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The Nyando Atlas:

Mapping out the Ecosystem Condition by Agro Ecological Landscape of Nyando River Basin

James B. Kung’u and Sarah Namirembe

January 2012

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Executive Summary The Nyando river has a catchment area of about 3,600km

and an average discharge of

approximately 15 m3

s-1

. The population in the Nyando basin is approximately 1,100,000 people (KNBS, 2009). Land degradation is a serious problemin the basin with deforestation and slope cultivation in the upper catchment in Kericho and Nandi counties leading to heavy soil erosion, biodiversity loss and sedimentation. There are different categories of solutions that can improve the catchment conservation and the livelihoods of the poor in the Nyando basin. These could be the economic solutions that can generate higher incomes for each cubic meter of water used; social solutions which can creates more jobs and higher food security for each cubic meter of water used; and environmental solutions which obtains greater resilience of ecosystems for each cubic meter of water present. These solutions can be achieved from innovations in technologies e.g. crop varieties and irrigation systems, policy recommendations for county, national and/or trans-boundary water-use efficiency or water-sharing agreements and institutional mechanisms e.g., payment for environmental services programs to upstream residents to alter their resource management behavior for the benefit of downstream inhabitants, How the communities in the upper catchment manages the land, forest and water resources to generate their own local livelihoods produces what are termed lateral flows, for example, of water, soil, nutrients or sediment, across the landscape tying landscape users together across scales (Swallow et al., 2006). Water management can also produce water transitions, which are defined as negative impacts on the quality, quantity and timing of water for people, their livelihood options and welfare downstream in the catchment. These are significant environmental reasons that signal the need for an integrated management approach of Nyando River Basin. In the Nyando basin, the prototypical distribution of poor people in upland areas and wealthier people downstream who can balance the flow of water with reverse flows of money and power do not prevail but the situation is that water and power are mutually constitutive, flowing downstream together. The following study report identifies the top drivers of land degradation in Nyando basin by agro ecological division/ landscape. The main drivers of ecosystem destruction within the context of agro ecological divisions have been identified. The agro-ecological conditions of the area and the activities for Payment of Ecosystem Services (PES) have been suggested. The big question remains: under what conditions will farmers adopt practices that reduce land degradation?

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Table of Content Page Executive Summary 2 Acronyms 4 Introduction 5 1.0 An Overview of Nyando River Basin 5 1.1 Location 6 1.2 Topography 6 1.2.1 Geology, Topography and Physiographic 6 1.3 Climate 9 1.3.1 Rainfall 9 1.3.2 Temperatures 10 1.4 Population 10 1.5 Soils 11 1.5.1 Soil quality 13 1.6 Hydrology 13 1.7 Vegetation Cover in Nyando Basin 15 2.0 AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES (AEZ) OF NYANDO RIVER BASIN 16 2.1 Agro-ecological Zone II 16 2.2 Agro-ecological Zone III 16 2.3 Agro-ecological Zone IV 17 3.0 LAND COVER AND LAND USE CHANGES IN NYANDO RIVER BASIN 18 3.1 Statutory Land Tenure in the Nyando Basin 20 3.2 Land Degradation 21 4.0 DRIVERS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN NYANDO RIVER BASIN 22 4.1 High Poverty and Population Growth Rate 25 4.2 Soil Erosion and Declining Soil Fertility 26 4.3 Loss of land cover 28 4.4 Unsustainable land-use practices 28 4.5 Culture and Poverty 30 4.6 Agro-Ecosystem Constraints and Climatic Uncertainty 32

4.7 Eutrophication of the Lake 33 5.0 Potential for Payment of Environmental Services in Nyando Nyando River Basin 35 5.1 Proposed PES Activities in the Upper Nyando River Basin 36

Conclusion 37

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Acronyms

FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation

GoK Government of Kenya

ICRAF International Center for Research in Agroforestry

ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone

JICA Japan International Cooperation

KARI Kenya Agriculture Research Institute

KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

MoWRD Ministry of Water Development

NEMA National Environmental Management Authority

REDD+ Reduced Forest Degradation and Deforestation Plus

WKIEP Western Kenya Integrated Ecosystem Management Project

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INTRODUCTION

1.0 An Overview of Nyando River Basin

The Nyando River basin covers an area of 3517 square kilometers of Western Kenya with river

Nyando draining into the Winam Gulf of Lake Victoria and is a major contributor of sediment

and phosphorus to the lake. Nyando basin covers part of Nandi and Kericho counties, Nyando

district, Lower Kano plains and a smaller part of Nakuru and Uasin Gishu counties. The basin is

primarily inhabited by two ethnic groups; the Luo who occupy the lowlands and parts of the

midlands and Kalenjin who occupy the highlands. Small numbers of a third ethnic group, the

Ogiek, occupy parts of the forest margin at the upper most parts of the basin. There is extensive

poverty in the basin with 41% of the population in Kericho county, 47% in Nandi county and

48% in Nyando district population reported to be living below the national poverty line KNBS,

2007). The farming systems in the basin can be divided into three broad categories namely:

large-scale commercial tea farming in Nandi and Kericho counties, large scale sugar plantations

in Nyando district, irrigation agriculture (rice irrigation under the National Irrigation Board and

the Provincial Irrigation unit) in Nyando district and small-scale mixed farming (cash-crops,

subsistence crops and livestock) in Kericho and Nandi counties and Nyando district. This zoning

is determined by both biophysical factors such as rainfall, soil fertility, temperatures, and

human factors such as access to productive resources (e.g. land) and the cultural values and

practices.

Implementation of integrated watershed management policies in the Nyando basin is

challenged by the presence of poor, marginalized people who typically depend on the natural

resource base for their livelihoods. Upstream resource management practices in the upper

catchment are commonly producing water transitions degrading environmental conditions and

livelihood support of lowland areas, where the resulting hydrologically-vulnerable situation has

trapped communities in water related poverty. The regular flooding of Kano plains has left

many people being extremely poor due to constant destruction of their property.

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1.1 Location

The basin is centered on the equator at 35°10E and is situated between Lake Victoria to the

South, Nandi escarpment to the North and Mau escarpment to the Southeast. The basin is

bounded by latitude 007’48’’N and 00 24’ 36’’S and longitude 340 24’ 36’’ E and 350 43’ 12’’ E

(KARI, 2006).

1.2 Topography

1.2.1 Geology, Topography and Physiographic

The land in the Nyando basin slopes generally in the Northeast-Southwest direction. Altitude

varies from about 1,100masl at Lake Victorica shores to about 3,000masl in Londiani and

Tindereet forest. The physiography of the basin consists of scarps formed by the rift faults,

which shape the Kavirondo Rift of the main North-South oriented Rift Valley system. Foot

slopes are typical along the Nandi and Mau escarpment. A gently sloped piedmont plain and

very flat alluvial plain are mainly found in the surface of alluvial deposit and Pleistocene deposit

(JICA, 1992).

The upper catchment of Nyando river basin which is made up of Nandi and Kericho counties has

an altitude ranging between 1300 m and 2500 m in Nandi while Kericho county rises up to over

3,000 m above sea level along the Mau Ridge (GOK, 2009a; GOK 2009b). The physiography of

Nyando Basin consists of the scarps formed by the rift faults, which shape the Kavirondo Rift of

the main North South Rift Valley System (WKIEMP, 2006). Foot slopes are typically along the

Nandi and Mau escarpment. A gently sloped piedmont plain and very flat alluvial plain are

found generally in the surface of alluvial deposits and Pleistocene deposit (JICA, 1992). A gently

sloped piedmont plain and very flat alluvial plain (Kano) are widely spread in the catchment.

