The Importance of Positive Self-concept for Islamic Education Teachers as a Role Model

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Contents Teacher Education

PLENATITUDE Teacher Education for Effectiveness and Well-being With Neuro-linguistic Programming 1

Cristina Rocha Vieira, Maria Filomena Gaspar

Pre-service Teachers’ Issues in the Relationship With Cooperating Teachers and Their Resolutions 18

Hsiu-Lien Lu

The Importance of Positive Self-concept for Islamic Education Teachers as a Role Model 29

Nurul Asiah Fasehah Muhamad, Mohd Isa Hamzah, Ab. Halim Tamuri, Noornajihan Ja’afar, Norzulaili Mohd Ghazali, Robiatul Adawiyah Mohd Amat, Norakyairee Mohd Raus, Syed Najihuddin Syed Hassan

Educational Psychology

Teachers’ Characteristics and Science Teachers’ Classroom Behaviour: Evidence From Science Classroom Surveys 36

Patrick O. Ajaja, Urhievwejire Ochuko Eravwoke

AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and Stigmatization in Nigeria: The Counseling Perspective 54

Anyanwu Joy I., Obidoa Marbel A., Onuigbo Liziana

Educational Sociology

Shelter-Based Community Libraries: In Search of Alternative Livelihoods for Pavement Dwellers in Dhaka City 62

Md. Nasiruddin

US-China Education Review B, ISSN 2161-6248 January 2013, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1-17

PLENATITUDE1 Teacher Education for Effectiveness and

Well-being With Neuro-linguistic Programming

Cristina Rocha Vieira, Maria Filomena Gaspar

University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal

The role and functioning of schools are changing as well as what is expected of teachers (who face growing and

diversified challenges); consequentially, well-being at the schools is endangered. As teachers and teachers’

educators concern is: How to improve schools’ and teachers’ effectiveness2 and promote well-being. Believing that

the path to effectiveness is through evidence-based practice, according to research results (meta-analysis and

effect-sizes), the authors analyzed which factors have more impact on schools effectiveness; teachers arise as a

significant factor, accounting for about 30% of the variance on pupils’ achievement. So, the authors have searched

for factors that have significant impact on teachers’ effectiveness. Evidence shows that, among other factors,

giving/receiving feedback, beliefs and expectations, self-efficacy, establishing clear goals, effective interpersonal

communication, and classroom climate are determinant. In face of these findings, the authors have explored how

NLP (neuro-linguistic programming) can contribute to improving teachers’ effectiveness, through professional

training.

Keywords: teachers’ effectiveness, NLP (neuro-linguistic programming), teachers’ education

For teachers can make education a thing of joy and success or a matter of frustration and despair. (Gage, 1977, p. 13)

Education has moved its emphasis away from ensuring that all students go to school to ensuring that all

pupils learn while they are at school, meaning “from planning the quantity of education to planning the quality

of education” (Postlewaite, 2004, as cited in Anderson, 2004, p. 13). To ensure quality we must promote

schools’ efficiency and well-being for all its elements.

Why an Evidence-Based Approach?

Teaching is a complex reality and teachers, “In the myriad judgments they make every day, would be

more professional in those judgments if these were based upon the accumulated evidence from their own

practice and from that of the profession as a whole” (Pring, 2010, p. 210). Lemov (2010, p. 6) diagnosed: “One

of the problems with teaching is that there is a temptation to evaluate what we do in the classroom based on

how clever it is, how it aligns with a larger philosophy, or even how gratifying it is to use, not necessarily how

Cristina Rocha Vieira, Ph.D. student, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. Maria Filomena Gaspar, Ph.D., associate professor, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Coimbra. 1 The name results from the fusion of two Portuguese words: PLENA + ATITUDE (full + attitude) = PLENATITUDE, and

reducing “AT” size one reads “PLENITUDE” (fullness). 2 Efficacy studies happen in a controlled environment or clinical laboratory, while the effectiveness studies are performed in

real contexts, in order to evaluate the results in everyday practice (as the APA Division 12, as cited in Diniz-Neto & Feres-Carneiro, 2005; Webster-Stratton, Gaspar, & Seabra-Santos, n.d.).

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PLENATITUDE TEACHER EDUCATION, NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING

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effective it is in driving student achievement”. The authors agreed with Petty (2009, p. 1) who supported an

evidence-based practice, not custom and practice: “People often mistake common practice for best practice, and

seem to prefer the comfort of the crowd to thinking for themselves using hard evidence”.

Petty (2009) characterized an evidence-based teaching practice; used the methods that work best (the

20/80 rule)3; understood the learning process (in terms of brain science); and found the problems and fixed

them (contextual factors).

Therefore, this authors present as principles of an evidence-based practice (see Figure 1):

(1) The authors need all the evidences to make sound decisions;

(2) It is not enough to know what works, the authors need to know why;

(3) The authors need to find the critical success factors that are failing in their teaching context and fix

them;

(4) The authors need to review/monitor their teaching constantly in the light of the evidence.

Figure 1. Evidence-based education model (Wing Institute)4.

Summarizing: “We want the truth… (evidence rather than tradition…). The whole truth… (all the

evidence…). And nothing but the truth” (Petty, 2009, p. 5). In this framework, Petty (2009) pointed out a road

for teachers to promote change in their practices by creating their own evidence: action-research, “theory in

use”, belief analysis, and feedback gathering about the way they teach.

What Does Research Show Those Works on Enhancing Schools’ Effectiveness?

More than knowing research results, filtering them is required as Hattie (2009, p. 1) stated “In the field of

education, one of the most enduring messages is that ‘everything seems to work’”; therefore, attention must be

focused on what causes difference in a significant way, by using effect-sizes (see Figure 2)5. This author

pointed as the “hinge-point”, the value of 0.40, meaning that only values above that are significant as efficiency

indicators.

3 Twenty percent of what you do makes 80% of the difference, so let us work more smartly, not harder, by concentrating on the

factors that make this difference (Petty, 2009, p. 3). 4 Retrieved from http://winginstitute.org/The-Wing-Institute/Our-Activities/. 5 The advantage of using the effect-size method is that effect sizes can be interpreted across tests, classes, times, etc. (Hattie,

2012).


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Figure 2. Comparing effect-sizes, according to Hattie (Petty, 2009, p. 60).

Table 1

Effect-Sizes of School Factors on Students’ Achievement (Hattie, 2003, p. 4)

Influence Effect size Source of influence

Feedback 1.13 Teacher

Students’ prior cognitive ability 1.04 Student

Instructional quality 1.00 Teacher

Direct instruction 0.82 Teacher

Remediation/feedback 0.65 Teacher

Students’ disposition to learn 0.61 Student

Class environment 0.56 Teacher

Challenge of goals 0.52 Teacher

Peer tutoring 0.50 Teacher

Mastery learning 0.50 Teacher

Parent involvement 0.46 Home

Homework 0.43 Teacher

Teacher style 0.42 Teacher

Questioning 0.41 Teacher

Peer effects 0.38 Peers

Advance organizers 0.37 Teacher

Simulation & games 0.34 Teacher

Computer-assisted instruction 0.31 Teacher

Testing 0.30 Teacher

Instructional media 0.30 Teacher

Aims & policy of the school 0.24 School

Affective attributes of students 0.24 Student

Physical attributes of students 0.21 Student

Programmed instruction 0.18 Teacher

Ability grouping 0.18 School

Audio-visual aids 0.16 Teacher

Individualization 0.14 Teacher

Finances/money 0.12 School

Behavioural objectives 0.12 Teacher

Team teaching 0.06 Teacher

Physical attributes (e.g., class size) -0.05 School

Television -0.12 Home

Retention -0.15 School


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Effect-sizes are, indeed, a brilliant source of evidence (Petty, 2009). Hattie (2003), based on hundreds of

meta-analysis, has determined the impact of each factor on students’ achievement, according to effect-sizes,

being teachers’ impact weight evident (see Table 1).

TALIS (Teacher and Learning International Survey) Report (OECD, 2009) presented an analytical model

of the associated factors of an efficient education which has the following variables: teachers’ characteristics

(demographic and employment profile); school and classroom characteristics (background); professional

development characteristics; teaching practices and beliefs; school evaluation characteristics; teachers’ praise

and feedback; and leadership style.

Why Is Important to Promote Teachers’ and Learners’ Well-Being?

As Hunt, Wiseman, and Touzel (2009) stated, the great challenge for schools is to balance two concerns:

develop and implement instructional programs that lead to greater academic success while also support the

individual affective needs of their students.

According to Lawson et al. (2010), well-being is important for at least two reasons: (1) Well-being is

multi-dimensional and has a wide sphere of influence in people’s lives; and (2) Students and teachers bring into

schools and classrooms their relationships and states of well-being, all of which have a powerful impact on

teaching/learning.

So, although effective teaching primary purpose is to increase academic achievement, two additional

points are important (Hunt et al., 2009): (1) The most effective instruction is associated with academic

achievement producing positive affective ends; and (2) No instructional strategy or behaviour should be applied

for achieving academic gain which results in affective loss.

Weare and Gray (2003) reported the benefits of promoting emotional and social competence and

well-being (identified both in literature and on research): improvement in teachers’ performance, improvement

in pupils’ behaviour, increased inclusion, improved learning, greater social cohesion, and improvement to

mental health. Matos and Carvalhosa (2001) presented the results of several studies which indicate that: a direct

relationship between the perception of a positive school climate and well-being of students (Battistich & Hom,

1997; Samdal et al., 1998, as cited in Matos & Carvalhosa, 2001); a school that promotes a sense of belonging

and having support facilitates students’ personal and social development and their well-being (Battistich &

Hom, 1997, as cited in Matos & Carvalhosa, 2001).

School’s population needs to have a sense of belonging. This school connectedness is increasingly

identified as significant for enhancing young people’s resilience, pro-social behaviour, and learning outcomes

(Benard, 2001; Libbey, 2004; Cunningham, 2007, as cited in Roffey, 2008). Connectedness encompasses how

students feel at school, their participation and engagement with learning, and the quality of the relationships

they experience (Bond et al., 2001; Whitlock, 2006, as cited in Roffey, 2008). There are also studies (as cited in

Roffey, 2008) in mental health (Raphael, 2000; Rowling, 2005), anti-bullying initiatives (McGrath & Noble,

2006), and school effectiveness and well-being (Zins et al., 2004). It is linked in the school effectiveness

literature with school efficacy (Hargreaves, 2001, as cited in Roffey, 2008), school leadership (Leith & Reihl,

2003, as cited in Roffey, 2008), mental health (McKenzie et al., 2002, as cited in Roffey, 2008), and positive

outcomes for students (Putnam, 2001, as cited in Roffey, 2008)6.

6 Studies mentioned in this paragraph are as cited in Roffey (2008).


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Weare and Gray (2003) referred that to promote learning of emotional and social competence school and

classroom climate, its key-aspects must be based on and foster warm personal relationships, encouraging

positive communication and autonomy and promoting security and clarity.

Teachers’ well-being is also important. Weare and Gray (2003) identified teachers’ behaviour and

attitudes as a main factor which determines how efficiently pupils learn emotional and social competences and

experience emotional and social well-being. Therefore, teachers’ needs must be taken into account and met in

order to promote their well-being; professional development should contribute.

How Important Is Teachers’ Effectiveness?

Being teachers, “The greatest influence on students’ achievement over which we can have some control”

(Hattie, 2012, p. 22), we need to ensure that this greatest influence is optimized to have powerful positive

effects on our pupils (Hattie, 2003) (see Figure 3).

Figure 3. Percentage of achievement variance (Hattie, 2003, p. 3).

Research shows that differential teachers’ effectiveness is a strong determinant of differences in students’

learning, far outweighing the effects of differences in class size and class heterogeneity, being the impact of

teachers’ effectiveness (or ineffectiveness) additive and cumulative (Anderson, 2004, p. 20).

Researchers have always wanted to list the characteristics of an effective teacher, promoting extensive

research in this direction7. Being teachers’ characteristics relatively stable traits that are related to and influence

the way teachers practice their profession, Hay McBer (2000, as cited in Anderson, 2004) identified 12 teachers’

characteristics organized in four clusters:

(1) Professionalismcommitment, confidence, trustworthiness, and respect;

(2) Thinking/reasoninganalytical thinking and conceptual thinking;

(3) Expectationsdrive for improvement, information seeking, and initiative;

(4) Leadershipflexibility, accountability, and passion for learning.

Burden and Byrd (2007, as cited in Hunt, Wiseman, and Touzel, 2009) suggested that the most essential

effective teachers’ characteristics may be placed into three categories:

(1) Knowledgeprofessional, pedagogical, and pedagogical content;

(2) Skillsto use their knowledge efficiently;

(3) Dispositionsvalues, commitment, professional ethics, beliefs, and attitudes. 7 Perrott (1982) presented several lists of criteria, produced by educational researchers, with effective teachers’ characteristics

since 1960.


6

Petty (2009) described expert teachers as those who set challenging goals, have very deep understanding

of teaching and learning, monitor learning and provide feedback, and structure effective teaching in high-stakes

exams. Hattie (2003) made the distinction between experienced teachers and expert teachers, claiming teachers’

expertise/efficiency can be promoted according to the categories presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Effect-sizes of differences between expert and experienced teachers (Hattie, 2012, p. 29).

Hattie (2009) stated that, summarizing, what works is: define a challenging goal, get the students to work

in that direction, and give them feedback of what they have already achieved.

According to TALIS (OECD, 2009), two variables are important pre-conditions for teachers’ professional

success: teachers’ self-efficacy and classroom climate. Portugal has negative indices in these variables: teachers’

self-efficacy (-0.08) and classroom climate (-0.39), being TALIS average 0.00 on both. The same report refers

that teachers’ practices and beliefs have a significant impact on these two variables.

How Is Self-efficacy Sense Related to Teachers’ Effectiveness?

Self-efficacy perception is a construct related to teachers’ beliefs and influencing their accomplishments

(Ashton, 1984; Tavares et al., 2003, as cited in Castelo-Branco, 2006). Teacher’s self-efficacy sense, according

to Denham and Michael (1981, as cited in Castelo-Branco, 2006), contributes in a significant way to the

perception that teacher has of his/her practice and students’ achievement.

Self-efficacy perception is a fundamental human conduct construct, since when someone believes and

develops self-perceptions of capabilities, and creates the path to achieve objectives. Bandura (1986, as cited in

Castelo-Branco, 2006) stated that personal efficacy self-perceptions constitute the best predictors for

involvement and persistence in different tasks, explaining three dimensions of tasks confronting:

(1) The first dimensionself-efficacy perceptions that determine whether a behaviour is started or not;

(2) The second dimensionexperiences of self-efficacy that determine the amount of effort expended on a

task;


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(3) The third dimensionperceptions of self-efficacy that predict the individual persistence in face of

obstacles and adverse circumstances.

Also, teachers’ self-efficacy sense has a cognitive and an affective component (Ashton, 1984). The

cognitive component involves two aspects: (1) The feeling of the probability that teachers can cause positive

changes in students (according to their expectations of themselves and students); and (2) The assessment

teachers make their own skills or abilities to cause such changes (Denham & Michael, 1981, as cited in

Castelo-Branco, 2006). The affective component refers to the sense of pride or shame associated with the sense

of efficacy (Denham & Michael, 1981, as cited in Castelo-Branco, 2006).

In the last three decades, a growing body of empirical evidence supports Bandura’s theory: Teachers’

self-efficacy beliefs are related to the effort teachers invest in teaching, the goals they set, their persistence

when things do not go smoothly, and their resilience in the face of setbacks (Tschannen-Moran, Woolfolk, &

Hoy, 1998, as cited in Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2005). Teachers’ sense of efficacy has been related to their

behaviour in the classroom and students’ outcomes, such as students’ self-efficacy beliefs, motivation, and

achievement (Anderson, Greene, & Loewen, 1988; Ashton & Webb, 1986; Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles,

1989; Ross, 1992, as cited in Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2005). Several studies have found that students with

teachers who score highly on self-efficacy did better on standardized tests of achievement than their peers who

are taught by teachers with low self-efficacy beliefs (Moore & Esselman, 1992; Anderson et al., 1988; Watson,

1991; Bamburg, 1994, as cited in Muijs & Reynolds, 2011).

Therefore, “teachers’ belief in their own self-efficacy is related to their effectiveness” although it does not

mean it is his/her cause (causal direction), most likely “the relationship goes both ways” (Muijs & Reynolds,

2011, p. 93).

How Can Teachers’ Self-efficacy Be Promoted?

TALIS Report (OECD, 2009) stated that more professional development is often associated with greater

teachers’ self-efficacy; therefore teachers’ educators have a core role to play. The growing demand attributed to

teachers’ professional and practical knowledge must not, in this framework, neglect personal development and

understanding of themselves as the key aspects of teachers’ professional growth.

What Is Classroom Climate’s Role on Teachers’ Effectiveness?

Teachers’ effectiveness is related to and dependent upon students’ outcomes, therefore, teachers need to

create classroom climate8 which supports and promotes students’ success (Hunt et al., 2009).

The importance of attending to classroom culture has been emphasized by Alton-Lee (1993, pp. 82-83, as

cited in Anderson, 2004, p. 55), “to focus on the instructional dimension without attending to the lived culture

of the classroom context makes invisible some of the most significant questions about both the learning and the

well-being in classrooms”.

Muijs and Reynolds (2011) presented several studies and meta-analysis in which classroom climate is

identified as an important factor in pupil achievement (Mortimore et al., 1988; Brophy & Good, 1986;

Rosenshine, 1979), self-esteem (Fraser, 1994), pupils’ participation in the classroom and democratic values

(Cotton, 1997), and lower levels of bullying and victimization (Shechtman, 2002). Byer (2000) also mentioned

8 Classroom climate “can be defined as the mood or atmosphere created by a teacher in her/his classroom, the way the teacher interacts with pupils, and the way the physical environment is set out” (Muijs & Reynolds, 2011, p. 137).


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studies which provide evidence of positive relationships between students’ perceptions of classroom

environment and learning outcomes (Fisher & Fraser, 1983; Martin-Reynolds & Reynolds, 1983; Moos, 1979;

Trickett & Moss, 1974); students’ perceptions of classroom environment explained substantial variance in their

learning outcomes (Anderson, 2004; Fraser & Walberg, 1981; Walberg, 1976); there is a positive relationship

between students’ perceptions of the classroom climate and academic achievement (Moos & Moos, 1978),

social attitude (Fouts, 1987; Fouts, Chan, & Biao, 1993), motivation (Knight & Waxman, 1990; Zevin, 1983),

academic self-concept (Van Egmond, 1960; Knight & Waxman, 1990), and self-esteem (Schmuck & Schmuck,

1992).

In short, the development of a classroom climate really safe, generating confidence and acceptance, is

crucial in children and adolescents’ education and for success of any educational practice requiring a deep

involvement by the teachers, reflecting not only on their professional skills but alsoas a professional who

deals with personsreflecting on their own personal and social skills (Comenius, 2009).

How Does Feedback Have Such Impact on Students’ Achievement?

Hattie (2009, p. 12) synthesized effect-sizes across meta-analyses to determine what has significant impact

on students’ achievement and stressed feedback as “the most powerful single influence enhancing

achievement”. Hattie’s meta-analysis of 13,209 studies found that feedback from teachers and/or peers

produced an average effect-size of 0.81; Marzano’s meta-analysis of 488 studies involving students receiving

feedback on the processes they used to complete a specific task produced an average effect-size of 0.74 (Petty,

2009).

So, feedback “is one of the most powerful influences on learning and achievement, but this impact can be

either positive or negative”, meaning that “the type of feedback and the way it is given can be differentially

effective” (Hattie & Timperley, 2007, p. 81). In fact, research shows considerable variability on feedback

effect-sizes, which indicates that some types are more powerful than others (Hattie, 2009). The least effective

forms of feedback are praise, punishment, and extrinsic rewards; the most powerful form of feedback provides

cues or reinforcement to the students related to learning goals (Hattie, 2009).

There must be a clear distinction between providing instruction and providing feedback, because, when

feedback is combined with effective instruction in classrooms, it can be very powerful in enhancing learning.

Feedback is what happens second, it can only build on something; it is of little use when there is no initial

learning or surface information. So, “feedback needs to provide information specifically relating to the task or

process of learning that feels a gap between what is understood and what is aimed to be understood” (Sadler,

1989, as cited in Hattie & Timperley, 2007). According to Wine and Butler (1994, p. 5740), “Feedback is

information with which a learner can confirm, add to, overwrite, tune, or restructure information in memory,

whether that information is domain knowledge, beliefs about self and tasks, or cognitive tactics and strategies”

(as cited in Hattie & Timperley, 2007, p. 82).

Since “the main purpose of feedback is to reduce discrepancies between current understandings and

performance and a learning intention or goal”, the “major feedback questions are ‘Where am I going?’

(learning intentions/goals/success criteria), ‘How am I going?’ (self-assessment and self-evaluation), ‘Where

am I going to next?’ (progression and new goals)” (Hattie, 2009, pp. 176-177).

According to Hattie and Timperley (2007, p. 82), feedback can be provided in different ways: “affective

processes (increased effort, motivation, and engagement) and cognitive processes (restructuring understandings,


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confirming correctness/incorrectness, indicating more information, pointing directions, and alternative

strategies)”.

