Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII. pp. 108-129

THE INDIAN AND NEPALESE COLLECTIONS OF THEWELLCOME INSTITUTE FOR THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE

KENNETH X. ROBBINS*

ABSTRACT

Wellcome Institute for History of Medicine has extraordinarycel/ection, the largest and most comprehensive European collec-tion dealing with History of Medicine. From the start the WellcomeInstitute showed great interest in India and large number ofmanuscripts were purchased, Now the Institute concentrates onits chief functions as a scholarly library and teaching facility andattaches highest priority to sorting and cataloguing rather thancol/ection of more material. ~Thelibrary is not as well known asit should be even to scholars working in the field of Indianmedicine.

The Oriental collection includes over 10,000 manuscriptsand 3,000 printed books in 43 languages. It has valuable copieslike superbly illustrated 13th century Nepalese Tantra palm leafmanuscript of "Sumputodbhavatantra", illustrated Devi Mahatmya,Bilvamangalastava and others. Medical manuscripts make up alarger percentage of the Persian manuscripts than they do ofSanskrit manuscripts. The collection possesses a Vaidyaka calan-der listi g the various herbs and other items appropriate for eachmonth. Surgical instruments and anatomical diagrams are notil lustrated in Indian Ayurvedic manuscripts but in contrast manytreatises on veterinary medicine are profusely illustrated. TheTamil manuscripts in the collection have not been properly cata-logued. The iconographic collection has some pictures relatedto History of Indian medicine.

*5055 Seminary Road Suite 108, Alexandria, Virginia 22311.

Collections of Wellcome Instt.-Robbins

On the Euston Road in Londonstands a large impressive buildinghousing the Wellcome Institute forthe History of Medicine. The Well-come Institute exists to providelibrary resources as well as researchand teaching facilities for peopleinterested in the history of medi-cine.

The library is supported solelyby the Wellcome Trust created underthe terms of the will of Sir HenryWellcome (1833-1936). Sir Henry'splan was to collect materia medica,fetishes, charms, votive offer ings,arnu lets, paintings, drawings, etch-ings, photographs, sculpture, manu-scr ipts. pr inted becks. pamphlets,periodicals, historicai letters, ana-tomical curiosities, medical equip-ment, laboratory equipment, etc.relating to medicine, surgery,anatomy, pathology, ophthalrnics,pharmacy, hygiene, public health,chemistry, botany, alchemy, hospi-tals and toxicology. Out of thissearch evolved this extraordinarycollection. the largest and mostcomprehensive European collectiondealing with the history of medi-cine. (The collection even includesa talisman in Karo - Batak using ahuman shoulder blade for writingmaterial.)

Sir Henry saw the history ofmedicine as part of extra anthropo-logical and enthnographic studies.He tried to collect large quantities

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of mater ia Is so that sequences anddevelopment could be reconstructedby comparison. At present, theWellcome Institute is becoming agreat scholarly collection, not justa fantastic accumulation of "cabi-nets of curiosity." In 1938, theInstitute started to deacquisitionirrelevant material by sale or gift.In recent years, nothing has beensold or given away. All three dimen-sional items were transferred to theScience Museum in South Kensing-ton in 1980-81. They are on indefi-nite loan and are displayed in twolarge qal ler ies. This allowed theWellcome Institute to concentrateon its chief function as a scholarlylibrary and teaching facility.

It is not accidental that theaccount of Sir Henry's plans givenabove came from a publication aboutIndia, The King Emperor and HisDominions: Souvenir of the Corona-tion Durbar of H. I. M. George V.Delhi, December, 1911. Accordingto Skinner, "One group of visitorsfor which Wellcome was preparedto cater were those guardians ofEmpire whose duty might bring themin contact with the 'subject nativeraces': Colonial and military oificials,explorers, colonizers, planters, mis-sionaries would find it invaluable."From the start the Wellcome collec-tion showed a great interest inIndian medicine following the interestof early British physicians likeH. H. Wilson, John Forbes Royle,

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and T. A. Wise. In 1929, the DailyPioneer of Allahabad reproduced theSir George Birdwood Memoriallecture delivered at the Royal Societyby the Wellcome Institute's CaptainP. Johnston - Saint; "In Greekmedicine, in Arabic medicine, andin what we know about Egyptianmedicine, we find time after time,traces of what only could have beenderived from even more ancient andfamous Indian medicine. We are tospeak the truth, we must call Greece,not the parent of our modern medi-cine but its nurse Today thespeculation is over and we can tracehow the great Pythagoras himselfimbibed his mysteries from theBrahmins of India. The connectionis not difficult "Whether or notthe comments about Pythagoras aretrue, the WeUcome Institute has longrecognized the importance of Indiain the h isto-v of medicine. At pre-sent, there are two scholarly curatorsof Oriental books and manuscripts;both of whom are not only helpfulto other researchers, but who areactively publishing material from thecollection: Dr. Nigel Allan andDr. Dominik Wujastyk. The icono-graphic collection, under the ablesupervision of William Schupbach,contains approximately 1000 Indianpaintings and drawings.

Between 1911 and 1921, largenumbers of manuscripts (both oldand new) were purchased or commis-sioned in India for the Wellcome

Bulletin Ind. Inst, Htst. Med. Vol. XVII

Institute by Dr. Paira Mall. Nophotograph of him has been knownto have survived, but his extensive,interesting correspondence with SirHenry should be published as anexceptional example of scholarly

patronage and connoisseurship. Hewas an extraordinary man: he earneda medical degree at Munich and wasproficient in German, French, Italian,English, Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian,Urdu, Punjabi and possibly Japanese.Mall had been chief medical officerof the Princely State of Kapurthala.(This is an interesting Punjabi statewhose maharaja had a Spanishmaharani and built a palace modelledafter Versailles.) Mall broughtthousands of manuscripts from allover India and Nepal. He commis-sioned copies of important manus-cripts at the Raghunatha Templelibrary in Jammu, the Durbar libraryin Kathmandu and the SarasvatiMahal in Tanjore. An example ofthis is a Devanagari manuscript ofthe Tantric classic Nil).svasatattva-~amhita (WMS. Sansk. 622) whichwas copied in 1912 from a 9th cen-tury palm leaf manuscript. Mallwas able to purchase many earlyJain manuscripts, which rarely comeon the open market because they arestill closeted in the libraries of theJain community. He obtained theonly known manuscript of Gau.ita-pal!lcavil!lsi (WMS. Sansk. 175) bythe 8th century mathematician Sri-dhari. Other important contributors

CoII&cti(J'fts of Welfcome Instt.-Robbins

included Dr. Banarsi Das Jain of theUniversity Oriental College in Lahorewho brought many Arabic, Persianand Sanskrit manuscripts between1928 and 1947. The Institute hasalso acqu ired the collection of thepioneer French medical historian,Gustave - Alexandre Lietard. Hccent-Iy, the Institute has also acquired 95Arabic manuscripts formerly in thecollection of Sami Haddad.