The land generally slopes in the Northeast-Southwest direction. The highest altitude is about

3,000 meters above sea level at Londiani and Tinderet forests to 1,100 meters above sea level

at the shores of Lake Victoria shores as shown in the Digital Elevation Model below (WKIEMP,

2006).

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Figure 2. Digital elevation of Nyando River Basin

Source: (WKIEMP, 2006)

Nandi and Kericho counties lie at an altitude ranging between 1300m and 3000m above sea

level. Most parts of the counties are hilly with basement rock system, which is distinct to the

South and along the Nandi escarpments giving way to thick layers of red soil anthills (GOK,

2009). Kericho county on the other hand is characterized by undulating topography, with an

overall slope of the land towards the west hence the general drainage of the county is in the

same direction.

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Figure 3. Relief map of Nyando river basin

Kericho county forms a hilly shelf between the Mau Escarpment and the lowland of Nyando

district with the eastward side rising to 3,000m above sea level along Mau Ridge. In the central

part of the county, there is Kericho plateau which slopes gently from about 2,500m to about

1,800m above sea level (GOK, 2009b). Nyando district within Kisumu county on the other hand

falls within the Lake Victoria Lowlands and Floodplains Region. The district is surrounded by

Lake Victoria and steep hills. The lake is to the west and Tinderet Hills to the east while Nandi

Escarpment is to the north and Kisii Hills to the south. The lowest altitude is the same as the

surface level of Lake Victoria, which is 1,134 m above sea level. The lowland area has a flat

topography while it gently changes to steep slopes in north-eastern and southern areas.

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The lowland flat area, stretches to Miwani, Nyando and Lower Nyakach Divisions, and extends

deep into Kisumu East District and is referred to as Kano Plain. The highest point of the District

is found in Muhoroni Division, which is 1,801 m above sea level. The table land of Upper

Nyakach is referred to as Nyabodo plateau with a highest point of 1,650m (GoK, 2009). The

district has many wetlands, some of which are located in inland areas while others are along

the lakeshores.

1.3 Climate

1.3.1 Rainfall

The climate of the Nyando basin is diverse and ranges from humid to sub humid. This is

attributed to variation in altitude from the highlands to the shores of Lake Victoria. The mean

annual rainfall varies from 1,000mm near the shores of Lake Victoria to over 2000mm in the

highlands of Mau (Njogu, 2000; GOK, 2009). The annual rainfall pattern is bi-modal with peaks

during the long rains (March-May) and short rains (October-December). The first rainy season is

the most pronounced and is experienced throughout the basin from March to May (Verchot et

al., 2007). This is normally followed by a long dry spell, which starts in June and ends in August.

The short rainy season starts in October and lasts for two months until November, followed by

the long dry spell which starts in December through to February (NEMA, 2004). In the lowlands,

the climate is sub-humid tropical (~1,100 mm rain/year) with a bimodal rainfall distribution

characteristic of African equatorial latitudes located near the inter-tropical convergence zone

(ICRAF, 2003). The second rainy season differs slightly depending on the location, but usually

occurs in September/October (Onyango et al., 2005). The third peak occurs in August.

The rainfall is controlled by the northward and southward movement of the Inter-Tropical

Convergence Zone (ITCZ). However, altitude, proximity to the highlands and nearness to the

lakeshore causes considerable spatial variations in rainfall. The areas with minimal rainfall are

found around the plains and lakeshore areas of Nyando district while the highland areas of

Nandi and Kericho counties have high rainfall (Njogu, 2000). Nandi and Kericho counties have a

cool and moderately humid climate with rainfall of between 1200 mm to over 2000 mm in a

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year. The long rains in the highlands start in early March and continue up to the end of June,

while the short rains start in September to November. Rainfall is mainly heavy in the month of

April and low in the month of February.

1.3.2 Temperatures

Temperatures in Nyando basin remain relatively stable throughout the year, although average

annual temperatures change spatially depending on the altitude. In the lowlands, average

annual temperature is 22.2 ºC while in the highlands it is 16.9 ºC (Verchot et al., 2007). The

annual monthly maximum temperatures in the lowlands range from 29 to 31 ºC, while the

annual monthly minimum temperatures range from 12 to 16 ºC (Onyango et al., 2005). In the

highlands, the climate is cool and moderately humid with mean temperatures ranging between

180C and 220C during the rainy season while during the dry season, high temperatures

averaging 260C are experienced during the month of January and December (GOK, 2009) in the

lower side of the Nandi Escarpment to the South West area neighbouring Nyando Escarpment,

lying 1300 meters above sea level (GOK, 2009c).

1.4 Population

The basin has a population of about 1,100,000 (KNBS, 2009). Nyando district in Kisumu county

has the highest percentage of the population living in the basin followed by Kericho and Nandi

counties respectively (KNBS, 2009). The people living in the basin are mainly lowland and

upland Nilotes. Luo-speaking people reside primarily in the low and mid-altitude parts of the

basin, while Kipsigis and Nandi Kalenjin reside primarily in the upper parts of the basin. The

Ogiek, a small ethnic group, customarily reside in the forests in the upper parts of the basin.

Resettlement of the large farms in the “white highlands” has led to the co-existence of distinct

clusters of Kipsigis Kalenjin with people of other ethnic groups, including Kikuyu, Kisii and

Luhya.

The Luo ethnic group are formerly cattle-herding pastoralists and they are reported to have

adopted fishing when they migrated south from the Sudan centuries ago (Dupre, 1968). The

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community is well known in Kenya for its strength of its customary authorities and the large

number of prohibitions and restrictions on individual land use. Polygamy is common and

polygamous households have a complex system of duties and obligations. Clans and sub-clans

are very important sources of social authority and village committees are unlikely to succeed if

they do not deliberately include representatives of all clans or sub-clans. Women have very

little independent access to land under Luo customary law, with the exception of a small home

garden (Orundu) that even junior wives are entitled to (Onyango, 2002)..

1.5 Soils

The soil types in the Nyando basin derive much of their characteristics from several hydro-

geomorphic zones within the Nyando basin. The soils vary with change in elevation and the

parent material. In the highlands the soils are well drained and deep to very deep. They are

moderate to low fertility and have shallow humic topsoil and stable soil aggregates. These soils

include: nitosols, alisols, luvisols and cambisols. The soils found in degraded hills and volcanic

foot ridges, however, are shallow, rocky and boulder. These include: leptosols and cambisols. In

the lowland soils are moderately deep to deep. They have impeded drainage, sodic subsoil and

less stable aggregates. They include: luvisols, gleysols and fluvisols (Waruru et al., 2003).

The soils of the highlands especially in Kericho and Nandi counties are generally well drained,

deep to very deep and in some places shallow to moderately deep, dark reddish brown to dark

brown, friable to firm clay, with thick acid humic topsoil (Acrisols, Nitosols, Cambisols,

Ferralsols). Predominant soil types (FAO-UNESCO, 1988) include Ferrasols, Nitisols, Cambisols

and Acricsols and are structurally stable (Cohen et al., 2006).

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.