To be really effective, feedback must be a two-way road. As Hattie (2009, p. 173) found that feedback is

even most powerful when it is from the students to the teacher: “When teachers seek, or at least are open to,

feedback from students as to what students know, what they understand, where they make errors, when they

have misconceptions, when they are not engagedthen teaching and learning can be synchronized and

powerful”. Petty (2009) enhanced that expert teachers seek feedback to test their own understanding of what is

happening in their classrooms to determine their effectiveness and also give more feedback to their students.

Petty (2009), synthesizing research findings, presented feedback stages:

(1) Presentation of information to students (student starts constructing their knowledge of the topic); (2) Application (student constructs or improves their construct of the topic through an activity); (3) Product (student produces a product from the learning activity, as a performance, answers, a document, etc.); (4) Feedback (student receives feedback on the product).

The same author operationalized feedback stages on a conceptual map (see Figure 5).

Figure 5. Feedback loops9.

It is clear that providing and receiving feedback requires much skill by students and teachers. “To be

effective, feedback needs to be clear, purposeful, meaningful, and compatible with students’ prior knowledge

and to provide logical connections” (Hattie, 2009, p. 104). It also needs to prompt active information

processing on the part of learners, have low task complexity, relate to specific and clear goals, and provide little

threat to the person at the self-level.

According to OECD (2012), report on evaluation and assessment stated that in Portugal, “There is little

emphasis in assessment practices on providing students’ feedback and developing teacher-student interactions

about student learning” (p. 10), suggesting that a “greater focus on a culture of feedback on student learning

would deliver a number of wins for the system” (p. 148).

What Is Teachers’ Education Role on Enhancing Effectiveness?

UNESCO Report (Anderson, 2004) set a path to improve teachers’ effectiveness by:

(1) Overcoming teachers’ reluctance to changemostly caused by: (a) a lack of awareness that change is

9 Retrieved from http://thekglawyerblog.com/ptblog/articles/how-to-do-feedback-in-plt-an-evidence-based-approach/.


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needed; (b) a lack of knowledge (procedural) of how to change; and (c) the belief that changes will not make

any difference to their students;

(2) Supporting the improvement effortsproviding opportunities to benefit from mistakes (as a source of

information), providing opportunities to learn from others, and treating teachers as individuals.

To overcome reluctance to change, we need to play close attention on what might motivate them to get

involved in an evidence-based practice. In a study10, all teachers reported to be “willing to engage with

evidence if they thought it would help them enhance pupils’ learning (and) help them to make a difference”.

Cordingley (2010), addressing teachers’ training and aiming an evidence-based teaching practice, stated that

new knowledge must be integrated into teachers’ practice, so that they accept the risk of promoting change.

In our days, the problem is not lack of information, but rather, lack of evidence-based teachers’ training.

As Muijs and Reynolds (2011) stated, the next decade presents new challenges from the increased knowledge

from educational research and the new knowledge from cognitive neuroscience. “Responding to these

challenges through utilization of conventional methods of teacher education and professional development is

unlikely to be adequate” (Muijs & Reynolds, 2011, p. 316).

Teachers’ education has a core role to play; for instance, Portugal is one of the five countries in which the

amount of professional development taken by teachers is significantly associated with classroom climate

(OECD, 2009). In terms of professional development, according to this report, Portugal is slightly below the

average percentage (88.5%) of teachers who participated in professional training in the previous 18 months,

with 85.8%. Simultaneously, it is significantly above the average percentage (54.8%) of teachers who wished to

participate in more training, with 76.2%.

The relevant data are a significant proportion of teachers (more than half) who think that professional

development does not meet their needs (this is common across disciplinary groups). The extent to which this

undermines the effectiveness of teachers is not measured by TALIS, but “it is difficult to imagine that such

deficits are not to some extent detrimental to effective teaching and learning” (OECD, 2009, p. 77). These

results point the need to ensure professional development opportunities that match teachers’ needs.

Teacher education must give teachers the tools for effectiveness. Lemov (2010) stated: The path to

excellence teaching is the focus on technique and its constant refinement, associated with strategy11. OECD

(2009) advised teachers to use a wider range of instructional strategies and techniques. Torrance (2010, as cited

in Petty, 2009) referred to “knowledge about action” and “actionable knowledge”.

Teacher training towards effectiveness must be implemented both before and during teachers’ careers:

No matter how good pre-service training for teachers is, it cannot be expected to prepare teachers for all the challenges they will face throughout their careers. Education systems therefore seek to provide teachers with opportunities for in-service professional development in order to maintain a high standard of teaching and to retain a high-quality teacher workforce. (OECD, 2009, p. 49)

Successful programs involve teachers in learning activities that are similar to those they will use with their

students (OECD, 2009).

10 Teachers answered a questionnaire: Members of national teacher research panel, participants at TTA-funded research networking conferences, and teachers of TTA’s school based research consortia (Cordingley, 2010). 11 This author makes the distinction between strategy and technique: Strategy is a generalized approach to problems, a way to inform decisions; a technique is an action, can be practiced, honed and adapted throughout life.


11

What Is NLP NLP (Neuro-linguistic Programming)?

NLP can be defined shortly as “the study of the structure of subjective experience” (Dilts, Grinder,

Bandler, & DeLozier, 1980, as cited in Wake, 2010, p. 13).

NLP has its origins in the early 1970s when Richard Bandler, a student of mathematics, and John Grinder,

a professor of linguistics (University of California, Santa Cruz), began a process of discovering how masters

(like Milton Erickson, Virginia Satir, or Fritz Perls) in the domain of therapeutic communications performed.

What distinguished the work of these individuals was their unprecedented success with cases and clients that

other reputable therapists had failed (see Figure 6).

Figure 6. Map of influences on NLP (Wake, 2010, p. 9).

So, the significant difference of Bandler and Grinder’s approach is that, instead of studying what goes

wrong and why, they studied what works and how it works. So, NLP studies “not only what effective people do

but also how they go about doing it” (Churches & Terry, 2007, p. 1): The visible external behaviours/language

and the internal mental processes that effective people use and the way in which they think. That is why NLP is

sometimes described as the study of human excellence.

As Linder-Pelz and Hall (2007) explained that NLP is a communication model; it is about the internal

representation of experience and how people communicate with themselves as well as others. It focuses on

peoples’ subjective experience and constructed reality (Tosey, Mathison, & Michelli, 2005) and how it relates

to external behavior (see Figure 7).

NLP is related to education since its origins, as one of its founders Bandler (1985) stated that NLP

explores “the subjective experience of the processes by which people learn things” (p. 117). Therefore, NLP is

“an educational process. Basically, we are developing ways to teach people how to use their own brains”

(Bandler, 1985, p. 7).


12

Figure 7. NLP communication model12.

“Neuro” refers to the way humans experience the world through their senses and translate sensory experiences into thought processes, both conscious and unconscious, which in turn activate the neurological system; “Linguistic” refers to the way we use language to make sense of the world, capture and conceptualize experience and then communicate that experience to others; “Programming” addresses the way people code (mentally represent) their experience and adopt regular and systematic patterns of response. (Hall & Belnap, 1999; Corsetty & Pearson, 2000, as cited in Linder-Pelz & Hall, 2007, p. 2)

How Can NLP Increase Teachers’ Effectiveness?

Teaching requires mastery over interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. In fact, “effective teaching begins

and ends with our capacity to manage our internal responses and external behaviours” (Churches & Terry, 2007,

p. vii). So, being NLP about personal effectiveness, it offers teachers a range of tools and techniques to develop

interpersonal and intrapersonal capacity, manage emotions, and communicate more effectively.

Bandler (1985) noticed that “people who teach a subject may be very good at it, and know a lot about that

particular area. However, they usually know very little about how they learned it, and even less about how to

teach it to someone else” (p. 117). Churches and Terry (2007) noticed that teachers who achieve excellence

have four main characteristics:

(1) Know what they wantidentify precise and achievable outcomes; know what the purpose and direction of

communication and action is;

(2) Know if they are getting what they wantdevelop sensory acuity to notice responses from pupils in order to

provide feedback to ensure progress towards outcomes;

(3) Have the flexibility to changeadapt behaviour, language, and internal feeling, to a wide range of possibilities, in

order to involve others in the outcome;

(4) Take actionuse their senses to notice if they are achieving what they want in order to adapt quickly and respond

effectively.

What Does Evidence Reveal About NLP Impact on Education?

A good example is the Durham Project devised to provide groups of teachers with NLP training.

Schools benefit from using NLP by improving the quality of teaching and learning for students. Teachers share many

12 Retrieved from http://www.scoop.it/t/the-ethos-of-neuro-linguistic-programming.


13

of the techniques they learned, such as engaging and motivating students, supremely effective communication, improved tutoring, lively learning and much more. All of this is designed to raise standards of achievement and crucially to help schools raise levels of wellbeing in staff and pupils13.

Preparing this project, Benson and Carey (2006) made a “Summary Report” which reviews 111

studies/articles about NLP application in schools. The studies/articles represent a wide variety: academic

articles, conferences, quantitative and qualitative studies, case studies, different strategies and techniques of

NLP applied individually or combined, impact on students, teachers, parents, environment school... studies

provide evidence on which they based their conclusions in favor of applying NLP in schools, addressing the

following areas:

(1) Communication in the classroomlanguage and learning; non-verbal communication and

interpersonal skills; and study skills;

(2) Emotional and behavioural difficultiesspecific learning difficulties and educational psychology;

(3) Emotions and learninglearning and anxiety; self-expression; emotional states management;

self-esteem; self-concept; motivation and relationships in the classroom; learning mindfulness; and approach to

learning, information processing, and serotonin levels;

(4) Adapting the teaching stylecombining the teaching style to the various sensory learning preferences

and behaviour; specific strategies and approaches (spelling strategy, creative strategy, well-formed outcomes);

modeling; meta-programs; e-learning; and professional identity;

(5) School communitypeer counseling; building positive relationships with parents; and parental

behaviour and home environment.

The majority of studies draw positive conclusions from the use of NLP in the classroom practice (the few

articles which give negative opinion do not provide evidence), with a strong emphasis on the use of influence

language patterns, awareness of all the sensory modalities and the use of anchors; there are still references to

intervention in social and behavioural difficulties.

The Durham Project consisted of giving NLP training to teachers from 12 schools on NLP definition,

presuppositions, well-formulated outcomes, eyes access cues, modalities and sub modalities, anchors, rapport,

metamodel, Milton model, and emotional state management. Then there was an intervention phase, from

individual to groups or classes. One NLP technique or strategy or a combination of several was used.

Students’ ages vary from 3 to 17. Schools’ dimension was from small rural school to big secondary town

school. This resulted in 24 case studies (Carey, Churches, Hutchinson, Jones, & Tosey, 2009), which

revealed that teachers: optimized their professional skills; shared these approaches with their colleagues;

used influential language, being able to motivate students to learn more; could understand students in a

completely different level; achieved significant change in students’ individual and group behaviour; there

was improvement in their feelings about their own abilities to handle difficult situations in the classroom;

there was significant improvement in levels of self-confidence of students; students were more motivated;

learning in the classroom was improved. Therefore, evidence indicates that NLP can enhance teachers’

effectiveness14.

13 Retrieved from http://meta4education.co.uk/the-durham-project/. 14 There are more recent researches and articles about NLP applied in educational context but, due to space limits, we decided to refer “only” the above.


14

Which Teachers’ Effectiveness Factors Can NLP Improve?

Evidence indicates that NLP can help teachers in areas than enhance teachers’ effectiveness, such as:

(1) Factors above 0.50 (except “students’ prior cognitive ability”), from Hattie’s (2003) table of

effect-sizes of school factors on students’ achievement (see Table 1);

(2) Teachers’ sense of self-efficacy;

(3) Teachers’ beliefs and expectations;

(4) Classroom climate management.

What Is Our PLENATITUDE Proposal?

We are planning an NPL teachers’ continuous education course (25 hours with presential learning and 25

hours of autonomous work). Presential sessions will take place every two weeks and autonomous work will be

developed by the teachers between them, at the end a reflexive report is done. Table 2 presents the content and

activities designed for presential sessions.

Table 2

Content and Activities for PLENATITUDE Teacher Training Sessions Presential learning Content Activities Knowledge (“We have all the resources we need to have success”) Brainconstitution, working, learning, and neuro-plasticity Representational systemsvisual, auditory, kinesthetic, and auditory-digital Interaction mind/bodyposture, breathing, and heart rate

Miller’s magical 7 TOTE model Eye accessing cues Rapid relaxation techniques

Self-knowledge (“The map is not the territory”) Communication modelsensory filters (senses) and mental filters (values,

beliefs, meta-programas, memories, etc.) Mental representation of realitygeneralization, distortion, and omition Neurological levelscontext, behaviour, capacities, believes and values,

identity, and mission Motivationcertainty, variety, significance, connection, growth, and

contribution (Robbins)

Sensory acuity Meta-model Mapping across Modalities and sub-modalities Neurologic levels alignment

Intrapersonal skills (“There is no failure, only feedback”) Emotional states managementfrom presented state to desired state Sensory acuityapproach the “map” to reality Behaviour flexibilitythe most flexible element controls the system

Anchoring Excellence circle Perceptual positions Dissociation Attract the future

Interpersonal skills (“communication = response”) Effective communicationcalibration, rapport, and leadership Meta-programmesgeneral/specific, away from/to, procedures/possibilities,

internal/external, and similarity/difference Body languagesatir’s categories Objectiveswell-formulated Powerful questionspromote reflection Feedbackfor success Behaviour management“All behaviour has a positive intent” Accelerated learningemotional state, music, etc.

Milton model Verbal ju-jitsu Pace/lead Chunking up/down/across Adequate contents to meta-programmes Spatial anchoring Stepping stone Feedback sandwich Strokes 1/5 Embedded commands Peripheral praise Metaphors Mind map

Teacher’s autonomous work will be developed between the sessions. Each teacher selects a class to apply

NLP techniques and strategies. To do so, each teacher creates materials, as for instance:

(1) Charts for students’ representational systems;


15

(2) Reminders of rapid relaxation techniques;

(3) Samples of meta-model application to their class;

(4) Samples of “pace/lead” applied to their discipline contents;

(5) Well-formed outcomes (for teachers and pupils);

(6) Samples of “feedback sandwich” for their students;

(7) Samples of “powerful questions” applied to their content;

(8) Samples of “metaphors” applied to their discipline content;

(9) “Mind maps” (for planning and content).

Each time, teachers make a reflective report, stating how they applied difficulties and observed results. At

the end, teachers make a general reflective report.

A Detailed Example: Teachers’ Beliefs

Beliefs have a determinant role in teachers’ efficiency. Gage (1977) talked about “implicit theory” as a

hierarchically organized set of beliefs about the adequate purposes and means of teaching, students’

characteristics, modes of learning and how this interact to influence teachers’ behaviour and their

decision-making. It is what allows teachers to handle the abundance of problematic situations they face daily.

There is a great variety of teachers’ beliefs, attitudes, and practices:

The postulated relations of these constructs of the perceived quality of the learning environment and teachers’ job satisfaction are by and large found across countries, confirming their relevance for teachers and schooling. An important policy issue is therefore, how to further facilitate these aspects of teachers’ effectiveness. (OECD, 2009, p. 120)

Figure 8. Neurological levels of change applied to educational context15.

According to Korthagen (2004), any attempt to describe the essential qualities of a good teacher should

15 Adapted from an image retrieved from http://www.psychologyafrica.com/2009/12/at-what-level-does-the-journey-begin- a-quick-look-at-nlp/. Korthagen (2004) presented levels as concentric circles, we have chosen Dilts’ original pyramid shaped.


16

take into account that various levels are involved that fundamentally differ from each other, being the level of

teachers’ competencies just one of these. This author introduced a model clarifying the various levels and

offering a framework for reflecting about teachers’ effectiveness. He pointed as reasons for this approach: (1)

Changes in the aims and methods of teacher education are taking place worldwide; (2) There is considerable

emphasis on promoting reflection in teachers, but at the same time, it is not always clear exactly what teachers

are supposed to reflect on when wishing to become better teachers; and (3) The pedagogy of teacher education

strongly builds on insights from other disciplines, so it must take into account that new developments have

taken place.

Korthagen (2004) proposed a framework based on Bateson’s learning levels and Dilts’ neurological levels

(see Figure 8).

Often, for instance, when a teacher faces a dilemma, it arises from a mismatch between different levels,

for example, a mismatch between belief and behaviour, which can be addressed by the technique of

“neurological levels alignment”.

This holistic approach allows an integrative perspective of what being a good teacher is, in harmony with

the different levels. Only the levels of “environment” and “behaviour” can be seen by others, but they all

influence each other, sometimes the problem is that there are incongruities between levels. The awareness of

the existence of these levels can help to have a notion of our limitations and “open” the way for transformative,

consistent, and durable change.

NLP is growing and developing.

Recent advances in neuroscience and cognitive linguistics have provided an ideal opportunity for NLP to demonstrate the effectiveness of its approach with researchers… beginning to demonstrate some of what NLP has had as a fundamental theory for over 30 years. (Wake, 2010, p. 195)

Therefore, NLP is a path to promote teachers’ effectiveness, it is surely not the only one but we believe

that training teachers in NLP techniques and strategies can be a major contribute.

Consciously, we teach what we know; unconsciously, we teach who we are. (Hamachek, 1999, p. 209, as cited in Korthagen, 2004, p. 77)

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Pre-service Teachers’ Issues in the Relationship With

Cooperating Teachers and Their Resolutions

Hsiu-Lien Lu

Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, USA

This paper reports part of a larger phenomenological study of 23 participants (eight pre-service teachers, eight

university supervisors, and seven cooperating teachers) specifically focusing on pre-service teachers’ issues in the

relationship with cooperating teachers and their resolutions. Two questions were used to guide this paper: (1) What

can be pre-service teachers’ issue with the cooperating teacher? and (2) How can pre-service teachers resolve/avoid

issues with the cooperating teacher? Each participant received two semi-in-depth interviews, with each lasting

approximately 90 minutes. Using the applied thematic analysis and the constant comparative approach based on

grounded theory resulted in five themes in the area of issues and four themes in the area of resolutions. The results

of this study may be helpful to teacher educators, especially those who intend to establish rationale in selecting

cooperating teachers and to consider providing training to cooperating teachers and pre-service teachers to enhance

the field experience.

Keywords: issues in student teaching, resolutions to issues in student teaching, relationship between the cooperating

teacher and the student teacher, student teachers, field experience, student teaching

Introduction

To warrant quality learning outcomes of student teaching, it is critical that the pre-service teacher

maintains a positive relationship with the cooperating teacher who provides an opportunity to practice teaching

in the classroom. Student teaching is most fundamental for future teachers’ professional development (Cornell,

2003; Rajuan, Beijaard, & Verloop, 2010a; Veal & Rikard, 1998; Weasmer & Woods, 2003) and the

relationship between the pre-service teacher and the cooperating teacher critically influences the learning

outcomes (Korth & Baum, 2011; Koskela & Ganser, 1998). This relationship is oftentimes referred to as a

mentoring relationship, i.e., a teacher-student relationship (Cornell, 2003; Leatham & Peterson, 2010), a

relationship that intrinsically contains a hierarchical nature (Anderson, 2007). In light of this nature, the match

or mismatch between the pre-service teacher and the cooperating teacher inevitably has the supremacy to

influence the pre-service teacher’s attitudes toward the profession (Tok, 2011).

Due to the influential power, it is imperative to examine pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating

teacher and resolutions they can use to address the issues. There is an ample documentation in the literature on

issues in the relationship between the pre-service teacher and the cooperating teacher (MerC, 2010; Tok, 2011);

however, resolutions to issues of the relationship are rarely found. Even rarer are the two areas studied as a

sequential and consequential focus in the literature. The purpose of this paper, hence, was to examine these two

Hsiu-Lien Lu, Ed.D., associate professor, College of Education, Georgia Southern University.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS’ ISSUES, COOPERATING TEACHERS AND THEIR RESOLUTIONS

19

areas through stakeholders’ perceptions. Specifically, this paper was interested in exploring what stakeholders

perceive as pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating teacher and as resolutions that pre-service teachers

can use to address the issues. The research questions guiding this study thus included: (1) What can be

pre-service teachers’ issue with the cooperating teacher? and (2) How can pre-service teachers resolve/avoid

issues with the cooperating teacher?

Relevant Literature Reviewed

The role of cooperating teachers has been significantly transformed, since teacher education programs

increased hours of field experience in the classroom to prepare future teachers to respond to the calls for

educational reforms in the school (The Holmes Group, 1986; 1990). In a literature review on the field

experience, Lu (2008) theorized that the role of cooperating teachers evolves from being a cooperating teacher,

mentor teacher, to supervising teacher. Being a cooperating teacher, a classroom teacher fulfills a set of duties

imposed by the teacher education program (Awaya, McEwan, Heyler, & Linsky, 2003). Being a mentor teacher,

they serve to mentor and nurture the pre-service teacher (Cornell, 2003; Morgan, 1999). Finally, being a

supervising teacher, they supervise the pre-service teacher through observations (Daane & Latham, 1998;

Zheng & Webb, 2000). The role change inevitably alters the relationship between pre-service teachers and

cooperating teachers.

Literature indicates that multiple and complex factors contribute to the construct of the relationship

between pre-service teachers and cooperating teachers (Rajuan, Beijaard, & Verloop, 2010b). Some researchers

consider gender, age, level in the hierarchy, culture, and learning style as the contributing factors (Armstrong,

Allinson, & Hayes, 2002). Others find dissimilar values, attitudes, and beliefs between pre-service teachers and

cooperating teachers to be the most significant contributing factors (Eby, McManus, Simon, & Russell, 2000).

