drought dries up pastures;

l people do not have food;

l lack of food lowersresistance to disease;

l people either die ormigrate.

To save your document:

1 click on File;

2 select Save As;

3 choose directory;

4 choose file name;

5 click on Save.

Note that in some disciplinesthese listing styles are notacceptable.

Punctuation of bulletedand numbered lists

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D

40 PUNCTUATION 283

....

And now . . .

40.1 Use punctuation to avoid ambiguity. Go back to the example aboutJames Bond and insert punctuation so that the meaning of the text is clear. The correct version should read:

The character of James Bond, created by Ian Fleming, portrayed a fast-living but urbane spy, whose coolness was apparently imperturbable.He became a real screen hero.

40.2 Follow textbooks as good models of punctuation. Go to a textbook inyour own subject area and find some text that shows use of some of theless frequently used punctuation marks, for example, colons, semicolons,italics, square brackets, round brackets and apostrophes. Consider howthese have been used and how the textbook usage conforms to thepunctuation style described in Table 40.1 and Table 40.2.

40.3 If you feel your knowledge of punctuation is poor, pick up a specialistguide. There are a number of good punctuation guides available in librariesand bookshops, such as the Penguin Guide to Punctuation (Trask, 2004).Have a browse through some of these and identify one that you findparticularly user-friendly. Consider this as a purchase that will provide you with a ready reference for years.

Practical tips for clear punctuation

Checking your punctuation is appropriate. Read your work aloud at a reasonable pace– imagine that you are a television newsreader who has to convey the item so that it makessense. As you read, your ear will identify the pauses and inconsistencies in your text ina way that sometimes the most careful silent editing misses. For example, if you need topause for breath, there is a chance that you need to insert a comma or start a new sentence.

Using symbols to help proof-read your work. It is helpful to print out a hard copy of your draft text and then to go through it methodically, marking it with the proof-readingsymbols (Ch 43) in both the text and the margin. This will help you to go through yourwork systematically on-screen at a later point. The double-entry method helps to ensurethat you don’t miss out any of your corrections.

Using lists, bullet points and sub-headings. In some disciplines it is permissible to usesub-headings and bulleted or numbered lists. This strategy enables you to avoid some ofthe pitfalls of punctuation, but it is not universally accepted in academic writing. If you douse devices such as bullets and lists, then you need to observe the punctuation conventionsshown opposite. Some people use sub-headings to help them focus on writing content andthen, when finished writing, they replace the sub-headings with a topic sentence (Ch 38).

optional after the colon for the second-last item on the lists. The final point finishes witha full stop. Where the list is not introduced by the beginning of a sentence, then each bul-let point should begin with a capital letter.

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..

284 41 SPELLING

..

Some people will have been routinely taught to spell at school, others may not.Whichever category applies to you, developing your spelling skill is an ongoing process.This chapter explains the basic spelling rules and gives examples of how they work. If youare unfamiliar with some of the words given in the key terms above, then you might findit useful to check these out before you begin. You will find definitions in the glossary onpage 452 (see also Table 41.1).

Words to watch

English is a language that has borrowed quite freely from other languages and thismeans that many of the spelling ‘rules’ are quite diverse. For many words, where thereis a ‘rule’ more often than not there are exceptions to that rule. This means that you sim-ply need to learn these exceptions. However, before you look at the most common rulesand exceptions listed in Table 41.1, you may find it useful to check your understanding ofthe key terms for this chapter. You will find definitions in the glossary on page 452.

Table 41.2 provides a listing of words that are often misspelt in academic written work.In addition, some words that are often confused with words that are either similar inmeaning or have a similar ‘word shape’, and so people often transpose letters in the middle of a word: for example, ‘goal’ and ‘gaol’. Both words are correctly spelt, but they are different in meaning. Some of the most commonly confused ‘pairs’ are given inTable 41.3.

41 Spelling

How to spell competently

Spellcheckers make life easy, but doing the checking takes time and youwon’t always necessarily be writing using a personal computer. This chapterlooks at some of the basic rules of spelling and gives some examples of these rules. It also looks at ‘irregular’ words that are often used inacademic contexts and also at some words that are commonly misspelt.

Key terms

AdjectiveAdverbConsonantNounPrefixSuffixSyllableTypoVowel


l Words to watchl Using spellcheckersl Spelling dictionaries

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D

41 SPELLING 285

....

Rule

i comes before e (except after c)

Verbs: where verbs end in –eed and –ede, thenthe –eed ending goes with suc–/ex–/pro–; –edeapplies in all other cases

Verbs: where verbs end with –ise, nouns endwith –ice

Double final consonants before using –ingwhen the words are single syllable and endwith b/d/g/m/n/p/r/t

Double consonant when the stressed syllable isat the end of the word

Double l when words end in an l preceded by ashort vowel

Nouns ending in –our drop the u in theadjective form

Plurals generally add –s, or –es after–ss/x/ch/sh/

Nouns ending in –y drop –y and add –ies

Nouns ending in –o add –s for the plural

Nouns ending in –f and –fe: no consistent rule

Some ‘foreign’ nouns follow the rules of theirown language

Hyphenated words

Some nouns are the same format for singularand for plural

Prefixes dis– and mis– plus noun or verb (nodouble ‘s’); but where such words begin withan ‘s’, insert prefix (do not drop ‘s’)

Suffixes –ful, –fully, –al, –ally: adjectives formedwith the suffix –ful and –al have only one l

When forming adverbs, add –ly

Adjectives ending in –ic form their adverbswith –ally

Compound words: where there is a ‘double l’ inone of the words, one l may be dropped

Examples, with exceptions asapplicable

belief, relief, chiefBut receive, perceive, deceive, ceiling

–eed: succeed, exceed, proceed–ede: precede, concede

practise (verb)/practice (noun) But exercise: verb and noun

robbing, ridding, bagging, summing,running, hopper, furred, fittest

occurred, beginning, forgettable

travelled, levelled

glamour/glamorous,humour/humorous

boys, cats, dogs; crosses, fixes,churches, dishes

ally/allies, copy/copiesBut monkeys, donkeys

photos, pianosBut tomatoes, volcanoes, heroes

Chief/chiefsBut half/halves

medium/media, criterion/criteria,datum/data, bureau/bureaux

brothers-in-law, commanders-in-chief (not brother-in-laws/commander-in-chiefs)

sheep, fish

dis + agree, mis + manage,Note dis + satisfaction, mis + spell

careful, hopefulBut carefully, hopefully

skilfully, marginally

basic/basically

Well + fare = welfare; un + till = untilBut well + being = wellbeing; ill + ness = illness

Table 41.1 Twenty basic spelling rules. In English the ‘rules’ are difficult to define becausefrequently there are exceptions to them. Here are some of the fundamental rules, with someexamples of exceptions where these occur.

Number

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

s

TSS_C41.qxd 6/27/06 16:22 Page 285

Using spellcheckers

The commonly used word-processing packages have a spellchecking facility. This willalert you to possible misspellings by underlining a word that the package does not recognise. That allows you to go back and check the word in a standard dictionary if the error is not a simple ‘typo’.

Some systems will allow you to add words to the package dictionary so that a commonerror will automatically be changed as you mistype it. You can add words of your ownchoice to the dictionary part of the software package. In Word, this facility is found underTools/Autocorrect.

However, despite all these aids, you should still be very conscientious about proof-reading your work. The spellchecker will accept any word that is in its dictionary so that,for example, if you type ‘bear wires’, the spellchecker will accept this as both words arecorrectly spelt, although what you really meant was ‘bare wires’. At the same time, theword-processing dictionary will not always have a word that you are looking for. In thatcase, you will need to check the spelling in a dictionary – off the shelf or online.

286 41 SPELLING

.. ..

Rule

Silent e: usually keep –e when adding the suffix

If suffix begins with a vowel, then drop final –e

After words ending in –ce or –ge, keep –e tokeep sounds soft when suffix is added

For words ending in –y that are preceded by aconsonant, change –y to –i before any suffixexcept –ing, –ist, –ish

For words ending in –ic or –ac, add –k before–ing, –ed or –er

For ‘joins’ within word, do not add or subtractletters at ‘join’

Silent letters. In certain cases, the letters b, g,k, l, p and w are silent

Latin words in English ending in –ix or –ex inthe singular, end in –ices in the plural

Latin words in English ending in –um in thesingular, generally end in –a i the plural

Latin words in English ending in –us in thesingular, generally end in –i in the plural

Latin words in English ending in –a in thesingular, end in –ae in the plural

Greek words in English ending in –ion in thesingular, end in –ia in the plural

Greek words in English ending in –sis in thesingular, end in –ses in the plural

Examples, with exceptions asapplicable

hope + full = hopeful

come + ing = coming

noticeable, courageous

dry/driestBut drying, copyist, dryish cronyism

trafficking, mimic/mimicked,picnic/picnicker

meanness

debt, gnat, knot, palm, psychiatrist,wrong

appendix/appendices, index/indices

datum/data, medium/media,stratum/strata

radius/radii

agenda/agendae, formula/formulae

criterion/criteria

analysis/analyses,hypothesis/hypotheses

Number

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20


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Spelling dictionaries

If you find that spelling is a particular difficulty for you, then consider buying a spelling dictionary. Some of these dictionaries not only give the correct spelling but also list typical misspelt formats with the correct format alongside. Ch 42 gives some furtherinformation about spelling and other types of dictionary.

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Table 41.2 Some words that are often misspelt in academic work

Correct spelling examples Incorrect spelling examples

argument arguement

believe beleive

Britain Britian

bulletin buletin

campaign campane

committee comitee

commitment comitment

embarrass embaras

February Febuary

government goverment

immediate imediate

jeopardy jepardy

maintenance maintainance

necessary neccessary

parliament parlament

privilege priviledge

receive recieve

separate seperate

Wednesday Wedensday

whether wether

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ascent (climb)

arial (font)

effect (change – noun)

isle (small island)

allowed (permitted)

ascent (climb – noun)

bear (animal/to carry)

blue (colour)

bored (wearied of)

borne (endure)

canvass (get opinion)

serial (in a row)

chose (past form: select)

compliment (praise)

consistency (texture of liquid)

counsel (advice/adviser)

current (present/flow)

dessert (pudding)

discrete (stand-alone)

draught (wind)

foreword (book preface)

here (at this place)

heel (part of foot)

wholly (completely)

lone (single)

loose (slack)

loss (item lost – noun)

male (gender)

piece (portion)

place (location)

plane (tree/aircraft)

practise (verb)

principle (fundamental)

route (journey)

seen (past form: saw)

cease (stop)

site (location)

stationery (pens, etc.)

whether (as alternative)

where (place)

Table 41.3 Some word pairs that are commonly confused. The sense is given inparentheses. These pairs are similar in pronunciation. This can cause confusion and meansthat they are more likely to the written incorrectly.

accent (speech)

aerial (antenna)

affect (change – verb)

aisle (passage)

aloud (audible)

ascend (climb – verb)

bare (uncovered)

blew (past form: blow)

board (strip of timber)

born (birth)

canvas (strong fabric)

cereal (grain)

choose (present form: select)

complement (enhance)

constituency (electoral area)

council (committee)

currant (dried grape)

desert (sand)

discreet (tactful)

draft (first copy)

forward (toward front)

heal (to make whole)

hear (to listen)

holy (sacred)

loan (money)

lose (misplace)

lose (misplace – verb)

mail (post)

peace (tranquillity)

plaice (fish)

plain (ordinary)

practice (noun)

principal (main idea/person)

root (part of plant)

scene (part of a play)

seize (grab)

sight (sense of seeing)

stationary (not moving)

weather (climate)

were (past tense: are)

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And now . . .

41.1 Create a glossary-style memory sheet. You may wish to model this onthe one suggested in Table 42.4. Add the correct spelling of key words thatyou know you frequently get wrong. This will help you remember them andalso give you a ready reference to double-check while you are writing. Aphotocopiable version is provided on page 449.

41.2 Test yourself from the words in Table 41.2. Ask someone to read outthese words. You can then test yourself to establish how many of them you can spell correctly. Add any that you consistently get wrong to yourglossary memory sheet.

41.3 If you are having difficulty with spelling, then look for a spellingdictionary in your university or public library. Look up some words thatyou frequently misspell and assess whether this kind of dictionary would bea help to you. If you think it would, then you might consider buying one for yourself.

Practical tips for spelling accurately

Avoid using alternatives to standard spelling. It is not advisable to use text-messaging language because examination scripts have to be written in standard English.In any case, the fact that the marker may not be as ‘fluent’ in the use of text-speak couldmean that your point may not be understood.

Learn the correct spelling of the key words in your discipline. Specialist terms needto be accurately spelt. For example, if you are studying politics, then it is advisable to learn how to spell ‘parliament’ correctly. Likewise, if you are studying a scientific sub-ject, then it is important to know that the plural of ‘formula’ is ‘formulae’ and that ‘data’is a plural word with a singular ‘datum’. In some disciplines American English is used asthe international standard: for example, in chemistry ‘sulfur’ is used rather than theBritish English ‘sulphur’.

Check on the correct form of a word. If you look up the root form of the word in a gooddictionary (which probably means a big dictionary), then you will find the different formsof the word, including its plural, if it is deviant from the rules in any way, will be shownunder the headword. It’s worth checking this out because the very act of looking theword up in the dictionary will help to ‘seal’ it in your memory.

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Expanding your vocabulary is something that you will find is essential, particularly as youstart out on your studies. Many disciplines have their own terminology, sometimes calledjargon, and you may need to master this before understanding higher-level concepts.Also, the expectation in academic writing (Ch 37) is that you use words effectively andcorrectly, and this implies having a wide vocabulary and expressions to use in the appro-priate contexts.

Glossaries

Textbooks in many subject areas now provide fairlycomprehensive glossaries at the beginning or end ofthe book to help the reader to confirm the meaning of a term quickly. Sometimes textbooks provide a list of key words at the beginning of each chapter toidentify new or specialist use of terminology.

All this is useful to you as you read, but you may find it helpful to create your own glossary that it is tailor-made to your personal needs. Access to a gooddictionary will be essential to help you build this up, to check on precise meanings, and to help you avoidusing slang expressions or words that are too informal(Ch 37).

42 Vocabulary

How to improve your use of academic terms and language

Whatever your discipline, you will find that, as a university student, youincreasingly meet new words. These can be terms that are special to your subject as well as words that are used to explain and discuss topicswithin your study areas. This chapter suggests some strategies to help youexpand your vocabulary gradually, so that you can develop your powers ofexpression in discussion and in written work.

Key terms

AntonymGlossaryHeadwordPhoneticPrefixSuffixSynonym


l Glossariesl Standard dictionariesl Using a thesaurusl Specialist dictionaries

1 Use a dictionary to checkon the meaning of newwords you come across.

2 Use a thesaurus to findnew words of similarmeaning (synonyms) toones you already know.

If unsure, you should checkwords found in a thesaurusfor their precise meaning, asthis may differ subtly fromwhat you intend.

Twin elements ofexpanding your vocabulary

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Standard dictionaries

Dictionaries vary in size and complexity. For example, some give words, pronunciationand meanings, while others also give examples of correct usage. Your university librarywill hold a number of different types of dictionary in the reference section and may alsoprovide access to an online dictionary as part of its e-resource bank.

Figure 42.1 shows a typical dictionary entry. From this entry you will be able to identifythe form of the word as it is used in your text, or, if you are writing, it will help you choosethe correct form for your own work. Each entry is introduced by a headword and this is followed by information about its different forms, for example noun, verb, adjective,and so on. Terms are explained in Figure 42.2 and Tables 42.1 and 42.2. Table 42.1describes some features of dictionaries and thesauri that can be accessed in hard copyand electronically.

There are two main types of digital dictionaries:

n Online dictionaries. Your university library will normally have access to onlinedictionaries. These have the advantage of being immediately accessible if you are online on campus (licensing agreements often restrict access to on-campusmachines). Online dictionaries offer pronunciations, meanings, different forms of theword, information about the origin of the word and examples of how to use the word.The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) is a commonly available resource giving BritishEnglish words; American English can be accessed through the Merriam-WebsterDictionary.

n Electronic dictionaries. Often available on CD-ROM, these vary considerably in price. It is probably best to opt for one that has a word database from a recogniseddictionary publisher. Look for one that provides meanings, plus antonyms orsynonyms. These may be provided in a thesaurus function.

Digital dictionaries

Figure 42.1 A standard dictionary entry, showing different parts and abbreviationsSource: The Chambers Dictionary, 2003. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd.

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Using a thesaurus

A thesaurus (plural thesauri) aims to provide words that are similar in meaning – synonyms – in groups. Opposites – antonyms – are sometimes included alongside. Roget’sThesaurus (1852) was created as the first analysis of the English language structured inthis thematic way. To use this type of thesaurus, you look up your original word in anindex at the back, which provides a series of numbered sub-groupings with differentallied meanings and word types (chiefly nouns, adjectives, adverbs and verbs). Choosethe most appropriate, you then look up the numbered group within the main text, to find a listing of synonyms and antonyms. The principles of the original thesaurus havebeen continued in modern versions, but several publishers now produce A–Z versions.These types are generally more user-friendly than the original Roget-style thesaurus.Figure 42.3 illustrates an example of a thesaurus entry.

Figure 42.2 Word families. As you expand your vocabulary you will find that you know theword you want to use, but it may not look or sound quite ‘right’ in your text. This may bebecause you have not used the word in its correct form. This diagram explains some of thekey grammatical terms with examples. If you would like to find definitions of these termsthen look at the Glossary on page 452 (or Ch 41). Table 42.1 shows some of the morecommon word beginnings (prefixes) and Table 42.2 shows endings (suffixes) that identifythe different forms of words in English.

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Specialist dictionaries

There is a range of specialist dictionaries that mightbe useful to you:

l Subject dictionary: gives meanings of specialist terms within a discipline. It gives a quick reference to explanations of specialistterms that are not found in general dictionaries(see Table 42.3).

l Spelling dictionary: gives correct spellings aswell as frequently misspelt versions with thecorrect spelling alongside (Ch 41).

l Etymological dictionary: gives the linguistic originsof words, and developments in their meaning.

l Collocation dictionary: gives words that areoften positioned together. This is useful when youfind yourself searching for one word usually usedalongside another.

l Rhyming dictionary: gives words with similar endsounds; useful when writing poetry.

l Pronunciation dictionary: gives a phoneticversion of the headword. You can work out thephonetic code from the symbols that are givenusually at the front of the dictionary.

l Bilingual dictionary: gives equivalent words fromtwo languages, often arranged in two sections,translating from one language to the other, andvice versa.

l English learner’s dictionary: primarily intendedfor those learning English as a second language,but very useful for all because they includeexamples of use, including idioms and apronunciation guide.

Each discipline has its own language, which iscomprehensible to insiders;remember that one person’sprofessional vocabulary orjargon can exclude othersfrom understanding. Try to keep ‘jargon’ words to a minimum when you arewriting. You can do this by using dictionaries andthesauri to help you findwords that are close inmeaning to the word(s) thatwere your first choice. Thiswill enable you to be preciseand professional in your useof language, while keepingyour text clear and to thepoint.

Keep your writing asintelligible as possible

Some word-processingpackages include a thesaurus.Place the cursor on the wordyou want to look up; click onthe thesaurus function on thetoolbar and this will presentoptions to expand yoursearch. These types ofthesauri do not usuallyexplain the meaning of a word.

Electronic thesauri

Figure 42.3 Example of a thesaurus entry. Source: The Penguin A–Z Thesaurus, 1986. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

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Table 42.1 Prefixes: word beginnings. This table shows how, by adding a letter or lettersat the beginning of a word, the meaning can be changed. These beginnings are calledprefixes.

Prefix Meaning Example

a– on aboard

a–, ab–, abs– away from avert, abuse, abstain

ad–, ac–, ar– to adventure, access, arrange

ante– before antenatal

anti– against antihistamine

bi– two biped

circum– around circumscribe, circumnavigate

com–, con– together communicate, convene

contra– against contrast

de– down depose

dif–, dis– apart, not differ, discredit

ex– out of exit

fore– before foreknowledge

il– not illegible

im–, in– in, into implode, intrude

im–, in– not immature, inescapable

inter– between interact

ir– not irregular

mis– wrong misplace

ob– against obscure

post– after post-modern

pre– before prerequisite

pro– forth progress

re– back regress

sub– under subtract

trans– across transmit

un– not unpopular

vice– instead vice-president

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Table 42.2(a) Suffixes: word endings. This table shows the endings (suffixes) that can beadded to the root verb to change the form of the word. Thus, taking the example in Figure42.2, the root verb is ‘avoid’ and, to make the noun, the noun ending ‘–ance’ is added. Tomake the adjective, add ‘–able’.

Verbs Nouns Adjectives Adverbs

–ain –aint –ing –able –ic –ly–ave –al –iour –al –ing–el –ance –ment –ar –ious–en –cy –ness –ate –ish–ify –dom –sion –ent –ite–ise –ence –son –eous –ive–ive –ery –th –esque –less–ise –ice –tion –ful –ous–uce –ief –y –ial

Table 42.2(b) Suffix meanings. Some suffixes have particular meanings and this can helpto decode the meaning of the word.

Suffix Meaning Example

–able, –ible capable of readable, legible

–ain, –an one connected chaplain, artisan

–ance, –ence state of hesitance, difference

–ant one who applicant

–el, –et, –ette little parcel, pocket, statuette

–er, –eer, –ier one who butcher, auctioneer, collier

–ess female actress, princess

–fy to make pacify

–icle, –sel small article, morsel

–less without hopeless

–ling little gosling

–ment state of being encouragement

–ock little hummock

–oon, –on large balloon

–ory place for repository

–ous full of curious

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Table 42.3 Different types of dictionaries and thesauri

Standard dictionaryDictionaries vary widely in size of content and inprice; buying a good one is a good investment

Featuresl Arranged in alphabetical orderl At the most basic, gives pronunciations,

meanings and different forms of the wordl Some give examples of how the word is used in

a sentencel May provide information about the origin of

the word

Commentsl Some provide lists of foreign words used in

Englishl May also include additional miscellany section

giving, for example, information about weightsand measures, acronyms and abbreviations

Online dictionaryUsually available via university library website,but only when on campus-based machinebecause of licensing agreements

Featuresl Gives pronunciations, meanings, different

forms of the word, information about theorigin of the word and examples of how to usethe word

Commentsl Immediately accessiblel The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) provides

British English spelling and usagel The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides

American English spelling and usage

Thesaurus

Featuresl Provides synonyms (sometimes also

antonyms)

Commentsl Principles of the original thesaurus have been

continued in some modern versions but somepublishers favour A–Z formats; these types aregenerally more user-friendly than thetraditional Roget-style thesaurus

Subject dictionaryMost libraries will stock at least onesubject dictionary in your discipline

Featuresl Quick reference to explanations of

specialist terms that you will not find ingeneral dictionaries

l Often provides guidance on pronunciationof terms and examples of usage

l May give guidance on how to use a term ina sentence

Commentsl If you can afford it, a subject dictionary is

a good investment: it will be somethingyou will use throughout your studentcareer

Hand-held electronic dictionaryWide price range

Featuresl Access to the required word by typing

letters on keypadl Provides alternative meanings and word

formsl Through thesaurus function, gives

antonyms and synonymsl Some may give pronunciation information

Commentsl It is probably better to opt for one that

has a word database from a recogniseddictionary publisher

Computer software package dictionaryand thesaurus functions

Featuresl Place the cursor on the word you want to

look up; click on the thesaurus function onthe toolbar and this will present options toexpand your search

Commentsl A software thesaurus does not usually

explain the meaning of the word; it simplygives you synonyms and antonyms

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Table 42.4 Quick personal glossary. You can use this ‘quick glossary’ for recordingmeanings or simply as a spellchecking list. If you have a lot of specialist terms to learn, thenyou might want to create a quick glossary for each subject or even topic. This can then befiled along with the relevant notes. In a very short time, you will have expanded yourvocabulary considerably and will be able to use your glossary words correctly in youracademic writing. Being more familiar with some of the terms and their meanings will alsohelp to speed up your reading. A blank copyright-free version of this is included in theAppendix for your use (page 449).

A B C D E Fantonym: derivation: word opposite origin, tracing, in meaning word root

G H I J K Lglossary: headword: key word list word for a

dictionary entry

M N O P Q Rphonetic: by pronunciation

prefix: put at the beginning

S T U V W X Y Zsuffix: put at the end

synonym: word similar in meaning

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And now . . .

42.1 Find out what dictionaries and thesauri are available at your library.Explore the reference section to discover what general dictionaries areavailable. Have a look at several to see what information they give underthe headwords. If you are thinking of buying a general dictionary foryourself, this is a good way of evaluating different types before you buy.

42.2 Create an instant personal glossary. Table 42.4 illustrates a personal glossary. You can create a quick, fold-away version by taking a sheet of A4paper and folding it into 24 squares. Make it up in the same way as shown inthe template on page 449 and you have a portable ready reference for addingnew words as a tool for active learning when you are reading or revising (Ch 58).

42.3 Take the ‘University Word List’ and ‘Academic Word List’ challenges.English-language researchers have produced lists of words most commonlyused in academic texts.

l The ‘University Word List’ comprises more than 800 words divided into 11 categories, with those in list 1 being the most frequently used, those in list 11 being those used less frequently. This list can be found on:http://jbauman.com/UWL.html

l The ‘Academic Word List’ represents a further appraisal of academicvocabulary and comprises more than 500 words. These words can befound on: http://www.auburn.edu/~nunnath/engl6240/wlistuni.html

Look at these lists and challenge yourself to find out the meanings of anyword that is not familiar to you; record the word and its meaning in yourpersonal glossary.

Practical tips for developing your use of academic terms and language

Find out what the abbreviations mean in your dictionary and thesaurus. Look for the section on ‘how to use this reference book’, as this will explain the symbols andabbreviations that have been used. Knowing these will save you time and will help you toget the most out of the reference source you are using. For example, you can find outthe pronunciation of terms.

Sign up for ‘word of the day’. Some online dictionaries sites have a free sign-up featurethat means you will receive a new word by e-mail every day. While some of these wordsmay be totally unusable as far as you are concerned, many will add to your workingvocabulary. Two examples of sites that have this facility are:

http://dictionary.reference.com/wordoftheday

http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/mwwod.plv

Consult a dictionary and thesaurus while you are writing. The best time to pick up newwords and check on their meanings is when you are writing. You should try to get intothe habit of looking up either of these reference works any time you feel unsure aboutany word or its use.

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Reviewing: appraising critically; that is, examining a task or project to ensure that itmeets the requirements and objectives of the task.

Editing: revising and correcting later drafts of an essay, to arrive at a final version.Usually, this involves the smaller rather than the larger details, such as details ofpunctuation, spelling, grammar and layout.

Proof-reading: checking a printed copy for errors of any sort.

Definitions

Writing is a process. It begins with a plan and it finishes with reviewing, editing and proof-reading. This means that you should read your text critically before submitting itfor assessment. The effort you invest in this final stage will contribute to the quality ofyour work and to your assessed mark. Ideally, you should leave a gap of time betweencompleting the writing and beginning the reviewing process, as this allows you to ‘dis-tance’ yourself from the work and helps you look at it as a new reader would.

The reviewing, editing and proof-reading process

At this stage you are performing the role of editor. This means that you are looking critically at your text for content, relevance and sense, as well as for flaws in layout,grammar, punctuation and spelling. You should also check for consistency in all aspects,for example, in the use of terminology, in spelling, and in presentational features such asfont and point size, layout of paragraphs, and labelling of tables and diagrams.

Clearly, there are a lot of aspects to cover, and some degree of overlap in differentaspects of the process. Some people prefer to go through their text in one sweep,amending any flaws as they go; others, in particular professional writers, take a stagedapproach, reading through their text several times looking at a different aspect eachtime.

43 Reviewing, editing and proof-reading

How to make sure your writing is concise and correct

Looking critically at your own writing is essential if you want to producework of the highest quality. These editing skills will allow you to improvethe sense, grammar and syntax of your written assignments.

Key terms

AnnotateSyntaxTypo


l The reviewing, editing and proof-reading processl Reviewing your answers in examsl The value of reviewing, editing and proof-reading

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Here are five aspects to consider in the reviewing process:

l content and relevance

l clarity, style and coherence

l grammatical correctness

l spelling and punctuation

l presentation.

Table 43.1 provides a quick checklist of key aspects to consider under each of thesethemes. This has been designed for photocopying so that you can, if you wish, use it asa checklist each time you complete a piece of work. Table 43.2 gives some strategies youcan adopt when going through the editing process.

Professional proof-readers have developed a system of symbols to speed up the editingand proof-reading process. You may wish to adopt some of these yourself, and you arecertainly likely to see some of them, and other ‘informal’ marks, on work returned bytutors. Table 43.3 illustrates some of the more commonly used symbols.

The word processor has made the reviewing and editing task much easier. Here aresome tips for using this software effectively:

n Use the word-count facility to check on length.

n Use the ‘View’ facility to check page breaks and general layout before you print out.

n Don’t rely 100 per cent on the spell- and grammar checker (Ch 39).

n Sometimes the grammar checker will announce that you have used the passive voice. This is often a standard academic usage and, therefore, is not an error (Ch 37, Ch 39).

l Sometimes staff add comments to students’ work using ‘Tools/Track Changes’ on the Microsoft Word software. Depending on the version you are using, feedbackinformation can usually be accepted or rejected by right-clicking on the word orpunctuation point that has been marked for alteration.

Technical notes

Reviewing your answers in exams

In exams, the reviewing process has to be swift and efficient (Ch 62). Here, you will normally have time only to skim-read the text, making adjustments as you go. If you find you have missed something out, place an insert mark (Λ or ) in the text and/or margin with the annotation ‘see additional paragraph x’; then write this paragraph,clearly identified, at the end of the answer (where you will have left space for just thiscontingency). Similarly, if you have consistently made an error, for example, referred to Louis XIV throughout as Louis XVI, then just put an asterisk beside the first occur-rence of the error and a note at the end of your answer or in the margin ‘Consistenterror. Please read as “XIV” ’. You will not lose any marks for correcting your work in these ways.

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chec

ked

, if

po

ssib

le, b

y th

e‘r

ead

ing

alo

ud

’ met

ho

d

qP

rop

er n

ames

are

corr

ectl

y ca

pit

alis

ed

qO

verl

on

g s

ente

nce

s h

ave

bee

n d

ivid

ed

Gra

mm

atic

al c

orr

ect

ne

ss

See

als

o C

h3

8–C

h3

9

qA

ll se

nte

nce

s ar

eco

mp

lete

qA

ll se

nte

nce

s m

ake

sen

se(C

h3

8)

qP

arag

rap

hs

hav

e b

een

corr

ectl

y u

sed

(C

h3

8)

qS

ug

ges

tio

ns

mad

e b

yg

ram

mar

ch

ecke

r h

ave

bee

n a

ccep

ted

/rej

ecte

d(C

h3

9)

qT

he

text

has

bee

nch

ecke

d a

gai

nst

yo

ur

ow

n c

hec

klis

t o

fre

curr

ent

gra

mm

atic

aler

rors

(C

h3

9)

qT

he

text

is c

on

sist

ent

in a

do

pti

ng

Bri

tish

or

Am

eric

an E

ng

lish

(C

h3

7)

Pre

sen

tati

on

See

als

o C

h4

4

qT

he

text

len

gth

mee

ts

the

wo

rd-c

ou

nt

targ

et –

nei

ther

to

o s

ho

rt n

or

too

lon

g

qO

vera

ll n

eatn

ess

chec

ked

qT

he

cove

r-sh

eet

det

ails

and

pre

sen

tati

on

asp

ects

are

as r

equ

ired

by

you

rd

epar

tmen

t (C

h4

4)

qT

he

bib

liog

rap

hy/

refe

ren

ce li

st is

co

rrec

tly

form

atte

d (

Ch

35

)

qP

age

nu

mb

ers

hav

e b

een

incl

ud

ed (

in p

osi

tio

nst

ipu

late

d, i

f g

iven

)

qT

he

fig

ure

s an

d t

able

s ar

e in

ap

pro

pri

ate

form

at(C

h3

3)

Table

43

.1P

roof-

readin

g a

nd e

dit

ing c

hec

klis

ts.

Eac

h h

ead

ing

rep

rese

nts

a ‘s

wee

p’ o

f th

e te

xt, c

hec

kin

g f

or

the

asp

ects

sh

ow

n. T

his

tab

le is

cop

yrig

ht-

free

fo

r u

se w

hen

rev

iew

ing

yo

ur

wo

rk.

Co

nte

nt

and

re

leva

nce

See

als

o C

h3

2–C

h3

7

qT

he

inte

nt

of

the

inst

ruct

ion

wo

rd h

as

bee

n f

ollo

wed

(C

h3

2)

qT

he

qu

esti

on

or

task

h

as b

een

co

mp

lete

d,

that

is, y

ou

hav

ean

swer

ed a

ll se

ctio

ns

or

req

uir

ed n

um

ber

s o

f q

ues

tio

ns

(Ch

32

, C

h3

3)

qT

he

stru

ctu

re is

app

rop

riat

e (C

h3

3,

Ch

34

)

qT

he

text

sh

ow

s o

bje

ctiv

ity

(Ch

37

)

qT

he

exam

ple

s ar

e re

leva

nt

qA

ll so

urc

es a

re

corr

ectl

y ci

ted

(C

h3

5)

qT

he

fact

s p

rese

nte

d

are

accu

rate

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..

Gra

mm

atic

al c

orr

ect

ne

ss, s

pe

llin

g a

nd

pu

nct

uat

ion

lC

hec

k ti

tles

an

d s

ub

titl

es a

re a

pp

rop

riat

e to

th

est

yle

of

the

wo

rk a

nd

sta

nd

ou

t b

y u

sin

g b

old

or

un

der

linin

g (

no

t b

oth

).l

Co

nsi

der

wh

eth

er t

he

dif

fere

nt

par

ts li

nk

tog

eth

er w

ell –

if n

ot,

intr

od

uce

sig

np

ost

wo

rds

to g

uid

e th

e re

ader

th

rou

gh

th

e te

xt.

lC

hec

k fo

r fl

uen

cy in

sen

ten

ce a

nd

par

agra

ph

stru

ctu

re –

rem

od

el a

s re

qu

ired

.l

Ch

eck

sen

ten

ce le

ng

th –

rem

od

el t

o s

ho

rter

or

lon

ger

sen

ten

ces.

So

met

imes

sh

ort

er s

ente

nce

sar

e m

ore

eff

ecti

ve t

han

lon

ger

on

es.

lE

nsu

re t

hat

yo

u h

ave

bee

n c

on

sist

ent

in s

pel

ling

con

ven

tio

ns,

fo

r ex

amp

le f

ollo

win

g B

riti

shE

ng

lish

rat

her

th

an A

mer

ican

En

glis

h s

pel

ling

.l

Sp

ellin

g e

rro

rs –

use

th

e sp

ellc

hec

ker

bu

t b

ep

rep

ared

to

do

ub

le-c

hec

k in

a s

tan

dar

dd

icti

on

ary

if y

ou

are

in d

ou

bt

or

can

no

t fi

nd

asp

ellin

g w

ith

in t

he

spel

lch

ecke

r fa

cilit

y (C

h4

1).

lC

hec

k fo

r cu

mb

erso

me

con

stru

ctio

ns

– d

ivid

e o

rre

stru

ctu

re s

ente

nce

(s);

co

nsi

der

wh

eth

er a

ctiv

eo

r p

assi

ve is

mo

re s

uit

able

. Co

nsi

der

usi

ng

voca

bu

lary

th

at m

igh

t co

nve

y yo

ur

po

int

mo

reel

oq

uen

tly

(Ch

42

).l

Ch

eck

for

use

of

‘ab

solu

te’ t

erm

s to

en

sure

th

atyo

u m

ain

tain

ob

ject

ivit

y (C

h3

7).

Pre

sen

tati

on

lC

hec

k th

at y

ou

hav

e m

ade

go

od

use

of

wh

ite

spac

e, t

hat

is, n

ot

cram

med

th

e te

xt in

to t

oo

tig

ht

a sp

ace,

an

d t

hat

yo

ur

text

is n

eat

and

leg

ible

.l

If w

ord

-pro

cess

ed, c

hec

k th

at y

ou

hav

e fo

llow

edst

and

ard

typ

ing

co

nve

nti

on

s (C

h4

4).

Fo

llow

an

y‘h

ou

se s

tyle

’ ru

les

stip

ula

ted

by

you

r d

epar

tmen

t.l

Ch

eck

that

yo

u h

ave

incl

ud

ed a

ref

eren

ce li

st,

con

sist

entl

y fo

llow

ing

a r

eco

gn

ised

met

ho

d

(Ch

35

),an

d t

hat

all

cita

tio

ns

in t

he

text

are

mat

ched

by

an e

ntr

y in

th

e re

fere

nce

list

an

dvi

ce v

ersa

.l

En

sure

all

pag

es a

re n

um

ber

ed a

nd

are

sta

ple

do

r cl

ipp

ed, a

nd

, if

app

rop

riat

e, e

nsu

re t

hat

th

eco

ver

pag

e is

incl

ud

ed.

lC

hec

k th

at y

ou

r n

ame,

mat

ricu

lati

on

nu

mb

er a

nd

cou

rse

nu

mb

er a

re in

clu

ded

. Yo

u m

ay w

ish

to

add

th

is in

form

atio

n a

s a

foo

tno

te t

hat

ap

pea

rso

n e

ach

pag

e.l

En

sure

qu

esti

on

nu

mb

er a

nd

tit

le a

re in

clu

ded

.l

Ch

eck

that

lab

ellin

g o

f d

iag

ram

s, c

har

ts a

nd

oth

er v

isu

al m

ater

ial i

s in

seq

uen

ce a

nd

con

sist

entl

y p

rese

nte

d.

lE

nsu

re t

hat

su

pp

ort

ing

mat

eria

l is

add

ed in

seq

uen

ce a

s ap

pen

dic

es, f

oo

tno

tes,

en

dn

ote

s o

ras

a g

loss

ary

as a

pp

licab

le.

Table

43

.2E

dit

ing s

trate

gie

s. T

he

revi

ewin

g/e

dit

ing

/pro

of-

read

ing

pro

cess

can

be

do

ne

in a

sin

gle

‘sw

eep

’. A

s yo

u b

eco

me

mo

re e

xper

ien

ced

,yo

u w

ill b

eco

me

adep

t at

do

ing

th

is. H

ow

ever

, in

itia

lly, i

t m

igh

t h

elp

yo

u t

o f

ocu

s o

n e

ach

of

thes

e th

ree

bro

ad a

spec

ts in

a s

epar

ate

‘sw

eep

’ of

the

text

. No

te t

hat

th

e fi

rst

two

co

lum

ns

com

bin

e p

airs

of

asp

ects

co

nsi

der

ed in

Tab

le 4

3.1.

Co

nte

nt

and

re

leva

nce

; cla

rity

, sty

le

and

co

he

ren

ce

lR

ead

tex

t al

ou

d –

yo

ur

ears

will

hel

p y

ou

to

iden

tify

err

ors

th

at y

ou

r ey

es h

ave

mis

sed

.l

Rev

isit

th

e ta

sk o

r q

ues

tio

n. C

hec

k yo

ur

inte

rpre

tati

on

ag

ain

st t

he

task

as

set.

lW

ork

on

a h

ard

co

py

usi

ng

ed

itin

g s

ymb

ols

to c

orr

ect

erro

rs (

Tab

le 4

3.3

).l

Iden

tify

th

at t

he

aim

s yo

u s

et o

ut

in y

ou

rin

tro

du

ctio

n h

ave

bee

n m

et.

lR

ead

ob

ject

ivel

y an

d a

sses

s w

het

her

th

ete

xt m

akes

sen

se. L

oo

k fo

r in

con

sist

enci

esin

arg

um

ent.

lC

hec

k th

at a

ll yo

ur

fact

s ar

e co

rrec

t.l

Inse

rt a

dd

itio

nal

or

ove

rlo

oke

d e

vid

ence

th

atst

ren

gth

ens

the

wh

ole

.l

Rem

ove

an

yth

ing

th

at is

no

t re

leva

nt

or

alte

r th

e te

xt s

o t

hat

it is

cle

ar a

nd

un

amb

igu

ou

s. R

edu

cin

g t

ext

by

10–2

5 p

erce

nt

can

imp

rove

qu

alit

y co

nsi

der

ably

.l

Ho

nes

tly

asse

ss y

ou

r m

ater

ial t

o e

nsu

re t

hat

you

hav

e at

trib

ute

d id

eas

to t

he

sou

rces

,th

at is

, ch

eck

that

yo

u h

ave

no

t co

mm

itte

dp

lag

iari

sm (

Ch

36

).l

Rem

od

el a

ny

exp

ress

ion

s th

at a

re t

oo

info

rmal

fo

r ac

adem

ic c

on

text

s.l

Elim

inat

e g

end

ered

or

dis

crim

inat

ory

lan

gu

age.

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Table 43.3 Common proof-reading symbols. University lecturers and tutors use a varietyof symbols on students’ assignments to indicate errors, corrections or suggestions. Thesecan apply to punctuation, spelling, presentation or grammar. The symbols provide a kind of ‘shorthand’ that acts as a code to help you see how you might be able to amend your text so that it reads correctly and fluently. In this table some of the more commonly usedcorrection marks are shown alongside their meanings. The sample text shows how thesesymbols may be used either in the text or the margin to indicate where a change isrecommended.

The value of reviewing, editing and proof-reading

Although the editing process may seem tedious and more complex than it might haveappeared at first, a text that is not revised in this way will be unlikely to receive asfavourable a reading – and possibly as high a mark – as one that has been fully reviewed,edited and proofed. It is the mix of content, structure and presentation that will gain you marks, and anything you can do to increase your ‘mark-earning’ power will be toyour advantage. In the longer term, learning how to edit your work properly will help youto develop a skill of critical analysis that will stand you in good stead throughout yourcareer.