Figure 4. Different soil types in Nyando River Basin

Source: (Ochola, 2010)

In the mid Nyando basin, the soil type is Lithosols and Ferrasols (Ochola, 2006). There is very

little variation in texture across the area (Verchot et al, 2008). Soil depth restriction is apparent

throughout the area with 55% of the land showing restrictions within the upper 50 cm of the

soil profile. Depth restrictions are particularly acute in the eastern part of the basin. The

majority of the soils showing depth restrictions have problems at shallow depths (<20 cm)

(Verchot et al, 2008).

In the lower sparts of Nyando river basin, the soils are Vertisols and Ferraisols (Figure 4). These

soils have impeded drainage, with the sub-soils being sodic and having less stable aggregates

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(Waruru et al., 2003). The soils of the plains are moderately well to imperfectly drained, deep

to very deep; brown to black, and in some places saline and sodic sandy clay loam to cracking

clay. The soils found in swamps are very poorly drained, deep to very deep, dark grey to black,

half ripe clay; in many places peaty (Gleysols, Histosols). Rice growing (irrigated) is practiced

here. During the dry seasons crops like maize, tomatoes onions and kales are grown. The other

major activity is harvesting of papyrus and other species for making mats, seats, fish traps and

thatching material (Mungai, 2004).

1.5.1 Soil quality

In Nyando River basin, there has been decrease in soil quality relative to undisturbed areas, as

indicated by a number of indicators, in areas where sheet, rill, and gully erosion have occurred.

The loss in soil quality is related to the degree of erosion. For example, sheet erosion is

reported to has decreased exchangeable bases by 39-47 % and soil organic carbon stocks by 17-

25 % compared with intact sites (Mungai, 2004). Where gully erosion has occurred the impacts

are reported to be more dramatic. The majority of the soils in the Nyando river basin are

deficient in plant-available phosphorus and it is estimated that between 63 – 73 % of the

Nyando River Basin is deficient in plant available phosphorus (defined as <8.5 mg kg –1 P-Olsen)

(Mungai, 2004). However, soil phosphorus levels are high enough to be of environmental

concern in parts of the lake plain, where erosion risk is also high.

1.6 Hydrology

The main river, Nyando rises from the western Mau hills and traverses a distance of

approximately 170Km (Figure 5). Its drainage basin consists of five main sub-catchment areas

namely; Nyando-Nandi, Nyando-Kericho, Awach-Kano, Nyaidho-Kano and Nyando-Kano. The

Nyando and its tributaries supply water both for domestic and livestock use and for irrigation in

the sugar belt.

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The river has a steep gradient in the upper reaches, but the gradient gentles as it approaches

and flows through the Kano plains. A major tributary, Ainabng’etuny rises from the Nandi hills

and joins the main river near Awasi market. The peak flow in the varies seasonally, and the

average peak discharge in the Ainabng’etuny tributary is estimated at 96m3/s (MoWRD, 2004).

Rapid runoff of water from upland areas contributes to high peak flows in the River Nyando

Figure 5: River Nyando and its tributaries

and there is periodic flooding in the Kano plains. It is estimated that at least 400 km2 of the

Kano plain in Nyando and Kisumu districts is at risk of flooding from the Nyando river (Onyango,

2004).

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The Nyando River basin has the highest average slope and sediment transport index score

within the Lake Victoria basin. These are some of the biophysical factors that explain why it has

become a major contributor to the eutrophication of Lake Victoria. It is estimated that

approximately 61% of the Nyando River basin is a sediment source with an average erosion rate

of 43 metric tons per hectare per annum (t/ha/yr), translating into an average soil loss to the

lake of 3.2 million metric tons per annum since 1963 (World Agroforesty Center, 2006).

1.7 Vegetation Cover in Nyando Basin

Vegetation cover within Nyando Basin varies with the altitude. In the highlands, the vegetation

consists of evergreen broadleaf forest, where the most important tree species like Croton

megalocarpus, Diospyrus abyssinica, Funtumia latifolia, Olea welwetchii, Dombeya spp and

Dovyalis abyssinica are found. The area contains many tea plantations both in large and small

scale farms. There are also big areas covered with plantation forests especially Pinus patula and

Cupressus lustanica. Eucalyptus trees have also been planted especially in tea estate.

In the lowlands, a main distinction can be made between the native vegetation from the plains

and the one from the mid-slopes; in the first case, grasslands (Eragrostis spp., Cynodon dactylon

and sedges) with scattered acacia trees like Acacia seyal, Acacia drepanalobium and Acacia

hockii dominate. Native communities in the mid-slopes include perennial grasslands (Themeda

triandra, Hypairhenia hirta, Panicum spp., Eragrostis spp.,) among others interspersed with

evergreen and semi-deciduous bushlands (Dodonea angustifolia, Carissa edulis, Rhus

natalensis, Rhus vulgaris and Euclea divinorum mainly). In the inland valleys and at the river

mouth, Cyperus spp. wetlands and riparian vegetation (Ficus natalensis, and thickets of

Dombeya spp., among others) are the main native communities (Bargues, 2009).

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2.0 AGRO ECOLOGICAL ZONES (AEZ) OF NYANDO RIVER BASIN

According to the Agro-ecological zone map of Kenya (Sombroek et al, 1982), the Nyando basin

falls within zones II, III and IV. Agro-ecological zone III, and IV cover Nyando district in Kisumu

county which is the lowland areas including the Kano plains and Nyando swamps.

2.1 Agro-ecological Zone II

Nyando basin Agro-ecological zone II covers mainly the highland areas of the basin, including

mountains, hills, foot slopes and upland areas. Most parts of Kericho county and some parts of

Nandi county fall under agro-ecological zone II. This zone is generally restricted to the

highlands between 1980 and 2700 meters above sea level and occurs as a forest or open

grasslands. The areas are classified as very humid (moisture index of 65-80%) with mountain

and forest ecosystem. The natural vegetation is dominated by moist forest and woodland

vegetation including evergreen trees such as (Camphor) Ocotea usambarensis, Polyscias

kikuyensis Juniperus procera, Podocarpus spp, Olea Africana, Olea hochstetteri, Ficus thonnigii,

Ficus natalensis, Warbugia ugandensis, Dombeya goetzenii, Croton megalocarpus,Teclea

simplicifolia, Arundinaria alpine, Hagenia abyssinica and Hypericum revolutum. There are many

areas where the natural vegetation has been cleared and currently replaced with tea. Dairy

farming is also a major economic activity in the area.

2.2 Agro-ecological Zone III

This zone covers semi-humid parts of Kericho and Nandi counties in areas lying between 1800-

2300 meters above sea level. The areas are characterized by dry forest and moist woodland

which are dominated by tall and flat-topped acacias such as Acacia abyssinica, Acacia tortilis

and Acacia hockii. The area has high to medium agricultural potential with maize and

pyrethrum being common indicator crops. Most parts of Kericho county especially in Kipkelion

district fall under this zone. Dairy farming, maize and wheat growing is practiced in the area.

Vegetables and Irish potatoes are also grown in the area.

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2.3 Agro-ecological Zone IV

This zone marks the transitional area between humid and dry land environment and is

characterized by the Savanna environment. The area lies between 1,500 and 1,800 meters

above sea level. The natural vegetation is open grasslands, scattered woodlands, bushlands and

schrublands. Some of the prominent tree species found in the area include medium height to

tall acacias such as Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal and a wide range of euphorbia and shrubs such

as Tarconanthus camphoratus. The zone has medium agricultural potential with crops such as

maize and sugarcane being grown. Agro-ecological IV are mainly found in Nyando district in

Kisumu county which is the lowland areas including the Kano plains and Nyando swamps and

also some parts of Nandi county.