Still others report how different expectations result in disparate levels of support and challenge of cooperating

teachers (Rajuan et al., 2010b).

The study of cooperating teachers’ role has long been a focal interest of researchers. For example, a study

provides a comprehensive examination cooperating teachers’ role that results in the development of a

cooperating teachers’ role inventory (Koc, 2011a; 2011b). In this role inventory, Koc (2011a; 2011b) listed

nine important functions of cooperating teachers in the field experience. The functions of cooperating teachers

include: (1) providing support on teaching; (2) providing orientation to the school/classroom; (3) providing

moral support; (4) providing feedback on lesson planning and teaching performance; (5) providing guidance

about resources for teaching; (6) evaluating; (7) self-preparing for the role; (8) providing feedback on the

observation forms; and (9) providing written feedback. These functions illustrate cooperating teachers as

providers of learning needed for future teachers in the classroom/school, a critical character of a mentor

teacher.

Given varied roles assigned to cooperating teachers, the relationship between pre-service teachers and

cooperating teachers is inherently a mentoring, teacher-student relationship. In this relationship, cooperating

teachers help pre-service teachers see what students can do and cannot do and help them adjust their planning

and instruction (Nilssen, 2010). Additionally, to ensure pre-service teachers’ professional development, the role

of cooperating teachers is to provide experience working with young children, model classroom practices,

facilitate reflection, and share knowledge (Leatham & Peterson, 2010).

Within a mentoring relationship, power is consequently an unbalanced entity. In a study, examining the


20

role of cooperating teachers’ power in student teaching, Anderson (2007) reported that pre-service teachers are

influenced by cooperating teachers through evaluations, rewards, distribution of knowledge, vested authority,

and charisma. In his discussion, Anderson (2007) posited that pre-service teachers have acute awareness of

cooperating teachers’ coercive power through evaluations and some may change behaviors to please their

cooperating teachers. Further, cooperating teachers exercise the power of rewards that range from letting

pre-service teachers teach to write good reference and evaluation, likewise, pre-service teachers view

cooperating teachers’ vested authority as legitimate and are willing to comply. Finally, pre-service teachers

deem cooperating teachers as experts who have knowledge in the profession and want to learn from them and

respect them.

This relationship, nonetheless, could be hurt because of problems which are caused either by pre-service

teachers or cooperating teachers. For example, involving 20 pairs of pre-service teachers and cooperating

teachers, Rajuan et al. (2010) examined how pre-service teachers’ opportunity for learning to teach is

influenced due to the match or mismatch of expectations with cooperating teachers on academic, practical,

technical, personal, and critical orientations. The results show that mismatched pairs’ experience low support

and high challenge. In another example, using survey and interviews as data collection instruments, Tok (2011)

reported that pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards teaching are negatively affected by virtue of not having

cooperating teachers as good role models.

In still another study conducted in Turkey with 99 pre-service teachers, and demanding the participants to

self-report problems in the field (MerÇ, 2010), the results indicate some problems that create harm to a

student-teacher/cooperating-teacher relationship. The problems existing on pre-service teachers’ part primarily

include pre-service teachers’ incompetency in time management, classroom management, and instruction.

Nonetheless, the problems identified to be caused by cooperating teachers include lack of cooperation with

pre-service teachers, absences from the classroom, and interfering when pre-service teachers are teaching.

Method

Research Design

This paper, part of a larger phenomenological, interpretive study, focuses merely on the pre-service

teachers’ issues with the cooperating teacher and their resolutions. For an interpretive study, phenomenology

provides a philosophical base (Mertens, 2004). The philosophy of a phenomenological study permits the

researcher to focus on the phenomena of individuals’ experiences in life and to prompt individuals to recognize,

describe, and explain experiences and interpret the meaning of experiences. The recognition and interpretation

of experiences are believed to guides, actions, and relations (Merriam, 2009; Mertens, 2004).

Participants and Study Setting

The study involved voices of all stakeholders in student teaching. Using purposeful and snowballing,

sampling, the study thus recruited 23 participants, including eight pre-service teachers, eight university

supervisors, and seven cooperating teachers. The participants were chosen from different school zones and

campus cohorts. The pre-service teachers were in the second semester of the program of study. Four

cooperating teachers had more than five years of mentoring experience, while the other four were with two to

three years. Four university supervisors were retired or formal teachers, whereas the other four were graduate

students.


21

The study setting was a fifth-year k-6 teacher education program in a research-based university in New

England in the United States. In this fifth-year program, around 70 students enrolled in the study year. They

were grouped in four cohorts having classes on campus when they were free from the field and were placed

individually in public classrooms according to the requirement of diverse zones. They worked in public schools

three days a week for the first semester and full day every day the second semester. They received supervision

of the university supervisor as well as the cooperating teacher who they addressed as a mentor teacher. After

completing the program of study, students graduated with a master’s degree and a teaching certificate.

Data Collection

Each participant received two semi-in-depth interviews, with each lasting approximately 90 minutes

(Seidman, 2006). A modified version of what Seidman proposed as in-depth interview the first interview

focused on any prior experiences relevant to the topic and current experiences of the topic. The second

interview started with any missing pieces in the last interview and moved on to meaning making of the shared

experiences. Interviews took place in places that were at the convenience of participants and at times when they

were available. Two interviews had an interval of one to two weeks to allow time for participants to reflect.

This interview approach was effective in data collection, as it permitted the researcher to build relationship with

participants in the first interview and then explored in-depth on the interested topic in the second. A

semi-structured interview protocol was used throughout all interviews to maintain consistency (Maxwell, 2005).

Probing questions were followed to solicit clarification and elaboration, which allowed data to extend deeper

and wider. All interviews were recorded and verbatim transcribed.

Data Analysis

Data analysis used applied thematic analysis (Guest, MacQueen, & Namey, 2012) and grounded theory

(Corbin & Strauss, 2007). Applied thematic analysis demands that relevant chunks of the data are identified and

pulled out from the large amount of verbatim transcribed data to respond to the inquiry questions. The results of

this approach indicated that only the expressions of 15 participants (eight student teachers, five university

supervisors, and two cooperating teachers) were relevant to the questions (see Table 1).

The constant comparative approach based on grounded theory imposed a recurrent process of reading,

coding, comparing, contrasting, sorting, grouping, and categorizing the segregated data (Corbin & Strauss,

2007; Merriam, 2009; Mertens, 2004). These persistent analyzing procedures allowed themes to emerge. The

themes were found to illustrate pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating teachers and resolutions to the

issues. Organized chunks of quotes from participants’ expressions were used to portray the themes in the results

section.

Results

Five themes were relevant to pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating teacher and four themes to

resolutions to the issues. Table 1 provided an overview of the themes and key participants whose expressions

supported the themes.

The results in Table 1 indicated that most issue themes with the cooperating teacher were reported by

pre-service teachers, except one by a university supervisor. On the other hand, university supervisors had the

most say in the area of resolutions to the issues, with one theme having the most expressions from pre-service

teachers. Followings were the detailed illustrations of each theme supported by participants’ expressions in the


22

order of numbers of contributing participants.

Table 1

Themes and Participants Whose Expressions Supported the Themes

Question Theme Participant whose expressions supported the themes

Pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating teacher

Inappropriate teaching opportunity PT: Marjorie, Garcia, Sophie, Dawn

Ineffective communication PT: Jamie, Sophie, Dawn

Poor classroom practices PT: Garcia, Ruth Wrong perception of the pre-service teacher’s role

PT: Marjorie, Sophie

Interrupting teaching US: Annie

Resolutions to the issues

Being flexible in facing issues CT: Coral US: Becky PT: Dawn, Roth, Victoria, Serena

Being communicative CT: Hannah US: Becky, Grace, Donald

Being respectful US: Donald, Grace, Harry

Being professional US: Donald PT: Ruth

Notes. CT: Cooperating teacher; US: University supervisor; PT: Pre-service teacher.

Pre-service Teachers’ Issues With the Cooperating Teacher

Five themes emerged under this category were: (1) inappropriate teaching opportunity; (2) ineffective

communication; (3) poor classroom practices; (4) wrong perceptions of the pre-service teacher’s role; and (5)

interrupting teaching.

Inappropriate teaching opportunity. The data showed that pre-service teachers did not have appropriate

opportunity to teach. This inappropriateness ranged from not being able to try out new ideas to being asked to

teach too much. For example, not being able to plan for teaching, Marjorie described, “She would pull out the

plan book and say, ‘You could do this’, or ‘These are the things that would be testable this week… These are

the stories’, ‘I never really had that opportunity’”. Another pre-service teacher, Garcia, also had to follow the

teacher’s plans. She stated, “For two-week master teaching, I followed their (referring to grade teachers) lesson

plans. We sat together but it was them dictating what we are going to do and then I just went”.

Sophie was experiencing a form of melancholy while interviewing took place. It was partly due to

constantly feeling stressed because she had no opportunity to try out new ideas. She stated, “It made me feel

that the whole lesson is bad. I wish she would just let me teach my lessons… just let me see the lesson; see how

it goes... She wanted the perfect lesson. She basically told me what to do”.

Nonetheless, Dawn had a complete opposite experience. Dawn stated, “She actually expected me as a

teacher, in a way taking the extremist part… I felt… not supported because I was a learner”.

Ineffective communication. How communication the cooperating teacher carried out, as the results

indicated, could summon a problem too. A pre-service teacher, Jamie, had an example in point: “My mentor

teacher this semester has had a couple of interns before… She told me, ‘I got to tell you I have had interns

before and have not worked out much’, I was like, ‘Why is that?’”.

Sophie, experiencing an ineffective communication with her cooperating teacher, described an issue, “I

felt like she was struggling with finding something good to say… it made me feel not good about myself”. She

continued to describe her communication issue with her cooperating teacher, “It really made me disrespect her


23

when she asked me the question, ‘Are you sure this is what you want to do?’… I thought she was… not

mentoring me”. She “became not trustful of” her cooperating teacher.

Dawn had an issue with her cooperating teacher in the way how she provided feedback. She illustrated her

experience, “From Scotia, I did not feel I got positive feedback… When she had problem, she told me. And

when I was doing ok, she never told me. I felt I was always criticized. So that is part of the tension that our

relationship was”.

Poor classroom practices. The results indicated that some pre-service teachers did not appreciate the

cooperating teacher’s classroom practices. For example, Garcia had several issues with her cooperating

teacher’s practices. First, her teacher treated everyone as the same and ignored the needs of a young boy from a

poor family. She worried that the little boy “is not going to be able to learn to the best of his ability, looking

like that, feeling hungry like that. So you do what you need to do to meet that need”.

Another issue was that the teacher gave her first graders sheets with lines that were too small and did not

sit down to help them. She described, “So… they show it to me, I am like, ‘Why are your letters all over the

page? Come here, sit down’. I am helping them (that) these letters should be on the line. I do not see her doing

that”.

One more issue related to how her cooperating teacher planned for lessons with other grade teachers

during a planning time. Garcia stated, “They would go over the new matter for the week… and pull out a file

box and pull out papers, papers after papers”. While sitting in, Garcia attempted to suggest, “Why do not we

have them make caterpillar and cut the stuff out and they can glue?”. She then got the teacher’s response: “No,

we… do not want things that are not sitting at the table and do things that we have to help them with”.

Finally, Garcia saw “a lot of favoritism… and a lot of modeling for those students that were quick thinker”.

She described and commented on what she viewed, “She would call on the same students all the time, while

other kids are having hands raised sitting down. So… she was teaching to those students that are already at that

level of thinking”.

Ruth, another pre-service teacher, had an issue with her teacher’s disciplinary style. Below was an excerpt

from Ruth: “Her discipline style was not something I want to copy... If you treat children like they are

motivated to be powerful, they are not going to be good and they are not going to be nice and they are not going

to get along... If I continue to try to be the teacher that she is, my classroom dynamic is going to be the way that

it is in her room”.

Wrong perception of the pre-service teacher’s role. Some students felt frustrated when engaged in

doing chores, instead of something relevant to teaching. Marjorie described her experience, “I copied, I pasted,

I stapled, I coat laminated… So much of my time was consumed by that”. Another pre-service teacher, Sophie,

portrayed her experience, “They had a party… My teacher will bring me in and she tells the other teachers, ‘Oh,

if we need help, just tell Sophie’, I just felt it is very disrespectful. I am your intern, not your special helper”.

Sophie got frustrated with the experience because expectations were not clear. She stated, “What I want is just a

teacher who I know what they want. I did not know what my teacher wanted from me. Then things do not work

out”.

Interrupting teaching. A university supervisor, Annie, described an example of interrupting teaching.

Annie stated, “One of the interns... The mentor teacher was always interrupting her... He was worried about the

curriculum instruction; not thinking about this should be the intern’s turn to lead the lesson”. Consequently, this

pre-service teacher was not able to teach what she had planned.


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Resolutions to the Issues

For question 2, four themes emerged out of the segregated data. The themes indicated that, as a guest

teacher in the classroom, the pre-service teacher was expected to be flexible, communicative, respectful, and

professional to augment the relationship, when issues arise.

Being flexible. One cooperating teacher, Carol, declared her stand toward her role blatantly, “I am just

myself. I am not going to change my personality, not for the intern”. This comment explicitly suggested the

pre-service teacher be flexible and change herself/himself upon facing conflicts with the cooperating teacher.

Findings indicated that it was applicable to be flexible when facing issues with the cooperating teacher.

For example, Dawn, having personality clashes with her cooperating teacher for the first semester, honestly

recognized, “I could have improved the relationship by not judging and keeping my mouth shut”. She also

admitted, “I have been part of the tension and should take responsibility for that”.

Being flexible means different things to different people. For example, a university supervisor, Becky,

suggested not bringing the issue up. She commented, “Sometimes… it is wise not to bring it on the table. It

might just be one of the things where you decide not to. You would learn how to get along with as long as you

feel like you can teach”.

For a pre-service teacher, Ruth, being flexible means being willing to take criticism. Ruth stated, “You are

there; you still have to work with her. I do not think it is so hard to get along with people; you just have to be

flexible and willing to take criticism”.

For a pre-service teacher, Victoria, being flexible means conforming. Victoria stated, “If (I) have a conflict

with a teacher… I usually do not do anything about it. I usually conform to what the teacher wants. I respect the

teacher’s classroom and they have their ideas about things”.

A pre-service teacher, Serena, followed the ways of the cooperating teacher in any given situations. She

portrayed her experiences, “My mentor teacher is not only… a control freak, but also the classroom runs in a

very specific have-to-do-it way. In my lead teaching thing, she said that I had to do it that way. So, I did it that

way... It is unlike last year; she is a second-year teacher she has only taught one year. So, in the case, I am kind

of shift about toward the mentor and intern... But I felt more comfortable in that classroom, because if I messed

up, we will figure out that together”.

Being communicative. Findings indicated that communication was key to a positive relationship. For

example, Hannah urged that the pre-service teacher communicate with the cooperating teacher. She elaborated,

“If things are working, let me know. If you have questions, let me know. If you have issues with me, let me

know please. I do not read minds. I need to know. And if you are feeling unsure about something, please let me

know”.

Sometimes, it takes courage to communicate especially when recognizing the hierarchical superiority in

the relationship. A university supervisor, Becky, commented, “There is a bit of hierarchy there. So, for the

intern, to reach and challenge a mentor takes a lot of courage. It takes courage to say how you feel and what

you believe and what you know… That is not about teaching. That is about life. What are you going to do if

they are not listening to you? That is the maturity”.

Agreeing that communication was “a part of life”, Grace, a university supervisor, suggested

communicating via various ways. She stated, “I would try to have as much communication with this mentor

teacher as I possibly could… find ways to communicate, even outside of the classroom”.


25

However, it might not be easy to initiate communication. A university supervisor, Donald, proposed, “Try

to… say, ‘Can I ask you a question about that?’… or ‘I saw you do this; can you explain why you did this?’ or

‘Can I try this?’”. He believed in using questions would help initiate a conversation with the pre-service teacher,

when concerns arise.

Being respectful. The results indicated that being respectful to the cooperating teacher was critical in this

relationship. For example, a university supervisor, Donald stated he would respect the cooperating teacher’s

requests, “As (an) intern, you really have to be respectful to the mentor and listen to what they have to say. If

they told me to do something I would work to get that done. I would never complain about things”.

Respecting the cooperating teacher’s responsibility as a teacher is another suggestion. As Grace, a

university supervisor, stated, “You have to respect that the teacher’s role… is her job and certain things will

come up and you are not going to be put in the number one slot. But understand that you do not want to be last

either”.

Still another suggestion was that the pre-service teacher should respect the power dynamics in addition to

the cooperating teacher’s priority in the classroom. Harry, a university supervisor, stated:

Really be thinking about this experience of collaboration with your mentor teachers as another very important point of professional learning and growth because you are going to collaborate with colleagues… Your relationship with the mentor teacher… is one that entails power dynamics. It is not your classroom; it is their classroom. They are the ones who

are responsible for scope and sequence, for objectives, for meeting the frameworks, for preparing for MCAS. And so

ultimately that is more important than your practicum.

Being professional. Findings suggested that staying professional help when facing conflicts in the

relationship. A university supervisor, Donald, provided an example he had in the field. He stated, “I had one

teacher who was extremely sarcastic to the kids... I asked the intern, ‘What do you feel about this? She said she

did not like it at all… But she felt that she was not at the place to approach the teacher... She was like, ‘This is

learning experience. That is going to happen. I am going to learn from this but I am not going to do that’”.

A pre-service teacher, Ruth, shared how she developed professionally given a personality disagreement

with her cooperating teacher. She stated, “Judy and I are not similar... But… we have a very strong and very

professional relationship and it is just been great”.

Concluding Discussions

In response to the first research question about pre-service teachers’ issues with the cooperating teacher,

five issues were identified in this study program. They included: (1) inappropriate teaching opportunity; (2)

ineffective communication; (3) poor classroom practices; (4) wrong perceptions of the pre-service teacher’s

role; and (5) interrupting teaching. With only eight pre-service teachers participating in the study, six (75%)

reported to have certain degrees of issues experienced in the field. The results, therefore, convey a warning

signal and point to a couple of implications to the practices.

First, the results imply that a good selection of the cooperating teacher is imperative to ensure quality of

teacher preparation. This implication arises over the concerns that the cooperating teacher was reported to have

poor classroom practices, wrong perceptions of the pre-service teacher’s role, and ineffective communication.

According to the literature, some criteria, such as excellence in teaching and related skills and a commitment to MCAS stands for Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System. It is the high-stakes test in Massachusetts for public school students.


26

working with pre-service teachers, are used to select cooperating teachers for some teacher education programs

(Phillips & Baggett-McMinn, 2000). Selecting cooperating teachers based on effective teaching and skills and a

sense of commitment helps warrant a healthy base of the work forces in the field. A good selection process

should help handpick good teachers who are willing and dedicated to meeting future teachers’ needs. Therefore,

issues such as those found in this study could have been avoided at the outset of the field experience.

Further, the results may imply that training of the cooperating teacher is needed to ensure good quality of

mentoring practices, an implication that is sustained by the fact that the common theme of the identified issues

is mainly relevant to whether pre-service teachers get or fulfill basic learning for the experience with the

cooperating teacher they work with. Research evidence indicates that training enables cooperating teachers to

fulfill the responsibilities required for the role and to advance the cooperating teachers professionally in

supporting student teaching. For example, cooperating teachers who receive training demonstrate learned

strategies more and encourage pre-service teachers to implement these strategies (Daane & Latham, 1998).

Additionally, cooperating teachers make significant shifts in their conversations with pre-service teachers using

the criteria given to them (Timperley, 2001). Further, cooperating teachers who receive training demonstrate

more effective planning, more effective classroom teaching, and better reflectivity (Giebelhaus & Bowman,

2002).

MerC (2010) reported that 5.5% of pre-service teachers’ total problems are related to cooperating teachers.

In this study, the most expressions about field issues came from pre-service teachers, which might be because

pre-service teachers were ones that directly received the impact of lack of training of cooperating teachers. In

the real world, people do what they know and cannot do what they do not know. Due to the lack of knowledge

and skills, although cooperating teachers might believe they have done their best to help both their children and

pre-service teachers, it may still leave much room to be desired. Although student teaching is most valuable for

pre-service teachers to become teachers, it can be a daunting experience. With appropriate training provided to

cooperating teachers, it may help student teachers overcome fear and develop with a positive field experience,

which ultimately helps the program diminish potential field issues.

The second research question explored the resolutions to issues in the relationship between pre-service

teachers and the cooperating teacher. The results suggest that pre-service teachers be flexible, communicative,

respectful, and professional when facing conflicts in the relationship, which is a unique contribution to the

literature. The results are unique because, although seemingly aiming to resolve the issues stemming from this

specific case, they indicate basic behavior rules for guest teachers in the classroom. Eventually, they can serve

as fundamental guidelines for pre-service teachers to follow in working with cooperating teachers. Following

these guidelines may prevent issues from arising in the field.