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Practical tips for reviewing, editing and proof-readingyour work

Make time for checking. When planning the writing, ensure that you have allowed adequate time for reviewing and proof-reading. You don’t want to spoil all your hardwork by skimping on the final stage. Leave some time between finishing the final draftand returning to check the whole text, because you will return to your work with a freshand possibly more critical eye.

Work from a hard copy. Reading through your work laid out on paper, which is the format in which your marker will probably see it, will help you identify errors and incon-sistencies more readily than might be possible on the screen. A paper version is also easier to annotate (although this can also be done using the ‘Track Changes’ facility onyour word processor). A printout also allows you to see the whole work in overview, andfocus on the way the text ‘flows’. If necessary, spread it out on the desk in front of you.

Follow the ‘reading aloud’ check. This is a tried and tested technique to ensure thatwhat you have written actually makes sense. Simply read your text aloud to yourself.Your ears will hear the errors that your eyes might miss on a silent reading of the text.This will help you correct grammatical and spelling inconsistencies, as well as punctua-tion omissions. (Note: this method is not suitable for use in exams.)

Map your work to obtain an overview. ‘Label’ each paragraph with a topic heading andlist these in a linear way on a separate paper. This will provide you with a ‘snapshot’ ofyour text and will allow you to appraise the order, check against any original plan, andadjust the position of parts as you feel necessary.

Check for relevance. Ensure that you have written and interpreted the question as setand have not ‘made up’ another title for the task. Whatever you have written will bejudged by the terms of the original question, not by one that you have created.

Check for consistency in the elements of your text. For example, ensure that yourintroduction and conclusion complement and do not contradict each other.

Check for factual accuracy. Ensure that all the facts are correct, for example, in a history essay that the date sequences are consistent, or in a scientific paper that anumerical answer you have reached is realistic. It is very easy to type a date erroneouslyor make a final slip in the transposition of an answer from one area of the page to thefinal answer and, thus, lose marks.

Stick to your word limits/targets. Remember that too few words can be just as bad as too many. The key point is that your writing must be clear to your reader. Sometimesthis means giving a longer explanation; sometimes it means simplifying what you havewritten. However, at this stage, if you are over the word-count limit, then check for waysin which you can reword the text to eliminate redundant words while maintaining thesense you intended to convey (see also Ch 33).

Create ‘white space’. To help produce a more ‘reader-friendly’ document that will notdeter the marker, try to create ‘white space’ by:

l leaving space (one ‘return’ space) between paragraphs;

l justifying only on the left side of the page;

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l leaving space around diagrams, tables and other visual material;

l leaving reasonable spaces between headings, sub-headings and text.

Check that all the ‘secretarial’ aspects are in place. Neat presentation, punctuationand spelling all help your reader to access the information, ideas and argument of yourwriting. While this may not gain you marks, it will certainly ensure that you do not losemarks even indirectly by making the marker struggle to ‘decode’ your work.

Check other visual aspects. Diagrams, tables and figures should be drawn using a ruler,if you cannot create these electronically. Only in some subjects would freehand drawingbe acceptable, for example, in the study of Architecture.

..

D

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And now . . .

43.1 Reflect on past submissions. Look at an assignment that you havealready submitted and go through it using the checklist in Table 43.1.Concentrate on two pages and, using a highlighter, mark all flaws,inconsistencies or errors. Look at the overall effect of these errors andreflect on the extent to which this may have lost you marks; then considerhow you might allow for more time for the editing/proof-reading phasenext time round.

43.2 Practise using the standard proof-reading marks. On the same piece oftext, insert the relevant standard proof-reading symbols (Table 43.3) onthe text and in the margin. Learning how to use these symbols will help you speed up the proof-reading process.

43.3 Practise condensing a piece of text. This is an acknowledged way ofimproving your work, though you have to bear in mind any word targetsthat have been set. Look at your text for irrelevant points, wordy phrases,repetitions and excessive examples; if you can reduce its original length by10–25 per cent, you will find that you will have created a much tighter,easier-to-read piece of writing.

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306 44 PRESENTATION OF ASSIGNMENTS

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n It may be an element of the assessment.

n It helps the marker understand what you have written.

n It shows you can adopt professional standards in your work.

n It demonstrates you have acquired important skills that will transfer to other subjectsand, later, employment.

Why does good presentation matter?

Most marks for your academic assignments will be awarded for content, which dependson:

l activities that take place before you write, such as researching your sources, con-ducting experiments or analysing the literature;

l the way you express your ideas in writing (Ch 32–Ch 43).

However, some marks will always be directly or indirectly reserved for presentation, sothe final ‘production’ phase can influence your overall grading. By paying attention tothese ‘cosmetic’ details, you can improve your marks relatively easily.

Presentation involves more than layout and use of visual elements; it includes accur-acy, consistency and attention to detail. For this reason it is often associated with edit-ing and proof-reading (Ch 43). You’ll need time to get these aspects right, so when youplan the writing-up process, you should include a final phase for tackling them. For anassignment such as a lengthy in-course essay, this could mean trying to complete thecontent phase at least a day ahead of the submission date.

44 Presentation of assignments

How to follow the appropriate academic conventions

The presentation of your written work may be assessed directly and it mayinfluence the way tutors mark the content. This chapter explains how tocreate a polished submission that follows the established standards ofacademic writing.

Key terms

AnalogyAssignmentCitationLegendQualitativeQuantitativeQuotation


l Overall layoutl Cover pagel Main textl Citations and referencesl Quotes and formulael Quoting numbers in textl Figures and tables

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44 PRESENTATION OF ASSIGNMENTS 307

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Overall layout

This will depend on the type of academic writing you have been asked to produce – anessay, report, summary, case study or a worked problem. An assignment like an essaycould have a relatively simple structure: a cover page, the main essay text and a list ofreferences. A lab report might be more complex, with a title page, abstract, introductionand sections for materials and methods, results, discussion/conclusion and references(Ch 52). Layouts for most types of assignment also vary slightly depending on discipline.You should research this carefully before you start to write up, by consulting the coursehandbook or other regulations.

Cover page

This is important to get right because it will create a good first impression. Your depart-ment may specify a cover-page design that is required for all submissions. If this is thecase, then make sure that you follow the instructions closely, as the layout may havebeen constructed for a particular purpose. For example, it may aid anonymous markingor provide markers with a standard format for providing feedback (see Figure 44.1 for anexample).

If detailed instructions for a cover page are not given,then ensure that you provide your name and/ormatriculation number at the head of your work. Whereanonymous marking is applied, then your matricula-tion number only would be required. Add your coursetitle and/or code. The tutor’s name is also helpful. Give the question number and title of the question.The model layout in Figure 44.1 suggests one way to present the essential information neatly and clearly.Keep it simple: a cover sheet with fancy graphics willnot add to your mark.

Main text

The majority of student assignments are word-processed, although this is not usually a requirement.You should try to use a word processor, if you can,because this gives a more professional result and also makes the drafting and editing phases easier.However, if handwriting your submission, make sureyou leave sufficient time to copy out your draft neatlyand legibly. Write on only one side of the paper – thismakes it easier to read, and if you make a significanterror you only have to rewrite a single sheet.

Font

There are two main choices: serif types, with extrastrokes at the end of the main strokes of each letter,

Figure 44.1 A model cover-page layout

A point to note for computingnovices is that when typingtext into a word processorthe words will automaticallyfollow on to the next line(wrap). This means that youdon’t need to press the returnkey at the end of every line.

Automatic wrapping of text

..

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and sans serif types, without these strokes (see Fig-ure 44.2). The type to use is usually left to personalpreference, but a serif font is easier to read. Morelikely to be specified is the point size (pt) of the font,which will probably be 11 or 12 point for ease of reading.

You should avoid using elaborate font types as gener-ally they will not help the reader to assimilate whatyou have written. For the same reason, you should notuse too many forms of emphasis. Choose italics orbold and stick with one only. Symbols are often used inacademic work and in Microsoft Word can be addedusing the ‘Insert > Symbol’ menu.

Margins

A useful convention is for left-hand margins to be 4 cmand the right-hand margins 2.5 cm. This allows spacefor the marker’s comments and ensures that the textcan be read if a left-hand binding is used.

Line spacing

It is easier to read text that is spaced at least at 1.5–2 lines apart. Some markers like to add comments as they read the text and this leaves them space to do so. The exception is where you wish to use longquotations. These should be indented and typed in single-line spacing.

Paragraphs

The key thing to remember about layout is to makegood use of the ‘white space’. This means that youshould lay out your paragraphs clearly and consist-ently. Some people prefer the indentation method,where the paragraph begins on the fourth characterspace from the left-hand margin (Figure 44.3a). Othersprefer the blocked paragraph style, that is, where all paragraphs begin on the left-hand margin but are separated by a double-line space (Figure 44.3b). Thespace between paragraphs should be roughly equival-ent to a missing line. In Microsoft Word these aspectscan be controlled using the ‘Format > Paragraph’ menu.

Sub-headings

In some disciplines use of sub-headings is acceptableor even favoured, though in others these ‘signpost’strategies are discouraged. It is best to consult yourtutor or course handbook about this if you are uncer-tain. Sub-headings are usually in bold (Ch 33).


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Figure 44.2 Examples of themain types of font at differentpoint sizes

Figure 44.3 Types ofparagraph layout. (a) indentedand (b) blocked. Note that in theindented model, by conventionthe first paragraph in anysection, is not indented.

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Punctuation

Standard punctuation applies to all types of academic writing and is dealt with in detailin (Ch 40).

Word count

You may be asked to work to a word count and tips for doing this are provided in Ch 43.If you greatly exceed this limit, this will almost certainly impact on your presentation asyou will confront the reader with too much information and will probably not be writingcrisply and concisely (Ch 32).

Citations and references

A citation is mention of a source in the main body ofyour text – usually author surname(s) and date of pub-lication and, in some styles, the relevant page(s). Theassociated reference consists of further details of the source that would, for example, allow the readerto find it in a library. Citing authors or sources isessential within your text when you refer to ideas orquotations that are not your own. This is an importantacademic convention that you must observe to avoidplagiarism (Ch 36). Providing a reference list is, there-fore, standard practice and, for this reason, markersmay deduct marks if you omit one.

There are several ways in which citations can be pre-sented, and the more common methods are outlinedin Ch 35. References are usually listed at the end ofyour text in a separate section, although in some systems they may be positioned at the bottom of thepage where the citation occurs. You must be consist-ent in the referencing style you adopt, and some disciplines impose strict subject-specific conventions. If in doubt, consult your course handbook or your lecturer.

Quotations and formulae

Quotations and formulae can be integrated into the text when short, but are usually pre-sented as a ‘special’ type of paragraph when long (Ch 35). In both cases, the source anddate of publication are provided after the quotation.

l Short quotations are integrated within the sentence and are placed within singleinverted commas. Quotations within the quote are in double inverted commas (Table 40.1 and Figure 44.4).

l Long quotations are usually 40 or more words of prose or more than two lines of poetry. They are indented by five character spaces from the left margin. Noquotation marks are necessary unless there are quotation marks used in the textyou are quoting (Figure 44.5).

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The following is an exampleof a citation:

‘According to Smith (2005),there are three reasonswhy aardvark tongues arelong.’

The following is an exampleof a reference:

Smith, J. V., 2005.Investigation of snout andtongue length in theAfrican aardvark(Orycteropus afer). Journalof Mammalian Research,34; 101–32.

Examples

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Some disciplines, for example, English Literature andLaw, have very specific rules for the way in which quota-tions are to be laid out and referenced. In such cases,consult your course handbook or ask for guidancefrom a tutor.

Short formulae or equations can be included in text,but they are probably better presented on a separateline and indented, thus

α + 4β / η2 π = 0 (Eqn. 46.1)

Where a large number of formulae are included, theycan be numbered for ease of cross-reference, asshown above.

Quoting numbers in text

Adopt the following rules:

l In general writing, spell out numbers from one to ten and use figures for 11 andabove; in formal writing, spell out numbers from one to a hundred and use figuresabove this.

l Spell out high numbers that can be written in two words (‘six hundred’). With a number like4,200,000, you also have the choice of writing‘4.2 million’.

l Always use figures for dates, times, currency or togive technical details (‘5 amp fuse’).

l Always spell out numbers that begin sentences,indefinite numbers (‘hundreds of soldiers’) orfractions (‘seven-eighths’).

l Hyphenate numbers and fractions appropriately.

Figures and tables

You may be expected to support your academic writ-ing with visual material or data, and it is importantthat you do so in a fashion that best helps the readerto assimilate the information. You must also followany specific presentational rules that apply in yoursubject area.

Figure 44.4 How to present a short quotation in text form

Figure 44.5 How to present a long quote, shown in outlineform (see also Ch 35, page 239)

Integrated suites of office-type software allowyou to insert the graphs you produced using thespreadsheet program intotext produced with the word-processing program.The two programs can evenbe linked so that changes on the spreadsheet dataautomatically appear in thegraph within the word-processed file. Consult themanual or ‘Help’ facility tofind out how to do this. In MSWord, digital photographs canbe inserted using the ‘Insert >Picture > From File’ command.

Inserting figures in text

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Figures

The academic convention is to include a wide range ofvisual material under the term ‘Figure’ (‘Fig.’ for short).This includes graphs, diagrams, charts, sketches, pic-tures and photographs, although in some disciplines andcontexts photographs may be referred to as plates.There are quite strict rules regarding the way figuresare used (see also Ch 30). Here’s a set of guidelinesto follow when including figures in an assignment:

l All figures should be referred to in the text. There are ‘standard’ formulations for doing this,such as ‘Figure 4 shows that . . .’; or ‘. . . results for one treatment were higher than for the other(see Fig. 2)’. Find what is appropriate from theliterature or texts in your subject area.

l You should always number the figures in theorder they are referred to in the text. If you are including the figures within themain body of text (usually more convenient for the reader) then they should appearat the next suitable position in the text after the first time of mention. At the veryleast this will be after the paragraph that includes the first citation, but morenormally will be at the top of the following page.

l Try to position your figures at the top or bottom of a page, rather than sandwichedbetween blocks of text. This looks neater and makes the text easier to read.

l Each figure should have a legend, which will include the figure number, a title andsome text (often a key to the symbols and line styles used). The convention is forfigure legends to appear below each figure. Your aim should be to make each figureself-contained. That is, a reader who knows the general subject area should be ableto work out what your figure shows, without reference to other material.

Choosing the right type of figure to display information is an art in itself (see Ch 30).Although there are technical reasons why some forms of data should be presented inparticular ways (for example, proportional data in a pie chart rather than a line chart),your main focus should always be on selecting a method that will best help the readerassimilate the information presented. Jones, Reed and Weyers (2003) or the ‘ChartWizard’ in the Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet program are possible starting pointsfor exploring the range of possibilities.

When presentating individual figures, clarity should be your main aim – ensuring, forexample, that the different slices of a pie chart or the lines and symbols in a graph areclearly distinguishable from one another. Consistency is also important, so you shoulduse the same line or shading for the same entity in all your figures (for example, hollowsymbols for ‘controls’). The widespread availability of colour printers should help withthis, but some departments may insist on the use of black and white, since this was theconvention when colour printing was prohibitively expensive. If you are using colour,keep it ‘tasteful’ and remember that certain colour combinations are not easily differen-tiated by some readers. Take great care to ensure that the quantity plotted and its unitsare provided for all axes.

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The norm is to put thecontrolled variable orcategory of measurement on the x-axis (horizontal axis)and the measured variable on the y-axis (vertical axis):

Selecting what to put oneach axis of a graph

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Tables

These are used to summarise large amounts of infor-mation, especially where a reader might be interestedin some of the detail of the data. Tables are especiallyuseful for qualitative information (see Ch 30 andexamples in this text, such as Table 42.3 on page 296)but numerical data can also be presented, especially if they relate to a discontinuous qualitative variable(for example, the population sizes and occupationbreakdown of various geographical regions).

Tables generally include a number of columns (ver-tical) and rows (horizontal). By analogy with figures,the convention is to put the controlled or measuredvariable on the column headers (horizontal) and toplace the measured variable or categories of measure-ment in the rows (vertical). Do not forget to includethe units of the information listed if this is relevant.

The rules for presenting tables are very similar to those for figures, with the importantexception that a table legend should appear above the table. It is quite common to noteexceptions and other information as footnotes to tables.


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In certain cases it may bepossible to present the samedata set as a figure or as atable. The first rule in suchcases is never do both –choose the method that bestsuits your data and the targetreader. An important criterionis to decide which will besthelp the reader assimilate theinformation. If the take-homemessage is best shownvisually, then a figure mightbe best; whereas, if detailsand numerical accuracy areimportant, then a table mightbe more suitable.

Figure or table?

Practical tips for presenting your work

Don’t let grammatical and stylistic errors spoil your work. It is a waste of effort toconcentrate on presentation without also ensuring that you have ironed out minor errorsat the review and proof-reading stages (Ch 43).

Adopt standard word-processing layout conventions. Adopting the following guide-lines will ensure a neat, well-spaced presentation:

l one character space after the following punctuation – full stop, comma, colon, semi-colon, closing inverted commas (double and single), question mark and exclamationmark;

l no character space after apostrophes in a ‘medial’ position e.g. it’s, men’s, monkey’s;

l no indentation of paragraphs (that is, blocked style);

l one standard line space between paragraphs;

l left-justified text;

l italicised letters for foreign words and titles of books, journals and papers (Ch 35);

l headings in same font size as text, but bold.

Adopt figure and table styles from the literature. If you have doubts about the precisestyle or arrangement of figures and tables, follow the model shown in texts or journalarticles from your subject area. Also, check whether relevant instructions are publishedin the course handbook.

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Don’t automatically accept the graphical output from spreadsheets and other programs. These are not always in the ‘correct’ style. For example, the default outputfor many charts produced by the Microsoft Office Excel spreadsheet includes a greybackground and horizontal gridlines, neither of which is generally used. It is not difficultto alter these parts of the chart, however, and you should learn how to do this from manuals or the ‘Help’ facility.

In numerical disciplines, take care in laying out your answer. Use plenty of space,working your way down the page in sequence. Don’t work across the page, as this doesn’t allow the flow of thinking to be apparent. Always give units, as this is a good wayof trapping errors. Use a ruler for simple diagrams (for example, electrical circuits) asthis will be much neater then freehand. Underline all answers and score out any roughwork with a single diagonal line.

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And now . . .

44.1 Check out what system of referencing is favoured by your department.There are several systems of referencing that can be used. Yourdepartment will usually recommend or even insist on one particular stylebecause this is the standard for the discipline area, for example, in Law,Medicine and English Literature. One of the most widely used methods is the Harvard method. It has the merit of being simple and much less time-consuming than other traditions (Ch 35).

44.2 Locate a good hard-copy dictionary to check routine words. Yourgeneral vocabulary will increase as you progress through your studies.However, you will not always understand the words you read or hear.Checking out new words is, therefore, essential. You will not always haveaccess to a computer as you are studying and, therefore, cannot rely onelectronic dictionaries that might be available online. A good dictionary willlast you a lifetime and so is worth the investment – hints for birthday orChristmas presents may get round any cost factors!

44.3 Locate a subject-specific dictionary. Apart from general vocabulary, you will encounter new terms specific to your subject. Knowing where tolook for spellings and definitions will be vital to the development of yourunderstanding of your subject. A subject-specific dictionary will give youspelling, meaning, pronunciation and often examples of how to use theterm. Such dictionaries will usually be available in the reference section of your university library.

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PART

EA TOOLKIT FOR COURSEASSESSMENTS

45 Assessment at university: how tests and examinations work

46 Multiple-choice and short-answer questions: how to tackle short-answer formats

47 Numerical questions: how to approach quantitative problems

48 Essay-style assessments: how to maximise your marks

49 Tutorial assessment: how to make your contribution count

50 Assessment of practical and laboratory work: how to improve yourmarks

51 Tackling experimental project work: how to plan and organise yourefforts

52 Report writing: how to select and shape your content appropriately

53 Reviews and dissertations: how to conduct and write up a literaturesurvey

54 Poster presentations: how to display your work effectively

55 Spoken presentations: how to give a talk or seminar withconfidence

56 Exploiting feedback: how to understand and learn from whatlecturers write on your work and exam scripts

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45 ASSESSMENT AT UNIVERSITY 317

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A university is an educational institution with legal permission to award its own degrees.These degrees are granted on the basis of performance in assessments and exams,which may vary in character depending on subject and institution. As a result, each uni-versity has its own conventions regarding style of question, format of exams and mark-ing criteria. No two universities are the same. To safeguard standards, universities havecomplex internal and external quality controls.

As a student, you will be hoping to perform as well as possible in the assessments youhave to complete. Having an understanding of how the exam system operates will helpyou to do this.

Forms of assessment

Each degree programme and every unit of teaching at university (usually called a ‘module’) will have apublished set of aims and learning objectives or out-comes. Your performance in relation to these goalswill be tested in various ways.

l Formative assessments are primarily designedto give you feedback on the quality of your

45 Assessment at university

How tests and examinations work

The university assessment system is complex and rather different fromthose used at school or college. This chapter clarifies the terminologyinvolved and explains the rationale for different modes of assessment,while later chapters discuss how to tackle specific question types.

Key terms

Aggregate markClass examExam dietExternal examinerFinalsFormative

assessmentLearning objectiveMarking criteriaOral examPeer assessmentSummative

assessmentTranscript


l Forms of assessmentl Marking criteria and grading schemesl Modules and progressionl Degree classifications and transcripts

Universities have differenttraditions, some of themancient, and these have led todifferences in the names ofelements of the exam system.Your university’s prospectusand degree regulations willspell out the key terms.

Different assessmentterminology

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answers. In some cases these are known as ‘classexams’. They generally do not count towards yourfinal module assessment, although sometimes asmall proportion of marks will carry forward as anincentive to perform well.

l Summative assessments count directly towardsa module or degree assessment. Many summativeexams are held as formal invigilated tests whereyou work in isolation. These may be known asdegree exams and, in the honours year, in someinstitutions, as ‘finals’. These exams may compriseseveral sittings or papers, perhaps coveringdifferent aspects of the course, and often lastingfor two or three hours each. The collective set ofexams is sometimes known as an exam diet.

In some cases, in-course work will count towardsdegree exams (continuous assessment). This can takethe form of essays, projects, and special exercises like problem-based learning (see tip box alongside).However, the majority of marks are usually devotedto formal invigilated exams where the possibility ofcollaboration, plagiarism and impersonation are lim-ited, and you will be expected to perform alone undera certain amount of time pressure.

Exam papers and diets may be structured in differentways, according to discipline. The design may reflectthe different aspects of learning that your tutors wishto assess (see Ch 46–Ch 56). For example, there maybe a multiple-choice component that tests your sur-face knowledge across a wide range of topics, whilean essay section may be included to test your deeperknowledge in fewer topics. Papers and questions maycarry different weightings towards an aggregate mark.

Various levels of choice are given to reflect thenature of the field of study. In professional disciplinesthere may be a need to ensure you are knowledgeablein all areas, while in other subjects a certain amountof specialisation may be acceptable. Some exampapers are divided into sections, and you will beexpected to answer one or more questions from the options within each of these. This format allows alimited amount of choice while ensuring that you havecovered all major areas in your studies. It is vital that you take these aspects of exam paper design intoaccount when arriving at a strategy for revision andexam-sitting (Ch 58, Ch 62).

318 45 ASSESSMENT AT UNIVERSITY

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This is a form of learningwhere you are asked toinvestigate a specificproblem, usually related to a real-life professionalsituation, which may be open-ended in nature (that is, not necessarily having a‘right answer’). You may bepart of a small team asked to consider the problem,research the underlyingtheory and practice thatmight lead to a response, andarrive at a practical solution.Assessment of the exercisewill focus not only on thesolution you arrive at, butalso on the way in which youarrive at it, so here process isoften at least as important asthe product. There may begroup- and peer-assessmentelements to your grade.

Problem-based learning (PBL)

This should never come as asurprise to you as you shouldhave checked up on it bylooking at past papers and byconfirming with lecturers thatthere have been no changesto the style of examination.

Exam format

This is where the members of a study team are asked toassign a mark to each other’sperformance. This might takeaccount, for example, of theeffort put in, the conduct inthe assigned team role(s),and contribution to the finaloutcome. Clear guidance isalways given about how youshould assign marks.

Peer assessment

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Marking criteria and grading schemes

Who marks your papers? How do they do it? Often students are unsure about this.

The norm is for papers to be graded by the person who delivered the lectures, tutorialsor practical classes that are being assessed. However, due to large class sizes, alterna-tive mechanisms may be employed:

l the marking may be spread out among several tutors;

l especially in multiple-choice papers, the marking may be automated;

l where teamwork is involved, peer assessment may take place (see opposite).

Each university or faculty will publish assessment reporting scales, usually in handbooksand/or websites. Some operate to a familiar system of banded percentages, oftenrelated to honours degree classifications, while others adopt a different form of band‘descriptors’. You should find out which system applies in your case and consult the general marking criteria used to assign work in each band. This will give you a better idea of the standard of work needed to produce a specific grade, and may help you tounderstand feedback from tutors (Ch 56).

To maintain standards and ensure fairness, several systems operate:

l Marks may be determined according to an explicit marking scheme that allocates aproportion of the total to different aspects of your answer.

l Double or triple marking may take place and if the grades awarded differ, then theanswer may be scrutinised more closely, possibly by a external examiner.

l Papers are usually marked ‘blind’ or anonymously, so the marker does not knowwhose answer they are grading.

l The external marker (see below) will confirm the overall standard and may inspectsome papers, particularly those falling at the division between honours grades or onthe pass/fail boundary.

l Accreditation bodies in the professions may be involved in the examination process,and some answer papers may be marked by external assessors appointed by theseaccrediting bodies rather than the university.

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These are appointed by the university to oversee marking in specific papers and toensure standards are maintained and that the assessment is fair. They are usually noted academics in the field, with wide experience of examining. They will be asked to comment on the exam question papers in advance and will generally look closely at a representative selection of written papers and project work. For finals, they mayinterview students in an oral, to ensure that spoken responses meet the standard of the written answers, and to arrive at a judgement on borderline cases. Note that wherepapers are borderline pass/fail, they are often double-marked before being sent to theexternal examiner, who recommends the final mark. Papers are dealt with anonymouslyuntil a final mark has been agreed.

External examiners

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Modules and progression

Modular systems of study at university have been developed for several reasons:

l they allow greater flexibility in subject choice;

l they can efficiently accommodate students studying different degree paths;

l they make it easier for students to transfer between courses and institutions;

l they break up studies into ‘bite-sized’ elements and allow exams to be spread moreevenly over the academic year.

The modular system does have disadvantages, however, including the fact that it maytend to encourage students to avoid difficult subjects and to ‘close the book’ on a subject once it has been assessed. If you are studying in a modular system, you shouldbe aware of these risks.

Modules are usually assessed in a summative end-of-module exam, perhaps with a component from in-course assessment. In some subjects, borderline cases are given an extra oral exam. If you fail the end-of-module exam (and any oral), a resit is normallypossible. Resits usually take place towards the end of the summer vacation. The result isusually based solely on your performance in the resit exam.

At the end of each academic year, and after any resits, you will be required to fulfil certain progression criteria that allow you to pass on to the next level of study. Thesecriteria are normally published in course handbooks. If you fail to satisfy the criteria, youmay need to resit the whole year or even to leave the university. Sometimes you may beasked to ‘carry’ specific modules: that is, study them again in addition to the normalquota for your next year of study. Some institutions may place a condition on your re-entry, for example, achieving a certain level of marks or passing a prescribed numberof modules in order to progress. This would normally be discussed with your adviser/director of studies.


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Your studies may be terminated for one of several reasons but most commonly failureto meet attendance or progression criteria. Occasionally, termination will be enforceddue to disciplinary reasons, for example, in a case of plagiarism. In these circumstances,students will be offered a chance to appeal and will be expected to produce evidence of any extenuating circumstances, such as medical certificates, or notes from supportservice personnel. Such students may also wish to ask tutors to support their applicationwhere the tutor is aware of their personal situation.

Appeals against termination of studies

Degree classifications and transcripts

Students with superior entry qualifications or experience may join university at differentlevels. There are also a range of exit awards – certificates, diplomas and ordinarydegrees. However, the majority of students now enter at level 1, and study for an hon-ours degree. This encompasses three years of study in England, Wales and NorthernIreland, and four years in Scotland.

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Sometimes entry into the final honours year is com-petitive, based on grades in earlier years. Some univer-sities operate a junior honours year, which means youare accepted into an honours stream at an earlier stageand may have special module options.

Nearly all universities follow the same honoursdegrees grading system, which are, in descendingorder:

l first class (a ‘first’)

l upper second class (a two-one or 2:1)

l lower second class (a two-two or 2:2)

l third class (a ‘third’)

l unclassified.

However, some universities may not differentiate between the second-class divisions.

In some institutions, these classifications will take intoaccount all grades you have obtained during your uni-versity career; sometimes only those in junior andsenior honours years; and in the majority, only gradesobtained in the finals. This makes the finals critical,especially as there are no resits for them.

Once your degree classification has been decided bythe examination committee or board, and moderatedby the external examiner, it will be passed for ratifica-tion to the university’s senate or equivalent body foracademic legislation. During this period you will tech-nically be a graduand, until your degree is conferredat the graduation ceremony. At this time you willreceive a diploma certificate and be entitled to wear acolourful degree- and institution-specific ‘hood’ foryour gown.

Employers will usually ask to see your diploma for confirmation of your degree and maycontact the university to confirm your qualification and obtain a copy of your transcript(Ch 7). This document shows your performance in all assessments throughout yourcareer at the university.

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Credit will normally be givenfor years of study carried outabroad or in work placement,according to specific schemesoperated by your university.This includes participation in European Communityschemes such as ERASMUSor LINGUA (see http://europa.eu.int/index_en.htm).

Study abroad or withinplacements

In a competitive job market,your chances of beingconsidered for a position may depend on your degreeclassification, but employersalso take into account otherpersonal qualities andexperience (Ch 67). Researchpositions that involve readingfor a higher degree, such asan MSc or PhD, usuallyrequire a first or 2:1.

Job prospects withdifferent degrees

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And now . . .

45.1 Carry out the necessary research to ensure you know how youruniversity’s exam system works for your intended degree. You shouldfind out about:

l course and degree programme aimsl learning objectives or outcomesl the format of assessments and proportion of in-course and final exam

elementsl timing of exam dietsl assessment or marking criterial the grading schemel weighting of exam componentsl progression criteria.

You may wish to file this information for later reference.

45.2 Find out about in-course assessments and how they will contribute to your module or degree grade. Your course handbooks will normallyinclude this information. Marks for in-course work can often be influencedby the amount of work you put in, so they can be a good way of ensuringyou create a strong platform to perform well in degree exams.

45.3 Examine past exam papers in your subjects to investigate how they areconstructed. This will allow you to see whether there are subdivisions,restrictions or other features that might influence your revision or examstrategies.

Practical tips for understanding how you will be assessed

Ask senior students about the exam system. They may have useful tips and advice topass on.

Find out where essential information is recorded. This could be in a combination ofhandbooks and web-based resources.

If you don’t understand any aspect of the assessment system, ask course adminis-trators or tutors. Knowing how the system works is important and can affect your performance.

Notify your institution of any disability. If you have a disability, you should make theinstitution aware of this. You may have special concessions in exams, for example, usingthe services of a scribe, being allowed extra time, or having exam question papersprinted in large print for you. Appropriate entitlements take time to arrange and youmust ensure that arrangements are in place well before the exam date. Contact yourdepartment and disability support service for guidance.

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46 MULTIPLE-CHOICE AND SHORT-ANSWER QUESTIONS 323

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A multiple-choice question (MCQ) is one in which you are presented with alternativeanswers and asked to select one that is correct. In some cases, you may be asked to iden-tify several correct answers rather than one. A short-answer question (SAQ) deals withtopics of limited scope and you are generally expected to produce a mini-essay, bulletedpoints or a diagram in response.

Both MCQs and SAQs are used as alternatives to standard essay questions as a means of testing the breadth and detail of your knowledge across the whole syllabus.Generally, they are mixed with other forms of questions that are better for testing thedepth of your knowledge and analytical capabilities.

Good technique and strategy with MCQs and SAQs can improve your marks and savetime for answering other questions.

Tackling multiple-choice questions

The most common form of MCQ provides some statement or question, then offers fourpossible answers. One of the answers is correct and the other three are known as dis-tractors.

l If the question simply seeks a factual answer, such as the date something happened,or the name of a person, then the answers may simply present a series ofalternatives to the true answer.

l Sometimes the question is devised to test your knowledge of technical terms orjargon, in which case the distractors may use similar-sounding terms to the correctanswer.

46 Multiple-choice and short-answer questions

How to tackle short-answer formats

Many university exams, especially at early stages, test your knowledgeusing ‘objective’ question types, which tend to be short and demandfactual answers. This chapter explains how to adjust your revision andexam technique to suit these forms of assessment.

Key terms

DistractorFormative

assessmentMultiple-choice

question (MCQ)Negative markingShort-answer

question (SAQ)


l Tackling multiple-choice questionsl Dealing with short-answer questionsl Advice for other types of short-form question

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A good approach for approaching MCQ papers is as follows:

l First sweep. Read through the questions fairly rapidly, noting the ‘correct’ answerin those you can attempt immediately, perhaps on a separate sheet. Don’t fill in orsubmit any answers properly yet.

l Second sweep. Go through the paper again, checking your original answers, andthinking for a longer time about uncertain answers. This time, mark up the answersheet properly or submit answers online. Leave questions you are still uncertainabout at this stage.

l Third sweep. Now tackle the difficult questions and those that require longer toanswer (for example, those based on numerical problems). At this stage, whetheryou should guess answers depends on the marking regime being used (see‘Optimising marks’ in the Practical tips section below).

One reason for adopting this three-phase approach is that considering the full set ofquestions may prompt you to recall facts relevant to difficult questions. You can alsospend more time per question on the difficult ones.

Increasingly, MCQs are presented via computers. Thisis usually termed computer-aided assessment (CAA)or online assessment (OA). Use of CAA means thatthe answers can be ‘instantly’ checked. Where suchsystems are used for formative assessments that arenot part of your final assessment, the software mayallow you to receive feedback on incorrect answers tohelp you learn more about aspects you evidently didnot understand.

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l Some questions involve a quantitative problemand then give possible answers that you can onlyarrive at by doing the requisite calculation. Theanswers provided may include values that you willobtain if you carry out a faulty calculation.

There may be a special way of identifying the answer,such as shading in a box or selecting an option withyour mouse. Read the rubric carefully to make sureyou do the right thing.

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If you are offered the optionto practise CAA/OA, take it.Familiarity with the softwareand presentation may saveyou time in the real exam.

Getting used to software

True/false questions, fill-in-the-missing-word and matchingquestions all attempt to test the same sort of knowledge as MCQs. Many of the tips givenhere also apply to these forms,but also see pages 325–6.

Alternative questionformats

The bone at the front of the leg below the knee is called:

A The fibula

B The tibia

C The femur

D The cruciate

B is the correct answer; A, C and D are distractors. You may know that all the potentialanswers are parts of a leg, but unless you know the anatomy well, you may not be ableto identify the correct answer.

Example MCQ

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Advice for other types of short-form question

l Multiple-response questions. These are essentially MCQs in which more than oneanswer can be correct – and you may or may not be told how many. Marks areusually awarded for having the correct combination of answers, so you will reallyhave to know the topic well to score highly. Guessing is not advised, especially if you do not know how many answers might be correct.

l Fill-in-the-missing-word questions. These can be tough options because you arenot given prompts for the correct answer. However, you may be able to obtain clues


Dealing with short-answer questions

The various styles that can be encompassed within the SAQ format (see below) allow formore demanding questions than MCQs. For this form of question, few if any marks aregiven for writing style. Answers are often expected in note form or as a diagram. Think in ‘bulletpoint’ mode and list the crucial points only. The time for answering SAQquestions may be tight, so get down to work fast, starting with answers that demandremembered facts.

In SAQ papers, there is often a choice of questions.Choose carefully – it may be better to gain half marksfor a correct answer to half a question than to providea largely irrelevant answer or one that seems to coverthe whole topic, but does so too superficially. Considerall sections of the question before you start answer-ing, in case you cannot cope with secondary questions.

Always answer the question as requested – this is truefor all questions, but especially important for SAQs. Ifthe question asks for a diagram, make sure you pro-vide one, and label it well; if it asks for n aspects of atopic, try to list this number of points; if there are twoor more parts, provide appropriate answers to allaspects. This may seem obvious, but many marks arelost for not following instructions. Bear in mind thatmarkers may award marks for correct use of key phrases – so try to use the terms andsubject jargon normally used in the resources, lectures and discussions. Finally, remem-ber to check through your answers at the end. You’ll be able to correct obvious mistakesand possibly add points that come to mind when rereading.

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Divide the allocated time up appropriately, allowingsome time for choosingquestions and reviewinganswers. Stick to yourtimetable by moving on to the next question as soon aspossible. Strategically, it isprobably better to get partmarks for the full number ofquestions than good marksfor only a few (Ch 62).

Time management for SAQs

Here are three possible ways of asking a short-answer question about the knee:

n Draw a labelled diagram of the knee.

n Briefly explain the role of the meniscus, patella and cruciate and medial ligaments inthe knee joint.

n Give five common types of injury that affect the knee, and briefly indicate how theyshould be treated.

Examples of SAQs

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from the surrounding text or other questions.When marked by software, allowance is oftenmade for common misspellings, but it’s worthtaking special care over spelling in such cases:there is no guarantee that ‘your’ misspelling willbe included and there may be no human check onthe wrong answers.

l ‘Matching’ questions. These present you with aseries of options and ask you to link these to aseries of answers or matching phrases. Start withthe easy matches and see which questions andoptions remain. If you need to guess, rememberthat one incorrect answer will actually result intwo lost marks, because you will have ruled out the correct answer to anotherquestion.

l ‘Hot-spot’ and other pictorial question formats. These mainly apply to onlineassessment; the question may ask that you identify part of a diagram using thecursor – perhaps by clicking, dragging an arrow or symbol, or by dragging images tothe correct spot. Alternatively, you may be asked to provide text for a labelled item.Make sure you are especially careful to identify the exact location where markersshould be placed.

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Practical tips for addressing MCQs and SAQs

Revise appropriately. If your paper includes MCQs or SAQs, keep this in mind as youstudy. Think how material might be assessed in these ways and make sure you learnpotentially examinable definitions and facts. Also make sure you can draw and label relevant diagrams. You may find it useful to discuss potential questions with fellow classmembers (Ch 60).

Take a logical approach to MCQs. When unsure of an answer, the first stage is to ruleout options that are clearly absurd or have obviously been placed there to distract you.Next, looking at the remaining options, can you judge between contrasting pairs withalternative answers? Logically, both cannot be correct, so you should see if you can ruleone of the pair out. Watch out, however, in case both may be irrelevant to the answer.

Write down key information before looking at MCQ options. If you have key dates,facts or formulae to remember, write these down as soon as the exam starts. If you dothis before looking at the options in the exam questions, you will be less likely to be confused or distracted by similar-sounding options.

Hints for numerical questions. If an MCQ involves a calculation, try to do this independ-ently from the answers, so you are not influenced by them. Assuming you have done the appropriate revision, and have the required knowledge and skills, numerical ques-tions in SAQ papers can be a valuable means of accumulating marks, because it is pos-sible to score 100 per cent in them if your answer is correct and laid out appropriately.

Because of their subject-specific nature, it is notpossible to give generalisedadvice on these. Consult thecourse handbook or lecturersto find out the recommendedstructure and content and the best way to approachthem in exams.

Gobbets, précis and otherspecialised assessments

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Optimising marks. The best way of tackling MCQs depends on the marking regime. Ifthere is a penalty for incorrect answers in a multiple-choice test (often referred to as‘negative marking’), the best strategy is not to answer questions when you know youranswer is a guess. Depending on the penalty, it may be beneficial to guess, if you can narrow the choice down to two options, but beware false or irrelevant alternatives. Ifthere are no such penalties, then you should provide an answer to all questions in thepaper, even if this means guessing in some cases.

Guessing. If you have to do this to complete the paper (assuming negative markingdoesn’t apply), go with your first hunch for the answer rather than a second thought thatmight be influenced by the distractors. Your subconscious may have arrived at the correct answer, without your conscious mind understanding why.

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46.1 Compensate for any lack of past MCQ papers. Departments are usuallyreluctant to release past papers for MCQs. This is because there will oftenbe only a limited pool of good discriminatory questions. Staff also fear that students will simply memorise answers to the questions in the pool,rather than learning the whole course. You can compensate for this bymaking up your own MCQs as part of your revision – this is a good way ofunderstanding the examiner’s likely frame of mind and of spotting topics torevise and facts to memorise. If studying as a group, you could all submit aspecified number of questions and then answer each other’s (Ch 60).

46.2 Seek out model answers to SAQs. These may be provided in coursehandbooks. They will give you an idea of the length and depth of answerrequired in your subject, as well as the general style of question.

46.3 Think through your exam strategy. MCQs and SAQs often form elementsof composite exam papers involving several sections, each being made upof questions of a particular type. Time management in these papers can bedifficult because of this complexity, so think through the order in which you will tackle the parts and how much time you should devote to eachMCQ sweep and SAQ question. Because time is often limiting in SAQpapers, it is particularly important to share out time so that you don’t leave any questions unanswered (Ch 62).

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328 47 NUMERICAL QUESTIONS

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Some students favour questions that require a numerical or statistical approach. Othersstruggle where maths is involved, or suffer from a lack of preparation. Whichever cat-egory applies to you, it is worth the effort of conquering mathematical assessments,because the payback can be excellent – answering this type of question correctly is oneof the few ways in which you can obtain 100 per cent in a university exam.

Why do examiners ask numerical questions?