Sorting and cataloguing thecollection rather than accumulatingmore material became the highestpriority. The Sanskrit col!ection wasscattered through the library. Notesby Dr. Mall and his assistant Rama-chandra Sarman are available butthey are not systematically organizedor representative of what a fullscholarly description should include.In 1954 Professor V. Raghavan ofMadras University catalogued somethree thousand manuscripts. In 1971,Professor D. Pingree of BrownUniversity described d number ofSanskrit manuscripts but concentra-ted mostly on the astrological andmathematicc I manuscr ipts rather thanthe medical manuscripts. In 1982Dominik Wujastyk, an Oxford-trainedSanskrit scholar began to prepare adetailed handlist of the Sanskrit andPrakrit manuscripts: "I began bywriting full descriptive articles onmanuscripts more or less randomlyfrom the crowded shelves of theWeUcome Institute Oriental room.However, I soon learned that there

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were equal if not greater numbersof manuscripts in the basement storeroom, and further caches in scatteredlocations around the building ..... ,many manuscripts in (ProfessorRaghavan's) list could no longer belocated on the Shelves, and therewere large numbers of manuscriptswhich Raghavan appeared not tohave seen ..... some of the apparentlyincomplete manuscripts subsequentlyproved to have simply become sepa-rated into pa r ts which had thenbeen shelved in different locations."Dr. Wujastyk united the manuscriptsin a single location, making a preli-minary survey of the collection.

Most of the manuscripts werewrapped in newspapers which areunsuitable because of their highacidity. They were rewrapped inacid - free Japanese tissue. A Greekletter sequence was devised so thatfor the first time manuscripts couldbe easily located. Paper manus-cripts were shelved by size with alphabeing used for the small manuscripts,beta for the medium ones, andgamma for the largest ones. Verylarge or irregu lar lv shaped manus-cripts were catalogued under delta.Palm leaf manus vripts were giventhe notation eps.lon. Conservationefforts on these manuscripts willtake many years. I n the meantime.Dr. Wujastyk has Studied more than4000 manuscripts in his plan t-ocatalogue a1\ the Sanskrit a-nd PrakritManuscripts in an extensively notated

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six volume handlist. (The firstvolume covering 1C03 manuscriptshas been published.j Once the col-lection is made accessible by pub-lishing the handlists as rapidly aspossible, definitive descriptive cata-logues by subject matter are planned.

Eventually, the manuscripts inother languages will be cataloguedand published as well. By the endof 1947, Dr. Richard Walzer examined2000 man uscripts in Arabic and Per-sian. He produced a typed authorcatalogue entry of the importantitems. In 1967, a catalogue of 245Arabic works in 197 volumes dealingwith medicine and science waspublished by A. Z. Iskandar. Thisincluded about 1/3 of the Institue'stotal Arabic collection. Each Arabicmanuscript was given a number start-ing with "WMS. Or.' Examples fromIndia were purchased in Bharatpur(WMS. Or. 41), the Muslim marketin Hyderabad (WMS. Or. 149b) andMadras (WMS. Or. 36). Othermanuscripts were obtained from thelibraries of Ular Khan in Delhi (WMS.Or. 47) and Benarsi Das Jain of theOriental College in Lahore (WMS.Or. 75). Fateme Keshavarz has pub-lished a descriptive and analyticcatalogue of the Institute's Persianmanuscripts. The index on page 701reveals that many of the manuscriptswere copied in India. But manycata logue entries do not make itclear which manuscripts originatedin India and which were copied in

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Persia. According to Dr. Allan,calligraphy styles cannot always berelied on to identify the geographicalorigin of manuscripts without colo-phons. Six - hundred and seventeenmanuscripts (several containingmultiple titles) are grouped under460 titles. The catalogue includesexcellent detailed descriptions ofeach item including title, author,content, descriptions of manuscriptsin the Institute and other collections.Incipit and explicit are given in theoriginal Persian. Though there isa list of illustrated manuscripts, thereis I ittle or no description of thepaintings.

The library is not as well knownas it should be even to scholarsworking in the field of Indian medi-cine. S. M. Razaullah Ansari andZia Fatima do not even mention theInstitute's collection in their 1984essay review of science and techno-logy in medieval India. One extre-mely knowledgeable Western acade-mic confided: "I am very embarra-ssed to admit that I just learned ofthe existence of the Wellcome Insti-tute this summer, so I have not yetused its library." The collection isso extensive that no scholar canexhaust its treasures. Anotherresearcher in this field wrote to me;"It is a crucial collection for thestudy of Indian medical history. Ofthe parts that I examined, most wereof fairly recent date (19th-20th); afew on palm - leaf were of an earlier

Collections of Wellcome Instt.-Robbins

time (17-18th century) Theremay be older manuscripts but I didnot see them."

MANUSCRIPTS

The Oriental collection includesover 10,000 manuscripts and some3000 printed books in 43 differentlanguages of Asia and North Africa.Manuscripts can be consulted in theOriental Room, which contains refe-rence materials. The exact numberof Indian manuscripts is not known.At the present time, it is estimatedthat there are about 5700 Sanskritand 300 Prakrit manuscripts. Thereare over 60 Tamil, more than 400Hindi, 21 Urdu, more than 30 Pun-[abi, 25 Ma lavalam, 2 Kanarese, 4Marathi, and 1 Kashmiri manuscriptas well as more than 600 Persianmanuscripts, many of which origina-ted in India. There are some 200Sanskrit, more than 60 Tamil. 20Malayalam, 25 Oriya, 24 Telugu and1 Kanarese palm leaf manuscripts.Compare this with the collection ofthe National Library of Medicine inBethesda which has a few (very few)Sinhalese and Persian manuscripts,but none of [the Indian origin. TheBritish Library has 6600 manuscriptsfrom South Asia, but this includesSinhalese and Tibetan materials.(The Wellcome Institute has some500 Sinhalese palm leaf manuscriptsand 132 Tibetan manuscripts andblock prints.) The India OfficeLibrary has only 38 Tamil paper and

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palm leaf manuscripts, but doesinclude more than 8400 Sanskrit andPrakrit manuscripts not includingthe fragments in the Hoernle andStein Collections.