Indeed, cooperating teachers hierarchically have the upper hand in this relationship (Anderson, 2007) and

may have their share in resolving conflicts in the field, yet the results establish portions of obligation where

pre-service teachers can dedicate themselves into better experience as follows. First, pre-service teachers are

suggested to be flexible regardless what he/she may prefer for classroom practices. This flexibility may include

taking and adapting to the cooperating teacher’s suggestions, rules, routines, and ideas in classroom practices,

knowing that they are here to learn, to support, and not to evaluate. Additionally, pre-service teachers need to

find ways to communicate with the cooperating teacher and be courageous to face issues. Only through effort

made in communication does it allow both parties to exchange thoughts, clarify ideas, and explain

misunderstanding, which in turn promotes trust in the relationship. Also, pre-service teachers are suggested to


27

respect the responsibility of the cooperating teacher in the classroom. The priority of the cooperating teacher is

children in the classroom and their learning, not pre-service teachers, a fact that pre-service teachers need to

understand. Therefore, they should be willing to collaborate with the cooperating teacher and to grow through

working with young kids. Finally, pre-service teachers should stay professional when facing issues that come

up in the field. They should avoid taking things personally or uttering negative comments and try to learn

something beneficial in any given situation, even when things do not proceed the way that they appreciate.

Overall, the results conclude that pre-service teachers should be an agent who resolves problem or promotes

change, instead of being a trouble maker, in order to develop a positive pre-service teacher/cooperating-teacher

relationship.

The study is significant in that it links the potential correlation between issues and their resolutions in the

pre-service teacher/cooperating-teacher relationship. The results, therefore, can be helpful for teacher education

programs to educate pre-service teachers concerning appropriate behaviors in facing issues with cooperating

teachers in the field. Also, the results may provide sensible rationale for teacher education programs to establish

standards in selecting cooperating teachers and to provide training for cooperating teachers. Both of the

abovementioned schemes working together may proactively prevent issues from arising in the relationship

between student teachers and cooperating-teachers and in turn help enhance a better student teaching

experience.

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The Importance of Positive Self-concept for Islamic Education

Teachers as a Role Model

Nurul Asiah Fasehah

Muhamad

Islamic Science University

of Malaysia, Nilai,

Malaysia

Mohd Isa Hamzah,

Ab. Halim Tamuri

National University of

Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia

Noornajihan Ja’afar,

Norzulaili Mohd

Ghazali, Robiatul

Adawiyah Mohd Amat

Islamic Science University

of Malaysia, Nilai,

Malaysia

Norakyairee Mohd

Raus, Syed Najihuddin

Syed Hassan

Islamic University of

Malaysia, Nilai, Malaysia

This study embarks from the great and huge responsibility of teachers nowadays especially the IRT (Islamic

religious teachers). As the role model of students, they play an important task especially in producing the good

Muslim character. Therefore, their job not only focuses on the content of subject but becomes wider in scope, more

than other teachers in moulding a human. For this, the mind faculty plays an important role. Many studies have

proved that people’s belief and how they persive themselves can influence their personality and make them be a

centered of attention. The past research findings have shown that teachers need to have the PSC (positive

self-concept) to help them become a successful role model and produce the great Muslim character in future. Thus,

this study seeks to look at the need of PSC in IRT as a role model. This study is a conceptual paper which is based

on the analysis of document method. The paper will discuss about the role of IRT, the PSC and the needs for

teachers, and the influence of teacher’s PSC on students’ behaviour. Due to current scenario of social ills, the IRT

responsibility of educating and moulding the good character of Muslim students becomes much challenging.

Therefore, in order to make sure the vision accomplishes, IRT must build the PSC in themselves first.

Keywords: IRT (Islamic religious teachers), PSC (positive self-concept), role model

Introduction

Looking at the scenario of depleting adolescent moral drives deep emotional impact on every citizen. Each

party tries to determine the lack of roles performed in finding a solution. Among the main causes outlined by

previous researchers are the factors of self, school environment, economic conditions, not forgetting the role of

family and teachers (Ab. Halim Tamuri & Khadijah Abdul Razak, 2003; Saidi Daud, 2008; Syed Najmuddin

Nurul Asiah Fasehah Muhammad, tutor, Islamic Science University of Malaysia. Mohd Isa Hamzah, lecturer, National University of Malaysia. Ab. Halim Tamuri, National University of Malaysia. Noornajihan Ja’afar, lecturer, Islamic Science University of Malaysia. Norzulaili Mohd Ghazali, lecturer, Islamic Science University of Malaysia. Robiatul Adawiyah Mohd Amat, lecturer, Islamic Science University of Malaysia. Norakyairee Mohd Raus, lecturer, Islamic University of Malaysia. Syed Najihuddin Syed Hassan, lecturer, Islamic University of Malaysia.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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POSITIVE SELF-CONCEPT FOR ISLAMIC EDUCATION TEACHERS AS A ROLE MODEL

30

Syedhassan, Ab. Halim Tamuri, Isahak Othaman, & Mohd Sabri Mamat, 2009; Zainudin Sharif & Norazmah

Mohamad Roslan, 2011).

This alarming situation makes the task of teachers in general and IET (Islamic education teachers) in

particular become heavier (Ab. Halim Tamuri, 2011). They not only play the part of textbooks and learning

syllabus presenters but as agents of moral educator of students. To abide to this trust is a heavy responsibility.

Teachers should act as parents of students at the school (Abidin Ibn Rusn, 1998) to showcase examples of good

character who can be role models to each individual student under supervision. Teachers can become very

influential to students due to the long hours spent in school (Ab. Halim Tamuri, 2011). In the process of their

children’s education, teaching methods of “modeling” has a very deep impact on the lives of children (Bandura,

1973; 1977). Moreover, Ab. Halim Tamuri, Adnan Yusopp, Kamisah Osman, Shahrin Awaluddin, Zamri

Abdul Rahim, and Khadijah Abdul Razak (2004) confirmed that the most effective method of moral education

is an exemplary method. Information transfer conducted indirectly through this method involves a large amount

of the role of the unconscious mind (Morris & Maisto, 2005). According to Piaget (1967), this process occurs

among the children as early as the age of two, they began to accept everything that happens around them and

use the information to build a perceptual experience. The use of positive information will help build quality and

positive individual. The process takes place until the child reaches early teens. The mind faculty given by the

almighty does not stop working there, but will acquire greater role when the teenager turns into an adult. When

these children have begun to socialize (Rubin, Coplan, Chen, & Mckinon, 1994), much of their time is spent in

the community surrounding the school (Ab. Halim Tamuri, 2011). This is where the role of parents is being

transferred to the role of the teachers.

Thus, it can be deduced here, kids’ moral development is the responsibility of all parties, especially the

parents and teachers. To ensure that this is going well according to “sunnatullah” set, both parties, parents and

teachers must work hand in hand to show an example of good character. Everything should be started with the

preparation of a strong mind which is “the beliefs that people have about specific characteristics associated with

themselves” (Burnett, 1994). This belief is central to the formation of personality (Super, 1963) and this

personality will be transferred indirectly to the pupils at the school. Looking at the large role of teachers as

agents of moral development of students, this paper aims to identify: (1) the role of Islamic education; (2) the

meaning of self-concept and its role in character building; and (3) the influence of PSC (positive self-concept)

to the self- and IET- students’ behaviour.

The Role of Islamic Education

Teachers are generally responsible for providing education to all students in relation to subjects taught.

Similarly, the IRT (Islamic religious teachers) have wider scope and even greater task as they not only act as

educators of the subject but also educators of moral values. This is where their role is seen equivalent to the

responsibility of a preacher (Ruzain Syukur Mansor, 2008). As someone who is seen very understanding of

religion and expert on the intricacies of Islam, IRT typically get a respectable place among the school staff;

they are looked upon as a teacher and co-worker to other teachers. Hence, their responsibilities here include the

entire school community. IET are not only an example for the students but the entire school (Mustafa Helmi,

2004; Ali Murad, 2003; Ibn Abi al-Dunya, 2000; Mubarak, 1988).

In accordance with Islam educational purpose itself which is to produce a balanced Muslim with regards

of high intellectual, moral, social, and spiritual personality in the world and the hereafter, these traits should


31

also embody IET. IET must have extensive knowledge about Islam and apply that knowledge in daily life. Prior

to that, the theory of knowledge in Islam or Islamic epistemology is to be noted in detail, since this is where the

axis to the development of Islam itself (Mujamil Qomar, 2002). IET who are aware of this element give them

the confidence to deliver the knowledge of Islam to anyone who asks questions and help the process of teaching

and learning progress well. As a reference point for students and the whole school, IET must ensure that

knowledge is derived from a source based on the Koran and the Sunnah. According to al-Ghazali (n.d.),

teachers need a lesson with the intention to get closer to God and keep the students from the torment of hell fire.

Teachers should take note of the knowledge presented to the students and focus on other weak students to

practice each knowledge presented. Wan Bakar Wan Dagang (1991) viewed that IET must always increase

knowledge and find an approach that can motivate students to love religion.

Apart from the strength associated with religious knowledge and its application to real life, IET must

demonstrate high moral character and because it is a matter vital to ensure the excellence IET as a role model to

students and fellow teachers (Al-Ghazali, n.d.; al-Nahlawi, 2004; Mohammad Shatar, Jasni Sabri, & Azali

Mohamed, 2006; Azizah, 1999; Dunkin & Biddle, 1974; Rogers, 2002; Gordon, 1990; Fenstermacher &

Richardson, 2005). IET’s nature is viewed from two aspects, namely the appearance and character of IET

(Kamarul Azmi Jasmi, Ab. Halim Tamuri, & Mohd Izham Mohd Hamzah, 2012). Appearance in view of the

nature is of the external appearance such as a neat style, clean and appropriate (al-Bukhari, 1987, pp. 838, 5366,

5438, 5439; Muslim, 1972, pp. 377, 3878; al-Nasa’i, n.d., pp. 5027, 5141; Abu Dawud, n.d., p. 3540). While

the nature of character and moral behavior is seen through IET’s behaviour towards students, such as loving

and caring, helping, cooperating, providing guidance, giving ideas, providing encouragement and incentives as

positive motivation for students, being fair, being responsible for the character and personality of students,

understanding requirements and needs of students, being concerned about students and optimistic about all the

students (Ali Murad, 2003).

In conclusion, it is suggested that IET take the role of the five members: murabbi, mu’allim, mudarris,

muaddib, and mursyid (Ab. Halim Tamuri et al., 2006). According to Syed Najmuddin Syedhassan, Ab. Halim

Tamuri, Isahak Othaman, and Mohd Sabri Mamat (2009), IET with the five features will assume that tasks

undertaken as IET are a trust from God to be settled with the utmost dedication and sincerity. IET’s great

responsibility requires strong mental preparation in order to prepare themselves as a model example of the best

to the students.

Self-concept and Its Role in the Formation of Personal

Looking at the influence and role of IET to schools and community institutions, IET must prepare

themselves to be the best role model, especially to each individual student who is under their responsibility.

Here, the mind plays a vital role and one of them is the perception given by IET to himself that includes belief

in some personal characteristics associated with him (Burnett, 1994). This belief is believed to be formed by the

three principles of the individual perception of himself, the evaluation of other people on an individual

assessment of himself and other people’s perception of himself (Rogers, 1951). This view is also supported by

Staines (1954) who stated that the self is a perception, evaluation, and self-concept given by a person to himself.

It includes an assessment of the individual against himself and his assessment of the individual perception of

others towards him. While Burns (1982) added that the concept of self is the individual’s overall perception of

himself either descriptive or cognitive assessment. Self-concept can also be described as a set of ideas, values,


32

commitments, and attitudes of a person. It covers the entire environment that makes one different from others

(Jersild, 1952). Fitts (1971) asserted that self-concept is divided into two elements, namely the perception of

self and self-assessment. He said though, the perception of self-perceived to be important but self-assessment is

more important. Overall, self-concept is a structure built into the human mind through the perceptions, beliefs,

evaluations, and responses to their own souls. This can be in the form of the individual perception of himself

and his assessment of the perception of others towards him.

Self-concept is divided into two parts, PSC and negative self-concept (James, 1990; Rogers, 1951;

Greenberg et al., 1992; Mok, 2002; Yahya Azizi et al., 2005). This division of opinion in line with Rogers

(1951) involves an appreciation of individual self-concept of the nature of self and ability gained through

relationships with others and the environment that has positive and negative values. This assessment will form

the attitude and personality. Definition expressed by Rogers (1951) also said that the PSC or negative

self-concept is influenced by the environment and self-concept of a person’s personal form. Rogers’ views are

described in the first sketch as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1 reflects the direct relationship between individual and environmental assessment of self-concept

formation of a positive or negative self-concept and thus may influence the behaviour and personality of a

person to be positive or negative. Rogers’ (1951) opinion is also supported by inter-actionism theory introduced

by Colley and Mead (as cited in Burns, 1982), in which Colley has introduced the concept of “looking glass

self” or mirror themselves (Othman Md. Johan, 1995). He explained that individuals construct perceptions

about themselves to evaluate and accept the ideas form by others about them. This occurs through the

experience of interacting with the environment or people around them. Mead (as cited in Burns, 1982) added

that the environment includes those who are familiar with, close and confront an individual. For children, these

people are parents, immediate family, teachers and friends at school. Whereas for adults those people who are

able to change significantly their formation of self-concept are a husband, wife, children, and colleagues (Well

& Marwell, 1976). Through the following statement, it can be concluded that self-concept is central to the

creation of a behaviour and personality. This is supported by Super (1963) who stressed that the self is the basis

for developing a personality and behaviour.

Figure 1. Model of self-concept formation and influence on the formation of self-concept and behaviour of Rogers (1951).

Thus, to meet the needs of IET as a precedent for the whole school community and society, particularly

the students, IET must make every possible effort to build a PSC that will ultimately shape a personality and

behaviour that are also positive. PSC can be formed with a positive perception which is constructed by IET for

Individual assessment

Environment: Others’ assessment Surrounding nature Negative

self-concept Positive personality and behavioral

Positive personality and behavioral

PSC


33

themselves. Among the characteristics of individuals with PSC is a person who is often hailed as successful,

high self-confidence, willing to accept criticism from others, not give up easily, optimistic, cheerful, positive,

simple, be able to looked upon as role models, accepting themselves as they are, constantly trying to improve

and take criticism and failure with courage and calm (Azizi et al., 2005; Mok, 2002). In conclusion, perceptions

and ideas of PSC and positive self help IET to form personal and positive behaviours as a good example for

students.

Influence of IET’s PSC and Moral Self-concept of Students

Self-concept is influenced by significant people around the individual (Burns, 1982). For those students

who have significant influence on their self-concept, including teachers (Well & Marwell, 1976). It is no

wonder if all that done and expressed by the teacher are to be noted and followed by students. IET, as a

reference point, not only carry the name of Islam, but also hold the label in the acts and character. Usually, they

are observed. As such, it is a responsibility that must be implemented by IET to always make sure their

character and display a good example to all students. PSC here is the role for IET to help shape good character

and be able to be followed for students.

Through previous studies related to students’ self-concept, there are two things that need to be addressed:

First, self-concept affects students’ academic achievement and character formation, as described by Azizi et al.

(2005) who found positive correlation between academic achievement and self-concept. They explained that

the more PSC, the higher possibility of student acquiring academic excellence. This result is consistent with the

findings of Zulkifli (2003). In addition, a study conducted by Coopersmith (1967), Marsh (1984), and

Brookover, Thomas, and Patterson (1964) found a significant positive relationship between self-concept and

students’ behavior. Siti Sara (2000) also agreed to previous studies where significant relationships found

between self-concept of students with disciplinary problems in school.

The second thing is the influence of significant people, namely students’ “self-concept in the context of

this discussion is the influence of teachers on students’ self-concept”. Study by Humprey (2003) stipulates that

the influence of significant people is very important in the formation of students’ self-concept and the people

are mentioned by Burns (1982) as a parent, close family members, teachers, and school friends. While

Shahabudin Hashim et al. (2003) found that PSC of students is affected by the actions of teachers. Teachers

who always give a positive strength, advice and show positive attitudes and behaviours help assist the

development of PSC of students. Indirectly, this study has underlined that teachers’ “positive behaviour

resulting a PSC and teachers can help build students’ self-concept and positive character”. This statement is

supported by Othman Md. Johan (1995) who stated that a person’s self-concept is fundamental to the formation

of his behaviour. Thus, a positive teacher’s behaviour will result to PSC in a student too. Crouse (1981) stated

that a good psychological environment as a result of teachers’ PSC helps to build a PSC of students. These

developments provide a beneficial effect on students’ academic achievement and personality. He also stressed

that teachers’ PSC is significantly related to students’ self-concept.

To conclude, teachers in general and IET in particular have an impact and influence on students’

behaviour and achievement. IET, which is synonymous as a model example in schools, should have more

striking personality compelling students to be able to continue to make him as a role model. Thus, a PSC

should continue to be built.


34

Conclusion

To solve the problem of moral decay of today’s students, everyone has a role to play whenever possible.

As IET, the role is no less important. IET are responsible as the agent of moral development and human capital

formation needs to take more progressive steps to prepare themselves to be the best role model. Thus, the

mental preparation is necessary. IET first need to create the belief in themselves to give a positive perception

and meaning in themselves. This matter should not be in solitary confinement because of the belief that has led

to the formation of individual behaviour and personality.

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Menengah Luar Bandar Daerah Pontian. Tesis Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.


Teachers’ Characteristics and Science Teachers’ Classroom

Behaviour: Evidence From Science Classroom Surveys

Patrick O. Ajaja

Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria

Urhievwejire Ochuko Eravwoke

University of Benin, Benin, Nigeria

The major purpose of this study was to find out if there is any influence of teachers’ characteristics on science

teacher’s classroom behaviours and determine the kind of relationship between teachers’ characteristics and

classroom behaviours. To guide this study, five research questions and hypotheses were raised, stated, answered,

and tested at the significance level of 0.05. The design of case study is using an observational schedule called SCIC

(science classroom interaction categories). The sample of the study consisted of 150 science teachers drawn from

the 25 local government areas in Delta State. The data collected were analyzed with t-test, ANOVA (analysis of

variance), and Pearson product moment correlation. The major findings of the study indicated: a significant

difference in classroom behaviour scores among teachers with 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and above years of experience and

a perfect correlation between years of experience and classroom behaviour; a significant higher classroom

behaviour scores of male teachers over the females; a significant higher classroom behaviour scores of B.Sc. (Ed.)

certificate holders over those with NCE (Nigeria Certificate of Education) and B.Sc. certificates; and a

non-significant correlation between type of certificates and classroom behaviours. It was concluded that the five

key behaviours studied remain the skeleton for effective science teaching and learning.

Keywords: teacher, science, behaviour, characteristics, classroom

Introduction

Background of the Study

The literature on the meaning of effective science teaching is not definitive (Ajaja, 2009a). Findings from

literature indicate a failure of science education researchers to clearly define effective science teaching despite

several decades of research in the field and attributed it to the failure to observe teaching activities. Ajaja

(2009b) noted that what is found in literature as the meaning of effective science teaching is a broad

characteristics of effective science teaching which varies to some extent from one author to another.

The history of an effective teacher has been evolving since the past 100 years. An effective teacher in the

past was: a good persona role model who met community ideal for a good citizen, good parent, and good

employee (Borich, 2004, p. 3). At that time, teachers were judged primarily on their goodness as people and

only secondarily on their behaviour in the classroom. In the past three decades, a revolution in the definition of

good teachers on the bases of community ideals has proved very unrealistic. The revolution changed research in

Patrick O. Ajaja, Ph.D., Department of Science Education, Delta State University. Urhievwejire Ochuko Eravwoke, Ph.D. candidate, Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies, University

of Benin.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

TEACHERS’ CHARACTERISTICS, SCIENCE TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM BEHAVIOUR

37

the field focus on the impact of specific cognitive and affective behaviours of their students. The term of good

teaching changed to effective teaching, and the research focus shifted from exclusively studying teachers to

include their effects on students (Borich, 2004). Using Borich’s (2004) identified five key behaviours essential

for effective teaching, effective science teaching may be defined as the teaching which demonstrates lesson

clarity, instructional variety, teachers’ task orientation, engagement in the learning process, and students’

success rate. In essence, effective science teachers are persons who combine teaching skills with an active

belief that instruction can make a difference in science learning. Effective science teaching is largely

decision-making: The application of principles is drawn from the study of learning, motivation, development,

and teaching (Ajaja, 2009, p. 147).

Teachers’ characteristics in science education are most widely studied under six headings which include

personality, attitudes, experience, aptitude/achievement, gender (sex), and training as measured by the

certificate obtained. All these characteristics have many other sub-characteristics under them. Efforts are made

in understanding the roles that these characteristics play in teaching and learning because of the critical role

science teachers play in science curriculum implementation. It has been noticed that the single most important

factor that can affect students’ achievement is the teachers.

Science teachers can have a major influence on the way science students learn and develop. Science

teachers who have an impact on students’ lives are those who have a genuine interest in students, know their

subject matter and possess detailed information about instructional processes and the way students learn and

develop.

Among all other teachers’ tasks in curriculum implementation is teaching which is intended to stimulate

learning (Emeruwa, 1985). The teachers’ guidance of students in the process of teaching takes many forms with

equally many kinds of learning outcomes. These other directions include the awareness of the student of what

he is to learn, the extent of measurement and the extent of feedback. These factors are closely related and they

work together to influence or affect learning. Teachers have to bear this in mind, as they plan and implement

the curriculum. Teachers of varying characters will implement the curriculum differently either to the benefit or

detriment of the learner. It, therefore, follows that studies on the influence of teachers’ characteristics on

curriculum implementation are very important and strategic.