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3.0 LAND COVER AND LAND USE CHANGES IN NYANDO RIVER BASIN

The land use/land cover types in Nyando basin are diverse. The diverse patterns depend on

lithology, geology, topography, moisture availability and most important human activities (Van

Der Kwast, 2002). There are various land uses within the Nyando basin. The main land use types

can be categorized into forestry and agriculture. The forest fall under government designated

land. They include Timboroa, Tinderet, Londiani, Western Mau and parts of South Nandi. Some

parts of these forests are planted with exotic tree (Pinus patula, Pinus radiate and Cupressus

spp.) which are used for commercial purposes.

According to Akotsi and Gachanja (2003), the vegetation in the area has changed considerably

from the wooded types in the past to the present shrub types. These changes can be attributed

to human activities such as deforestation, vegetation clearing, charcoal burning and

overstocking. The dominant land use in the uplands is tea growing both in big estates and in

small scale farms. Tea is a deep-rooted crop that requires a lot of rainfall and well-drained

acidic soils. Other crops found in these areas and also requiring well-drained soils are maize,

potatoes, pyrethrum, wheat and cabbages. There are also both indigenous and plantation

forests in this area. During the last 40 years, the basin has experienced dramatic land use

changes, as the land has been converted from small-scale farming to intense smallholder

cultivation. The impacts of these changes on the environment are seen in emerging

environmental problems such as deforestation and landslides (Onyango et al., 2005). High

deforestation rate has been reported at Terik, Kapsabet, and Nandi hill locations in Nandi

county and at Tideret, Buret, Kericho, Londiani, Kebenet, Kedowa and Kiptere locations in

Kericho county (Ashley,2005; Swalow, 2007; Juman, 1996 and Omuto, 2003). Most of the

hilltops in Nyando district are bare due to extensive charcoal burning while most of the basin

area is more or less continuously cropped. The two remaining forest areas in Nyando basin,

Tinderet and Mau forests, are currently being heavily deforested, and the steep sloping

escarpments-originally Government trust land are quickly being cleared due to charcoal

burning and illegal farming (ICRAF, 2000).

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The Land use and property rights in the basin varies considerably with the upper part of the

basin mainly in Kericho and Nandi counties being comprised of gazetted forests, commercial

tea production, and small-scale agriculture which are mostly located on steep hillsides which

were formally forested lands but were degazetted during the last 40 years. The mid-altitude

areas mainly in Nandi and some lower parts of Kericho are made up of a mixture of smallholder

farms (mostly planted with maize, beans, coffee, bananas, sweet potatoes and dairy animals).

There are also large scale commercial farms which are mostly planted with sugar cane

especially in lower parts of Nandi, Kericho and upper parts of Nyando. The lower parts are

composed of flood-prone lakeshore area which is mostly used for subsistence farming of maize,

beans and sorghum, and commercial production of sugar cane and irrigated rice. Within the

area, there are clear differences in land use between those areas that have been settled for a

long time and those areas that were recently settled.

Figure 6. Land use in Nyando Basin

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Nyando River Basin has been identified as a major source of sediment loading into lake Victoria.

The entire basin is characterized by severe soil erosion and land degradation problems that are

stratified according to topography, soils type and human activities. Accelerated runoff over the

basin has led to sheet erosion in the highlands and gully erosion and stream bank erosion in the

midlands and lowlands.

The principle causes of land and water degradation include: deforestation in the highlands and

extensive use of fragile lands on both hill slopes and the plains without proper land use

techniques. The land and water resources is the major contributor to the decreasing

agricultural productivity and increasing poverty levels among the local people. There are

serious gully erosion in areas such as Katuk-Odeyo in Nyando district which is posing a great

challenge to development and there is an urgent need for preventive measures.

3.1 Statutory Land Tenure in the Nyando Basin

The Land and water in the Nyando basin are held under a wide variety of statutory property

rights. There are at least six types of private tenure which can be identified. These include

three types of private tenure on former crown land i.e. large scale agricultural leaseholds in the

former white-owned farms which has been sub-divided into agricultural leaseholds, non-

agricultural leaseholds and four types of private tenure on trust land (freehold land in

adjudication areas, freehold land in settlement schemes, non-agricultural leaseholds, group

ranches). The different tenure types are administered under a number of statutes, including the

Government Lands Act, the Trust Lands Act, the Registration of Titles Act, the Land Adjudication

Act, and the Registered Land Act.

There are different types of public land in the Nyando basin. In both government and trust land

areas, there is land that is not alienated to any specific user. This type of public land is very

vulnerable and can be subject to abuse due to de facto open access. This land is supposed to

form the land bank from which the custodians of land draw when a development need arises.

In the Nyando basin this bank is almost empty. There is also land that is alienated for specific

public purposes such as forests, parks, government institutions, and public utilities such as

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schools and hospitals. The use for which the land is alienated determines the custodian of such

land. These types of land are less vulnerable.

In Nyando basin, many important areas for catchment management were formally designated

as private property and were not left as public lands. This land includes spring heads, the

catchment areas immediately around spring heads, riparian areas, some wetlands, and water

harvesting structures. While private property can generally offer the tenure of land security

that is desirable while providing incentives to prevent degradation, inappropriate privatization

of land can also lead to problems, such as when the subdivision of land results in many of them

being located in steep hillsides, or when key watershed points (e.g. spring heads) that have

spatial benefits that go beyond the individual household are privatized and put under the

control of one household.

3.2 Land Degradation

The principle causes of land and water degradation as reported earlier include: deforestation in

the highlands and extensive use of fragile lands on both hill slopes and the plains without

applying proper land use techniques. This is very common at Kapkoros, Terik, Nandi hills

locations in Nandi county and at Kedowa location in Kericho county. Other identified places

include Muhoroni and Ngatipkong locations in Nyando district ((Swalow,2007; Juman, 1996,

Walsh, 2002; Ashley, 2005). Escalating soil erosion, declining soil fertility, agro-chemical

pollution, and loss of land cover are reported to contribute significantly to land degradation.

The Nyando River has been identified as carrying more sediment load than any other Kenyan

river (ICRAF, 2002). Sedimentation rates are reported to have peaked during years of major

rainfall events associated with the El Niño southern oscillation. These trends suggest that the

problems of soil erosion and soil degradation have continually worsened over the last 100

years, while at the same time the land has become more susceptible to large rainfall events

(Raburu and Okeyo-Owuor, 2002). In the past few years, soil erosion has been reported as a

major problem in Kapkoros, Kapsengere, Kapsumbeiywo, Kiowa, Kaptindo, Sarah Boit,

Kipkeibon, Kibabet, Kapsabet, Lessos and Kiowa sub locations in Nandi county while in Kericho

county, the problem has been reported in Kedowa, Kaminjeiwa, Bartera, Nyatipkong,

22

Nyaribari, Kiptegan, Cheptemel, Ngendui and Nyagacho sub locations (Swalow,2007;

Omuto,2003; Juman,1996; Walsh, 2002)

In Nyando district, soil erosion is reported to be high in Muhoroni east, Ngendui village,

Bartera, Koru, Oduwo, Tamu, Sondu and Burkamach sub locations ((Onyango, 2002; Ashley,

2005; Omuto,2003). There also exists incremental of wetland loss which is occasioned by

natural hazards and intensification of land use as well as other anthropogenic activities.