To study the history of Indianmedicine, it is important to have asmany manuscripts and translationsof each work as possible under oneroof in an cas ilv accessible city andin a well - catalogued collection.Many works have been lost or sur-vive only in one or two manuscripts.Even printed books may be rare andinaccessible without such a library.Differences in manuscripts will helpuncover transcription mistakes andhelp distinguish them from obscureor obsolescent terms. There maybe strong regional differences inpractice as well as revisions bylater commentators. No singlecritical translation can ever be com-plete because literal translationsmay be confusing and lucid onesfanciful. For example, one shouldnot just assume that the samedisease categories exist under diffe-rent names in Ayurvedic and Wes-tern medicine. 0 r. Wujastyk hasshown the value of this library byusing its many manuscripts to showthat P. C. Ray had made an importanterror in his history of Hindu chemis-try based on confusion that arosefrom the conflation of three diffe-rent texts. His research is summa-rized in a recent article entitled,An Alchemical Ghost: The Rasarat-nsker« by Nagarjuna.

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The scope of the Wellcomecollection is even more impressivewhen one considers the strength ofthe oral and secret esoteric traditionsin India that diminished the potentialnumber of written accounts of Indianmedicine. Even today, some of themedical traditions (such as trancehealing by the mediums of thegoddesli Mariamman) do not involvewritten text. Heat, humidity andmany invasions have led to thewholesale destruction of mar.v man-uscripts. Long Iists of lost tantrasand sarnhitas mentioned in commen-taries in Ayurvedic works can becompiled. Some texts have onlysurvived in Tibetan, Burmese orSinhalese translations, but not in theoriginal Sanskrit.

The Wellcome Institute'S BroadView of what Constitutes theHistory of Medicine

Only 251 of the first 1003 San-skrit and Prakrit manuscr ipts exa-mined by Wujastyk were directlyrelated to medicine. Other manus-cripts cover a multitude of subjectsincluding devotional tracts, tr aditionallaw, astral science and mathematics,history and legend, log ic, ceremonialpractice, liturgy, myth and legend,hymns and eulogies, tantra and yogaas well as Philosophy and grammar.Only with such information can thecultural context and philosophical,religious, and astrological aspectsof Indian medical theory and practice

Buf1etin Ind. lnst. Hi~t. Met!. Vol, XVlJ

be understood. The tradition tendedto consider the individual a micro-cosmos which could be compared tothe universe as a macrocosmos. Thesame five forms of matter (bhutas)were considered basic elements ofall things within the universe, bothanimate and inanimate. The bhutasare akasa (ether), vavu (wind),prthvi (earth), apa (water) and teja(fire). A Sanskrit folio in the Well-come collection equates a list ofbody parts with deities (WMS. Sansk.788). It was important for thephysician to study religious texts sothat disorders caused by karmacould be distinguished since theymight render therapeutic measuresineffective. Physicians were ortho-dox Hindus whose way of life wasreligiously prescribed. Ayurvedicmedicine was considered not a pro-duct of human thought, but part ofan external truth revealed by godsto humanity. Yet there was longhistory of both differing opinions aswell as additions to theory andpractice. According to Das Gupta,the philosophical foundations ofAyurvedic medicine are in Samkhya,Yoga, Nyaya, and Vaisesika works.The collection contains many philo-sophical works including Vaisel?ika-sUtra by Kanada (WMS. Sansk. 910)and multiple works by Sankaracarvaincluding many copies of the Atma-bodha. There are many works onNyaya or logic including a manuscriptof a commentary on the Terkesem-graha dated 1800 tWMS. Sansk.339).

Co/lecti()ns of WeJlcQme /nstt.-,-Robbins

Dr .. Keshavarz's catalogue lists460 Persian titles: 213 are medicaltitles, 109 are scientific titles, if oneincludes the occult sciences. AsDr. Keshavarz points out, "Thehistory of Persian medicine couldnot be adequately studied withoutreference to alchemy, mineralogy,astrology and a wide range of mysti-cal, or quasi - magical activitiesincluding numerology, letter exer-cises (Ilrn - i huruf or 11m- i jafr ),techniques of prognostication (e. g.'ilm - i rami), and the constructionof talismans and amulets. Thesesubjects, which involve aspects ofwhat today would be classified asthe theory of numbers, therapy bysuggestion or para - psychology wereconsidered to be of medical signifi-cance in medieval East.. .... Also thereare examples of incantation, horo-scopes and amulets being used forthe treatment of snakebite, thefacilitation of childbirth, and for thepurposes of birth control. The studyof the history of Indian and Persianmedicine cannot be separated fromthe study of philosophy and religion.The collection is rich in the works ofth e Sufi preacher and poet .Jarnl whowas so beloved to India. In thecatalogue Dr. Keshavarz describesthe importance of his teachings"concerning spiritual tranquility andIntegration of personality interms of the beliefs of the time, asrelevant to such modern disciplines.as psychiatry and psychology."

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There are also many works by theSufi physician Muhammad AkbarArzanl who lived in India and studiedmedicine in Shiraz. Among his im-portant works are a materia medica,the Qurabadin - i Qadiri (WMS. Per.187) and the earl iest known copy(dated 7 years before his death) ofa pharmacopoeia of compound medi-cines, Mujarrabat - i Akbari (WMS.Per. 532).

A third important ancient classi-cal school of Indian medicine, Siddhamedicine, combines medical, religi-ous, mystical and poetic elements.However, the Tamil manuscripts atthe Institute have not been catalog-ued nor has any check I ist of titlesbeen done yet. Therefore no discus-sion of the Institute's manuscriptscan be done at th is ti me.

