"The Iconography of Ideal Feminine Beauty Represented in the Hebrew Bible and Iron Age Levantine...

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First published 2014

@ lzaak J. de Hulster and Joel M. LeMon, 2014

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ISBN: HB: 978-0-56716-813-9

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataImage, text, exegesis : iconographic interpretation and the Hebrew Bible /

edited by lzaak J. de }Iulster, Joel M. LeMon.pages cm. - (The library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament studies ; 588)

Includes bibliographical references.

ISBN 978-0-567-1681 3-9 (hardback)

1. Bible. Old Testament--Criticism, interpretation, etc. 2. Christian art and symbolism.3. Idols and images. I. Hulster, Izaak J. de (Izaak Jozias) II. LeMon, Joel M.

BStt7l .3.1425 2015

221.6'7*dc23

2014031649

Iypeset by Forthcoming Publications (www.forthpub.com)Printed and bound in Great Britain

AcknowledgmentsAbbreviationsList of Contributors

INTRoDUCTION:

THE INTERPRETTVENHf,

IzaakJ. de Hulster and

ACCULTURATING GEN

Gooorss Iuaoes as (

Elizabeth Bloch-Sm

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Tss IcoNocRAPHY or Iorar Frumnve BplurvRrpRsssNTED IN rue HpeREw Bmre aNn InoN Aca

Lpvexrmr IvoRY ScurPruRP

Amy Rebecca Gansell

From fairy tales to fashion magazines, notions of feminine beauty

pervade the modern world, offering positive, negative, and contested

models that reflect and reinforce popular ideals and living realities.

Likewise, diverse experiences, values, and media would have contributed

to ancient conceptions of feminine beauty. This essay investigates the

essence of feminine beauty in the Levant through Hebrew Bible texts and

Iron Age ivory carving. Drawing upon these complementary literary and

visual corpora, I aim to build upon othmar Keel's fundamental efforts to'ocompare systematically the conceptual world" ofthe Hebrew Bible with

that of ancient Near Eastern art (Keel 1997 11978),11;1994).Ivory sculptures of women, dating to the ninth and eighth centuries

B.c.E., offer one of the largest and most detailed corpora of imagery forthe study of ideals of feminine beauty in the Iron Age Levant. The ivorywas imported as tusks from Africa to the Levant, where it was cut,

carved, polished, and embellished.' The resulting sculptures served as

surface appliquds and decorative elements of objects such as furniture,

boxes, fans, mirrors, and horse trappings. Unfortunately, no ivoryworkshops have been archaeologically identified;however, the imagery

and style of the ivory sculptures are recognizably Levantine.? Aramaic

and Hebrew inscriptions on the ivories verifli their Levantine production,

which Mesopotamian historical sources corroborate (Millard 1962, 2005;

Thomason lgg9, 393401 ; Winter 7973, 37 6-'78). The Hebrew Bible,

too, emphasizes the luxury of ivory goods and associates them with

1. Note the biblical claiffrs that Solomon's ships acquired ivory, gold, silver,

apes, and peacocks (l Kgs 10:22) and that the coastal city ofTyre imported ivory

tusks and ebony (Ezek 27:15).2. Based on visual and textual evidence, art historians avidly hypothesize their

production contexts (Herrmann 1986. 1992.2000. 2005; Mazzoni 2009; Wicke

2005; Winter 1981, 1992, 1998).

GaNsrlL The lcottogt

royalty. Amos cites beds dLikewise, I Kings refers to AtSolomon's chryselephantine tL

Traditionally, scholars havecomponents (such as ivory sc{discussions of ancient Near Eaiconographic and aesthetic siUehlinger 1996; Suter20l l: ThThe repetition of imagery on furit played a meaningful role in rcare with which each piece wrtwith which the sculpfures wetc I

aesthetic qualities of the muivisual interest and appreciaticl

Despite variables of st_vle. divories exhibit a repertoire of ;divine imagery. In addition Efigures, the sculptures portraydscenes of men slaying enemies r

sphinxes, vegetation, and gcrcarved both in relief and in fut'\roman at the window" (sb1window frame), clothed and rheads andbodies (figs. 1-9)- Arof which are winged, some hWomen in long garments arG Isometimes occur in the "mistGupside down by their tails (fg'{most simply stand erect, with fl