Quantitative problems allow examiners to test the following:

l your numeracy, mathematical skills and problem-solving abilities;

l your capacity to recall, understand and apply theoretical models within ‘real-life’scenarios;

l your ability to think clearly and work quicklyunder pressure;

l your ability to follow a standard format forcalculation, particularly where it may be relatedto professional competence, as in Engineeringand Accountancy;

l your ability to present a logical sequence ofoperations clearly, such that another person canunderstand what you have done.

Learning key mathematical skills

You won’t get very far without knowing the basic maths required for the types of problems you will encounter. This should be easy to find out by consulting the course

47 Numerical questions

How to approach quantitative problems

It’s worth paying close attention to mathematical aspects of your coursebecause, in exam situations, if you get the answers right, it is possible toobtain very high marks. Even if you don’t consider yourself particularlynumerate, tackling these topics head-on can repay the effort.

Key terms

Dimensionalanalysis

NumeracyPart-markingQuantitative


l Why do examiners ask numerical questions?l Learning key mathematical skillsl Why practice is essentiall Tackling the problem

Bear in mind that theseelements, while tricky forsome, are often essential forunderstanding materialencountered later in yourdegree programme.

Numerical aspects of your course

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47 NUMERICAL QUESTIONS 329

handbook, examining past papers, reading textbooks or by speaking to lecturers ortutors.

A basic core of mathematical information and techniques valuable in many contexts iscovered in Ch 29–Ch 31. If your course requires more advanced mathematics, then it islikely that specialist modules or other forms of assistance will be available to you.

Why practice is essential

When it comes to numerical problems, there is simplyno substitute for practice. If you have a block aboutnumerical work, practice at problem-solving or stand-ard forms of analysis will:

l demystify the procedures involved, which, inreality, may only involve elementary mathematicaloperations and just appear complex on the surface;

l allow you to gain confidence, so that you don’tpanic when confronted with an unfamiliar orapparently complex form of problem;

l help you work faster, because the pattern of work will have become routine;

l help you to recognise the various forms a problem can take. This is useful becausethere are a limited number of ways lecturers can present questions and it isimportant to identify the relevant formulae or approach to adopt as soon aspossible;

l help imprint the standard form of analysis and presentation, ensuring that youautomatically adopt the correct procedure and presentation style.

Tackling the problem

A step-by-step approach is recommended. This maynot always be the fastest method, but mistakes oftenoccur when students miss out stages of a calculation,combine simple calculations, or do not make whatthey have done obvious to either themselves or theexaminer. Error tracing (and, importantly, part-mark-ing) is easier when all stages in a calculation are laidout sequentially.

Approach the problem thoughtfully

If presented as a story or scenario, you may need to‘decode’ the problem to decide which equations orrules need to be applied.

l Read the problem carefully – the text may giveclues as to how it should be tackled. Be certain ofwhat is required as an answer before starting.

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This is where the examinerwill give marks for the stepsof a calculation even thoughthe final result is incorrectdue to a mathematical orcopying error at some earlystage. Part marks can only be given if the stages in acalculation are laid outclearly. Therefore, if youknow you have ended up withan incorrect answer, perhapsbecause the scale of it isabsurd, do not immediatelyscribble all over your working.Move on to another questionand return to the earlier oneat the end of the exam; evenif you can’t spot the error,you may receive part marks.

Part-marking

Try as many examples frompast papers and problemssheets as you can. A usefultactic is to invent your ownproblems, as this helps youunderstand the equations andmathematical models better.

Revision tips for numericalquestions

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l Analyse what kind of problem it is. Which equation(s) or approach will be applicable?If this is not obvious, consider the dimensions/units of the information available andthink how they could be fitted to a relevant formula or form of analysis. In formula-based questions, a favourite trick of examiners is to make you rearrange a familiarequation before you can work out the answer.Another is to make you use two or moreequations in series. You may therefore need to revise the rules for rearranging formulae (Ch 29).

l Check that you have, or can derive, all theinformation required. It is unusual, but notunknown, for examiners to supply redundantinformation. So, if you decide not to use some ofthe information given, be confident about whyyou do not require it.

l Decide on the format and units in which topresent the answer. This is sometimes suggestedto you. If the problem requires many changes inthe prefixes to units, it may be a good idea toconvert all data to base SI units at the outset.

l If a problem appears complex, break it down intocomponent parts.

Present your answer clearly

The way you present your answer obviously needs to fit the individual problem. In gen-eral, the final answer should be presented as a meaningful statement and any numbergiven should carry appropriate significant figures and units. You should always showyour working – most markers will only penalise a mistake once if the remaining operationsare performed correctly, but they can only do this if you make those operations visible.Guidelines for presenting an answer include:

l Where appropriate, make your assumptions explicit – most mathematical modelsrequire that certain criteria are met before they can be legitimately applied, andsome involve assumptions and approximations. In some cases you may be givencredit for stating these clearly at the outset.

l Outline your strategy for answering briefly, perhaps explaining the applicable formula ordefinitions that suit the approach to be taken.Give details of what the symbols mean (and their units) at this point. If rearranging a formula, show how you have done this, usingsymbols first, then substituting relevantnumerical values.

l Convert to the desired units step by step, i.e.taking each variable in turn. Try to get into thehabit of writing all numbers with their units,unless they are truly dimensionless.

330 47 NUMERICAL QUESTIONS

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If you are uncertain of yourrecall of a particular equation,carry out a dimensionalanalysis. This involvessubstituting appropriate(usually SI) units for thesymbols, then confirming that the units cancel out.

Dimensional analysis

Calculators greatly simplifythe numerical part of problem-solving. Make sure you knowhow to use all relevantfunctions on your model.

Have the right tools ready

When you have obtained anumerical answer in thedesired units, rewrite this in meaningful English andunderline the answer. Makesure you use an appropriatenumber of significant figures.

Presentation tips

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47 NUMERICAL QUESTIONS 331

Check your answer

Having written out your answer, you should check itmethodically:

l Is the answer of the magnitude you mightreasonably expect? You should be alerted to anerror if an answer is absurdly large or small. Ifusing a calculator, beware of absurd results thatcould arise from faulty key-pressing or logic.Double-check any result obviously standing outfrom others in a series of calculations.

l Do the units make sense and match up with theanswer required?

l Do you get the same answer if you recalculateusing a different method?

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Be prepared to say that youknow your answer is wrong,but cannot identify where theerror has come – you may geta small amount of credit forshowing this awareness. Also,if you know what to do toobtain an answer, but not howto do it, you may gain somecredit for giving as muchdetail as you can.

If you know your answer is wrong

And now . . .

47.1 When revising, create a page of formulae relevant to your subject. Notesituations where each is normally applied.

47.2 Try to categorise types of numerical questions that have been asked inpast exam papers. For example, work out which formulae should be appliedand how they may be rearranged or linked. Thinking at this level will help youidentify how to approach questions more rapidly and with more confidence.

47.3 Practise! This really is the key to success.

Practical tips for approaching numerical questions in exams

Check your calculator. Before your exam date, ensure that you are allowed to use a calculator, and confirm that it is a model that is permitted for use if there are any restrictions. Make sure you understand how to carry out relevant functions. If your cal-culator is battery-operated, ensure a fresh one is fitted or take a spare.

Analyse the question type. Make sure you understand which formula or formulae touse, or which approach to attempt before starting.

Work methodically and carefully. Double-check each step. Write neatly and add vitalinformation such as units or assumptions.

Pay attention to presentation. Follow the tips given earlier in this chapter and alwaysprovide units or a written explanation with the answer.

Never give up. Even if you think you can’t complete the answer, don’t give up. Try to dothe basics or a part answer, perhaps noting any points you can recall in a list. The partmarks obtained could make the difference between a pass and a fail.

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332 48 ESSAY-STYLE ASSESSMENTS

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This book provides many tips for improving your academic writing (see Part D). Devel-oping your writing skills is a gradual process, and one that is best done with time at yourdisposal. In most exams you will not have the luxury to spend a long time on construct-ing your response to the set task, and will be expected to perform under time pressure,without aids like dictionaries and thesauri and with very limited scope to review, edit andrewrite (Ch 61). This chapter provides tips for writing essay-style answers quickly andeffectively so you can maximise the marks you obtain.

What lecturers are looking for in essay answers

Essay-style questions are mainly used by tutors to elicit an in-depth answer to a complexissue. Other shorter forms (Ch 46, Ch 47) tend to be included when they want you toaddress knowledge over a wide area, whereas the essay format allows you to develop anargument, explain alternative views or provide a high level of detail in your answer.Because you cannot be expected to know all topics in this sort of depth, there is often anelement of choice in essay exam papers.

48 Essay-style assessments

How to maximise your marks

The essay is a traditional method of university assessment that allows you to discuss concepts and issues in depth. It also allows you flexibility inthe way you compose your answer, and in exam situations you’ll need todecide this quickly. This chapter focuses on approaches you can take todeciding on content, organising this and producing an effective answer.

Key terms

Critical thinkingFormative

assessmentInstruction wordsPersonal pronounValue judgement


l What lecturers are looking for in essay answersl Planning essay answers in examsl The importance of addressing the questionl Reviewing your answers

Essays are commonly used when tutors expect you to think more deeply. Often what youhave to do is not framed as a question but an instruction. Typically, you will be expected to:

n apply knowledge and understanding;

n analyse information;

n synthesise new ideas or treatments of facts;

n evaluate issues, positions and arguments.

See Table 22.1 (page 138) for further explanation of what’s expected under theseheadings, and watch out for instruction words that invite these approaches.

Critical thinking

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48 ESSAY-STYLE ASSESSMENTS 333

Planning essay answers in exams

The main advice is to keep your writing simple. Working quickly, use a spider diagram ormind map to generate ideas relevant to the question (Ch 26). From this, decide on anoutline structure. This approach helps you to think laterally as well as in a linear manner– important so that you generate all the points relevant to your answer. As discussed inCh 33, you should probably think in terms of threebasic components:

l The introduction: states briefly what your answerwill say, sets its context and gives an insight as tohow you intend to approach the topic.

l The main body: presents the information, theargument or key points of your response.

l The conclusion: sums up the answer as stated,reinforces the position outlined in theintroduction, and puts the whole answer into awider context.

Tips for writing these elements are provided in Ch 33,while potential ways of organising the main body ofessay-style assignments are discussed in Ch 34.

An important way in which marks can be lost is throughpoor structuring of exam answers (Table 61.1). Ideally,your outline plan will lead to an obvious structure forthe main body of the text, but often in exam situa-tions, a piece of writing evolves once the writer beginsto write. This is because the act of writing stimulatesdevelopment of thought, potentially leading to changesin order and in content. In these cases, your initialoutline plan should be seen as a flexible guideline thatmay change as you begin to think more deeply aboutthe topic.

On the other hand, if the planning phase is ignoredcompletely, and you only think about the structurewhile you write, then you can end up with a weaklystructured essay. Table 48.1 describes some commonpitfalls that can occur when students fail to considerthe structure of their writing.

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It is perfectly acceptablepractice to make notes;however, you should alwaysscore through them beforeyou submit the answer paper.A single diagonal line willsuffice. Sometimes your planmay be used by the examinerto cross-check details of youranswer (but do not count on this).

Notes and plans in exam books

Do not become bogged down in trying to rememberdirect quotes word for word(possible exceptions are inliterature and law exams).Just give the sense of thequote, its relevance to youranswer and its source.

Quotations and citationsin exam answers

If you find you tend to getstuck at the start of an essayanswer, try starting with adefinition or simple statementof fact.

Writer’s block

n The introduction outlines the topic and your aim in general terms, while theconclusion states your argument, viewpoint or findings supported by the evidenceand information you have discussed in the main body.

n The terminology used in the conclusion is more specialised, because it will have beenintroduced and explained in the main body of the work as a means of expressingideas more succinctly and knowledgeably.

Introductions compared with conclusions

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The importance of addressing the question

Another important way in which marks can be lost is when answers do not address thequestion (see Table 61.1). You can avoid this by:

l Making sure you consider all aspects of the question. Brainstorming techniques (Ch 34) can help you achieve this.

l Explaining what you understand by the question (perhaps in the introductoryparagraph). This will make you think about the question and may clear up any doubtabout how it can be interpreted. However, make sure you do not narrow the topicbeyond what would be reasonable.

Table 48.1 Common faults in the structure of essay-style answers. In most of theseexamples, paying more attention to the planning phase will result in a better structure, andhence, better marks.

Symptom of weakness in structure

The magical mystery tour. This type of answer rambles on, drifting from point to disconnected point with no real structure.

No intro and/or no conclusion. The main body contains many useful points, but fails to introduce them and fails to draw conclusions based on them.

The overly-detailed answer. The main body of the answer contains a wealth of information, some of which is relevant and some not. Despite the finely-grained detail, little structure is evident and there is no discrimination between the important and the unimportant.

The stream of consciousness. Often written as if it were a conversational monologue, this lacks internal organisation, few (or too many) signposting words, no (or few) paragraphs, and little apparent logic.

The waffly, irrelevant answer. Unfocussed, fails to get to grips with the question and may contain large amounts of irrelevant information, offered up seemingly without regard for the topic set.

The half-an-answer. Fails to appreciate that there were two (or more) parts to the question. Focusses solely on the first part.

Structure dominated by quotes. This might start with a hackneyed quote or be interspersed with extensive memorised quotes, with little effective use of these.

Analysis of the problem

The essay may contain valuable content, but marks will be lost because this is notorganised and parts are not connectedappropriately to create a coherent response.

Facts, concepts and ideas alone are notenough – evidence must be provided ofdeeper-level analytical thinking (Ch 22). Theintroduction and conclusions are importantparts where this can be achieved.

The writer has probably been preoccupied with showing how much has been memorised,without showing how much has beenunderstood. Relevance of the material inrelation to the instruction given has not beenconsidered at the planning stage, nor as theessay-writing progresses.

Academic writing style involves structural as well as linguistic components. Both areimportant elements of a good answer. Hence,the writing needs to guide the reader along alogical path to enable understanding.

Greater attention needs to be paid to analysisof the instruction given and converting thesethoughts into a coherent answer plan.Irrelevant material should not be used as it will gain no marks.

The essay should cover all aspects of thequestion as more marks may be allocated tothe secondary part(s). This should be reflectedin the essay plan and eventual structure.

This type of structure leaves little room forevidence of original thought. Few marks aregiven for having a good memory – it’s what isdone with the information that counts.

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l Focussing on the precise task you have been asked to do (Ch 33). Remember totackle the question actually asked and not the one you would have liked to answer –this is a risk of question-spotting (Ch 59).

l Ensuring your answer is planned. Creating a plan will make you think aboutrelevance and the logic of your argument (Ch 33).

l Keeping to the point. Including irrelevant or repetitive content will not gain anymarks and the time you spend writing it will be wasted, stopping you from gainingmarks on other questions. Having said that, no marks are given for ‘white space’:even a few general points of principle may result in enough marks to help you pass,when added to those gained in other, better, answers.

l Making sure you answer all parts in multi-part questions. These may not be worded in two or more sentences: phrases such as ‘compare and contrast’ and ‘cause and effect’ should alert you to this. Make sure that the weighting in marks given to questions is reflected in the length of thecomponent parts of your answer.

l Avoiding making unsupported value judgements.These are statements that impose the writer’sviews on the reader, often using subjectivelanguage, and which fail to provide soundevidence to support the position put forward (Ch 22). Make sure you write objectively andavoid using the personal pronouns ‘I’, ‘you’, ‘we’and ‘one’.

Reviewing your answers

This is an essential stage of creating a sound piece of academic writing, whether for anin-course assignment or exam. The key phases of reviewing are discussed in Ch 43, andtips for reviewing essay answers in an exam situation are provided in Ch 61.

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As discussed in Ch 32, this requires a bit more than simply thinking about what you arebeing asked to do. You need to take a broader and more in-depth look at the task in thecontext of the whole question. To do this, you must consider:

n The instruction word. In what category does that place the task? For example, haveyou been asked to act, describe, analyse, argue, or do something else completely (Ch 32)?

n The topic. What is the core topic about?

n The aspect(s) to be covered. What particular aspect of the topic has to beconsidered?

n Any restriction(s). What limits have been imposed on the discussion? Your answermust encompass each element of the task to ensure that it is a logical response tothe task you were set. What you write must be relevant. Superfluous material ordigressions will not earn you marks.

Analysing the wording of each question

Sometimes examinationquestions will blend twotopics so that you may findthat you can only answer halfthe question. This is one ofthe dangers of question-spotting (Ch 59).

Mixing topics

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Practical tips for boosting your essay marks

Have potential answer formats in mind as you go into an exam. Ideally, your revisionand pre-exam preparation (Ch 58, Ch 59) will have given you a good idea of the examformat and even potential exam questions. This will ensure you do not have to startanswers completely from scratch.

Keep your writing simple. If you are to stick to your exam strategy, you must not losevaluable time creating an attention-grabbing piece of writing. You won’t have time orspace to refine your answer in the same way as you would with a piece of coursework.In particular, don’t labour the introduction with fine phrases – get straight to the point ofthe question and give your response to it.

Balance your effort appropriately. For example, in exam answers your introductionneed not be overly long. Most marks will be awarded for the main body and conclusions,so spend more time and brainpower on them.

Focus on providing evidence of deeper thinking. Especially at higher levels of study,this will help you gain better grades. On the assumption that you are able to include basicinformation and display an understanding of it, you can gain marks for:

l supplying additional and relevant detail at the expected depth;

l providing an analytical answer rather than a descriptive one – focusing on deeperaspects of a topic, rather than merely recounting facts;

l setting a problem in context, and demonstrating a wider understanding of the topic;however, make sure you don’t overdo this, or you may risk not answering the ques-tion set – remember that you cannot be expected to give the same amount of detailin an exam answer as you would in a piece of essay-style coursework;

l giving enough evidence of reading around the subject, by quoting relevant papers andreviews and mentioning author names and dates of publication;

l considering all sides of a topic/debate, and arriving at a clear conclusion – you mayhave to take into account and explain two or more viewpoints, and possibly weighthem up, according to the question set; where appropriate, your answer shoulddemonstrate that you realise that the issue is complex and possibly unresolved.

Make sure you aren’t losing marks due to poor presentation. Despite the time pres-sure, exam answers need to be legible and clearly laid out. If feedback indicates thattutors are having problems in reading your work, or consider it untidy, paying attentionto this could be an easy way of gaining marks.

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48.1 Review essay-style questions in past exam papers. Look at theseparticularly from the point of view of the depth of answers required.Consider both the instruction word used (Ch 32) and the context to gain an appreciation of the level of thinking demanded. Consult Ch 22 if you need to review ‘thinking processes’.

48.2 Focus on definitions and possible formats during revision. If you havetrouble getting your answers started during exams, it can be a usefuldevice to start with a definition; alternatively, think about stating thesituation, the problem and then the potential solution. This might not beapplicable to all scenarios, but if you are really stuck this will at least giveyou a framework for thinking and writing.

48.3 Use formative assessment exercises to improve your English. If yourecognise that your use of language is weak, then take advantage of allformative assessment exercises to help you improve. Speak with markersand tutors about how you might enhance your marks. You may find thatanalysing possible writing techniques can help, especially if you are awareof specific weaknesses, such as punctuation or structuring.

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The main purpose of a university tutorial is to learn interactively with others, eitherthrough discussion and debate of issues, or by considering problems you have beenasked to address. Your output, such as a related essay or the answers to numerical ques-tions, may be assessed, and, in some cases, your role as a participant may be evaluated.You need to understand exactly what is going to be considered so that you can makeyour contribution count.

Engaging fully with the topic

Preparation for tutorials was explained in broad terms in Ch 21. However, in the contextof assessment you need to think in greater detail about how you go about tackling a setof problems or a topic. This will differ slightly depending on the type of tutorial.

Problem-solving tutorials

For problem-solving tutorials, you may be asked towork through problems beforehand or, conversely, youmay be asked to review the problems in preparationfor working through them as a group in the tutorial.

l Identify the area or theme being addressed.

l Read over the relevant sections in your textbookand lecture notes.

l Equip yourself with the skills to do the task. This might mean revising an area of maths orunderstanding relevant formulae.

l Look over the examples to see whether they areall of similar difficulty or whether they are ranged in ascending difficulty. This couldbe a deliberate way of leading you through the process of developing a proof for aformula and then applying it to a more complex problem.

49 Tutorial assessment

How to make your contribution count

This chapter explains what is expected of you in a tutorial and what mightbe taken into consideration when tutors or peers assess your engagementwith the topic or problem.

Key terms

Assessmentcriteria

Marking schemeTutorial


l Engaging fully with the topicl Criteria for assessment of tutorial participation

Slipping into a lecture 10minutes after the start maygo unnoticed. The same willnot be true of a late arrival ina tutorial. Show courtesy toyour fellow students and thetutor by being on time andengaging actively with theintensive work designed todevelop your understandingof the tutorial theme.

Presence and participation

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49 TUTORIAL ASSESSMENT 339

Discussion-based tutorials

For discussion-based tutorials, the topic will generallybe given in advance.

l Analyse the topic in the same way that you wouldanalyse a topic for a written assignment (Ch 33).

l Read over the relevant sections in your lecturenotes and do the prescribed reading. Who are thekey commentators on the topic? What are theirperspectives on the topic?

l Make notes of key ideas and principles asappropriate, so that you can refer to these in thetutorials.

l You should be looking for aspects such as:

– for and against positions;

– cause-and-effect scenarios;

– comparison of similar circumstances orattitudes;

– contrasting viewpoints and the evidence in support and refutation;

– inconsistencies and flaws in argument;

– parallels and analogies used to illustrate points.

Criteria for assessment of tutorial participation

Tutorial assessment may count for between 5 and 25 per cent of your total course assessment, with partor all of that mark being for ‘participation’, dependingon the subject. Check the course handbook for details.Several generic aspects may be taken into account:

l your attendance over the series of tutorials;

l your active participation in the discussion orproblem-solving aspects of the tutorial;

l evidence of reading and/or other preparation;

l your ability to think analytically and criticallyabout points raised during the tutorial;

l your ability to present and defend a viewpoint,and the quality of your counter-arguments;

l your ability to relate the tutorial activity to otherparts of the course and to the wider subject area;

l your ability to interact considerately and constructively with others.

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Sometimes tutorials areorganised so that eachstudent is given anopportunity to lead thetutorial discussion, while thetutor observes the interplayof argument and debate. If you are required toparticipate in tutorials in this way, then the tutorial‘characters’ and thestrategies to deal with themdescribed in Ch 21 will takeon an added significance.

Student-led tutorials

Exams are not simply basedon the lectures. They drawfrom the extended reading,exercises and tutorials thatform part of your personalstudy. It is worth lookingcarefully at tutorial topicsand the preparatory workassociated with them whenyou are planning yourrevision. Be sure to includethese topics as part of thework to be covered in yourpreparation for exam-basedassessment.

Relationships betweentutorials and exams

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Practical tips for tutorial assessment

For problem-solving tutorials:

Consider how the marks awarded for each tutorial will affect your assessment. Findout how many marks you will get for each element and how this fits into the overall mark-ing scheme. Try your best to complete the full set of examples. This will help consolidateyour learning and, if you are required to submit the worked examples, could contributeto your continuous assessment marks.

For discussion-based tutorials:

Work out your position with regard to the topic. Reflect on what you have read andbegin to evolve your personal position or viewpoint on the topic. Gather together evid-ence that supports your viewpoint and note down key points.

Consider the question from different angles. With regard to assessment, in particular,consider your viewpoint critically and anticipate what the counter-arguments might be.Build up your response to the counter-argument. If you hold an opposing view, whatwould be the strengths and weaknesses of your argument?

And now . . .

49.1 Think about the make-up and behaviour of the tutorial groups in whichyou participate. Look again at the ‘characters’ described in Ch 21 andconsider how you might need to deal with any of these types in yourgroups to ensure, for example, that you get the opportunity to speak in atutorial that is often dominated by one individual. If you let that person hogthe discussion, then it is going to affect your ability to contribute anddemonstrate your engagement with the topic.

49.2 Relate your tutorial work to other forms of assessment. In the nexttutorial you attend, think about the work done or the discussion thatoccurs and consider how this might be useful to you in terms of examrevision. Write up notes after the event or annotate any handouts youreceived with the conclusions you have drawn from the exercises ordiscussion.

49.3 Learn from other forms of meeting. Tutorials are meetings and it will help you to develop your participation style if you look at the way thatother meetings you attend are conducted. You might feel that a greater or lesser degree of formality makes the dynamic work better, for example.Learn from the tactics of others by watching their processes and strategiesfor putting their points across.

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Practical work is generally included in the syllabus to complement the theory covered in lectures and tutorials. Depending on your discipline, it gives you a chance to see specimens, develop skills and understand how research is conducted (Ch 20, Ch 51).However, it is worth noting that, in some courses, the theory may not have been coveredat the time of the practical, so it is advisable to do a bit of background reading prior tothe practical class.

The importance that lecturers attach to practical elements of the course can be seenfrom the proportion of your overall module grade that they assign to these aspects. Thismay be between 30 and 50 per cent, so you should devote a proportionate amount ofstudy and revision time to related assessment activities.

Forms of practical assessment and how to approach them

Consult your course handbook at an early stage tosee how your practical work will be assessed. Themain methods, including tips for tackling each one,are listed below.

Continuous assessment

This is a common way of assessing practical work,where grades are awarded for workbooks or labreports completed during the course. As these marksmay be relatively straightforward to achieve, this is agood way of building up a ‘bank’ of good grades sothat it is easier to pass or do well in the overall mod-ule assessment.

50 Assessments of practicaland laboratory work

How to improve your marks

The marks awarded to practical assignments are worth taking seriously,because if you do well in these it may be easier to pass the module overallwhen you come to sit the written papers. This chapter provides tips to helpyou perform better in these assessments.

Key terms

Continuousassessment

Summativeassessment


l Forms of practical assessment and how to approach them

In some courses, you mustattend all or most of thepractical classes. Failure tomeet this minimum maymean you will not be givenpermission to sit the degreeexamination at the end of the year.

Minimum attendancerequirements

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To maximise your marks for completed lab workbooks you will need to ensure that:

l your work in the lab is neat and tidy;

l you have completed all that is required of you.

Because lab work often seems rushed, neither of these aims may be straightforward toachieve, but both will be easier if you have prepared well (Ch 20). During lab sessions,check with demonstrators and staff that each part is completed to their satisfaction andtake heed of their tips and suggestions (see also Ch 44).

When preparing a formal report from a practical, adopt the format laid out in your hand-book or the lab schedule (which may differ among subjects). If no format is specified, fol-low that given in Table 20.1 (on page 130). As marks are likely to be awarded forpresentation, pay special attention to layout, print quality and order of sections. Youmay need to learn from lecturers’ feedback how you can best approach writing style andthe amount of detail required.

Practical exams

These ‘summative’ tests generally take place in laboratories during the main examperiod. They usually involve:

l recall and understanding regarding specimens and techniques;

l tests of the observational and manual skills you have developed during the course;

l following procedures and using equipment;

l measurement and numerical analysis;

l interpretation or presentation of data.

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The following are examples of typical question styles (imagine the precise contextyourself):

Draw a fully labelled diagram of specimen A.

Graph the following data and draw conclusions.

Examine specimen N and photograph M; and describe how the specimen relates to thisenvironment.

Construct a calibration curve for a . . . test using the reagents and equipment provided.What value do you estimate for the unknown specimen X?

Comment on the syndrome evident in slide B.

Prepare a pure sample of . . . using the reagents and equipment provided.

Examine table Z (or picture A) and answer the following questions . . .

Given the data in Table F, calculate . . .

Compare specimens A and B, explaining . . .

Examples of practical exam questions

Because of the ‘unseen’ and unpredictable nature of practical exams, there is lesschance to prepare using standard revision techniques. You will need to be ready to thinkon your feet, adopting a logical approach. Make sure you read each question carefully(more than once) so you can carry out exactly what is required.

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Past papers are rarely available, and if they are, may make little sense in the absence of the real samples. To help your revising, you could look through the past practicalschedules, highlighting parts that might be amenable to this form of examination. Someexamples of types of practical questions in the sciences are provided on page 342. Spottests and oral forms of practical exam may involve moving around a ‘circuit’, examiningspecimens, or perhaps looking at slides through a microscope, then providing quick writ-ten answers or responding with spoken answers. Key tips for this type of exam are:

l Always take your time when answering.

l Always take a second look at the specimen to check whether your first assumptionsare correct.

l Consider all aspects of the question.

l Start with simple points, such as a straightforward description of the specimen (themarkers may be using a checklist with some marks attached to these basic points).

l If you don’t know an answer, don’t waffle – move on to the next question quickly, ifthis is allowed.

Although you may think of the lab as an informal setting, formal practical exams will besubject to the same rules and regulations as written ‘theory’ exams (Ch 45). Some prac-tical exams may be ‘open book’, where you are allowed to consult past schedules, forexample as you tackle the questions. However, don’t assume this is the case unless youhave been specifically informed.

Practical questions within written/online assessments

Sometimes you will find that practical elements areassessed as a component of exams that you mightassume would be solely about theory. For example,there may be questions in multiple-choice and short-answer papers that relate to work done in practicals.Look at the ‘small print’ in your course handbook tosee if this might be the case, or ask lecturers, andadjust your revision accordingly. For example, thismight imply that you rehearse simple calculations andlearn relevant formulae.

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You may be able to useinformation gained frompracticals in essay-styleanswers, perhaps to providerelevant examples.

Don’t think of practicalwork in isolation

Practical tips for sitting practical exams

Scan your practical schedules as an aid to revision. Try to see if you can predict pos-sible question types, but avoid question-spotting (Ch 59). Memorise key procedures thatmight be tested, but bear in mind that there may be a limited time for each question onthe paper. Think about the skills you may be asked to use and go through the instruc-tions and tips you have been given about these.

Practise labelling diagrams. If you can identify a need to provide labels on diagrams ofseen and unseen specimens, you may wish to test yourself by drawing up a schematicdiagram, then labelling it without reference to supporting texts or schedules. This willgive you feedback on how much you already know and what you need to learn.

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Practise answering numerical questions. As recommended in Ch 47, this is the bestway to ensure you perform well on the day in these types of assessments.

Take advantage of ‘open doors’ revision sessions. In some subjects, the lab may beopened in the period prior to exams so you can have another look at key specimens.These sessions provide an opportunity to review the material and possibly ask questionsof staff in attendance – very useful if you are unsure about some aspects, or think yourmemory will improve if you see the samples again, closer to the exam. These sessionsare also an opportunity for collaboration with fellow students, as you can ask each otherquestions about the specimens to test your knowledge.

State the obvious, justify your conclusions. If you find that your mind has gone blankduring a practical exam, start with the basics. For example, if asked to identify a speci-men, do not give up because you can’t immediately do this from memory. The question-setter may be trying to see if you can adopt a logical approach to the problem, andeveryone in the class may be in the same situation. Start from first principles and basicobservations (‘the specimen has a yellow colour, therefore I conclude . . .’) and move onfrom there. Similarly, when you do know an answer, state why you know it. There may bemarks allocated to this aspect, which you will miss out on if you simply provide a bareanswer.

Review good practice in graphing and tabulating. If constructing and interpreting datain graphs and tables might be a part of your exam, it makes sense to go over the basicprinciples and instructions for these forms of presentation beforehand (Ch 30).

Ensure that you have the correct equipment required for a practical exam. This willdepend on the subject, but will be similar to the items taken to each practical (Ch 20).Remember to include a watch so that you can monitor time. Synchronise your watch with the clock in the exam hall so that you are working within the same time frame asinvigilators and examiners.

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And now . . .

50.1 Consult your course handbook. Find out what proportion of marks areallocated to practical assessment and what form the assessment will take.Adjust your revision plans accordingly.

50.2 Make a list of possible questions that might come up in your practicalexam. This revision exercise might best be carried out working with afellow student so that you can share ideas (Ch 60). Use the learningoutcomes and schedules as a source of ideas (Ch 59).

50.3 Make up a checklist of equipment to take to the exam. Knowing youhave everything you might need ready beforehand, rather than grabbingthings at the last moment, will boost your confidence.

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Scientific method involves observation and experimentation. Learning how to createhypotheses and design experiments that allow you to test them is a vital element of sci-entific training. Related skills include presenting results, gathering and analysing data,and drawing conclusions. The experience of carrying out a research project gives you achance to develop these abilities and, even if you choose not to take up research as acareer, this provides you with an insight into how science works and how scientific know-ledge is obtained.

For these reasons, project work is included in most science degrees, and the weightinggiven to related assessments is high. A typical research project mark might account for25 per cent of a final degree grade, and therefore it deserves considerable attention andeffort.

Choosing a project

The way in which you arrive at a topic to research differs greatly. In some cases students will simply beallocated a project, while in others you may selectamong options or negotiate a topic with a potentialsupervisor. If you do have a choice, you should con-sider the following questions:

l Does the subject on offer appeal to me? This isvital to motivate you and sustain your interest.

l Will I learn valuable skills? By choosing yourproject with this in mind, you may be able to addvaluable experience and skills to your CV.

51 Tackling experimentalproject work

How to plan and organise your efforts

Experimental project work is an important component of many sciencedegrees. With limited time and resources, it is essential to make the mostof your time and effort in the lab or field. This chapter outlines aspects toconsider in a plan of action, ways in which you can work effectively, andhow to prepare for writing up your thesis or report.

Key terms

Confoundingvariable

ControlHypothesisThesisWork placement


l Choosing a projectl Focusing on the end product from the startl Creating a plan of actionl Working efficiently in the lab or fieldl Organising information and results ready for writing up

Most project work is carriedout in the final year, by whichtime you will have chosen thesubject(s) you wish to studyin depth, and have gainedknowledge and skills that will allow you to make themost of the opportunity.However, in some courses,short projects may be carriedout in earlier years to allowyou to gain experience anddevelop your skills.

The honours project

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l How easy will it be to produce results? Youcan’t write a thesis without data, so it is importantthat there is a high certainty of obtaining someuseful values.

l What support will I get? This will come from thesupervisor, postgraduate students and associatedtechnicians. It’s worth exploring their reputationsthrough discussions with past students.

l What will be the impact of any results I obtain?While the idea of producing scientificallyimportant results may inspire you, it probablyshouldn’t be a dominant factor in your choice.Project work is judged on your approach andability to analyse data and present results in theappropriate scientific format rather than on thevalue of the results you obtained.

Focusing on the end product from the start

One of the main keys to success in project work isworking with the end product in mind throughout. In most cases this will be a thesis,report or dissertation. Having a concrete idea of what you are expected to produce willhelp you to plan better; gather the right information; analyse your data appropriately;and think more clearly about ways of presenting your results. You can find out moreabout this by:

l Examining the course handbook or handouts.These will include, for example, ‘fine print’ aboutexpected thesis length and presentation; relevantlearning objectives and marking criteria (Ch 59);and the due date for submission.

l Looking over theses produced by paststudents. These may be available in asupervisor’s lab or from the students themselvesif they have moved on to postgraduate study.Submitted theses will give you an idea of thestyle, content and quality of presentation that isexpected.

l Talking to staff or postgraduate students. These people may be able to supplyextra information and advice related to your subject speciality.

Creating a plan of action

In most cases, project work will be carried out over at least one term/semester. Manystudents start off with the feeling that they have plenty of time to work out what to doand to put their ideas into practice. In fact, the reverse is true. Lab and fieldwork is very

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This should be a member of staff with whom you feelcomfortable in conversation,someone who will offersupport and guidance, andwho will inspire you to workhard and complete on time.Ask past students if you wantthe ‘inside track’ on differenttutors and their labs.

Choosing a supervisor

A work placement andresulting report may take theplace of project work in somedisciplines. Similar principlesapply to the choice of these.

Choosing a workplacement

This literally implies a‘position’ in debate ordiscussion, but has come tomean a (substantial) writtenpaper or report on a specifictopic. Submission of a thesisis often part of a degree andthe work is sometimes boundspecially for this purpose.

Definition: thesis (pl. theses)

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time-consuming and your opportunities to do eitherwill be limited, perhaps to one or two sessions per week.Also, research rarely goes smoothly. As a result, manyprojects are rushed at the end. This not only affectsthe quality of any write-up, but may adversely affectthe energy and time you can devote to revising foryour final exams.

What should your plan take into account?

l Preparative work. This includes reading,surveying, ordering equipment or chemicals,making up solutions, and so on. Do any work likethis a quickly as possible, so that you are ready to gain useful results.

l Preliminary observations or experiments.These may pave the way for later work, but mayalso form a vital part of your thesis. Doing a‘quick and dirty’ experiment can allow you topractise technique and point out imperfections in your approach.

l The set of observations or experiments thattest your central hypothesis. This is the core ofyour thesis. You should leave time for unexpectedinterruptions or the need to repeat work, and youshould also have a ‘plan B’ in reserve. Make sureyou design experiments that include suitablecontrols for all confounding variables.

l Time to analyse and present data. This phasecan be very time-consuming and is best done asyou go along: the analysis may reveal aspectsthat cause you to alter your later approach.

l A period to write up and proof-read your work.This part always takes much longer than youthink, so you should consider writing up as muchas you can as you go along. For example, there is no reason why a draft introduction cannot beproduced at an early stage, and there are benefitsfrom writing up the materials and methodssection while you are working so that you get the details correct. Always leave some time forediting and proof-reading (Ch 43).

Working efficiently in the lab or field

Since your time will be scarce, you must use it well bymaking sure you are well organised.

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No experiment is perfect andit is better to obtain someresults from an imperfectdesign rather than delay until you can do the bestexperiment possible. Yourfirst task is to make sure youhave some results to presentand discuss. Even if things donot turn out as expected, youcan gain marks by pointingout the imperfections in yourown work. Remember thatsome of the best learningcomes out of things that donot go well.

Compromise is vital inexperimentation

Whenever you alter aparticular variable in anexperiment (for example thepH, or acidity, of a bathingmedium for cells) you willalso alter other things(perhaps, in this example, theconcentration of a cation likeK+). These are confoundingvariables. Controls, whereyou alter the confoundingvariable but not the originalone, allow you to test whichvariable actually caused theresults you have observed.

Definition: confoundingvariables

By the time you reach thestage of carrying out aproject of your own, you will have been well trained in lab safety (Ch 20). You willcarry a certain amount ofresponsibility for your ownsafety and should bear this in mind at all times.

Safety issues in the lab

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l Prepare for each day by having a plan of action. For example, create a checklist ofthings you hope to accomplish and prioritise your activities (Ch 8).

l Do any background work that might allow you to progress more quickly. Read upabout any techniques or equipment you will be using, so that you have usefulbackground knowledge. Lay out tables in your lab notebook ready to receive results.

l Come prepared. Bring the right equipment and clothing. If you need to discussresults with your supervisor, make sure you have produced graphs and tables to the necessary standards, and have ideas about what they show and what you mightdo next.

l Maintain your focus and don’t be distracted by those working to a differenttimetable.

l Prepare for your next working day. Tidy up your bench space and/or cleancupboard. Label specimens or solutions and store them appropriately. Start a newlist of things to do.

Organising information and results ready for writing up

This is an important way in which you can save time.You should keep a lab notebook to record all relev-ant details of what you are doing. Take copies of labschedules and protocols that apply to your work – youcan waste a lot of time hunting these down later on.

Every project report requires an introduction and thisis something you can draft from an early stage. Yoursupervisor will probably point you in the direction of afew relevant research papers or reviews, and fromthere you can expand your knowledge of the relevantliterature (Ch 23, Ch 53).

Likewise, as you carry out observations and experi-ments and analyse your data (see above), it’s a goodidea to use spare time to create graphs to the requis-ite standard (Ch 30) and to jot down things you wouldlike to say about the results in your results and discussions sections (Ch 52).

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A good time-saving tip is to research the format forciting and listing references(Ch 35) in your discipline ordepartment and then writeout the details for eachreference in this formatwithin a word-processed file,ready for including in the‘literature cited’ section ofyour thesis. It’s far better to break up this tedious andtime-consuming task than to do it all in one session.

References

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And now . . .

51.1 Find out about past projects. If you are at the stage of deciding whatproject area to choose, ask around to see if you can read any past projectsor get the opinions of others about what would make a good choice fromthe current list of options.

51.2 Research your project options quickly. Once you obtain a list of potentialprojects, act promptly to speak to potential supervisors, and read up aboutthe topic in the library or on the Internet – or someone might beat you toyour first choice.

51.3 Find out about the expected thesis format. Knowing what you will beexpected to include will help you produce an appropriate plan of action. Ch 52 describes the layout of a standard experimental research projectreport, which follows the design of a standard research paper. Precisedetails for your discipline will be found in your course handbook.

Practical tips for project work

Always think ahead. You can waste a lot of time if you haven’t prepared well, and youmay miss a window of opportunity if you aren’t ready to take advantage of somethinglike a booking for a key instrument.

Write up as you go along. This has been emphasised at several points in this chapter,but is worth saying again as it saves so much time. Experimental work often involves longpauses and you can use these to good effect to carry out some of the mundane tasks ofwriting up.

Communicate with your supervisor. Be ready to show and discuss any preliminaryresults you have obtained. These discussions will help you think about what your resultsmean (take notes!) and may help orientate the next phase of your work. If things seemto be going wrong, discuss this as soon as possible so that corrective action can be taken.

Keep back-up files of your work. Your project mark is vital to your degree classificationand it is common sense to protect it from loss.

Leave plenty of spare time near to the submission date. Students always under-estimate how long it takes to write up. Also, you need to allow for the unexpected, suchhas a printer malfunction, so ‘going to the wire’ is not a good idea.

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The purpose of any report is to convey information, usually on a well-defined topic.Conventions have evolved for the structure, style and content of reports in different subjects, and, while the scholarship underlying the report will always be foremost inmarkers’ assessments, presentational aspects are also judged as important, so youshould follow the appropriate format very carefully. You can find out about aspects of the research that precedes the writing of experimental and business reports in Ch 20,Ch 22–Ch 24 and Ch 51. Methods of conducting literature reviews are discussed in Ch 53. Presentation is covered in Ch 44.