This study was propelled by the scanty literature in the field of teachers’ characteristics particularly, as

they influence science teachers’ classroom behaviour. The bulk of literature on teachers’ characters are from

studies carried out in Europe, America and Asia are concentrated on their effects on achievements which are in

the cognitive domain leaving classroom behaviour in the affective domain. There is really a dearth of sound

knowledge of how teachers’ characteristics influence teachers’ classroom behaviours. This study is an attempt

to reduce the imbalance in research efforts directed at the knowledge of the relationship between teachers’

characteristics and classroom behaviours and is therefore very timely. Research efforts in this area are most

important now because many important decisions which students make such as friends, subject, and career

choices, are strongly bound up with their behaviours and attitudes (Ajaja, 2008).

From research, approximately 10 teachers’ behaviours have shown promising relationships to desirable

students’ performance, primarily measured by classroom assessments and standardized tests (Borich, 2004, p.

11). Five of these behaviours have been consistently supported by research studies over the past 30 years

(Brophy, 2002; Taylor, Pearson, Clark, & Walpole, 1999; Teddlie & Stringfield, 1993; Walberg, 1986). These

key behaviours include lesson clarity, instructional variety, teachers’ task orientation, engagement in learning


38

process, and students’ success rate.

Research on lesson clarity, which is one of the key behaviours, indicates that teachers vary considerably

on this behaviour (Borich, 2004). It is observed that not all teachers are able to communicate clearly and

directly to their subjects without wandering, speaking above students’ levels of comprehension, or using speech

patterns that impair their presentations clarity (Cruickshank & Metcalf, 1994; Brown & Wragg, 1993; Wilen,

1991). If a lesson is clearly presented, the teacher will spend less time going over materials and questions will

be answered correctly at the first time, allowing more time for instruction. Research shows that oral clarity of

presentations varies substantially among teachers and this in turn produces differences in students’ performance

on cognitive tests of achievement (Marx & Walsh, 1988; Borich, 2004).

Another key behaviour is identified as variability or flexibility of delivery during the presentation of a

lesson (Borich, 2004; Brophy & Good, 1986). Literature indicates that different types of questions can be

integrated into pacing and sequencing of a lesson to create meaningful variation (Chuska, 1995; Wilen, 1991).

The most obvious aspect of variety in teaching is the use of learning materials, equipments, displays, and space

in the classroom (Borich, 2004).

Continuing, Borich (2004) noted that the physical texture and visual variety of the classroom can

contribute to instructional variety and in turn influence students’ achievement. Some studies have found that

amount of disruptive behaviour to be less in classrooms that had more varied activities and materials (Emmer,

Evertson, & Worsham, 2003; Evertson, Emmer, & Worsham, 2003). Study by Lysakowski and Walberg (1981)

found instructional variety to be related to students’ attention.

The key behaviour which refers to how much classroom time the teacher devotes to the task of teaching an

academic subject is referred to as teachers’ task orientation. Studies on teachers’ task orientation show that

classrooms in which teacher-student interactions focus more on intellectual content that allows their students

the maximum opportunity to learn and practice what was taught are more likely to have higher rates of

achievement (Brophy, 2002; Berliner & Biddle, 1995; Porter, 1993).

One of the most recently researched teachers’ behaviours related to students’ performance is students’

engagement in learning process. It is a key behaviour that refers to the amount of time that students devote to

learning an academic subject. Some authors (Meichenbaum & Biemiller, 1998; Evertson, 1995; Tauber, 1990)

made some useful suggestions on how to increase learning time and more importantly, students’ engagement

during learning. These suggestions include: set rules that let pupils attend to their personal and procedural

needs; move around the room to monitor pupils seatwork, ensure that independent assignments are interesting,

worthwhile, easy enough to be completed by each pupil; minimize time-consuming activities, make abundant

use of resources and activities that are at or slightly above students’ current level of understanding, and avoid

timing error by stopping misbehaviour promptly. The application of all these in small groups and independent

seatwork has been found to be beneficial (Anderson, Stevens, Prawat, & Nickerson, 1988).

The last of the key of effective teaching behaviours is students’ success rate. Students’ success rate refers

to the rate at which the students understand and correctly complete exercises and assignments (Borich, 2004).

There are three categories of success rates: (1) High success: The student understands the task and makes only

occasional careless errors; (2) Moderate success: The student has partial understanding but makes some

substantive errors; and (3) Low success: The student does not understand the task at all. Good and Brophy

(2000) and Karweit and Slavin (1981) found that the time that the learner is actively engaged with thinking

about and working with the content being taught was closely related to student success rate. Research as noted


39

by Slavin (1991b) has shown that instruction promoting low error rates (high success) can contribute to

increased levels of students’ self-esteem and to positive attitude towards the subject matter and the school.

Correlational studies on the relationship between teachers’ characteristics, teachers’ behaviour, and

students’ outcomes in science are infrequent as found from literature in the field. However, the study by Druva

and Anderson (1983) using the principle of meta-analysis of research, that focused on science teachers’

characteristics is a significant and outstanding contribution towards the knowledge of how teachers’

characteristics influence teachers’ classroom behaviour and students’ outcomes. The study correlated with

teachers characteristics of gender, course work, IQ (intelligence quotient), and so forth with teaching behaviour

in the classroom, such as questioning behaviour and teaching orientation; and student outcome characteristics,

such as achievement and attitudes towards science. The subjects used for the study were selected from the

entire United States.

With respect to the relationship between teachers’ characteristics and teacher behaviour as reported by

Trowbridge and Bybee (1996), the following outcomes emerged:

(1) Teaching effectiveness is positively related to training and experience as evidenced by the number of

educational courses, student-teaching grade, and teaching experience;

(2) Teachers with more positive attitudes toward the curriculum that they are teaching tend to be those

with a higher grade-point average and more teaching experience;

(3) Better classroom discipline is associated with teacher characteristics of restraint and reflectivity;

(4) Higher level, more complex questions are employed more often by teachers with greater knowledge

and less experience in teaching.

Later, researches on the effect of teacher characteristics on effective teaching behaviours and using

students’ points of view found that teacher-expressive characteristics, such as warmth, enthusiasm, and

extroversion apparently separate effective from ineffective teachers (Radmacher & Martin, 2001; Basow, 2000;

Best & Addison, 2000).

From the foregoing, attempts have been made by the researchers to define effective science teaching. In

the process, five key behaviours of effective teaching were discussed and their effects on students’ learning

well stated. The relationship between teachers’ characteristics and science teachers’ classroom behaviours

were x-rayed in spite of the dearth of literature in the area. Specifically, this study attempts to relate selected

teachers’ characteristics (experience, training, and sex) with science teachers’ classroom behaviours. This

study will contribute mainly in improving our knowledge about the influence of teachers’ characteristics on

science teaching and learning. The study taken singly will contribute to increasing the volume of literature in

the field.

Statement of the Problem

This study was in part driven by the fact that classroom practices which contribute to effective teaching

are influenced by teachers’ characteristics which then impact on pupils’ motivation, achievement, and attitude

toward learning. That is to say, for teachers having been equipped with pedagogical and professional training

would not be enough to establish a positive, learnable, and teachable classroom climate. Specifically, the

factors that best facilitate students’ learning are considered to be the ones that are described as being purposeful,

task-oriented, relaxed, warm, supportive and have a sense of order and humour in an integrated sense

(Kumaravadivelu, 1992). These characteristics are provided by teachers. The second reason which propelled


40

the study was the scarcity of literature directed at classroom behaviour in the field. This therefore implies that

our knowledge of how science teachers’ characteristics influence classroom activities may have been limited,

inaccurate, and inconclusive. The situation, therefore, calls for more research in the field for the purpose of

improving science teaching and learning.

The statement of the problem therefore is: Will the determination of the relationship between selected

science teachers’ characteristics (experience, sex, and training) and classroom behaviours generate information

that could be used to improve science teaching and learning?

Research Questions

To guide this study, the following research questions were raised and answered:

(1) Is there any difference in science teachers’ classroom behaviours among teachers with 0–5, 6–10, and

11 and above years of experience?

(2) Is there any difference in science teachers’ classroom behaviours between male and female science

teachers?

(3) Is there any difference in science teachers’ behaviour among teachers with NCE (Nigeria Certificate of

Education), B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. certificates?

(4) Is there any correlation between teachers’ years of experience and science teachers’ classroom

behaviours?

(5) Is there any correlation between types of certificates possessed by teachers and their classroom

behaviours?

Research Hypotheses

To further direct this study, five hypotheses were stated and tested at the significance level of 0.05.

Ho1: There is no significant difference in science teachers’ classroom behaviours among science teachers

with 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and above years of experience;

Ho2: There is no significant correlation between teachers’ years of experience and science teachers’

classroom behaviours;

Ho3: There is no significant difference in classroom behaviours between male and female science teachers;

Ho4: There is no significant difference in science teachers’ behaviour among teachers with NCE, B.Sc.

(Ed.) and B.Sc. certificates;

Ho5: There is no significant correlation between types of certificate possessed by teachers and their

classroom behaviours.

Methodology

The Design of the Study

The design employed for the study was case study. In case studies, researchers only observe the

characteristics of individual units of research interest. The goal of observation in case study is to study the

characteristics and functional pattern of the subjects and from there make broad generalizations to the large

population. In this study, characteristics of individual units of interest were: teachers’ classroom behaviours, as

influenced by science teachers’ years of experience, training, and sex.

The pattern of observation of the construct was the adoption of the non-participant approach. During the

science lessons in the selected schools and selected classes, the researchers and research assistants merely


41

coded the behaviour patterns of the science teachers as the lessons went on. The researchers and the research

assistants were not part of the events and activities studied. This description agrees with Leedy and Ormrod’s

(2005) and Johnson and Christensen’s (2000) explanation of non-participant observation.

The Sample of the Study

The sample of the study consisted of 50 public secondary schools drawn from the three Senatorial Districts

in Delta State. Delta State is divided into three Senatorial Districts which consist of Delta North, Delta South,

and Delta Central. The state is made up of 25 local government areas in which there are 381 public senior

secondary schools. The sample of the science teachers was 150, which consisted of 50 biology, chemistry, and

physics teachers each.

The procedure for sampling was purposive random sampling. The variables which guided the sampling

included science teachers’ characteristics such as: years of experience, training, and sex. The list of senior

secondary schools from where the characteristics of science teachers in the public secondary schools were

derived was collected from the PPB (Post Primary Board) at Asaba. With this list, all the public senior

secondary schools with the characteristics of interest were identified and separated from others. Using balloting,

that is withdrawal with replacement; two senior secondary schools were selected from each of the 25 local

government areas in Delta State.

Instruments

One instrument was used for data collection and it is a behaviour checklist. The science teachers’

classroom behaviour checklist was constructed by the researcher by adapting the characteristics of behaviours

identified by Borich (2004). The instrument was called SCIC (science classroom interaction categories). The

checklist is an observational instrument designed specifically for use in science classrooms in assessing

teachers’ behaviours during teaching (see Appendix 1). Observers using the SCIC are to rate science teachers

on an 8-point scale of Stanford teachers’ competence appraisal guide (see Table 1).

Table 1

An 8-Point Scale of Stanford Teachers’ Competence Appraisal Guide

0 UO (Unable to observe)

4 SJ (Strong)

1 W (Weak)

5 SU (Superior)

2 BA (Below average)

6 OS (Outstanding)

3 A (Average)

7 TE (Truly exceptional)

Note. Source: Trowbridge and Bybee (1996), in teaching secondary school science.

The ratings of all the items are totaled for a cumulative score for each category and for all categories.

The SCIC consists of Sections A and B.

Section A is designed to collected demographic information on sex, years of experience, and certificate

obtained. Section B consists of 28 items which clustered under five categories (lesson clarity, instructional

variety, teachers’ task orientation and engagement in learning process, and students’ success rate).


42

The validity of the instrument was determined by jury of five judges which consisted of three specialists in

science education (biology, chemistry, and physics), one experienced science teacher, and one expert in

measurement and evaluation. They confirmed the ability of the instrument to generate data to answer the

research questions and test the stated hypotheses. After a few corrections based on their comments which the

instrument was used. In fact, they determined the content validity of the instrument.

The reliability of the science teachers’ classroom interaction categories was determined using Cronbach’s

alpha technique. This decision agreed with Wiseman’s (1999) stand and recommendation that when the scoring

of items on a test is not limited to 1 point (for correct) or 0 point (for incorrect) response, Cronbach’s alpha

would be appropriate. To this end, 20 science teachers who were not part of the study were observed with SCIC

and the ratings obtained subjected to Cronbach alpha formula.

The Alpha value obtained for SCIC was 0.78. This value obtained fell in line with the recommendation of

Leedy and Ormrod (2005), Borich (2004), Johnson and Christensen (2000), Wiseman (1999), and Thorndike

and Hagen (1997) that any instrument with a reliability index of 0.7 and above is adjudged as being reliable.

Based on the obtained reliability index for the instrument, it was used for data collection because it was found

to be reliable.

Procedure for Data Collection

The collection of data was done by a team of 11 persons made of the two researchers and nine research

assistants. The research assistants were selected based on their knowledge of the environments of the selected

schools. To this end, three research assistants were selected from each of the senatorial districts.

The first step in the collection of data was the training of the research assistants. This was done by the

researchers and it lasted for just one day. During the training session, the researchers together with the research

assistants went through all the items in the instrument. On the use of the SCIC, the research assistants were

specifically told what to code and where to code. They were told to observe all the science teachers in their

groups from the beginning of the lesson to the end.

To collect the data, copies of the observational instrument were shared among the nine research assistants

based on the projected number of subjects which were selected in the various senatorial districts. During the

observation of the science teachers with the SCIC, one science teacher was observed per day per subject from

the beginning of the lesson to the end. This was done to allow a thorough observation to be made. In all, six

days were spent on data collection with each research assistant spending one day in each school. During the

period of data collection, the researchers moved from one senatorial district to the other and monitored what the

research assistants were doing in the selected schools. This enabled the researchers to solve immediate

problems like uncooperative attitude of science teachers and their students and transport difficulties peculiar

with the various zones.

On the seventh day, all the research assistants and the researchers met to appraise the entire exercise. In

the meeting, the researchers collected all the instruments shared to each of the research assistants. All the

rated checklists were scored and summarized in Tables 3−12 as shown under results to answer the research

questions raised and test the hypothesis stated. The teachers’ characteristics variables categorized under

various levels, were given numerical values for the purpose of differentiation. The values are as shown in

Table 2.


43

Table 2

Teachers’ Characteristics Variables Key by Sex, Certificate, and Years of Experience Category Level

Sex Male: 1

Female: 2

Training (measured by certificate possessed)

NCE: 1

B.Sc.: 2

B.Sc. (Ed.): 3

Years of experience

0–5 years: 1

6–10 years: 2

11 and above: 3

The stated hypotheses were tested with Pearson product moment correlation, students’ t-test and ANOVA

(analysis of variance) statistics.

Results and Discussion

Results

As shown in Table 3, the mean scores on science teachers’ classroom behaviours for every type of

behaviour increased with years of experience. Table 3 shows that science teachers with 11 and above years of

experience had the highest behaviour scores among science teachers with 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and above years of

experience.

Table 3

Descriptive Statistics Comparing Science Teachers With 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and Above Years of Experience on

Classroom Behaviours

Bevahiour N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation

0−5 years of experience

Lesson clarity 75 19.00 9.00 28.00 17.2800 4.92802

Instructional variety 75 22.00 7.00 29.00 17.4667 4.95475

Teachers’ task orientation 75 15.00 11.00 26.00 17.9067 3.96325

Engagement in learning process 75 14.00 5.00 19.00 11.2533 3.66537

Students’ success rate 75 17.00 8.00 25.00 16.600 4.96746

6−10 years of experience

Lesson clarity 46 5.00 22.00 27.00 24.8261 1.67736





11 and above years of experience

Lesson clarity 29 12.00 22.00 34.00 26.8966 3.74495





Table 4 which shows the ANOVA comparison of classroom behaviour scores of science teachers with 0–5,

6–10, and 11 and above years of experience indicates that the calculated F is 256.3843 and is higher than the

critical F of 3.0576. With this result, Ho1 was rejected (F = 256.3843, p < 0.05), because there was a significant

difference in behaviour scores among science teachers with 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and above years of experience.


44

Table 4

ANOVA Summary Table Comparing Teachers With 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and Above Years of Experience on

Classroom Behaviour

Source of variation SS df MS F p-value F-crit.

Between groups 777,408 2 388,704 256.38704 1.18E-48 3.057622

Within groups 222,866.6 147 1,516.099

Total 1000,275 149

Table 5

Correlation Between Years of Experience and Science Teachers’ Classroom Behaviours

1 2 3

1

Pearson correlation 1 0.997** 0.999**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000

N 75 46 29

2

Pearson correlation 0.999** 1 1.000**

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000

N 29 46 29

3

Pearson correlation 0.999** 1.000** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.000 0.000

N 29 29 29

Table 6

Descriptive Statistics Comparing Male & Female Science Teachers on Classroom Behaviours

Bevahiour N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation

Male

Lesson clarity 92 22.00 11.00 33.00 22.0978 6.07654





Female

Lesson clarity 59 24.00 9.00 33.00 20.9153 6.90649





Table 5 which shows the kind of relationship between years of experience and classroom behaviours

indicates that the calculated r of 0.997, 0.999, and 1.000 is higher than the critical r of 0.1946. With this result,

Ho2 was also rejected because there is a significant correlation between years of experience and science

teachers’ classroom behaviours. The calculated r as shown in Table 5 indicates a perfect correlation.

As shown in Table 6, the mean scores on classroom behaviours of male and female science teachers on

each item of the classroom behaviours fell within a close range. Table 6 shows that the male science teachers

outscored the females in four of the items while the female science teachers outscored the males in only one of

the items.


45

Table 7

T-test Comparison of Male and Female Science Teachers on Classroom Behaviours

Mean N Std. deviation df t t-critical two tail at 0.05

Male 97.6087 92 22.667 91 6.7264 1.9863

Female 59.1957 92 48.449

Table 7 which shows the t-test comparison of the male and female science teachers on classroom

behaviours indicates a significant difference between male and female science teachers. As shown in Table 7,

the calculated t of 6.7264 is greater than the critical t of 1.9863. With this result Ho3 was rejected (t = 6.7264, p

< 0.05).

Table 8

Descriptive Statistics Comparing NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. Certificate Holders on Classroom Behaviours

Behaviour N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation

NCE

Lesson clarity 29 18.00 9.00 27.00 19.2759 7.51616 Instructional variety 29 14.00 15.00 29.00 22.8621 5.42299 Teachers’ taskorientation 29 10.00 14.00 24.00 20.0000 3.76070 Engagement in learning process 29 5.00 9.00 14.00 10.3793 1.34732 Students’ success rate 29 19.00 10.00 29.00 18.1724 5.88017

B.Sc. (Ed.)

Lesson clarity 75 16.00 17.00 33.00 25.6000 4.25854 Instructional variety 75 13.00 17.00 30.00 24.4933 4.02483 Teachers’ task orientation 75 13.00 16.00 29.00 24.3867 3.33245 Engagement in learning process 75 17.00 5.00 22.00 13.8533 4.28603 Students’ success rate 75 18.00 13.00 31.00 21.9067 5.09418

B.Sc.

Lesson clarity 46 16.00 12.00 28.00 17.3043 4.94804 Instructional variety 46 18.00 7.00 25.00 15.9130 5.21888 Teachers’ task orientation 46 12.00 11.00 23.00 17.3043 3.52685 Engagement in learning process 46 12.00 12.00 19.00 10.7391 3.75017 Students’ success rate 46 16.00 8.00 24.00 14.6522 5.00763

Table 8 compares the classroom behaviours of science teachers with NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc.

certificates and shows that science teachers with B.Sc. (Ed.) certificate have the highest behaviour scores in all

the items under the classroom behaviours. This is followed by the NCE certificate holders, while the science

teachers with B.Sc. certificate have the least mean scores on classroom behaviours.

Table 9

ANOVA Summary Table Comparing of Science Teachers With NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. Certificate Holders

on Classroom Behaviours

Source of variation Sum of squares df Mean square F F-critical at 0.05 Sum of squares

Between groups 34,585.8 2 17,292.9 53.1972 4.2E-18 3.05762

Within groups 47,785.5 147 325.072

Total 82,371.3 149

Table 9 which shows the ANOVA comparison of science teachers with NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc.


46

certificates on classroom behaviours indicates that the calculated F of 53.1972 is greater than the critical F

value of 3.0576. With this result, Ho4 was rejected (F = 53.1972, p < 0.05).

Table 10

ANOVA Summary Table Comparing Individual Teachers With NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. on Classroom

Behaviours

Sum of squares df Mean square F F-critical at 0.05

NCE Between groups Within groups Total

12,385.707 544.500

12,930.207

27 1

28

458.730 544.500

0.842

2.796 B.Sc. (Ed.) Between groups Within groups Total

6,573.793 800.00

7,373.793

27 1

28

243.474 800.000

0.304

B.Sc. Between groups Within groups Total

9,360.534 24.500

9,385.034

27 1

28

346.686 24.500

14.150*

Note. * Significant at 0.05.