A considerable quantit-v of iSamaria in Israel, but a laprpublished, was excavated frrm tpotamia (Barnett 1975; Crowfrl1992; Herrmann and Laidlas- IMallowan and Herrmann 1974;QDangin et al. l93l; Uehlingcrlregion as booty 6nd rl!u1g, th. i

tures remained primarily indicriMillard 2003). In the Leyant. rproducts would have been cou

3. Male figures are not depictedl

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4tt lmage, Text, Exegesis

pleasing symbols of prestige. claudia Suter has recently proposed thattheir imagery reflected the ideology of royal households and powerfulmerchants (2011,224).

Like the ivory sculptures, the Hebrew Bible may be understood toreflect values and ideas circulating in the Levant during the earry firstmillennium B.c.E. while the primary aim of this essay is to elucidateancient notions of feminine beauty, this project offers the corollarybenefits ofenriching and expanding our understanding ofboth the ivoryfigures and biblical accounts of beauty. Analysis of Hebrew Bible texts,especially the Song of songs, can help us to infer which characteristicswere most meaningful to the ancient recognition and artistic represen-tation of feminine beauty. Furthermore, through textual study, we mightelicit the meaning and nuances of particular details and iconographicthemes portrayed in ivory. At the same time, the ivory figures offervisual models for literary references to "beautiful" women and thus canilluminate biblical texts.

Beauty is not merely a matter of appearance. I therefore flrst investi-gate "inner beauty" by reviewing references to ideal female qualities thatmay be correlated with visual traits. The bulk of this essay, however,describes "outward beauty" and "beautification" practices, such ashairstyle, dress, and adornment. Linking tropes represented in biblicaltexts and ivory sculpture, an iconography of feminine beauty emerges.Then, through an analysis of the woman-at-the-window motif, I offersome thoughts on the implications of the complex and dynamic aestheticthat ivory sculptures of women might have presented to their ancientobservers.

Beauty

ooBeauty" is here defined as a perceptible phenomenon that evokespleasure. Beauty portrayed in literature and visual art reminds itsaudience of this pleasure and has the potential to stir it directly. In theHebrew Bible, female (and male) beauty is frequently referenced usingwords derived from the roots itlr, t'lD, and trpt (Hover-Johag 1986;Kronholm 1998; Ringgren 1990). Modern translations of these terms(including "beautiful," 'ofair," and "lovely") only imperfectly capture theconnotations and ambiguities of their ancient usage.4 Nonetheless, wecan temper our interpretations by considering the narrative contexts in

4. This issue is especially significant when two or more descriptors, both ofwhich may have been essential to a single meaning. were employed to expressbeauty (Lil1as-Schuil 2006).

GaNser-L The lconog

n'hich aspects of feminine beafeminine beauty is usually anlustful contexts reveals its semmight be esteemed for theilvulnerable state (2 Sam l3:l-l@zek I 6: I 5-22). While the icuhere is primarily that which bsand it, I evaluate both positirtoutward beauty, and practiccs I

Inner Beauty: Persm

Beyond kindheartedness, the ILmodels in terms of their ped[ttGen 24:23) and fulfillment of !and industrious, supporting ttcand food provisioning (Prov 3lJreference to the ability to pcrfbetrothal candidate, for exaryLbut also her physical enduruAbraham's servant and all ofhbImagery of a mare (Song l:9)edescribe the female beloved iMoral heartiness is also indir-handsome man (for a negatirrce

The story of Rachel and Lcvirtuous personal qualities mdideal concurrence in one wolrrrtwo sisters, is "beautiful in fr29:171.t Leah's image is nor ssisters and initiallyprefers RacLBut Rachel's lengthy barrenncssLeah, whose inner beauty is dcalability to bear many children-