Common features of report writing

Writing a report is often a drawn-out task and mayfollow a lengthy period of research in the library, onthe Internet or in the laboratory. However, you shouldnot consider the research and writing phases as sep-arate. Your research must take into account the styleand format of the report, while elements of writing upcan and should be carried out as you continue toexplore your topic.

The following stages are likely to be involved in mostexercises culminating in a report:

1 ‘Scoping’. Here, you will be deciding on a topic or a specific aspect of a subject on which toconcentrate. Sometimes the topic is decided foryou, but in other cases it may emerge as youresearch. Even in the second situation, having a

52 Report writing

How to select and shape your content appropriately

Writing reports of one kind or another is a part of many degree courses.These often have discipline-specific formats and it is important to followthese and select the correct information to put into the different sub-sections. This chapter considers common formats, which may be suitablefor the literature survey, the scientific report and the business report.

Key terms

Business reportLiterature surveyScientific report


l Common features of report writingl Representative formats for reports

Report writing is regarded asimportant because it:

n compels you to completeyour work and present it ina neatly organised formfor assessment;

n helps you to developimportant professionalskills;

n provides a record forreplication or developmentof results for futureresearch.

Why write reports atuniversity?

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notional goal when you start is important: this willgive you impetus, even though you may changethe precise focus later.

2 Research. This consists of finding and selecting relevant information. Research may be experimental, as in many science subjects (Ch 51), or it may bedesk-based, analysing and evaluating reports,texts and other sources (Ch 23–24, Ch 53).

3 Writing. This involves communicating your workusing appropriate language. It’s important that your writing provides evidence thatyou have been thinking at the appropriate level (see tip box below and Ch 22).

4 Presentation. You will be expected to present your work to a high professionalstandard and some marks will normally be awarded for this aspect.

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Description: reporting your experiments or summarising facts you have gathered.

Visual summaries: making diagrams, flow charts, graphs or tables to demonstrate yourpoints more clearly.

Analysis: looking at results or facts and possibly working out descriptive or hypothesis-testing statistics.

Discussion: weighing up the pros and cons of a position.

Solution(s): explaining different options to solve an issue or problem being addressed.

Evaluation: deciding what’s important and why.

Recommendation: identifying the best solution and giving evidence to support thatchoice.

Arriving at a conclusion: stating a position on the basis of your research.

Aspects of report writing

Students often fall into thetrap of being overambitiousin their goals. In general, it isbetter to cover a limited topicwell than to write a shallowreport covering a wide area.

Keep your focus tight

Representative formats for reports

Table 52.1 summarises the general components of reports and what they should contain.Reports for different purposes and in different subjects follow different designs and includevarious components, not always in the same order. Table 52.2 provides some examples,but you should follow closely the guidelines published by your faculty or department.

Literature surveys

These follow the relatively uncomplicated format shown in Table 52.2(a). Two importantformatting aspects to consider are citation of literature references and presentingquotes from your sources (Ch 35). Aspects of finding and analysing the literature arediscussed in Ch 53.

Scientific reports

Representative formats are shown in Table 52.2(b), (c) and (d). These tend to mirror theformat of journal articles in the primary literature for each subject area (Ch 24). Aspectsyou should bear in mind are:

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Table 52.1 Typical components of reports, and notes on the expected content of each part. These are arranged alphabetically and would not appear in this order in anyreport. For representative examples of report formats, see Table 52.2. Always adopt theprecise format specified in your course handbook.


Abbreviations A list of any abbreviations for technical terms used within the text (forexample, ‘DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid’). These are also given within thetext at the first point of use, for example ‘deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)’.

Abstract A brief summary of the aims of the experiment or series of observations,the main outcomes (in words) and conclusions. This should allow someoneto understand your main findings and what you think they mean. This isnormally written last, but is usually positioned at the beginning of thereport.

Acknowledgements A list of people who helped you, sometimes with a brief description of how.

Appendix (pl: Includes tabular information, usually, that only an expert would appendices) want or need to consult; a section where you can put items such as a

questionnaire template, and data or results that would otherwise disruptthe flow of the report or make the results section too lengthy.

Bibliography/ An alphabetical list of sources cited in the text, following one of the references/ standard formats (Ch 35).literature cited

Discussion l Scientific-style reports. A commentary on the results and an outline (or conclusions) of the main conclusions. This could include any or all of the following:

– comments on the methods used;– mention of sources of errors;– conclusions from any statistical analysis;– comparison with other findings or the ‘ideal’ result;– what the result means;– how you might improve the experiment;– how you might implement the findings (in a business report);– where you would go from here, given more time and resources.Sometimes you might combine the results and discussions sections toallow a narrative to develop – to explain, for example, why one resultled to the next experiment or approach. Bear in mind that a largeproportion of marks may be given for your original thoughts in thissection.

l Non-scientific-style reports. In this section you might restate theproblem or issue to be addressed, outline the key ‘solutions’ orresponses to the problem, and explain the reason for favouring oneover another by providing evidence to support that choice. In some, but not all, instances, a set of recommendations might be appropriate.

Executive Takes the place of an abstract in a business report. Gives the key points summary of the report, usually no more than one A4 page long. It should start with

a brief statement of the aims of the report, a summary of the mainfindings and/or conclusions, perhaps given as bullet points, and asummary of the main conclusions and/or recommendations. You wouldnormally write this part last.

Experimental A description of apparatus and method, similar to materials and methods.

Glossary A list of terms that might be unfamiliar to the reader, with definitions.

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l Anyone reading your report should be able to assimilate your findings quickly, andshould be able to find relevant information in the expected place.

l Your text should be objective and balanced, considering all possible interpretationsof your results.

l Appropriate statistical analysis should be included (Ch 30).

l You should provide enough information to allow another competent scientist tounderstand and repeat your work.

Reports for non-scientific subjects

Increasingly report writing is becoming a feature in non-scientific subjects. A report-style response could be required for a case study, project or group problem-solving

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Introduction l Scientific-style reports. An outline of the background to theexperiment, the aims of the experiment and brief discussion of thetechniques to be used. Your goal is to orientate the reader and explainwhat you have done and why.

l Non-scientific-style reports. The context of the study and an outline of the problem or issue to be addressed, in other words, the aim of thereport. This may require reference to the literature or other resourcematerial to be used.

Main body of text Your appraisal of the topic. It should systematically address solutions orissues in response to the report’s purpose and provide an analysis of allpertinent matters. It may be subdivided into sections reflecting differentaspects (Ch 34). In a scientific literature review, the approach is often to give a chronological account of developments in the field, quoting key authors, their ideas and findings. This section may include tablescomparing different approaches or results in different studies. Figurestend to be rare, but may be used to summarise concepts or illustrate key findings.

Materials and A description of what was done. You should provide sufficient detail to methods allow a competent person to repeat the work.

Results A description of the experiments carried out and the results obtained,usually presented in either tabular or graphic form (never both for thesame data). You should point out meaningful aspects of the data, whichneed not be presented in the same order in which the work was done.

Table of contents Effectively an index to allow the reader to find parts in which they areinterested. May also include a table of diagrams. More likely to beincluded in a lengthy report.

Title page The full names of the author or authors, the module title or code and thedate. In a business report this may also include the company logo, clientdetails and classification (for example, ‘confidential’).l Scientific-style reports. A descriptive title that indicates what was

done, indicates any restrictions, and sometimes describes the ‘headline’finding.

l Non-scientific-style reports. A concise but comprehensive title thatdefines the topic.

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exercise, for example. Table 52.2(e) shows a representative structure. A good approachfor the main body of text in these report-style tasks is to follow the situation – problem– solution – evaluation + (optional) recommendation (SPSER) model (Ch 34). This pro-vides a basic skeleton. You may wish to tailor the headings and sub-headings to fit thecontext of the topic or problem that you are addressing, but the essence of the SPSERmodel remains intact ‘below the surface’ of these headings.

Business-style reports

The main aim of a business report is to provide information that helps decision-making.These reports differ greatly in their style and formality and the chief factor to consideris your audience. Table 52.2(f) illustrates one possible format. Possible variations mightinclude:

l A report aimed solely at a shop-floor manager: relatively short and informal,focusing on production statistics and limitations.

l A business plan aimed at an investor or bank manager: fairly brief, focusing onfinancial projections given in charts and tables.

l An academic analysis of a business sector: relatively lengthy and formal, quotingmany sources and views.

Structurally, a business report is unlike an essay in that you should use headings andsub-headings so that your reader can find relevant information quickly.

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Practical tips for selecting and shaping report content

Find a model for the layout you need to adopt. This might be given in your coursehandbook or could be adopted from an example that you feel is well organised. If this isdissimilar to the models shown in Table 52.2, you may wish to map the expected contentto the sections in a similar fashion.

Be ruthless in rejecting irrelevant information. You must keep your report as shortand to the point as you can. Especially if you have spent a long time obtaining informa-tion or conducting an analysis, you may be tempted to include it for this reason alone.Don’t. Relevance must be your sole criterion.

Consider your writing style. Reports can be dense and difficult to read. Try to keep your sentences relatively simple and your paragraphs short. In reports you can use sub-headings and bullet points to break up the text. All these devices can make the contenteasier for your reader to assimilate.

Choose appropriate chart types. If you wish to present diagrams and graphs, keepthese simple and use the title and legend to explain what you want to show in each case(Ch 30). Use a variety of types of chart if you can.

Think about your likely conclusions from an early stage. This may shape both theresearch you do and the content. However, make sure you keep an open mind if the evidence points you in another direction.

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And now . . .

52.1 Compare Tables 52.2(a–f). You will see similarities and differences thatreflect the purpose of each type of report. How does this relate to thespecific format you have been asked to adopt?

52.2 Research types of graph. To add variety and impact to scientific andbusiness reports, you should select the right type of chart – and you canonly do this if you know about the different formats available. This iscovered in Ch 30, but the ‘Chart Wizard’ in Microsoft Excel is anothersource of options. If you enter your data into the spreadsheet, you can use this feature to obtain a quick and easy indication of what eachpotential type would look like.

52.3 Focus on higher-level academic thinking skills. In most forms of report,you will be assessed on the analysis and evaluation you make, based on athorough summary of the topic. If you aren’t 100 per cent certain of what isinvolved in these skills, consult Ch 22 and read examples from your subjectarea with this in mind.

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53 REVIEWS AND DISSERTATIONS 357

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Conducting a literature survey and/or writing a dissertation involves reading about atopic and summarising what different authors have said about it. You may wish to com-pare and contrast different viewpoints or research themes, or describe the developmentof an academic field through time. However, the product should be more than that, asthe alternative name – the literature review – implies: you will need to carry out an ana-lysis and evaluation of the literature, rather than merely describing what others havewritten (see Ch 22 for an explanation of these terms).

53 Reviews and dissertations

How to conduct and write up a literature survey

A review of literature is a specialised form of academic writing thatrequires a specific research approach and writing style. This chapteroutlines ways of finding and selecting relevant literature and writing aboutthe work of others in an appropriate way.

Key terms

CitationDissertationReview


l Selecting a topicl How to find the literature on your subjectl Keeping track of references and their relevancel Writing in a balanced, objective style and arriving at a

conclusion

This word can have different meanings according to context. Here, we use it to refer to a formal written study of a specialised subject, usually submitted as part of theassessment for a university degree. A dissertation would normally be longer than aliterature survey, but it would have a similar structure (Ch 52). It might also be specially bound for submission.

Definition: dissertation

Selecting a topic

The first stage in a literature survey is choosing a specific area to research. If you areallowed a choice, you may be asked to choose from a list, or you may be expected to find a topic yourself within a broad area. In either case, you will find it useful to do a littlereading before selecting.

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Possible criteria for selecting a subject include:

l a topic that you find interesting;

l a research field with a reasonable amount of literature to discuss – not too small,with only a few papers available, nor too large, with too many;

l a subject where the literature is accessible – for example, published in English, or injournals available from your library;

l a field where there are different views or approaches that you can compare;

l a controversial area, or a subject that is in the news;

l a field where a recent breakthrough has been made.

Narrow down your topic if you can and choose a working title. The wording of this isimportant, because readers’ and markers’ expectations of content will be influenced by your title. You should be prepared to alter the title or add a secondary element to it as your research develops and you decide on the precise ‘angle’ or viewpoint you will adopt.

How to find the literature on your subject

Your review will take into account information provided by various forms of writtensource:

l Textbooks: good for gaining an overview of a field.

l Monographs: books on a single, often narrow subject.

l Reviews: analysis of a research area, often detailed and more up to date thanbooks.

l Reference works: useful for obtaining facts and definitions, and a concise overviewof a subject.

l Research papers: very detailed ‘articles’ published in journals, covering specificsubject areas.

l Websites: not wholly reliable as sources, but may be useful for comparingviewpoints and sourcing other information.

See also Ch 23 regarding access to library resources.

If your work is supervised, then your supervisor maybe able to provide some articles to start you off, orsome references may be given in handouts support-ing the exercise. The majority of the papers you willconsult will be in the primary literature, and when youstart will seem to be jargon-ridden and written inimpenetrable English. However, as you become famil-iar with the terms of your subject, this will becomeless of a problem (see Ch 42 for tips).

If you are unfamiliar with library research methods, itis a good idea to consult a subject librarian. Not onlywill they be able to teach you basic techniques, but

358 53 REVIEWS AND DISSERTATIONS

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If possible, you should consulta number of sources on any given issue. These maycorroborate each other, oryou may find that they takedifferent views or supportdifferent interpretations. Thisis sometimes referred to as‘reading around’ a subject.

Using more than onesource

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they can also show you how to access databases and other tools to search for relevantmaterial. Your library’s website may also carry useful tips and online access routes todatabases and e-journals (Ch 23).

There is a constant stream of academic work feeding into the primary literature. So longas you have one paper as a starting point, you can work backwards in the literature rela-tively easily by looking for other relevant references in the text, especially within theintroduction and discussion of the paper. Use the context and article title as a guide torelevance. Each paper you then read will refer to others, and before long you will accu-mulate a body of references and have a feel for the important papers in your field.

Working forwards in the literature from a relevant paper is a little less easy. In somefields there are citation index journals that indicate which papers have been cited by others. This can let you see where a chosen reference has been mentioned recently – andsometimes the citing article will be of interest to you. Another approach is to put keywords or authors into a database or search engine and see what turns up. You can alsoscan current journals for related material, though this is much less likely to turn up rele-vant material.

Keeping track of references and their relevance

As you read each article and review, you should be taking notes of key points (Ch 26),either in a notebook, or on index cards (see below). The matrix format of note-taking(Figure 26.6 on page 175) is a valuable way of summarising different aspects of sourcesand lets you see the whole picture more easily.

You may also wish to file papers so that you can find them when required. The simplestmethod is alphabetically by author, and then by date, as in a bibliography. An alternative,which is valuable if you expect to gather many papers, is to give each paper an accessionnumber and note this on your index system or database. Papers are then filed in numer-ical order. This avoids the need to reorganise papers if your files become full.

One thing you will have to do is cite your sources in your text and prepare a bibliographyor reference list. This is standard academic practice and helps avoid accusations of plagiarism (Ch 36). You will need to follow departmental guidance notes for the pre-cise format or take an example from the discipline literature. Ch 35 provides furtherinformation about methods of citing and quoting, and the main styles of referencing.

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Some people like to keep the reference details of their sources on index cards, alongwith any notes they make about them. This serves two purposes:

n When writing up, you can put the cards into piles representing different topics orviewpoints and then organise these appropriately, for example, by date. This makes iteasier to include every reference in its ‘right’ place.

n The cards can be organised alphabetically to create your bibliography/reference list.If your review involves many papers, however, you may wish to spread the task oftyping these by entering them into a word-processor file as you go along.

Using index cards

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Writing in a balanced, objective style and arriving at a conclusion

Although you may have, or develop, strong views about your topic and the issues andcontroversies that you discuss, it is vital that you write in a balanced way that gives a fairsummary of the reasons for opposing viewpoints. This is one reason why an impersonal,passive style is favoured in academic writing (Ch 37).

However, it is important that you try to arrive at a conclusion. In doing so, you shouldgive reasons why you have arrived at a particular viewpoint. Do not be afraid of beingcritical, so long as you can back up your position with supporting evidence.

360 53 REVIEWS AND DISSERTATIONS

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Practical tips for writing a literature survey

Try not to read aimlessly and passively. Taking notes is one way you can avoid this.Just as in revising, it will help you memorise key points. See Ch 26 for advice and tips.

Start writing as soon as you can. Word processors allow text fragments to be movedaround with ease. This means that you can write up some parts of your survey (espe-cially descriptive parts) as you go along, and reorganise these when you have a betterpicture of the whole subject.

Discuss drafts with your supervisor or a friend. Your supervisor may not ask to seeyour drafts, but you will probably gain valuable advice if you can persuade them to com-ment. A friend, even one who doesn’t know your subject, will also be able to point outwhere your explanations are obscure or your view seems biased.

Organise your references from an early stage. It can be very time-consuming search-ing for details and writing your bibliography and it is best not to do this at the lastmoment, when you should be focusing on higher-level aspects.

Review and edit what you have written. If at all possible, aim to finish your writing aweek or so ahead of the submission date. Then, leave your work for a day to two andreturn to it, reading it in one sweep. This will help you take a more critical look at whatyou have written (Ch 43).

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And now . . .

53.1 Consult your subject librarian. Visit the library or its website to findcontact details and make an appointment. This meeting will be moreproductive for both parties if you prepare a list of questions about yourresearch needs.

53.2 Set up a card index or database and a reference storage system.As suggested above, you can use index cards to store details of yourreferences, or create a simple database using a word processor orspreadsheet. There are commercial products for storing details ofreferences (for example Endnote), but, especially for a short writing project, you will need to balance the effort, time and cost you invest inthese systems against the benefits. However, you will probably need to setup a file storage system to keep your papers tidy and well organised.

53.3 Read a selection of literature reviews and surveys in your subject area.This will give you an idea of the writing style you should be adopting andthe depth of analysis for which you should be striving.

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362 54 POSTER PRESENTATIONS

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The idea behind a poster display is to present a summary of research or scholarship in an easily assimilated format. Poster sessions are common at academic conferences, particularly in the sciences – they allow many participants to report findings or ideaswithin a single session and help people with similar interests to meet and discuss detailedinformation.

The concept has been adapted for undergraduate work for several reasons.

l It allows you to present the results of your work to tutors and fellow students.

l It provides a good end point for teamwork (Ch 19).

l It makes you focus on the essence of the topic.

l It develops your presentational skills.

l It allows tutors to observe your verbal communication skills.

Any or all of these aspects may be assessed as part of the exercise. Look into the way marks are dividedbefore you start so that you can allocate your effortsappropriately. If peer assessment is involved, you maywish to discuss this openly at an initial team meeting.

The advice presented here will assume that yourposter is part of a team exercise where you have beenasked to look into a specific aspect of the subject youare studying. The same principles will apply if it is asolo effort, for example if you are reporting theresults of a research project.

54 Poster presentations

How to display your work effectively

In certain disciplines you may be asked to prepare a poster to summariseresearch you have done, often as part of a teamwork exercise. The mainaim is to develop your communication skills, including how you select andpresent the content and are able to discuss this.

Key terms

AbstractPeerPeer assessmentPoint sizePoster defenceRhetorical

question


l Researching and deciding on contentl Designing your posterl Constructing and setting up a posterl Defending your poster

This is where members of a class assess each other’s work. For a posterpresentation, members of a group may assess eachother’s contribution as part of the team, and/or membersof the class may judge eachother’s posters.

Definition: peerassessment

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54 POSTER PRESENTATIONS 363

Researching and deciding on content

It might be a good idea for your team first to do a little independent study, so that every-one can gain a general picture of the whole topic. At some point you will want to meet upto decide on the exact focus of your poster, and perhaps allocate specific research tasksfor each member. At this stage you should only be thinking about the specific aspects of the topic you feel you need to cover, rather than precise wording. Even seemingly narrow subjects will have scope for different approaches. Although a striking ‘take-homemessage’ is important, you should also bear in mind the need for visual impact in yourposter when making your choices. There are certain components included in most posters,however, as detailed below.

You will normally be allocated a space to set up your poster (typically 1.5 metre wide and1 metre high) and, although this may initially seem a large area to cover, you will prob-ably have to select carefully what to include. This is because your poster will need to belegible from a distance of 1 metre or so, and the large font size required for this inevitablymeans fewer words than you might otherwise prefer. When thinking about content,therefore, it is best to assume that space will be limited.

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q Title

q Author information: names, and in the formal academic type of poster, their affiliation

q Abstract or summary: stating the approach taken and the main conclusions

q Introduction

q Materials and methods: describing experimental or field research, background theoryor historical overview

q Results: key findings or examples

q Conclusions

q Acknowledgements: stating who has helped you

q References and sources

Typical components of a poster – a checklist

Designing your poster

The key design principle for your poster is to generate visual impact. It needs to standout among the others in the session and provide a visual ‘hook’ to draw a spectatortowards the more academic content. This can be achieved in several ways:

l a striking overall design concept related to the topic;

l effective use of colour or a prominent colour contrast between the background andthe poster elements;

l a large image, either attractive or horrific, at the centre of the poster;

l an amusing or punning title;

l some form of visual aid attached to the poster, such as a large model related to thetopic.

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For convenience, most undergraduate posters are composed of A4 or A3 sheets, orshapes derived from them. These ‘panels’ will be attached to the main poster board, usu-ally by drawing pins or Velcro pads, and their size or shape may place a constraint onyour overall design – check the overall dimensions as soon as you can, to work out youroptions for arranging these sheets.

The next important aspect to decide is how your readers will work their way through the material you present. Each panel will be read left to right in the usual way, but the route through the panels may not follow this rule. Various options are shown inFigure 54.1. Whichever you choose, it is important to let your readers know which pathto take, either by prominent numbering or by incorporating arrows or guidelines into the design.

The ideal text size for your poster title will be about 25–40 mm high (100–170 point size)for the title, 15–25 mm for subtitles (60–100 point) and 5–10 mm (25–40 point) for themain material. If you only have an A4 printer at your disposal, bear in mind that you canenlarge to A3 on most photocopiers, although this may restrict you to black-and-whitetext. Linear dimensions will increase by 1.41 times if you do this. Once point size and paneldimensions are known, you can work out a rough word limit for each component. Whenmembers of the team are working on the content, they will need to bear this limit in mind.Besides being succinct, your writing style should make it easy to assimilate the material,for example, by using bullet points and sub-headings.

Constructing and setting up a poster

At an early stage, you should draw a diagram of yourposter, mapping out the main components to scale.You may also wish to create a mock poster to theexact dimensions to gain a better idea of what thefinal version will look like.

Each part will need to be printed or copied accordingto your design brief. Using panels as described abovemakes it easier to construct the poster as a series ofindependent components and to bring these to theposter session for final assembly. They can be attachedto your board directly or pasted on to card first. You may also wish to laminate eachcomponent, or cover it in clear plastic film. A photocopying specialist (see Yellow Pagesunder ‘Copying and duplicating services’) may be able to carry this out for a charge.


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We all have our own styles of writing and it is importantthat you bear this in mindwhen composing the text, sothat idiosyncrasies are ironedout and the overall style isconsistent.

Group style

n A poster about forest ecology where the text is presented as ‘leaves’ on a model tree.

n A study of urban geography where the poster has the appearance of a street mapwith aspects written within each building.

n A physiology poster where an organ like the liver is drawn at the centre, withelements attached to it via arteries and veins.

Examples of imaginative poster design

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Defending your poster

The poster ‘defence’ for undergraduate work mimics the poster session at a conferencewhere delegates mill around the posters, quizzing the authors about their work. Thesesessions can be very stimulating for all involved, and collaborations and job offers fre-quently result.

If your poster exercise involves an element of defence, it will probably take the form ofa 5–10-minute question-and-answer session with your tutors. Expect probing questionsto find out how much knowledge and understanding lies behind your presentation, notjust what you have selected to display.

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n Why did you select this topic?

n Who did which part of the research?

n Who thought of the design?

n Who made up the components?

n Can you give me further information on . . . ?

n How does this finding relate to . . . ?

n What does this graph or image mean?

n Where next for this topic or research area?

n How might you improve your poster?

Questions about your poster you should be ready to answer

Figure 54.1 Options for laying out a poster. The numbers and arrows indicate the routetaken by the reader, while the coloured bar at the top would contain the title and authordetails.

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Practical tips for creating better posters

Use the poster title effectively. A two-part title can be used to draw the reader in – thefirst part being a ‘hook’ and the second giving more detail. The chapter titles in this bookare examples of this approach, but there will be scope for more humour in your postertitle, perhaps through a pun on the subject material.

Check out the font sizes you plan to use. Print out a specimen sheet and stand 1–1.5metres away. You should be able to read the material easily from this distance. Copysome random text (for example, from a website) on to a sheet at the same font size andcarry out a word count to gain an idea of what your word limit will be for each component.

Make sure that your poster is able to ‘travel well’. You should think about how youtake it from the point of construction to the display venue. The components should beportable and packaged in a weather-proof way.

Remember that ‘white space’ is important in design. An overly fussy presentation withmany elements covering the entire area will be difficult to assimilate. In this case, ‘lesscan be more’ if it helps you to get your central message across.

Consider colour combinations carefully. Certain colours are difficult to see againstothers and some pairings may be difficult to distinguish for those who are colour-blind(for example, red and green). Bold, primary colours will attract the eye.

Use imaginative materials. A visit to a craft shop or a do-it-yourself store might giveyou some ideas. For example, you might see a piece of fabric or single roll of wallpaperat a cheap price that could provide an interesting background.

Use language to draw the reader in. For example, if the titles and sub-headings aregiven as a series of rhetorical questions, a casual viewer will naturally want to read thetext to find out the answer.

Don’t provide too much detail. Keep the wording sparse, and be prepared to talk fur-ther about matters raised in the text during the poster defence.

Use a handout, if you have too much detail to cover. If you’ve done lots of researchbut have to cut some interesting parts out of the final design because of space con-straints, consider giving readers a short handout to cover these aspects. This should contain the poster title, author names and contact details.

State your ‘take-home message’ clearly. Leave your reader in no doubt about yourconclusions. You could, for example, list them as a series of bullet points at the end.

Work as a team when answering questions. Be ready to support each other, filling in ifsomeone dries up. However, all members should know the fundamentals of the topic, asany group member may be expected to respond.

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54.1 Find out the dimensions of your poster space and draw this out toscale. If you copy this sheet your team can use it to sketch out possibledesigns that will stand a better chance of working.

54.2 Have a critical look at research posters in your department. These areoften put up on display after they have been used at a conference. You willprobably find them well presented, but some may be rather detailed andformal in appearance. Learn from good and bad aspects of what you see.

54.3 If you are worried about defending your poster, hold a mock event.Prime a flatmate or friend with a series of likely questions (see thechecklist on page 365), then try to answer them as you would to yourtutors. As well as getting you used to speaking aloud about your work, thisshould help remove any nervous feelings. It will also allow you to find outwhat you don’t know, in time for some quick revision.

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368 55 SPOKEN PRESENTATIONS

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You may be expected to give a spoken presentation in several different situations – froma brief oral summary at a tutorial to a lengthy seminar on a final-year project. Your talkmay be relatively casual or it may be supported by high-tech visual aids. This chapter willfocus on more formal types of presentation, although similar principles apply elsewhere.

Planning and preparing your script

Whatever the occasion, it is important to be well prepared. Having a well-thought-outplan, good supporting material and a clear picture of your main conclusions will boostyour confidence and improve your audience’s experience. However, over-rehearsal canlead to a dull and monotonous delivery and you should try to avoid this.

Experienced speakers know that being slightly nerv-ous is important, because this creates energy andsparkle when delivering the material. Their view isthat if the adrenalin isn’t flowing, their presentationwill probably lack vitality. Turn any anxiety you mayhave to your advantage by thinking of it as somethingthat will work for you rather than against you.

Structure

Every substantive presentation should have a begin-ning, a middle and an end. The old maxim ‘say whatyou are going to say, say it, and then say what youhave said’ conforms directly to this structure and youneed search no further for an outline plan.

55 Spoken presentations

How to give a talk or seminar with confidence

Giving a presentation can be a rewarding experience. By following simple guidelines, you can prepare yourself well, gain in confidence andcommunicate your message effectively.

Key terms

AV aidsDictionOverhead

transparencyPowerPointPromptRhetorical

questionSeminar


l Planning and preparing your scriptl Effective speakingl Using presentation software such as PowerPointl Answering questions

Don’t forget to begin with theseemingly obvious, such asdefinitions of key terms. Notall your audience may havethe same background in thesubject as you. If they aren’ton the same wavelength, ordon’t understand key terms,you may lose them at thevery beginning.

Start your talk with the basics

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55 SPOKEN PRESENTATIONS 369

l Introduction. Your task here is to introduceyourself, state the aim of your presentation, sayhow you intend to approach the topic and providerelevant background information.

l Main content. This will depend on the nature ofthe talk. For a talk about a project in the Sciencesor Engineering, you might start with methods, andthen move on to results, perhaps displayed as aseries of graphs that you will lead your audiencethrough. For a seminar in the Arts, you mightdiscuss various aspects of your topic, givingexamples or quotes as you go.

l Conclusions. Here your aim is to draw the talk together, explaining how all yourpoints fit together and giving ideas of where things might develop in the future – for example, suggestions for further research or different angles to approach the subject. Finally, you should recap your whole talk in a series of ‘take-homestatements’ and then thank your audience for their attention.

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q Audience. Will they be experts, peers, lay people or a mixture?

q Arrangements. What is the date, start time and period allocated for your talk?

q Venue. How might the location and nature of its layout affect your delivery?

q Facilities. What equipment and AV aids are available?

q Context. Who will be preceding or following you? What introduction to you and yourtopic might be given?

q Presentation style. Do you want to use ‘chalk and talk’, overhead transparencies orPowerPoint? Will you use a detailed script, prompts or simply improvise?

q Requirements. What might you need to bring? What equipment might you need topractise with?

q Liaison. Who should you contact to confirm details or make special requests?

Aspects to consider when preparing a talk – a checklist

Never start a talk by beingapologetic or putting yourselfdown. For example, you maybe tempted to say that youare unprepared or lackexpertise. This will lower your audience’s expectations,probably unnecessarily, andget you off to a weak start.

Keep your introductionpositive

Creating a script or series of prompts

Your presentation should begin as a piece of writing, evolving through the followingstages:

1 Creating a brainstorm or concept map of what you need to cover.

2 Laying out themes or headings with brief explanatory notes.

3 Producing a script – more or less the full text of your talk with stage directions.

4 Reducing the script to a set of key words and bullet points – your prompts.

As you become more experienced, you will find you can move directly from stage 2 tostage 4, perhaps thinking through appropriate phrasing in your head rather than writingthe exact words down.

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Working from prompts, sometimes called ‘cues’, is recommended, whether they are produced as headings on cards or as bullet points in a PowerPoint slideshow (or similar). These basic headings provide the structure of your talk, so that you don’t ramble or lose your place. They also help to promote an air of informality that will drawin your audience. All you need to remember is roughly what you intend to say aroundeach point.

Reading your talk from a written script is probably a bad idea, even though you may feelmore confident if you know in advance every word you are going to say. This kind ofdelivery always seems dry; not only because it results in an unnatural way of speaking,but also because you will be so busy looking at your script that you will almost certainlyfail to make eye contact with your audience.

For similar reasons, you should probably not memorise your presentation, as this willtake a lot of effort and may result in the same flat or stilted delivery, as if you hadscripted it word for word. There is a happy medium where a presentation has been prac-tised enough for the speaker to be confident, yet still convey an air of spontaneity.

l Practice will help you become more confident in the material.

l You can identify any complex parts that you cannot easily put into words, andpractise these independently.

l You can find out whether your presentation will fit the allotted time.

l Make the presentation to a friend. Ask them to comment on your audibility andclarity, presentation style (including gestures) and use of visual aids.

Effective speaking

This is more than speaking loudly enough to be heardand pronouncing your words clearly so that the audi-ence can make them out. These skills are fundamen-tal – although you will already realise that manyspeakers fail even at this hurdle. Ask a friend to checkand comment on your diction to make sure you meetthese basic criteria.

Good speaking not only ensures that information istransmitted, but also engages the audience. You cando this in two main ways – through your actions andbody language, and through the approach you take.

First, don’t just stand still and speak robotically. Aimfor an element of variety to keep interest levels high:

l Move around a little – but make sure you face the audience so that you will beheard, and do not pace up and down excessively.

l Use moderate hand gestures to emphasise your points – but don’t wave your handsaround like a windmill.

l Ensure you make eye contact with the audience – but don’t stare at one person orarea all the time.


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Every speaker has their own idiosyncrasies but some elements of style canbe learned. Consider thedifferent ways your lecturerspresent their material. Somewill be good and some not sogood (see Table 16.1). Adopttechniques you admire andtry to work these into yourpersonal style.

Developing your ownspeaking style

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l Liven your talk by shifting between modes ofpresentation, for example, by drawing a diagramon the board or presenting a visual aid – but don’toverdo this or the audience may be distractedfrom your theme.

Second, try to involve your audience. Use rhetoricalquestions to make them think, even though you willbe supplying the answers. Ask them direct questions,such as ‘How many of you have read this article?’then follow up with ‘. . . for the benefit of those whohaven’t, I’ll just recap on the main points’. If it wouldbe relevant, ask them to do an activity as part of thepresentation. This takes confidence to handle, but itcan work well and is especially valuable to break up alonger talk where attention may wander.

Using presentation software such asPowerPoint

The standard methods of supporting a presentationwith images and information used to be either over-head slides or 35 mm photographic slides. Overheadtransparencies have the advantage over ‘chalk andtalk’ of letting you see the same thing as your audi-ence, while still facing them, but if filled with text theycan seem dull. Slides are valuable where ultra-high-quality images are required, but an important disad-vantage is that they require complex equipment andprocedures to produce.

Nowadays, both these media have largely beenreplaced with virtual ‘slides’ produced via softwaresuch as Microsoft PowerPoint. These systems provideflexibility and allow you to incorporate digital imageswith ease. A significant disadvantage is that a com-puter and (expensive) digital projector is required toshow them. If you are planning to use this type ofsoftware, check whether appropriate facilities will beavailable in the room or can be borrowed or booked.

You can select from a variety of designs for eachPowerPoint slide, most of which help you to structureyour talk around a series of bullet points and to mix text with images or graphs (seeFigure 55.1). This may help you to organise your prompts, but you should make sure youdon’t simply read them word for word from the slide. Few things are more boring than aspeaker reading out what you can already see on a screen.

If you doubt your ability to speak freely around the bullet points, you can use the notesfacility within PowerPoint to write down information you might not remember. You can

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When you practise your talk,watch the clock and notedown timing points during it.When it comes to the realthing, check how you aredoing and speed up or slowdown as necessary. In somecases, the real talk will takelonger than you anticipated.This will either be becausethe initial business of gettingset up has eaten up some ofyour allotted time, or becauseyou have relaxed during thepresentation and said morethan you thought you would.In other cases, you may findthat slight nervousnessmeans you have spokenfaster than intended.

Pace your talk

If you wish to use overheadtransparencies, it might be agood idea to create them firstas PowerPoint slides. Thesecan be printed as ‘Slides’ then copied on to specialphotocopy acetates orprinted directly on to specialmaterial. They will be muchneater and more legible than handwritten overheads.If you intend to incorporatecoloured text, backgrounds or images, run tests first,however, as the projectedresults can be disappointing.

Use PowerPoint to createprofessional overheads

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then print out each slide and associated notes toge-ther on a single A4 page to act as a support duringthe presentation. Use the ‘Print > Print What: > NotesPages’ command, but select ‘Pure Black and White’under ‘Color/grayscale’ or your printout (includingslide backgrounds) may appear in colour, wasting pre-cious printer ink.

A step-by-step tutorial for setting up a PowerPointpresentation is beyond the scope of this book, butonce the basics have been learned, for instance, froma handbook or online self-help tutorial, the tips shownin Table 55.1 may be useful. Always check that yourversion of PowerPoint is compatible with the com-puter system you will be using for the presentation.

Answering questions

This is a part of a talk that many people worry about,as they have no control over what may be asked, and


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The technology is helpful but, especially with complexmaterial, each slide can takea lot of effort to set up.However, because of theflexibility of this system, you can save some time by merging the planning and writing phases of yourtalk into one session. Forinstance, once PowerPointslides are constructed it isrelatively easy to changetheir order or to alterformatting through the ‘View > Master > Slide Master’function.

Allow plenty of time forpreparing presentationslides

Figure 55.1 Elements of a typical PowerPoint slide. Similar features are available usingother software.

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feel they might look stupid if they don’t know an answer. Tips for dealing with this element include:

l Prepare for likely questions. Try to anticipate what people might ask and have ananswer ready.

l Ask for clarification if you don’t understand a question fully. You could also askthe questioner or chair to repeat the question if a part of it was indistinct or didn’tseem to make sense to you.

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Choose a background or slide design template with care. A lighterbackground with dark text will attract attention, but may be hard toconcentrate on over the long term, whereas a darker background withlight writing may be more restful on the eye.

The standard PowerPoint designs are tried and tested, and are especiallyuseful if you have little time to prepare for a talk, but many of youraudience will have seen them before. You can easily be more original, forinstance, by incorporating an image into the background, but be awarethat this will take time to set up.

The standard PowerPoint text size defaults to values that mean that it is difficult to get much information on each slide. You can override thisfeature, but there is a good reason for it: cramming too much on to eachslide is bad practice. A point size of 28 is probably the lowest text size youshould use. Sans serif fonts, such as Arial, are said to be easiest to readon-screen.

If you can, try to include an image in at least half of your slides. Even ifthese are only partially relevant, they help to maintain audience interest.A text-only presentation consisting of nothing more than bullet points willseem very dry. Use clip-art or images from copyright-free web resourcesif you don’t have any images of your own.

Use the ‘animation’ feature to build up your slide line by line as you wish.This will help you pace your talk and ensure that the audience is listeningto you, rather than reading ahead on the slide. To keep the audience ontrack, you may find it advantageous to use a slide giving sub-headings and reintroduce this as you move on to each new sub-topic on your list.

You can use special features for introducing each new slide and, withineach slide, you can make text enter from different directions in differentways and even accompanied with noises. You can also link to websites (if your computer is appropriately connected) and run digital video clips.Resist the temptation to go overboard with these ‘bells and whistles’,because although such features can make a talk livelier, they tend todistract from your main message.

Think about providing your audience with a handout of the slides. InPowerPoint you can use the ‘File > Print > Print What: > Handouts >6 slides per page’ option to do this. When printing, it is best to select ‘Pure Black and White’ from the ‘Color/grayscale’ options, or all of theslides may print in colour, including the background. Numbering your slides(see Figure 55.1) will help your audience keep track with the handout.

Table 55.1 Tips for constructing slides with presentation software such as PowerPoint

Aspect

Background and text colouring

Slide design

Text size and font

Use of images

Revealing your points one by one

Use of special features

Handouts

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l Repeat the question for the benefit of those who might not have heard it. Thequestioner will be facing you, not the audience, and their voice may be indistinct.This will also buy you some time for composing an answer.

l Think before you answer. Rather than blurting out the first thing that comes tomind, take time to weigh up the different aspects. You may feel the necessary pauseis long, but this will not be how the audience perceives it.

l If you don’t know an answer, say so. Everyone will see through a speaker who iswaffling. Try saying ‘I don’t know the answer at the moment, but I’ll find out and getback to you’ if you want to say something rather than leaving a pause.


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Practical tips for delivering a presentation

Dress appropriately for the occasion. You should look smart, but should feel comfort-able in what you wear. Turning up in informal clothes may be interpreted as showing alack of respect to your audience and may lead to the expectation of a sloppy presentation.

To reduce tension, take deep breaths. This can be done both before you address theaudience and during pauses in your presentation.

Make sure you can be heard. At the start of your talk, ask the audience if they can hearat the back. When practising, try to use the room where the presentation will take placeand ask a friend if they can hear you. If you know someone in the audience, you couldask them to signal to you if you are talking too quietly (or too loudly).

Make sure your audio-visual aids can be seen. If you are using some kind of projectionsystem, make sure that you – or your shadow – don’t block out the projected image. It’sa good idea to ask your audience if they can see clearly before you start.

Engage the audience. Speak directly to them, not to the floor, your notes, the screen ora distant wall. Look at their faces and take cues from their reactions. If they don’t seemto understand what you’ve said, repeat it in a different way. If they look bored, thenspeed up, or ask a rhetorical question to engage their thoughts. Imagine the audience areyour friends – speak to them with enthusiasm, warmth and genuine feeling. They willrespond in kind.

Don’t speak too quickly. This is a common response to nerves. Make a determinedeffort to slow yourself down and speak clearly.

Have a ‘plan B’ if your talk overruns or the projection system fails. Plan things sothat you can miss something out from the main section of the talk if you are under timepressure (for example, by skipping over a few PowerPoint slides). This is preferable tobeing unable to complete your conclusions – people may be more interested in thosethan in the detail of your presentation, and they can always ask about the skipped mate-rial at the end. Print out the PowerPoint slides, perhaps in handout or note form, so thatyou can still use these if the projection system fails.

Try to enjoy the occasion. If you seem to be taking pleasure from speaking, your audi-ence will also enjoy the session. Conversely, if you don’t seem to be interested, whyshould they be?

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55.1 Learn how to use presentational software in advance. Even if you have no talk to give in the near future, time spent learning how to usePowerPoint or similar software will make it much easier, should you chooseto use this form of visual aid.

55.2 If you feel shy, take small opportunities to practise speaking so thatyou can build up confidence. These might include making a comment at ameeting or asking questions at other talks – anything that gets you used tohearing your own voice speaking in a formal situation.

55.3 Learn from other speakers. Starting with your lecturers, think about whatmakes the good ones good and the bad ones bad (see also Table 16.1 onpage 105). Try to model your own style and presentation technique onsomeone whose approach you admire.