Declining soil fertility has been reported as a major problem at Kibabet, Kapsabet, Lessos, Nandi

hills, Kiowa and Kaptindo sub locations in Nandi county (Walsh, 2002) while at Kericho county,

the problem of soil fertility decline is reported at Londiani, Katuk, Nyagacho and Chilchila sub

locations. The problem is reported to have been caused by cultivation of steep slopes without

conservation measures and the leasing of grazing land to other communities i.e at Katuk

location, Kipsigis are leasing their lands to Luo community who do not employ any soil and

water conservation measures. High population increment has also been associated with soil

fertility decline in the basin ((Swalow,2007, Walsh, 2002, Omuto, 2003). In Nyando district, soil

fertility decline has been reported at Muhoroni especially at Tamu, Bartera , Ngendui, Koru,

Oduwo, Sondu and Burkamach sub locations.

There is an acute shortage of fuelwood, timber and poles due to deforestation in Nyando

district in locations like Katuk in Kericho county and Katuk-odeyo catchment in Nyando district.

Communal grazing in Katuk-odeyo hinders establishment of tree seedlings and women in these

area are reported to be going as far as Sigowet hills in Kericho county to fetch fuelwood

(Mungai, 2004). Lack of enough wood has led to the steep hills in Katuk-odeyo sub catchment

to be de-vegetated leading to huge gullies which are threatening lives and are becoming a

major hindrance to transportation (Mungai, 2004).

3 3Flooding

The upper reaches of the Nyando river is in Kericho and Nandi counties where annual rainfall is

high and it is this rain that causes the most devastating of the floods in the lower parts of the

basin especially in Upper Nyakach, Lower Nyakach, Miwani and Muhoroni sub locations in

23

Nyando district (Ong, 2002). There is reduced vegetation cover in places like Kongoni, Tinderet

and Kapsabet locations in Nandi county and Buret, Chilchila and Londiani locations in Kericho

county (Juman,1996; Omuto, 2003; Walsh, 2002; Leah, 2007). Soil erosion as a result of

inappropriate land use in the watershed and the flood plains leads to an increase in the

sediment load of river Nyando. The sediments fill up the channel in the lower course of the

river where its speed is reduced by the gentle gradient. The channel’s capacity to hold water

thus reduced becomes unable to hold the waters flowing through the river and this leads to

flooding.

The destruction of the watersheds leads to less rainwater percolating into the soils thus

increasing surface run off which causes flash floods in the lower parts of the basin. Erosion in

the upper reaches produces sediments that fill up the river channel reducing its capacity to hold

water. The high amounts of rainfall received in the catchments produces too much water for

the silted up river channel to hold, and therefore it overflows its banks causing floods. The

flatness of the land in the lower parts of the basin makes the flood waters spread over a very

large region without draining away quickly, while the black cotton soils in the area do not allow

much of the water to percolate into the soil. This chain of events indicates that though the

floods are experienced in the lower reaches of the river, the causes can be traced to the upper

reaches.

Flood control in Nyando basin requires interventions both in the upper catchments and in the

flood plains. In the upper catchments, the major task should be to increase vegetation cover

and to reduce erosion. This can be achieved through intensifying reforestation and

afforestation projects, use of appropriate farming technologies such as intercropping and mixed

cropping and controlled grazing in the range lands to prevent overgrazing. There is need for an

intensive campaign for creating awareness among the communities. This calls for mobilization

of resources and a high level of community participation to ensure sustainability which is

essential because these procedures must be continuous if they are to be effective.

24

4.0 DRIVERS OF LAND DEGRADATION IN NYANDO RIVER BASIN

The principle causes of land and water degradation in Nyando basin include: deforestation in

the highlands and extensive use of fragile lands on both hill slopes and the plains without

proper land use techniques (KARI, 2006). The overall pattern that emerges from literature

review of Nyando basin reveal an area of variable welfare and environmental quality, with

relatively tight cause and effect relation between upstream land and water use and

downstream variation in water quality and water quantity. The historical pattern shows

consistent deforestation in locations like Terik, Kapsabet and Nandi hill in Nandi county and

Buret, Londiani, Kebenet, Kedowa and Kiptere in Kericho county (Ashley,2005; Swalow,2007;

Juman,1996; Omuto,2003; Walsh, 2002; LVEMP,2006) and soil erosion in places like Kapkoros,

Terik, and Nandi hills locations in Nandi county and Kedowa, Kaminjeiwa, Bartera, Nyatipkong,

Kiptegan, Cheptemel, Ngendui and Nyagacho in Kericho county over the last hundred years,

punctuated by severe worsening of those problems during the heavy rains (Swalow,2007;

Omuto,2003; Juman,1996; Walsh, 2002). Floods in the Kano plain are becoming more severe

and frequent as the river has gradually lost its ability to buffer environmental variability. The

area of Upper Nyando is generally characterized by steep terrain at a relatively higher altitude

with slopes ranging between 1 and 51% (Verchot et al, 2008). The steepest slopes are found

through the middle of the upper Nyando where the highlands give way to the river valley. Steep

slopes are also found along the crests of the ridges. The riparian area of the Kipchorian River is

characterized by a narrow floodplain with wetland vegetation (Verchot et al., 2008).

The present land use and environmental courses of action in Nyando basin are largely

unsustainable and no longer constitute options to a sustainable future (Ochola, 2006). The use

of unsuitable agricultural practices in many parts of Nyando basin has remained an important

factor contributing to land degradation. Land degradation problems appear to be most severe

in the sub-divided agricultural leaseholds and in the freehold land in adjudication areas like

Kapkoros, Terik and Nandi hills locations in Nandi county and Kedowa and Kibabet locations in

Kericho county. In the former there are problems associated with poor land use planning

during the transition from large scale to small scale farms in the 1960s and early 1970s. Since

these lands were bought by land buying companies on behalf of various groups of shareholders,

25

they did not consider important physical factors while subdividing the lands e.g. the terrain, or

the need for public utility lands. Their main interest was to ensure that every shareholder got

some piece of land. Most of the lands buying companies were formed along ethnic lines,

which ended up creating clusters of different ethnic groups with different cultures living next to

each other on the same landscape especially in Kericho county. This has ended up weakening

some traditional systems and as a result people in these areas find statutory laws more

functional. There has also been tribal conflict with some tribes being displaced. This is in great

contrast to those areas that were designated as native reserves during the colonial era, where

people of the same ethnic groups were put together. High population growth in the designated

native reserves has led to high population pressure leading to overuse of land resources.

The effects of these factors have been exacerbated by the consequences of decisions and

policies as well as cultural, social and economic circumstances (Ochola, 2006). These factors

especially within the last twenty years have considerably changed the basin’s ecosystems which

in turn have rendered the population dependent on its vast natural resources vulnerable and

insecure in terms of poverty, food security and health (Ochola, 2006). The trends in land

degradation can be linked to imbalances in land distribution, lack of incentives for conservation,

insecure tenure and the failure to provide for diversified rural production systems.