5. Biblical citations and versifict6. Also see Prov 11.22: "L*e tg

without good sense."7. This phraseology is also eqlb

39:6).8. Some translations of ntrt p{

alternatively, this term could mcr(Kellerman 2004, 497 ; Speiser I 96{-

50 Image, Text, Exegesis

In addition to the narrative of Rachel and Leah, the story of Sarah,s

lleqnTcy in old age attests to the importance of women's flrtility (Gen2l:2-7). Revealing a conceptual link between erotic desire, sex, andfertility, in the Song the words for "lovers" and.,mandrake,'are derivedfrom the same Hebrew root (rrr). The mandrake, with its intoxicatingaroma, serves as an aphrodisiac as well as a cure for infertility (Gen30:14-16; Song 7:13) (Fleisher and Fleisher 1994). paradisiacal andcultivated zones provide environments for amorous experiences, and, asexemplifled in the Song, plants, trees, gardens, orcharis, and vineyardsare consistently associated with love, sexuality, and fertility (Alter 19g5,185-203; Hess 2005, 75; Meyers 1987 , 212):,.I am a ,or" of Shu.or, ulily of the valleys. As a lily among brambres, so is my rove amongmaidens. As an apple tree among the trees of the wood, so is my belovedamong young men. with great delight I sat in his shadow, and his fruitrvas sweet to my taste"-(Song 2:r-3). The Song also cites milk, honey,and wine in contexts of sexual desire (Song +:it; S:t;.

An ideal woman's outward beauty, then, was sustained by her innerbeauty, which could be demonstrated through her household productivityand ability to give birth. These responsibiliiies relied on strength, health,and (with the exception of Sarah) relative youth-factors thit underliebiological fertility and physical appearance. Although not conveying thedomestic merits of an ordinary housewife, the ivo=ry sculptures none-theless depict quintessential feminine ideals. Their oftLn-nude bodies andthe floral, fruit, vegetal, and banqueting imagery with which they areassociated suggest that the figures embodied in i"orogruphy ofbeautybased on sexuality and/or reproductive fertility.

outv'ard Beauty: Physical characteristics of Feminine Beauty

The physical characteristics contributing to an iconography of femininebeauty in ivory sculpture can be summarized as incofooiating a strikingface with large eyes, a curyaceous figure, fair skin, and thick,Ityled hair.ft":: lraits correspond to Hebrew Bibre descriptions, which haveparallels in ugaritic, Akkadian, and Sumerian literature (Gansell200g,163-231). In the Song, the beauty of the female beloved is clear: .oHowfair and pleasant you are, O loved one, delectable maiden!,, (Song 7:6).The poem praises her head, hair, eyes, nose, cheeks, mouth, teeth]neck,breasts, belly, navel, thighs (',the work of a master hand,,, Song 7:l), andfeet.s In a later example (ca. first cenfury B.C.E._first centu[, c.r.), a

_ _9. _ Head-to-toe descriptions also portray attractive men (for example, 2 Sam

l4:25\.

G,rlSt,t I !-lte lt.ortr,,:,.-;:

parallcl narratir,c dcscr.ibc-s S::. -

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--lernalc hcaci is displayccl rror.- -:::_:trtltct'pirr'( oI lfic fiody. I.lc;- .-cflort. ('onligrrrcrl liilrn :toel,. .--:--:-T' blg cycs. strong rloscs. pr.,::- r---cheeks. Some especially sensitivillustrating dimples on ih" chin, aphiltrum (the indentation abovert

likely signaled the presence ofavlbody was visible.

crn thciai lilllncss indicates rir;: .