Table 10 which shows the ANOVA comparison of individual classroom behaviours scores within each of

the certificate brackets (NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. (Ed.)) indicates that the calculated F values for NCE,

B.Sc.(Ed.), and B.Sc. when compared the critical F of 2.796 established significant differences only among

teachers with B.Sc.. Among science teachers with NCE and B.Sc. (Ed.) certificates, no significant differences

were found among them on classroom behaviour scores.

To determine the direction of significance as found among NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. certificate

holders as shown in Table 9 and in which Scheefe test is unable to do because of varying number of subjects

in the various groups of certificate holders, t-test is employed to compare paired samples as shown in Table

11.

Table 11 shows significant differences among the three paired samples on classroom behaviour scores

earned and followed this order: NCE vs. B.Sc. (Ed.), B.Sc. (Ed.) earned higher; NCE vs. B.Sc., NCE earned

higher; and B.Sc. (Ed.) vs. B.Sc., B.Sc. (Ed.) earned higher.

Table 11

T-test Comparison of Paired Samples on Classroom Behaviour

Mean N Std. deviation df t t-critical at 0.05

Pair 1 NCE B.Sc. (Ed.)

90.6897 109.2759

29 29

21.48 16.23

28 3.609* 2.048

Pair 2 NCE B.Sc.

90.6897 74.4138

29 29

21.48 18.30

28 3.302* 2.048

Pair 3 B.Sc. (Ed.) B.Sc.

109.3478 75.91

46 46

15.75 19.0

45 8.396* 2.014

Note. * significant at 0.05.

As shown in Table 12, it is on the type of correlation between types of certificates and science teachers’

classroom behaviours, Table 12 shows that the critical r of 0.1946 is greater than the calculated r of -0.063,

0.117, and -0.174 respectively. With this result Ho5 was retained (r, p 0.05). This means that there is no

significant relationship between certificate and classroom behaviour.


47

Table 12

Correlation Between Types of Certificate and Science Teachers’ Classroom Behaviours

NCE B.Sc. (Ed.) B.Sc. Critical value

NCE

Pearson correlation 1 -0.063 0.117

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.744 0.544

N 29 29 29

B.Sc. (Ed.)

Pearson correlation -0.063 1 -0.174

0.1946 Sig. (2-tailed) 0.744 0.248

N 29 75 46

B.Sc.

Pearson correlation 0.117 -0.174 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.544 0.248

N 29 46 46

Discussion

The authors’ experiences from supervision of practical teaching indicate that instructional failure in most

classrooms is not essentially due to the use of inappropriate methods for instruction but to a great extent due to

the exhibition of inappropriate classroom behaviours by teachers. The inappropriate behaviours that exhibited

by teachers are known to influence their quality of instruction which directly affect their students’ learning.

Review of relevant literature in this area of teaching indicates a very serious dearth of well-researched

information in the field. This study is, therefore, very timely and significant in the sense that it will increase the

volume of literature in teachers’ classroom behaviours and particularly how teachers’ characteristics influence

science teachers’ classroom behaviours. The literature at our disposal indicates that the most significant study

on the relationship between science teachers’ characteristics and classroom behaviours was the one carried out

by Druva and Anderson (1983), using the principle of meta-analysis of research. Although the study by Druva

and Anderson (1983) among other teachers’ characteristics correlated teachers’ sex and experience with science

teachers’ classroom behaviours, this study went a step further to correlate the types of professional teaching

certificates possessed by science teachers with their classroom behaviours. The findings of Druva and

Anderson (1983) need to be updated to improve our knowledge of how science teachers’ characteristics

influence teachers’ classroom behaviours in the recent times. That is what we have just done.

One finding of this study shows that science teachers’ classroom behaviours on lesson clarity, instructional

variety, teachers’ task orientation, engagement in learning process, and students’ success rate improved as the

years of experience in teaching increased. This was shown in the significant difference in classroom behaviour

scores found among teachers with 0–5, 6–10, and 11 and above years of experience in Table 4 with teachers

with 11 and above years outscoring all other groups. This finding agreed with the finding of Druva and

Anderson (1983) as reported by Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) that teaching effectiveness is measured by

teacher’s classroom behaviours in related to experience. The lower scores of science teacher with 0–5 years of

experience on classroom behaviours may be explained with their limited familiarity and practice of the

attributes of appropriate classroom behaviours taught them as students. The increase in the teachers’ behaviours

scores over experience may therefore be hinged in the acquisition of the appropriate skills and competencies on

the exhibition of the required classroom behaviours. Ajaja (1998) working on the effect of experience among

students using invention method on students’ achievement, found that the initial low scores of students in the

invention class were due to the unfamiliarity and difficulty of the learning task. Based on this argument, it may


48

be inferred that the advantage enjoyed by the science teachers with 11 and above years over other categories of

teachers in terms of behaviours scores was due to the over-learning of the rules of effective classroom

behaviours which enabled them to overcome the initial setback experienced.

Again, finding of this study indicated a strong correlation between years of experience and classroom

behaviour. The strength of correlation found was a perfect correlation. This implied that the higher the years of

teaching experience the better the exhibition of appropriate science classroom behaviours. This finding agreed

with the report of Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) that teaching effectiveness is positively related to experience.

Still related to this finding are some studies on the effect of teachers’ characteristics on effective teaching

behaviours which found that teachers’ expressive characteristics, such as warmth, enthusiasm, and extroversion

derivable from experiences on the job apparently separate effective from ineffective teachers (Radmacher &

Martin, 2001; Basow, 2000; Best & Addison, 2000).

Another finding of this study as shown in Table 7 indicated a significant difference in classroom

behaviours of science teachers between males and females with males outscoring the females. Although the

finding of Druva and Anderson (1983) as reported by Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) did not report any

significant difference in classroom behaviour between male and female science teachers, their finding that

student achievement is positively related to teacher characteristics of masculinity which tends to suggest that

the exhibition of the effective classroom behaviours that the exhibition of the effective classroom behaviours to

bring about effective learning by students may to some extent be hinged on the ability of the science teachers to

exhibit masculine characteristics. This position tends to agree with the earlier impression by Kelly (1985) and

Harding (1996) that science is dehumanized and that it is masculine in nature. Continuingly, Head and

Ramsden (1990) noted that female scientists were likely to be realistic decision-makers who preferred to focus

on facts which were organized and dependable like most men. The significant higher classroom behaviour

scores of male teachers over the females may be explained with the direct comparison of the sample sizes of the

male and female science teachers used in this study. The sample size of the male science teachers was 92 as

against 59 of the females. The sample size of the male science teachers already portrayed the males as more

inclined to science than the females. The more inclination of males to science has been reported by Linver,

Davis-Kean, and Eccles (2002), Bennett (2003), and Chang and Yuan (2008). This inclination of more males to

science than females may be responsible for the higher classroom behaviour scores of male science teachers

than females in science classrooms. The varying number of male and female students studying science has been

hinged on assigned sex roles by the society.

On how the types of certificates possessed by science teachers influence their classroom behaviours, a

significant difference was found among NCE, B.Sc. (Ed.), and B.Sc. certificate holders as shown in Table 9.

Science teachers with B.Sc. (Ed.) certificate outscored both the NCE and B.Sc. certificate holders. The t-test

comparison of paired samples showed the direction of significance among the groups and established a trend in

the exhibition of classroom behaviours. Teachers with B.Sc. (Ed.) outscored NCE and B.Sc. certificate holders,

while NCE certificate holders outscored B.Sc. certificate holders. The noticed significant influence of the type

of certificates on teachers’ classroom behaviours agreed with the finding of Druva and Anderson (1983) as

reported by Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) that teachers’ classroom behaviour is positively related to training.

The noticed significantly higher behaviour scores by science teachers with B.Sc. (Ed.) over those with NCE

and B.Sc. certificates may be due to the fact that they took more teaching method courses than the NCE and

B.Sc. certificate holders. It will take NCE certificates holders three academic sessions to obtain B.Sc. while


49

B.Sc. certificate holders have not taken any course on teaching method. They have no knowledge of teaching

methods.

One striking finding emerged from this study as shown in Table 10 justifying the need for the acquisition

of teaching methods for the exhibition of appropriate classroom behaviours. Table 10 shows that individual

teachers with NCE and B.Sc. (Ed.) did not have significant differences among themselves in the exhibition of

classroom behaviours. This development maybe explained the fact that the individual science teachers with

NCE and B.Sc. (Ed.) certificates had similar skills and competencies in teaching methods appropriate for their

programmes and so exhibited similar range of behaviours appropriate for their programmes. However, B.Sc.

certificate holders, who took no courses in teaching methods, were significantly varied in their behaviour scores.

The noticed significant variability among the B.Sc. certificate holders may be due to the lack of the knowledge

and observation of the basic rules which required in instructional presentation. This may have resulted in the

greatly varied classroom behaviours among them.

On correlation between the types of certificate possessed by science teachers and classroom behaviour, no

significant relationship was found. This again agrees with the finding of Druva and Anderson (1983) as

reported by Trowbridge and Bybee (1996). Druva and Anderson (1983) did not report any correlation between

certificate possessed by science teachers and teachers’ classroom behaviour, but they reported a positive

relationship between a number of educational courses taken and classroom behaviours. This implies that the

certificate types which on their own do not significantly influence classroom behaviour but the varying course

contents taken before the certificates are awarded to determine the nature of classroom behaviours exhibited.

Conclusion

All the key behaviours investigated in this study are very important and essential for effective teaching and

learning of science. After a very long break, this study has reawaken an almost forgotten field of

studyteachers’ characteristics and classroom behaviours. The five key behaviours: lesson clarity,

instructional variety, teachers’ task orientation, students’ engagement, and success rate, are skeleton for the

effective teacher to wear to enable him to teach effectively. Based on the findings on this study, the following

conclusions are drawn:

(1) Since the finding of this study indicates a perfect correlation between teaching experience and

exhibition of appropriate classroom behaviour, it is concluded that the training of teachers which emphasizes a

very long period of training on classroom behaviour would enhance appropriate exhibition of classroom

behaviours on graduation;

(2) Since more male science teachers than the females are in the field and they exhibit higher classroom

behaviours, it is concluded that encouraging more females to study science will increase female science

teachers and this will help to reduce the variation in classroom behaviours among teachers;

(3) Since the study found that science teachers with teaching qualifications (NCE and B.Sc. (Ed.))

outscored those without teaching qualification (B.Sc.), it is concluded that the educational courses on teaching

methods significantly influence teachers’ classroom behaviours. It, therefore, implies that only professionally

trained teachers should be employed to teach in schools for students to learn well.

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Appendix 1

SCIC (Science classroom interaction) The research work which calls for this checklist is purely academic in purpose and it is aimed at finding out classroom

behaviours of science teachers to improve instruction in science subjects.

Instructions to observers Fill in the spaces provided by writing. During the lesson, score each of the items under the various categories based on how the behaviour was exhibited using the

following values: 7 to “Truly exception (TE)”, 6 to “Outstanding (OS)”, 5 to “Superior (SU)”, 4 to “Strong (ST)”, 3 to “Average (A)”, 2 to “Below average (BA)”, 1 to “Weak (W)”, and 0 to “Unable to observe (UO)”.

Using the following scale (ties are allowed). If the behaviour was the most dominant one, under each category mark 4. If the behaviour was quite frequent, mark 3. If the behaviour was infrequent, mark 2. If the behaviour did not occur, mark 1. Fill in the sheet without consulting anyone, and hand it immediately to the researchers. Thanks for your cooperation. Personal data Name of school: …………………………………………………………… Sex of teacher: …………………………………………………………….. Qualification: …………………………………………………………...... Years of experience: …………………………………………………….. Subject taught: ……………………………………………………………


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Behaviour category

Lesson clarity (being clear) Checkmark rating

Frequency rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

1 Informs learners of the lesson objective (e.g., describes what behaviours will be tested or required on future assignments as a result of the lesson).

2 Provides learners with an advance organizer (e.g., places lesson in perspective of past and/or future lessons).

3 Checks for task-relevant prior learning at beginning of the lesson (e.g., determines level of understanding of prerequisites facts or concepts and reteaches, if necessary).

4 Give directives slowly and distinctly (e.g., repeats directives whenneeded or divides them into smaller pieces).

5 Knows ability levels and teaches at or slightly above learners’ current level of understanding (e.g., knows learner’s attention spans).

6 Uses examples, illustrations, and demonstrations to explain and clarify (e.g., uses visuals to help interpret and reinforce main points).

7 Provides review or summary at end of each lesson.

Instructional variety (using variety) Checkmark rating

Frequency rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

1 Uses attention-gaining devices (e.g., begins with a challenging question, visual, or example).

2 Shows enthusiasm and animation through variation in eye contact, voice, and gestures (e.g., changes pitch and volume, moves about during transitions to new activity).

3 Varies mode of presentation (e.g., presents/asks questions, then provides for independent practice (daily)).

4 Uses a mix of rewards and reinforcers (e.g., extra credit, verbal praise, independent study, etc. (weekly, monthly)).

5 Incorporates student ideas or participation in some aspects of the instruction (e.g., uses indirect instruction or divergent questioning (weekly, monthly)).

6 Varies types of questions (e.g., divergent, convergent, (weekly)) and probes (e.g., to clarify to solicit, to redirect (daily)).

Teachers’ task orientation (being task oriented) Checkmark rating

Frequency rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

1 Develops unit and lesson plans that reflect the most relevant features of the curriculum guide or adopted text (e.g., each unit and lesson objective can be referenced back to curriculum guide or text).

2

Handles administrative and clerical interruptions efficiently (e.g., visitors, announcements, collection of money, dispensing materials, and supplies) by anticipating and pre-organizing some tasks and deferring others non-instructional time.

3 Stops or prevents misbehaviour with a minimum or class disruption (e.g., has pre-established academic and work rules to “protect” intrusions into instructional time).

4

Selects the most appropriate instructional model for the objectives being taught (e.g., primarily uses direct instruction for knowledge and comprehension objectives and indirect instruction for inquiry and problem-solving objectives).

5 Builds to unit outcomes with clearly definable events (e.g., weekly and monthly review, feedback, and testing sessions).


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(Table continued)

Engagement in the learning process (engaging students effectively) Checkmark rating

Frequency rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

1 Elicits the desired behaviour immediately after the instructional stimuli (e.g., provides exercises or workbook problems with which the desired behaviour can be practiced).

2 Provides opportunities for feedback in a nonevaluative atmosphere (e.g., asks students to respond as a group or covertly the first time through).

3 Uses individual and group activities (e.g., performance contracts, CD-ROMs, games and simulations, and learning centers as motivation aids) when needed.

4 Uses meaningful verbal praise to get and keep students actively participating in the learning process.

5 Monitors seatwork and frequently checks progress during independent practice.

Student success rate (moderate-to-high rates of success) Checkmark rating

Frequency rating

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4

1 Establishes unit and lesson content that reflects prior learning (e.g., planning lesson sequences that consider task-relevant prior information).

2 Administers corrective measures immediately after initial response (e.g., shows model of correct answer and how to attain it after first crude response is given).

3 Divides instructional stimuli into small chunks (e.g., establishes bite-size lessons that can be easily digested by learners at their current level of functioning).

4 Plans transitions to new material in easy to grasp steps (e.g., changes instructional stimuli according to pre established thematic pattern so that each new lesson is seen as an extension of previous lessons).

5 Varies the pace at which stimuli are presented and continually builds toward a climax or key event.

Note. Designed by the two authors adapting key behaviour characteristics identified by Borich (2004) in “Effective teaching methods” (5th ed.), using Stanford Teacher Competence Appraisal Guide Scale in Trowbridge and Bybee’s (1996) “Teaching secondary school sciences: Strategies for developing scientific literacy”.


AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) and

Stigmatization in Nigeria: The Counseling Perspective

Anyanwu Joy I., Obidoa Marbel A., Onuigbo Liziana

University of Nigeria, Nuskka, Nigeria

Nigeria is struggling to attain her millennium development goal of reversing the incidence rate of AIDS (acquired

immune deficiency syndrome). In spite of antiviral drugs, people still die earlier than expected for reasons, such as

stigmatization and unmet social and psycho-emotional needs. This paper investigated the extent of stigmatization

on patients in hospitals and assessed their psychological reactions and counseling needs. The authors used

descriptive survey and researcher-made tested and validated questionnaire on a random sample of 1,000 health

workers and counselors. Mean and SD (standard deviation) were used to answer four research questions and t-test

was used to test the null hypothesis. Results show that the attitude of health workers and counselors differed

significantly on the issue of isolating patients in separate rooms and not being allowed to work in hospitals.

Psychological reactions to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) positive diagnosis include shock, distress,

depression, withdrawal, and aggressiveness which counseling needs were identified for patients and their families.

Recommendations include more use of counseling services in health institutions and exposing student counselors to

a hospital practicum in preparation for services in hospitals.

Keywords: AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome), stigmatization, health workers, counselors

psychological reaction, counseling needs, isolation

Introduction

The HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) and AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) epidemic is

one of the greatest challenges facing humanity and human development globally in recent times. AIDS,

according to Siliciano (2009), is a transmissible disease of the immune system caused by the HIV. HIV is a

lentivirus otherwise known as “slow virus”a member of the retrovirus family that slowly attacks and destroys

the immune system. The main cellular target of HIV is a special class of white blood cells critical to the

immune system known as helper T lymphocytes, or helper T cells (also referred to as CD4+ T cells due to the

presence of a protein called CD4 on their surfaces). Helper T cells play a central role in normal immune

responses by producing factors that activate virtually all the other immune system cells, such as the B

lymphocytes (which produce antibodies needed to fight infection), cytotoxic T lymphocytes (which kill cells

infected with a virus), macrophages, and other effector cells (which attack invading pathogens). When CD4+ T

cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost and the body becomes progressively

Anyanwu Joy I., Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria. Obidoa Marbel A., Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria. Onuigbo Liziana, Ph.D., Department of Educational Foundations, University of Nigeria.

DAVID PUBLISHING

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AIDS AND STIGMATIZATION IN NIGERIA: THE COUNSELING PERSPECTIVE

55

more susceptible to opportunistic infections. When treatment is not given at this stage, Migueles and Conors

(2010) stated that people infected with HIV eventually develop AIDS which is the final stage of HIV

infectiona stage that leaves the individual susceptible to fatal infections and cancers. These individuals that

Lawn (2004) reported mostly die from opportunistic infections or malignancies associated with the progressive

failure of the immune system.

The origin of HIV, according to Siliciano (2009), is not clearly known. However, a lentivirus that is

genetically similar to HIV known as SIV (simian immunodeficiency virus) was reportedly found in

chimpanzees in western equatorial Africa (although this virus does not readily cause disease in chimpanzees).

AIDS, however, is a zoonosis, an infection that is shared by humans and lower vertebrate animals and it is

believed that the practice of hunting, butchering, and eating the meat of chimpanzees may have allowed

transmission of the virus to humans, probably in the first half of the 20th century. There are four major routes

of inter-human transmission which include unsafe sex, contaminated needles, breast milk, and transmission

from an infected mother to her baby at birth otherwise known as vertical transmission.

HIV infection in humans is considered pandemic by the WHO (World Health Organization). Reports from

Salomon and Murray (2001) indicated that HIV/AIDS is identified as a disease about 25 years ago and within

this period, millions of people have died throughout the world. Sub-Saharan Africa remains the hardest hit with

more than 22 million peopleabout 67% of the worldwide population of people living with HIV/AIDS

according to the United Nations Joint Program on HIV/AIDS (UNAID, 2009).

In Nigeria, the first case of AIDS was identified in 1986 and its prevalence rose from 1.8% in 1988 to 5.8%

in 1991. The epidemiological survey of 2003 showed that an estimate of 3,300,000 adults was living with

HIV/AIDS in Nigeria and 57% of these were women (Avert, 2007). The prevalent rates among the young

people between the ages of 20 and 24 were 5.6%. In Enugu state, the HIV prevalence has been fluctuation from

1.3 in 1991 to 5.8 in 2008 making Enugu state the 12th in the country and the highest in southeastern states of

Nigeria. Out of the population of 3,267,837 in Enugu state, the people ranged 15−49 years old who are young

and sexually active constitute about 52% of the population and the worst affected by HIV/AIDS. On the whole,

the population of people living with HIV in the state is about 100,000 out of which 19,000 of them require

ART (antiretroviral treatment) (Ani, 2010).

The impact of AIDS in Nigeria’s population cannot be overstated. This disease limits individuals, families,

communities, and national goals and aspirations. In a study on the impact of HIV/AIDS on households in two

states in Nigeria by Canning, Mahal, Odumosu, and Okonkwo (2006), it was discovered that families with one

or more HIV-positive members had a greater financial burden due to the inevitable spending on the health of

their members and an equally greater income loss which may be as a result of abandoning their source of

income to care for their members in the hospital or other places of treatment. Besides loss of children,

caregivers’ and financial burdens, PLWA (people living with HIV/AIDS) face many forms of stigma and

discrimination. In addition to experiencing unfair treatment in their families, communities, and places of work,

PLWA may encounter discrimination from health-care professionals which can interfere with effective

treatment. Reis et al.’s (2005) Physicians for Human Rights, in collaboration with researchers from Policy

ProjectNigeria and the Center for the Right to Health (also in Nigeria), investigated stigmatization by health

professionals in Nigeria. Trained interviewers conducted a cross-sectional survey of 1,021 Nigerian health-care

professionals (324 physicians, 541 nurses, 133 midwives, and 23 health-care workers of unknown profession)

in 111 health-care facilities in four of Nigeria’s 36 states. Fifty-four percent of them worked in public tertiary


56

care facilities. The result showed that 9% of professionals reported refusing to care for a patient with

HIV/AIDS, and 9% said they had refused a patient with HIV/AIDS admission to a hospital. Fifty-nine percent

agreed that PLWA should be on a separate ward. Ninety-one percent agreed that staff should be informed when

a patient was HIV-positive in order to protect themselves. Forty percent believed health-care professionals with

HIV/AIDS should not be allowed to work in any area of health-care requiring patient contact. Twenty percent

agreed that many with HIV/AIDS had behaved immorally and deserved their infection. Eight percent felt that

treating someone with HIV/AIDS was a waste of resources. The researchers concluded that, while most

health-care professionals surveyed reported being in compliance with their ethical obligations, discriminatory

behavior, and attitudes towards patients with HIV/AIDS existed among a significant proportion. Inadequate

education about HIV/AIDS and a lack of protective and treatment materials appear to favor these practices and

attitudes.