4.1 High Poverty and Population Growth Rate

Poverty is associated with a number of inter-related problems including rapid population

growth, land degradation, and declining human health, agricultural productivity and water

quality (Shepherd et al. 2000). Evidence from the Nyando District and elsewhere in Western

Kenya indicates strong links between poverty, environment and investment in natural

resources. Poverty reduces the use of fertilizers, although it has no consistent effect on the use

of organic soil enhancement techniques such as contour bunds or improved fallows. The

chronic illness and death that is associated with HIV / AIDS especially in Nyando district in

locations like Miwani, and Awasi locations is a major cause of impoverishment. Households who

lose male income earners are likely to reduce their production of crops and their use of

purchased inputs. In view of the pervasive poverty among farming communities in the area,

26

the use of inorganic fertilizer is limited, and primary productivity is closely linked to the

inherent productive capacity of the soil.

4.2 Soil Erosion and Declining Soil Fertility

Soil degradation is recognized as a major global problem having negative impacts on

agricultural productivity, ecosystem and atmospheric change, and water and habitat quality.

However, existing data on the types, extent and severity of degradation, including at global,

regional and national levels, are not answering the needs of environmental and development

agencies. Soil erosion causes heavy sedimentation in the river, as yawning gulley eat up farms and

separate villages e.g. Katuk-odeyo in Nyando district. Intense agricultural activity has been causing

excessive flow of nutrients into the Nyando River, and subsequently, into Lake Victoria. Moderate soil

erosion in the order of 5-10 t ha-1 yr-1, is associated with substantial losses in soil nutrients and can

contribute significantly to negative farm nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium balances (Van den Bosch

et al. 1998, Shepherd and Soule, 1998).

Depletion of soil fertility via bio-fixation and subsequent crop harvest, grazing, soil organic matter

depletion and/or biomass burning exacerbate these problems and will not be resolved without the use

of inorganic fertilizers. Perhaps the single greatest threat to primary production in Nyando River Basin is

the prevalence of land degradation as indicated by the decline in soil quality in places like Kapkoros,

Terik, Kibabet and Nandi hills locations in Nandi county and Kedowa and Nyagacho locations in

Kericho county. Accelerated soil erosion and nutrient runoff from River Nyando Basin has induced a

rapid rise in nutrient levels in Lake Victoria. This has led to changes in the lake ecology and rapid growth

of aquatic weeds dominated by the water hyacinth, with adverse effects on fishing and lake transport.

Interventions that mitigate soil erosion in the basins are needed.

4.3 Loss of land cover

Land use and land cover dynamics are widespread, accelerating, and significant processes

driven by human actions but also producing changes that impact humans (Agarwal et al., 2002).

These dynamics alter the availability of different biophysical resources including soil,

vegetation, water, animal feed and others. Consequently, land use and cover changes could

lead to a decreased availability of different products and services for human, livestock,

27

agricultural production and damage to the environment as well. Land cover loss has been

reported at Kapsabet, Siria plateau, South Nandi, Nandi hills, Kiowa, Kaptindo, Kipkeibon,

Lessos and Koiwa sub-locations in Nandi county, Meteitei, Nyagacho, Chilchila, Kotetn farm

Kedowa and londiani sub-locations in Kericho county and Owaga and Ngatipkong in Nyando

district ((Leah, 2007; Onyango, 2002; Walsh, 2002; Juman,1996; Omuto,2003).

The role of vegetation cover in watersheds and the impact of deforestation on hydrological

regimes, although extensively studied, remains a controversial area of hydrological research,

particularly when considering aspects of scale. Despite the widespread popular belief that

deforestation leads to reductions in groundwater availability during the dry season, and

although responses vary widely between sites and situations, a number of hydrological studies

show that the removal of forest cover leads to higher water yields. This is associated with trees

being highly effective water pumps, extracting water from the soil and transpiring it to the

atmosphere, so that the net immediate effect of tree removal is a rise in the water table and

increased dry season flows.

Much of the basin has a history of deforestation for fuel wood, mining, grazing and agriculture

as well as other land-degrading practices. Problems associated with vegetation loss and

deforestation includes loss of terrestrial habitat and loss of soil nutrients, resulting in nutrient

enrichment of waterways and high algal growth. Vegetation changes on land affect littoral

habitats by promoting erosion and filling littoral zones with fine and coarse sediments, thus

altering habitats of littoral species. Socio-economic effects of vegetation loss and sediment

loading are numerous. These include reduced agricultural and fishing capabilities.

The impacts of historical land cover changes witnessed between 1973 and 2000 on the

hydrologic response of the Nyando River obtained through consistent classifications of selected

Landsat satellite images shows significant and varying increases in the runoff peak discharges

and volumes within the basin. In the upstream sub-catchments with higher rates of

deforestation, increases between 30 and 47% were observed in the peak discharge. In the

entire basin, however, the flood peak discharges and volumes increased by at least 16 and 10%

28

respectively. When one analysis the satellite images dating back to 1975/76 combined with

analysis of 2002 images, it shows an increase in cropland (4.9%) at the cost of forest land (8.5%)

in parts of Nyando basin. The reduction and degradation of forest land have led to increased

erosion rates. The land conversions in the upstream of Nyando basin have had a phenomenal

impact on biogeochemical cycles and biodiversity that are critical in the functioning of

watersheds and the ecosystems that evolved within them. The impacts of over exploitation of

land and forest resources are clearly evident in the degradation of watershed through

accelerated sediment generation, flash floods associated with deforestation and the aggregated

influence on regional climate. This brings into question the continuing ability of these systems

in providing the goods and services that upstream and downstream communities have enjoyed

and depended upon for millennia. The question that needs to be raised is how this problem can

be reversed by use of payment of environmental services.

4.4 Unsustainable land-use practices

Unsustainable land use decisions and agricultural practices by landholders are responsible for

watershed degradation in Nyando watershed. Over the past three decades, intensified

cultivation of marginal areas and clearance of natural habitats like wetlands, forests and

mountainous areas have been witnessed in River Nyando watershed basin. These have been

the main driving forces behind the escalating land degradation in the region (Abila, 2002).

Farmers have been encroaching into steep hills for crop production due to population pressure

without carrying out any conservation measures. A good example is in the upper catchment in

places like Kipkelion district which lies on very steep slopes with sparse vegetation. The area is

reported to be formally a forested area and a few remnant trees can be seen in the area. Places

like Jagoror and Kipsirichet locations are located in areas with large ridges and valleys which are

prone to landslides. Landslides are also seen in several parts of the basin as a result of reduced

ground cover and unsustainable soil and water management practices. Hard pans have been

exposed in some areas as a result of farming on these steep slopes. Farmers report that base-

flow water levels in the streams have been reduced tremendously as a result of tree cutting

(Verchot et al, 2008).

29

With the move to more sedentary based farming systems and over exploitation of forest

resources, sediment generation and associated discharge to water courses has been drastically

increased particularly where appropriate soil conservation measure are not implemented to

reduce erosion. This has a profound effect on the hydrodynamic capacity of water in river

channels which is the major reason for flooding in Kano plain. Sediment generation from

watersheds has accelerated with predicted increased frequencies of extreme rainfall events

associated with climate variability, further exacerbating current trends.