INDIAN MEDICAL SYSTEMS

The major classical Indian medi-cal systems are Ayurveda, Siddhaand Unani. In addition to suchsystems and Western medicine, sickpeople may look to religious healers,exorcists, astrologers, homoeopaths.bonesetters, midwives, and Westernpractitioners. As Nichter put it,there is "medicine rnasala" in India,that is medicine for both the tasteand the pocketbook. Basham feels,that whatever the theoretical basis ofsuch systems, they often are prag-matically effective and their medica-tions and therapy are often less

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expensive than their Western coun-terparts. Apparently the Indiansystem is open to new influences.Therefore it is no surprise that thethird book printed in India was amedical volume in Portuguese byGarcia da Or ta. published in Goa in1563.

AYURVEDIC MEDICI:\IE

The Ayurvedic tradition, stillpractised today, certainly goes backmore than 2500 years. Literally,Ayurveda means the science of lifeand therefore deedsnot only with thecure and prevention of disease butwith coordination of daily conductwith religious practice and the pur-suit of long life. /\.yurvedic practi-tioners considered the system 8-limbed (A~tailga). The 8 branches ofknowledge include: (1) Kayacikitsa(therapeutics), (2) Salvatantra (sur-gical knowledge), (3) salakvatantra(ophthalmology and otolaryngology),(4) Bhutavidya (knowledge of diseaseof supernatural origins and mentaldiseases, (5) Kaumarabhr tva (pedia-trics), (6) Agadatantra or Visaqar a-va i rodhikapr asamana (t ox icoloqv],(7) Rasayana (knowledge of proces-ses for preventing physical andmental decay), (8) Vajlkaranatantra(restoration of virility, rejuvenationand sexology). In the case of Vajl-karaJ;latantra this is provided theunderpinning for the traditional Indianconcern about loss of semen. This

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVii

is the most refined body fluid; manysteps involving large amounts ofother body fluids are required toproduce even a single drop. Fearof semen loss in nocturnal emissions,urination, and even intercourse itselfhas led to a number of culture-bound problems like Dhat syndromeand rei igious philosophical theoriesextolling brahmacharya and reten-tion of "vital fluid."

In addition to the bhutas, thereare said to be three doses or elemen-tal irreducible building blocks ofmatter and seven Dhatus or bodycomponents. As the 5 elements aredigested by the fires of the body,they are converted into a fine portion(aha raprasada) and refuse (mala).Body elements are transformed byspecific transformation into foodjuice (rasa), blood (rakta). flesh(rnarnsa). fat (medas), bone (asthi),marrow (rnajja), and semen (sukra].The three dosas are vavu (whichincorporates the principles of motionand wind). pitta (which incorporatesthe principles of heat, metabolismand bile). and kapha or slesrna (whichincorporates the principles of coolingas well as mucus). Obviously theseare more abstract and universalprinciples than the material humorsof the ancient Greeks. (We mustleave the scholarly controversies onthe relationship between the dosasand the Greek humors to anotherpaper).

Collections of Wellcome Instt.-Robbins

The tridosa theory holds thatimbalance of the humors causes illhealth, but also recognizes that theprimary cause of the imbalance maybe climatic, organic or less commonlydemonic. Three categories are classi-fied in the Susrutesetnhiti: and theCarakasainhita: nijasar iradosaja (ge-nerated inside the body by humoraldisturbance), agantuja (communica-ted from outside) and manasa (men-tal diseases). According to theSusrutesetahite disorders can beclassified as adhva trnika (physical orinternally generated), adhibhautikacaused by disturbances in environ-ment), and adhlda ivika (due to fate,malignant influences or idiopathic).Internally generated disorders can beinherited before conception, acquiredduring the fetal period, or caused byimproper conduct and diet. Disordersdue to adhibhautika can be attributedto samqhatabalapravrtta (accidents,bites, other physical causes) andkalabalapravrtta (abnormal or clima-tic conditions). The adhidalvlka typemay be daivabalapravrtta (caused bygods, demons, charms, epidemics) orsvabhavabatapravrtta (due to naturalcauses like hunger and senility).

Ayurvedic practrnoners try torestore the lost equilibrium in thedosas through medications, food,proper conduct, prayers exorcisms ofevil influences etc. According tothe doctrine of paficakarman, emetics,purgatives, water and oil enemas

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and sneezing powders could beused to pacify the dosas. The phar-macopeia is very extensive and utiliz-es many compound drugs. Eachelement is thought to be endowedwith specific properties (qunas) andactions (karrnans) leading to specificactions (prabhava). The basic theorytook into account not only the vlrva(potency) and prabhava (specificaction), but the rasa (taste) and thevipaka (post diqesuve taste). Medi-cations were individually preparedbased on the patient's habits, theseason, and the locality, as well assymptoms. The Wellcome collectionpossesses a Vaidyaka calendar inDevanagari lisling the various herbsand other items appropriate for eachmonth (WMS. Sansk. 875). This isin contrast to the position of Srddhamedicine where the medicines aresupposed to be minerals selectedbecause their characteristics are un-changeable. Ayurvedic medicinesare not all placebos: Dr. Colonel SirR. N. Chopra, the father of Indianpharmacology, and a modern Euro-pean researcher Dr. Christoph VonKeudell have been noted researcherson the efficacy of these preparations.

The Origins of Ayurvedic medi-cine are mythical, being traditionallytraced back as far as the god,Brahma. Brahma is said to havecreated this science in 100,000 versesin 1000 chapters composed prior tothe creation of life. The classical

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texts are considered to be of divineorigin. Though theory and practicechanged over time, Ayurveda is oftenconsidered a unified doctrinal bodynot subject to fundamental change.The relative merits of differentwriters were recognized in a popularsaying: "The best authorities formedicine are Madhava for nidana(diagnosis), Vaqbhata for sUtra-sthana (theoretical basis or generalprinciples), Susruta for sarira (surgery)and Caraka for cikitsa (treatment)."

Dhanvantari, the physician ofthe gods, is said 10 have taken humanform as the King of Kasi. He is saidto have found a school of medicinewhere he taught Susruta. ,Ll notherschool of medicine is generallycredited to Atreya who supposedlytaught at the University at Taksasila.His students are said to have writtenvarious tracts only one of which hassurvived. This text, the Bhefa Sam-hita would have been lost except fora mistake - ridden, incomplete 17thcentury manuscript in the SarasvatiMahal Library in Tanjavur. Accordingto Weiss, Mukhopadhyaya mentionedthe second version, "in a NativeLibrary in Lahore." This manuscriptwas first described by Burnell in 1880.The Wellcome Collection contains a1920 copy by M. R. Acarva (WMSSansk 703) plus a list of variants(WMS, Sansk 704). It is quite sirnl-lar to the Csrek esenvhiit: with 8divisions end each section ending"thus spoke Atreya." Minor details

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vary such as the division of alocaka-pitta into two categories.