19 L this paper, Genesis Apocryph

_^ 1]I On thepractice ofveiliug inancio

(200_6,241,265), and van der foom (1912. Conversely, the male body,w.t

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Figure 1. Openwork plaque depicting a "woman at the window." Nimrud'

Eighth century B.c.E. Ivory. Ht. 7.19 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art,

Rogers Fund, 1959 (59.107.18). Photograph, all rights reserved' The

Metropolitan Museum of Art. Image source: Art Resource, N'Y'

Figure 2. Plaque depicting a "woman at the window." Arslan Tash (Hadatu),

Syria. Eighth century B.c.E. Ivory, formerly gilded. Ht. 8'1 cm. Louvre, AO

I 1459. R6union des Mus6es Nationaux / Art Resource, N'Y'

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Image, Text, Exegesis

EyesEyes seem to have been a particularly important aspect of femaleattractiveness (cf. Leah's eyes, Gen 29:17).In the Song, the woman'seyes are mentioned frequently and compared to pools (Song 7:4).13 Herlover says, o'You have ravished my heart with a glance of your eyes"(Song 4:9), and Prov 6:25 warns against adulterous women who mightensnare men with their eyelashes. On the ivory sculptures, eyes tend tobe oversized, and precise carving delineates upper and sometimes lowereyelids. Deep drill-holes could mark the irises or pupils, but in somecases the holes are vacant because they have lost their inlays (fig. 7; forexamples of intact inlays see figs. 6,8).

BodiesThe Song compares the body to the graceful movement and supple formsof a dove and gazelTe (Song 2:14; 4:5;7:3). Of all the parts of thewoman's body, the breasts are mentioned most frequently (Song 4:5; 7:3;7:7,8;8:10). This emphasis accords generally with the representations ofthe nude ivory figures with full, round breasts that occasionally featureerect nipples (fig. 5).

The hourglass shape of these bodies highlights small waists andslightly protruding bellies. On some examples, an indentation above thenavel indicates abdominal musculature, and parallel arcs etched belowthe navel refer to creases or folds in the flesh. The pubic area is usuallysignified as a triangular zone. Parallel rows of hatches or dots representhair, and a vertical incised line sometimes marks the labia. The reversesides of sculptures in-the-round reveal slender backs and plump buttocksthat may be complemented by lumbar dimples (fig. 9). The relativeuniformity of the sculptures suggests that they illustrated a body type thatwas collectively recognized as beautiful. The careful carving of thebreasts and pubic area also presents the body as a sexual site withprocreative potential.

Assorted evidence clarifies that the nudity of the ivory sculptureswould not have been construed negatively. Nude female imagery servedvotive purposes and represented fertility goddesses across millennia ofancient Near Eastern and Egyptian art (Asher-Greve and Sweeney 2006,150-64; Gubel 2005,129-33; Keel and Uehlinger 1998, 26-29,54-56,66-68,97-108; Robins 1993, 57,75, 185-86; Winter 1987, 181-86).

13. "Liquid" eyes are valued in modern Near Eastern culture, too. Oneethnographic study recorded that a beautiful bride was described as having eyes like"little coffee cups" (Bauer 1903. 86). Note that the Hebrew and Arabic words for"eye" also mean "spring" or "water source."

Handle porhayingtand gold. Ht. 16.7

Image source:

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56 lmage, Text, Exegesis

In addition, the nude ivory figures are presented in auspicious icono-graphic contexts-sometimes holding flowers, standing atop lotus buds(an Egyptian symbol of regeneration), controlling beasts, and/or asso-ciated with royal and sacred Egyptian imagery (fig. 4). Sorne of thefigures, such as that illustrated in fig. 4, embellished horse trappings.'a Ithas been proposed that these sturdy plaques not only offered physicalprotection, but that the nude women portrayed on them would have had

an apotropaic valence (Gubel 2005, 129-30; Winter 1973,333-34).

SkinFondness for fair skin can be traced throughout ancient Near Easternliterature and is still valued today in Near Eastern culture (Gansell 2008,250-51;.'' In the Song, the woman's neck is equated to an ivory tower(Song 4:4\, and her belly is called a "heap of wheat, encircled with lilies"(Song 7:2). She is compared to a mare with ornamented cheeks-possibly in reference to ivory horse trappings (Song l:10). Her cheeks(blushing as fair skin rnight) are described as rosy, like slices ofpomegranate (Song 4:3; 6:7).t6 However, contradicting these idealizingreferences implying a light skin tone, she admits that she is dark-skinned(Song l:5-6). Interpretations vary as to whether the Song expresses thatshe is beautiful despite of, or because of, her dark skin (Hess 2005, 54-58; Keel 1994,4649; Pope 1977,307-18).