Scientists from the Lake Victoria Environment Management Programme, Water Quality

Component and the World Agroforestry Centre have conducted several studies of water

quality, land use and soil degradation across the Nyando basin during the last few years. Many

of those results are summarized in a proceedings volume edited by Mungai et al. (2004). An

analysis of sediment cores from the outlet of the river Nyando into Lake Victoria shows a

historical trend toward higher levels of sedimentation, with strong peaks in sediment

deposition during high rainfall events associated with El Nino. Increased nutrient and sediment

loads in the Nyando River are linked to both point and non-point sources of pollution. Key point

sources are sugar processing and agro-chemical factories, while non-point sources are the

thousands of small farm families who operate throughout the basin.

ICRAF scientists estimate that about 61% of the land in the basin is sediment “source” area with

average net erosion rates of 43 tonnes per hectare per year, while 39% of the land in the basin

is sediment sink area that accumulates about 45 tonnes per hectare per year. Sediment source

areas are further distinguished into areas with relatively high erosion rates (fast erosion) and

relatively slow erosion rates (“slow erosion.”). Fast erosion is concentrated in hillslopes in the

flood-prone Kano plains and some of the steep hillsides in the upper and mid-altitude parts of

the basin. The remaining upland forests and wetlands and some of the sugar cane and

smallholder farming areas in the mid-altitude zone appear to be net sediment sinks (Walsh et

al.,2004 ). Most of the riparian areas that could be important filters have been systematically

cleared over the last 40 years.

30

4.5 Culture and Poverty

The Nyando River basin exhibits the same characteristics as found across the Nile Basin in terms

of high population density and poverty prevalence. In 2000, the average population density of

the Nyando basin was 214 persons per square kilometer ranging to as high as more than 1200

persons per square kilometer, with an approximate total population in 2003 of 746,000 (Olaka,

2005). In 1997, the prevalence of poverty across the Nyando River basin ranged from 58 to 66%

compared with the national poverty rate of 53% (KNBS, 2007). By 2009, the population in the

basin had risen to almost 1.100,000 (GOK, 2009).

Given the importance of land access for livelihoods, it is particularly important that governance of

land issues is participatory and empowering. Land access is also an important prerequisite, in

some cases, for enhanced access to water. Reducing poor people’s vulnerability includes putting

measures in place that safeguard their access to resources and this may include providing formal

recognition to some current customary access regimes, which requires participatory forms of

planning and governance at all levels. Devolved systems of governance should allow active

participation of users in natural resources management debates. Legislation should enable the

poor to access water resources and create incentives for sustainable use, through recognizing and

incorporating people’s needs and their traditional management systems.

Women have very little independent access to land under Luo customary law, with the

exception of a small home garden (Orundu) that even junior wives are entitled to (Onyango,

2002). Lack of control over land also severely constrains women’s access to water sources, since

almost all water sources are established in private lands. Land management at the village and

farm scales are also affected by the activities of a number of important projects and

programmes.

The surprisingly large arrays of formal land tenure types and sources of statutory and

customary authority over land and water management in the Nyando basin influences land

management in Nyando river basin. While it appears that there is complex land tenure system

that creates many problems for watershed management, insecure private rights to cropland is

31

not a compelling problem. High rates of erosion in the lower part of the basin are associated

with private uncultivated areas that are overused for grazing and wood collection while high

rates of erosion in the upper part of the basin can be associated more with the private

allocation and farming of steep hillsides.

Deforestation and cultivation of riparian areas can be associated with privatization of riverine

areas, together with ineffective enforcement of rules on the use of those areas. The

Government of Kenya is currently undertaking a review of its land tenure and land policy.

Whatever emerges from that review, however, it is unlikely that there will be a large

reallocation of land from private individuals to the government. What is more feasible is that

the public and collective interests in those key components of the watershed are exerted

through new instruments such as environmental easements. However, that approach will

require engagement with key statutory and social authorities. Catchment authorities or

environment committees will be most effective if they are able to operate with the support of

social authorities such as clan elders, water and land management projects, and local

authorities.

The Nyando case is complex, perhaps more so than most other watersheds in Africa.

Nonetheless, it illustrates the importance of linking science with policy and institutional design:

better scientific understanding of the catchment hydrology can lead to a policy and programme

focus on small discrete parts of the catchment. The Nyando case also shows the need to

understand the complex linkages between property rights and watershed management

problems. And, finally, it illustrates the need to involve multiple social and statutory authorities

in watershed management, including the various government institutions whose

responsibilities and mandates often overlap and conflict.

4.6 Agro-Ecosystem Constraints and Climatic Uncertainty

In a survey by ICRAF, farmers ranked drought frequency and the unpredictability of rainfall as

their single most important constraint in the Lower Nyando. A second category of constraints

was associated with capital for inputs, labour and farm implements. Pests and diseases was also

32

identified and especially Striga infestations which poses significant problems in the area. The

problem is associated with soil fertility constraints (Verchot et al, 2008). In the upper Nyando

basin, the largest constraints at farm level are soil related problems, particularly fertility,

stoniness, erosion and water logging. Others include soil erosion and fertility problems, pests

and diseases on crops and unpredictable weather (Verchot et al, 2008).

A number of paleoclimate studies have shown that long-term climate variability in the basin is

periodic and tends to track events occurring over time periods that are characteristic of cyclical

changes in orbital insolation and forcing (e.g., Kroll-Milankovitich cycles), and global ocean and

atmospheric circulation (e.g. El Nino/La Nina cycles). Some of these studies (e.g. Stager et al.,

1996) suggest that the post-1960 ecological shift in Lake Victoria may have had climate driven

analogues over the last 10,000 years. This implies that although human impacts on the lake

basin environment may now eclipse the events taking place, climate change could be

reinforcing environmental degradation in the lake basin.

The more recent historical record shows the occurrence of an extraordinarily pluvial period

from 1961-1964 in the eastern portion of the lake basin. During this time, the water level of

Lake Victoria rose by approximately 2.5 meters, and discharges from rivers Nyando and Sondu

Miriu, for example, were 10-20 times higher than their respective 35 year decadal averages. For

the Nyando River Basin, interviews with local people suggest that many of the major soil

erosion problems either started or were dramatically accelerated in their development during

the early 1960’s. We speculate that rapid land use changes, deforestation, infrastructure

development and over-grazing structurally altered this landscape during the first half of the

20th century. Prevailing conditions during the early 1960’s may then have been such that the

basin was essentially primed for massive erosion/sedimentation during a period extraordinarily

heavy rainfall in the region.

4.7 Eutrophication of the Lake

The Nyando River basin has the highest average slope and sediment transport index score

within the Lake Victoria basin; biophysical factors explaining why it has become a major

contributor to the eutrophication of the Lake. The consequential environmental impacts in Lake

33

Victoria over the last 40 years include extended spells of anoxia; five times the concentrations

of algal biomass; 67 percent decrease in lake transparency; and explosions in invasive aquatic

species, most notably water hyacinth (Odada et al., 2004; Mungai et al., 2004). Rapid runoff of

water from upland areas contributes to high peak flows in the river and periodic flooding in the

Kano plains. At least 400 km2 of the Kano plain in Nyando and Kisumu districts is at risk of

flooding from the Nyando ( Mungai et al., 2002). Rainfall records and anecdotal reports indicate

that floods have become more frequent than they were 30-40 years ago. Floods increases the

incidence of a number of water-associated diseases among people and animals, constrain crop

and tree selection, make transportation more difficult, interrupt schooling, and destroy

property and infrastructure. Increased nutrient and sediment loads in the River Nyando are

linked to both point and non-point sources of pollution. Pollution data in the area indicate that

sugar processing and agro-chemical factories in the “sugar belt” of the basin contribute

significant amounts of phosphorus to the river (Mungai et al., 2004). Other results presented

suggest that sedimentation of the Nyando river system results from the land use practices of

tens of thousands of farm families operating throughout the catchment. ICRAF scientists

estimate that about 61% of the basin is sediment “source” areas with average net erosion rates

of 43 tonnes per hectare per year, while 39% of the basin are sediment sink areas that

accumulate about 45 tonnes per hectare per year. Sediment source areas can be further

distinguished into areas with “fast erosion” and “slow erosion.” Different types of interventions

may be appropriate to these different types of locations. International experience with

watershed management shows that effective management requires a minimum amount of

social organization around upstream-downstream linkages and water management.