Such stigmatization and subsequent discrimination against people living with HIV/AIDS definitely

affect the entire well-being of all family members (both infected and affected) and may lead to the

disintegration of the family. Infected families are those that have a member living with HIV/AIDS while the

affected family is one that has blood relationship with the affected family. On the part of the patient,

Chippindale and French (2001) stated that when patients know that they have HIV infection or disease, they

may suffer great psychosocial and psychological stresses. Such psychological stresses or reactions include

shock concerning the diagnosis, recognition of the fact that the individual may die and loss of hope for the

future. There is also the fear of reaction from their partner(s), family members, and health-care officials,

rejection, abandonment, and social/sexual rejection among others. The effect of medication and treatment

and the possibility that the treatment may fail are all sources of fear. The overall consequence of shock and

fear is depression over having to live in social isolation with a disease that has no definite cure and adjusting

to living with a chronic viral infection. Anger and frustration over becoming infected and incorporating

demanding drug regimens with possible side effects in their daily life are part of the psychological reactions

of diagnosed HIV/AIDS patients.

Because of the magnitude and impact of the disease in sub-Saharan Africa, the governments of this region

have tried to fight the disease in a variety of ways among which is the provision of antiretroviral drugs. In

Nigeria, this project is carried out by the APIN (AIDS prevention initiative) in partnership with government

agencies, universities, and nongovernmental organizations to reduce the rate of growth of Nigeria’s HIV

epidemic and ultimately reverse its course. APIN is implementing prevention strategies incorporating

significant training and capacity building into all prevention efforts, including public education through the

mass media, various schools, and NGOS (non-governmental organizations). In addition, the United States

PEPFAR (presidents emergency plan for AIDS relief) expanded the Antiretroviral Therapy Programs for

HIV-infected people in Nigeria, Botswana, and Tanzania in 2004. The Nigerian portion of the program—called

“APIN Plus”—is now bolstering the Nation’s Antiretroviral Program. Current treatment for HIV infection,

according to the Department of Health and Human Services (2005), consists of HAART (highly active

antiretroviral therapy). This has been highly beneficial to many HIV-infected individuals since its introduction

in 1996, when the protease inhibitor-based HAART initially became available (Palella et al., 1998). Tenofovir

is another antiretroviral drug contained in a micro-bicide gel reputed to help protect women who cannot

negotiate safe sex with their partners against HIV infection. This drug containing gel if properly and regularly

used will afford up to 40% protection to about 80% of women who use it. This is hoped to ultimately afford


57

many women in developing countries in particular the opportunity to protect themselves from getting

HIV/AIDS (Ogundipe, 2010). In line with this, many African countries have found education to be the best

defense against the disease. In Nigeria, songs about the disease, nationally distributed posters, and public

awareness campaigns all have helped to stem the spread of AIDS. Public awareness campaigns by health

institutions who equally distribute condoms as a means of curbing the rate of transmission are also utilized. The

great question is what happens to those who are psychologically and socially traumatized as a result of being

found HIV positive.

Counseling in HIV and AIDS has become a core element in a holistic model of health-care, in which

psychological issues are recognized as integral to patient management according to Morgan in Chippindale and

French (2001). HIV and AIDS counseling has two general aims, namely: the prevention of HIV transmission

and the support of those affected directly and indirectly by HIV (the patients and their families). For the

purposes of this study, the support of those affected directly and indirectly by HIV is the focus. This may be

achieved through individual and family counseling to prevent and reduce psychological morbidity associated

with HIV infection and disease and enable them to live a socially useful life. One to one or individual

counseling has a particular contribution in that it enables frank discussion of sensitive aspects of a patient’s life

be hampered in other settings by the patient’s concern for confidentiality or anxiety about a judgmental

response.

The Problem

HIV/AIDS is real all over the world and in Nigeria in particular. Due to the increased rate of infection and

the concern the pandemic has generated, many strategies have been adopted to educate people on the disease

prevention and maintenance. Besides, a lot of antiretroviral drugs and gels have been manufactured and in use

for HIV/AIDS patients which is expected to help them to live with the disease over time. It is known that with

appropriate treatment, people living with HIV/AIDS may live up to 10 and above years but personal experience

has shown that many patients die within a year or two. This may be due to the social stigma which from

literature is practiced by people including medical personnel that are supposed to care for and administer the

various drugs to them with the resultant depression, isolation, and loss of hope that the patients’ may

experience. This study is instituted to investigate the extent of stigmatization of people living with HIV/AIDS

by medical personnel and professional counselors in two southeastern states of Nigeria, what are the patients’

counseling needs and what are the counseling needs of their families?

The Purpose of Study

The purpose of the study is therefore to investigate the extent of stigmatization of people living with

HIV/AIDS, their psychological reactions to the diagnosis, and the patients’ and their families’ counseling

needs.

Significance

The study will be beneficial to people living with HIV/AIDS, since it will enable them to receive

assistance from professional counselors in coping with psychological reaction of diagnosis, relaying the

information to family members, getting information on treatment venues, and supporting groups among others.

Besides, policy-makers will benefit as they will be sensitized on the need to make policies that will facilitate

professional counseling services in various government-owned hospitals as well as reaching many more

secondary schools.


58

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Questions The following research questions guided the study:

(1) What are the psychological reactions of patients to HIV/AIDS diagnosis?

(2) What is the attitude of health workers and counselors towards PLWA?

(3) What are the counseling needs of the patients?

(4) What are the counseling needs of the patients’ family?

Hypotheses

The hypotheses are as follows:

Ho1: Attitude of health workers and counselors towards PLWA will not differ significantly based on

location (states);

Ho2: Attitude of health workers towards PLWA will not differ significantly from that of the counselors

(profession).

Method

Design

The study adopted a descriptive survey design to investigate the extent of stigmatization of PLWA and

their counseling needs to alleviate their psychological problems.

Setting

The study was done in the southeastern geopolitical zone of Nigeria with particular reference to Ebonyi

and Enugu states.

Population and Sample

The population of the study is all health workers in four government hospitals from the two states and all

the schools with guidance counselors from which a sample of 1,000 respondents were randomly selected for the

study. This consists of 500 medical personnel (300 nurses and 200 nurse aids) and 200 AIDS patients from four

hospitals from the two states and 300 professional counselors also from the two states.

Instrument for Data Collection

Instrument for data collection is a QHIV/AIDS (questionnaire on HIV/AIDS). It is a 4-point scale

instrument with two sections: Section A requires the demographic data of the respondents, while Section B has

four clusters with items on reaction of patients to HIV/AIDS diagnosis, attitude of health workers and

counselors towards PLWA, and counseling needs of the patients and the patients’ families. The instrument was

face validated and subjected to trial testing. The analysis of the trial tested instrument yielded a reliability

coefficient of 0.71 using Chrombach alpha.

Method of Data Analysis

Mean and SD (standard deviation) scores were used for the analysis to answer the research questions. A

mean score above 2.50 indicated stigmatization, while scores below 2.50 indicated no stigmatization. The t-test

statistic was used to test the null hypotheses at significance level of 0.05. Four research questions were

answered and two null hypotheses were tested.

Results

Question 1

Research question 1: What are the psychological reactions of patients with HIV/AIDS on diagnosis?


59

Table 1

Mean Responses of Psychological Reaction of Patients on HIV/AIDS Diagnosis

S/N Item X SD Dec.

1 Distress 3.27 0.78 Accept

2 Shock 3.00 1.00 Accept

3 Depression 3.31 0.65 Accept

4 Suicide attempt 2.28 0.74 Reject

5 Withdrawal from social activity 2.89 0.82 Accept

6 Aggression towards people 2.58 0.71 Accept

From Table 1, patients diagnosed with HIV/AIDs express all the psychological reactions listed except

suicide attempt.

Question 2

Research question 2: What is the attitude of the health workers towards people living with HIV/AIDS?

Table 2

Mean Responses on the Attitude of Health Workers Towards People Living With HIV/AIDS

S/N Item X SD Dec.

7 They should not be admitted into the hospital 1.94 1.11 Reject

8 They should be quarantined in a separate room 2.61 1.09 Accept

9 They should not be allowed to work in hospitals 2.59 1.15 Accept

10 It is not safe to care for HIV patients 1.79 0.85 Reject

11 Treating them is a waste of resources 1.46 0.72 Reject

12 They deserve what they got so I will not care for them 1.29 0.61 Reject

13 There are no drugs to care for them 1.46 0.66 Reject

14 No protective measure is provided for their care 1.51 0.82 Reject

From Table 2, all the items were rejected except items 8 and 9. In effect, health workers accept that

patients should not only be confined in separate rooms but also not allowed to work in hospitals.

Question 3

Research question 3: What are the counseling needs of patients?

Table 3

Mean Responses on the Counseling Needs of Patients

S/N Item X SD Dec.

15 Help clients adjust to the shock of diagnosis 2.99 1.02 Accept

16 Decide who to tell 3.14 0.71 Accept

17 Give support in disclosing HIV status 3.02 0.77 Accept

18 Safer sex practices (using condom) 3.32 0.83 Accept

19 Get information on clinics for free treatment 3.50 0.65 Accept

20 Strict adherence to antiretroviral drug use 3.42 0.81 Accept

21 Participation in group counseling with other patients 3.52 0.60 Accept

From Table 3, respondents accept that patients need counseling help in all the items listed.

Ho1

Ho1: Attitude of health workers and counselors towards PLWA will not differ significantly.


60

Table 4

T-test Analysis on Significant Difference in the Attitude of Health Workers and Counselors Towards PLWA Item Profession X SD t-cal. t-crit. Dec.

They should not be admitted into the hospital Health worker Counselor

1.81 2.21

1.11 1.03

-4.38 1.96 Not sig.

They should be quarantined in a separate room Health worker Counselor

2.92 1.99

1.07 0.79

12.12 1.96 Sig.

They should not be allowed to work in hospitals Health worker Counselor

2.67 2.41

1.19 1.05

2.81 1.96 Sig.

It is not safe to care for HIV patients Health worker Counselor

1.60 2.17

0.80 0.83

-7.98 1.96 Not sig.

Treating them is a waste of resources Health worker Counselor

1.33 1.72

0.56 0.91

-5.55 1.96 Not sig.

They deserve what they got so I will not care for themHealth worker Counselor

1.15 1.57

0.36 0.86

-6.59 1.96 Not sig.

There are no drugs to care for them Health worker Counselor

1.39 1.61

0.57 0.78

-3.51 1.96 Not sig.

No protective measure is provided for their care Health worker Counselor

1.40 1.74

0.74 0.94

-4.39 1.96 Not sig.

From Table 4, health workers differ significantly from counselors in their attitudes towards PLWA on the

issue of their being quarantined in a separate room and their not being allowed to work in hospitals.

Findings and Discussion

The result of the analysis shows that patients diagnosed with HIV/AIDs express psychological reactions,

such as shock, distress which leads to depression, withdrawal from social activities and aggressiveness towards

people. This finding corroborates Chippindale and French’s (2001) statement that when patients know that they

have HIV infection or disease, they may suffer great psychological stresses or reactions which include shock

concerning the diagnosis, fear of reaction from their partner(s), family members and health-care officials,

rejection, abandonment, and social/sexual rejection among others.

It, therefore, becomes necessary for a professional counselor to intervene in helping the client adjust to the

fact that there is a problem to which solution must be found. Such solutions include helping the client decide

who to tell of the problem, assisting in relaying the information to the client’s chosen confidant, collecting and

disseminating information to the client and relations on HIV/AIDS management clinics, consultation days and

the need to adhere strictly and religiously to medication.

This was agreed to by all the respondents who accept that patients need counseling help to adjust to the

shock of diagnosis, decide who to tell and tell the person they feel will receive the news less harshly, get

information about clinic for treatment and participation in group counseling among others. So far, the issue of

enabling the clients to adjust and information on clinics and their days of consultation is being handled by

nurses in the various clinics without recourse to the reactions from and home environmental factors that may

impinge on the clients’ self-management on disclosure of HIV/AIDS status to relations.

On attitude towards PLWA, health workers accept that patients should be not only confined in separate

rooms but also not allowed to work in hospitals. This is in consonance with the findings of Vincent Iacopino

and colleagues from the organization Physicians for Human Rights, in collaboration with researchers from the

Center for the Right to Health and Policy ProjectNigeria. They investigated stigmatization by health

professionals in Nigeria. The researchers concluded from their findings that, while most health-care

professionals surveyed reported being in compliance with their ethical obligations, discriminatory behavior and


61

attitudes towards patients with HIV/AIDS existed among a significant proportion. Inadequate education about

HIV/AIDS and a lack of protective and treatment materials appear to favor these practices and attitudes. This

may also account for the significant difference in the opinion of health workers from the two states on issue of

patients not being admitted into hospitals, the safety of caring for HIV patients, and lack of protective measures

for their care.

Attitude towards PLWA of health workers differed significantly from the counselors’ on the issue of

isolating patients in a separate room and their not being allowed to work in hospitals. This confirms report from

studies that in spite of the fact that some health workers adhere to professional ethics, stigmatization of

HIV/AIDS patients exist among them. This is also accounted for by the fact that some hospitals do not provide

safety measures which may include gloves, masks, and disinfectants among others.

Recommendation

Professional counselors should be posted to hospitals to handle the psychological problems of clients.

Besides, hospitals should provide safety materials for working with PLWA, such as gloves and masks among

others. Counselors in training should be equipped to work effectively in hospitals by sending them there for

their practicum.

References AIDS. (2009). Encyclopedia Britannica. In Encyclopedia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition. Chicago: Encyclopedia

Britannica. Ani, C. C. (2010). Universal access and human rights. A paper presented on The Occasion of 2010 World Aids Day

Commemoration, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Enugu State. Avert, O. (2007). The impact of HIV & AIDS on Africa. Retrieved June 1, 2007, from http://www.theimpactofhiv/aidsonafrica,

htm/files:/C: Canning, D., Mahal, A., Odumosu, K., & Okonkwo, P. (2006). Assessing the economic impact of HIV/AIDS on Nigerian

households: A propensity score matching approach, program of the global demography of aging. Havard Initiative for Global Health PGDA (Working paper, series No. 16).

Chippindale, S., & French, L. (2001). HIV counselling and the psychosocial management of patients with HIV or AIDS in ABC of AIDS (5th ed.). Retrieved November 25, 2001, from http://www.bmjbooks.com/

Department of Health and Human Services. (January 2005). A pocket guide to adult HIV/AIDS treatment. Retrieved January 17, 2006, from http://www.hab.hrsa.gov/tools/HIVpocketguide05/PktGARTtables.htm

Lawn, S. D. (2004). AIDS in Africa: The impact of coinfections on the pathogenesis of HIV-1 infection. J. Infect. Dis., 48(1), 1-12. Migueles, S., & Connors, M. (2010). Long-term nonprogressive disease among untreated HIV-infected individuals: Clinical implications

of understanding immune control of HIV. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 304(2), 194-201. Obidoa, C. A. (2010). HIV/AIDS in young people in Nigeria: The role of counselors in reversing the epidemic. In M. A. Obidua,

& I. C. S. Ifelumni (Eds.), Counseling youths in contemporary Nigeria. Nsukka: Chuka Educational Publishers. Ogundipe, S. (2010). African women have high hopes in new anti-HIV gel. Retrieved November 22, 2010, from

http://www.allAfrica.com Palella, F. J. Jr., Delaney, K. M., Moorman, A. C., Loveless, M. O., Fuhrer, J., Satten, G. A., … Holmberg, S. D. (1998).

Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodeficiency virus infection: HIV outpatient study investigators. N. Engl. J. Med., 338(13), 853-860.

Reis, C., Heisler, M., Amowitz, L. L., Moreland, R. S., Mafeni, J. O., Anyamele, C., & Iacopino, V. (2005). Discriminatory attitudes and practices by health workers toward patients with HIV/AIDS in Nigeria. PLoS Med., 2(8), e261.

Salomo, J. A., & Murray, J. L. (2001). Modeling HIV/AIDS epidemics in Sub-Sahara Africa using seroprevalence data from antenatal clinics. Bulletin of WHO, 79, 596-606.

Siliciano, R. (2009). AIDS (Encyclopedia Britannica 2009 Student and Home Edition). Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica. UNAIDS (United Nations Joint Program on HIV/AIDS). (2005). AIDS epidemic update. Retrieved February 28, 2006, from

http://www.unaids.org/epi/2005/doc/EPIupdate2005_pdf_en/epi-update2005_en.pdf UNAIDS (United Nations Joint Program on HIV/AIDS). (2009). 2009 AIDS epidemic update. Geneva: UNAIDS.


Shelter-Based Community Libraries: In Search of Alternative

Livelihoods for Pavement Dwellers in Dhaka City

Md. Nasiruddin

University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi, Bangladesh

Each night, around 20,000 peopleboth adults and childrenmake the streets of Dhaka (the capital city of

Bangladesh) their home. Living amongst the noise, rubbish, and traffic, thousands of families walk down the streets

of Dhaka, looking for a safe place to rest for just a few hours each night. Trapped in a vicious cycle of poverty, the

pavement dwellers are amongst the most vulnerable people in Bangladesh. Pavement dwellers can be found in ferry

landings, train stations, bus stations, market centers, religious shrines, parks, and on footpaths. There are very few

organizations which are serving for them. CWW (Concern Worldwide) (one of the International Non-government

Organizations) and DCC (Dhaka City Corporation) have jointly come forward to support 10,000 pavement dwellers

through dedicated pavement dweller centres, providing them with the opportunity to make their own choices for a

better future. It will also establish sustainable services for providing basic functional education for 900

children/youth and 400 adults, psychosocial counseling for 600 children and 150 adults, market-based vocational

skills training for 450 children/youth and adults, entrepreneurial skills training for 400 children/youth, and life

skills education for 800 children/youth. With a view to this, the project decided to set up libraries based on their

shelter centres. The project realizes that as of today in Bangladesh, the poorest communities do not have access to a

library. This damages educational outcomes for many. The author has been appointed as a library consultant in that

project. It is an amazing experience that based on the demand of the pavement dwellers, the author had to collect

the resources and different audio-visual aids. At the beginning, the author had to face tremendous challenges to get

their attention because most of the children of the pavement dwellers did not feel interest to any attractive reading

books or illustrative collections. They were very much fond of watching movie, cinema, drama, cartoon, Hindi film,

action film, and so on. To attract them on library resources, the author has prepared and presented different video

documentaries on how river erosion affected children encouraged to read and go to school, how children sex

workers become curious to create reading habit which leads them to go to school. For motivating youth pavement

dwellers achieving social skills on different professions (like barber, carpenter, shopkeeper, hawker, micro-investor,

cooperatives, maid-labour, day-labour, rickshaw-puller, van-driver, etc.), short video documentaries have been

made and presented on different IGAs (income generating activities). Thus, libraries have turned into integral part

in the lives of the pavement dwellers. The basic aim of the paper is to share the ideas on how a considerable number

of children pavement dwellers have been admitted in government and public schools during the last couple of years

by the help of the library services. This will reveal how the youth pavement dwellers’ capacity has been increased

through training and library services. It will also explain a good progress in enabling better access for pavement

dwellers and their children to basic services in education, health and legal aid through library and information

Md. Nasiruddin, Ph.D., associate professor, Department of Information Science and Library Management, University of

Rajshahi.

DAVID PUBLISHING

D

SHELTER-BASED COMMUNITY LIBRARIES, PAVEMENT DWELLERS, DHAKA CITY

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services. Some interesting case studies will also be discussed in this paper.

Keywords: shelter-based libraries, pavement dwellers, community libraries, Dhaka City

Introduction

Ever since it is founded, Bangladesh has been known as one of the world’s poorest countries. The poverty

rate has fallen from an estimated 74% in 1973−1974 to 40% till 2011 (Yunus, 2009). Since the independence of

Bangladesh, there are many government and non-government organizations working for poverty alleviation in

different ways but the shelter-based community library is a concept of CWW (Concern Worldwide) (one of the

International Non-government Organizations) and DCC (Dhaka City Corporation) as they wanted to support

10,000 pavement dwellers providing them with the opportunity to make their own choices for a better future.

There is no doubt about the fact that development is a product of education and education is a process through

which people are formally and informally trained to acquire knowledge and skills. So, the roles of libraries and

librarians in the concept of poverty alleviation and capacity building of the people can never be

overemphasized, if it serves in an innovative way by breaking the tradition (Ogunsola, 2011). It is already

proved that library services have been transformed from passive to active and had support to action-oriented.