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376 56 EXPLOITING FEEDBACK

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The answer, of course, depends on your goals and expectations, but also on yourunderstanding of degree classifications and their significance. Even in early levels of study, it may be worth relating percentage marks or other forms of grades(descriptors) to the standard degree classes – first, upper second, lower second, thirdand unclassified. Certain career and advanced degree opportunities will only be open tothose with higher-level qualifications, and you should try to gain an understanding ofhow this operates in your field of study and likely career destination.

How well are you performing?

There are two principal types of assessment at university: formative and summative.Formative assessments are those in which the grade received does not contribute to your end-of-module mark, or contributes relatively little, but which gives you an indi-cation of the standard of your work. It is often accompanied by a feedback sheet or com-ments written on the script. Summative assessments contribute directly to your finalmodule mark and include things such as end-of-term/semester exams, project reports oressay submissions.

Types of feedback

The simplest pointer you will receive from any type of assessment is the grade youreceive; if good, you know that you have reached the expected standard; if poor, youknow that you should try to improve.

If you feel unsure about the grading system or what standard is expected at each grad-ing level, your course or faculty handbooks will probably include a description of mark-ing or assessment criteria that explain this.

56 Exploiting feedback

How to understand and learn from what lecturers write onyour work and exam scripts

When you receive back assessed work and exam scripts, these are usually annotated by the marker. It is essential that you learn from thesecomments if you want to improve, but sometimes they can be difficult to understand. This chapter outlines some common annotations anddescribes how you should react to them.

Key terms

Formativeassessment

Summativeassessment


l Types of feedbackl Examples of feedback comments and what they mean

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56 EXPLOITING FEEDBACK 377

Written feedback may be provided on your scripts and other work. This will often take the form of hand-written comments over your text, and a summary com-menting on your work or justifying why it received themark it did. Sometimes the feedback will be providedseparately from your script so that other markers arenot influenced by it.

Some feedback may be verbal and informal, for exam-ple a demonstrator’s comment given as you work in apractical, or an observation on your contribution dur-ing a tutorial. If you feel uncertain about why yourwork has received the grade it did, or why a particularcomment was provided, you may be able to arrange a meeting with the person who marked your work.Normally they will be happy to provide further verbalexplanations. However, do not attempt to haggle overyour marks, other than to point out politely if part ofyour work does not appear to have been marked at all, or part marks appear to havebeen added up wrongly.

Examples of feedback comments and what they mean

Different lecturers use different terms to express similar meanings, and because theymark quickly, their handwritten comments are sometimes untidy and may be difficult tointerpret. This means that you may need help in deciphering their meaning. Table 56.1illustrates feedback comments that are frequently made and explains how you shouldreact to obtain better grades in future. This should be viewed with Table 43.3 (page 303)which explains some proof-reading symbols that lecturers may use. If a particular com-ment or mark does not make sense to you after reading these tables, then you may wishto approach the marker for an explanation.

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Practical tips for dealing with feedback

Be mentally prepared to learn from the views of your tutors. You may initially feelthat feedback is unfair, harsh or that it misunderstands the approach you were trying totake to the question. A natural reaction might be to dismiss many of the comments.However, you should recognise that tutors probably have a much deeper understandingof the topic than you, and concede that if you want to do well in a subject then you needto gain a better understanding of what makes a good answer from the academic’s pointof view.

Always make sure you understand the feedback. Check with fellow students or withthe lecturers involved if anything is unclear.

Learn from feedback in all your subjects. You can learn still from subjects that are notmainstream to your degree.

The comments in yourfeedback should give youconstructive direction forlater efforts and are designedto help you to develop thestructure and style of yourwork, as well as encourageyou to develop a deeperunderstanding of the topic.Where students ignore points, especially those aboutpresentation or structure,then they may findthemselves heavily penalisedin later submissions.

Always read your feedback

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Meaning and potential remedial action

An example or quotation may not be apt, or you may nothave explained its relevance. Think about the logic of yournarrative or argument and whether there is a mismatch asimplied, or whether you could add further explanation;choose a more appropriate example or quote. [Ch 32]

You are expected to flesh out your answer with more detailor an example to illustrate your point; or, conversely, youmay have provided too much information. It may be thatyour work lacks substance and you appear to havecompensated by putting in too much description ratherthan analysis, for example. [Ch 22, Ch 32]

Depends on context, but it should be obvious what isrequired to accommodate the comment.

You got this right or chose a good example. Keep up thegood work!

Sometimes obvious, but may not be clear. The implication isthat your examples, logic etc. could be improved.

Your argument or line of logic is faulty. This may requirequite radical changes to your approach to the topic. [Ch 33, Ch 34]

What is your understanding of the task? What parameterswill confine your response? How do you intend to tackle thesubject? [Ch 33]

When you have to compare and contrast in any way, then itis important that you give each element in your discussionequal coverage. [Ch 34]

You have to leave a ‘take-home message’ that sums up themost salient features of your writing and should not includenew material in this section. This is to demonstrate yourability to think critically and define the key aspects. [Ch 33]

Table 56.1 Common types of feedback annotation and how to act in response.Comments in the margin may be accompanied by underlining of word(s), circling of phrases,sentences or paragraphs. Relevant chapters to consult are noted in brackets in the right-hand column.

Types of comment and typical examples

Regarding content

RelevanceRelevance?Importance?Value of example?So?

DetailGive more informationExample?Too much detail/waffle/padding

Specific factual comment or comment on your approachYou could have included . . .What about . . . ?Why didn’t you . . . ?

Expressions of approvalGood!Excellent!3 (may be repeated)

Expressions of disapprovalPoorWeakNo!7 (may be repeated)

Regarding structure

Fault in logic or argumentLogic!Non sequitur (does not follow)

Failure to introduce topic clearlyWhere are you going with this?

Failure to construct a logical discussionImbalanced discussionWeak on pros and cons

Failure to conclude essay clearlySo what?

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Types of comment and typical examples

Regarding structure (continued)

Heavy dependency on quotationsWatch out for over-quotationToo many quotations

Move textLoops and arrows

Regarding presentation

Minor proofing errorssp. (usually in margin – spelling)

(insert material here)(break paragraph here)

(delete this material)P (punctuation error)

CitationsReference (required)Reference list omittedRef!

TidinessIllegible!UntidyCan’t read

Failure to follow recommended formatPlease follow departmental template for reportsOrder!

Meaning and potential remedial action

There is a real danger of plagiarism if you include too manydirect quotations from text. You have to demonstrate thatyou can synthesise the information from sources asevidence of your understanding. However, in a subject like English literature or law, quotation may be a keycharacteristic of writing. In this case, quotation is permitted,provided that it is supported by critical comment. [Ch 35]

Suggestion for changing order of text, usually to enhancethe flow or logic. [Ch 37, Ch 38]

A (minor) correction is required. Table 43.3 provides moredetail of likely proof-reading symbols. [Ch 43]

You have not supported evidence, argument or quotationwith a reference to the original source. This is important in academic work and if you fail to do it, you may beconsidered guilty of plagiarism (Ch 36). If you omit to attach a reference list, this will lose you marks as it impliesa totally unsourced piece of writing, that is, you have doneno specialist reading. [Ch 35]

Your handwriting may be difficult to decipher. Allocatemore time to writing out your work neatly, or use a wordprocessor if allowed. [Ch 44]

If the department or school provides a template for thesubmission of reports, then you must follow it. There aregood reasons, such as the need to follow professionalconventions, especially in sciences; you must conform. Ifyou don’t, then you may lose marks. [Ch 20, Ch 50]

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56.1 Check out your department or faculty’s marking criteria. As explainedabove, these may help you interpret feedback and understand how toreach the standard you want to achieve.

56.2 Decide what to do about feedback comments you frequently receive.For instance, do lecturers always comment about your spelling (Ch 41) orgrammar (Ch 39); or suggest you should use more examples; or ask formore citations (Ch 35, Ch 36) to be included? If so, look at relevantchapters in this book, to see if you can adjust appropriately.

56.3 Learn to criticise drafts of your own work. This is equivalent to givingfeedback to yourself and is an essential academic skill. Annotate drafts of your own work – this is an important way to refine it and improve itsquality. Stages you can adopt when reviewing your written work arediscussed in Ch 43.

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PART

F A TOOLKIT FOR EXAMS

57 Creating a revision timetable: how to get yourself organised forexam study

58 Revision tips: how to use your time effectively through activelearning

59 Focusing your revision: how to make full use of learning objectives,past papers and other assessment information

60 Study buddies: how to work with colleagues to improve the revisionexperience

6 1 Improving your exam performance: how to avoid common pitfalls

62 Exam strategies: how to ensure you have the appropriate tactics

63 Combating exam nerves: how to reduce anxiety and perform wellunder pressure

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If your use of time is generally haphazard, then a revision timetable will help to keep youon track with your studies. In addition, a timetable can help motivate you and provideconfidence as you complete each topic. Used well, it can prevent you spending too muchtime on your favourite topics at the expense of others, and it can also ensure that youinclude relaxation activities to boost your energy and ability to concentrate.

Setting up and using a revision timetable

l Create a blank timetable. This will allow you tocreate an ‘action plan’ that gives details of thespecific topics you intend to work on at any giventime. The example illustrated in Table 57.1 andprovided in blank form on page 450 is based onsix subdivisions of the day, with two potentialstudy periods in each morning, afternoon and evening. If you prefer to use shorter or longer units of work, then modify the formatappropriately, using a word processor orspreadsheet.

l Now fix your start and end dates: these are the points at which you wish to begin revising and the precise dates when your exams are to be held. Print orphotocopy enough copies of the timetable blank to cover this period and write in these key dates.

l Start to fill in the timetable by noting your essential non-study commitments, such as employment, shopping, cooking, travelling, team sporting activities andimportant social or family duties. If at all possible, these responsibilities should beminimised when you are revising, especially as the exams draw closer. Contactemployers and others as far as possible in advance so you can warn them of your needs.

57 Creating a revision timetable

How to get yourself organised for exam study

Organising your activities in the run-up to exams is vital to ensure that you make the best use of the limited time available. Creating a revisiontimetable not only improves your time management but also helps you tobalance your efforts among subjects and topics.

Key terms

Active learningRevision timetable


l Setting up and using a revision timetable

Don’t be tempted toprocrastinate by taking toolong pondering over yourtimetable or making it overlyneat – it does not need to bea work of art.

Avoid over-elaboratingyour timetable

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384 57 CREATING A REVISION TIMETABLE

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l Decide on the ideal number of ‘sessions’ you wishto study in each day and week, or are able toallocate due to your other commitments. Workout the total number of study sessions during thewhole revision period and decide when they willbe. For example, if you work best early in the day,you may wish to bias your studies to the morningslots that are available.

l The next stage is to allocate these revisionsessions to the different subjects or topics youneed to cover. You may wish to carry out thisprocess in two stages – first in a coarse-grainedmanner (say, dividing the total time among three modules), then in a finer-grained way (dividing each module’s allocated timeamong the individual topics that were covered). Be flexible – you may wish to spenda whole day on one topic to get deeper into the material, or break another day up to create variety. In allocating time slots for revision, work your way backwardsfrom the exam date, as this will allow you to ensure that you cover each subjectadequately just before the relevant paper.

Try to balance the time appropriately among topics or subjects. Your aim should be to give more time to ‘difficult’ topics than to ‘easier’ ones, remembering thatdifficult or uninteresting material sometimes yields ‘easy’ marks when you havemastered it. As an incentive, you may wish to follow subjects you dislike with those you prefer.

If you aren’t happy with the time available to study each topic when this process is complete, you may need to increase the total time you have allocated andreconfigure the sheets.

l In allocating time, recognise that you cannot work continuously if you want to study effectively. If you spend lengthy hours revising without any rest you mayretain little because you aren’t concentrating. Lack of focus and concentration will become worse if you tire yourself out.

Break up your work with relaxation, preferably involving physical activity. You may wish to set up ‘rewards’ (for example, watching a favourite TV programme or meeting your friends) – but only take these if you achieve your goals; if you do not, use these periods to catch up.

l Include some empty slots in your timetable toallow for unforeseen problems or changes in your plans. Your timetable should be flexible – ifyou lose time somewhere due to unforeseencircumstances, you should try to make it up later using these slots or switching slots fromrecreation to study.

l If at all possible, try to ease back on your revisionload near the exam. Your aim should be to planyour revision to avoid last-minute cramming andfatigue.

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Too long and you risk gettingbored with the subject andlosing concentration; tooshort and you won’t be ableto make decent progress.Figure 57.1 proposes sessionsof about 1 1/2 hours in length,but you may wish tosubdivide or combine theseaccording to your preference.

What’s the ideal length oftime for a study session?

When there’s a lot to be done,marking off the studying youhave completed on yourtimetable, perhaps with abrightly coloured highlighter,can provide a visual indicationof how much you’ve coveredand hence boost yourconfidence and morale.

Keeping tabs on yourefforts

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Using your time effectively when revising

Studying effectively is not simply a matter of giving over lots of time to the task: youmust organise your activities well and use appropriate techniques to help you retain thematerial covered.

l Early in the revision period, focus on ensuring youhave all the necessary materials to hand and thatit is well organised – especially lecture notes andtextbook information. Ask a friend for copies oftheir notes if you missed a lecture, or downloadcopies of summaries, overheads or slideshows.Pay special attention to these topics whenrevising, as you will not have the same feel forthe subject if you did not attend the lecture. Lookout your textbooks or visit the library as early aspossible to ensure that you can reserve the booksrequired. Avoid spending too long on this phaseas a diversion from any real revision.

l Give your timetable the highest priority if conflicting demands are placed on you. If this means being a little selfish, then explain to others why you need to focus onyour studies. On the other hand, don’t be a slave to your timetable. Be prepared tobe flexible. If you feel you are really making progress with a topic, stick with itrather than changing topic. Make sure, however, that you make up the displacedwork at a later point.

l Recognise when your concentration powers are dwindling – take a short break when this happens and return to work refreshedand ready to learn. Remember that 20 minutes isoften quoted as a typical limit to fullconcentration effort.

l Remember to have several short (5-minute)breaks during each hour of revision and a longerbreak every few hours. In any day, try to work fora maximum of three-quarters of the time.

l Use active learning techniques (Ch 58) so thatyour revision is as interesting as possible: theleast productive approach is simply to read andreread your lecture notes.

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Try to make sure you dosomething for each subject or topic in each week. A taskas simple as revisiting yourdistilled notes (Ch 58) atintervals will keep facts andconcepts fresh in your mind.

Avoid forgetting materialyou covered at the startof your revision

Identify the best time of day for you to study (Ch 8).Focus your revision periods inthese slots, and your routinetasks and recreation whenyou will feel less able toconcentrate.

Are you a morning,afternoon or eveningperson?

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Practical tips for keeping your revision focused

Make good use of your course handbook. This will help you find out about the structureof your exam and the content that will be covered. If learning objectives are published,refer to these to gain an insight into what lecturers will be expecting of you in the exam(Ch 59).

Use past papers as a guide. Past papers will give you an indication of the style of questions asked. Try to modify your revision to accommodate the question style (Ch 45–Ch 50). Note carefully the structure of the exam and, especially if it has sec-tions, whether each part will require a different approach to revision, such as memoris-ing particular facts or a requirement to synthesise answers from several sources.

Work out, as best you can, how the exam will be weighted towards different topics.Bias your revision time accordingly.

Use lists to keep track of progress. As you revise, make an inventory of topics youneed to cover, definitions you need to learn, for example. Crossing out the jobs you havecompleted will give you a sense of accomplishment and, from this, a feeling of confidence.

Test yourself continuously. The only way you will know whether you have absorbed andmemorised something is to test yourself, for example by trying to write what you thinkyou have learned on a blank sheet of paper (see page 390). If you leave it until the examto find out, it may be too late to do anything about it!

Try to keep your mind working. If you find you ‘drift away’ after a period studying thesame topic, try adopting the notion that ‘a change is as good as a rest’: you may find you can keep your attention up by shifting between subjects at appropriate intervals.

And now . . .

57.1 Create your own study timetable. The next time exams loom, copy theblank revision timetable in the Appendix (page 450) and use this toorganise your studies as indicated within this chapter. The copyright forpersonal use of this table is waived, so you can photocopy it several timesto cover as many weeks of study as you have allocated.

57.2 Compare study timetables with a ‘study buddy’. If you can team up witha partner studying the same subjects (Ch 60), it might be valuable tocompare your approaches to revision. When you have completed your draftrevision timetables, discuss how they differ and why.

57.3 Focus your work by sitting mock questions. As you finish each section ofrevision, use questions from past papers to gain feedback about your recalland depth of understanding. You don’t have to provide a complete answerto a question to do this – an outline plan of an essay-style answer would besufficient, for instance. On the other hand, if you can answer a completequestion, you could pass this on to a fellow student or staff member forcomment and learn from what they have to say.

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Unless you are lucky enough to have a photographic memory, simply reading coursematerial is a poor method for remembering and understanding it. Experience, backed upby research, indicates that you will remember things much better if you do somethingcentred on the material (that is, ‘actively’ learn it). Moreover, this way of revising some-times reveals flaws in your understanding that you may not appreciate when simplyreading the material. There are many possible approaches to active learning and youshould choose those that suit you and your circumstances.

Basic active learning approaches

You should probably use both the techniques outlined below for every exam.

‘Distilling’ or ‘chunking’ lecture notes

This involves taking your ‘raw’ lecture notes and reduc-ing them to a series of headings and key points. Thiscan be done in several ‘sweeps’, gradually reducingpages and pages of notes to just a few headings. An alternative approach to distilling is to reorganise your notes in grid format, as shown in Figure 58.1. The ‘aspects’ should be chosen to be relevant to likelyexam questions. By creating this type of table you willforce yourself to analyse the information you havebeen taught and hence understand it better.

The act of writing out the material when distilling orchunking your notes seems to help place it in a ‘map’

58 Revision tips

How to use your time effectively through active learning

Active learning is the key to understanding and remembering coursematerial for recall during exams. It involves thinking through concepts,ideas and processes, as well as techniques for effective memorising.

Key terms

Active learningChunkingDistillingLearning objectiveMnemonicRote learning


l Basic active learning approachesl Techniques for effective memorising

Figure 58.1 A grid forreorganising notes

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58 REVISION TIPS 389

within your brain and aids recall. Another valuable aspect of these approaches is thatthey allow you to gain an overview of the topic – you can then appreciate where eachaspect slots into the bigger picture. This may help you to memorise facts and place themin context within your exam answers. Finally, these methods are better than simplyrewriting the material, because you need to think about the material as you transcribeinto the new structure.

Answering past papers and problems

Looking at past exam papers is important to let yousee both the type and scope of questions normallyasked. The depth of answer required may not be soobvious, however, and if this is in doubt, consult sub-ject tutors. You can take a variety of active approachesthereafter, from thinking through an answer in yourhead (weak); writing out an answer plan rather than afull answer (good); and setting yourself a mock examor timed exam question based on a particular paper(excellent). If possible, discuss your answers or planswith subject tutors and fellow students.

Particularly for subjects requiring numeracy, problem-solving and doing examples are acknowledged waysof testing understanding and reinforcing what youhave learned (Ch 29, Ch 47). Try to recognise pat-terns in the types of calculations and problems usually asked. Consult with subject tutorsif you do not understand how to answer any questions.

Techniques for effective memorising

Committing facts to memory can be hard, especially if you don’t particularly like the subject or there are lots of obscure jargon words to learn. There are many approachesto memorising, some of which are touted by ‘memorymen’ who seem to be able to recall extraordinaryamounts of information. However, their memory featsoften rely on a personal ability that is exceptional.You should experiment to find a method that suitsyou and stick with it. Before looking at the practicaltips that follow, some ‘principles of memorising’ mayhelp:

l You need to be ready to learn. Make sure youare not preoccupied by thoughts of anything else. You can only memorise in short bursts, sotake frequent breaks to keep your concentrationat a peak.

l Your environment must be right. Declutter your desk. Switch off distractions, such asbackground music, or go somewhere quiet.

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If you can’t concentratebecause something is‘bugging’ you, try thistechnique: write all yourproblems and issues down ona piece of paper, which younow put to one side. Promiseyourself that you will dealwith these matters later on,but meanwhile will focus onyour studying. This maysound rather silly, but itworks for some.

Getting rid of distractingthoughts

These help you practisewriting against the clock.Although time-consuming,this gives you an idea of howquickly you will have to workand how much you will needto condense ideas to fit thetime allowed. They also giveyou practice in writing quicklyand neatly by hand, which isuseful because this is a skillthat may have eroded due tothe widespread use of PCs.

Benefits of mock exams

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l You need to be determined to learn. Avoid aimlessly reading material in the hope that it will ‘sink in’. Convince yourself that you really want to learn. If youintensively focus on the material, fully intending and expecting to learn, then you will.

l Gain an overview of what you have to learn.Knowing the context helps you absorb andremember facts. If you see the bigger picture, it’s easier to fit the component parts into it.

l Limit the amount you have to learn. Condensethe material into lists or smaller chunks. Splitlarge groups of information into smaller parts.

l ‘Visualise’ and ‘associate’ to learn. At its mostsimple, this means knowing how many items youneed to remember. It could also include recallinga doodle on the page of your notes beside thetext. More complex methods include associatingfacts with a familiar journey or location.

l Review what you have learned. If anything is the key to memorising, this is it. Don’t just rely on the vague hope that you will be able to recallsomething – check that you can, and check frequently. If these ‘self-tests’ indicatethat you can’t recall everything, go back and start again. This repeated activityworks to imprint the knowledge – and if it works, you will know that you know thematerial. Here’s a possible method to try:

1 Read the material and, as you do this, write itout in list form, focusing fully on each point,trying hard to remember it. Note the number of items on the list.

2 Turn over the list and remove all clues about it(for example, close your textbook).

3 Immediately, rewrite the list. If you can’tremember everything, go back to point (1) andstart again until you can rewrite the listcompletely.

4 Do something else for 5 minutes, then rewrite the list without clues. If you can’tremember everything, go back to point (1) again.

5 Do something else for an hour, then rewrite the list. If you can’t remembereverything, go back to point (1) again.

6 After 24 hours, again try to rewrite the list. If you can’t remember everything, go back to point (1) again.

This method also works well with diagrams.


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In any subject there is a coreof knowledge that you shouldbe able to recall, but, ingeneral, you should avoidrote learning and try to thinkmore deeply about thesubject material. The focusshould be on using the factsyou have learnt, not on thefacts themselves (see Ch 22for further details). Themodule learning objectivesmay give you clues about thedirection that these ‘deeper’thoughts should take.

Remembering facts

Try to use a variety ofapproaches to avoid boredomduring your revision.Experiment to see whichmethod suits you best.

Keep your revisioninteresting

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Practical tips for active learning

Make your notes memorable. Use coloured pens and highlighters, but beware of overuseof emphasis and ‘absent-minded’ or purposeless highlighting, that is, when you highlightalmost everything or don’t really think why you have highlighted something.

Use concept or mind maps (Ch 17). These help to condense your knowledge of a particular topic. If you include drawings you may find that such image-based notes makerecall easier.

Test your recall of diagram labels. Draw up important diagrams without labels, copythese, and then use them to test yourself from time to time.

Use mnemonics, acronyms and rhymes. These help to commit specific factual infor-mation to memory. Sometimes, the dafter they are, the better they seem to work. As an example, some people use the following mnemonic to remember the colours of therainbow: ‘Richard of York goes battling in vain’ (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,violet).

Try recitation as an alternative to written recall. Talk about your topic to another person, preferably someone in your class. Talk to yourself if necessary. Explaining some-thing out loud is a good test of understanding.

Associate facts. Link facts with images, journeys, parts of your body or familiar objectsin a room. When trying to recall the information, replay the scene in your imaginationand the items you have associated with each feature. Experiment in various ways to seeif and how this method might work for you.

Prepare a series of ‘revision sheets’. Note details for each particular topic on a singlepiece of paper, perhaps arranged as a numbered checklist. If you have the room, makeyour sheets into a set of wall posters. Pinning these up on a wall may help you visualisethe overall subject area. Some people like to use sticky notes for this purpose.

Share ideas and discuss topics with other students. The act of explaining can helpimprint the knowledge in your brain, and it has the useful side effect of revealing thingsyou don’t really know, even if you thought you did.

Make up your own exam paper. Putting yourself in the examiner’s mindset is very valu-able. Inventing your own questions and thinking about how you would answer themrequires a good understanding of the material.

Memorise definitions. These can be a useful starting point for many exam answers.Make up lists of key phrases and facts (for example, dates and events) associated withparticular topics. Test yourself repeatedly on these, or get a friend to do this.

Try to remember how many facts or definitions you need to know. When you have alist of points to remember about a specific topic, knowing the number of points there arewill help you recall all of them during an exam.

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And now . . .

58.1 Try out a new learning technique. Next time you have a ‘low-stakes’ exam or test (one that does not count too much towards an end-of-modulemark), pick one of the tips listed above, and see whether it works for you.

58.2 Find a study buddy. Compare lecture notes and ideas for possiblequestions in the forthcoming exams. Together, assess and try out any of the tips in this chapter, especially if they might work better with twoinvolved (see also Ch 18, Ch 60).

58.3 Think about the suitability of where you usually study. How might you improve the existing location? Is it working well for you? Should youconsider trying somewhere else? What other places might be available to you?

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Universities publish a great deal of useful information that can help you to improve your exam performance. The most important sources are likely to be: module learningobjectives or outcomes, marking criteria, past exam papers and model answers. As part ofyour revision, you should find out what exists and make full use of it.

Using learning objectives or outcomes

You will normally find the learning objectives in themodule handbook alongside the detailed descriptionof the curriculum (they are sometimes called learningoutcomes). These statements represent the ‘take-homemessages’ of the teaching and they state what youare expected to accomplish in your learning. This isthen tested in exams and other forms of assessment.Despite the obvious importance of learning objectives,many students fail to look at them when studying.

Some departments lay out learning objectives as aseries of bullet points relating to individual lectures (forexample, ‘Following this lecture, you should be able to . . .’). In other cases, the objective(s)may be framed in more general terms. Departments may also publish aims and goals forthe entire module and it is also worth looking at these to place the course elements incontext.

The relationship between exam questions and learning objectives is generally easy to seeif you look at past papers and match up the exam questions with the relevant learningobjectives and course material. However, you should be aware that the learning objectivesmay have changed through time – ask the module organiser if in doubt.

59 Focusing your revision

How to make full use of learning objectives, past papersand other assessment information

You can gain a deeper understanding of how you will be assessed from arange of sources. Studying these can help you to focus your revision andto enter the exam room better prepared.

Key terms

Learning objectiveLearning outcomeMarking criteriaMock examModel answerQuestion-spotting


l Using learning objectives or outcomesl What marking criteria can tell youl Exploiting past papersl Learning from model answersl Setting your own questions and exams

In an ideal world, there shouldbe an ‘agreement’ betweenthe learning objectives, thesyllabus and the assessmentmethods. In other words, youshould not be examined onsomething you didn’t expectto have to learn.

Compatibility betweencontent and assessment

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If you do not feel able to achieve a particular learning objective, it is worth checking withteaching staff. Perhaps you may have misunderstood the topic or the objective, in whichcase they may be able to provide you with further explanations. Also, a specific objectivemight be redundant because a lecturer was unavailable or made a late modification totheir teaching – check!

What marking criteria can tell you

Marking or grading criteria provide an indication ofwhat sort of answer would gain a particular percentagemark or grade in relation to a university’s markingscheme. You’ll probably find marking criteria in facultyor departmental handbooks or websites, because theytend to apply across many modules. However, theymay also be published in each module handbook.

Typical marking criteria include the following elements:

l Content: covering the range of ideas orinformation discussed and their relevance to the question actually set.

l Depth: referring to such aspects as complexity,detail, intellectual maturity and originality ofargument.

l Writing style: relating to, for example, the logic,clarity and the quality of the English.

l Presentation: referring to the neatness andpossibly also to the structure of your work.

l Use of examples: taking account of the relevance,accuracy and detail of those you quote.

l Evidence of reading: accounting for any readingaround the subject you may be expected to do:this may come from the examples and sourcesyou quote (not just those given in lectures).

l Originality: involving independent thinking(backed by supporting evidence and argument) or a new synthesis of ideas: these are dimensionsthat are highly valued, especially in later years of study.

l Analysis: including interpretation of raw data orinformation found in original (primary) sources.

Have a close look at your department’s marking criteria.If you wish to gain high marks, these will tell you whatstandard your answers must be. Note, however, that although marking criteria provide a‘benchmark’, the exact mark given will always depend on the topic and question and is amatter for the professional judgement of the academic and the external examiner.

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These are the marking criteriafor a first-class answer(70–100 per cent) in a sciencesubject at honours level:

n Contains all theinformation required witheither no or very fewerrors.

n Shows evidence of havingread relevant literatureand uses this effectively inthe answer.

n Addresses the questioncorrectly, understandingall its nuances.

n Little or no irrelevantmaterial.

n Demonstrates fullunderstanding of the topicwithin a wider context.

n Shows good critical andanalytical abilities.

n Contains evidence ofsound independentthinking.

n Ideas expressed clearlyand concisely.

n Written logically and withappropriate structure.Standard of English very high.

n Diagrams detailed andrelevant.

Example of markingcriteria

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Exploiting past papers

Past papers or sample questions are a vital resource.They may be published electronically on websites orvirtual learning environments, or in paper form withinthe library. If you can’t find them in these locations,ask staff or senior students for help.

Use past papers first to understand the structure ofeach of your exam papers, including:

l the format of answers expected (for example,essay, short-answer questions, multiple-choicequestions);

l the number and style of questions you will berequired to answer of each type;

l what the mark allocation is among sections orquestion types;

l the time allowed for answering;

l whether there is any choice allowed;

l whether the arrangement of sections forces youto answer on specific topics.

Second, use past papers or sample questions to understand the style being used. Whenlooking at each paper, ask yourself the following questions:

l How much and what type of factual knowledge is required?

l How deep an understanding of the topic is required?

l How much extra reading might be required?

l How much or how little freedom will you have to express your opinion orunderstanding?

l Do lecturers have consistent styles of questions? Can you identify their differentstyles?

Use your answers to create both your revision and exam strategies and the content ofyour answers (Ch 57, Ch 62).

Learning from model answers

If model answers are provided, spare some time inyour revision to read through these carefully.

Consider each question thoroughly before you readthe model answer. Jot down a few thoughts about theway you would tackle it. Identify the relevant learningobjectives that apply and think about the methods thelecturers are using to assess these.

Now read the model answer. This should be helpful inseveral ways, depending on how detailed it is:

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If your lecturers also providea ‘bad’ model answer, seewhat you can learn bycomparing this with the goodanswer. Are you guilty of anyof the errors highlighted bythe comparison?

Learning from pooranswers

A possible approach is tophotocopy past papers andthen cut and paste all thequestions into separate pagesfor each topic in the lecturecourse. By comparing theresulting groups of questionswith the learning objectivesand the material as taught,you can gain a much betterpicture of how you will beassessed, what types ofquestion might turn up, andwhat type of revision needsto be done.

Linking past papers andlearning objectives toenhance your revision

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l You should be able to grasp the language and style expected – for example, the typeof introduction required, the use of headings and diagrams, what sort of things arein the conclusion.

l You should be able to evaluate the depth expected – for example, the balancebetween description and analysis that is present, the level of detail in any examplesgiven, including use of dates, terminology and citation of authorities and authors.Especially at higher levels, university exams are more about using information tosupport a reasoned answer than simply regurgitating facts (Ch 22).

l You should be able to see how the different facets of the question have beenaddressed. Examine each part of the answer and identify what aspect it deals with,and how.

Setting your own questions and exams

After you have revised each section or topic, take thetime to write out a few potential questions in the styleof those seen in past papers. How would you set aboutanswering your own questions? Write down plans asyou would with an essay plan during the exam. This pro-cess helps you prepare mentally for sitting the exam.Consider it a bonus if any of the questions you predictcome up in the real paper, but do not be tempted intoquestion-spotting (see tip box opposite).

A ‘mock exam’, where you attempt to answer ques-tions or a paper under realistic exam conditions, canhelp you in the following important ways:

l Testing your subject knowledge – and giving you early feedback about what you do and do not know.

l Helping you get into exam-answering mode and‘voice’ – so that you can get rid of your rustinessbefore the proper exams start, can get goingquickly in the actual exam and can start writingquickly and appropriately.

l Timing your answers appropriately – so that you optimise marks and don’t make the cardinalmistake of missing out questions through lack of time.

l Practising planning and laying out an answerquickly – so that you get used to the process ofthinking rapidly through your answer beforestarting to write and, where appropriate, can checkthat you know the appropriate layout of your answer.

l Reducing the effect of nerves – rehearsing can help you perform better on the day.You should be less anxious if you are familiar with the act of answering.


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At worst, this involvespredicting (guessing) alimited number of examquestions in the hope thatthey come up and revisingthat material only. This riskystrategy is rarely condoned:

n Most examiners pre-emptit by making sure thatquestions are not repeatedbetween exam diets andthat patterns do not occuramong papers. Thechances of ‘your’ questioncoming up are very low.

n If your predictions arefalse, you will probably beunable to answer on othertopics because you havenot prepared for them.

n If there are subtleelements to the wording ofthe question, you may betempted to provide theanswer to your predictedquestion, rather than theprecise one asked. You willthen lose marks due tolack of relevance.

Avoid question-spotting

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And now . . .

59.1 Make links between marking criteria, thinking processes and yourstudy technique. Look at your department’s marking criteria or theaspects noted on page 394. Compare these with the levels of thoughtprocesses outlined in Table 22.2 on page 139. This will help you appreciatethe depth of learning required in your subject and level of study, andinfluence your revision and exam answers.

59.2 Set up a mock exam as part of your revision. You may wish to ‘buddy up’with someone else doing your subject.

l Choose a paper that you haven’t studied closely (in fact, you may wishto hold one back for this specific purpose).

l Find a place to work that closely replicates the exam experience, such asa quiet library area.

l Sit selected questions or only one question as you see fit.

l If it seems appropriate, give a full answer to a question for which youhave prepared. Alternatively, lay out your answers as plans rather thanwhole essays.

l If answering a full question or paper, allocate yourself an appropriateamount of time for answering – this should be as realistic as possible so that you can get a ‘feel’ for the speed at which you need to work.

l Afterwards, you could ask for a study buddy’s or subject tutor’s opinionon your answer. This feedback could be very useful. If you can’t findanyone to do the checking for you, then critically compare what youhave written with your notes.

Practical tips for focusing your revision

Keep the exam paper format in mind as you revise. Assess the style of questions at anearly point and choose study methods appropriate to the style of questions you willencounter (Ch 45–Ch 50, Ch 58).

Use the learning objectives to check your progress. Your revision should include reading the learning objectives for each topic and ticking each off when you feel youknow enough to be able to accomplish them.

Dealing with a lack of past papers. Your tutors may be reluctant to release past papersin cases where there is a limited pool of ‘good’ questions for them to use, as this mightreward students who simply memorise answers. This is often the case where the paperis made up of multiple-choice questions. One way round this is to set your own questions,perhaps as part of a study group, and use these to test each other.

s

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59.3 Assemble the important information about your next exam. Beforerevising for any exam, and certainly before entering the exam room, you should use published material to gain a clear understanding of:

l what the examiners might ask you;

l the format of the paper and questions;

l the depth expected;

l the length of the exam and its component parts;

l how your answers will be marked.

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60 STUDY BUDDIES 399

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Revising for examinations is a positive experience in lots of ways. It heightens your under-standing of your subject and allows you to make connections between different elementsof the course. It needn’t be a solitary activity and many people find that it improves theirlearning to work on revision with another person studying the same subject.

What is study buddying?

The study buddy concept is based on a mutual arrange-ment between two or more students studying the sameor similar subjects, who agree to support each otherin their learning by conducting joint study sessionswithin their revision timetable (Ch 59). Examples ofsuitable revision activities include:

l meeting together to work through tutorialquestions, comparing answers and analysing thecorrect approach;

l studying a topic as individuals and then meetingat an agreed time to quiz each other on the topic;

l speaking to each other about a specific topic(even giving a ‘mini lecture’);

l sharing resources, such as missed lecture notes,handouts, website and textbook information;

l sharing advice about modules that one personmay have passed but the other(s) not;

l working together on formulating answers to questions on past papers;

l providing psychological support when one of you needs motivating or stimulating to study.

60 Study buddies

How to work with colleagues to improve the revisionexperience

Teaming up with others as part of your revision effort is recognised asbeneficial in many respects. This chapter explores some aspects of this‘study buddy’ revision approach.

Key terms

ExtrovertIntrovertMBTIStudy buddy


l What is study buddying?l The advantages of study buddying

The MBTI (Ch 13) divides people into either extrovertor introvert types, butindividuals from both typescan be suited to study buddy learning strategies. If, having carried out thequestionnaire in Tables13.1–13.3, you identify yourselfas one of the following types,then it might be worthwhiletrying this approach: ENIJ,ENFP, ENTJ, ESFJ, ESFP,INFJ, INFP, ISFP, ISTJ.

Personality types andlearning styles mostsuited to study buddying

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This technique probably suits some personality typesbetter than others (see Table 13.3). You’ll need todecide for yourself whether it will be appropriate foryou and, crucially, you’ll need to find someone elsewho thinks the same way.

The advantages of study buddying

The study buddy approach works very much on theprinciple that two or more heads are better than oneand that the process of working together to tackleproblems, key issues or difficult areas can assist allthose involved to learn more effectively.

l You can play to your strengths by helping withareas where you are stronger; and you canreceive help from others to strengthen yourweaker areas.

l Explaining your understanding to someone else can help to clarify the issues, process ortechnique in your own mind. It can also help the other party, who may learn better whenthings are explained by a peer, because thelanguage is less formal. They may also feel more comfortable about asking questions andseeking clarification or become less anxious about making mistakes.

l The pair or group dynamic can have a fun orcompetitive element that motivates some people;it can also generate confidence from knowing thatothers feel the same as you.

l At a practical level, making an appointment tomeet with someone else means you are morelikely to tackle revision.

Some advice is worth remembering:

l Be sure that you don’t spend too much timesupporting others and thereby neglectingyourself.

l Make sure you and your study buddies focus onstudying rather than chat.

l Don’t assume that study buddying is an easyoption to avoid the hard grind of studying alone – solo study may, in practice, be a part ofthe study buddy process.

400 60 STUDY BUDDIES

..

The obvious starting pointsare friends from your class,members of a tutorial groupor lab partners. You couldalso simply ask around beforeor after lectures or put up a request on an onlinediscussion board. A lecturermight be willing to make an announcement on yourbehalf, asking anyoneinterested in forming a studygroup to come forward at theend of the lecture. You’ll besurprised how many otherswill be interested in thisactivity.

How can you find a buddy?

Different partnerships work indifferent ways; here are sometried and tested strategiesthat students have founduseful.

n Partners work on problemsindividually for a setamount of time and thenreconvene to comparemethod and answers.

n Student A uses a white-board or flipchart toexplain a process topartner, Student B. Thenthey reverse roles foranother topic.

n Partners make up a ‘bank’of short-answer topics bywriting the question onone side of an index cardand the answer on theother side. They test eachother on random cardsdrawn from the pile.

Some practical ideas forbuddy activities

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60 STUDY BUDDIES 401

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Practical tips for working with colleagues to improveyour revision

Arranging meetings. Pick a mutually acceptable time and locate a venue that will allowyou to sit and discuss your work without disturbing others. Ensure that you turn up withall the relevant notes, calculators, worked examples and resources like dictionaries asappropriate. It’s best to aim for a neutral venue where your discussions won’t disturbothers. Groupwork areas may be available in your library or you may find study rooms inthe library, department, hall of residence or student association. You may be able to takeover tutorial or small lecture rooms (check the booking system first): these have theadvantage of having whiteboards and flipcharts, which you can use to note down pointsor give explanations to each other. Ask your tutors or the departmental secretary if youcan’t find anywhere suitable – they may be able to help.

Ground rules. Agree some basic rules, for example, start and stop times, and limitingcoffee breaks to no longer than 15 minutes. Stick to what you all agreed. Make sure thatit’s clear that if anyone feels that the strategy is not working for them, then they canwalk away from it without fear of offending the others.

Tackling the revision. Decide on the areas of study for each session and stick to these.Draw up a ‘wish list’ of aims/topics at the beginning of each session and cross them offas you complete them.

Seeking help. If, between you, an answer is not found, then go to your lecturer or tutorto ask for some guidance. Teaching staff are usually delighted when students show theirinterest in the topic by asking questions, so you shouldn’t feel nervous about asking forsome help. It is actually useful to lecturers to know when students are finding particularareas difficult, because they then know that they may need to review how they tackle itin lecture, tutorial or lab contexts.

Short or long sessions? Working intensively for a shorter time is often better than aprolonged session where people end up chatting about other things. Keep focused.

And now . . .

60.1 Think about how you can set up a study buddy group. Who might youapproach? What subjects would the pair/group cover? Where could you meet?How much time do you have to work in this mutually supportive way?

60.2 Decide which of your revision topics would best suit the study buddyapproach. It may be more appropriate to learn some material by yourself,and tackle other topics within a group.

60.3 Think about extending buddy activities beyond the revision period.These forms of working relationships could apply at any time in yourstudies, not just before exams.

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402 61 IMPROVING YOUR EXAM PERFORMANCE

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Poor exam performance is a relative term that depends on your expectations. There willprobably be occasions when you can easily diagnose the reasons for weak marks. Lackof preparation, poor performance in the exam room, or revising the ‘wrong’ topics arecommon examples. In these instances, your expectations after the exam were probablylow and you can accept that you deserved a low grade.

At other times, you may feel your marks were not as good as you thought they weregoing to be. You may have misunderstood the topic or failed to understand all thenuances of the question. Here, there is a gap between your expectation and the resultsof your efforts – one that is vitally important to understand if you wish to do better in future.