The Carakasainhita is said to bea redaction written before 300 A. D.of a longer, but now lost manuscriptof Agnivesa, another disciple ofAtreya. Levi and Jolly say thatCaraka was the physician of KingKanishka but there is a tradition thatKanishka wrote a commentary onCaraka's work several centuriesbefore. Weiss suggests that theoriginal Agnivesa Tantra was in verseand that the prose sections of theCerekssetnhltz: represent later com-mentary, interpolations and additions.The Carakasamhita is an encyclopedicwork dealing with all aspects ofmedicine. A further edition andreconstruction was made by Drdha-bala who was probably a Kashmiri.There are great scholarly debatesabout when he lived ranging from theopinion of Meulenbeld that he livedbefore 500 A. D. to that of Jaggi whosays he lived in the 9th century.Drdhabala restored lost portions,adding 17 chapters on cikitsa -sthana (therapeutics) and full sectionson kalpasthana (pharmaceutics) andsiddhisthana (treatment). He up-dated the material consulting Vag-

,bhata. Madhavakara and other famousauthors. A further commentary waswritten by Cakrapanidatta, a Bengaliwho wrote circa 1060 to 1075. Inthe Wellcome collection he is repre-sented by a copy of MaSUrikacikitsa(WMS. Sansk. 766) as well as a

Collections of Wellcome lnstt.s--Robblns

Nepalese manuscript dated 1642 ofCikitsasangraha (WMS. Sansk. 713)which is a well-known treatise ontherapeutics. Many other commenta-ries as well as early Persian andArabic translations are known. TheInstitute's collection does not containa complete manuscript of the Caraka-samhita, but there are several frag-ments: One includes the cikitsa-sthana and kalpasthana sections.Another fragment has 44 folioscovering cikitsa and yet anotherfragment of 12 folios containsNidana.

The Susrutesetiihitt: is anotherstandard encyclopedic classical textespecially noted for its informationon the ancient practice of surgery.Susruta's dates are unknown withSrivastava giving them as somewherebetween 100 and 600 B. C. Ray thinkshe was a teacher at the University ofKasi in Buddha's time. His originalwork, entitled, Salyatantra consistedof five sections: sutra. nldana, sarira,clkitsa and kaJpa. Meulenbeld saysthat this work was composed in thefirst three centuries of our era at thelatest. An early revision was madeby Nagarjuna who added Uttara-tsntrs with three sections: salakya,bhutavidya and kaurnarabhrtva. Atleast 8 partial or whole manuscriptsare in the Wellcome collection. Thereare versions in Devanaqar l script(WMS. Sansk. 849, WMS. Sansk.852, WMS. Sansk.855) and JainaNagari script (WMS. Sansk. 851,

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WMS. Sansk. 850, WMS. Sansk.854). One manuscript (WMS. Sansk.855) dated 1865 was checked (sarn-sodhita) by MadhusUdanagupta, anAyurvedic pandit at the Hajaklyavid-varnandlra. It would be very helpfulto scholars if they could study underone roof all of the regional variationsand diverse commentaries on theSusrutesemhit«, Famous commenta-tors include Dalhana. Cakrapanidatta,Gayadasa, Bhaskara, Madhava, Brah-madeva and Jejjapicarya.

Susruta gives a unique means ofdissecting cadavers by placing thebodies in streams to decompose sothat the decayed tissue could bescraped away. Anatomical informa-tion includes a listing of more thanthree hundered bones. At least 42different surgical methoGs and 121different kinds of instruments aredescribed. There are procedures forscraping, incising, extracting, probing,excising etc. Lithotomy, paracente-sis, cataract operations and plasticsurgery were apparently well deve-loped in ancient times. The advanc-ed nature of these procedures isevident from an article in The Gentle-man's Magazine of 1794 describingnasal reconstruction. (By this timeAyurvedic phvsicians were no longerdoing operations and the procedurewas being done by a nonmedicalcaste of brickmakers who passed theinformatior. orally to their sons with-out benefit of text). Replicas of theinstruments are quite impressive and

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look as if one could do surgery todaywith them. Many instruments musthave been made of steel even in thedistant past. (Steel making techno-logy was very advanced in India.)However, Dr. G. N. Mukhopadhyayahad to utilize Greek and Roman instru-ments to make reproductions sincethe Indian manuscripts are completelylacking in drawings and diagrams.(There are Tibetan diag rams based onthe A~!ailgahJdayasainhita from theMongolian Medical College at YoungHo Kung Monastery in Peking).

The third great ancient medicalauthority was Vaqbhata. Someauthorities think that works attributedto Vagbhata may have been compos-ed by more than one man. Tibetan,Chinese and Arabic sources suggestthat he must have flourished. about600. For example, 1- Tsing mentionsthat he recently made an encvclope-dic compilation of the 8 sections ofmedica I science. According toMajumdar, his A~tari.ga Hsdeye Sain-hita is the most complete and scienti-fic exposition of Ayurvedic know-ledge (WMS. Sansk. 677, WMS.Sansk. 678, WMS. Sansk. 679).Wujastyk has used a Sarada scriptmanuscript (WMS. Sansk. 679 whosecolophon calls Vaghata the "napt]:"of Ravigupta to confirm the' link bet-ween their families suggested byEmmerick. Wujastyk feels that "cri-tical editions of major medical works"may be produced from study ofmanuscripts using the "canons of

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

textual criticism." He says, "Ourpresent discovery shows the stilluntapped riches available in themanuscript record and suggests thattraditions lost elsewhere may still beavailable in manuscripts from Kash-mir." According to Meulenbeld, theA~1ari.ga Htdeve Sainhita was com-posed circa 600 and the A~~angaSailgraha gradually evolved beingcomplete by the time of Indu. Ithas been suggested that the verseand prose combination used in thelatter work evolved as an outgrowthof the verses of the former. A~tailgaHrdaya Sainhita has had many com-mentaries including Candranandana'sPadarthacandrika of the 1Oth century(WMS. Sansk. 785). In the 15thcentury a Persian translation byHakim Ali Mohammed Bin Ali lsrnailiAsavali Aseeli was dedicated toMohammed Shah of Gujarat. A~tan-ga Samgraha is still popular especiallyin Southern India. According toJaggi it "distinguishes the dhatus,the seven constituents of the body,from vavu. pitta, and kapha by callingthe latter, dosas (polluting agents),and the former, dusvas (the constit-uents which are violated). It deniesthat malas of dhatus could be the causeof disease. According to it, diseaseis not dhatuvalsarnva." Vagbhata'sson TIsata is the author of Chikitsa-Kelike, a pharmaceutical tract (WMS.Sansk. 710). Tfsata's son, Candrataalso is the author of an importantcommentary, Yoqeretnesumuccevn.Some scholar might find it interest-

Collections of Wellcome Instt.s-Robbins

ing to compare and contrast the viewsof these three generations of Ayur-vedic writers.