The project namely “Amrao Manush (we are people too)” has been designed to improve the lives of the

pavement dwellers particularly those who are least served by the private sector or government programmes.

The name of the project was proposed by two women pavement dwellers during the project design phase. The

project had overall objectives and some specific objectives. It was how the marginalized people can access to

alternative livelihoods through the library services. The project realized that one of the key processes which is

market-based vocational skills training can change the lives of the poor people and it is possible to attain

through a library. By using the library as a training centre on different IGAs (income generation activities), the

project thought that marginalized people can change their behaviour and lives as well. The project also paid

attention for getting most significant changes through innovative effective library services where interest-based

resources will be prepared and collected to attract the poor people towards the library. Training through library

helped them to engage with different professions like hawker, carpenter, vegetable seller, fish seller, barber,

rickshaw puller, van puller, security guard, helper of the bus, driver, registered day labour for loading and

unloading goods from the truck, waste collector of the city corporation, and so on, and earn a minimum amount

of money which is sufficient for their survival. The study is primarily concerned with 110 pavement dwellers in

two shelter centres which represented 10,000 and data/information has been collected from them using different

techniques like AI (appreciative inquiry), PRA (participatory rural appraisal), consultation, observation,

personal interview, and analysis of secondary documents. The immediate result was to involve them with IGAs

and ensure schooling for their children. Its long-term impact was: This project has created an environment and

increased public recognition that pavement dwellers are Bangladeshi citizens entitled to the same rights as

others and who fulfil important functions in society. They deserve to be treated with dignity and respected like

everybody else. The paper intends to share the experience of the author about the project, as he was recruited as

a consultant. It will explain how the shelter-based community library demonstrated the alternative livelihoods

for the pavement dwellers based on their interest and what are the learnings they learned from the library which

changes their beliefs, attitudes, practices, and behaviour, and made them an important part of the community.


64

Description of the Study

Traditional approach always brings as usual result in the context of poverty alleviation in Bangladesh

which is not satisfactory. Keeping it in mind, both CWW and DCC thought to introduce an innovative library

approach by breaking the tradition. In poverty alleviation, they have more than 40 years’ experiences. It was a

3-year project (March 2008−February 2011) to address the needs of pavement dwellers in Dhaka City. The

general view is that most pavement dwellers are newcomers to the city looking for a place to live. However, a

recent survey conducted by the DCC showed that 63% of the respondents have been staying in the same

location for at least 10 years or more (Zillur, 2009). It is estimated that there are between 15,000−20,000

pavement dwellers in Dhaka alone (BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics), 2009). This may seem a relatively

small number considering that Dhaka has a population of around 15 million. The consequences of climate

change have been contributing to increasing the number of extreme urban poor as more people are losing their

land due to erosion and floods. Because of a lack of shelter even during emergencies, no access to good quality

food and the poor quality of water and sanitation services, pavement dwellers suffer from health problems.

They are often denied access from their basic rights due to low status. In most cases, they are disqualified from

services due to their inability to give permanent address. They do not qualify for formal or informal savings and

credit services provided by NGOs (Non-Government Organizations) and CBOs (Community-Based

Organizations).

The study has discussed two shelter-based community libraries which located at Sadar Ghat (Ferry Station)

and Kamlapur (Rail Station) in Dhaka City as the huge number of pavement dwellers found both of places.

Both were two-storied building on abandoned property donated by the DCC. In each shelter centres, there was

one recreational room (hall room) where at the night time, most of the adult pavement dwellers met for adda

(gossip). They were used to watching TV, play indoor common games like cards, Keram boards, ludu, daba,

etc.. In day time, children and women were used to visiting the library for pleasure. It has been observed that

except sleeping time, most of them preferred to stay in the recreation room for a long time. They were very

much interested in watching Hindi movie, action film, Bengali action movie, etc., rather than others game.

Children mostly liked to watch cartoon and read illustrative materials. The project decided to utilise the

recreational room as a library.

Steps Toward Innovative Library

Prepare beneficiary profile. As a library consultant, the author’s prime responsibility was to make the

library innovative for transforming the lives of the pavement dwellers. Exploring their internal potentiality was

the first task for the author to achieve project objective. At the beginning of the project, it was needed to

introduce pavement dwellers with each other and the project as well. With a view to this, the author formed

groups based on their age and conducted session namely “story of life” where pavement dwellers were very

comfortable to speak about themselves. The study has applied appreciative inquiry method for hearing their

voice in the form of a story and consulted several times with project personnel’s, community people, and

pavement dwellers about the service pattern which helped them to change their lives. In their story, they

explained about their identity, level of education, reasons for existing situation, personal liking, unlinking,

interest of works, skills, dream, ambition, future plan, etc.. Most of the pavement dwellers indicated that getting

money is important. “TK.150 (US$2) on an average per person income in a day will be a very good day to

ensure three meals; TK.75 (US$1) for two meals in a normal day and TK.50 (less than US$1) or below for one


65

or no meals in a bad day”, said Jabbar (one of the beneficiary). “We wish to live from hand-to-mouth and want

to save some money from good days to cover bad days”, mentioned Ali (another beneficiary). But they did not

have any ways to save money. Just for this, they requested to form a cooperative society that must be controlled

by the project. When asked about the future plan, most of them did not have any. The exceptions were some

children who would like to be a student like others. Based on the story, the author has analyzed their dream

with a view to explore their potentiality. From AI (artificial intelligence) and consultation techniques, their

needs have been assessed that helped to prepare the beneficiary profile. Tables 1 and 2 reflect the data based on

their age and early activities for getting money.

Table 1

Percentage Distribution of the Enlisted Members in the Library by Gender and Age Group

Age group Male (N = 48) Female (N = 62) Overall (N = 110)

15−25 years old 17 12 14.5

26−35 years old 23 32 27.5

36−45 years old 20 25 22.5

46−55 years old 33 22 27.5

55 + years old 7.0 9.0 8.0

Table 2

Percentage Distribution of the Enlisted Members in Library by Their Early Activities for Getting Money

Source of getting money Male (N = 48) Female (N = 62) Overall (N = 110)

Beggars 40 25 32.5

Drug seller 20 26 23

Used by the political leaders 20 0 10

Maid servant 0 30 15

Sex trader 9 4.5

Tokai (child waste collector) 20 10 15

Prepare training profile. Based on the statement of the pavement dwellers, plans have been developed

in search of alternative livelihoods. Special emphasis has been given on best-suited training and selective

knowledge services for changing behaviour and attitude. Service standards to involve all the pavement

dwellers were also the priority task to the author. For attracting youth pavement dwellers on different

professions, some motivating lessons have been shared through videos and other AVMs (audio-visual

materials) like TV, radio, illustrative materials, national text books, graphics, charts, cartoons, posters,

playing equipment, etc.. These have worked as tonic. The most of the young pavement dwellers have

preferred 10 small professions and felt confident to involve themselves. At the same time they wished to get

practical training and micro-credit to start the business. These professions were as follows: barber, carpenter,

fish hawker, small shopkeeper, vegetable seller, rickshaw-puller, van-puller, egg seller, cleaner, day-labor,

maid servant, security guard, and caretaker of housing society. To stimulate the children, some educational

videos, namely, Mina carton (one of the popular Bengali cartoon for children) and Amenar Attojibini

(Amena’s life history) schooling of river erosion affected children and sex workers children, etc. were

presented. These also inspired the children and adolescent pavement dwellers to go to school. They become

interested to visit the library frequently for gathering knowledge. Thus, the need-based training and learning

profile has been prepared for the pavement dwellers with a view to build the capacity on the aforesaid


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micro-professions and create interest among their children to go to school.

Develop skill-based training modules. For developing training modules, the author started to mind

mapping for best-suited training to engage the pavement dwellers with IGAs. Realizing their level of

knowledge, the author has adopted innovative approach to get them connected with the library that included

formal training through workshop, class lecture, group meeting, practical demonstration of IGAs, tour, cultural

events, picnic, spot visit, inspirational activities like indoor games competition, e.g., ludu, daba, keram, playing

cards, etc., outdoor competition, e.g., football match, cricket match etc.. To make the training effective, the

author collected resources and assigned resource persons for practical sessions, designed modules with

convenient schedule. Mock test has also been taken to measure the training performance of the pavement

dwellers. Considering their curiosity, special emphasis has been given on informal learning’s as well like

discussion regarding socio-political issues, what should be done and what should not be for the welfare of the

personal life and for the country. Earlier the author found that they were very interested in watching movie,

drama, advert, songs, action films, etc.. It encouraged the author to develop scripts for making some

motivational video documentaries on different IGAs. The author shared it with project personnel’s and they

well-accepted this idea and advised him to make some realistic short video documentaries for them. It has

brought radical changes in their way of thinking. They wished to implement what they watched on videos in

their real life. Therefore, demand has come from the beneficiaries to make them skilled on micro-professions

by the help of the video documentaries. The author has then developed formal training modules through video

documentaries to make them productive force of the country. Some modules have been revised for providing

life skills training complemented by psychosocial support in reviewing existing life skills modules and adapted

these to the specific context and needs of the pavement dwellers. Project people have also been trained up in

these revised modules. These modules focused on enabling children and youth to be self-responsible in ways

that result in positive relationships with respect for others. The library project has helped children and youth

develop positive assertiveness skills to protect themselves from drugs, violence, harassment, and other threats.

Another module has been developed specifically on HIV/AIDS (human immunodeficiency virus/acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome) as they were generally more exposed to the risk of becoming infected with

HIV/AIDS. As another form of psychosocial support, the library project has piloted legal-aid assistance for

those pavement dwellers who wanted to pursue their rights through the courts. This focused primarily on

women’s rights associated with crimes that have been committed against them, such as rape and physical abuse.

Here, it is needed to mention that due to aforesaid reasons, these modules were not look like the traditional

ones.

Disseminate social information services. Besides these, the library has provided anticipatory knowledge

services namely “Jene Rakha Valo (good to know)” and “Jiboner janno tathho (information for life)” which

contain information related to health and hygiene, population control, respect parents and others, behavior and

manner with older and younger, religious knowledge, social norms and values, dignity of labor, roles and

responsibilities of a citizen, value of education, childcare, hand-wash, use of public toilets, saving environment

from pollution, cleanliness, disaster risk reduction, emergency response, and other social issues. With a view to

create self-awareness among the children, the author has set up a corner in the library with one PC (personal

computer) and some illustrative learning materials. There were some playing instruments as well. Therefore,

children started library visit daily. They have passed time by watching cartoon and doing some creative

activities. As a result, they have been motivated to go to school. They become interested in observing the


67

national days as well like other school going children.

Innovative Library in Practice

The library has created “can do” attitude among the pavement dwellers as poverty made them inferior

from their childhood to get a job in the competitive market. But after watching some life skills videos, most of

them were attracted on it and confidently acknowledged that they can do it. “How to be a small trader” was one

of the short documentaries that covered practical demonstration of 10 micro-professional’s experts on small

trading. “Give us the opportunity, we will do it”, said by most of the pavement dwellers after watching this

video. The author then processed person to person best-suited training based on their interest and skills and

engaged technical persons for practical demonstration. Project supplied needs-based learning resources and

other logistics. Finally, they received vocational training for a short period. The duration of the training was

varied upon 3 days/1 week/15 days depending on the learning capacity of the pavement dwellers. But the

training session was a continuous process. After training, the capacity of the pavement dwellers has been

assessed by the project M&E (monitoring & evaluation) team. Only the eligible pavement dwellers were

selected for receiving non-refundable micro-credit from the project by which they could involve themselves

with IGAs. Initially, the project people helped them to choose the working location. For example, one

pavement dweller has been trained up on hair-cutting, the project helped him to involve with any barber shop

where he could work on a contract basis. The contract, identity, and other security have been ensured by the

project so that there was no any scope for the pavement dwellers to be untrustworthy to anyone in the society.

Some videos were educational but funny to attract the children to go to school. For example, “Amader

School” was such kind of video that exposed the positive impact of free schooling. In school time, one of the

Maulana (religious leader) found that some children were jumping over the river from the coast. It shocked him

though he knew that all the children become homeless due to river erosion. They took shelter on the helipad

(little bit high land for emergency helicopter landing). He motivated them and bought them back to school

explaining its long-term benefit. The head teacher welcomed them and gave them new books, khata (writing

material), dries milk, and playing instrument to play in the school ground. They could not believe that all are

free for them. Thus they become interested to go to school. It was the theme of another video. Though it was

only a five minutes’ short video, but its impact was really great. Watching this video, children interested to go

to school and their parents become very serious to send them school. Due to illiteracy, most of the pavement

dwellers preferred visual materials instead of printed sources. Keeping it in mind, the author has designed

different posters which conveyed messages about their rights, health and safety measures, food and nutrition

issues, poverty issues, and other behaviour change issues. For example, one wall poster for “No smoking”

demonstrated issues on why it is harmful for health, another poster on “Education for all” revealed that

education is not opportunity, it is right for everyone.

Output Analysis of the Library Project

Transformation of lives. The project started aiming to engage the pavement dwellers with different IGAs.

The analysis from the below multiple response in Table 3 shows that the targeted pavement dwellers attended

in multiple activities provided through library where highest 80% male participants attended economic

aspiration video shows and about 85% of female participants attended right awareness video shows.

Table 4 highlights that the significant percentage of overall targeted participants (60.5%) involved with

different economic work and disaggregating by gender, about 65% females are involved with different


68

economic works due to the project intervention which they never thought before joining with the project.

Table 3

Percentage Distribution of the Enlisted Beneficiaries Attended in Library Supports Activities by Types and

Gender

Type of library supports Male (N = 48) Female (N = 62) Overall (N = 110)

Life skill video shows 67 65 66

Economic aspiration video shows 80 78 79

Rights awareness video shows 75 85 80

Reading life story with pictorial picture books 65 70 67.5

Dreaming exercise competition 75 80 77.5

Table 4

Percentage Distribution of the Beneficiaries Changed Their Status Through Library Supports Type of benefits Male (N = 48) Female (N = 62) Overall (N = 110) Involved with different economic work 56 65 60.5 Negotiation skills with the clients - 70 35 Know at least 3−5 human right issues 80 82 81 Changes hygienic practices (i.e., cooking process, hand-washing practices, etc.)

73 75 74

Started savings in a group 65 79 72

Encouraged for savings. The author discussed with the beneficiaries about importance of savings and

encouraged them to save a portion of their income for future welfare. Most of the pavement dwellers in two

centres started depositing savings. In most cases, this saving was for short periodThey deposited money for

short time and withdrawn when needed. The library project also collected some micro-finance guides and

provided necessary information about savings. This has helped them to protect and increase their financial

capital base.

Connected with health services. The author had to prepare inventory of health service providing agencies

(government, NGOs, and others) near the shelter centres. Furthermore, the project people continuously updated

the list. During final evaluation of the project, it has been found that 95% of the beneficiaries in two centres

received medical services (consultancy, check-up, medicine, counseling, and others). These arrangements

assisted them in accessing health services.

Rapport building. The library and implementing authority jointly arranged meeting with the community

people to raise their awareness and asked them to extend their support for bringing positive changes in the lives

of the pavement dwellers. This collectively helped achieve the project objectives.

Worked in a group. In many formal/informal discussions and training session, the author encouraged

them to form groups. This resulted in developing relationship to work in group. Therefore, beneficiaries know

each other, are better aware and ready to work in group-based initiatives.

Functional education. Based on the interest, the project identified school-aged children and motivated

them to go to school as earliest as possible. This initiative has contributed to reducing dropout rate.

Dramatic changes have been taken place in their lives as long as they engaged with IGAs. They are now

much conscious about their rights and entitlements than before. Now, pavement dwellers are recognized as

citizens of Bangladesh, fully entitled to the rights that other citizens receive. Following milestones have also

been achieved by the shelter-based community library project:


69

(1) Laws and policies are now established for protecting the rights of the pavement dwellers;

(2) They have legal recourse when treated unfairly;

(3) No one can push them to the street, as they know their rights and choice;

(4) They are getting shelter, work, and other supportive environment;

(5) Financial and human assets are effectively protected them from loss or harm;

(6) They are now aware about STD (sexually transmitted disease) prevention and treatment, risk to HIV

and AIDS;

(7) Leadership skills among pavement dwellers have been cultivated.

The project has followed a multi-dimensional approach in its activities to deliver better training and

information services so that the pavement dwellers can have a better quality of human life and library has

turned into integral part in their lives.

Measuring Progress

An integrated M&E process was followed, i.e., baseline data collection, weekly follow-up for measuring

savings, FGD (focus group discussion) conduction, keeping record sheet and analysis, and participatory

reflection review to measure the effectiveness of the project. Regarding this, the following indicators were

selected through regular monitoring:

(1) Buying capacity than previous day (purchasing power capacity);

(2) Depositing money (savings attitude and savings amount);

(3) Increasing money (per capita daily income);

(4) Good behave with wife or family members (relationship with the family members, wife, and husband);

(5) Interesting increase to work and visit library for knowledge (percent of people with increased interest

to work and percent of people visiting library);

(6) Sending children to library and trying for schooling them (children enrolment rate in formal and

non-formal school/education);

(7) Wanting to go to a native village for starting small business/shopping (percent of people reintegrated to

their native villages and started small business/trade);

(8) Experience sharing in a grouphow they buy and sale or do their task;

(9) Knowledge sharingwhat they learn from library;

(10) Problemif any;

(11) Solution.

Challenges for Adopting Innovative Library Approach

The challenges for adopting innovative library approach are as follows:

(1) Producing the innovative training modules and preparing the activity plan in new context;

(2) Liability of newness;

(3) No specific research on it;

(4) Limited resources;

(5) Making them aware about library services;

(6) Social and religious influences;

(7) Time constraint.

Nargis’s mother died at her early age. Her father got married to another woman. The step mother used to beat her


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almost all the time. She considered as a family burden. This made Nargis so sad that one day she left home from Burguna and came to Dhaka. It was 20 years back when Nargis was 20 years old. As it was her first time in Dhaka, at the beginning, she was puzzled. Many people offered her to sell sex. But in her mind, she wanted to find a way where she can live with dignity. At the Sadarghat (ferry station) terminal, she started to beg to live. Soon, she met with Montu, a young loader working there. One day, Montu offered her to get married and she agreed. They started to live under one of the planks connecting the pontoon of the terminal. Happy days passed quickly. After some days, Montu started ill behavior with her. Meanwhile, she became a mother of a daughter. Her husband forgot her and their daughter. At this perplexed moment, Nargis came to know that there is a shelter centre for the pavement dwellers very near where she can live free of cost with her four years old daughter Nazma. She became the participant of the project and started visiting library regularly with her daughter. She received short training on cleaning and gathered knowledge about many social issues. Finally, DCC recruited her as “a ferry terminal cleaner”. The income made her confident. Her husband further started good behavior to her like the early age. She saved 200 Taka (US$2.85) with the savings team of the project within three months. She wants to start her own grocery shop business back in the village. That is why she is doing her savings seriously. She does not want to sleep in the street anymore. She wants to give her daughter a dignified life. Nargis’s courage and struggle is an example among the other inhabitants of the terminal. “It is not merely a library; it is my home, my heaven. It taught me to survive with dignity and showed my daughter’s bright future”, said Nargis. “Nargis also can do many things” has become a local phrase among the floating people of Sadarghat nowadays. (Case study: Nargis Can Do Many Things)

Conclusion

In the streets of Dhaka, we see many girls and boys begging, selling flowers, or picking waste living a life

foreign to usa life unthinkable for the members of our families. Like all people, these people also have

dreams. Their dreams are simplejust to be able to survive each day with dignity and be able to eat rice at least

twice daily. Their dreams most often do not go beyond tomorrow or next week. Many of these people have run

away from their homes as a result of domestic violence or family conflicts, rooting from poverty. Some try to

go back but end up coming back to the streets of Dhaka as they prefer living under the open sky instead of

having to face violence and poverty at home. These people were born innocent like you or me but have lost

their innocence almost before they could learn to walk. Shelter-based community library has shown them the

way of new life. But adopting an innovative library approach for poverty alleviation is a very challenging task

as people do not prefer to go for a new approach beyond the traditional one. Based on pavement dwellers’

demand the most realistic approach has been adopted for their poverty alleviation. The paper has outlined the

success and its lessons learnt would be a milestone for poverty alleviation strategy in Bangladesh, if

government and NGOs apply this for the sustainable development of other socially disadvantaged people. It can

be hoped that near future if the study gets fund, with this experience direct implementation of these types of

projects will be possible for socially marginalized people (like sex workers, hizraneither man nor woman,

char and hoar people, vagrant, trivial, etc.). It is, therefore, necessary to develop and adopt innovative strategies

in Bangladesh to involve libraries and information services in the context of poverty alleviation.

References BBS (Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics). (2009). The annual updating poverty maps of Bangladesh. Retrieved April, 2012, from

http://www.bbs.gov.bd Ogunsola, L. A. (2011). Libraries as tools for capacity building in developing countries. The Journal of Library Philosophy and

Practice. Retrieved April, 2012, from http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/ Yunus, M. (2009). Microfinance not the only way to end poverty. An interview of Dr. Muhammad Yunus, Nobel Laureate 2006 and

Founder of Grameen Bank published in the Microfinance Magazine, Sa-Dhan’s National Microfinance Conference 2009. Zillur, H. (2009). The annual situation report of the environment and population of Dhaka City. Bangladesh Institute of

Development Studies (BIDS) Journal, 1(1), 101-199.

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