Identifying reasons for weak performance and areas forimprovement

Where might you have gone wrong in the past, and how might you improve? To find out,you will need to:

l Reflect carefully on past exams. Look back and think about how things went, andwhether you might have been guilty of any of faults shown in Table 61.1. You mayfind it beneficial to look at the original question papers to jog your memory. Also,refer to any feedback on coursework or comments on exam scripts if these areavailable to you. If you don’t understand any of the comments, then try to meet withthe marker and ask for an explanation. Such discussions can often be very valuable,so it is worth making the effort required.

l Try to do something about the faults you have identified. Many of the causes of poor exam performance are simple to correct, once you have identified whichmight apply to you. If, after reading through this ‘self-help’ chapter, you still do notunderstand where you went wrong or what corrective action to take, you should askto meet with your tutor(s) to seek their advice.

61 Improving your examperformance

How to avoid common pitfalls

Why aren’t you doing as well as you’d like to in your exams and tests? Thischapter focuses on the main reasons why exam answers are marked downand provides a framework for assessing how you could improve.

Key terms

BrainstormQuestion-spottingValue judgement


l Identifying reasons for weak performance and areas forimprovement

l How to ensure you answer the questionl Reviewing your answers to gain marks

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61 IMPROVING YOUR EXAM PERFORMANCE 403

....

Relevantfor you?

q

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q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

q

Possible cure(s)

A range of solutions – discussed indetail within this chapter

A better exam strategy is required(Ch 62)

A better essay plan may berequired (Ch 34)

Need to realise this material is required to gain marks (page 404); a better essay planmay be required (Ch 34)

Need to understand how diagramsshould be used to support writing(Ch 30 and Ch 44, page 311)

Need a better revision plan (Ch 57), a better revisiontechnique (Ch 58) or a betterunderstanding of the thinkingprocess demanded at university(Ch 22)

See material on answering thequestion (Ch 48, page 334)

May need to consider type of penbeing used, slow down writingspeed or change writing style

Need to address academic writingskills (see chapters in Part D)

Need to plan your writing better(Ch 34)

Poor note-taking (Ch 17), learning(Ch 13, Ch 14), revision (Ch 58,Ch 59) or recall

Need to review and proof-readanswers (page 405 and Ch 43)

Table 61.1 Checklist of possible reasons for poor exam marks. Use the list to identifywhere you may have been at fault, and find possible routes for improving your performance.

Reason

Not answering the exact question as set:l failing to recognise the specialist terms used

in the questionl failing to carry out the precise instruction in

a questionl failing to address all aspects of the question

Poor time management:l failing to match the extent of the answer(s)

to the time allocatedl spending too long on one question and not

enough on the others

Failing to weight parts of the answerappropriately: not recognising that one aspect(perhaps involving more complex ideas) maycarry more marks than another

Failing to provide evidence to support ananswer: not including examples or stating the‘obvious’ – like basic facts or definitions

Failing to illustrate an answer appropriately:l not including a relevant diagraml providing a diagram that does not aid

communication

Incomplete or shallow answers:l failing to answer appropriately due to lack of

knowledgel not considering the topic in sufficient depth

Providing irrelevant evidence to support ananswer: ‘waffling’ to fill space

Illegible handwriting: if it can’t be read, it can’tbe marked

Poor English: facts and ideas are notexpressed clearly

Lack of logic or structure to the answer

Factual errors

Failing to correct obvious mistakes

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How to ensure you answer thequestion

Most lecturers agree that the number-one reason fora well-prepared student losing marks is because theiranswers do not address the question. This is espe-cially true for essay-style questions (Ch 48) but alsotrue for short-answer questions (Ch 46) and otherassignments.

The main tips for answering questions directly andpurposefully were covered in Ch 48 and include:

l Making sure you consider all aspects of the question.

l Ensuring your work is well planned.

l Explaining what you understand by the question.

l Focussing on the precise task you have beenasked to do.

l Keeping to the point.

l Making sure you answer all elements in multi-partquestions.

l Avoiding making value judgements (Ch 37).

Include basic material in your answer, such as keyterms and their definitions, and critical dates andnames. Especially if a strict marking scheme is beingused, tutors will unable to award you marks if you donot provide this information. Draw on your under-standing of the whole topic when creating an essayplan. Don’t just focus on key phrases of the questionin isolation, but consider their context. Be aware of the risk, if you have decided to ‘question-spot’ (Ch 59), of answering your own pre-prepared ques-tion, rather than the one that has actually been set.

Reviewing your answers to gainmarks

Many students want to get out of the exam room assoon as possible, but you should not do this unlessyou are convinced you have squeezed every last markout of the paper. Your exam strategy (Ch 62) shouldalways include an allocation of time for reviewing.Trapping simple errors could mean the differencebetween a pass or a fail or between degree classifica-tions. These are some of the things you could look forwhen reviewing your work (see also Ch 43):

If you ran out of time andsome of your answers were incomplete, then you probably need a betterstrategy for using time inyour exams (Ch 62). This is a simple fault to rectify.

If you feel that your vocabularyis weak or your English styleinappropriate, then you mightneed a longer-term approachthat would involve creating aglossary (Ch 42) or readingabout text structuring orpunctuation (Ch 38, Ch 40).

Examples of solutions topoor performance

The following are reasons whyyou might be marked down athigher levels of study:

n Not providing enough in-depth information.

n Providing a descriptiverather than an analyticalanswer – focusing on facts,rather than deeper aspectsof a topic.

n Not setting a problem in context, or notdemonstrating a widerunderstanding of the topic.However, make sure youdon’t overdo this, or youmay risk not answering thequestion set.

n Not giving enoughevidence of readingaround the subject. Thiscan be corrected byquoting relevant papersand reviews.

n Not considering both sidesof a topic/debate, or notarriving at a conclusion ifyou have done so.

Reasons for loss of marksat advanced levels

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61 IMPROVING YOUR EXAM PERFORMANCE 405

l Basics. Make sure you have numbered your answers, answered the right number of questions, etc.

l Spelling, grammar and sense. Read through the answer critically (try to imagine it has been written by someone else) and correct any obvious errors that strike you. Does the text make sense? Do the sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly?

l Structure and relevance. Once again, ask yourself whether you have reallyanswered the question that was set. Have you followed precisely the instruction(s)in the title? Is anything missed out? Are the different parts linked together well?Look for inconsistencies in argument. Add new material if necessary.

‘Small-scale’ corrections like spelling errors and changes to punctuation marks can bemade directly in your text using standard proof-reading symbols if required (Ch 43). Ifyou want to add text because you find you have missed something out, place an insertmark (Λ or λ) in the text and/or margin, with the annotation ‘see additional paragraph #’;then write this paragraph, clearly identified, at the end of the answer. You will not loseany marks for having to do this.

..

F

..

It’s important to realise that the person who marks your work is not an adversary. Most lecturers are disappointed when giving students a poor grade, but they approachthe marking process professionally and with ruthless objectivity. Tutors are often veryfrustrated when they see that simple changes in approach might have led to a bettermark, and they cannot assume that you know things that you do not put down on paper.

Try to to help staff to help you

Practical tips for improving your exam performance

Go in well prepared. Of course, you’d expect any lecturer to say this, because in termsof gaining good marks, there is no substitute for effective revision. However, being wellprepared means more than memorising facts and concepts. To do well you also need toarrive at the exam room in a good mental state, with a plan and a positive attitude andthe determination to get down to work quickly and effectively.

Convert your brainstorm into a plan as quickly as possible. You can do this veryquickly simply by numbering the headings in the brainstorm in the order you intend towrite about them.

Don’t be afraid to make additions to your answers. If you find you have missed some-thing out, place an insert mark (Λ or ) in the text and/or margin with the annotation‘see additional paragraph x’; then write this paragraph, clearly identified, at the end ofthe answer (where you will have left space for just this contingency). You will not loseany marks for having to do this.

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And now . . .

61.1 Analyse your past exam performances. Work through the points in Table61.1 and make a resolution to improve at least one aspect of your revisionor exam technique.

61.2 Think about timetabling. If you acknowledge that the main reason for aprevious weak performance was lack of organised effort, consider whetheryou might benefit from creating (and sticking to!) a more structuredrevision timetable (Ch 57).

61.3 Think more deeply. If feedback suggests that the depth of your answers istoo shallow, but you don’t fully understand how you could improve, have alook at the material on thinking processes (Table 22.1 on page 138) to seewhether this might make things clearer.

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62 EXAM STRATEGIES 407

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An exam strategy is effectively a plan for managing your time and effort during an exam.This is vital to optimise your marks, because rushing answers or failing to complete thepaper are reasons why many students perform poorly (Ch 61). Having a clear strategywill also mean that you will be more confident going into the exam room and will addressthe questions in a more focused way.

Key information required for a strategy

Each exam will probably require a different strategy. For each one, you will need to dosome research beforehand, by finding the answers tothe following questions:

l How long is the exam?

l How is the paper subdivided into sections andquestions?

l What is the nature of the questions?

l What proportion of the marks is allocated to eachsection/answer?

l What restrictions on answering are there?

You can find out these details from course handbooksor staff. Past papers are another source of information,but the rules may change, so it is worth confirmingthat the format is still the same.

Exam strategies do not need to be complex, but they do need to be planned with care,and ideally in advance as part of your revision effort. Table 62.1 illustrates some ways inwhich a strategic approach can help you avoid problems with exams.

62 Exam strategies

How to ensure you have the appropriate tactics

Assuming your revision has gone well, the main pressure point in an examis time. Effective use of this resource through an appropriate strategy isvital if you want the best possible performance.

Key terms

Law of diminishingreturns

Multiple-choicequestion

RubricShort-answer

question


l Key information required for a strategyl Producing a strategyl What to do during the examl Arriving well prepared

A common type of restrictionin exam papers forces you tocover the full range of thesyllabus by stating that youmust answer one questionfrom each of a number ofsections, each covering adifferent subject area. As well as influencing your exam strategy, this type ofrestriction should also affectthe way you revise (Ch 59).

Example: choosing astrategy

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TSS_C62.qxd 6/27/06 16:38 Page 408


Producing a strategy

The following is a straightforward method for an examwith a set of similar-length essay or short-answerquestions:

l Translate the exam’s total length into minutes.

l Allocate some time (say 5 per cent) to considerwhich questions to answer and in which order.Allocate another 5 per cent as a ‘flexibility buffer’.Subtract these amounts (10 per cent) from thetotal time.

l Share the remainder of the time among thequestions to arrive at an ‘ideal’ time for eachanswer.

l Think about how you intend to divide the time foreach answer into planning, writing and reviewphases (see tip box opposite).

l Try to memorise roughly how long you intend to allocate to each section, questionand phase, before going into the exam.

You might prefer a slightly different model where you would review all your answerstowards the end of the exam, rather than reviewing each immediately after you havewritten it. If this would suit you better, you will need to deduct a further 5–10 per centfrom the total before allocating planning and writing time to each answer.

Papers with mixtures of question types require more complex strategies. Much will rest on your estimate of the time each type of answer should take: base your estimateon previous experience (for example, in mid-term/semester exams) if you can, and takeinto account the proportion of marks allocated to each type of question or section. Youmay also need to decide on the order in which you do the different types of questions.For example, in the case of a paper with a multiple-choice component and an essay section, you may wish to do a sweep of the multiple-choice part first, then the essays,then return to complete the harder multiple-choice questions.

Your strategy should be flexible, in case things don’t turn out the way you planned them – but only make changes during the exam if you are certain of what you are doing,and why.

What to do during the exam

l Quickly check the rubric at the top of the paperand that the questions are arranged as youexpected.

l Look carefully at all the questions on the paper.You may wish to mark off the ones you feel youcan answer well, or adopt some form of scoringsystem (for example, marks out of ten) for howwell you think you can answer them.

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F

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You have a 2-hour exam (120 minutes), in which youhave to answer 10 short-answer questions from a listof 20. You might allocate 5 per cent of the time (6 minutes) to reading thepaper, choosing questionsand reviewing answers. Thatleaves 114 minutes, whichmeans each question shouldbe allocated 11 minutes, givingyou 4 extra minutes forflexibility.

Example: exam timing

You will have to rethink your strategy quickly. It willstill be worth doing this, asthe penalties for running outof time could be severe.

What if the exam paper isdifferently arranged fromyour expectation?

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l Thinking about your strategy, and the ‘ideal’ timefor each question, decide which, if any, answersmight require more time, or might provide a goodreturn in marks for a little extra time invested,and which questions might require less time. A potentially good answer should be allocatedonly slightly more time than one you don’t feel so happy about. If you concentrate too much on any one answer, the law of diminishing returns means that you will take time from otheranswers without gaining compensatory credit(see Figure 62.1).

l Answer questions in a sensible order, which doesnot have to be the order they appear in thequestion paper. For example:

– Some people prefer to answer ‘fact-based’questions first, before they forget detailsmemorised just before the exam.

– Some people prefer to answer their ‘best’question first, to get a good start to the paper.Others would prefer to do this second or evenlater, when they feel ‘warmed up’.

– Most people would agree that you should leave a question you feel unhappy aboutuntil the end: during the rest of the exam, ideas may come to you about it – notethem down as you go along.

410 62 EXAM STRATEGIES

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Figure 62.1 Why it does not pay to spend too long on any one exam answer. The marksyou gain tail off the longer you carry on writing. The extra return will simply not repay theinvestment of time. Ensure that you start answers to all questions to gain the ‘easilyobtained’ marks, rather than wasting time perfecting one answer.

Suppose you had a paper with four questions but onlyanswered two, trying to doyour very best in them. You might score, say, 75 per cent in each, but your total percentage markwould be (75 + 75 + 0 + 0)divided by 4, or 37.5 per cent(usually a fail).

On the other hand, if youanswered all four questions,but perhaps less well, youmight score 55 per cent intwo and 45 per cent in theother two. Your overallpercentage mark would be(55 + 55 + 45 + 45) dividedby 4, or 50 per cent (usuallya pass).

Example: answering allquestions

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Arriving well prepared

Of course, the most important aspect of preparation is revision. No amount of examtechnique will substitute for this.

You may need to register and, in some cases, pay for certain exams – check this at an early stage. You should also confirm the date of the exam, where it will take place,when it will start and how long it will last. This information may be given in the coursehandbook, posted on noticeboards, published on a website or within a virtual learningenvironment module, or may also be provided by the exam office/registry by post. How-ever, it is your duty to ensure that you arrive at the right place at the right time. Writedown the information. Double-check, perhaps by asking a member of the class who hasindependently found out.

On the day, plan carefully so that you can arrive in good time – this will allow for unforeseen circumstances and will help to reduce the anxiety element at the start of the exam (Ch 63). Going over a checklist of items to bring to the exam (Table 62.2) may also act to calm you.

In the exam room, double-check on the rubric at the top of the paper. It is not unknownfor students to sit the wrong exam by mistake.

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F

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Table 62.2 Checklist of items to bring with you to written exams

3 Item

q Writing kit: pens and pencils (plus replacements), ruler, rubber, highlighter(s),correction fluid

q Student matriculation (ID) card (staff will use this to check your identity)

q Special equipment: calculators, protractor, compass, Walkman or similar for aural exams (check beforehand that you can use these aids properly), spare batteries

q Texts, where allowed for ‘open book’ exams

q Dictionary, if allowed (i.e. arranged beforehand with your department)

q Sweets and a drink, if allowed

q Clock or watch for timekeeping

q Mascot

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412 62 EXAM STRATEGIES

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And now . . .

62.1 Prepare at an early stage. Even before your thoughts turn to revision, look through the course handbook and other information to make sure you have a good idea of how the material presented will be assessed (Ch 59). This will help keep your note-taking and reading strategies in tune with your exam strategy.

62.2 Create a strategy for each of your exams. Discuss your strategy withsomeone else on the course to see what they think of it and how theyintend to handle the exam.

62.3 Ask a tutor’s advice. If you are in doubt about any of the assumptionsthat may lie behind your strategy, then ask a tutor.

Practical tips for time saving in exams

Don’t over-elaborate your answer plans. Use simple forms of spider (pattern) diagramsor mind maps to brainstorm and plan your answer (Ch 17).

Use diagrams and tables in your answer. This saves time otherwise spent making difficult and lengthy explanations, but make sure they are worthwhile and that you referto them in the text.

Use standard abbreviations. This will save time repeating text, but always explain theabbreviations at the first point of use. However, this is not necessary for ‘standard’abbreviations such as e.g. (for example), i.e. (that is) and etc. (et cetera – and so forth).

Always keep your eye on the time. There is no point in having a strategy if you forgetto stick to it. You may find it helps to take off your watch and put it where in can be eas-ily seen on the desk. Some students find it helpful to work out the end times for eachquestion beforehand as an aid to timekeeping. As the allotted period for each answerdraws to a close, make sure your mind is on finishing your answer.

Consider speed of writing and neatness. Might you be wasting time by trying to writetoo neatly or using a type of pen that slows you down? Ballpoint and liquid gel pens areprobably the fastest. Conversely, are you writing too quickly and making your script dif-ficult to interpret? You can only gain marks if the examiner can read your script.

Keep your answer simple and to the point. It should have clear explanations of yourreasoning. Even when working quickly, keep your eye on the task. You must answer thespecific question that has been set (Ch 61).

Don’t be tempted to waffle. Remember that time taken to write irrelevant material istime lost from another question. Don’t waste time including irrelevant facts just becauseyou memorised them during revision. This may do you more harm than good.

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63 COMBATING EXAM NERVES 413

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Everyone worries about exams, even those at the top of the class, so if you get anxious youare not unusual. Nerves are best overcome through confidence generated by thoroughpreparation. Even if you’ve studied hard, it isn’t possible to know 100 per cent of thecoursework, nor to anticipate what exactly will be examined – and apprehension aboutthe consequences of this is perfectly natural. Instead of fretting about it, turn it to youradvantage, by recognising that being nervous helps provide both the motivation to studyharder and a surge of adrenalin that is the body’s way of helping you raise your game onthe day.

Panic due to lack of preparation

Feeling ill prepared is probably the most common reason for being nervous about exams. Many a studenthas experienced the sensation of panic that comeswhen they realise that they have probably not doneenough studying during the year – and that the timeremaining for cramming has become very short. Whenthis applies to you, make a resolution to space outyour workload next time round, then determinedly tryto maximise your return on the time remaining. If youapply yourself to the task with a positive attitude, andare willing to work hard, you will be able to achievequite a lot in a short time. The following tips may help.

l When time is limited, effective use of it is vital.Create a revision timetable that helps youoptimise your activities (Ch 57). Stick to it rigidly.Reduce all sporting and social events to a bareminimum and cut down on any employment youhave taken on.

63 Combating exam nerves

How to reduce anxiety and perform well under pressure

Turn exam anxiety to your advantage. Recognise that ‘nerves’ are yourbody’s way of preparing you to perform at a higher level. Boost yourconfidence by having a ‘game plan’ ready.

Key terms

InvigilatorPerfectionism


l Panic due to lack of preparationl Perfectionism as a source of anxietyl Performing under pressure

Negativity can result in aspiral of gloom that reducesmotivation. Time spentworrying is time wasted – instead, use it to youradvantage by tackling thework. It’s vitally important tobelieve that you can achievesomething – and this carriesthrough right to the very endof the exam. The last fact youlearn and the last point youput down on paper might bethe one that ensures youpass or takes you into ahigher grade band.

Always try to thinkpositively about yourexams

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l Over brief periods, you can stretch your workinghours – for example, setting an early alarm isn’tsomething you might normally think of doing, butthis can easily add an hour or two to each day.

l Spend some time with others in your class toexchange ideas about what’s worth studying andto obtain quick answers to minor problems withcoursework.

l Be strategic in your work and approach to theexam by following these steps:

– Without taking ‘question spotting’ to extremes(see page 396), study so that you maximise thereturn on the time put in. Use a highlighter topinpoint critical learning objectives from thecourse handbook.

– Now make sure you have the framework andbasic understanding to begin an answer on eachof these topics.

– Next, focus on the key facts you must remember.

– Finally, and only if you have time, get into thedetail and examples.

l Exploit the time remaining as much as possible, by adopting active revisiontechniques (Ch 58) and using normally ‘redundant’ time effectively. For example, try to do small chunks of revision when commuting or in the time between lectures – this all adds up.

Perfectionism as a source of anxiety

Exams, with their tight time limits and tough marking criteria, are especially stressful forperfectionists. To counteract this tendency, focus on the following points before, duringand after the exam:

l Don’t go into an exam expecting to produce a perfect series of answers – recognisethat this simply won’t be possible in the limited time available.

l Don’t spend too long planning your answer – for example, as soon as you have anoutline essay plan, get started.

l Don’t spend too much time on the initial parts of an answer, especially the firstsentence, at the expense of the main message.

l Concentrate first on getting all the basics across – markers are looking for the mainpoints first, before allocating extra marks for the detail. You may wish to rehearsethese at the start of your answer as insurance against running out of time.

l Don’t be obsessed with neatness, either in handwriting or in the diagrams you draw– but make sure your answers are legible.

l Don’t worry if you’ve forgotten a particular detail or fact. You can’t be expected toknow everything. Most marking schemes give a first-class grade to work that missesout on up to 30 per cent of the marks available.

414 63 COMBATING EXAM NERVES

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Although you need to find asmuch time as possible forrevision, don’t reduce yourexercise routine to zero.Besides being one of the bestways of reducing stress,exercise helps you maintain agood sleep pattern. Even abrisk walk can reinvigorateyour mind.

Don’t forget to exerciseduring the revision period

The tips presented in Ch 25can help you lift the essencefrom a text or set of notes inthe minimum time.

Speed reading andskimming

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63 COMBATING EXAM NERVES 415

l After each exam in a series, avoid prolonged analyses with other students over the‘ideal’ answers to the questions; after all, it is too late to change anything at thisstage. Put all your mental energy into preparing for the next exam, so that you areready to face that challenge with confidence.

Performing under pressure

First, recognise that exams are to some extent a test of your ability to perform underpressure, and accept the challenge laid down by the system. To do this, you need to bewell prepared and particularly to have practised. If you’ve done well in the past, drawconfidence from this. Self-tests and mock exams (Ch 58, Ch 61) are a good way of get-ting into the right frame of mind. They’ll teach you much about the format and timing ofthe exam, and help you develop good habits.

Exams represent artificial situations contrived to ensure that large numbers of candidatescan be assessed together with little risk of cheating. There is a lot to be said for treatingthem like a game. If you understand the rationale behind them, and adapt to their con-ventions and rules, this will aid your performance.

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F

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We all face this from time to time and also realise that the key to remembering a fact,date or name is often to think of something else. So, leave a blank space in your answerpaper and come back to it later. Alternatively, if you can’t see any way to answer awhole question, try one of the following:

n Brainstorm connections from things you do know about the subject.

n Work from basics, such as natural subdivisions of the topic (for example, hierarchicallevels, such as parts of the body).

n As yourself ‘Who? What? When? Where? Why? How?’ in relation to the key subjectmatter (Ch 32 on page 225).

n Think diagrammatically: base your brainstorm on doodles and images – this may openup different thought patterns.

n Search for associations: read through the other questions in the paper – they maytrigger your memory.

n Get on with other questions if you can – the subject material might trigger yourmemory on others that are proving to be stumbling blocks.

Mind gone a complete blank?

Practical tips for combating the symptoms of exam anxiety

Sleeplessness. This is commonplace and does little harm in the short term. Get up, havea snack, do some light reading or other work, then return to bed. Avoid caffeine (forexample tea, coffee and cola) for several hours before going to bed.

Lack of appetite/upset tummy. Again, these symptoms are common. Eat what you can,but take sugary sweets into the exam (and/or drinks, if allowed) to keep your energy levels up. If allowed, take some water to avoid dehydration.

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416 63 COMBATING EXAM NERVES

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Fear of the unknown. Confirm dates and times of exams. Go through your pre-examchecklist (Ch 62). Check any paperwork you have been given regarding the format and timing of the exam. Take a mascot or lucky charm with you if this helps. In extremecases, it might be a good idea to visit the exam room, so you can become familiar withthe location.

Worries about timekeeping. Get a reliable alarm clock or a new battery for an old one.Arrange for an alarm phone call. Ask a friend or relative to make sure you are awake ontime. Make reliable travel arrangements, so that you arrive early.

Blind panic during an exam. To reduce the symptoms, try doing some relaxation exercises (see below) and then return to your paper. If you still feel bad, explain how youfeel to an invigilator. Ask to go for a supervised walk outside if this might help. If youhave problems with the wording of a specific question, ask to speak to the departmentalrepresentative at the exam (if they have left the room, they can be phoned).

Feeling tense. Shut your eyes, take several deep breaths, do some stretching and relaxing muscle movements. During exams, it may be a good idea to do this betweenquestions, and possibly to have a complete rest for a few seconds or so. Prior to exams,try some exercise activity, or escape temporarily from your worries by watching a movie.

Running out of time. Try not to panic when the invigilator says ‘Five minutes left’. It isamazing how much you can write in that amount of time. Write note-style answers orstate the areas you would have covered: you may get some credit. Keep writing until theinvigilators insist that you stop.

Needing a toilet break. Don’t become anxious or embarrassed about the need for a toilet break. Put up your hand and ask to go out. Your concentration will improve afterwards and the walk there and back will allow you to refocus your thoughts.

Think positively. You can do this!

And now . . .

63.1 Begin your revision early. Good preparation breeds confidence, whichcounteracts nerves.

63.2 Discuss how you feel about your exams with someone else. It alwayshelps to realise you are not alone. However, try not to dwell on yourmutual anxiety – try to gain a boost from friendship in adversity and focuson the celebration you will have when the exams are over.

63.3 Complete the exam checklist (page 411). Knowing you have everythingyou need will boost your confidence.

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PART

G LOOKING TO THE FUTURE

64 Planning for a career: how to focus on your future

65 Assessing yourself: how to evaluate your skills, qualities,motivations and values

66 Your curriculum vitae: how to describe yourself to potentialemployers

67 Kick-starting your career: how to find suitable job vacancies andapply for them

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G

64 PLANNING FOR A CAREER 419

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Thinking in detail about a future career is something most students may be tempted toput off for another day, but most careers advisers would say that this is misguided.

If you are studying a subject that leads to a number of potential graduate careers, butno specific occupation, then you may be tempted to delay your decision until you seeexactly what qualification you obtain and what the job market looks like when you grad-uate. However, exploring possible career routes at an early stage will provide you with a better idea of the range of options you should be considering. It will also help you to make curriculum-related decisions that will place you in a better position to apply successfully for suitable jobs.

If you are studying for a degree that is a professional qualification, or your chosen discipline has a clear vocational aim, then you may feel that you have already made the most important decisions already. However, even for professional and vocationalgraduates, there are important choices to be made about which specialism you will target.

What career planning involves

For an undergraduate student, this involves:

l clear thinking about your long-term goals and aspirations;

l looking at potential occupations and how they fit your personality and qualifications;

l researching your options, and finding out where the best opportunities lie.

You’ve then got to seek out suitable posts and apply successfully for one (Ch 67). Onceon the first rung of a career, the process does not stop; then you need to gain experienceand continue your professional development.

64 Planning for a career

How to focus on your future

The sooner you start planning for your future career, the better. Findingout which occupations might suit your personality and anticipatedqualifications will help you to focus your studies and choose appropriatevacation work, so that you can develop an effective curriculum vitae.

Key terms

AspirationCPDExtra-curricularVocational degree


l What career planning involvesl Finding out about different occupationsl Creating an action plan

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The first step in career planning is, therefore, to think about your goals and aspirations.Where would you like to be, both work-wise and in your private life, in 10 or 15 years?What would you like to have achieved? Some students will have a very firm view of this.Others, probably the majority, will be hazy about their future. If you are in this secondgroup, then the answers you give to the following questions might help you to narrowdown your options.

l Would you like to earn a high salary, and are you comfortable with the commitment,work rate, competition and responsibility this might entail?

l Would you like to have lots of options within your career, either through possibilitiesfor developing different career paths with your original employer, or by using yourinitial job as a springboard to different posts with other employers?

l Would you like your occupation to have a caring or ethical dimension, even if thismight mean sacrifices in terms of pay and conditions?

l Would you rule out some work areas for ethical or other reasons?

l Would you like to work as part of a team, or would you relish having autonomy andfreedom in your work?

l Would you like a career that eventually gives you power and influence?

l Would you like a long-lived, secure career that may offer lower reward, as opposedto taking a gamble on a shorter-lived, more highly rewarded position and trustingthat things will work out in the end?

l Would you like your career to reflect the subjects you have studied at university?

l Would you like to continue your studies at a higher level, hoping to be appointed toa higher-level post, even though this may narrow your options and delay entry intothe workplace?

The answers you give to these questions will reflect underlying aspects of your characterthat you may not have thought deeply about, but which you can investigate furtherthrough diagnostic careers-related personality tests. There are a number of these; yourcareers service may recommend a particular selection and you can find many online (seebelow). These tests generally aim to provide an objective analysis of your attitude toemployment and then present a number of occupations for you to consider.

420 64 PLANNING FOR A CAREER

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There are many tests on the Web, some of which are paid-for services. Try two freeexamples before going further:

n Prospects Planner: http://www.prospects.ac.uk

n BBC careers test:http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/mind/surveys/careers/index.shtml

You are advised to discuss the results with a careers adviser, who may be able to pointyou to other tests.

Online personality tests related to occupations

Another way of finding out about possible occupations is to explore the normal employ-ment destinations for graduates in your subject. You may find that your department or university careers service is able to supply this information. If your degree leads to a

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professional qualification, you will probably find that the relevant professional body hasa website that explains the options open to graduates.

You will need to bear in mind the supply and demand aspect of employment. For exam-ple, a scarcity of graduate applicants in one speciality can lead to enhanced pay and conditions, which then attracts students to the area, with consequent oversupply. Also,global and national economic conditions can have a profound effect on job availability.This means you should try not to pin all your hopes on one occupation, and should keepother possibilities in mind.

Some occupations may require further qualifications(for example, being a practising lawyer) and you maychoose to continue with postgraduate studies beforemoving into a career. Your careers service is probablya good place to ask about options; in addition, askyour tutors, as they may be able to recommendcourses and institutions for you to investigate.Studying for a higher degree normally requires thatyou achieve a certain standard of qualification (page 321), so you should probably explore this optionalongside other possibilities so that you have a fall-back plan.

Finding out about different occupations

Having found some career routes that suit your personality, expected qualification andinclination, you should now find out more about each possibility. The first stage in thisprocess is to carry out a general investigation, sifting through your options to find ashortlist to explore in more detail. This may involve:

l Obtaining impartial information. You can find this from, for example, the GraduateProspects website. You will probably be interested in salary scales, options forprogression and working conditions (see page 422). You should also try to find outprecisely what minimum qualifications are expected and what skills and qualities willplace you in a better position to succeed with an application. If you have a particularcompany or employment sector in mind, you can find out about its business andeconomic prospects from websites allied to share dealing and investment.

..

G

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n One-to-one confidential meetings with careers advisers, who may have specialistknowledge about relevant job sectors.

n Access to files and computer software to help you research careers options.

n Organisation of careers fairs (sometimes referred to as the ‘milk round’) andseminars by recruiters.

n A ‘job shop’ to help you obtain vacation employment.

n Workshops and modules to help you with career planning skills, such as CV writingand interview technique.

Typical facilities offered by a university careers service

If you want to move withoutdelay into a postgraduatecourse, you will need toexplore possibilities well inadvance of your expectedgraduation, since the closingdates for applications willtypically be three to sixmonths in advance of this.

Studying for a higherdegree

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l Reading companies’ literature. You can obtainthis at your careers service, at careers fairs, or bywriting to or emailing the personnel or humanresources department of the firm. When youreceive this information, always bear in mind thatthe company has an interest in presenting itself inthe best possible way.

Having narrowed down your options, the next phaseis to find out about specific jobs in reality. This is lesseasy to do, but your options include:

l Speaking to someone already in the job. Thiscould be a friend of your parents, or someone youhave met socially or at job fairs or on site visits.

l Contacting a specific company. You might, forexample, write to or email the personnel or human resources department with anyqueries.

l Gaining first-hand experience. Try to obtain summer work or a job placement in arelevant position. Some companies offer internships and job-shadowing schemesdesigned for just this purpose, and they will be just as interested in finding outabout you as you are in finding out about them.


..

Although this is technically alimited company, it is run forand on behalf of universitycareers services throughoutthe UK. It is therefore in agood position to offerimpartial advice, and itswebsites and other resourcesare extremely useful. Youmay need to register onlineto gain access to somefacilities.

What is GraduateProspects?

Apart from salary scales, the following are aspects you should explore:

n Support for continuing professional development (CPD).

n Career progression – how you can move within the organisation, and how quickly youcan expect to be promoted.

n Pension conditions.

n Location, and whether you will be expected to move around as part of your training.

n Relocation expenses.

n Security of position (for example, notice period).

n Perks, such as share ownership or profit-sharing schemes, company car, privatemedical care and health-club membership.

n The long-term prospects for the company and field of work.

Working conditions: what matters?

The term ‘employability’ is increasingly used in career planning contexts. It is used to indicate the blend of subject knowledge; subject-specific, generic and career-management skills; and personal qualities, values and motivations that will help astudent gain suitable employment and perform effectively throughout their career.

Definition: employability

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Creating an action plan

Having considered your long-term goals and aspirations, and looked into potential destina-tions, it’s time to switch to the shorter-term picture. Here, you need to project forwardto the application you could be making for a suitable job (Ch 67). Choices you make as an undergraduate can allow you to accumulate experience, skills and knowledge and enhance your employability. Relevant information can be presented in your CV andcovering letter as appropriate to a position.

l What sort of a degree will you need to bring about your ambition? Assumingyour programme of study allows you options, you may wish to consider:

– your future module choices, so that the skills and knowledge you gain are wellmatched to your career aspirations;

– the precise type of degree that you opt for (for example, joint honours or aparticular named honours degree), if this might influence your chances;

– the nature of project work or job placements you choose;

– how hard you work to obtain the degree classification that may be required as aminimum qualification.

l What experience might it be valuable to obtain in vacation or even term-timeemployment? This experience could be direct, if you are lucky enough to obtain arelevant internship, but it could also be indirect, such as a sales position that allowsyou to demonstrate that you can interact wellwith customers or clients.

l What skills and personal qualities will berelevant? As well as your qualifications,employers will be interested in your personalqualities and in the examples or evidence you canprovide to show that you have the skills andqualities they are looking for (Ch 65). You maywish to look into extra-curricular activities thatcould assist you to provide such evidence. Bear inmind that your experience and personal qualitiescan and should be supported by references fromthose who employ you. Before you leave anyposition, ask those who might be suitable whetherthey would be willing to act as one of yourreferees.

All these thoughts should put you in a good positionto create an action plan. This should contain specifictasks (for example, contact the personnel departmentof Bloggs Plc to ask about vacation work; volunteerfor a responsible position in your favourite sportsclub), and dates by which you hope to achieve them(end of the term; at the annual general meeting).

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Your vacation employer maybe willing to act as one yourreferees (Ch 67) by providing a confidential reference;some are happy to provide an ‘open’ reference letter for you.

Open or confidentialreferences

While the point of an actionplan is indeed to be able totick off the items on it, do notworry if you cannot achievethis in all cases. You shouldrecognise that the process of thinking through andcreating a plan can be just asimportant as carrying it out.

Completing your actionplan

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And now . . .

64.1 Make an appointment to speak to a careers adviser at your careersservice. Even though you may have only vague ideas about future options,the adviser will be experienced at helping you to create a shortlist toconsider, and will be able to point you in the direction of tools, such aspersonality tests, that can help in this process.

64.2 Carry out a web search to find out more about suitable occupations.This requires no commitment on your part and may help you rule outoptions that do not fit with your goals and aspirations. You may wish tostart with the Graduate Prospects site (www.prospects.ac.uk) and move on to specific employers’ bodies or professional bodies, and from there toindividual employers.

64.3 Start on your career action plan. Follow the outline given within thischapter to create a plan and try to ensure that you do something related to your future prospects during every term/semester.

Practical tips for career planning

Investigate career options, even if you are studying for a vocational degree. Careersin professions like Law and Medicine offer many different options and specialities. If youare studying for a degree like these, you need to be just as clued up about these possib-ilities as if you were studying for a non-vocational degree and looking at a wide range ofpotential graduate occupations.

Use your personal development plan (PDP) process to help you map out your poten-tial career. While the nature of PDP will differ depending on where you are studying, atits heart this process helps you analyse your goals and plan your future, so it overlapsgreatly with the career planning process (Ch 7).

Keep your CV up to date. A professionally presented CV will always be required whenyou apply for a post, and it is time-consuming to produce this from scratch. Also, it iseasy to forget the fine detail that you will need to include in it. While the advice given inCh 66 is to tailor your CV for every position you apply for, you will find this process eas-ier if you have a generic version to hand that includes all relevant details. Drafting a CVwill put you in a better position to view yourself as a potential employer would, whichmay help you plan activities to enhance your profile.

Seek opportunities to discuss possible occupations. As noted above, this can help you find out whether a particular occupation might be for you. However, you cannotexpect people to come to you to talk about these matters; you will probably need to beproactive in obtaining contacts and asking for a word with them. Most will be willing to spare you a few minutes, but make sure you have some focused questions prepared, so you don’t waste the opportunity.

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65 ASSESSING YOURSELF 425

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When employers seek to fill a post by recruiting a university graduate, they tend to assume that applicants come with certain assets that distinguish them from non-graduates. Their main preoccupation lies with the job that needs to be done and appoint-ing the candidate who is best suited to fulfil the role. Your degree is testimony to youracademic ability; however, the knowledge base of your degree may be of less interest toemployers than the personal qualities that you will bring to the job.

The experience of university will have influenced your personal development, especiallythe innate qualities and practical skills that make you unique. This is encompassed in the‘graduateness’ that employers seek. In order to identify your graduate characteristics,your first challenge is to take a frank look at who you are, what your skills are and whatqualities you possess.

The aim of this chapter is to help you to evaluate these qualities. Other parts of this bookdeal with:

l the transferability of skills and the notions of graduateness and employability (Ch 6, Ch 64);

l how you might record and reflect upon your developing qualities and skills as part ofpersonal development planning (Ch 7);

l and how qualities and skills can be communicated to an employer as part of yourcurriculum vitae and job application (Ch 66, Ch 67).

65 Assessing yourself

How to evaluate your skills, qualities, motivations and values

Moving on from the university experience and fulfilling your professionalambitions is a challenging and exciting step. You need to think about whatyou have to offer to an employer. What skills do you bring with you? Whatmarks you out as an individual? What makes you tick? You need to thinkabout the abilities, traits, motivations and values that distinguish you as anindividual. In other words, you need to know yourself before you can hopeto convince an employer that you are their ideal candidate.

Key terms

EmployabilityGraduatenessMotivationTraitTransferable skillValues


l Assessing your skills and personal qualitiesl Summarising your interests, motivations and values

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Assessing your skills and personal qualities

Skills and qualities are often confused and the bound-ary between them can be imprecise.

l Skills are things you can do and are sometimescalled competences. They can often be learnedfrom scratch and improve as you become moreexperienced (Ch 6).

l Personal qualities are innate to you – traits thatyou are born with and are a reflection of yourpersonality. These natural aptitudes adapt anddevelop as you gain experience. Your learningstyle (Ch 13) also reflects your personal qualities.

To some extent, your individual traits set limits on the skills you can gain. For example,you may not be able to become technically proficient at any manual skill if you lack thepersonal quality of dexterity. It’s easy to take your personal qualities and skills for granted.You may not regard some of your talents as anything remarkable if you see them only inone context – your studies or social life – and do not yet appreciate their potential rele-vance in the workplace.

Spending some time reflecting on your personal qualities and skills enables you to:

l identify examples of the skills employers may want;

l examine your strengths and weaknesses;

l reflect on what you have done to date – this will include your university career sofar, as well as things you do outside university, for example part-time work or aleisure activity;

l think about and then rehearse how you might present and give examples of thesetraits and skills at interview;

l use this information to construct and develop your CV.

426 65 ASSESSING YOURSELF

..

An example of a skill: theability to organise and deliver effective spokenpresentations.

Examples of personalqualities: integrity andpatience.

Examples: skills andpersonal qualities

n If you said that you were well skilled in giving spoken presentations, then you mightmention (and show) a PowerPoint presentation that you used to explain an honoursproject. Your referees might wish to describe the high quality of this presentation inany reference they were asked to provide.

n If you describe yourself as trustworthy, then an example to show this might comefrom acting as a treasurer of a voluntary organisation. Your referees may be able toconfirm your honesty and trustworthiness.

Demonstrating your skills and personality traits

Authorities disagree about this term and some even dispute whether there is value indefining it beyond ‘having a university degree’. The concept certainly goes further thanpossessing transferable skills, and may involve having subject-related knowledge; thecapability to manage tasks and solve problems; being able to communicate well; theability to work with others; and having self-awareness.

Definition: graduateness

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No individual can be good at everything. Think about things that you know you are good at, for example working with others or your determination to do things as well asyou can. Then, being honest with yourself, acknowledge those things that are your leaststrong traits and think about how you may need to work on those to make them less dis-advantageous. For example, if you are untidy or poor at organising your time or not par-ticularly good at critical thinking, then think about practical ways to improve. It’s alsovaluable to remember that sometimes strengths have complementary weaknesses, andvice versa. This is evident, for example, in the parts people play in teams (Ch 19).

Complete Table 65.1 to evaluate your skills and Table 65.2 to assess your personal qual-ities. This will help you to think about what examples you could provide to demonstratethese dimensions of your personality, aptitudes and capabilities. Table 65.3 shows howsome of the academic skills that you develop on the way to your degree can transfer toprofessional situations.

Your CV should reflect the fact that you recognise that you have particular qualities andskills. While the essential elements of your CV will probably not change for each job forwhich you apply, ideally, you should adjust your ‘core version’ CV in small ways to fit therequirements of the post, by highlighting appropriate traits and capabilities. Wherespace permits, you may wish to provide examples that demonstrate that you have beenable to use these to good effect.