The Madhava - Nidana by Madha-va is a subject of a critique by Meu-lenbeld; there is a Bengali manus-cript dated 1851 in the collection(WMS. Sansk. 763). Six other textsare catalogued under the title Rugvini-scaya (WMS. Sansk. 819, WMS.Sansk. 820, WMS. Sansk. 821, WMS.Sansk. 822, WMS. Sansk. 823, WMS.Sansk. 824), including one dated1606 in Devanagari script (WM S.Sansk. 823). This text is a model ofclarity and concise description ofdiseases including smallpox. Itsnosology is considered outstanding.

The collection includes a Tanjoremanuscript of the RajamFgailka ofBhoja (WMS. Sansk. 795). There aremany scholarly controversies as tothe identity of the author: Was itKing Bhoja of Dhara (11th century),King Bhoja of Chitter (7th century)or anyone of other medicalauthorities 7

There are many works attributedto Nagarjuna suggesting that thereare several authors known by thisname including a school of Susrutainterpreters called nagarjuniyal} andthat works were otten attributed to"Naga rjuna" by Iater commentators.The Wellcome collection includesmanuscripts of the Kak'fjapu!a (WMS.Sansk. 615, 616).

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Nagarjuna was among the firstauthors to add metallic compoundsto the vegetable preparations in theAyurvedic pharmacopeia. Subsequentauthors added more and more prepa-rations ir.cluding ones based onmercury, silver, iron, steel, copper,gold, lead, tin, etc. 1he Wellcomecollection includes a Devanagarimanuscript dated 1623 of the medico-alchemical text, the Siddhayoga ofVrnda (WiVlS. Sansk. 840). Vrnda(circa 800-900 according to Meulen-beld) was an inhabitant of EastBengal who surveyed classical thera-py methods and described manypharmaceutical uses for mercury.The library also has a Nepalesemanuscript dated 1642 (WiVlS. Sansk.713) of the Cikitssssreseturrsns ofCakrapanidatta (circa 1060). Thisis another pharmaceutical work whichsupplements the Siddhayoga. Thereare 3 manuscripts of Vanqasena'sencyclopedic Cikits'Jsarasailgraha(WMS. Sansk. 714, WMS. Sansk.715, WMS. Sansk. 716). Valigasenalived in Bengal circa 1200. Thiscomposition describes a large numberof metallic compounds for pharma-ceutical use.

The 13th century SarilgadharaSainhita is the first Ayurvedic treatiseto break with the tradition of dividingthe composition into sthanas follow-ing the redactions of Caraka andSusruta. It is divided into threesections, (purva, madhya and uttarakhandas) with chapters. It is the

122

first Ayurvedic treatise to deal with:the diagnostic use of pulse examina-tion. It utilizes metallic compoundsand opium as well as traditionalAyurvedic medications. It connectsthe lungs to respiration by saying thatudana vayu is in the lungs. Thereare several Devanagari manuscripts(WMS. Sansk. 830, WMS. Sansk.831) including a Nepalese versiondated 1515 (WMS. Sansk. 832).

The greatest Ayulvedic physicianof the 16th century was Bhavamisraof Varanasi. He was considered a"jewel of a physician and the masterof the text." He gives one of thefirst indigenous descriptions of thestages of syphilis and its treatment.His systematic approach makes hiswork the Bhavaprak'2.scl popular eventoday (WMS. Sansk. 700, WMS.Sansk. 701, WMS. Sansk. 702).

Ayurvedic works were producedat the Mughal court or dedicated tothe Mughal emperors. The collectionincludes a copy of TOQarananda(WMS. Sansk. 860) attributed toTodaramalla. a statesman at Akbarscourt. The collection includesuntitled treatise in Urdu verse byHakim Darvesh compiled in 1657 anddedicated to Shah Jahan (WMS.Urdu 2). Works like Tibbi - Aurang-zebi (WMS. Per. 202c) and Mtrtual- hukama - i (WMS. Per. 31) basedon Ayurvedic materials were dedi-cated to Aurangzeb who was a veryorthodox Muslim!

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Surgical instruments and anato-mical diagrams are not to be foundin Indian Ayurvedic manuscripts.This extraordinary situation remainsunexplained. Indian Ayurvedic prin-ted books are illustrated. One oftheproblem may be due to the factthat early manuscripts were pro-duced on fragile palm leaves whichdid not allow for large scale instruc-tional diagrams as cou ld have beenthe case if they had been on vellumor paper. There is no known religiousprohibition against such diagrams:AYUlvedic manuscripts from othercountries are illustrated. In fact, theInstitute owns a splendid Nepaleseanatomical male figure painted circa1800 (acquisition #347674). Thepainting is graced by an extensiveSanskrit text which has been trans-cribed and is to be translated. Unlikethe esoteric oral teachings of Siddhamedicine, the Ayurvedic pharmaco-peia and therapeutic practices werenot secret. Dr. Wujastyk believesthat "Ayurveda came to be consider-ed to be an intellectual disciplinelike grammar and logic, which wasaII done 'in the head' without refe-rence to the world at large." Onewonders whether the lack of diag-rams or questions of ritual pollutioncontributed more to the decline anddemise of Ayurvedic surgical practice,which had formerly been so highlyadvanced.

In contrast to manuscripts deal-ing with human medicine, many

Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Anatomical medical painting of male with extensiveSanskrit text. Nepal. 19th century (Accession Number 347674).

Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Untitled verse manuscript on Ayurvedic medicineby Hakim Darvesh (also known as Yusef) of

Garh Kailash (? Kalas Vala, District Gujranwala)dedicated to Shah Jahan. Eighteenth century

manuscript in Hindi written in Nasta'liq.(WMS. Urdu 2, f. 1 & 2).