Ancient looting, exposure to fires, and millennia of archaeologicalburial have damaged and discolored many of the ivory sculptures, whichoriginally would have portrayed fair, luminous figures. Gold foils,fragments of which survive on the sculpture illustrated in fig. 5,sometimes embellished hair, headdresses, and garments, and there isevidence for cases in which it might have at least partially covered afigure's face or body (Henmann 1989, 88). Polished ivory 'oskin,"however, would have been visible on most of the figures (Herrmann1986, 58), and the grain of the ivory could have accentuated facialstructure or physique. For example, a swirl highlights the tip of the noseof the figure illustrated in fig. 6, and whorls enhance the cheeks of thesculpture known as the "Mona Lisa of Nimrud" (fig. 8).

I 4. For further discussion and examples of Levantine ivory horse trappings, see

Gubel 2005; Orchard 1967; and Wicke i999.1 5. Note the description of Sarah's radiant face and white skin in I Qap Gen"'

xx,24.16. Regarding a preference for fair, ruddy skin on men, see Song 5:10 and Lam

4:7-8.

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Figure 9. Female torso, back view. Nimrud. Ninth-eighth century s.c.r. Ivory.Ht.20.65 cm. The British Museum, BM 126695.

O The Trustees of the tsritish Museum.

Figure 10. Madonna and Child by Duccio di Buoninsegna. Ca. 1300.Tempera and gold on wood. Ht. with engaged frame 27.9 cm.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art,2004.442. photograph, all rights reserved,The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

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Dated about five hundred years later than the ivory sculptures, thestory of Judith may nonetheless be relevant to early first-millenniumB.c.E. conceptions and practices of beautification. Suggesting ancientcontinuities, it demonstrates parallels to second-millennium B.c.E. NearEastern literature.rs In the narrative, Judith, who was ,,beautiful inappearance...[and] very lovely to behold" (Jdt 8:7), sheds the robes ofwidowhood and gets "dressed to kill" the enemy Holofernes. Beautifyingherself to "entice the eyes of all the men who might see her,, (Jdt l0:4),she bathes, applies fragrance, fixes her hair, and puts on a tiara, fineattire, and sandals. Then, piece-by-piece, she ornaments herself with allof her jewelry.

Fragrance and Cosmeticswe have no evidence that ivory sculptures exuded scent, so they cannotprovide witness to the fragrant aspect of feminine beauty. However, inthe Hebrew Bible, attractive women are often associated with a pleasingfragrance. The basic preference for a clean and pleasant-smelling bodyis summarized by a condemnation directed toward arrogant women:"Instead of perfume there will be a stench" (Isa 3:24). Using topicaltreatments and fumigation, the skin, hair, and clothing could be scented,for example, with myrrh, aloes, and cassia (ps 45:8) (Albright 1974). TheSong praises the fragrance of ihe female beloved: ,,How much betteris...the fragrance ofyour oils than any spice" (Song 4:10);.,The scent ofyour garnents is like the scent of Lebanon" (Song 4:ll). And, in thebook of Esther, before being fully integrated into the persian court,Esther, who was innately attractive, undergoes a yearlong process ofpurification and aesthetic preparation involving perfumes and cosmetics(Est 2:12) (De Troyer 1995). Biblical women's names, cited above, attestto the positive use of fragrance and make-up, which are also worn byharlots. References to cosmetics in the Hebrew Bible are not as commonas discussions of fragrance, but, when mentioned, eye make-up isspecified (2 Kgs 9:30; Jer 4:30;Ezek23:40). Enhancing the eyes withkohl would emulate the ideal of large, dark eyes. probably depicting thissame beautification practice, the eyes of the "Mona Lisa of Nimrud,, areoutlined in black (fig. 8).