Summarising your interests, motivations and values

One of the hardest things in life is to understand whatyour personal interests, motivations and values are.What drives or motivates you? What do you considerto be just and right? If you can assess your stance on these things, it can lead to satisfaction in both your private life and your career. University offersyou ‘space’ to explore all sorts of ideas and activities.Some you will accept; others you will reject. Theseexperiences will shape your interests, motivations andvalue systems.

Interests

In this context, these are the things that you enjoydoing outside your formal academic course (sometimes

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If you are asked to conduct a critical review of a research paper as part of a studyexercise, you will need to uncover the meaning of key words and trace other relatedwork by the same author. In doing all this, you will have developed importantinformation-gathering and critical-thinking skills that you will be able to apply elsewhere.However, extra-curricular activities, for example those gained through the Duke ofEdinburgh’s Award scheme, playing as a member of a sports team or performingsupervisory responsibilities in your part-time job, can also be used to indicate your‘staying power’, motivation, self-discipline, team-playing and leadership skills.

Applying skills from university and beyond

It may help when summarisingyour interests to think ofthem under the maincategories normally applied:

n artistic

n literary

n practical, conservationistand scientific

n social and interpersonal

n problem-solving

n enterprise-related.

Categories of interests

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..


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PERSONAL RATING

Skill and (relevant chapters)

Analysing problems and tasks Ch 33, Ch 34

Career and entrepreneurial skillsCh 9, Ch 64–Ch 67

Critical thinking Ch 22

Contributing in meetings Ch 18, Ch 19

Communicating in a foreignlanguage

Dealing with data Ch 29, Ch 30

Designing experiments/surveys Ch 20, Ch 51

Discussing and debating Ch 18, Ch 19, Ch 21, Ch 49

Exam-sitting Ch 57–Ch 63

Financial management Ch 9

ICT – general computing skills Ch 27

ICT – PowerPoint Ch 27, Ch 55

ICT – spreadsheets Ch 27, Ch 30

ICT – using the Web Ch 24,Ch 27, Ch 28

ICT – word-processing Ch 27,Ch 33

Information analysis Ch 24,Ch 26

Information retrieval Ch 23,Ch 26

Laboratory skills Ch 20, Ch 51

Listening to others Ch 16,Ch 19, Ch 21, Ch 56

Logical approach to problems Ch 8, Ch 22, Ch 34, Ch 51

Negotiating skills Ch 19

stronger

Good . . . . . . Very competent

Table 65.1 Assessing your skills. Using the list below, draw an arrow on the appropriateside of the central column to indicate your personal rating of your skills. Ignore anycategories that do not seem relevant to your degree, intended career or current stage of study, and add new categories where this would be relevant. If you aren’t sure whatsomething means, then look it up in a dictionary – these terms might be valuable tounderstand for applications and interviews. Use different coloured arrows at a later time to see how your skills profile has changed.

weaker

Could improve . . . . . . . . . . OK

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Note-taking Ch 17, Ch 26

Numeracy – maths Ch 29, Ch 31

Numeracy – statistics Ch 30

Performance under assessment Ch 45–Ch 50

Performance under stress Ch 12,Ch 63

Planning your work Ch 7, Ch 8,Ch 34, Ch 51, Ch 57

Preparing a poster Ch 54

Project management Ch 51

Reading for academic purposes Ch 25, Ch 26

Report writing Ch 52

Study and revision skills Ch 14,Ch 17, Ch 26, Ch 57–Ch 60

Social skills Ch 11

Speaking in public Ch 55

Numeracy – specific maths skillsCh 29–Ch 31

Teamwork Ch 18, Ch 19

Thesis or dissertation writing Ch 53

Time management Ch 8, Ch 20,Ch 57

Using library resources Ch 23

Writing – citing sources Ch 35

Writing essays and reports Ch 48, Ch 52, Ch 53

Writing letters, memos andemails Ch 27, Ch 34

Writing – organising andpresenting Ch 33–Ch 35, Ch 37,Ch 38, Ch 44

Writing – use of English Ch 38–Ch 43

Other (specify)


weaker

Could improve . . . . . . . . . .OK

PERSONAL RATING

Skill and (relevant chapters)

stronger

Good . . . . . . Very competent

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referred to as your ‘extra-curricular activities’). Examples might include leisure pursuitssuch as playing or watching a team sport, listening to music, or some form of creativepastime such as oil painting. Interests may have guided your choice of degree. Someonewho likes keeping pet animals might choose to study veterinary science or zoology, for example. Interests that have, or might have, adirect bearing on a potential career are known asoccupational interests. You might discover both thetalent and desire to become a journalist, for example,through helping to produce a student newspaper orcommunity newsletter.

Motivations

These involve a complex set of concepts that are closelytied to your personality. They include internal feelingsthat energise, direct and sustain your behaviour, andthey contribute to the values that you embrace. Takencollectively, motivations are what ‘make you tick’ andmake you behave in a particular way. When you feelmotivated in your studies or work, you have the sensethat what you are doing is something to which you arehappy to devote time and effort.

..


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Table 65.2 Assessing your personal qualities. Using the list below, give yourself a markout of five in the ‘rating’ column, being appropriately self-critical. You might like to ask afriend or a family member for their opinion too. Circle the relevant number, where 1 = not astrength, 3 = well developed and 5 = very highly developed. Ignore any categories that donot seem relevant to you and add new categories where this is relevant. If you aren’t surewhat something means, then look it up – these terms might be valuable to understand forapplications and interviews.

My personal qualities Rating My personal qualities Rating

Adaptability 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Personal fitness and health 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Crisis management 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Proactive approach 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Determination 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Seeing other’s viewpoints 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Energy 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Self-discipline 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Enthusiasm 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Sense of purpose 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Flexibility 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Staying power/tenacity 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Honesty 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Taking the initiative 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Innovation 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Thoroughness 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Integrity 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Tolerance 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Leadership 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Rising to challenges 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Motivation 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Other (specify) 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Patience 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Other (specify) 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Perseverance 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Other (specify) 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5

Employers often state thatthey wish to appoint a ‘highlymotivated individual’ to aposition. By this, they meansomeone with energy andambition. Such individuals will characteristically have ahigh work rate, be a dynamiccolleague, and can channel or marry their personal driveto fit with the goals of theemployer. Note that thisaspect of motivation differssomewhat from the onediscussed opposite.

Motivation and ambition

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Examples of factors that might motivate someone tochoose a particular career path include: rewards – fin-ancial and material; altruism – the desire to help others;a wish to interact with people; and a need for securityand stability.

Values

These reflect our sense of what is moral or ethical andare fundamental to many people. Thus, if you holdpacifist views you might not consider employment inthe defence industry; if you have strong views on theenvironment, then you may choose to take a lower-paid job that promotes conservation, rather than ahigher-paid one where the core activity pollutes the environment or consumes excessivenatural resources. You need to recognise your personal values so that you are aware ofoccasions where these may be compromised in your work, for example where, as alawyer or social worker, you might be placed in the position of defending or supportingsomeone who has committed a serious crime.

Table 65.4 will help you to examine your interests, motivations and values.


..

To put your attributes andachievements in perspective,it is sometimes helpful toseek a second opinion,perhaps from a tutor orcareers adviser. This can help you to achieve a balancebetween underestimatingyourself and oversellingyourself.

Getting a second opinion

B My motivations and values

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Prospects for advancement: promotion;career progression

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Environmental issues: work that enhancesthe environment

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Altruism: helping others; caring for theneedy

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Independence: ability to make decisions;freedom of action

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Desire to lead: wish for power andresponsibility

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Material benefits: high salary; property;good standard of living

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Prestige: having achievements recognised;being influential

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Risk and excitement: need to takechances; opportunity to speculate

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Security: continuity of employment;recognised structure of work

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Team membership: stimulus from workingwith others

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Variety: change and diversity in tasks,people and places

1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 Other (specify):

Table 65.4 A simple aid for recording your interests, motivations and values. In section A, use the categories as a prompt to help you think of different activities andpastimes that interest you and write these down in the spaces provided. In section B, make a personal assessment of your work-related motivations and values, rating them from 1 (not important to me), through 3 (I’m equivocal about this) to 5 (very important to me).

A My interests

Artistic:

Literary:

Practical – creative:

Practical – nature/conservation:

Practical – scienific/technical:

Social and interpersonal:

Problem-solving:

Enterprise-related:

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Practical tips for evaluating skills, qualities, motivationsand values

Recognise your strengths and play to them.. Once you have a picture of your strengths,including those not measured in prizes and high marks but in ‘softer’ aspects such aspatience, understanding and interpersonal skills, then explore ways to make the most of them, whether in curriculum choices, extra-curricular activities, or when researchingpossible occupations that might suit you.

Recognise your weak areas and develop strategies to counter them. Make a deter-mined effort to overcome these frailties. For example, face up to your shyness byacknowledging that it’s not the end of the world if you fluff a line in a presentation – justdo your best and you may surprise yourself. Try to think positively rather than negativelyabout yourself, so that your concern about your weaknesses does not become a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Match your personality to occupations or branches of an occupation. If you are undecided about your career path, you may wish to explore the match between differenttypes of work and your personal traits and likely qualification. This is best done with the expert advice of a careers specialist, and probably as soon as possible in your timeat university. Even if you are studying for a vocational degree, it is worth researching the different branches of the job, to see if your degree choices, such as selection of an honours project or dissertation subject, vacation employment or extra-curricular activities,might assist you to make a decision or help you get on the first step of the career ladder.

Aim for progression. University is a unique experience and you will not leave higher edu-cation as the same person who started out. If you evaluate yourself using the informa-tion in Tables 65.1–65.3 at an early stage in your university career, you might like to listyour characteristics on paper and put this away safely, perhaps with official certificatesand papers. When you come to construct your CV for your first professional job applica-tion, you may find it valuable to look at this list again and analyse ways in which you havechanged.

Think about examples and evidence. When you feel you possess a particular strength,and have recorded this in Tables 65.1–65.3, consider what example(s) or evidence youmight show to a potential employer to demonstrate this.

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And now . . .

65.1 Search for more sophisticated personality tests. Many tests based onpsychological testing strategies can be found on the Internet. Your careersservice may also be able to provide opportunities to try out a selection. Aswell as helping your self-analysis, this is worth doing, because employersoften use such tests to assess applicants for jobs.

65.2 Think about how you can demonstrate your personal qualities. Havingreviewed your personal qualities as suggested above, select five that youfeel are highly developed and that would be well regarded by a potentialemployer. For each of these, note down some examples that demonstratehow you apply or have applied the skill, trait or motivation.

65.3 Put your interests and motivations into words. Writing things down is agood way of crystallising your thinking on a topic or issue. Write aparagraph on each of the following:

l your interests

l your motivations

l your values.

This will help you express your innermost feelings coherently into wordsand enable you to think, not only about how you would respond toquestions about them at an interview, but also how they may affect thecareer and curriculum choices you will make en route to your career goal.

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The principal aim of a CV is to communicate, in brief, the qualifications, experience andskills you have that might suit you for a job. It’s important to realise that your CV maybe one of many that a potential employer will scan, and that you may only have a fewmoments of their attention to make a favourable impression. The quality of this docu-ment and of the accompanying application letter and personal statement are thereforevital for successful job-hunting.

What recruiters are looking for in a CV

Typically, a recruiter will use the following criteria toevaluate your CV:

l Good presentation. They will want to see a clearlayout that makes it easy to find the informationthey need, plus indications that you can expressyourself fluently and have some design flair.

l Relevance. They will expect to see from thecontent that you would be a good fit to the jobdescription. They’ll need sufficient detail todetermine this, but at the same time not too manyfacts of doubtful relevance that might waste theirtime and call into doubt your ability to evaluate and filter information.

l Lack of obvious mistakes. They will not think highly of CVs containing spellingerrors or grammatical mistakes (Ch 39–Ch 41). They will think you may bring suchsloppiness to their job.

66 Your curriculum vitae

How to describe yourself to potential employers

A curriculum vitae (CV) is a standard mechanism for assisting a possibleemployer to find out who you are and what skills and qualities you have tooffer. Your chances of reaching the interview stages of a job applicationmay depend on its contents and presentation, so it is vital to construct itcarefully so that you give a good impression.

Key terms

ClichéCurriculum vitaeCVTranscript


l What recruiters are looking for in a CVl Structure and contentsl Presentationl Tailoring your CVl Developing your CV

Curriculum vitae is a Latinphrase meaning ‘the courseyour life has taken’ and is often shortened to CV(pronounced ‘see vee’). It is a written summary of your career history andachievements to date.

Definition: curriculumvitae

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l Honesty. They will demand full information andfrankness about personal qualities and skills. Ifthere is an obvious mismatch between your CVclaims and your references, university transcriptor interview performance, this will count severelyagainst you.

l Character. They will want to see evidence thatyou would make an interesting and stimulatingcolleague. They will not want to see yet anotherclichéd CV produced by one of the commontemplates.

l Added value. They will hope that you havequalities and skills additional to the ones in the job description. Since there may be manyapplicants with similar qualifications, this maymark you out from the crowd.

l Evidence and examples. They will want somemeans of confirming that the claims you make are valid. This may come from your referees oruniversity transcript, but you should also mentionreports, talks or other things you have done. Theymay ask you about these at interview.

l Completeness. They will expect your CV to beright up to date. Also, they will look for periods where you do not appear to havebeen doing anything – and ask you about these at interview.

Structure and contents

Seven basic elements of a typical UK-style CV are described in Table 66.1. Most CVs willinclude all these sections, but you may choose to use different titles for the headings andto include appropriate amounts of information, as suits the job specification. Of course,because you are a unique person, the precise details will be your own.

Your CV should be brief and to the point and appropriately balanced. Aim for about twoto three A4 pages.

Sometimes you will be expected to fill in a form instead of supplying a CV. This aids theinitial screening of applicants and is common where an employer regularly takes on largenumbers of graduate starters. Where a format is specified by an employer, make sureyou comply with it.

Presentation

First impressions count. The presentation of your CV is the first thing a potentialemployer notices. Aspects such as quality of paper and print are important, but the docu-ment’s design and the clarity of wording will be the most important influences. As thesewill be taken as an indication of your character, you should think about them very care-fully. This does not mean you need to have a conspicuous or adventurous design. Most

436 66 YOUR CURRICULUM VITAE

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A busy employer simply doesnot have the time to lookdeeply at your CV, and mayhave hundreds of similarapplications to deal with. Ifyour CV is difficult to read, orfails to inform about crucialdetails, or is ambiguous inany way, it will be rejectedimmediately.

Don’t give employers anexcuse for rejecting you

You should update a genericCV roughly twice a year – forexample, after each semesteror term should be sufficient.Your CV should also beupdated and adapted for each job for which you apply.

How frequently should Iupdate my CV?

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employers are traditional by nature and would prefer that you adopt a broadly conven-tional pattern by demonstrating ‘controlled originality’.

The reader needs to be able to find the information they want quickly, so the ‘signpost-ing’ from headings should be especially clear. To give you the best chance of being considered for a post, the language used in your CV should be clear and unambiguous.The layout should be unfussy (e.g. with a minimum of font types) and readable (in a clear font, such as Times Roman or Arial and in a reasonable size such as 12 point). If yousubmit your CV electronically, in the accompanying communication, state the softwareversion used.

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Usual contents

Your full name, date of birth, contact address(es), contactphone numbers and email address. You don’t have toinclude your sex, but may wish to, especially if your namecould apply to a man or a woman.

A summary of your career plans. Also aspects of yourgoals and aspirations on which you would like theemployer to focus.

The qualifications you have already achieved, includingthose that may be pending. Most people put currentqualifications first, then work backwards. Stateeducational institutions, years of attendance and theacademic year in which each qualification or set ofqualifications was gained. Include more detail if it isrelevant, e.g. aspects of a subject covered in courses.

Details of past and current work (both paid andvoluntary). Include dates, employer’s name and your jobtitle. You may also wish to add major duties if these arenot obvious from the job title. These should be arrangedin reverse time sequence – from present to past.

An indication of the match between your abilities and the job description. You may wish to refer to examplesand evidence here. Ch 65 should help you assess yourstrengths and weaknesses.

This is a chance to show your character, and perhaps to indicate that you would make an interesting andenthusiastic colleague. Employers will use this section to build a picture of you as a person; however, they maybe put off by someone who appears quirky or bizarre in their eyes. Also if this section is overemphasised, theymay assume that you have placed greater emphasis onyour social life than on your studies. Choose intereststhat display potentially valuable traits, e.g. sportsactivities that indicate you are a good team member.

This is where you provide the names and contact detailsfor those who have agreed to provide a reference for you.Further details about what’s involved in selecting andcommunicating with your referees is provided in Ch 67.

Table 66.1 Elements of a typical CV

Element, with alternative headings

1 Personal detailsName and contact details

2 ProfileCareer aimCareer objectivePersonal profile

3 EducationQualifications Education and qualifications

4 Work experienceEmployment

5 Skills and personal qualitiesSkills and achievementsSkills and competences

6 Interests and activitiesInterestsLeisure activities

7 RefereesReferences

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Tailoring your CV

When using your CV to make an application for a job, it is vital that you tailor it to the jobspecification, so that you bring out the match with your qualifications, experience, skillsand personality.

You will often find a brief job description within the job advert or associated web-basedmaterial, or this may be provided as part of an application pack. For each position youshould carry out a mapping exercise between the key elements of the job description andyour own CV. This should take into account the following:

l The minimum qualifications and skills required. If you don’t have these, it willprobably not be worth applying.

l The specific experience, competences and qualities required. It’s important to beable to identify evidence that shows that you have these.

l Anything beneficial you might add if you were appointed to the job, such as an ITskill gained in a particular module.

l Anything not stated in the job description, but implied, such as the ability to write oredit copy.

Developing your CV

Your CV is not a static document and should be reviewed and updated as you acquirenew qualifications and skills. At intervals, you should think about additions to your CVand also your plans for developing it (Ch 7, Ch 64). Especially if you are in your earlyyears at university, and have a clear idea of your career path, it should be possible toidentify activities that might be useful to take part in. Also, thinking in this way may influ-ence your choice of course modules and/or degree options.

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There are no hard and fast rules, but the following may help:

n Don’t try to cram too much into your CV – the reader can only absorb the key points.They can always ask you more if they select you for interview.

n Avoid long paragraphs in favour of bullet points, as these are assimilated morereadily.

n Use ‘white space’ to spread out the information so that it is easy to read and thedesign is pleasing to the eye.

n Use a single font throughout and avoid overuse of emphasis such as capital letters,italics and bold.

n Limited use of colour can look attractive, for instance in headings, and might markyour CV out from the rest. However, do not overuse colour or it will lessen the impactand give an unfocused feel. Remember that colours may appear in greyscale or evendisappear if your CV is photocopied for interview panel members – and may in factdull down your document rather than brighten it.

Tips for CV presentation

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And now . . .

66.1 Organise your CV-related information. If you haven’t already done so,create files where you can store information relevant to your CV and thedifferent versions you produce. These will include physical files, where you can store diplomas, certificates and examples of your work, andcomputer files, where you can keep word-processed documents. Since this information is so important to your future, it’s a good idea to makeappropriate back-ups of electronic files.

66.2 Research different CV models and designs. There are many websitesdealing with this (try www.prospects.co.uk). Learn from the differentdesigns and templates you see, and choose aspects you like. Try to beoriginal in your own design without being eccentric. Avoid US websites,because resumés in that country are different from UK CVs – only use thisstyle if you are applying for a position in the USA or Canada.

66.3 Discuss your draft CV with a university careers adviser. They will bepleased to comment on its structure and content, and will be able to giveadvice about ways you might develop it in relation to your career goals andsubject area. You should do this even if you are doing a vocational degreewith a standard route of entry. Acceptance for specific positions may stilldepend on the quality of your CV and any special talents and traits you candemonstrate.

Practical tips for constructing and developing your CV

Use all your experience, qualifications, sports and leisure activities to your benefit.These can provide evidence about personal qualities, such as leadership or trustworthiness.Refer to them factually at the appropriate points in the CV (Table 66.1) and mention themagain in relation to personal qualities and skills, either in the specific section on this orin your personal statement or application letter.

Get a second opinion on your CV and application letter. Ask a trusted and criticalfriend or family member to look through every version of your CV that you produce to check for errors and to help you bring out the best in your submission. Your careersservice may offer a service for this, or you may wish to seek the advice of an academicadviser.

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1 The need for a new position is identified.

2 A job description is constructed.

3 Funding for salary and added costs is agreed.

4 An advert is placed with a job description, giving a closing date for applications.

5 Applicants submit CVs and application letters.

6 Applications are sorted and a shortlist is selected for interview.

7 Interviews take place and the successful applicant is offered the post.

8 After the successful candidate accepts, others are informed.

Typical stages of recruitment

This chapter describes how to find out about job vacancies and how to apply for them. Itassumes you know the type of job you want. If this is not yet the case, see Ch 64.

Finding job openings

Different types of job require different job-finding strategies. First, you should find outwhat the common recruitment practice is for the type of work you are considering. Youcan find out about this from:

l the Graduate Prospects website (www.prospects.ac.uk) and, in particular, theoccupational profiles in its Prospects Planner section (also available from yourcareers service);

l paper-based occupational files held by your university’s careers service;

l word of mouth from careers advisers, tutors, professional associations, employersor fellow students.

67 Kick-starting your career

How to find suitable job vacancies and apply for them

Taking your first step on to the career ladder is a major event in your lifeand no one approaches it lightly. This chapter outlines how to search forsuitable job openings, how to compose a letter of application and personalstatement, and how to approach an interview. This information should alsohelp you obtain term-time and vacation employment.

Key terms

Curriculum vitaeRefereeReference


l Finding job openingsl Applying for jobs and other opportunitiesl Preparing for interview

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67 KICK-STARTING YOUR CAREER 441

Advertised vacancies

Jobs tend to be advertised in specialist national news-papers and magazines, or through particular recruit-ment agencies. Increasingly, vacancies are advertisedonline on company and agency websites. Mostemployers advertise specific vacancies only as needsarise. However, if a company has a graduate recruit-ment scheme, this may be advertised up to a year in advance. You may find information about theseschemes on departmental noticeboards.

Unadvertised job openings

Advertising is expensive, and recruiters try to savemoney if they feel they can. Hence, many jobs are neveradvertised, especially those in small firms within theprivate sector. Many graduates find jobs through con-tacts they have made themselves. A contact may notget you a specific job, but may be able to help youobtain an interview or point you in the right direction.This networking approach does not mean sending outhundreds of speculative applications in the hope thatone will hit the mark. Instead, you should:

l identify the organisations and the right peoplewithin them to contact;

l decide on the questions you wish to ask and makedirect contact either by telephone or letter;

l try to arrange a face-to-face meeting to follow up your initial contact.

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Successful job hunters arenot always the people withthe highest qualifications or the most relevant skills or experience. They aresometimes the people whohave taken most care to findout where to look for jobs and who apply for themeffectively.

Active job hunting

Asking people doing the kind of job you are looking for how they found theirsshould help you to identifystrategies that will work foryou. Opportunities to do thiscould arise during vacationjobs, through family contacts,or by writing a letter to thehuman resources departmentof a firm.

Speak to someone alreadyworking in your chosenfield

n Careers service vacancy bulletins.

n Graduate vacancy information from Graduate Prospects (www.prospects.ac.uk).

n Attending ‘milk-round’ events and graduate recruitment fairs.

n National, regional, local and special industry newspapers.

n Specialist journals and publications.

n Employment services/job centres – not traditionally a good source of graduatevacancies, but worth checking for local jobs.

n Recruitment agencies/private employment agencies – some deal with particular typesof vacancy; others offer a wide range. Some large employers use agencies to do theirrecruitment, but note that you may end up being an employee of the agency ratherthan the firm.

n The Internet – corporate and professional association websites often include a section on graduate vacancies (the BBC is an example). Many IT vacancies areadvertised in this way.

Additional sources of vacancy information

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Applying for jobs and other opportunities

Recruiters do not recruit to make life easier for job-seeking applicants: they recruit to meet needs andsolve problems in their own organisations. They mustbe convinced that the expense of your salary is likelyto prove a better investment than spending the samemoney in another way. For this, they need to believe:

l you have whatever formal qualifications andexperience that the job requires;

l you have and will use the personal qualities andskills the job requires;

l you view the job as an important end in itself and not merely a means to obtain a salary orassociated training opportunities and benefits.

Successful applications result, first, from applying for positions for which you are a genu-inely suitable applicant and, then, from demonstrating you suitability in an effective way.This means that you need to be watching for and creating opportunities to put acrossimportant messages about yourself. The following are important ways of demonstratingyour suitability for a post:

l Tailoring your CV so that it makes it clear that you have the necessary qualificationsand aptitude.

l Providing evidence, both within a CV and covering letter or personal statement, thatdemonstrates this.

l Taking advantage of the interview, should you be selected to a shortlist ofapplicants.

If the job description indicates that you need a particu-lar qualification or standard of qualification, then, in acompetitive situation, all applicants who do not meetthis criterion will be disregarded immediately. Perhapssurprisingly, overqualified applicants will also be lookedat with caution. Employers will feel that they may notbe satisfied with the challenges of a job, or may moveon quickly to one more suited to their talents.

Application forms

When dealing with an application form, you should take every opportunity to demonstrate that there is a good fit between the job description and your qualifications, experience, qualities and skills, as well as your career enthusiasms. Make sure you fill in the form neatly.

Application letters

Your letter of application provides an additional chance to impress a potential employer.As with your CV, it should be well presented and error-free. Use the normal format andstyle that you would for a formal business letter.


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Many of the points noted inthis chapter for industry jobsare equally relevant for these.

Applying for postgraduateresearch positions

In a large organisation,administrative aspects ofrecruitment will be carriedout by a personnel or humanresources department. Aselection committee will beconvened to sift through theapplications and interviewapplicants. In smallercompanies, recruitment maybe handled by the ‘boss’ orsection leaders directly.

Who recruits?

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Your application letter should not be lengthy, but it should include:

l both the name of the position for which you are applying and any reference numberthat is given;

l the key qualifications, skills and qualities you feel you can offer;

l if possible, specific links between your CV and the job description;

l reference to your commitment and enthusiasm for the job;

l your career objectives and what you hope to gain from the job;

l your contact details.

Personal statements

For some posts, you will be asked to provide a personal statement, which is a chance toexpand on some of the points noted above for a standard application letter. As with yourCV and covering letter, a personal statement should be closely linked to the job for whichyou are applying. This is your chance to stand out from other, similarly qualified candidates.

If a format or content is suggested, then follow this carefully and, in particular, answer asdirectly as possible any questions that are asked. Keep to any word limit that is specified.Even if no limit is stated, write concisely and present things so that they can be easilyassimilated, for example, by using short paragraphs, headings and/or or bullet points.

Selecting referees

When you apply for any job, you will be expected to nominate at least two referees – people who know you and can comment on your character and suitability for the position. They may also be expected to confirm some details of your CV. This is knownas providing a reference. A typical reference might cover the following information;

l how long the referee has known you and in what capacity;

l an outline of your qualities and skills, as they have observed them in your studies orpresent job;

l your qualities and skills in relation to the job description for the post for which youhave applied;

l comments on aspects of your character, such as general health, timekeeping andmotivation;

l an opinion as to your suitability for the post.

When choosing referees, select people who genuinely know you, and who can commenton different aspects of your CV. Typically, a recent graduate would pick one referee whoknows about their academic history, and one who can comment on their work experience.

You should contact your referees in advance to ask politely whether they would be willing to provide you with a reference; and at that time you could tell them about a spe-cific position for which you have applied, or give them details of the sort of jobs for whichyou intend applying.

It is in your interest to provide your referees with an up-to-date CV, as this will help themprovide an effective reference. It is also good manners to let them know whether yourapplication(s) were successful.

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Preparing for interview

It is hard enough to be shortlisted for a post, but many people find the subsequent inter-view stage even more of a challenge. As well as the fact that you will be expected toanswer difficult and unseen questions, you will be nervous, because your chances of get-ting a coveted post may depend on your performance. There are various ways in whichyou can prepare before an interview.

l Carry out some research on the company and organisation, and the key figures onthe interview panel, if you know who they are.

l Look again at the job description and think through concrete ways in which you candemonstrate the ability to carry out the duties of the post.

l If the post is professional or technical, revise relevant theory, techniques, practiceand law.

l Note down questions you may have about the organisation and post.

l Ensure you can answer some of the more common interview questions (see below)and, where these appear tricky, evolve strategies for providing a positive slant toyour answer.

l Think carefully about appropriate dress for the interview (smart but comfortable).

At the interview itself, focus on the following:

l When you are introduced to the panel, make eye contact with each member andsmile at them.

l Where appropriate, give a firm, confident handshake.


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These are typical questions in an interview, although they may be wrapped in subtlydifferent phrasing, or specifically related to the organisation and job description:

q What attracted you to this post?

q What makes you think you are the right person for this job?

q How did your degree and/or work experience prepare you for the challenges of this job?

q Please tell me about your experience doing X . . .

q Tell me about your interest in [a hobby or pastime] . . .

q What are your strengths?

q What are your weaknesses?

q What would you do if you held this post and the following scenario occurred . . . ?

q How do you see your career here evolving?

q Could you tell me about . . . [techniques, procedures or legislation related to the role]?

q When would you be able to take up the post, if offered it?

q Seemingly ‘off-the-wall’ questions, such as: ‘Do you keep a tidy or untidy desk?’

q Would you accept the post if offered and if so, what salary are you looking for?

q Do you have any questions for us?

Some traditional interview questions – a checklist

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l Adopt confident and relaxed body language and try not to fidget.

l Listen carefully to each question, think about it carefully, then address it precisely.

l Give informative answers of appropriate length – neither too short, nor too long;neither too shallow, nor too detailed.

l Speak clearly and to the person who asked the question, making occasional eyecontact around the panel.

l Try to be positive about all questions and take all opportunities you can to mentionrelevant experiences.

l Be genuine, truthful and never waffle.

l Remember that the interview is a two-way process: have one or two questions readyof the end of the interview, when applicants are traditionally asked whether theywould like to ask any questions.

Good luck!

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It is rare for a job offer to be made at an interview. Normally, you will be informed bypost. Reasons for this may be:

n There may be a further set of interviews.

n The appointment committee may wish to discuss all the candidates in detail.

n Clearance may be required to confirm a salary offer.

n An appointment may depend on confirmation of your qualifications.

n The appointment committee may wish to send for your references and/or to check onaspects of your references.

n Some posts, such as those involving security and working with young people, mayrequire that a disclosure statement is obtained about you, stating criminalconvictions, if any, for example.

Job offers

Practical tips for making effective job applications

Use adverts, contacts and other information sources creatively. Even if you are not qualified for a particular vacancy, don’t just pass over it. If it looks interesting, can you find out more? Are there related jobs or assistant-level jobs that might be morepromising? Can you use the information to gain a better picture of possible careerpaths? Is the position something to aim for in the future, perhaps by building up moreexperience?

Take care when filling in application forms.. These will be scrutinised carefully. Makesure you fill in the form neatly and, if necessary, draft the content beforehand using aword processor. This will allow you to work through drafts and use the spell-checkingfacility. Jobs have been lost because of spelling and grammar errors!

Prepare thoroughly. You are much more likely to succeed if you know that what youhave to offer will be of interest to the employer you approach. This implies that you have

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researched the job area thoroughly and have a well-targeted CV (Ch 66) and coveringletter.

Pay attention to detail. It can be the small things that make a difference, such as aspelling error, an untidy or incorrectly formatted application or inappropriate dress.Employers are often faced with equally qualified candidates and may have to find somearbitrary reason to select or reject them.

Think past the question. At interview you need to go beyond simply answering eachquestion directly. Without taking too much time, you should try to elaborate youranswers so that you provide information that helps to show that you have not only thequalifications and experience but also the qualities, skills and career-related enthusiasmsthe recruiting organisation is seeking.


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And now . . .

67.1 Investigate the library at your careers service. This may contain usefulbooks about job-hunting methods. There may also be booklets and leafletsproduced by employers, their organisations and by the staff themselves.The leaflets produced by AGCAS (Association of Graduate CareersAdvisory Services) are recommended.

67.2 Visit the Graduate Prospects website (www.prospects.ac.uk). You will need to register first, but this will be worthwhile as the site is anextremely valuable resource. Graduate Prospects is a commercially runsubsidiary of the Higher Education Careers Services Unit. This organisationis a registered charity that supports higher education careers services inthe UK and Republic of Ireland.

67.3 Ask a friend or family member to give you a mock interview. This willhelp you get used to talking about yourself in a formal way and let yourehearse some of your answers. They could use the questions on page 444 as a starting point and add detail from the job description. Frank, directfeedback can help you improve your performance greatly. Your careersservice may also carry out mock interviews on request, or hold interviewworkshops.

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Appendix: student resources

The following pages have blank versions of tables for your own personal use. These areall copyright free, so you can photocopy them and use them as many times as yourequire.

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Table Z.1 A budget for student expenditure. Depending on the item, it may be moreconvenient to fill in a yearly, monthly or weekly total and add a figure to the other columnsby multiplying or dividing appropriately.

Budget period:

Predicted income Yearly Monthly Weekly Source total (£) total (£) total (£)

Parental allowance/family income

Term-time employment

Child benefit/tax credits/other state benefits

From savings (interest or capital)

Scholarships and grants

Loan

Loan

Other

Other

Total predicted income

Predicted Expenditure Yearly Monthly Weekly Source total (£) total (£) total (£)

Tuition fees (if not deferred)

Accommodation (rent, mortgage)

Food

Leisure and entertainment

Annual memberships and fees (e.g. sports clubs, societies)

Books and other course equipment and supplies

Home and contents insurance

Utilities (e.g. electricity, gas)

Phone (mobile and landline)

TV licence and satellite/cable fees

Motor/transport costs including insurance

Clothing and laundry

Childcare

Health (including optician, dentist, prescriptions)

Credit-card/loan repayments

Miscellaneous (e.g. haircuts)

Presents

Holidays

Allowance for contingencies (e.g. unexpected car bill)

Other

Total predicted expenditure

Predicted income minus predicted expenditure

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Table Z.2 Quick personal glossary

A B C D E F

G H I J K L

M N O P Q R

S T U V W X Y Z

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450

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Table

Z.3

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BBC English Dictionary, 1992. London: BBC Worldwide Publishing.

Belbin Associates, 2006. Belbin Team Roles [online]. Available from:http://www.belbin.com/belbin-team-roles.htm

Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edn, 2003. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Foley, M. and Hall, D., 2003. Longman Advanced Learner’s Grammar. Harlow: Longman.

Fowler, H. and Winchester, S., 2002. Fowler’s Modern English Usage. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press.

Jones, A. M., Reed, R. and Weyers, J. D. B., 2003. Practical Skills in Biology, 3rd edn.London: Pearson Education.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, 2003. Harlow: Longman.

Morris, D., 2002. Peoplewatching: The Desmond Morris Guide to Body Language.Vintage: London.

Patents Office, 2005. Basic Facts about Copyright [online]. Available from:http://www.patent.gov.uk/copy/indetail/basicfacts.htm

Ritter, R. M., 2005. New Hart’s Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers and Editors.Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Trask, R. L., 2004. Penguin Guide to Punctuation. London: Penguin Books.

, 2005. Code of Practice on Plagiarism and Academic Dishonesty[online]. Available from: http://www.somis.dundee.ac.uk/academic/Plagiarism.htm

References and further reading

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452 GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS

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Terms are defined as used in the higher education context; many will have other mean-ings elsewhere. A term in colour denotes a cross-reference within this list.

Abbreviations:

abbr. = abbreviation

gram. = grammatical term

Latin = a word or phrase expressed in the Latin language, but not ‘adopted’ into English

pl. = plural

sing. = singular

vb = verb

Abstract A summary of the content of a piece of written work that appears at the start,allowing readers to understand what the document contains.

Acronym (gram.) An abbreviation formed from the first letter of words to form a wordin itself, e.g. radar, NATO.

Active learning Knowledge and understanding gained from doing an activity focused on the module content, which involves thinking allied to some physical action, such asdistilling notes and drawing mind maps.

Adjective (gram.) A word that describes a noun, e.g. a tall building.

Adverb (gram.) A word that modifies or qualifies an adjective, verb or other adverb,explaining how (manner), where (place), or when (time) an action takes place. Oftenadverbs end in –ly, e.g. she walked slowly.

Aggregate mark Sum of all the marks for a given course. Some elements may be givendifferent weightings (i.e. count for more or less) than others.

Alumni (pl., Latin) The graduates of an institution. Also, as singular, alumnus (male) andalumna (female): a graduate or former student.

Ambiguous Describes a sentence, phrase or word that could be interpreted in morethan one way.

Analogy A comparison; a similar case from which parallels can be drawn.

Analyse To look at all sides of an issue, break a topic down into parts and explain howthese components fit together.

Annotate To expand on given notes or text, e.g. to write extra notes on a printout of aPowerPoint presentation or a photocopied section of a book.

Antonym A word opposite in meaning to another.

Argue To make statements or introduce facts to establish or refute a proposition; to discuss and reason.

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Aspiration An ambition or important desire, often used in relation to a career target.

Assessment criteria The factors that will be taken into account in assigning a grade.See also Marking criteria.

Assignment Coursework, usually completed in own (i.e. non-contact) time.

Asymptote The limit value for a function (e.g. where a curve approaches, but does notreach, a straight line, such as an axis or constant value).

AV aids Audio-visual equipment used, shown or demonstrated during a presentation.

Back-up A second copy of work; in computing, an independent copy of a digital file.

Bias A view or description of evidence that is not balanced, promoting one conclusionor viewpoint.

Bibliography A list of all the resources used in preparing for a piece of written work. Thebibliography is usually placed at the end of a document. Compare with Reference list.

Blurb A piece of writing used as publicity, typically for a book, and appearing on thejacket or cover.

Brainstorm An intensive search for ideas, often carried out and recorded in a free-formor diagrammatic way.

Browser Software program used for accessing, viewing and interacting with websites,e.g. Microsoft Internet Explorer.

Budget A scheme, often tabulated, for predicting and organising income and expenditureover a defined period.

Business report A report produced to provide information that helps decision-makingin a commercial context. It often follows a formulaic or ‘house’ style.

Campus The area occupied by a university; site containing university buildings.

Capital letter (gram.) Upper-case letter (e.g. H rather than h).

Chronological Arranged sequentially, in order of time.

Chunking Breaking a topic down into more manageable bits.

Citation (1) The act of making reference to another source in one’s own writing. (2) Apassage or a quotation from another source provided word for word within a text. SeeReferences.

Citing Quoting a reference. See Citation.

Class exam The exam at the end of each term or module. Traditionally, class examswere formative in nature. See Formative assessment.

Clause (gram.) Part of sentence containing a verb. If the verb and the words relating toit can stand alone, then they comprise the main clause. If the words cannot stand alone,then the verb and the words that go with it form a subordinate clause.

Cliché From French, a term or phrase that has lost its expressive power throughoveruse; often taken as an indication of lazy or thoughtless writing, e.g. ‘at this momentin time’ = now.

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College A collection of academic units that teach, research and administer in related dis-ciplines. See also Faculty and School.

Colloquial Informal words and phrases used in everyday speech (e.g. slang), and gener-ally inappropriate for formal and academic writing.

Confounding variable An uncontrolled source of error that varies in step or oppositionwith some other controlled variable. This can give a ‘spurious correlation’ between thecontrolled variable and the measured variable, and hence which can lead to erroneousconclusions. See also Control.

Conjecture An opinion formed on incomplete evidence.

Consonant (gram.) All letters other than the vowels.

Contingency Something put in place in case of emergency or to cover unforeseen cir-cumstances (e.g. a sum of money reserved for use, depending on circumstances).

Continuous assessment Assessment throughout the academic year. Also known as in-course assessment.

Control In experiments, a treatment included to check whether a potential confoundingvariable appears to have an effect. For example, if examining the effects of an acidicdrug on a response, it might be decided to check for the effects of pH on the response,to demonstrate that effects were due to the drug itself and not its effects on the acidityof the medium.

Copyright A legally enforceable restriction of the copying and publishing of originalworks, allowing the author(s) or assignee(s) or their agents alone to sell copies.

COSHH (abbr.) Control of Substances Hazardous to Health: UK regulations controllingthe use and disposal of harmful substances.

Cosine A trigonometric function defined for an acute angle within a right-angled tri-angle as the ratio of the length of the side adjacent to the angle to the length of thehypotenuse.

Counselling Service provided by the institution to support students, giving guidance oradvice, especially at times of personal stress or difficulty.

CPD (abbr.) Continuing professional development: the notion of keeping skills andknowledge up to date during a career.

Critical thinking The examination of facts, concepts and ideas in an objective manner.The ability to evaluate opinion and information systematically, clearly and with purpose.

Curriculum vitae (Latin) A standard mechanism for assisting a possible employer tofind out who you are and what experience, skills and qualities you have to offer.

CV (abbr.) The abbreviated form of curriculum vitae.

Delegate (vb) To ask another to take responsibility for or to carry out a specific task, oract on one’s behalf or a team’s behalf (e.g. a fellow team member).

Denominator The lower part of a fraction.

Department An academic division within a university structure, usually dealing with aparticular discipline or subject.


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Describe To state how something looks, happens or works.

Descriptive statistics Numerical descriptions of a data set, e.g. the average value(mean) of an array of numbers.

Devil’s advocate Someone who deliberately argues from a particular point of view,while not necessarily personally holding that point of view.

Dewey decimal system A library catalogue system that gives each book a numericalcode. Compare with Library of Congress system.

Diction Manner of speaking; in the context of spoken presentations, good diction impliesclarity and enunciation.

Digit A single numeral, e.g. 5 in 24057.

Dimensional analysis An analysis of a formula or equation where the units are substi-tuted for the symbols: in theory, both sides of the formula should be equivalent in units.