Bull. Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Folio from the Asvacikitsa in Hindi writtenin Devanagari script and based on the

Sanskrit work by Nakula.Manuscript includes 220 miniatures of horses,

their care, castes and livery.(WMS. Sansk. 680, f. 38r).

Bull. Ind. lnse. Hist. Med. Vol XVII

Folio from Faras'namah - i Hindi on thecharacteristics of black horses with whitepatches. This manuscript is a translation

of the Sanskrit Salihotra prepared byqandits at the request of 'Abd Allah Khan

Bahadur Ftruz'[anq in the reign of Shan .Jahan-(WMS. Per 47A. f. 7a).

Collections of Wellcome Instt. -Robbins

Ayurvedic treatises dealing withveterinary medicine are profuselyillustrated. I have seen illustrationsof the Hasti - Ayurveda and other suchtexts dealing with elephants whereillness was represented as an externaldemon clinging to the animal's head.The Wellcome collection possessesan extraordinary 19th century Hindimanuscript Asvacikitsa (WMS. Sansk.680) based on the Sanskrit work byNakula. There are 220 illustrationsof horses, their care, medical treat-ment, and even a division of horse-flesh into castes. There is also awonderful illustrated manuscript, theFaras - nama i-HindI in an excellentnasta'liq hand and contains the sealand autograph of the person request-ing the translation from Sanskrit toPersian of the Salihotra (WMS Per.47A). Several 19th century manus-cripts of the same title include minia-tures (WMS. Per. 556A, 557, 559).

UNANI MEDICINE

Even in pre - Islamic times, Indianphysicians were well known and in-fluential in Arab and Persian lands.unan: medicine is based in vhe Islamiccommunities of the Arabs, Persians,and Indians. The name Unani Tibbmeans "Greek medicine." TheseIslamic physicians had based theirsystem on the works of Hippocrates,Galen, and the other Greeks. (InIndia, the name "Greek medicine"seems somewhat ironic since therelationship between the Ayurvedic

123

tridosa theory and the Greek humoraltheory is a matter of great scholarlydebate) .

In the 9th century Ali ibn Rab-ban al Tabari summarized the Greekand Indian schools of medicine.His book Firdaus ul- Hikmat or TheParadise ot Wisdom is based notonly on works attr ibuted to Carakaand Susruta, but those of Vagbha!aand Madhava. For hundreds ofyears the encyclopedic AI - Oenoonby Ibn stnn has been the "medicalbible" in Islamic lands includingIndia. The Portuguese physicianGarcia da Orta was shown an Arabiccopy by Nizarn, the so - calledking of the Deccan. Of course, theWellcome Institute has many copiesof AIOanoan including a 19th cen-tury book purchased in Bharatpur(WMS. Or. 41). There is a 17thcentury copy in a good ta'Hq hand ofthe Oanunca Fi - T - Tibb, a resumeof AI Oiuioon, purchased in Madras(WMS. Or. 36) One of the mostcomprehensive of the many Arabiccommentaries was that of Ali Hus-sain Gf lanl (WMS. Or. 156a and156b) who served at Akbar's courtand was given the honorary title,"Jalinus - Us - Sanan" (The Galen ofhis age).

Many Moslem rulers of SultanateIndia were patrons of books basedon Arabic, Persian and even Ayur~vedic medicine. Mohammed Tughlaqwas known as a physician (hakim)

124

himself. He was responsible for abook Majmuai - Diyaiyya compiled byHakim Diya Mohammed in 1320.Firoz Shah Tughlaq founded hospi-tals, treated patients, and WaS inte-rested in orthopedics and ophthalmo-logy. He dictated a book calledTibbe- Firuz Shahi. The WellcomeInstitute possesses a manuscriptcopied in Murshidabad of the Baz'-namah which is attr ibu ted to physi-cians at the time of Firoz Shah(WMS. Per. 318b). Acccrding toDr. Keshavarz, the date of compo-sition does not ccincide with thereigns of the Delhi sultans or theBahmanid Shah by that name. In1512, Miyan Bhowa composed Ma'-danush - Shitai - Siksnderi (King Si-kendsr's Mine ot Medicine) whichutilized both Avurvedic and Unanlpractices. It was noted that anindigenous Indian medicine wasnecessary because of climatic diffe-rences and the unavailability of someUnani medications. The Wellcomedoes not have manuscr ipt copies ofany of the works listed in this para-graph.

In Gujarat, Hakim Sh ihab ai-DIncompiled Unani works in Persianprose (Tibbi - Sbitsu! - Kha'11) andPersian poetry (Tibbi - Shihabi). TheHakim was a trader who practisedmedicine only "in the service ofGod." The former title is a compre-hensive medical textbook originallydedicated to a Muslim governor ofGujarat and is represented by a

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

manuscript copied in Aurangabad in1599 (WMS. Per. 207). The latteris only represented in selectionsalonqwith two other works in fivemanuscripts.

Muslim rulers in the Deccanwere avid patrons of Unani medicine.The collection includes the manu-script by Rustam Jurjan i, court phy-sician of the Nizam 'Shah Burhan I.This is a materia medica entitledZakhirah - i Nizam 'Shehi (WMS. Per.217) which was completed at Dau la-tabad in 1547. His manuscript wasbased on the ever popular Tazkariof Ibn Baytar. According Dr. Kesha-varz, this work was previously un-known. But there is another manu-script in the Salar Jung Museum inHyderabad. In Bijapur, Firishtawrote the Dastfir al - etibbe or lkhti-yafat - i Qaslmi in 1590. This me-dical compendium by the author ofa general history of India is represen-ted by eight manuscripts from the17th through 19th century. In latertimes there was an Unanl revivalespecially in Hyderabad. A typicalexample is the corpus of workswritten by Shinn Khan who is repre-sented in the collection by theMujarrabat- i snu«. Khan lWMS.Per. 164 and 293E) and the 'lIaj al-altaI (WMS. Per. 560).