18. The Sumerian myth "lnanna's Descent,, (lines 14*25) describes thegoddess's preparations before descending to the netherworld (Black et al. 2004, 65-76;Katz 1995,228-29; 2003. 257-58). Also, in the Ugaritic Baal Cycle (KTU 1.311.11), the goddess Anat wears henna, the scent of coriander, and purple dye inpreparation for battle (Korpel 1990. 424-26; Marsman 2003, 136-37). Ugariticcitations in this paper are based on Dietrich, Loretz, and J. Sarunartin 1995.

GANSELL Thelcq

HairstyleWhile the presence and properriNear Eastern notions'of'dimportant. In the Hebrew Bibipraised (Song 4:t; 6:5; 7:5; dreality in which meticuioustylattention both biblical authorr(Niditch 2008,27, 5g). l

Long, full hairstyles are dqiThe complexity of ihe style dwork was carved. Two main twavy coiffure and an Eglryritfeminine and characteia yy,,rendered in fine, parallel,m"&3-6, 9). Some variations inccpand./or braids down the back filwomen, feafures tendrils layerdrIt refers either to un fgypti; rUEgyptian wigs.:o Slnce iome dfare nude, it is unlikely that the cone's natural hair for the sake ofithe use of wigs would affirm fuiDressWhile female nudity is certainlyrdress can also enhance a wonrHebrew Bible communicates xwoman's honor and wisdom (prrotcolor (usually red, blue, and pingC5:30; Prov 3t.21_22;ps 45.itiiwas embellished with gold ordwith gold thread: ,,Gold.leaf

was]work into the blue, purple, and crilrnen, in skilled design,, (Exod 39Jand sometimes_diaphanou. nuUo,rv.ory figures corroborate the aestlBiblical references can help us rol

19. Comparedto men, womengencnstyle coiffure.

^ ?9 On Egyptian women,s wigs ad IRobins (1993, 184_85).

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carved images might originally have been embellished with inlays,overlays, and pigments (Herrmann 1986, 58-60).

AdornmentThe Hebrew Bible mentions adornment of gold, silver, and gemstones. Inthe Song, the female beloved wears a necklace (Song l:10; 4:9), and herneck is described as a tower decorated with shields (Song 4:4). Thismetaphor brings to mind the medallions on necklaces depicted on someof the ivory sculptures (fig. 7). Similar necklaces have been excavatedfrom the tombs of Neo-Assyrian queens in Iraq, establishing that jewelryof this type was actually worn in the Iron Age Near East (Hussein andSuleiman 2000, illus. 54,72,129). The deceased queens may have beenof Levantine origin; otherwise, the necklaces could represent Levantincimports and/or a pan-Near Eastern style. Gold diadems, earrings, andanklets, also excavated from these tombs, provide additional concreteexamples of adornment types illustrated on the ivory figures andmentioned in the Hebrew Bible (figs. 2-6) (Gen 24;2 Kgs 9:30; Isa3:18-23; Jer 2:32; Ezek 16:ll-12; 23:4042) (Hussein and Suleiman2000, illus. 23,29,4245,77 ,82,177,184,186). As emblems of wealth,status, and royalty, biblical authors may have been familiar with these orsimilar fashions.

Across ancient Near Eastern culture, jewelry was used as maritalpresentation and bridal attire. The weight of its metal reflects standardeconomic means, while the ornaments themselves could please andbeautify a bride (Gen 24; Isa 49:18; 61:10; Jer 2:32). However, likeoutward beauty and other forms of beautification, adornment is notalways a positive instrument. In Ezek 16, the divine bedecks the sexuallymature body of the personified city of Jerusalem. Her apparel, represent-ing either bridal attire or matrimonial gifts, involves a crown, earrings,nose-ring, necklace, bracelets, and clothing of silver and gold (Ezek16:10-13). She is acclaimed as "beautiful" and "fit to be a queen"(Ezek 16:13), but she behaves as a whore (Ezek 16:15-22).

Wo Is That Woman at the Window'?