Research

conducted in the Awach sub-basin of the Nyando basin shows that the main organizational

groupings relate to administrative units (provinces, districts, locations, sub-locations), land

tenure distinctions (eg settlement schemes, customary tenure areas) and ethnic distinctions

(major language groups and clans) rather than location within a catchment. The upstream /

downstream inter-personal relations that do exist tend to be driven by exchange of goods and

resources.

34

5.0 POTENTIAL FOR PAYMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES IN NYANDO

NYANDO RIVER BASIN

Land degradation is a serious problem in the sloping uplands. Experiences from a number of

projects in the world indicates that the problem is often not the lack of technology per se, but

the lack of economic incentives to adopt (DITSL, 1993; Cramb, 2000; Bridges et al, 2001).

Technological research has often placed excessive emphasis on soil erosion as a ‘problem’

rather than viewing it as a symptom of inappropriate land use. Limited and sporadic adoption

of seemingly viable erosion-control practices points towards the existence of other constraints

to adoption. Since the economic gains from land conservation are realized over a long period,

the incentives to investments in conservation practices should critically be dependent on

farmer’s livelihood strategies and the broader conservation policy.

The Nyando River flows from the Rift Valley highlands supplying irrigation water to vast rice

fields before it empties into Lake Victoria. Currently, the measures being taken to combat

degradation in the Nyando River basin include increasing tree cover, water harvesting, de-

silting existing water pans, the construction of new dams, rehabilitation of existing dams and

encouraging technologies that retains water on-farm.

Farmers as they implement the measures continue to encounter challenges and for example, in

Nyando district where water pans are being constructed, disputes have arisen over their

control, in particular where they are located on an individual’s farm. In other areas like Katuk-

Odeyo in Nyando district, it has been difficult to convince communities not to farm along

riverbanks as these are often the most fertile and best watered areas. Ethnic tension in Lower

Nandi and Kericho counties in recent years between inhabitants of the highlands and lowlands

further complicates matters.

The potential for local institutions and communities, i.e. Nyando county council, Kisumu water

and sewerage company (a government parastatal), Muhoroni and Sonny sugar companies, Tea

companies and estates, Kano Rice Irrigation Scheme and Kisumu Airport can become buyers of

35

environmental services. The current consortium should initiate dialogue with the organizations

to determine if they have the finances and mandate within a legal framework to use PES as a

means of more effectively addressing the Nyando basin degradation. Currently, majority of

members of consortium seems to be from the lowlands and those from the highlands where

major degradation occurs seems to be under-represented.

The evidence available from other areas shows that some techniques, particularly the

agroforestry, water management and soil fertility conservation techniques can enhance farm

productivity while at the same time reducing soil erosion and enhancing water infiltration.

However, there is need to increase vegetative cover across large areas of non-cultivated lands.

This might be accomplished through enclosures’ to encourage natural regeneration, restrictions

on free grazing, and effective prohibition on the use of river line and steep hillside areas for

cultivation, grazing and fuel wood collection. Spring protection appears to hold the potential to

be a win-win solution – improving water quality, reducing gulley erosion and improving human

health.

5.1 Proposed PES Activities in Nyando River Basin

There are various environmental services that can be marketed from Nyando River Basin. These

services include biodiversity conservation, carbon sequestration, landscape beauty, and

watershed protection. In the Upper Nyando especially in Kericho and Nandi counties; there are

still forested areas where a REDD+ project can be initiated. On the farmers’ field, on farm tree

planting and especially different agroforestry systems do exist. There is need to involve the

farmers and tea estates in carbon trade especially the Clean Development Mechanisms (CDM)

and in Voluntary Carbon Trade (VCT).

The area has the potential for farmers benefitting from biodiversity conservation market. With

the current promotion of tourism in the western circuit, farmers especially those growing tea

can be paid part of the money from income generated from tourism. There are many people

who would pay for seeing the beautiful undulating sites of tea estates. The entire area is also

made up of undulating highlands with numerous small seasonal streams, which run across the

36

cluster and drain into River Nyando (Verchot et al, 2008). Farmers should be encouraged to

practice soil and water conservation measures which will not only reduce sedimentation in river

Nyando, but also also reduce flooding in Kano plains. The government can compensate farmers

in the upper stream using the money they allocate every year for disaster management for the

flooded areas. Due to the expansion of low-input, subsistence farming, land degradation has

become widespread and most of the important tree species, some of high medicinal value and

some of high timber quality, have disappeared. Farmers can therefore be involved in payment

for water services by those suger industries, irrigation scheme, water companies and county

councils downstream. There is evidence of heavy deforestation from the sparse vegetation on

the hillsides and soil erosion is a serious problem in this area (Verchot et al, 2008). There is

therefore need to strengthen support to farm management, enterprise development and

conservation. In this area, one can promote agroforestry, soil fertility management and soil

conservation techniques on farmers’ fields. One can also promote energy efficient stoves and

water harvesting techniques throughout the basin, especially with women. For environmental

management and protection, there should be enforcement of existing laws and regulations to

protect degraded hillsides, spring heads, the collection areas of first order streams, and riverine

areas from cultivation, livestock grazing and fuelwood collection. On farm tree planting should

be promoted.

4.7 Conclusion

The catchment area of the Nyando basin is highly degraded due to deforestation, soil

erosion and soil fertility decline. Unsuitable agricultural practices in the basin is contributing

to land degradation. Rising population pressures and emerging opportunities for

commercial agricultural production and tenure insecurity are some of the major drivers

resulting in unsustainable use of in fragile sloping areas of the Nyando basin. Field-level

interventions based on specific technologies are unlikely to be adopted unless they directly

address farmers’ livelihood concerns in the context of ‘macro’ factors driving the land-use

changes. Conservation outcomes may be better achieved indirectly through approaches

that reduce the intensification pressure in sloping land. A ‘landscape’ management

37

approach, whereby interventions for productivity enhancements are targeted to favourable

parts of the landscape, is likely to be effective for generating conservation outcomes by

reducing the intensification pressure in fragile sloping lands. Land degradation problems can

be addressed if farmers are given incentives to carry out on farm tree planting and practice

soil conservation measures. Most of the forests in the catchment since they are located in

government owned land especially in the upper catchment unlike in the middle and lower

catchment where the forest belongs to the community. To conserve these forests, REDD+

should be explored while industries, water companies, irrigation schemes and county

councils should be targeted to start paying for the conservation of the catchment area. The

government should compensate the upstream communities especially in Kericho and Nandi

counties for their conservation efforts in rehabilitation of degraded areas. Part of this

money can come from the Tourism kitty and also from the ministry of special programs.

38

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