Many Unani works were dedicatedto the Moghul emperors or producedunder their patronage. Many manu-scripts in the collection are attr ibut-

Collections of Wellcome Instt.-Robbins

ed to the physician - poet Yusuf binMuhammad known as Yusutl whoseworks were dedicated to Babar andHumayun. These include a pharma-copoeia the Riyaz al- adviyah whichis represented by a copy dated 1607(WMS. Per. 361 a). There are twomanuscripts of his work on healthpreservation Qasidahdar hifz - isihhat dedicated to Babur as well asat least 12 manuscr ipts of his poemson diet and therapy entitled theFaya'id- i ekhyer, 12 manuscripts ofhis tract on uroscopy, the Data ilal- bawl, 12 copies of his treatise onpu Ise, the Data.' il et- nabz and 29versions of his medical compendium,the Jtimi' et- fava'id. The Wellcomecollection includes work translatedby Arnan Allah Amant Husayni whoserved Jahangir as governor ofKabul: These include copies of theMiflah al- hudud lWMS. Per. 155H)and the Umm el- 'ilaj (WMS. Per.315). There are also works by Nura 1- Din Muhammad, dedicated toShah .Jahan lWMS. Per. 92) and hisson Ddra 'Shikoh (WMS. Per. 201).The collection also includes threecopies of a comprehensive work onpublic health and medications dedi-cated to Aurangzeb by MuhammadRiza al- Shirazi (WMS. Per. 296,405, 577). There is also a copy(WMS. Per. 517a) of the Risafah';bummevet by 'Alavi Khan who

125

served not only Aurangzeb but whowas Hakim'bashi to the Persian rulerNadir'Shah who raided India in1739. •Alavi Khan's grandnephewalso practised in India (WMS. Per.525 and 527). There are also fourcopies of a sexology text dedicatedto Shah Alam (WMS. Per. 35, 251 A,253 and 600).

CONCLUSION

The Wellcome Institute for theHistory of Medicine is centr allylocated in London. Even when amanuscript is not available. othercollections are nearby includingOxford's Bodleian Libr arv which con-tains'The famous Bower manuscriptof the Nsve-Nuotce. The Wellcome'sextensive co! lection is c:v~,i!J;JI8toscholars in an increasinqlv well cr qa-nized manner. Dr. Allan and Dr.Wujastyk are serious scholars whocombine linguistic and philologicaltraining as well as knowledge ofIndian medicine. Dr. Allan, Dr.Wujastyk and Mr. Schupbach arewilling to spend hours answeringqueries and helping with researchquestions. A central location, anextraordinary collection and a staffof scholar - teachers make the Well-come Institute the leading Westerncenter for the study of Indian medi-cine.

126

Allan, N.

Allan, N.

Ansari, S. M., Razaullah, &Fitima Z.

Burgham, E.

Dasgupta, S.

Iskandar. A. Z.

Jaggi, O. P.

Jaggi, O. P.

Bulletin Ind. Inst. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1981 The Oriental Collection in theWellcome Institute for the Historyof Medicine, London J. RoyalAsiatic Society, : 10

1984 The Oriental Collections of theWellcome Institute for Historyof Medicine, London: WellcomeInstitute for the History ofMedicine.

1984 An Essay- Review on Scienceand Technology in MedievalIndia. Studies in History ofMedicine, 8 : 67.

1941 The Oriental Physicians of theGreat Moguls Ciba Symposia,2: 770.

1932 History of Indian Philosophy,Cambridge: University Press.

1967 A Catalogue of Arabic Manu-scripts on Medicine and Sciencein the Wellcome HistoricalMedical Library. London: TheWellcome Historical MedicalLibrary.

1981 Ayurveda,Medicine,Delhi.

Indian system ofAtma Ram & Sons,

1981 Medicine in Medieval India.Atma Ram & Sons, Delhi.

Collections 01 Wellcome Instt.-Robbins 127

Keshavarz, Fateme 1986 A Descriptive and AnalyticalCatalogue of Persian Manu-scripts in the Library of theWe/lcome Institute of History endMedicine; The Wellcome Insti-tute for the History of Medicine,London.

Majumdar, R. C. 1971 A Concise History of Science inIndia; Indian National ScienceAcademy - New Delhi.

Meulenbeld, G. J. 1984 Proceedings of the InternationalWorkshop' on Priorities in thestudy of Medicine. Held atthe state University of Gronin-gen, 23-27 October 1983 -Instituut door Indische talen enculturen - Groningen :

Meulenbeld, G. J. 1974 TheMadhavanidana and its ChiefCommentary, Leiden - Brill

Rama Rao, B. 1972 A Check list of Sanskrit MedicalManuscripts in India - CentralCouncil for Research in IndianMedicine and Homeopathy - NewDelhi.

Robbins, Kenneth X. 1987 "Siddha Medicine," Highlights:Notes, News and Views onArts, History and letters ofIndia, 3: 1.

Robbins, Kenneth X. andRobbins Joyce

1987 India: A Festival of Science,Highlights: Notes, News andViews on Arts, History andLetters of India, Vol: 3 No.1.Summer.

128 SuII»tin Ind. trmt. Hist. Med. Vol. XVII

Skinner, Ghislaine, M.

1971 A Concise History of Sciencein India-Indian National ScienceAcademy, New Delhi.

1986 Sir Henry Wellcome's Museumfor the History of Science,Medical History, 30 : 383.

Siddigi. M. Z.

Zysk. Kenneth G.

1977 Critical Studies of Unmada inthe Early Sanskrit Medical Lite-rature: An Analysis of Ayur-veaic Psychiatry with Referenceto Present - Day DiagnosticConcepts, University of Pennsy-lvania, Ph. D. Thesis in AsianHistory.

1984 The South Asian Collections ofthe Wellcome Institute for theHistory of Medicine: WellcomeInstitute for the History ofMedicine, London.

1984 "An Alchemical Ghost; TheRasaratnakara by Nagarjuna"Ambix 31 : 70.

1985 Ravigupta and Vagbha~a.Bulletin of the School of Orientaland African Studies. 48: 74.

1985 Handlist of the Sanskrit andPrakrit Manuscripts in theLibrary of Wellcome Instituteof History ot Medicine: TheWeUcome Institute for the His-tory of Medicine, London.

1979 Review of Ram Karan Sharmaand Vaidya Bhagwan Dash,Agnivesa's Caraka Samhita;Asian Studies Associetion ofAustralia Review, 3: 1 : 71.

Weiss, Mitchell Gralnick.

Wujastyk, D.

Wujastyk, D.

Wujastyk, D.

Wujastyk, D.

Collections of Wellcome Instt.-Robbins 129

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