Levantine ivory sculpture never depicts men at windows, but plaques ofvarying designs and styles that once decorated elite furniture consistentlyshow female faces looking out from ornate fenestrations (figs. 1, 2)(Suter 19921.2r The examples illustrated here portray women with full

2 1. Based on a Neo-Assyrian relief sculpture depicting a royal couch decorated$'ith ima-ses of figures in window frames, E11en Rehm has suggested that eunuchs,

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qualities. In fact, this iconographic design has previously been inter-preted to indicate harlotry, and it resonates closely with the story of theroyal idolatress Jezebel, who lobked out of the window moments beforebeing thrown to her death and eaten by dogs (2 Kgs 9:30-37) (Suter1992). Yet, fitting with the ivory corpus's comprehensive iconographicrepertoire of plants, animals, men, and other women, the woman-at-the-window sculptures, too, were probably positively coded in theirrepresentations of feminine beauty.

I therefore interpret the woman-at-the-window motifto designate elite,sequestered women. In particular, it could have been inspired by the ideathat physically inaccessible royal women viewed the world from theirpalace windows, where outsiders could glimpse or even make eyecontact with them. The ivories might illustrate this fantasy of a passingopportunity to engage with their beauty. Obscuring the body, the windowframe denotes the distance from which the woman is viewed. It arsosuggests the protection that she is afforded as a vital and valuablemember of the household. It thereby reiterates her integrity as a wife ormaiden. In the manner of the parapet behind which Duccio depicted theMadonna and Child in a medieval devotional painting (fig. l0), thewindow frame simultaneously connects and separates the worrd of theobserver from the imagined realm occupied by the figure (christiansen2008, 50-51). Indeed, the tension of such a viewing experience mightengender a "longing to possess a particular body" and offer a "materialinfusion of beauty...in the concrete act of seeing and [theoretically]being seen" (Hopkins 2007, 8-9).

Embellishing furniture in contexts where elite and royal womenactually lived, woman-at-the-window imagery would presumably havebeen understood to refer to women of other households. From a Hebrewperspective, at least some of their distinctive fashions (such as hairstyleand jewelry) may have designated their foreign (maybe Egyptian,Phoenician, or Syrian) identity. Otherwise, a "woman at the window,,might have been understood as a hypothetical member of another localhousehold or as an exotic, fantastical, or divine figure. Although poten-tially titillating sexual desires and setting standards of female attractive-ness, I propose that the woman-at-the-window motif also presented bothmen and wolnen with models of feminine beauty that would havereinforced notions of the purity, fertility, and prosperity of their ownlineages.

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Bamett, R. D. 1975.1 Catalogte of the Nimrud lvories: I{ith Other Examples of AncientNear Eastern lvories in the British Museum. 2d ed. London: British MuseumPublications.

Bauer, L. 1903. Voll<sleben im Lande der Bibel.Leipzig Wallmann.Beach, E. F. 1991. Image and Word: Iconology in the Interpretation of Hebrew Scriprures.

Ph.D. diss., Claremont Graduate University.1 997. Transforming Goddess Iconography in Hebrew Narrative. Pages 239-63 in

LYoman and Goddess Traditions. Edited by K. L. King. Minneapolis: Fortress.Bemat, D.2004. Biblical llta;fsBeyond Song of Songs. JSOT28:327 49.Black, J., G. Cunningham, E. Robson, and G. Z6lyomi, eds. 2004. The Literature of

Ancient Sumer. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Cecchini, S. M., S. Mazzoni,and E. Scigliuzzo, eds. 2009.Syrian and Phoenician Iyoriesof the First Millennium BCE: Proceedings of the Conference Held in Pisa, December9th*1 I th, 2004. Pisa: ETS.

Christiansen, K. 2008. Duccio and the Origins of Westem Painting. BMMA 666-61.Ciafaloni, D. 2009. A Taste for Egypt: Egyptianizing Ivories and Other Artifacts at the

Neo Assyrian Court. Pages 307 -17 in Cecchini, Mazzoni, and Scigliuzzo 2009.Coogan, M. D. 1990. Job's Children. Pages 137 47 inLingering Over Words: Studies in

Ancient Near Eastern Literattte in Honor of ltilliam L. Moran. Edited by T.Abusch, J. Huehnergard, and P. Steinkeller. HSS 37. Atlanta: Scholars Press.