Discipline Field of study.

Dispersion In statistics, a measure of the spread of values within a data set or frequencydistribution, e.g. standard deviation.

Displacement activity An activity that takes the place of another, higher-priority one;e.g. tidying your room instead of studying.

Dissertation A formal written study of a specialised subject, usually submitted as partof the assessment for a university degree.

Distilling To extract the important points. In note-making, focusing on the main points,headings and examples, minimising detail.

Distractor An incorrect option in a multiple-choice question. Ideally, distractors shouldnot be easily identified unless the respondent knows the topic well.

Ebrary Commercial software used to distribute and access electronic documents, suchas e-books and e-journals.

E-learning A range of online (generally web-based) methods of delivering materials andresources for learning. See also Virtual learning environment.

Ellipsis (gram.) The replacement of words deliberately omitted from the text by threedots, e.g. ‘A range of online . . . methods of delivering materials and resources for learning’.

Employability That blend of subject knowledge, subject-specific, generic and career-management skills, personal qualities, values and motivations that will help a studentgain suitable employment and perform effectively throughout their career. See alsoGraduateness.

Engineering notation A form of writing numbers where numbers are expressed as powers of 10 divisible by 3, e.g. 10.4 × 103 rather than 1.04 × 104 or 10400.

Equilateral Of a triangle, having three equal sides and internal angles equal at 60°.

Error bars Lines extending from a symbol on a graph that indicate a (specified) error ofa mean value (or other statistic of location).

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Exam diet A block of exams; the period when exams are held.

Exemplify To provide an example of something.

Existentialist Sensitive to deep issues about human existence. In particular, believingin the freedom and responsibility of the individual.

External examiner An examiner from outside the institution whose role is to ensurethat standards of examination are maintained.

Extra-curricular Something carried out while at university that is not, strictly, a part ofthe academic content of the course (the curriculum).

Extrapolation In graphing, the act of creating an assumed line or relationship outsidethe limits of the available data points, assuming the line will follow trends identified usingthose points.

Extrovert A person whose focus is on the external rather than themselves. Generally, aperson who is outgoing, sociable and unreserved.

Facilitate To assist. In education, applied to actions that help someone understandsomething, or carry out a learning task.

Faculty A collection of academic units whose members teach, research and administerin related disciplines or support these activities. US sources may use this term to referto the collective academic staff of a university or university subdivision. See also Collegeand School.

Fallacy A logically erroneous argument used in reasoning or debate.

Finger tracing The act of running your finger immediately below the line of text beingread to follow your eyes’ path across a page, starting and stopping a word or two fromeither side.

Finals The summative exams at the end of degree or a year. See Summative assessment.

Formative assessment An assessment or exercise with the primary aim of providingfeedback on performance, not just from the grade given, but also from comments pro-vided by the examiner. Strictly, a formative assessment does not count towards a module or degree grade, although some marks are often allocated as an inducement toperform well. See Summative assessment.

Fresher A first-year student, especially during their first days and weeks of study. USsources may refer to ‘freshman’.

Gambit A manoeuvre or ploy designed to produce an outcome favoured by the user.

Genre A particular style or category of works of art; especially a type of literary workcharacterised by a particular form, style or purpose.

Gist The essence of something, e.g. a summary or a list of key ideas from a piece of writing or a talk.

Glossary A list of terms and their meanings (such as this list).

Graduateness A term that summarises the skills and personal characteristics expectedof someone who possesses a university degree. The concept goes beyond the possession


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of transferable skills, and may involve having subject-related knowledge; the capabilityto manage tasks and solve problems; being able to communicate well; the ability to workwith others; and having self-awareness. See also Employability.

Group dynamic The working personality of a group; the ways in which members of agroup interact and their relationships change through time.

Hall of residence University accommodation, principally for first-year students.

Headword The main entry for a word listed in a dictionary.

Hierarchical The quality of having a set classification structure with strict guidelines ofposition.

Hypotenuse The longest (diagonal) side of a right-angled triangle, always opposite theright angle.

Hypothesis A testable theory (pl. hypotheses).

Hypothesis-testing In statistics, a form of analysis that allows a numerical probabilityto be assigned to the outcomes of a hypothesis.

Ibid. (abbr., Latin) Short for ibidem, meaning ‘in the same place’; especially used insome referencing systems, e.g. Chicago method, when referring to the immediately pre-vious source mentioned.

Idiom (gram.) A form of language used in everyday speech and understood by nativespeakers, but whose meaning is not immediately apparent from the actual words used,e.g. to ‘pull someone’s leg’ (make them believe something that is not true).

Indentation In text layout, the positioning of text (usually three to five character spacesin) from the margin to indicate a new paragraph.

Instruction words The words indicating what should be done; in an exam question orinstruction, the verbs and associated words that define what the examiner expects of theperson answering.

Intercept In graphing, the point where two lines or curves cross or where a line or curvecrosses an axis.

Interpolation In graphing, the assumed trend or relationship between adjacent datapoints. Compare with Extrapolation.

Introvert A person whose focus is on the internal self rather than the external.Generally, a person who is shy, withdrawn and reserved.

Inverted commas See Quotation.

Invigilator A person who supervises an exam and ensures that university regulationsare followed during the exam.

Isosceles A type of triangle with two equal sides and hence two internal angles that areequal.

Kinesthetic Regarding learning personality, someone who learns best from physicalactivity, by using their senses, or by recalling events in which they were involved.

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Landscape orientation The positioning of paper so that the ‘long’ side is horizontal. Seealso Portrait orientation.

Law of diminishing returns A principle that states that there is a point in a processwhen little is gained for extra effort put in. In the context of exams, the point beyondwhich few marks will result from continuing with a particular answer and where applyingeffort to other questions might be more productive.

LEA (abbr.) Local education authority (applies in England, Wales and Northern Ireland).

Learning objective What students should be able to accomplish having participared ina course or one of its elements, such as a lecture, and having carried out any other activ-ities, such as further reading, that are specified. Often closely related to what studentsshould be able to demonstrate under examination.

Learning outcome Similar to a learning objective, often focusing on some product thata student should be able to demonstrate, possibly under examination.

Learning personality A type of person who tends to a specific learning style.

Learning style The way an individual takes in information, processes it, remembers itand expresses it.

Legend The key to a diagram, chart or graph, e.g. showing which lines and symbols referto which quantities.

Library of Congress system A library catalogue system that gives each book analphanumeric code. Compare with Dewey decimal system.

Literature survey A report on the literature on a defined area, usually specified in thetitle. May include the author’s independent conclusions based on the sources consulted.

Location In statistics, an estimate of the ‘centre’ of a data set or frequency distribution,e.g. the mean.

Marking criteria A set of ‘descriptors’ that explain the qualities of answers falling withinthe differing grade bands used in assessment; used by markers to assign grades, espe-cially where there may be more than one marker, and to allow students to see what levelof answer is required to attain specific grades.

Marking scheme An indication of the marks allocated to different components of anassessment, sometimes with the rationale explained.

Matriculation The annual process of registration or enrolment for a course.

MBTI (abbr.) Myers-Briggs Type Inventory: a categorisation of personalities.

Milestone An intermediate target point within a project.

Mnemonic An aid to memory involving a sequence of letters or associations, e.g.‘Richard of York goes battling in vain’, to remember the colours of the rainbow: red,orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet.

Mock exam A practice exam, e.g. using a past exam paper and conducted with similartiming to the real exam.


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Model answer An example answer provided by a tutor or examiner to an exam question,or potential exam question, sometimes indicating where marks will be allocated and why.

Monologue A speech or talk delivered by one person.

Motivation An internal feeling that energises, directs and sustains a person’s behaviour,and contributes to the values that they embrace. Collectively, motivations are what‘make people tick’ and make them behave in a particular way.

Multiple-choice question (MCQ) A type of question where several possible answers aregiven and the candidate must identify the correct answer.

Multiple intelligence Subdivision of intelligence into various categories more or lesspronounced in different people, which influence the way they process information.

Negative marking A form of marking used especially in multiple-choice questionswhere a mark or marks are deducted for giving an incorrect answer. This acts to reduceany incentive to guess answers.

Network (1) A group of computers linked together. (2) Your personal contacts, e.g.friends, family, fellow class members, study buddies, team members, etc.

Nightline A charitable organisation run by students of London universities, providingemotional support for students and an information service (www.nightline.niss.ac.uk).

Noun (gram.) A word denoting a person, place or thing.

Numeracy The ability to use numbers, understand mathematical concepts and carry outstandard mathematical operations.

Numerator The upper part of a fraction.

Objectivity Having a view or approach based on a balanced consideration of the facts.

Online Connected to the Internet.

Op. cit. (abbr., Latin) Short for opus citatum, meaning ‘in the place cited’. In some formsof citation this term is used to refer to a previous citation of the same text or article.

Oral exam An exam carried out by discussion with the examiner(s).

Overhead transparency An overhead slide (clear acetate sheet with dark writing orprint), used with an overhead projector. This system allows the lecturer to address theaudience face to face, while writing or uncovering the text, compared with writing on aboard, when they need to turn their back on the audience.

Parallelogram A four-sided figure in which the opposite sides are parallel to each otherand in which the opposite internal angles are equal.

Paraphrase To quote ideas indirectly by expressing them in other words.

Parenthesis (gram.) A word, clause, or sentence inserted as an explanation, aside, orafterthought into a passage with which it has not necessarily any grammatical connec-tion. In writing, usually parentheses (pl.) mark off text using round brackets: (hence,more generally) an afterthought, an explanatory aside.

Part-marking A type of assessment, where marks are awarded to the component partsof an answer. This often includes allocating marks for adopting the correct process to

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arrive at an answer and for the presentation of the working and answer, and not solelyfor stating the correct answer at the end.

Peer Fellow student, equal.

Peer assessment An assessment where grading, or part of it, is provided by fellow students.

Perfectionism The personal quality of wanting to produce the best possible product oroutcome, sometimes regardless of other factors involved.

Personal development plan (PDP) A reflective analysis of who you are, what you’vedone and what you plan to do.

Personal pronoun (gram.) Word referring to people. Can be first person (e.g. I), secondperson (e.g. she) or third person (e.g. they); subjective, objective and possessive.Additionally, applicable to words such as ‘ship’, which are referred to as ‘she’.

Phonetic Relating to the sounds made in speech.

Phrasal verb (gram.) An idiomatic verbal phrase consisting of a verb and adverb or averb and preposition. See Idiom.

Plagiarism Copying the work of others and passing it off as one’s own, withoutacknowledgement.

Point size The size of a font when printed. A measure of the size of text letters, num-bers and symbols. The unit is imperial, each point being 1/72 of an inch high.

Portrait orientation The positioning of paper positioned so that the ‘short’ side is hori-zontal. See also Landscape orientation.

Poster defence A session during which the authors of a poster may be questionedabout its content, perhaps by a peer, a tutor or a conference delegate.

PowerPoint Microsoft software used for giving presentations. Allows the user to pro-duce digital slides with text, images and other elements that can then be projected forviewing.

Practical A laboratory-based course component. Sometimes also used to refer to a fieldvisit.

Prefix (gram.) An addition to the beginning of a word that implies a particular meaning,e.g. in the word extract, ‘ex–’ is a prefix meaning ‘out of’, which when added to ‘tract’means ‘to pull out of’. Compare with Suffix.

Premise/premiss A statement or assertion that forms the basis for a position inthought, debate or argument.

Preposition (gram.) A word that marks the relation between words or phrases, often toindicate time, place or direction, e.g. at, in, to, for. It usually comes before the word it‘controls’ e.g. at noon; in the bus; to the north.

Primary source The source in which ideas and data are first communicated.

Principal The head of a university, especially in Scotland. See Vice chancellor.


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Prioritising Ranking tasks in precedence, taking into account their urgency and importance.

Progress file A summary of academic progress that includes a personal developmentplan and a transcript.

Prompt A reminder in a presentation that tells the speaker where they are within thepresentation and what should be said next.

Pronoun (gram.) A word that may replace a noun: I, you, he, she, it, we, they. For example,‘Traffic lights are red, green and amber. They light in a particular sequence.’

Propaganda Skewed or biased reporting of the facts to favour a particular outcome orpoint of view.

Proper noun (gram.) The name of a place, person, organisation or singular feature, suchas a river or mountain. Indicated in text with initial capital letters, e.g. ‘The Himalayasare . . .’

Provenance Regarding a source of information, who and where it originated from, andwhy.

Qualitative Data (information) that cannot be expressed in numbers, e.g. the colour ofthe lecturer’s tie or the quality of life of elderly patients.

Quantitative Data (information) that can be expressed in numbers, e.g. the width of thelecturer’s tie or the number of elderly patients included in a survey.

Question-spotting Guessing which specific topics will be asked about in an exam, andhow the questions will be phrased.

Quotation Words directly lifted from a source, e.g. a journal article or book, usuallyplaced between inverted commas (quotation marks), i.e. ‘. . .’ or ‘. . .’.

Reciprocal In mathematics, the inverse (i.e. one divided by the quantity in question). Forexample, the reciprocal of 2 is 1/2 = 0.5.

Referee A person, usually nominated by a job candidate, who provides a prospectiveemployer with confirmation of CV and transcript details and who may provide opinionand information on the candidate’s character and skills.

Reference A summary of the candidate’s CV details, character and skills, as provided bya referee.

Reference list A list of sources referred to in a piece of writing, usually provided at theend of the document. Compare with Bibliography.

References The journal articles, books and other sources used in research for a writtenpiece of work. See Citation.

Reflect In the academic context, to look back over past events; to analyse how you havelearned and developed as a person and your feelings about this; and to re-evaluate yourexperience on the basis of these thoughts.

Register (gram.) The style of language and grammar used in written or spoken form asappropriate to the context, often distinguishing formal from informal usage, for example.

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Restriction The limits or bounds set on a task.

Review In the academic context, a text that summarises research, findings and know-ledge on a specific topic.

Revision timetable A schedule for study that subdivides the time available among thetopics that need to be revised.

Rhetorical question A question asked as part of a talk or written work where an answerfrom the audience or reader is not required or expected, and indeed where the answeris usually subsequently provided by the speaker or author. Used as a device to direct theattention and thoughts of the audience or reader, e.g. ‘Why is this important? I’ll tell youwhy . . .’

Rhombus A four-sided figure with all sides equal and pairs of opposite internal anglesequal.

Rote learning Learning by memorising, where knowledge is acquired but not necessarilywith comprehension.

Rounding The process of truncating a number to give the appropriate number of signi-ficant figures.

Rubric In the context of exams, the wording at the top of the exam paper, concerningtiming, numbers of types of questions that must be answered, and candidate details thatmust be supplied on the answer paper.

SAAS (abbr.) Student Award Agency Scotland.

Samaritans A charitable organisation providing emotional support for people who areexperiencing feelings of distress or despair, including those that may lead to suicide(www.samaritans.org.uk).

School In higher education, an academic division within a university structure, usuallycovering a particular discipline or subject. See also College and Faculty.

Scientific method The scientific approach to a problem, involving the creation of ahypothesis and testing it using evidence obtained in experiments or by observation.

Scientific notation A form of writing numbers where they are expressed as powers of10, e.g. 1.04 × 104 rather than 10400.

Scientific report A report on a piece of scientific observation or experiment that followsa generic format, with subdivisions (e.g. abstract, introduction, materials and methods,etc.) in a particular order.

Search engine Software that allows users to search the Web for websites on specifictopics by entering key words.

Secondary source A source that quotes, adapts, interprets, translates, develops or otherwise uses information drawn from primary sources.

Seminar A small group meeting to discuss an academic topic; similar to a tutorial, butgenerally with an extended period where one speaker addresses the group.

Short-answer question (SAQ) A type of question where only a few sentences and para-graphs are required in answer, or perhaps the drawing or labelling of a diagram.


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Significant figure The number of digits in a number, counting from the first non-zerodigit and including any final zeros.

Signpost word A word or phrase that indicates transitions between phases in speech orin written text.

Sine A trigonometric function defined for an acute angle within a right-angled triangleas the ratio of the length of the side opposite to the length of the hypotenuse.

SI system SI is the abbreviated form of Système International d’Unités – an interna-tionally agreed metric system of units based on the metre (m), kilogram (kg) and second(s), and with specific conventions for denoting both the units (with symbols) and verylarge and small quantities (with prefixes).

SLC (abbr.) Student Loans Company.

Sports union A section of the students’ union or student association that representsand administers university sports clubs.

Stress A response to some form of external pressure, resulting in mental or emotionalstrain or suspense, typified by worrying, fretting and agonising.

Student association The student-run organisation that provides support services andsocial events for the student body. Sometimes called the students’ union.

Students’ union See Student association.

Study buddy A mutual arrangement between two or more students studying the sameor similar subjects, who agree to support each other in their learning by conducting jointstudy sessions.

Subject (gram.) In a sentence, the person or thing doing the action signified by theverb.

Subjectivity Having a view or approach based on a personal opinion, not necessarilytaking a balanced account of all the facts.

Subordinate clause (gram.) The part of a sentence that contains a verb, but would notmake sense if it were to stand alone. See Clause.

Suffix (gram.) An extension at the end of a word, e.g. in the word successful, ‘–ful’ is asuffix to the word ‘success’. Compare with Prefix.

Summative assessment An exam or course assessment exercise that counts towardsthe final module or degree mark. Generally, no formal feedback is provided. SeeFormative assessment.

Superscript Text, including numerals, above the line of normal text, usually in a smallerfont, e.g. 2. Contrast with subscript, which is text or numerals below the line, thus a.

Syllable (gram.) A unit of pronunciation larger than a single sound, but generally lessthan a word. In English, each syllable must contain a vowel, or a group of vowels or con-sonants, e.g. the syllables in ‘simultaneous’ are si-mul-tan-e-ous.

Synonym (gram.) A word with the same meaning as another.

Syntax (gram.) The way words are used (in their appropriate grammatical forms), espe-cially with respect to their connection and relationships within sentences.

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Tangent (1) A trigonometric function defined for an acute angle within a right-angled triangle as the ratio of the length of the side opposite to the length of the adjacent side(i.e. the non-hypotenuse). (2) A straight line that touches a curve at a single point suchthat the line is the best straight-line approximation to the curve at that point.

Tautology (gram.) A phrase that essentially and unneccesarily repeats the same thingas another, only in different words, e.g. ‘the carpet was a four-sided square’.

Team role The role of a team member within a team situation, e.g. leader, worker, creativeperson.

Terminator paragraph (gram.) The paragraph that brings a piece or section of writingto an ending or conclusion.

Tense (gram.) The grammatical state of a verb that determines the timing of an event,i.e. in the past, present or the future.

Thesis (1) A written piece of work discussing a piece of research and submitted forassessment as part of a degree, often bound. (2) An intellectual proposition; a theory,concept or idea.

Topic An area within a study; the focus of a title in a written assignment.

Topic paragraph The paragraph, usually the first, that indicates or points to the topic ofa section or piece of writing and how it can be expected to develop.

Topic sentence The sentence, usually the first, that indicates or points to the topic of aparagraph and how it can be expected to develop.

Trait A personal characteristic, inherited rather than learned, although not absolutelyso.

Transcript The certified details of a student’s academic record, e.g. modules taken, performance in exams and modules, as recorded by a university.

Transferable skill A skill or competence (ability to accomplish a task) learned in one situation, such as a university module, that can be applied in another context, such as an occupation. Often referred to in the plural, especially in contexts of employability orgraduateness.

Trigonometry The study of the mathematical properties of triangles and angular figures.

Tutor A person who conducts (leads) university teaching, especially tutorials; usually amember of academic staff, but also sometimes a postgraduate or associate member ofstaff.

Tutorial A small-group meeting to discuss an academic topic, led by a tutor.

Typo (abbr.) Short for typographical error – a typing mistake or, less commonly, a type-setting error.

URL (abbr.) The uniform resource locator, or address, of a website or other type ofresource on the Internet.

Value judgement A statement that reflects the views and values of the speaker orwriter rather than the objective reality of what is being assessed or considered.


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Values Beliefs that reflect our sense of what is moral or ethical; customs, ideals, prin-ciples, qualities and standards that one feels are important.

Verb (gram.) The ‘doing’ word(s) in a sentence. A part of speech by which action orstate of being is indicated, serving to connect a subject with a predicate. A verb alsoshows, for example, time shifts by changes in tense, e.g. past, present or future.

Verbatim From Latin, meaning word for word, e.g. verbatim notes are word-for-wordcopies (transcriptions) of a lecture or text.

Vertex The point where sides of an angular figure meet, e.g. the points of a triangle.

Vice chancellor The head of a university, especially in England, Wales, Northern Ireland.See Principal.

Virtual learning environment (VLE) Web or internet-based software that assists stu-dents to learn, by providing coordinated and organised access to, for example, coursecontent, communication tools, links or assessments from a single ‘portal’. In some casesof distance learning nearly all the teaching is delivered in this way, but the norm is forVLE activities to be ‘blended’ with traditional methods, such as lectures, tutorials andpracticals.

Vocational degree A qualification that allows one to join a trade or profession, usuallyinvolving a high level of occupation-related skills and knowledge, and usually validatedby a professional body or government agency.

Vowel (gram.) The letters a, e, i, o and u (note: y is sometimes classed as a vowel).

Wildcard In computing, a term used for a symbol (usually *) that indicates that its placecould be taken by any other symbol (within bounds that may be specified).

Work placement A period of study conducted in the workplace, carrying out work relevant to the course or degree programme and possibly assessed via reports andreflective summaries.

Writer’s block The inability to structure thoughts; in particular, the inability to start theact of writing when this is required.

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arithmetic see mathematicsarts subjects, thinking processes 139assessment

computer-aided assessment (CAA) 186, 324feedback 376–80formative 189, 317–18, 337, 376marking schemes 319methods 31, 32online 186, 189, 324peer assessment 31, 120, 318, 362personal qualities 426–7, 431practical work 131, 341–4self-assessment 425–34skills 426–7, 428–30summative 189, 318, 342–3, 376terminology 317tutorials 338–40see also exams

assignments see written assignmentsasymptotes, mathematics 214–17attendance

lectures 27practical work 341tutorials 338

authorship, and facts 152–3, 156

back-ups 180–1, 349bank accounts 9, 55–6, 58, 59benchmarking statements 37bias 141–2, 155bibliography 238, 352, 359blended learning 186Bloom, Benjamin 137–8blurb 158books

assessment of 158–60textbooks 146see also library

brainstorming 223, 232, 334, 406, 415British English (BE) 255British Library 146browsers 182budgeting 13, 54–9, 448bullet points 283

exam answers 325bursaries 9business report 354, 355

abbreviations 178, 259, 297, 352, 412absolute terms, academic writing 259abstracts 352academic advice service 25academic skills, before university 6–7academic transcript 42Academic Word List 298academic writing

conventions 255–61grammar 269–76, 292, 301paragraphs 264–8punctuation 277–83, 301, 302reports 350–6reviewing, editing and proof-reading

299–305sentences 262–4spelling 284–9, 301, 302vocabulary 290–8see also written assignments

accommodationchoosing 10–12, 13–14settling in 17social life 64–5

acknowledgements 352acronyms 259, 391active learning 386, 388–92ad hominem 142administration, finding out about 16ad populum 142advice, support services 25algebra see mathematicsambition 431–2American English (AE) 255analysis of variance (ANOVA) 210analytical approach

exam answers 336–7written assignments 226, 233, 234

anecdotal evidence 142angles, calculating 212–16annotations

editing 304lecture notes 111

anxiety, exams 413–16apostrophes 278, 280appendices 230, 352applications forms, jobs 442, 445area, calculating 212–13

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calculations, spreadsheet 181calculators

in exams 330, 331use of 199–200

campus, finding your way around 17, 60–1capital letters 278, 280career

job applications 440–6planning 419–24

careers service 25, 45, 421, 424, 446chaplaincy centre 25charts

in reports 355in spreadsheets 211, 356

Chicago method, references 240, 248–9Χ2 (Chi squared) test 210chronological approach 233chunking, lecture notes 388–9citations

in exams 333importance of 154–5, 231, 239presentation of 309Science Citation Index 156styles 241see also references

clichés 259clubs and societies 18, 67–8, 70colloquial language 257, 259colons 278, 281commas 278, 281common denominator approach 233–4communication

teamworking 121, 123, 124tutorials 134

comparative/contrastive approach 233, 235–6

compromise, teams 123computer-aided assessment (CAA) 186, 324computer-aided learning (CAL) 186computer-based learning (CBL) 186computers see information and

communications technology (ICT)concept maps (mind maps/spider diagrams) 112,

140, 171, 173, 333, 391conclusions

exam answers 333reports 352, 355spoken presentations 369to writing 154–5, 229, 360

confounding variables 347constants, mathematics 192contents page, reports 353

contingencies, budgeting 57continuous assessment 318, 341–2conventions

academic writing 255–61practical reports 129, 130presentation of assignments 306–13

copying see plagiarismcopyright 190, 251–4corrections, exam answers 336COSHH (Control of Substances Hazardous to

Health) 127counselling service 25, 75, 77course handbook

assessment schemes 344exams 386information in 90–1project work 346textbooks 103

critical thinking 103, 137–44, 225, 332curriculum vitae (CV)

definition 435developing 43, 438–9evaluation of 435–6ICT skills 185presentation 436–8referees 423, 443skills and personal qualities 427structure of 436, 437tailored 438, 442targeted 43updating 37, 45, 424

dataanalysis of 156interpreting 202–4presenting 204–11

databasereferences 360–1spreadsheet 181

debt 57degrees, classifications 320–1delegation 121denominator, fractions 197department

administration 16information from 97

descriptive statistics 208–9‘devil’s advocate’ 116, 136Dewey decimal system 149diagrams

labelling 343see also figures

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diaries 18, 26, 46, 189dictionaries

online 291, 297specialist 296–7, 313spelling 287, 288, 289standard 291–2types of 293use of 298, 313

dimensional analysis 330disabled students

exam concessions 322Freshers’ Week 19lectures 101, 104, 113

discussion-based tutorials 133, 339discussion boards, electronic 183, 188dispersion, statistics 208–9displacement activity 94displays, posters 362–7dissertation 357distilling, lecture notes 388–9distractor questions 323–4doctor, registering with 18, 77dress, for presentations 374‘dropbox’, digital 189dyslexic students 101, 113

ebrary 146, 225editing, academic writing 299–305e-learning 186–91electronic information 92, 146, 150ellipsis 239, 278, 281email 22, 91, 183, 188–9employability

definition 422degree classification 321personal development 43transferable skills 33–7

employers, and CVs 435–6employment

job applications 440–6supply and demand 421term-time and vacations 56–7, 58,

59endnotes 241England, tuition fees 9English

British and American 255colloquial 257plain English 257–8

equationsmathematics 194–5, 214, 329–30presentation of 310

equipmentexams 411practical work 131, 344

error, statistics 210essays

exam answers 332–7see also written assignments

euphemisms 142evaluation, of information 152–7examiners, external 319exams

answering the question 334–5, 403–5equipment 411essay answers 332–7formats 318guessing 327handwriting 412improving performance 402–6instruction words 144, 224, 335marking schemes 319, 327, 394mock exams 389, 396, 397–8multiple-choice questions 323–4, 326–7nerves 413–16numerical questions 200, 326, 328–31planning and notes 333, 403practical 342–4preparation 327, 406, 411, 413–14proof-reading 336, 405question spotting 386, 403reviewing your answers 300, 335–6, 405short-answer questions 325strategy 407–12time management 325, 409, 410see also assessment; revision

executive summary 352experiments

project work 345–9see also practical work

explosion charts see concept mapsexponents, mathematics 194, 196external examiners 319extra-curricular activities 67–9, 423, 431, 432extrapolation 206extroverts, learning style 84

factsassessing reliability 152–4, 155–6checking 304remembering 390, 391

faculty, administration 16, 22–3fallacies 141–2, 144, 156feedback 376–80

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fees 8–10field visits 126–31figures

presentation of 310–12see also diagrams

filing system 20, 42, 96computer files 180–2

finals 321finances

budgeting 13, 54–9, 448costs of university 7–10debt 57loans 8–10, 13

finger tracing 162–3flow-chart notes 171, 178fonts 307–8footnotes 181, 241formative assessment 189, 317–18, 337, 376formulae 92, 200, 218

presentation of 310fractions, mathematics 197–9frequency distribution 208frequency polygon 204Freshers’ Week 15–21, 60–1, 63friends 20, 64–7, 74

see also study buddyfunctions, mathematics 214–17future, career planning 419–24

gambits, tutorials 135geometry see mathematicsglossaries 290, 298, 352, 452–65

personal 289, 297, 298, 449goals 5, 43–4, 420gradebooks, electronic 189graduateness 33, 425Graduate Prospects website 421, 422, 440, 446graduation 321grammar

checking 301, 302correct 258, 261errors 272, 273–4, 275, 276exams 336, 405grammar-checkers 181, 272, 300importance of 269–72terms 270–1, 292

grants 9graphs

analysis of 156, 202–4, 211creating 206–7, 211misleading 204, 205plotted curve 203, 204

practical work 131, 344presentation of 310–12spreadsheet 181, 211, 310, 313types of 356

group dynamics 115, 119group work see study groupsguessing, exams 327

halls of residence, social life 20, 64–5handwriting, exams 412hanging participles 263Harvard method, references 240, 242–3, 313hazardous materials, laboratory work 127–8health service 18, 25, 77hedging language 259–60, 261herring-bone maps 171, 177hierarchical approach 233higher degree 421histogram 204home-based students

pros and cons 10, 11social life 20, 65, 69

home page, Internet 183honours degrees 320–1HTML 183HTTP 183hypertext 183hypothesis testing, statistics 210

indented layout 308index, assessment of 159index cards 359information

evaluating 152–7sources 90–1, 151–2, 157, 223–5

information and communications technology(ICT)

browsers 182computer safety 182file management 180–2networked facilities 179–80passwords 180search engines 182–3skills 93, 181, 185spreadsheets 180, 181web searching 184word-processing 180, 181see also e-learning; electronic information;

e-mail; Internetinstruction words

exams 144, 335written assignments 222–3, 224, 227

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insurance 58intelligent listening 103intercepts, mathematics 214–17interests, extra-curricular 67–9, 423, 431, 432,

434international service 25international students

bank accounts 56Freshers’ Week 19social life 64tuition fees 9

Internetjob vacancies 442library resources 146search engines 182use of 182–3

interpolation 206interviews, job vacancies 444–5, 446introduction

exam answers 333reports 353spoken presentations 369written assignments 228–9, 230

introverts, learning style 85inventory, rented accommodation 14IT see information and communications

technology (ICT)

jargon 106, 142, 260job vacancies

applying for 441–3finding 440–1interviews 444–5, 446

keyword notes 112, 171, 175Kolb cycle learning styles 88

laboratory work 126–31assessment 341–4

languageacademic conventions 255–61of lectures 104, 107of written sources 155practical reports 129specialist 96, 106, 260

law, thinking processes 139layout

reports 354written assignments 307, 308, 312

leaders, teams 121–4learning objectives 393–4learning styles 45, 81–9, 399–400

learning support centre 25lecturers, styles 104–6, 108lectures

formats 101handouts 114learning from 98–103listening to 103, 104–8notes 95, 99, 100, 109–14, 187–8‘signpost’ words 105, 107

visual aids 101–2, 103leisure activities see extra-curricular activitieslibrary

catalogue 148–9, 150resources 145–50, 225, 358–9, 361tours 61, 145, 149use of 93, 147–9

Library of Congress catalogue system 149linear notes 112, 171, 174linear regression analysis 216line-spacing 308listening, intelligent 103, 104–8lists, punctuation 282, 283literature reviews 351, 354, 357–61loans 8–10, 13, 56location, statistics 208–9logarithms 196logical fallacies 141–2, 144, 156

maintenance grants 9maps, campus 60margins 308marking

criteria 394exams 319, 327feedback 376–80part-marking 329see also assessment

marks, challenging 31mathematics

algebra 195arithmetic 192–201asymptotes 214–17calculator skills 199–200equations 194–5, 214exam questions 200, 326, 328–31exponents 194, 196fractions 197–9functions 214–17geometry 212–18intercepts 214–17logarithms 196notation 194

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mathematics (continued)operators 194percentages 198–9ratios 199rounded numbers 196–7, 198significant figures 196–7, 198SI prefixes 193, 196slopes 214–17straight-line equation 214, 217thinking processes 139trigonometry 213, 216

matriculation (registration/enrolling) 16, 22, 61

matrix notes 112, 171, 176mature students, social life 65memorising, techniques 389–92mind maps see concept mapsmnemonics 391Modern Languages Association (MLA) method,

references 240, 244–5modules, assessment 320motivations 43–4, 431–2, 434multiple-choice questions (MCQ) 323–4, 326–7multiple intelligences 88Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) 82–6,

399

negative marking 327nerves, exams 413–16Nightline 75Northern Ireland, tuition fees 9notation, mathematics 194notes

concept maps 112, 171, 173flow-chart notes 171, 178from lectures 95, 99, 100, 109–14from texts 95, 158, 169–78herring-bone maps 171, 177keyword notes 112, 171, 175lay-outs 169, 171–8learning from 388–9, 391linear notes 112, 171, 174matrix notes 112, 171, 176organising 91–2, 100, 113practical work 131reasons for 169–70time lines 171, 172

numbersmathematics 192–201in text 310

numerator, fractions 197numerical questions, exams 200, 326, 328–31

objectivity 154, 256online assessment (OA) 186, 189, 324operators, mathematics 194opinions, and facts 154, 156oral exams 320organising

online learning 190references 359, 360–1studying style 91–2thinking 138–40time management 48yourself 23, 53

overdrafts, bank 9, 55overhead transparencies 102, 111, 371

packing list 14paper, size for notes 113paragraphs

academic writing 264–8alignment 279layout 308

paraphrasing 254participation, tutorials 134part-marking 329passwords, computers 180peer assessment 31, 120, 318, 362percentages, mathematics 198–9perfectionism 47, 51, 414–15periodicals, library resources 147personal development planning (PDP) 41–5,

424personality types

exam strategy 408learning styles 82–5, 399–400Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI) 82–6,

399online tests 420self-assessment 44, 83social stereotypes 66–7team roles 122tests 420, 433time management 48, 52tutorial groups 135, 136, 340

personal qualities 426–7, 431, 434personal statement, job application 443personal transferable skills 33–7, 44, 426phased approach 233, 234photocopying 148, 175, 254

see also copyrightpi 192, 213pie chart 204plagiarism 155, 190, 251–4

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planningcareer 419–24personal development planning (PDP) 41–5studies 24–5, 26writing assignments 221–2, 232–7

portal 186portfolio 42poster presentations 362–7postgraduate study 421PowerPoint presentations 102, 106, 111, 187–8,

371–3practical work

assessment 131, 341–4equipment 131, 344exams 342–4hazardous 127–8preparation 127reports 128–9, 130, 342safety 127–8, 131, 347skills 126

prefixes, word meanings 294preparing for university

academic aspects 6–7accommodation choices 10–12, 13–14financial matters 5–10goals 5practical tips 13–14

presentationcitations 309curriculum vitae (CV) 436–8exam answers 330, 331, 337figures 310–12quotations 239, 309–10reports 351text 307–9written assignments 301, 302, 306–13

presentationsposters 362–7spoken 368–75

primary sources 152, 156–7printing, from computer 190prioritising, time management 47–9, 52, 53problem-based learning (PBL) 318procrastination 50progress files, personal development planning

(PDP) 41–5project work

choosing 345–6organising 347–8planning 346–7writing up 347, 348

prompts, spoken presentations 369–70

proof-reading 299–305exams 336, 405symbols 303, 305

propaganda 141–2, 155provenance, of information 153publication details 158punctuation 166, 268, 277–83

checking 301, 302errors 280–1

qualitative data 207Quality Assurance Agency 37, 44quantitative data 207questions

answering 373–4asking 94, 225

quotationsin exams 333presentation of 239, 309–10source of 250, 254use of 226, 252see also plagiarism

ratios, mathematics 199reading

analytical approach 226effectively 158–68, 224–5keeping records 227speed-reading 160–6, 414SQ3R method 166

recruitment agencies 442referees, job applications 423, 443reference list 167, 238, 250, 301, 302, 359references

Chicago method 240, 248–9Harvard method 240, 242–3in lectures 103Modern Languages Association (MLA)

method 240, 244–5recording 359, 360–1systems 240, 250, 313Vancouver method 240, 246–7in written work 238–50, 309, 348, 352see also citations

reflectinggroup working 119personal development 42preparing for university 5–7teamwork 125think for yourself 31, 32

registration see matriculationrelaxation, in exams 416

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repetition, in argument 142reporting words 241reports

business report 354, 355formats 351–5non-scientific 353–5practical work 129, 130, 342scientific 351–3, 354writing 350–6

researchliterature survey 357–61projects 345–9reports 351

residence service 25results, reports 353reviewing, academic writing 299–305revision

active learning 386, 388–92focusing 393–8model answers 395–6numerical questions 329, 331past papers 322, 327, 337, 386–7, 389, 395,

397practical exams 342–3, 344study buddies 399–401timetable 383–7, 406, 413–14, 450

rhetorical questions 260, 371rounded numbers, mathematics 196–7, 198routines, time management 49–50, 52, 53

safetyfield visits 128laboratory work 127–8, 131, 347personal 19, 62

Samaritans 75scepticism 155–6scholarships 9Science Citation Index 156science subjects

laboratory work 126–31tutorials 132–3

scientific method 126scientific reports, formats 351–3, 354Scotland, tuition fees 9search engines, Internet 182–3secondary sources 152, 156–7self-assessment, skills 426–7, 428–30self-maintenance 10–12seminars, presentation 368–75sentences

academic writing 262–4punctuation 282

sexism, in language 258shopping, supermarkets 58short-answer questions (SAQs) 325shorthand, personal 175significant figures, mathematics 196–7, 198signpost words 105, 107, 159–62, 166, 265,

268SI system 193skills

developing 92–3, 97e-learning 187ICT 181, 185learning new 23–4mathematical 200–1, 218, 328–9practical work 126self-assessment 426–7, 428–30transferable 33–7, 44

slides 102see also PowerPoint presentations

slopes, mathematics 214–17social life, developing 20, 64–70social networks 68social stereotypes 66–7sources

literature review 358–9of information 90–1, 151–2, 155, 223–5

speaking, presentations 368–75speed-reading 160–6, 414spelling

British versus American 255checking 301, 302exams 336, 405misspellings 284, 287, 288rules 285–6spell-checkers 181, 286, 300

spider diagrams see concept mapssplit infinitives 260sports centre 25, 68spreadsheets

budgeting 55graphs 181, 211, 310, 313, 356skills 180, 181statistics 181, 211

SQ3R method, reading 166statistics

analysis of 156descriptive 208–9hypothesis-testing 210presenting 208–11spreadsheet 181, 211

straight-line equation 214, 217straw man 142

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stressdealing with 75–7evaluating 73identifying 71–2reasons for 74–5

structural models, written assignments 233–6Student Loan Company (SLC) 9students’ union/association 18, 67study buddy 96, 115, 387, 392, 399–401study groups

formal 115–16informal 118–19revision 399–401staff-led 116unsupervised 116

studyinghow much? 24how to 94–7learning style 44, 81–9organising yourself 91–2planning 24–5sources of information 90–1

sub-headings 229, 231, 283, 308–9subjectivity 154submitting, online 189suffixes, word meanings 295summative assessment 189, 318, 342–3, 376supervisor, research project 346, 348–9support services 25, 26

online 188, 191surfing, Internet 183

tablescreating 207–8, 211practical work 131, 344presentation of 312

teachingapproaches to 27–32online 186–7

teamworking 119, 120–5poster presentations 362–7see also study groups

tense, academic writing 257termination of studies 320text, presentation of 307–9textbooks

assessment of 158–60buy or borrow? 146

thematic approach 233, 235thesaurus 181, 292–4, 296, 298thesis 346

see also project work

thinkingcritically 103, 137–44, 225, 332processes 137–9

time lines 171, 172time management 46–53

exams 325, 409, 410teams 123writing assignments 221–2

timetableslectures 98personal 47revision 383–7, 406, 413–14, 450

title page, reports 353topic paragraphs and sentences 160, 161–2, 231topics, written assignments 222–3town, finding your way around 17, 61–2transferable skills 33–7, 44transport, local area 17, 62trigonometry see mathematicstruth see factst-test 210tuition fees 8–10tutorials

assessment 338–40discussion-based 133, 339participation 134personality types 135, 136, 340preparation for 133, 136problem-solving 96, 133, 338types of 132–3

tutors 116, 132, 136

university, comparison with other institutions28–30

University Word List 298URL 183

value judgements 141, 154, 260, 335, 405values, personal 432Vancouver method, references 240, 246–7variables, mathematics 192–3VARK learning styles 88verbatim 254vice-chancellor 18virtual learning environment (VLE)

checking 22, 91effective use of 189–91facilities 187–9lecture notes 99, 113, 187–8PowerPoint presentations 106, 111, 187–8

visual aids 101–2, 103, 374see also PowerPoint presentations

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visual memory 94vocabulary

appropriate 257–8developing 290–8specialist 96, 106, 260

volume, calculating 212–13

Wales, tuition fees 9websites see Internet‘white space’ 305, 308, 366word count 230, 300, 304, 309word-processing

grammar-checkers 181, 272, 300presentation of text 307–9skills 180, 181spell-checkers 181, 286, 300

work, paid 56–7, 58, 59work placement 346writer’s block 50, 333

writing, structure of 159–60written assignments

appendices 230conclusion 229cover page 307framework of 228–31information sources 223–6instruction words 222–3, 224, 227introduction 228–9, 230key themes 232layout 307, 308, 312planning 232–7presentation 301, 302, 306–13references 238–50structural models 233–6sub-headings 229, 231time planning 221–2word limits 229–30, 304see also academic writing

476 INDEX

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The Skills & Strategies for Success at University

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