Crowfoot, J. W., and G. M. Crowfoot. 1938. Early Ivories from Samaria. Samaria-Sebaste 2. London: Palestine Exploration Fund.

Dalley, S. 2004. Recent Evidence from Assyrian Sources for Judaean History fromUzziah to Manasseh. JSOT 28:387 401.

Dayagi-Mendels, M. 1995. Timeles.s Beauty: Ancient Perfume and Cosmetic Containers:Selections from the Collection of the Israel Museum, Jerusalerr. Washington: TheInter-American Development Bank, Culture Center.

Dayagi-Mendels, M., and S. Rozenberg, eds. 2011. Chronicles of the Land: Archaeologtin the Israel Museum, Jerusalem. Catalogue 557. 2d ed. Jerusalem: The IsraelMuseum.

de Hulster, l. J.2009. What Is an Image? A Basis for Iconographic Exegesis. Pages225-32 rn lconography and Biblical Studies: Proceedings of the lconography Sessions

at the Joint EABS/SBL Conference, 22-26 July 2007, Vienna, Austria. Edited byI. J. de Hulster and R. Schmitt. AOAT 361. Miinster: UgarirVerlag.

De Troyer, K. 1995. An Oriental Beauty Parlor; An Analysis of Esther 2.8-18 in theHebrew, the Septuagint and the Second Greek Text. Pages 47-70 in A FeministCompanion to Esther, Judith, and Susanna. Edited by A. Brenner. FCB 7. Sheffield:Sheffield Academic.

Dietrich, M., O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartin, eds. 1995. The CuneiJbrm Alphabetic Texts

.from Ugarit, Ras lbn Hani and Other Places. 2d English ed. ALASPM 8. Miinster:Ugarit.

Edwards, D. R. 1992. Dress and Ornamentation. Pages 232-38 in vol. 2 of Anchor BibleDictionary. Edited by D. Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday,1992.

Feldman, M. 2006. Diplomacy by Design: Luxury Arts and an "International Style" in theAncient Near Easl, 1400-1200 BCE. Chicago: University ofChicago Press.

Fleisher, A., and Z. Fleisher. 1994. The Fragrance of Biblical Mandrake. Econ. Bot.48:243-51.

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Ringgren, H. 1990. npiyapd. Pages 218-20 in vol. 6 of TDOT.Robins, G, 1993. Women in Ancient Egpt. London: British Museum.Sasson, J. M.2006. The Servant'sTale: HowRebekahFoundaSpouse.JNES65:241 65.Schroer, S., and T. Staubli. 2001. Bodv Symbolism in the Bible. Translated by L. M.

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Sutcr. C. tr. 1991. Die FlaLr;rur F; ...,- -

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.\t.rdci nti Pt rsr: (iiitti:..:;Thomason, A. K. 1999. Capturing tb

Assyrian Imagining of North S1n2010. Banquets, Baubles, od

Palaces. Pages 198-214 inA Cultural Biography. Editd ErHood Museum of Art,

2013. Impact of the PortablcPages 133-58 in CriticalM. Feldman and B. Broun.

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Uehlinger, C., ed. 2000. Images asEast ond the Eastern

van der Toorn, K. 1995. The327-39 in Pomegranates @dEastern Riual, Law, andWright, D. N. Freedman, and A

Vermds, G., ed. 2004. The Complacwith an introduction by G.

Wicke, D. 1999. Altorientalische2005. "Roundcheeked d

Regionalstil in der aand Uehlinger 2005.

Yhter, I. J. 1973. North Syria in thc

JNES 51:135411999. Review of G. Herrmerrn ,

,/l/ES 57: 150-53.

University Press; Gdttingea:Uehlinger, C. 2005. Die Elfenbei

Israels : Vorilberlegungen zuUehlinger 2005.

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2000. Le Palais imaginaire: Scale and Meaning in the Iconography of Neo-Assyrian Cylinder Seals. Pages 51-87 in Uehlinger 2000.

Winter, U. 1987. Frau und Gdnin: Exegetische tmd ikonographische Studien zum

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